Jazz

For other uses, see Jazz (disambiguation). Prominent jazz musician Louis Armstrong observed: At
one time they were calling it levee camp music, then in my
day it was ragtime. When I got up North I commenced
Jazz is a genre of music that originated in African Amer-
ican communities in the United States in the late 19th to hear about jazz, Chicago style, Dixieland, swing. All
renements of what we played in New Orleans... There
and early 20th century. It emerged in the form of in-
dependent popular musical styles, all linked by the com- ain't nothing new.[5] Or as jazz musician J. J. Johnson
put it in a 1988 interview: Jazz is restless. It won't stay
mon bonds of African American and European American
musical parentage with a performance orientation.[1] Jazz put and it never will.[6]
spans a period of over a hundred years, encompassing a
range of music from ragtime to that of the present day,
and has proved to be very dicult to dene. Jazz makes 1 Denitions
heavy use of improvisation, polyrhythms, syncopation
and the swung note,[2] as well as aspects of European har- Jazz has proved to be very dicult to dene, since it en-
mony, American popular music,[3] the brass band tradi- compasses such a wide range of music spanning a period
tion, and African musical elements such as blue notes and of over 100 years, from ragtime to the present day. At-
ragtime.[1] The birth of Jazz in the multicultural society tempts have been made to dene jazz from the perspec-
of America has led intellectuals from around the world to tive of other musical traditions, such as European mu-
hail Jazz as one of Americas original art forms.[4] sic history or African music. But critic Joachim-Ernst
As jazz spread around the world, it drew on dierent na- Berendt argues that its terms of reference and its deni-
tional, regional, and local musical cultures, giving rise tion should be broader,[7] dening jazz as a form of art
to many distinctive styles. New Orleans jazz began in music which originated in the United States through the
the early 1910s, combining earlier brass band marches, confrontation of the Negro with European music[8] and
French quadrilles, biguine, ragtime and blues with col- arguing that it diers from European music in that jazz
lective polyphonic improvisation. In the 1930s, heavily has a special relationship to time dened as 'swing'", in-
arranged dance-oriented swing big bands, Kansas City volves a spontaneity and vitality of musical production in
jazz, a hard-swinging, bluesy, improvisational style and which improvisation plays a role and contains a sonor-
Gypsy jazz (a style that emphasized musette waltzes) ity and manner of phrasing which mirror the individuality
were the prominent styles. Bebop emerged in the 1940s, of the performing jazz musician.[7]
shifting jazz from danceable popular music towards a
more challenging musicians music which was played at
faster tempos and used more chord-based improvisation.
Cool jazz developed in the end of the 1940s, introducing
calmer, smoother sounds and long, linear melodic lines.
The 1950s saw the emergence of free jazz, which ex-
plored playing without regular meter, beat and formal
structures, and in the mid-1950s, hard bop, which intro-
duced inuences from rhythm and blues, gospel music,
and blues, especially in the saxophone and piano playing.
Modal jazz developed in the late 1950s, using the mode,
or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and im-
provisation. Jazz-rock fusion appeared in the late 1960s
and early 1970s, combining jazz improvisation with rock
Double bassist Reggie Workman, saxophone player Pharoah
rhythms, electric instruments and the highly amplied
Sanders, and drummer Idris Muhammad performing in 1978
stage sound of rock. In the early 1980s, a commercial
form of jazz fusion called smooth jazz became success- A broader denition that encompasses all of the radi-
ful, garnering signicant radio airplay. Other styles and cally dierent eras of jazz has been proposed by Travis
genres abound today, such as Latin jazz and Afro-Cuban Jackson: it is music that includes qualities such as
jazz. swing, improvising, group interaction, developing an
'individual voice', and being open to dierent musical

1
2 3 RACE
possibilities.[9] Krin Gibbard has provided an overview
of the discussion on denitions, arguing that jazz is a
construct that, while articial, still is useful to designate
a number of musics with enough in common to be un-
derstood as part of a coherent tradition.[10] In contrast
to the eorts of commentators and enthusiasts of certain
types of jazz, who have argued for narrower denitions
that exclude other types, the musicians themselves are
often reluctant to dene the music they play. As Duke
Ellington, one of jazzs most famous gures, said: Its
all music.[11]
1.1 Importance of improvisation
Main article: Jazz improvisation
Although jazz is considered dicult to dene,
improvisation is consistently regarded as being one
of its key elements. The centrality of improvisation in
jazz is attributed to inuential earlier forms of music: the
early blues, a form of folk music which arose in part from
the work songs and eld hollers of the African-American
workers on plantations. These were commonly structured
around a repetitive call-and-response pattern, but early
blues was also highly improvisational. European classical
music performance is evaluated by its delity to the text,
with discretion over interpretation, ornamentation and
accompaniment: the classical performers primary goal
is to play a composition as it was written. In contrast, jazz
is often characterized as the product of group creativity,
interaction, and collaboration, which places varying
degrees of value on the contributions of composer (if
there is one) and performers.[12] In jazz, the skilled
performer will interpret a tune in very individual ways,
never playing the same composition exactly the same
way twice: depending upon the performers mood and
personal experience, interactions with other musicians,
or even members of the audience, a jazz musician may
alter melodies, harmonies or time signature at will.[13]
The approach to improvisation has developed enormously
over the history of the music. In early New Orleans and
Dixieland jazz, performers took turns playing the melody,
while others improvised countermelodies. By the swing
era, big bands were coming to rely more on arranged mu-
sic: arrangements were either written or learned by ear
and memorized, while individual soloists would impro-
vise within these arrangements. Later, in bebop the fo-
cus shifted back towards small groups and minimal ar-
rangements; the melody would be stated briey at the
start and end of a piece, but the core of the performance
would be the series of improvisations. Later styles such
as modal jazz abandoned the strict notion of a chord pro-
gression, allowing the individual musicians to improvise
even more freely within the context of a given scale or
mode. In many forms of jazz a soloist is often supported
by a rhythm section who accompany by playing chords
and rhythms that outline the song structure and comple-
ment the soloist.[14] In avant-garde and free jazz idioms,
the separation of soloist and band is reduced, and there
is license, or even a requirement, for the abandoning of
chords, scales, and rhythmic meters.
1.2 Debates
Most of us would say that inventing meaning while letting
loose is the essence and promise of jazz. Neoconserva-
tives wouldn'tmaybe because they're not up to it.
Robert Christgau, The Village Voice[15]
Since at least the emergence of bebop, forms of jazz that
are commercially oriented or inuenced by popular music
have been criticized by purists. According to Bruce John-
son, there has always been a tension between jazz as a
commercial music and an art form.[9] Traditional jazz
enthusiasts have dismissed bebop, free jazz, the 1970s
jazz fusion era and much else as periods of debasement
of the music and betrayals of the tradition. An alterna-
tive viewpoint is that jazz is able to absorb and transform
inuences from diverse musical styles,[16] and that, by
avoiding the creation of 'norms, other newer, avant-garde
forms of jazz will be free to emerge.[9]
To some African Americans, jazz has highlighted their
contribution to American society and helped bring atten-
tion to black history and culture, but for others, the music
and term jazz are reminders of an oppressive and racist
society and restrictions on their artistic visions.[17]
2 Etymology
Main article: Jazz (word)
The question of the origin of the word jazz has resulted
in considerable research, and its history is well docu-
mented. The word began [under various spellings] as
West Coast slang around 1912, the meaning of which
varied but did not refer to music. The use of the word
in a musical context was documented as early as 1915
in the Chicago Daily Tribune.[18] Its rst documented use
in a musical context in New Orleans was in a November
14, 1916 Times-Picayune article about jas bands.[19]
The American Dialect Society named it the Word of the
Twentieth Century.
3 Race
Amiri Baraka argues that there is a distinct white jazz
4.1 Womens Jazz Festival 3

4.1 Womens Jazz Festival

Dr. Billy Taylor (1921-2010), late Kennedy Center
Artistic Director for Jazz, created this festival dedicated
to the composer and pianist Mary-Lou Williams, in honor
of her extraordinary talent.[24] The Mary-Lou Williams
Jazz Festival has existed for sixteen years, showcasing
women of any age or race.

Albert Gleizes, 1915, Composition pour Jazz, gouache on card-
board, mounted on Masonite, 73 x 73 cm, Solomon R. Guggen-
heim Museum, New York
5 History
Jazz originated in the late 19th to early 20th century as
interpretations of American and European classical mu-
sic entwined with African and slave folk songs and the
inuences of West African culture.[25] Its composition
and style have changed many times throughout the years
with each performers personal interpretation and impro-
visation, which is also one of the greatest appeals of the
genre.[26]

music genre expressive of whiteness.[20] White jazz mu-
sicians appeared in the early 1920s in the Midwestern
United States, as well as other areas. Bix Beiderbecke
was one of the most prominent white jazz musicians.[21]
An inuential style referred to as the Chicago School
(or Chicago Style) was developed by white musicians
including Bud Freeman, Jimmy McPartland. Frank
Teschemacher, Dave Tough, and Eddie Condon. Others
from Chicago such as Benny Goodman and Gene Krupa
became leading members of big-band swing during the
1930s.[22]
5.1 Origins
5.1.1 Blended African and European music sensi-
bilities
By 1808, the Atlantic slave trade had brought almost
half a million Africans to the United States. The slaves
came largely from West Africa and the greater Congo
River basin, and brought strong musical traditions with
them.[27] The African traditions primarily made use of
a single-line melody and call-and-response pattern, and
the rhythms had a counter-metric structure and reected
African speech patterns.

4 Women in jazz

When thinking of jazz music, women are normally the

singers of genre, however dating back to the early 1920s
women instrumentalists can be found, with the piano be-
ing one of the earliest instruments used which allowed fe-
male artists a degree of social acceptance.[23] Some well
known artists of the time consists of Sweet Emma Bar-
rett, Mary Lou Williams, Billie Pierce, Jeanette Kimball Dance in Congo Square in the late 1700s, artists conception by
and Lovie Austin. These women have done a lot for the E. W. Kemble from a century later.
genre.
When the men got drafted for the war numerous all Lavish festivals featuring African-based dances to drums
women big band jazz bands took over.[23] However, with were organized on Sundays at Place [28]
Congo, or Congo
the division of skin color, there was no real band that any Square, in New Orleans until 1843. There are histor-
one society listened to. The International Sweethearts of ical accounts of other music and dance gatherings else-
Rhythm was the all women jazz band best known during where in the southern United States. Robert Palmer said
these times. Despite the harsh dress code of women at the of percussive slave music:
time of strapless dresses and high heeled shoes, women
were being hired into many of the big league big bands Usually such music was associated with an-
such as Woody Herman's and Gerald Wilson. nual festivals, when the years crop was har-
4 5 HISTORY

In the late 18th-century painting The Old Plantation, African-

Americans dance to banjo and percussion.

The blackface Virginia Minstrels in 1843, featuring tambourine,

vested and several days were set aside for cel- ddle, banjo and bones.
ebration. As late as 1861, a traveler in North
Carolina saw dancers dressed in costumes that
included horned headdresses and cow tails and drumming traditions were not preserved in North Amer-
heard music provided by a sheepskin-covered ica, unlike in Cuba, Haiti, and elsewhere in the
gumbo box, apparently a frame drum; tri- Caribbean. African-based rhythmic patterns were re-
angles and jawbones furnished the auxiliary tained in the United States in large part through body
percussion. There are quite a few [accounts] rhythms such as stomping, clapping, and patting juba.[32]
from the southeastern states and Louisiana dat- In the opinion of jazz historian Ernest Borneman, what
ing from the period 18201850. Some of the preceded New Orleans jazz before 1890 was Afro-Latin
earliest [Mississippi] Delta settlers came from music, similar to what was played in the Caribbean at
the vicinity of New Orleans, where drumming the time.[33] A three-stroke pattern known in Cuban mu-
was never actively discouraged for very long sic as tresillo is a fundamental rhythmic gure heard in
and homemade drums were used to accompany many dierent slave musics of the Caribbean, as well as
public dancing until the outbreak of the Civil the Afro-Caribbean folk dances performed in New Or-
War.[29] leans Congo Square and Gottschalks compositions (for
example Souvenirs From Havana (1859)). Tresillo is
Another inuence came from the harmonic style of the most basic and most prevalent duple-pulse rhythmic
hymns of the church, which black slaves had learned and cell in sub-Saharan African music traditions and the mu-
[34][35]
incorporated into their own music as spirituals.[30] The sic of the African Diaspora.
origins of the blues are undocumented, though they can
be seen as the secular counterpart of the spirituals. How-
ever, as Gerhard Kubik points out, whereas the spirituals
are homophonic, rural blues and early jazz was largely
based on concepts of heterophony.[31]
During the early 19th century an increasing number of
black musicians learned to play European instruments,
particularly the violin, which they used to parody Eu- Tresillo.[36][37] Play
ropean dance music in their own cakewalk dances. In
turn, European-American minstrel show performers in Tresillo is heard prominently in New Orleans second line
blackface popularized the music internationally, com- music and in other forms of popular music from that city
bining syncopation with European harmonic accompani- from the turn of the 20th century to present.[38] By and
ment. In the mid-1800s the white New Orleans com- large the simpler African rhythmic patterns survived in
poser Louis Moreau Gottschalk adapted slave rhythms jazz ... because they could be adapted more readily to
and melodies from Cuba and other Caribbean islands into European rhythmic conceptions, the Jazz historian Gun-
piano salon music. New Orleans was the main nexus ther Schuller observed. Some survived, others were dis-
between the Afro-Caribbean and African-American cul- carded as the Europeanization progressed.[39]
tures.
In the post-Civil War period (after 1865), African Amer-
icans were able to obtain surplus military bass drums,
African rhythmic retention The "Black Codes" out- snare drums and fes, and an original African-American
lawed drumming by slaves, which meant that African drum and fe music emerged, featuring tresillo and re-
5.2 1890s1910s 5

lated syncopated rhythmic gures.[40] This was a drum-

ming tradition that was distinct from its Caribbean coun-
terparts, expressing a uniquely African-American sen-
sibility. The snare and bass drummers played synco-
pated cross-rhythms, observed the writer Robert Palmer
(writer), speculating that this tradition must have dated
back to the latter half of the nineteenth century, and it
could have not have developed in the rst place if there Cinquillo. Play
hadn't been a reservoir of polyrhythmic sophistication in
the culture it nurtured.[41] cally the pattern is only half a clave, Marsalis makes the
point that the single-celled gure is the guide-pattern of
New Orleans music. Jelly Roll Morton called the rhyth-
5.1.2 Spanish tingethe Afro-Cuban rhythmic
mic gure the Spanish tinge, and considered it an essential
inuence
ingredient of jazz.[53]
African-American music began incorporating Afro-
Cuban rhythmic motifs in the 19th century, when 5.2 1890s1910s
the habanera (Cuban contradanza) gained international
popularity.[42] Musicians from Havana and New Orleans 5.2.1 Ragtime
would take the twice-daily ferry between both cities to
perform, and the habanera quickly took root in the mu- Main article: Ragtime
sically fertile Crescent City. John Storm Roberts states The abolition of slavery in 1865 led to new opportunities
that the musical genre habanera reached the U.S. twenty
years before the rst rag was published.[43] For the more
than quarter-century in which the cakewalk, ragtime,
and proto-jazz were forming and developing, the ha-
banera was a consistent part of African-American pop-
ular music.[44]
Habaneras were widely available as sheet music, and
were the rst written music which was rhythmically
based on an African motif (1803),[45] From the perspec-
tive of African-American music, the habanera rhythm
(also known as congo,[46] tango-congo,[47] or tango.[48] )
can be thought of as a combination of tresillo and the
backbeat.[49] The habanera was the rst of many Cuban
music genres which enjoyed periods of popularity in the
United States, and reinforced and inspired the use of
tresillo-based rhythms in African-American music.

Habanera rhythm written as a combination of tresillo (bottom

notes) with the backbeat (top note). Play

New Orleans native Louis Moreau Gottschalk's piano

piece Ojos Criollos (Danse Cubaine)" (1860) was inu- Scott Joplin in 1903
enced by the composers studies in Cuba: the habanera
rhythm is clearly heard in the left hand.[50] In Gottschalks
for the education of freed African Americans. Although
symphonic work A Night in the Tropics (1859), the tre- strict segregation limited employment opportunities for
sillo variant cinquillo appears extensively.[51] The gure most blacks, many were able to nd work in entertain-
was later used by Scott Joplin and other ragtime com- ment. Black musicians were able to provide entertain-
posers. ment in dances, minstrel shows, and in vaudeville, during
Comparing the music of New Orleans with the music of which time many marching bands were formed. Black
Cuba, Wynton Marsalis observes that tresillo is the New pianists played in bars, clubs and brothels, as ragtime
[54][55]
Orleans clave, a Spanish word meaning 'code' or 'key', developed.
as in the key to a puzzle, or mystery.[52] Although techni- Ragtime appeared as sheet music, popularized by
6 5 HISTORY

African-American musicians such as the entertainer

Ernest Hogan, whose hit songs appeared in 1895.
Two years later, Vess Ossman recorded a medley of
these songs as a banjo solo known as Rag Time
Medley.[56][57] Also in 1897, the white composer
William H. Krell published his "Mississippi Rag" as the
rst written piano instrumental ragtime piece, and Tom
Turpin published his "Harlem Rag", the rst rag pub-
lished by an African-American.
The classically trained pianist Scott Joplin produced his
"Original Rags" in 1898, and in 1899 had an international Play blues scale or pentatonic scale
hit with "Maple Leaf Rag", a multi-strain ragtime march
with four parts that feature recurring themes and a bass
line with copious seventh chords. Its structure was the are stylistically an extension and merger of ba-
basis for many other rags, and the syncopations in the sically two broad accompanied song-style tra-
right hand, especially in the transition between the rst ditions in the west central Sudanic belt:
[58]
and second strain, were novel at the time. A strongly Arabic/Islamic song style, as
found for example among the Hausa. It
is characterized by melisma, wavy into-
nation, pitch instabilities within a pen-
tatonic framework, and a declamatory
voice.
An ancient west central Sudanic stratum
of pentatonic song composition, often as-
Excerpt from Maple Leaf Rag by Scott Joplin (1899). Seventh sociated with simple work rhythms in a
chord resolution.[59] Play . Note that the seventh resolves down regular meter, but with notable o-beat
by half step. accents (1999: 94).[66]

African-based rhythmic patterns such as tresillo and its

variants, the habanera rhythm and cinquillo, are heard
in the ragtime compositions of Joplin, Turpin, and oth-
ers. Joplins Solace (1909) is generally considered to
be within the habanera genre:[46][60] both of the pianists
hands play in a syncopated fashion, completely abandon-
ing any sense of a march rhythm. Ned Sublette postulates
that the tresillo/habanera rhythm found its way into rag-
time and the cakewalk,[61] whilst Roberts suggests that
the habanera inuence may have been part of what freed
black music from ragtimes European bass.[62]

5.2.2 Blues

Main article: Blues

African genesis Blues is the name given to both a

musical form and a music genre,[63] which originated in
African-American communities of primarily the "Deep
South" of the United States at the end of the 19th century
from their spirituals, work songs, eld hollers, shouts and
chants and rhymed simple narrative ballads.[64]
The African use of pentatonic scales contributed to the
development of blue notes in blues and jazz.[65] As Kubik
explains:

Many of the rural blues of the Deep South WC Handy age 19, 1892
5.2 1890s1910s 7

W. C. Handy: early published blues W. C. Handy

became intrigued by the folk blues of the Deep South
whilst traveling through the Mississippi Delta. In this
folk blues form, the singer would improvise freely within
a limited melodic range, sounding like a eld holler,
and the guitar accompaniment was slapped rather than
strummed, like a small drum which responded in synco-
pated accents, functioning as another voice.[67] Handy
and his band members were formally trained African-
American musicians who had not grown up with the
blues, yet he was able to adapt the blues to a larger band
instrument format, and arrange them in a popular music
form.
The Bolden Band around 1905.
Handy wrote about his adopting of the blues:

as "Storyville".[71] In addition to dance bands, there were

The primitive southern Negro, as he sang, numerous marching bands who played at lavish funer-
was sure to bear down on the third and seventh als (later called jazz funerals), which were arranged by
tone of the scale, slurring between major and the African-American and European American commu-
minor. Whether in the cotton eld of the Delta nities. The instruments used in marching bands and
or on the Levee up St. Louis way, it was always dance bands became the basic instruments of jazz: brass,
the same. Till then, however, I had never heard reeds tuned in the European 12-tone scale, and drums.
this slur used by a more sophisticated Negro, Small bands which mixed self-taught and well educated
or by any white man. I tried to convey this ef- African-American musicians, many of whom came from
fect ... by introducing at thirds and sevenths the funeral-procession tradition of New Orleans, played
(now called blue notes) into my song, although a seminal role in the development and dissemination
its prevailing key was major ..., and I carried of early jazz. These bands travelled throughout Black
this device into my melody as well.[68] communities in the Deep South and, from around 1914
onwards, Afro-Creole and African-American musicians
The publication of his "Memphis Blues" sheet music in played in vaudeville shows which took jazz to western and
1912 introduced the 12-bar blues to the world (although northern US cities.[72]
Gunther Schuller argues that it is not really a blues, but
more like a cakewalk[69] ). This composition, as well
as his later "St. Louis Blues" and others, included the Syncopation The cornetist Buddy Bolden led a band
habanera rhythm,[70] and would become jazz standards. who are often mentioned as one of the prime originators
Handys music career began in the pre-jazz era, and con- of the style later to be called jazz. He played in New
tributed to the codication of jazz through the publication Orleans around 18951906, before developing a mental
of some of the rst jazz sheet music. illness; there are no recordings of him playing. Boldens
band is credited with creating the big four, the rst syn-
copated bass drum pattern to deviate from the standard
Within the context of Western harmony The blues on-the-beat march.[73] As the example below shows, the
form which is ubiquitous in jazz is characterized by spe- second half of the big four pattern is the habanera rhythm.
cic chord progressions, of which the twelve-bar blues
progression is the most common. An important part of
the sound are the blue notes which, for expressive pur-
poses, are sung or played attened, or gradually bent (mi-
nor 3rd to major 3rd) in relation to the pitch of the major
scale. The blues were the key that opened up an entirely
Buddy Boldens big four pattern.[74] Play
new approach to Western harmony, ultimately leading to
a high level of harmonic complexity in jazz. Afro-Creole pianist Jelly Roll Morton began his career in
Storyville. From 1904, he toured with vaudeville shows
around southern cities, also playing in Chicago and New
5.2.3 New Orleans
York. In 1905 he composed his "Jelly Roll Blues", which
Main article: Dixieland on its publication in 1915 became the rst jazz arrange-
The music of New Orleans had a profound eect on the ment in print, [75]
introducing more musicians to the New Or-
creation of early jazz. Many early jazz performers played leans style.
in venues throughout the city, such as the brothels and Morton considered the tresillo/habanera (which he called
bars of the red-light district around Basin Street, known the Spanish tinge) to be an essential ingredient of jazz.[76]
8 5
Morton published Jelly Roll Blues in 1915, the rst jazz work
in print.
In his own words:
Now in one of my earliest tunes, New Or-
leans Blues, you can notice the Spanish tinge.
In fact, if you can't manage to put tinges of
Spanish in your tunes, you will never be able
to get the right seasoning, I call it, for jazz.[53]
Excerpt from Jelly Roll Mortons New Orleans Blues (c. 1902).
The left hand plays the tresillo rhythm. The right hand plays
variations on cinquillo. Play
Morton was a crucial innovator in the evolution from the
early jazz form known as ragtime to jazz piano, and could
perform pieces in either style; in 1938, Morton made a se-
ries of recordings for the Library of Congress, in which
he demonstrated the dierence between the two styles.
Mortons solos however were still close to ragtime, and
were not merely improvisations over chord changes as in
later jazz; but his use of the blues was of equal impor-
5.2.4 Other regions
tance.
In the northeastern United States, a hot style of play-
Swing Morton loosened ragtimes rigid rhythmic feel- ing ragtime had developed, notably James Reese Europe's
ing, decreasing its embellishments and employing a swing symphonic Clef Club orchestra in New York, which
HISTORY
Bottom: even duple subdivisions of the beat. Top: swung
correlativecontrasting of duple and triple subdivisions of the
beat. Play straight drum pattern or Play swung pattern
feeling.[77] Swing is the most important and enduring
African-based rhythmic technique used in jazz. An oft
quoted denition of swing by Louis Armstrong is: if
you don't feel it, you'll never know it.[78] The New Har-
vard Dictionary of Music states that swing is: An intangi-
ble rhythmic momentum in jazz ... Swing dees analysis;
claims to its presence may inspire arguments. The dic-
tionary does nonetheless provide the useful description
of triple subdivisions of the beat contrasted with duple
subdivisions:[79] swing superimposes six subdivisions of
the beat over a basic pulse structure or four subdivisions.
This aspect of swing is far more prevalent in African-
American music than in Afro-Caribbean music. One as-
pect of swing, which is heard in more rhythmically com-
plex Diaspora musics, places strokes in-between the triple
and duple-pulse grids.[80]
New Orleans brass bands are a lasting inuence, con-
tributing horn players to the world of professional jazz
with the distinct sound of the city whilst helping black
children escape poverty. The leader of New Orleans
Camelia Brass Band, D'Jalma Ganier, taught Louis Arm-
strong to play trumpet; Armstrong would then popular-
ize the New Orleans style of trumpet playing, and then
expand it. Like Jelly Roll Morton, Armstrong is also
credited with the abandonment of ragtimes stiness in
favor of swung notes. Armstrong, perhaps more than any
other musician, codied the rhythmic technique of swing
in jazz, and broadened the jazz solo vocabulary.[81]
The Original Dixieland Jass Band made the musics
rst recordings early in 1917, and their "Livery
Stable Blues" became the earliest released jazz
record.[82][83][84][85][86][87][88] That year, numerous
other bands made recordings featuring jazz in the title
or band name, but most were ragtime or novelty records
rather than jazz. In February 1918 during World War
I, James Reese Europe's Hellghters infantry band
took ragtime to Europe,[89] then on their return recorded
Dixieland standards including "Darktown Strutters
Ball".[90]
5.3 1920s and 1930s 9

Trumpeter, bandleader and singer Louis Armstrong was a much-

imitated innovator of early jazz.

Sheet music for Livery Stable Blues"/"Barnyard Blues by the

Original Dixieland Jazz Band, Leo Feist, Inc., New York, copy-
right 1917.

played a benet concert at Carnegie Hall in 1912.[90][91]

The Baltimore rag style of Eubie Blake inuenced James
The King & Carter Jazzing Orchestra photographed in Houston,
P. Johnson's development of stride piano playing, in Texas, January 1921.
which the right hand plays the melody, while the left hand
provides the rhythm and bassline.[92]
In Ohio and elsewhere in the midwest the major inuence values of the Roaring 20s. Professor Henry van Dyke of
was ragtime, until about 1919. Around 1912, when the Princeton University wrote: "... it is not music at all. Its
four-string banjo and saxophone came in, musicians be- merely an irritation of the nerves of hearing, a sensual
gan to improvise the melody line, but the harmony and teasing of the strings of physical passion.[94] The media
rhythm remained unchanged. A contemporary account too began to denigrate jazz. The New York Times used
states that blues could only be heard in jazz in the gut- stories and headlines to pick at jazz: Siberian villagers
bucket cabarets, which were generally looked down upon were said by the paper to have used jazz to scare o bears,
by the Black middle-class.[93] when in fact they had used pots and pans; another story
claimed that the fatal heart attack of a celebrated conduc-
tor was caused by jazz.[94]
5.3 1920s and 1930s From 1919, Kid Ory's Original Creole Jazz Band of musi-
cians from New Orleans played in San Francisco and Los
5.3.1 Jazz Age Angeles, where in 1922 they became the rst black jazz
band of New Orleans origin to make recordings.[95][96]
Main article: Jazz Age That year also saw the rst recording by Bessie Smith,
From 1920 to 1933 Prohibition in the United States the most famous of the 1920s blues singers.[97] Chicago
banned the sale of alcoholic drinks, resulting in illicit meanwhile was the main center developing the new "Hot
speakeasies which became lively venues of the Jazz Jazz", where King Oliver joined Bill Johnson. Bix Bei-
Age, hosting popular music including current dance derbecke formed The Wolverines in 1924.
songs, novelty songs and show tunes. In 1924, Louis Armstrong joined the Fletcher Hender-
Jazz began to get a reputation as being immoral, and many son dance band for a year, as featured soloist. The orig-
members of the older generations saw it as threatening inal New Orleans style was polyphonic, with theme vari-
the old cultural values and promoting the new decadent ation and simultaneous collective improvisation. Arm-
10 5 HISTORY

strong was a master of his hometown style, but by the

time he joined Hendersons band, he was already a trail-
blazer in a new phase of jazz, with its emphasis on ar-
rangements and soloists. Armstrongs solos went well
beyond the theme-improvisation concept, and extempo-
rized on chords, rather than melodies. According to
Schuller, by comparison, the solos by Armstrongs band-
mates (including a young Coleman Hawkins), sounded
sti, stodgy, with jerky rhythms and a grey undistin-
guished tone quality.[98] The following example shows
a short excerpt of the straight melody of Mandy, Make
Up Your Mind by George W. Meyer and Arthur John-
ston (top), compared with Armstrongs solo improvisa-
tions (below) (recorded 1924).[99] (The example approx-
imates Armstrongs solo, as it doesn't convey his use of Benny Goodman (1943)
swing.)

Cab Calloway, Jimmy and Tommy Dorsey, Duke Elling-

ton, Benny Goodman, Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines,
Glenn Miller and Artie Shaw. Although it was a collective
sound, swing also oered individual musicians a chance
to solo and improvise melodic, thematic solos which
could at times be very complex and important music.
Top: excerpt from the straight melody of Mandy, Make Up Your
Swing was also dance music. It was broadcast on the ra-
Mind by George W. Meyer & Arthur Johnston. Bottom: corre-
dio live nightly across America for many years, espe-
sponding solo excerpt by Louis Armstrong (1924).
cially by Earl Hines and his Grand Terrace Cafe Orches-
Armstrongs solos were a signicant factor in making jazz tra broadcasting coast-to-coast from Chicago[104] (well
a true 20th-century language. After leaving Hendersons placed for live US time-zones).
group, Armstrong formed his virtuosic Hot Five band, Over time, social strictures regarding racial segregation
where he popularized scat singing.[100] began to relax in America: white bandleaders began
Jelly Roll Morton recorded with the New Orleans to recruit black musicians and black bandleaders white
Rhythm Kings in an early mixed-race collaboration, then ones. In the mid-1930s, Benny Goodman hired pianist
in 1926 formed his Red Hot Peppers. There was a larger Teddy Wilson, vibraphonist Lionel Hampton and gui-
market for jazzy dance music played by white orchestras, tarist Charlie Christian to join small groups. In the 1930s,
such as Jean Goldkette's orchestra and Paul Whiteman's Kansas City Jazz as exemplied by tenor saxophonist
orchestra. In 1924 Whiteman commissioned Gershwin's Lester Young marked the transition from big bands to
Rhapsody in Blue, which was premiered by Whitemans the bebop inuence of the 1940s. An early 1940s style
Orchestra. By the mid-1920s, Whiteman was the most known as jumping the blues or jump blues used small
popular bandleader in the U.S. His success was based combos, uptempo music and blues chord progressions,
on a rhetoric of domestication according to which he drawing on boogie-woogie from the 1930s.
had elevated and rendered valuable a previously inchoate
kind of music.[101] Other inuential large ensembles in- 5.3.3 Beginnings of European jazz
cluded Fletcher Hendersons band, Duke Ellingtons band
(which opened an inuential residency at the Cotton Club
As only a limited amount of American jazz records were
in 1927) in New York, and Earl Hines' Band in Chicago released in Europe, European jazz traces many of its roots
(who opened in The Grand Terrace Cafe there in 1928). to American artists such as James Reese Europe, Paul
All signicantly inuenced the development of big band-
Whiteman and Lonnie Johnson, who visited Europe dur-
style swing jazz.[102] By 1930, the New Orleans-style en-
ing and after World War I. It was their live performances
semble was a relic, and jazz belonged to the world.[103]
which inspired European audiences interest in jazz, as
well as the interest in all things American (and therefore
exotic) which accompanied the economic and political
5.3.2 Swing
woes of Europe during this time.[105] The beginnings of
Main articles: Swing music and 1930s in jazz a distinct European style of jazz began to emerge in this
The 1930s belonged to popular swing big bands, in interwar period.
which some virtuoso soloists became as famous as the This distinct style entered full swing in France with the
band leaders. Key gures in developing the big jazz Quintette du Hot Club de France, which began in 1934.
band included bandleaders and arrangers Count Basie, Much of this French jazz was a combination of African-
5.4 1940s and 1950s
American jazz and the symphonic styles in which French
musicians were well-trained; in this, it is easy to see the
inspiration taken from Paul Whiteman, since his style
was also a fusion of the two.[106] Belgian guitar virtu-
oso Django Reinhardt popularized gypsy jazz, a mix of
1930s American swing, French dance hall "musette" and
Eastern European folk with a languid, seductive feel; the
main instruments are steel stringed guitar, violin, and
double bass, and solos pass from one player to another
as the guitar and bass play the role of the rhythm section.
Some music researchers hold that it was Philadelphias
Eddie Lang and Joe Venuti who pioneered the guitar-
violin partnership typical of the genre,[107] which was
brought to France after they had been heard live or on
Okeh Records in the late 1920s.[108]
5.4 1940s and 1950s
5.4.1 American musicthe inuence of Elling-
ton
Duke Ellington at the Hurricane Club (1943)
By the 1940s, Duke Ellingtons music had transcended ular and commercial appeal.
the bounds of swing, bridging jazz and art music in a
natural synthesis. Ellington called his music American Composer Gunther Schuller wrote:
Music rather than jazz, and liked to describe those who
impressed him as beyond category.[109] These included
many of the musicians who were members of his or-
chestra, some of whom are considered among the best in
jazz in their own right, but it was Ellington who melded
them into one of the most well-known jazz orchestral
units in the history of jazz. He often composed speci-
cally for the style and skills of these individuals, such as
11
Jeeps Blues for Johnny Hodges, Concerto for Cootie
for Cootie Williams (which later became "Do Nothing
Till You Hear from Me" with Bob Russell's lyrics), and
The Mooche for Tricky Sam Nanton and Bubber Miley.
He also recorded songs written by his bandsmen, such
as Juan Tizol's "Caravan" and "Perdido", which brought
the "Spanish Tinge" to big-band jazz. Several members
of the orchestra remained with him for several decades.
The band reached a creative peak in the early 1940s, when
Ellington and a small hand-picked group of his composers
and arrangers wrote for an orchestra of distinctive voices
who displayed tremendous creativity.[110]
5.4.2 Bebop
Main article: Bebop
See also: List of bebop musicians
In the early 1940s, bebop-style performers began to shift
Thelonious Monk at Mintons Playhouse, 1947, New York City.
jazz from danceable popular music towards a more chal-
lenging musicians music. The most inuential bebop
musicians included saxophonist Charlie Parker, pianists
Bud Powell and Thelonious Monk, trumpeters Dizzy
Gillespie and Cliord Brown, and drummer Max Roach.
Divorcing itself from dance music, bebop established it-
self more as an art form, thus lessening its potential pop-
... In 1943 I heard the great Earl Hines
band which had Bird in it and all those other
great musicians. They were playing all the at-
ted fth chords and all the modern harmonies
and substitutions and Dizzy Gillespie runs in
the trumpet section work. Two years later
I read that that was 'bop' and the beginning
12 5 HISTORY

Earl Hines 1947

Charlie Parker, Tommy Potter, Miles Davis, Max Roach (Gottlieb
of modern jazz ... but the band never made 06941)
recordings.[111]
Chord progressions for bebop tunes were often taken di-
Dizzy Gillespie wrote: rectly from popular swing-era songs and reused with a
new and more complex melody to form new composi-
... People talk about the Hines band be- tions, a practice which was already well-established in
ing 'the incubator of bop' and the leading expo- earlier jazz, but came to be central to the bebop style.
nents of that music ended up in the Hines band. Bebop made use of several relatively common chord pro-
But people also have the erroneous impression gressions, such as blues (at base, I-IV-V, but infused
that the music was new. It was not. The mu- with II-V motion) and 'rhythm changes (I-VI-II-V) - the
sic evolved from what went before. It was the chords to the 1930s pop standard "I Got Rhythm. Late
same basic music. The dierence was in how bop also moved towards extended forms that represented
you got from here to here to here ... naturally a departure from pop and show tunes.
each age has got its own shit.[112]
The harmonic development in bebop is often traced back
to a transcendent moment experienced by Charlie Parker
Rhythm Since bebop was meant to be listened to, not while performing Cherokee at Clark Monroes Uptown
danced to, it could use faster tempos. Drumming shifted House, New York, in early 1942:
to a more elusive and explosive style, in which the ride
cymbal was used to keep time while the snare and bass I'd been getting bored with the stereotyped
drum were used for accents. This led to a highly synco- changes that were being used, ... and I kept
pated linear rhythmic complexity.[113] thinking theres bound to be something else. I
could hear it sometimes. I couldn't play it....
Harmony Bebop musicians employed several har- I was working over 'Cherokee,' and, as I did,
monic devices which were not previously typical in jazz, I found that by using the higher intervals of
engaging in a more abstracted form of chord-based im- a chord as a melody line and backing them
provisation. Bebop scales are traditional scales with an with appropriately related changes, I could play
added chromatic passing note;[114] bebop also uses pass- the thing I'd been hearing. It came alive
ing chords, substitute chords, and altered chords. New Parker.[116]
forms of chromaticism and dissonance were introduced
into jazz, and the dissonant tritone (or atted fth) in- Gerhard Kubik postulates that the harmonic development
terval became the most important interval of bebop[115] in bebop sprang from the blues and other African-related
5.4 1940s and 1950s 13

tonal sensibilities, rather than 20th-century Western art These divergences from the jazz mainstream of the time
music as some have suggested: initially met with a divided, sometimes hostile, response
among fans and fellow musicians, especially established
Auditory inclinations were the African swing players, who bristled at the new harmonic sounds.
legacy in [Parkers] life, reconrmed by the ex- To hostile critics, bebop seemed to be lled with racing,
perience of the blues tonal system, a sound nervous phrases.[119] But despite the initial friction, by
world at odds with the Western diatonic the 1950s bebop had become an accepted part of the jazz
chord categories. Bebop musicians eliminated vocabulary.
Western-style functional harmony in their mu-
sic while retaining the strong central tonality of 5.4.3 Afro-Cuban jazz (cu-bop)
the blues as a basis for drawing upon various
African matrices.[117]
Main article: Afro-Cuban jazz

Samuel Floyd states that blues were both the bedrock and
propelling force of bebop, bringing about three main de-
velopments:

A new harmonic conception, using extended chord

structures that led to unprecedented harmonic and
melodic variety.

A developed and even more highly syncopated, lin-

ear rhythmic complexity and a melodic angularity
in which the blue note of the fth degree was estab-
lished as an important melodic-harmonic device.

The reestablishment of the blues as the musics pri-

mary organizing and functional principle.[113]

As Kubik explained:

While for an outside observer, the har-

monic innovations in bebop would appear to
be inspired by experiences in Western seri-
ous music, from Claude Debussy to Arnold
Schoenberg, such a scheme cannot be sustained
by the evidence from a cognitive approach.
Claude Debussy did have some inuence on
jazz, for example, on Bix Beiderbecke's pi-
ano playing. And it is also true that Duke
Ellington adopted and reinterpreted some har-
monic devices in European contemporary mu-
sic. West Coast jazz would run into such debts
as would several forms of cool jazz, but bebop
has hardly any such debts in the sense of direct
borrowings. On the contrary, ideologically, be-
bop was a strong statement of rejection of any
kind of eclecticism, propelled by a desire to ac-
tivate something deeply buried in self. Bebop
then revived tonal-harmonic ideas transmitted
through the blues and reconstructed and ex-
panded others in a basically non-Western har-
monic approach. The ultimate signicance of
all this is that the experiments in jazz during the
1940s brought back to African-American mu-
sic several structural principles and techniques
rooted in African traditions[118]
Machito (maracas) and his sister Graciella Grillo (claves)
Machito and Mario Bauza The general consensus
among musicians and musicologists is that the rst origi-
nal jazz piece to be overtly based in clave was Tanga
(1943), composed by Cuban-born Mario Bauza and
recorded by Machito and his Afro-Cubans in New York
City. Tanga began as a spontaneous descarga (Cuban
jam session), with jazz solos superimposed on top.[120]
This was the birth of Afro-Cuban jazz. The use of clave
brought the African timeline, or key pattern, into jazz.
Music organized around key patterns convey a two-celled
(binary) structure, which is a complex level of African
cross-rhythm.[121] Within the context of jazz however,
harmony is the primary referent, not rhythm. The har-
monic progression can begin on either side of clave, and
the harmonic one is always understood to be one. If
the progression begins on the three-side of clave, it is
said to be in 3-2 clave. If the progression begins on the
two-side, its in 2-3 clave.[122]
Bobby Sanabria mentions several innovations of Ma-
chitos Afro-Cubans, citing them as the rst band: to
14 5 HISTORY

spie and Pozos brief collaboration produced some of the

Clave: Spanish for 'code,' or key,' as in the key to a puzzle. The
antecedent half (three-side) consists of tresillo. The consequent
half consists of two strokes (the two-side). Play
wed big band jazz arranging techniques within an original
composition, with jazz oriented soloists utilizing an au-
thentic Afro-Cuban based rhythm section in a successful
manner; to explore modal harmony (a concept explored
much later by Miles Davis and Gil Evans) from a jazz ar-
ranging perspective; and to overtly explore the concept
of clave conterpoint from an arranging standpoint (the
ability to weave seamlessly from one side of the clave to
the other without breaking its rhythmic integrity within
the structure of a musical arrangement). They were also
the rst band in the United States to publicly utilize the
term Afro-Cuban as the bands moniker, thus identify-
ing itself and acknowledging the West African roots of
the musical form they were playing. It forced New York
Citys Latino and African-American communities to deal
with their common West African musical roots in a direct
way, whether they wanted to acknowledge it publicly or
not.[123]
most enduring Afro-Cuban jazz standards. "Manteca"
(1947) is the rst jazz standard to be rhythmically based
on clave. According to Gillespie, Pozo composed the lay-
ered, contrapuntal guajeos (Afro-Cuban ostinatos) of the
A section and the introduction, while Gillespie wrote the
bridge. Gillespie recounted: If I'd let it go like [Chano]
wanted it, it would have been strickly Afro-Cuban all the
way. There wouldn't have been a bridge. I thought I was
writing an eight-bar bridge, but ... I had to keep going and
ended up writing a sixteen-bar bridge.[124] The bridge
gave Manteca a typical jazz harmonic structure, set-
ting the piece apart from Bauzas modal Tanga of a few
years earlier.
Gillespies collaboration with Pozo brought specic
African-based rhythms into bebop. While pushing the
boundaries of harmonic improvisation, cu-bop, as it was
called, also drew more directly from African rhythmic
structures. Jazz arrangements with a Latin A section
and a swung B section, with all choruses swung during
solos, became common practice with many Latin tunes
of the jazz standard repertoire. This approach can be
heard on pre-1980 recordings of Manteca, "A Night in
Tunisia", Tin Tin Deo, and "On Green Dolphin Street".

Mongo Santamaria (1969)

African cross-rhythm Cuban percussionist Mongo

Santamaria rst recorded his composition "Afro Blue"
in 1959.[125] Afro Blue was the rst jazz standard
Dizzy Gillespie, 1955
built upon a typical African three-against-two (3:2) cross-
rhythm, or hemiola.[126] The song begins with the bass re-
peatedly playing 6 cross-beats per each measure of 12/8,
Dizzy Gillespie and Chano Pozo It was Mario Bauz or 6 cross-beats per 4 main beats6:4 (two cells of 3:2).
who introduced bebop innovator Dizzy Gillespie to the The following example shows the original ostinato Afro
Cuban conga drummer and composer Chano Pozo. Gille- Blue bass line; the slashed noteheads indicate the main
5.4 1940s and 1950s 15

beats (not bass notes), where you would normally tap your by a nonet led by Miles Davis, released as the Birth of
foot to keep time. the Cool. Later cool jazz recordings by musicians such as
Chet Baker, Dave Brubeck, Bill Evans, Gil Evans, Stan
Getz and the Modern Jazz Quartet usually had a lighter
sound that avoided the aggressive tempos and harmonic
abstraction of bebop.
Cool jazz later became strongly identied with the West
Afro Blue bass line, with main beats indicated by slashed note- Coast jazz scene, but also had a particular resonance in
heads. Europe, especially Scandinavia, where gures such as
baritone saxophonist Lars Gullin and pianist Bengt Hall-
When John Coltrane covered Afro Blue in 1963, he berg emerged. The theoretical underpinnings of cool
inverted the metric hierarchy, interpreting the tune as a jazz were set out by the Chicago pianist Lennie Tristano,
3/4 jazz waltz with duple cross-beats superimposed (2:3). and its inuence stretches into such later developments as
Originally a Bb pentatonic blues, Coltrane expanded the bossa nova, modal jazz, and even free jazz.
harmonic structure of Afro Blue.
Perhaps the most respected Afro-cuban jazz combo of the
late 1950s was vibraphonist Cal Tjader's band. Tjader 5.4.6 Hard bop
had Mongo Santamaria, Armando Peraza, and Willie
Bobo on his early recording dates. Main article: Hard bop

5.4.4 Dixieland revival
Main articles: 1940s in jazz and 1950s in jazz
In the late 1940s there was a revival of "Dixieland" music,
harking back to the original contrapuntal New Orleans
style. This was driven in large part by record company
reissues of early jazz classics by the Oliver, Morton, and
Armstrong bands of the 1930s. There were two types
of musicians involved in the revival: the rst group was
made up of those who had begun their careers playing in
the traditional style and were returning to it (or contin-
uing what they had been playing all along), such as Bob
Crosby's Bobcats, Max Kaminsky, Eddie Condon, and
Wild Bill Davison.[127] Most of these players were origi-
nally Midwesterners, although there were a small number
of New Orleans musicians involved. The second group of
revivalists consisted of younger musicians, such as those
in the Lu Watters band, Conrad Janis, and Ward Kimball
and his Firehouse Five Plus Two Jazz Band. By the late
1940s, Louis Armstrongs Allstars band became a lead-
ing ensemble. Through the 1950s and 1960s, Dixieland
was one of the most commercially popular jazz styles in
the US, Europe, and Japan, although critics paid little at-
tention to it.[127]
5.4.5 Cool jazz
Main article: Cool jazz
By the end of the 1940s, the nervous energy and tension
of bebop was replaced with a tendency towards calm and
smoothness with the sounds of cool jazz, which favoured
long, linear melodic lines. It emerged in New York City,
and dominated jazz in the rst half of the 1950s. The
starting point was a collection of 1949 and 1950 singles
Hard bop is an extension of bebop (or bop) music which
incorporates inuences from rhythm and blues, gospel
music and blues, especially in the saxophone and piano
playing. Hard bop was developed in the mid-1950s, coa-
lescing in 1953 and 1954; it developed partly in response
to the vogue for cool jazz in the early 1950s, and par-
alleled the rise of rhythm and blues. Miles Davis 1954
performance of Walkin'" at the rst Newport Jazz Festi-
val announced the style to the jazz world. The quintet Art
Blakey and the Jazz Messengers, fronted by Blakey and
featuring pianist Horace Silver and trumpeter Cliord
Brown, were leaders in the hard bop movement along with
Davis.
5.4.7 Modal jazz
Main article: Modal jazz
Modal jazz is a development which began in the later
1950s which takes the mode, or musical scale, as the ba-
sis of musical structure and improvisation. Previously, a
solo was meant to t into a given chord progression, but
with modal jazz the soloist creates a melody using one, or
a small number of modes. The emphasis is thus shifted
from harmony to melody:[128] Historically, this caused a
seismic shift among jazz musicians, away from thinking
vertically (the chord), and towards a more horizontal ap-
proach (the scale),[129] explained pianist Mark Levine.
The modal theory stems from a work by George Rus-
sell. Miles Davis introduced the concept to the greater
jazz world with Kind of Blue (1959), an exploration of
the possibilities of modal jazz which would become the
best selling jazz album of all time. In contrast to Davis
earlier work with hard bop and its complex chord pro-
gression and improvisation,[130] the entire Kind of Blue
album was composed as a series of modal sketches, in
16 5 HISTORY

which each performer was given a set of scales that de-

ned the parameters of their improvisation and style.[131]
I didn't write out the music for Kind of Blue, but brought
in sketches for what everybody was supposed to play be-
cause I wanted a lot of spontaneity,[132] recalled Davis.
The track So What has only two chords: D-7 and
E7.[133]
Other innovators in this style include Jackie McLean,[134]
and two of the musicians who had also played on Kind of
Blue: John Coltrane and Bill Evans.
By the 1950s, Afro-Cuban jazz had been using modes
for at least a decade, as much of it borrowed from Cuban
popular dance forms which are structured around mul-
tiple ostinatos with only a few chords. A case in point
is Mario Bauza's Tanga (1943), the rst Afro-Cuban
jazz piece. Machitos Afro-Cubans recorded modal tunes
in the 1940s, featuring jazz soloists such as Howard
McGhee, Brew Moore, Charlie Parker and Flip Phillips.
However, there is no evidence that Davis or other main-
stream jazz musicians were inuenced by the use of
modes in Afro-Cuban jazz, or other branches of Latin
jazz.

5.4.8 Free jazz

Main article: Free jazz A shot from a 2006 performance by Peter Brtzmann, a key g-
ure in European free jazz

Free jazz, and the related form of avant-garde jazz, broke

through into an open space of free tonality in which
meter, beat, and formal symmetry all disappeared, and a sheets of sound. In the studio, he all but abandoned his
range of World music from India, Africa and Arabia were soprano to concentrate on the tenor saxophone. In addi-
melded into an intense, even religiously ecstatic or orgias- tion, the quartet responded to the leader by playing with
tic style of playing.[135] While loosely inspired by bebop, increasing freedom. The groups evolution can be traced
free jazz tunes gave players much more latitude; the loose through the recordings The John Coltrane Quartet Plays,
harmony and tempo was deemed controversial when this Living Space and Transition (both June 1965), New Thing
approach was rst developed. The bassist Charles Min- at Newport (July 1965), Sun Ship (August 1965) and First
gus is also frequently associated with the avant-garde in Meditations (September 1965).
jazz, although his compositions draw from myriad styles In June 1965, Coltrane and ten other musicians recorded
and genres.
Ascension, a 40-minute long piece that included adven-
The rst major stirrings came in the 1950s, with the early turous solos by young avant-garde musicians as well as
work of Ornette Coleman and Cecil Taylor. In the 1960s, Coltrane, and was controversial primarily for the collec-
exponents included Archie Shepp, Sun Ra, Albert Ayler, tive improvisation sections that separated the solos. Af-
Pharoah Sanders and John Coltrane. In developing his ter recording with the quartet over the next few months,
late style, Coltrane was especially inuenced by the disso- Coltrane invited Pharoah Sanders to join the band in
nance of Aylers trio with bassist Gary Peacock and drum- September 1965. While Coltrane used over-blowing
mer Sunny Murray, a rhythm section honed with Cecil frequently as an emotional exclamation-point, Sanders
Taylor as leader. Coltrane championed many younger would opt to overblow his entire solo, resulting in a con-
free jazz musicians, notably Archie Shepp), and under his stant screaming and screeching in the altissimo range of
inuence Impulse! Records became a leading free jazz the instrument.
record label. Free jazz quickly found a foothold in Europe, in part be-
A series of recordings with the Classic Quartet in the rst cause musicians such as Ayler, Taylor, Steve Lacy and
half of 1965 show Coltranes playing becoming increas- Eric Dolphy spent extended periods there. A distinc-
ingly abstract, with greater incorporation of devices like tive European contemporary jazz (often incorporating el-
multiphonics, utilization of overtones, and playing in the ements of free jazz but not limited to it) also ourished
altissimo register, as well as a mutated return to Coltranes because of the emergence of European musicians (such as
5.5 1960s and 1970s
John Surman, Zbigniew Namysowski, Albert Mangels-
dor, Kenny Wheeler and Mike Westbrook) who were
anxious to develop new approaches reecting their na-
tional and regional musical cultures and contexts. Ever
since the 1960s, various creative centers of jazz have
developed in Europe, such as the creative jazz scene in
Amsterdam. Following the work of veteran drummer
Han Bennink and pianist Misha Mengelberg, musicians
started to explore free music by collectively improvis-
ing until a certain form (melody, rhythm, or even famous
song) is found by the band. Jazz critic Kevin Whithead
documented the free jazz scene in Amsterdam and some
of its main exponents such as the ICP (Instant Composers
Pool) orchestra in his book New Dutch Swing. Through-
out the 1990s and 2000s, Keith Jarrett has been promi-
nent in defending free jazz from criticism by traditional-
ists .
5.5 1960s and 1970s
Main articles: 1960s in jazz and 1970s in jazz
5.5.1 Latin jazz
Main article: Latin jazz
Latin jazz is the term used to describe jazz which employs
Latin American rhythms, and is generally understood to
have a more specic meaning than simply jazz from Latin
America. A more precise term might be Afro-Latin jazz,
as the jazz subgenre typically employs rhythms that either
have a direct analog in Africa, or exhibit an African rhyth-
mic inuence beyond what is ordinarily heard in other
jazz. The two main categories of Latin jazz are Afro-
Cuban jazz and Brazilian jazz.
In the 1960s and 1970s many jazz musicians had only a
basic understanding of Cuban and Brazilian music, and
jazz compositions which used Cuban or Brazilian ele-
ments were often referred to as Latin tunes, with no
distinction between a Cuban son montuno and a Brazil-
ian bossa nova. Even as late as 2000, in Mark Gridleys
Jazz Styles: History and Analysis, a bossa nova bass line is
referred to as a Latin bass gure.[136] It was not uncom- Cuban rhythms. This era of creativity and vitality is best
mon during the 1960s and 1970s to hear a conga play-
ing a Cuban tumbao while the drumset and bass played a
Brazilian bossa nova pattern. Many jazz standards such
as Manteca, On Green Dolphin Street and Song for mental salsa groups: salsa was the medium, but Palmieri
My Father have a Latin A section and a swung B was stretching the form in new ways. He incorporated
section. Typically, the band would only play an even-
eighth Latin feel in the A section of the head, and swing
throughout all of the solos. Latin jazz specialists like Cal
Tjader tended to be the exception. For example, on a
1959 live Tjader recording of A Night in Tunisia, pi-
anist Vince Guaraldi soloed through the entire form over
an authentic mambo.[137]
17
Afro-Cuban jazz Main article: Afro-Cuban jazz
Afro-Cuban jazz often uses Afro-Cuban instruments
such as congas, timbales, giro and claves, combined with
piano, double bass, etc. Afro-Cuban jazz began with Ma-
chitos Afro-Cubans in the early 1940s, but took o and
entered the mainstream in the late 1940s when bebop mu-
sicians such as Dizzy Gillespie and Billy Taylor began
experimenting with Cuban rhythms. Mongo Santamaria
and Cal Tjader further rened the genre in the late 1950s.
Although a great deal of Cuban-based Latin jazz is modal,
Latin jazz is not always modal: it can be as harmonically
expansive as post-bop jazz. For example, Tito Puente
recorded an arrangement of Giant Steps done to an
Afro-Cuban guaguanc. A Latin jazz piece may momen-
tarily contract harmonically, as in the case of a percussion
solo over a one or two-chord piano guajeo.
Guajeos Guajeo is the name for the typical Afro-
Cuban ostinato melodies which are commonly used mo-
tifs in Latin jazz compositions. They originated in the
genre known as son. Guajeos provide a rhythmic and
melodic framework that may be varied within certain pa-
rameters, whilst still maintaining a repetitive - and thus
danceable - structure. Most guajeos are rhythmically
based on clave (rhythm).
Guajeos are one of the most important elements of the
vocabulary of Afro-Cuban descarga (jazz-inspired instru-
mental jams), providing a means of tension and resolution
and a sense of forward momentum, within a relatively
simple harmonic structure. The use of multiple, contra-
puntal guajeos in Latin jazz facilitates simultaneous col-
lective improvisation based on theme variation. In a way,
this polyphonic texture is reminiscent of the original New
Orleans style of jazz.
Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance For most of its history,
Afro-Cuban jazz had been a matter of superimposing
jazz phrasing over Cuban rhythms. But by the end of
the 1970s a new generation of New York City musicians
had emerged who were uent in both salsa dance music
and jazz, leading to a new level of integration of jazz and
represented by the Gonzalez brothers Jerry (congas and
trumpet) and Andy (bass).[138] During 1974-1976 they
were members of one of Eddie Palmieri's most experi-
parallel fourths, with McCoy Tyner-type vamps. The in-
novations of Palmieri, the Gonzalez brothers and others
led to an Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance in New York City.
This occurred in parallel with developments in Cuba[139]
The rst Cuban band of this new wave was Irakere. Their
Chkere-son (1976) introduced a style of Cubanized
bebop-avored horn lines that departed from the more
18 5 HISTORY

angular guajeo-based lines which were typical of Cuban
popular music and Latin jazz up until that time. It was
based on Charlie Parkers composition Billies Bounce, Sinatra, and the eventual entrenchment of the bossa nova
jumbled together in a way that fused clave and bebop horn
lines.[140] In spite of the ambivalence of some band mem-
bers towards Irakeres Afro-Cuban folkloric / jazz fusion,
their experiments forever changed Cuban jazz: their in-
novations are still heard in the high level of harmonic
and rhythmic complexity in Cuban jazz, and in the jazzy
and complex contemporary form of popular dance music
known as timba.
boom, with 1963s Getz/Gilberto, numerous recordings by
famous jazz performers such as Ella Fitzgerald and Frank
style as a lasting inuence in world music.
Brazilian percussionists such as Airto Moreira and Nan
Vasconcelos also inuenced jazz internationally by intro-
ducing Afro-Brazilian folkloric instruments and rhythms
into a wide variety of jazz styles, thus attracting a greater
audience to them.[141][142][143]

5.5.2 Post-bop

Main article: Post-bop

Post-bop jazz is a form of small-combo jazz derived from

earlier bop styles. The genres origins lie in seminal work
by John Coltrane, Miles Davis, Bill Evans, Charles Min-
gus, Wayne Shorter and Herbie Hancock. Generally, the
term post-bop is taken to mean jazz from the mid-sixties
onwards that assimilates inuences from hard bop, modal
jazz, the avant-garde and free jazz, without necessarily
being immediately identiable as any of the above.
Much post-bop was recorded for Blue Note Records. Key
albums include Speak No Evil by Shorter; The Real Mc-
Coy by McCoy Tyner; Maiden Voyage by Hancock; Miles
Smiles by Davis; and Search for the New Land by Lee
Morgan (an artist who is not typically associated with the
post-bop genre). Most post-bop artists worked in other
genres as well, with a particularly strong overlap with the
later hard bop.

5.5.3 Soul jazz

Nan Vasconcelos playing the Afro-Brazilian Berimbau Main article: Soul jazz

Afro-Brazilian jazz Brazilian jazz such as bossa nova Soul jazz was a development of hard bop which incor-
is derived from samba, with inuences from jazz and porated strong inuences from blues, gospel and rhythm
other 20th-century classical and popular music styles. and blues to create music for small groups, often the organ
Bossa is generally moderately paced, with melodies sung trio of Hammond organ, drummer and tenor saxophonist.
in Portuguese or English, whilst he related term jazz- Unlike hard bop, soul jazz generally emphasized repeti-
samba describes an adaptation of street samba into jazz. tive grooves and melodic hooks, and improvisations were
The bossa nova style was pioneered by Brazilians Joo often less complex than in other jazz styles. It often had
Gilberto and Antnio Carlos Jobim, and was made popu- a steadier funk style groove, which was dierent from
lar by Elizete Cardoso's recording of "Chega de Saudade" the swing rhythms typical of much hard bop.
on the Cano do Amor Demais LP. Gilbertos initial re- Horace Silver had a large inuence on the soul jazz style,
leases, and the 1959 lm Black Orpheus, achieved signif- with songs that used funky and often gospel-based piano
icant popularity in Latin America; this spread to North vamps. Important soul jazz organists included Jimmy
America via visiting American jazz musicians. The re- McGri, Jimmy Smith and Johnny Hammond Smith,
sulting recordings by Charlie Byrd and Stan Getz ce- and inuential tenor saxophone players included Eddie
mented bossa novas popularity and led to a worldwide Lockjaw Davis and Stanley Turrentine.
5.5 1960s and 1970s
Randy Weston
5.5.4 African-inspired
Themes There was a resurgence of interest in jazz and
other forms of African-American cultural expression dur-
ing the Black Arts Movement and Black nationalist pe-
riod of the 1960s and 1970s. African themes became
popular, and many new jazz compositions were given
African-related titles: Black Nile (Wayne Shorter),
Blue Nile (Alice Coltrane), Obirin African (Art
Blakey), Zambia (Lee Morgan), Appointment in
Ghana (Jackie McLean), Marabi (Cannonball Adder-
ley), Yoruba (Hubert Laws), and many more. Pianist
Randy Weston's music incorporated African elements,
such as in the large-scale suite Uhuru Africa (with the
participation of poet Langston Hughes) and Highlife:
Music From the New African Nations. Both Weston
and saxophonist Stanley Turrentine covered the Nigerian
Bobby Benson's piece Niger Mambo, which features
Afro-Caribbean and jazz elements within a West African
Highlife style. Some musicians, including Pharoah
Sanders, Hubert Laws and Wayne Shorter, began us-
ing African instruments such as kalimbas, bells, beaded
gourds and other instruments which were not traditional
to jazz.
Rhythm During this period there was an increased use
of the typical African 12/8 cross-rhythmic structure in
jazz. Herbie Hancocks Succotash on Inventions and
Dimensions (1963) is an open-ended modal 12/8 impro-
vised jam, in which Hancocks pattern of attack-points,
rather than the pattern of pitches, is the primary focus
19
of his improvisations, accompanied by Paul Chambers
on bass, percussionist Osvaldo Martinez playing a tradi-
tional Afro-Cuban cheker part and Willie Bobo playing
an Abaku bell pattern on a snare drum with brushes.
The rst jazz standard composed by a non-Latino to use
an overt African 12/8 cross-rhythm was Wayne Shorters
"Footprints" (1967).[144] On the version recorded on
Miles Smiles by Miles Davis, the bass switches to a 4/4
tresillo gure at 2:20. Footprints is not, however, a
Latin jazz tune: African rhythmic structures are accessed
directly by Ron Carter (bass) and Tony Williams (drums)
via the rhythmic sensibilities of swing. Throughout the
piece, the four beats, whether sounded or not, are main-
tained as the temporal referent. In the example below,
the main beats are indicated by slashed noteheads, which
do not indicate bass notes.
Ron Carters two main bass lines for Footprints by Wayner
Shorter (1967). The main beats are indicated by slashed note-
heads.
Pentatonic scales The use of pentatonic scales was an-
other trend associated with Africa. The use of penta-
tonic scales in Africa probably goes back thousands of
years.[145]
McCoy Tyner perfected the use of the pentatonic scale
in his solos,[146] and also used parallel fths and fourths,
which are common harmonies in West Africa.[147]
The minor pentatonic scale is often used in blues improvi-
sation, and like a blues scale, a minor pentatonic scale can
be played over all of the chords in a blues. The following
pentatonic lick was played over blues changes by Joe Hen-
derson on Horace Silver's African Queen (1965).[148]
Jazz pianist, theorist, and educator Mark Levine refers
to the scale generated by beginning on the fth step of a
pentatonic scale as the V pentatonic scale.[149]
C pentatonic scale beginning on the I (C pentatonic), IV (F pen-
tatonic), and V (G pentatonic) steps of the scale.
Levine points out that the V pentatonic scale works for all
three chords of the standard II-V-I jazz progression.[150]
This is a very common progression, used in pieces such
20
as Miles Davis Tune Up. The following example shows
the V pentatonic scale over a II-V-I progression.[151]
V pentatonic scale over II-V-I chord progression.
Accordingly, John Coltranes "Giant Steps" (1960), with by producer Teo Macero, this quiet, static album would
its 26 chords per 16 bars, can be played using only three be equally inuential upon the development of ambient
pentatonic scales. Coltrane studied Nicolas Slonimsky's music.
Thesaurus of Scales and Melodic Patterns, which contains As Davis recalls:
material that is virtually identical to portions of Giant
Steps.[152] The harmonic complexity of Giant Steps is
on the level of the most advanced 20th-century art music.
Superimposing the pentatonic scale over Giant Steps is
not merely a matter of harmonic simplication, but also
a sort of Africanizing of the piece, which provides an
alternate approach for soloing. Mark Levine observes
that when mixed in with more conventional playing the
changes, pentatonic scales provide structure and a feel-
ing of increased space. [153]
5.5.5 Jazz fusion
Main article: Jazz fusion
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the hybrid form of
Fusion trumpeter Miles Davis in 1989
jazz-rock fusion was developed by combining jazz im-
provisation with rock rhythms, electric instruments and
the highly amplied stage sound of rock musicians such
as Jimi Hendrix and Frank Zappa. Jazz fusion often uses
mixed meters, odd time signatures, syncopation, complex
chords and harmonies.
According to AllMusic:
...until around 1967, the worlds of jazz and
rock were nearly completely separate. [How-
ever, ...] as rock became more creative and its
5 HISTORY
musicianship improved, and as some in the jazz
world became bored with hard bop and did not
want to play strictly avant-garde music, the two
dierent idioms began to trade ideas and occa-
sionally combine forces.[154]
Miles Davis new directions In 1969 Davis fully em-
braced the electric instrument approach to jazz with In
a Silent Way, which can be considered his rst fusion al-
bum. Composed of two side-long suites edited heavily
The music I was really listening to in 1968
was James Brown, the great guitar player Jimi
Hendrix, and a new group who had just come
out with a hit record, "Dance to the Music",
Sly and the Family Stone... I wanted to make it
more like rock. When we recorded In a Silent
Way I just threw out all the chord sheets and
told everyone to play o of that.[155]
Two contributors to In a Silent Way also joined organist
Larry Young to create one of the early acclaimed fusion
albums: Emergency! by The Tony Williams Lifetime.
Psychedelic-jazz
Bitches Brew Davis Bitches Brew (1970) album was his
most successful of this era. Although inspired by rock and
funk, Davis fusion creations were original, and brought
about a new type of avant-garde, electronic, psychedelic-
jazz, as far from pop music as any other Davis work.
Herbie Hancock Pianist Herbie Hancock (a Davis
alumnus) released four albums in the short-lived (1970
1973) psychedelic-jazz subgenre: Mwandishi (1972),
Crossings (1973) and Sextant (1973). The rhythmic back-
ground was a mix of rock, funk, and African-type tex-
tures.
Musicians who had previously worked with Davis formed
the four most inuential fusion groups: Weather Report
and Mahavishnu Orchestra emerged in 1971, and were
soon followed by Return to Forever and The Headhunters.
Weather Report Weather Report's self-titled elec-
tronic and psychedelic Weather Report debut album
caused a sensation in the jazz world on its arrival in 1971,
thanks to the pedigree of the groups members (includ-
ing percussionist Airto Moreira), and their unorthodox
approach to music. The album featured a softer sound
5.6 1980s 21

than would be the case in later years (predominantly us- or disco with jazz arrangements, jazz ris and jazz solos,
ing acoustic bass with Shorter exclusively playing soprano and sometimes soul vocals.[158]
saxophone, and with no synthesizers involved), but is still Early examples are Herbie Hancocks Headhunters band
considered a classic of early fusion. It built on the avant- and Miles Davis On the Corner album, which in 1972
garde experiments which Joe Zawinul and Shorter had began Davis foray into jazz-funk and was, he claimed,
pioneered with Miles Davis on Bitches Brew, including an attempt at reconnecting with the young black audi-
an avoidance of head-and-chorus composition in favour ence which had largely forsaken jazz for rock and funk.
of continuous rhythm and movement but took the mu- While there is a discernible rock and funk inuence in
sic further. To emphasise the groups rejection of stan-
the timbres of the instruments employed, other tonal and
dard methodology, the album opened with the inscrutable rhythmic textures, such as the Indian tambora and tablas
avant-garde atmospheric piece Milky Way, which fea-
and Cuban congas and bongos, create a multi-layered
tured by Shorters extremely muted saxophone inducing soundscape. The album was a culmination of sorts of the
vibrations in Zawinuls piano strings while the latter ped-
musique concrte approach that Davis and producer Teo
alled the instrument. Down Beat described the album as Macero had begun to explore in the late 1960s.
music beyond category, and awarded it Album of the
Year in the magazines polls that year.
Weather Report's subsequent releases were creative funk- 5.5.7 Other trends
jazz works.[156]
Jazz continued to expand and change, inuenced by other
types of music such as world music, avant garde classical
Jazz-rock Although some jazz purists protested music and rock and pop. Jazz musicians began to impro-
against the blend of jazz and rock, many jazz innovators vise on unusual instruments, such as the jazz harp (Alice
crossed over from the contemporary hard bop scene Coltrane), the electrically amplied and wah-wah ped-
into fusion. As well as the electric instruments of rock aled jazz violin (Jean-Luc Ponty) and the bagpipes (Rufus
(such as electric guitar, electric bass, electric piano and Harley). Guitarist John McLaughlin's Mahavishnu Or-
synthesizer keyboards), fusion also used the powerful chestra played a mix of rock and jazz infused with East
amplication, fuzz pedals, wah-wah pedals and other Indian inuences. The ECM record label began in Ger-
eects that were used by 1970s-era rock bands. Notable many in the 1970s with artists including Keith Jarrett,
performers of jazz fusion included Miles Davis, Eddie Paul Bley, the Pat Metheny Group, Jan Garbarek, Ralph
Harris, keyboardists Joe Zawinul, Chick Corea and Towner, Kenny Wheeler, John Taylor, John Surman and
Herbie Hancock, vibraphonist Gary Burton, drummer Eberhard Weber, establishing a new chamber music aes-
Tony Williams (drummer), violinist Jean-Luc Ponty, thetic which featured mainly acoustic instruments, occa-
guitarists Larry Coryell, Al Di Meola, John McLaughlin sionally incorporating elements of world music and folk.
and Frank Zappa, saxophonist Wayne Shorter and
bassists Jaco Pastorius and Stanley Clarke. Jazz fusion
was also popular in Japan, where the band Casiopea 5.6 1980s
released over thirty fusion albums.
Main article: 1980s in jazz
In the 21st century, almost all jazz has inuences from
other nations and styles of music, making jazz fusion as
much a common practice as style. In 1987, the United States House of Representatives and
Senate passed a bill proposed by Democratic Represen-
tative John Conyers, Jr. to dene jazz as a unique form
5.5.6 Jazz-funk of American music, stating:

Main article: Jazz-funk

By the mid-1970s the sound known as jazz-funk had de-
veloped, characterized by a strong back beat (groove),
electried sounds[157] and, often, the presence of elec-
tronic analog synthesizers. Jazz-funk also draws in-
uences from traditional African music, Afro-Cuban
rhythms and Jamaican reggae, notably Kingston ban-
dleader Sonny Bradshaw. Another feature is the shift of
emphasis from improvisation to composition: arrange-
ments, melody and overall writing became important.
The integration of funk, soul and R&B music into jazz
resulted in the creation of a genre whose spectrum is wide
and ranges from strong jazz improvisation to soul, funk
... that jazz is hereby designated as a
rare and valuable national American treasure to
which we should devote our attention, support
and resources to make certain it is preserved,
understood and promulgated.
It passed in the House of Representatives on September
23, 1987 and in the Senate on November 4, 1987.[159]
5.6.1 Resurgence of traditionalism
The 1980s saw something of a reaction against the Fusion
and Free Jazz that had dominated the 1970s. Trumpeter
22 5 HISTORY

African-American music for fun and prot.[160]

Pianist Keith Jarrett whose bands of the 1970s had

played only original compositions with prominent free
jazz elements established his so-called 'Standards Trio'
in 1983, which, although also occasionally exploring
collective improvisation, has primarily performed and
recorded jazz standards. Chick Corea similarly began
exploring jazz standards in the 1980s, having neglected
them for the 1970s.

5.6.2 Smooth jazz

Wynton Marsalis
Main article: smooth jazz
In the early 1980s a commercial form of jazz fusion
Wynton Marsalis emerged early in the decade, and strove
to create music within what he believed was the tradition,
rejecting both fusion and free jazz and creating extensions
of the small and large forms initially pioneered by such
artists as Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington, as well as
the hard bop of the 1950s. Whether Marsalis critical and
commercial success was a cause or a symptom of the re-
action against Fusion and Free Jazz and the resurgence of
interest in the kind of jazz pioneered in the 1960s (partic-
ularly Modal Jazz and Post-Bop) is debatable; nonetheless
there were many other manifestations of a resurgence of
traditionalism, even if Fusion and Free Jazz were by no
means abandoned and continued to develop and evolve.
For example, several musicians who had been prominent
in the fusion genre during the 1970s began to record
acoustic jazz once more, including Chick Corea and
Herbie Hancock. Other musicians who had experimented
with electronic instruments in the previous decade had
abandoned them by the 1980s, for example Bill Evans,
Joe Henderson and Stan Getz. Even the 1980s music of
Miles Davis, although certainly still fusion, adopted a far
more accessible and recognisably jazz-oriented approach
than his abstract work of the mid-1970s, such as a return
to a theme-and-solos approach.
A similar reaction took place against free jazz. According
to Ted Gioia:

the very leaders of the avant garde started
to signal a retreat from the core principles of
Free Jazz. Anthony Braxton began recording
standards over familiar chord changes. Cecil
Taylor played duets in concert with Mary Lou
Williams, and let her set out structured har-
monies and familiar jazz vocabulary under his
blistering keyboard attack. And the next gen-
eration of progressive players would be even
more accommodating, moving inside and out-
side the changes without thinking twice. Musi-
cians such as David Murray or Don Pullen may
have felt the call of free-form jazz, but they
never forgot all the other ways one could play
David Sanborn, 2008
called pop fusion or smooth jazz became successful,
garnering signicant radio airplay in "quiet storm" time
slots at radio stations in urban markets across the U.S.
This helped to establish or bolster the careers of vocalists
including Al Jarreau, Anita Baker, Chaka Khan and Sade,
as well as saxophonists including Grover Washington, Jr.,
Kenny G, Kirk Whalum, Boney James and David San-
born. In general, smooth jazz is downtempo (the most
widely played tracks are of 90105 beats per minute),
and has a lead melody-playing instrument (saxophone, es-
pecially soprano and tenor, and legato electric guitar are
popular).
5.6 1980s 23

In his Newsweek article The Problem With Jazz cess, Miles Davis nal album Doo-Bop (released posthu-
Criticism,[161] Stanley Crouch considers Miles Davis mously in 1992) was based around hip hop beats and
playing of fusion to be a turning point that led to smooth collaborations with producer Easy Mo Bee. Davis ex-
jazz. Critic Aaron J. West has countered the often nega- bandmate Herbie Hancock also absorbed hip-hop inu-
tive perceptions of smooth jazz, stating: ences in the mid-1990s, releasing the album Dis Is Da
Drum in 1994.
I challenge the prevalent marginalization
and malignment of smooth jazz in the stan- 5.6.4 Punk jazz and jazzcore
dard jazz narrative. Furthermore, I question
the assumption that smooth jazz is an unfor-
tunate and unwelcomed evolutionary outcome
of the jazz-fusion era. Instead, I argue that
smooth jazz is a long-lived musical style that
merits multi-disciplinary analyses of its ori-
gins, critical dialogues, performance practice,
and reception.[162]

5.6.3 Acid jazz, nu jazz and jazz rap

Acid jazz developed in the UK in the 1980s and 1990s,

inuenced by jazz-funk and electronic dance music. Acid
jazz often contains various types of electronic composi-
tion (sometimes including Sampling (music) or a live DJ
cutting and scratching), but it is just as likely to be played
live by musicians, who often showcase jazz interpretation
as part of their performance. Jazz-funk musicians such
as Roy Ayers and Donald Byrd are often credited as the
forerunners of acid jazz.[163]
Nu jazz is inuenced by jazz harmony and melodies,
and there are usually no improvisational aspects. It can
be very experimental in nature and can vary widely in
sound and concept. It ranges from the combination of
live instrumentation with the beats of jazz house (as ex-
emplied by St Germain, Jazzanova and Fila Brazillia)
to more band-based improvised jazz with electronic ele-
ments (for example The Cinematic Orchestra, Kobol and
the Norwegian future jazz style pioneered by Bugge
Wesseltoft, Jaga Jazzist and Nils Petter Molvr).
Jazz rap developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s, and
incorporates jazz inuences into hip hop. In 1988, Gang
Starr released the debut single Words I Manifest, which John Zorn performing in 2006
sampled Dizzy Gillespie's 1962 Night in Tunisia, and
Stetsasonic released Talkin' All That Jazz, which sam- The relaxation of orthodoxy which was concurrent with
pled Lonnie Liston Smith. Gang Starrs debut LP No post-punk in London and New York City led to a new
More Mr. Nice Guy (1989) and their 1990 track Jazz appreciation of jazz. In London, the Pop Group began
Thing sampled Charlie Parker and Ramsey Lewis. The to mix free jazz and dub reggae into their brand of punk
groups which made up the Native Tongues Posse tended rock.[164] In New York, No Wave took direct inspiration
towards jazzy releases: these include the Jungle Broth- from both free jazz and punk. Examples of this style in-
ers' debut Straight Out the Jungle (1988), and A Tribe clude Lydia Lunch's Queen of Siam,[165] Gray, the work
Called Quest's Peoples Instinctive Travels and the Paths of James Chance and the Contortions (who mixed Soul
of Rhythm (1990) and The Low End Theory (1991). Rap with free jazz and punk)[165] and the Lounge Lizards[165]
duo Pete Rock & CL Smooth incorporated jazz inu- (the rst group to call themselves "punk jazz).
ences on their 1992 debut Mecca and the Soul Brother.
John Zorn took note of the emphasis on speed and dis-
Rapper Guru's Jazzmatazz series began in 1993, usingsonance that was becoming prevalent in punk rock, and
jazz musicians during the studio recordings. incorporated this into free jazz with the release of the Spy
Though jazz rap had achieved little mainstream suc- vs. Spy album in 1986, a collection of Ornette Coleman
24
tunes done in the contemporary thrashcore style.[166] In
the same year, Sonny Sharrock, Peter Brtzmann, Bill
Laswell and Ronald Shannon Jackson recorded the rst
album under the name Last Exit (free jazz band), a sim-
ilarly aggressive blend of thrash and free jazz.[167] These
developments are the origins of jazzcore, the fusion of
free jazz with hardcore punk.
5.6.5 M-Base
Main article: M-Base
The M-Base movement started in the 1980s, when a
Steve Coleman in Paris, July 2004
loose collective of young African-American musicians in
New York which included Steve Coleman, Greg Osby
and Gary Thomas developed a complex but grooving[168]
sound.
In the 1990s most M-Base participants turned to more
conventional music, but Coleman, the most active par-
ticipant, continued developing his music in accordance
with the M-Base concept.[169] Colemans audience de-
creased, but his music and concepts inuenced many
musicians,[170] both in terms of music technique[171] and
of the musics meaning.[172] Hence, M-Base changed
from a movement of a loose collective of young mu-
sicians to a kind of informal Coleman school,[173]
with a much advanced but already originally implied
concept.[174] Steve Coleman's music and M-Base concept
gained recognition as next logical step after Charlie
Parker, John Coltran and Ornette Coleman.[175]
5.7 1990s2010s
Since the 1990s jazz has been characterised by a plural-
ism in which no one style dominates, but rather a wide
range of active styles and genres are popular. Individual
performers often play in a variety of styles, sometimes in
the same performance. Pianist Brad Mehldau and power
trio The Bad Plus have explored contemporary rock mu-
sic within the context of the traditional jazz acoustic pi-
ano trio, recording instrumental jazz versions of songs by
7 NOTES
rock musicians. The Bad Plus have also incorporated el-
ements of free jazz into their music. A rm avant-garde
or free jazz stance has been maintained by some players,
such as saxophonists Greg Osby and Charles Gayle, while
others, such as James Carter, have incorporated free jazz
elements into a more traditional framework.
On the other side, even a singer like Harry Connick, Jr.
(who has ten number-1 US jazz albums)[176] is sometimes
called a jazz musician, although there are only a few ele-
ments from jazz history in his mainly pop oriented music.
Other recent vocalists have achieved popularity with a
mix of traditional jazz and pop/rock forms, such as Diana
Krall, Norah Jones, Cassandra Wilson, Kurt Elling and
Jamie Cullum.
A number of players who usually perform in largely
straight-ahead settings have emerged since the 1990s, in-
cluding pianists Jason Moran and Vijay Iyer, guitarist
Kurt Rosenwinkel, vibraphonist Stefon Harris, trum-
peters Roy Hargrove and Terence Blanchard, saxophon-
ists Chris Potter and Joshua Redman, clarinetist Ken Pe-
plowski and bassist Christian McBride.
Although jazz-rock fusion reached the height of its popu-
larity in the 1970s, the use of electronic instruments and
rock-derived musical elements in jazz continued in the
1990s and 2000s. Musicians using this approach include
Pat Metheny, John Abercrombie, John Scoeld and the
Swedish group e.s.t.
6 See also
Timeline of jazz education
Victorian Jazz Archive
7 Notes
[1] Hennessey, Thomas, From Jazz to Swing: Black Jazz Mu-
sicians and Their Music, 1917-1935. Ph.D. dissertation,
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1958. Da Capo. pp. 120123. ISBN 0-306-80377-1.
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New York: Oxford University Press. Analysis, 7th ed.
 28 7 NOTES

[137] Tjader, Cal (1959). Monterey Concerts. Prestige CD. [157] Free Jazz-Funk Music: Album, Track and Artist Charts
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[138] Andy Gonzalez interviewed by Larry Birnbaum. Ed.
Boggs, Vernon W. (1992: 297298). Salsiology; Afro- [158] Explore: Jazz-Funk at the Wayback Machine (archived
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[161] Stanley Crouch (June 5, 2003). Opinion: The Prob-
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[142] Allmusic Biography [162] Caught Between Jazz and Pop: The Contested Ori-
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[143] Palmer, Robert (1982-06-28). Jazz Festival - Jazz Festi- Smooth Jazz. Digital.library.unt.edu. October 23, 2010.
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Times. Retrieved 2012-07-07.
[163] Ginell, Richard S. allmusic on Roy Ayers. Allmu-
[144] Footprints Miles Smiles (Miles Davis). Columbia CD sic.com. Retrieved November 7, 2010.
(1967).
[164] Dave Lang, Perfect Sound Forever, February 1999. Ac-
[145] An ancient west central Sudanic stratum of pentatonic cess date: November 15, 2008.
song composition, often associated with simple work
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West African sorgum agriculturalistsKubik, Gerhard
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(1999: 95). Africa and the Blues. Jackson, MI: University
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[167] Progressive Ears Album Reviews. Progressiveears.com.
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[168] "... circular and highly complex polymetric patterns
[147] Map showing distribution of harmony in Africa. Jones,
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[148] After Mark Levin (1995: 235). The Jazz Theory Book. metries ... (Musicologist and musician Ekkehard Jost,
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[149] Levine, Mark (1989: 127). The Jazz Piano Book. [169] Steve Coleman
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[150] Levine (1989: 127).
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[152] Bair, Je (2003: 5). Cyclic Patterns in John Coltranes
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Thesaurus of Scales and Melodic Patterns: An Analy-
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of North Texas. Web. http://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:
/67531/metadc4348/m2/1/high_res_d/dissertation.pdf
[153] Levine, Mark (1995: 205). The Jazz Theory Book. Sher
Music. ISBN 1-883217-04-0
[154] Explore: Fusion. AllMusic. Retrieved November 7,
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[155] Davis, Miles, with Quincy Troupe (1989: 298) The Auto-
biography. New York: Simon and Schuster.
[156] Dan, Morgenstern (1971). Down Beat May 13.
[170] Pianist Vijay Iyer (who was chosen as Jazz musician of
the year 2010 by the Jazz Journalists Association) said:
Its hard to overstate Steve (Colemans) inuence. Hes
aected more than one generation, as much as anyone
since John Coltrane. ()
eagerness to mentor musicians and build a new vernacu-
lar have had a profound eect on American jazz. (Ben
Ratli, )
[172] Vijay Iyer: Its not just that you can connect the dots by
playing seven or 11 beats. What sits behind his inuence
is this global perspective on music and life. He has a point
of view of what he does and why he does it. ()
[173] Michael J. West (June 2, 2010). Jazz Articles: Steve
Coleman: Vital Information. Jazztimes.com. Retrieved
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[174] What Is M-Base?". M-base.com. Retrieved June 5,
2011.

[175] In 2014 drummer Billy Hart said that Coleman has qui-
etly inuenced the whole jazz musical world, and is the
next logical step after Charlie Parker, John Coltrane,
and Ornette Coleman. (Source: Kristin E. Holmes, Ge-
nius grant saxman Steve Coleman redening jazz, Octo-
ber 09, 2014, web portal Philly.com, Philadelphia Media
Network) Already in 2010 pianist Vijay Iyer (who was
chosen as Jazz Musician of the Year 2010 by the Jazz
Journalists Association) said: To me, Steve [Coleman]
is as important as [John] Coltrane. He has contributed
an equal amount to the history of the music. He de-
serves to be placed in the pantheon of pioneering artists.
(Source: Larry Blumenfeld, A Saxophonists Reverberant
Sound, June 11, 2010, The Wall Street Journal) In Septem-
ber 2014, Coleman was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship
(a.k.a. Genius Grant) for redening the vocabulary and
vernaculars of contemporary music. (Source: Kristin E.
Holmes, Genius grant saxman Steve Coleman redening
jazz, October 09, 2014, web portal Philly.com, Philadel-
phia Media Network)
[176] Chart Beat, Billboard, April 9, 2009
8 References
Joachim Ernst Berendt, Gnther Huesmann
(Bearb.): Das Jazzbuch. 7. Auage. S. Fis-
cher Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 2005, ISBN
3-10-003802-9
Burns, Ken, and Georey C. Ward. 2000. JazzA
History of Americas Music. New York: Alfred A.
Knopf. Also: The Jazz Film Project, Inc.
9 Further reading
Cooke, Mervyn (1999). Jazz. London: Thames and
Hudson. ISBN 0-500-20318-0.. Main article: Bibliography of jazz
Carr, Ian. Music Outside: Contemporary Jazz in
Britain. 2nd edition. London: Northway. ISBN
978-0-9550908-6-8
10 External links
Collier, James Lincoln. The Making of Jazz: A
Comprehensive History (Dell Publishing Co., 1978)
Dance, Stanley (1983). The World of Earl Hines.
Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-80182-5. Includes a
120-page interview with Hines plus many photos.
Davis, Miles. Miles Davis (2005). Boplicity. Delta
Music plc. UPC 4-006408-264637.
Downbeat (2009). The Great Jazz Interviews: Frank
Alkyer & Ed Enright (eds). Hal Leonard Books.
ISBN 978-1-4234-6384-9
Elsdon, Peter. 2003. "The Cambridge Compan-
ion to Jazz, Edited by Mervyn Cooke and David
Horn, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2002. Review. Frankfrter Zeitschrift fr Musik-
wissenschaft 6:15975.
29
Giddins, Gary. 1998. Visions of Jazz: The First
Century. New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-507675-3
Gridley, Mark C. 2004. Concise Guide to Jazz,
fourth edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pear-
son/Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-182657-3
Nairn, Charlie. 1975. Earl 'Fatha' HInes: 1 hour
'solo' documentary made in Blues Alley Jazz Club,
Washington DC, for ATV, England, 1975: pro-
duced/directed by Charlie Nairn: original 16mm
lm plus out-takes of additional tunes from that
lm archived in British Film Institute Library at
b.org.uk and http://www.itvstudios.com: DVD
copies with Jean Gray Hargrove Music Library [who
hold The Earl Hines Collection/Archive], University
of California, Berkeley: also University of Chicago,
Hogan Jazz Archive Tulane University New Orleans
and Louis Armstrong House Museum Libraries.
Pealosa, David. 2010. The Clave Matrix; Afro-
Cuban Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins.
Redway, CA: Bembe Inc. ISBN 1-886502-80-3.
Schuller, Gunther. 1968. Early Jazz: Its Roots
and Musical Development. Oxford University Press.
New printing 1986.
Schuller, Gunther. 1991. The Swing Era: The De-
velopment of Jazz, 19301945. Oxford University
Press.
Jazz Foundation of America
Jazz at the Smithsonian Museum
Alabama Jazz Hall of Fame website
Jazz Artist and Discography Resource
Red Hot Jazz.com
Jazz at Lincoln Center website
Jazz At Lincoln Center Hall of Fame
American Jazz Museum website
The International Archives for the Jazz Organ
Classic and Contemporary Jazz Music
The Jazz Archive at Duke University
30 10 EXTERNAL LINKS

Jazz Festivals in Europe

Free 1920s Jazz Collection available for download-

ing at Archive.org

Jazz History Database

DownBeats Jazz 101 A Guide to the Music This
section of the Downbeat magazine website has sev-
eral short pages to allow the beginning student of
jazz to acquire an education.
Jazz collected news and commentary at The New
York Times
Jazz collected news and commentary at The
Guardian

Jazz at DMOZ
 31

11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

11.1 Text
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aanis Qatsi, Manning Bartlett, Gareth Owen, Rjstott, Shsilver, Rmhermen, Christian List, Enchanter, Ortolan88, Merphant, Zoe, Camem-
bert, Modemac, KF, Quercusrobur, Bdesham, Infrogmation, D, Dougmerritt, Vudujava, Lexor, Jahsonic, Kku, Gabbe, Ixfd64, AlexR,
Lament, Ahoerstemeier, TUF-KAT, Basswulf, Kingturtle, BigFatBuddha, , Amcaja, Habj, LouI, Nikai, Susurrus, Jtzg,
Jeandr du Toit, Jonik, Ref~enwiki, Jengod, Ttkorhon, Trontonian, EALacey, Andrewman327, Wik, Zoicon5, Tpbradbury, Freechild,
Furrykef, Hyacinth, Taxman, K1Bond007, Paul-L~enwiki, Samsara, Bevo, Dbabbitt, Raul654, Jawschlech, Pakaran, Francs2000, Ha-
jor, JorgeGG, Jeq, Owen, PuzzletChung, Dimadick, Robbot, Ke4roh, TomPhil, Tonsofpcs, Fredrik, RedWolf, Goethean, Altenmann,
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11.2 Images 33

lakilla00, Mypietime, CalebX3 and Anonymous: 2545

11.2 Images
File:Afro_blue_bass.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Afro_blue_bass.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dr clave
File:Albert_Gleizes,_1915,_Composition_pour_Jazz,_oil_on_cardboard,_73_x_73_cm,_Solomon_R._Guggenheim_Museum,
_New_York_DSC00542.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/13/Albert_Gleizes%2C_1915%2C_Composition_
pour_Jazz%2C_oil_on_cardboard%2C_73_x_73_cm%2C_Solomon_R._Guggenheim_Museum%2C_New_York_DSC00542.jpg
License: ? Contributors:
Albert Gleizes, Catalogue Raisonn, volume 1, Paris, SOMOGY ditions d'art/Fondation Albert Gleizes, 1998, ISBN 2-85056-286-6
Original artist:
Albert Gleizes
File:Amazing_Grace_(USAFB_jazz_vocal).ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Amazing_Grace_
%28USAFB_jazz_vocal%29.ogg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.usafband.af.mil/ensembles/BandEnsSongs.asp?
Ensemble=$-$1&Genre=6 Original artist: James Carrell/David Clayton/w:John Newton, arranged by MSgt. Alan Baylock, performed by
The United States Air Force Band Airmen of Note
File:AmericaAfrica.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/AmericaAfrica.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: Created using Image:Flag of the UNIA.svg and Image:Map of USA without state names.svg. Original artist: Created by
Edward Deutsch (Jndrline)

File:Audio_a.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Audio_a.svg License: Public domain Contributors:

'A'_(PSF).png Original artist: 'A'_(PSF).png: Pearson Scott Foresman
File:BennyGoodmanStageDoorCanteen.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/
BennyGoodmanStageDoorCanteen.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Stage Door Canteen lm Original artist: Film screen-
shot
File:Big_four_Buddy_Bolden.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Big_four_Buddy_Bolden.png Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dr clave (talk)
File:Blues_and_pentatonic_scales..jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Blues_and_pentatonic_scales.
.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dr clave
File:Bolden_band.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Bolden_band.gif License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: unknown photographer; from personal collection of trombonist Willie Cornish, loaned for reproduction in book Jazzmen in 1938.
Original artist: Anonymous
File:CharlieParker_YardbirdSuite.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/60/CharlieParker_YardbirdSuite.ogg Li-
cense: Fair use Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Charlie_Parker,_Tommy_Potter,_Miles_Davis,_Max_Roach_(Gottlieb_06941).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/6/61/Charlie_Parker%2C_Tommy_Potter%2C_Miles_Davis%2C_Max_Roach_%28Gottlieb_06941%29.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Music Division under the digital
ID gottlieb.06941.
This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: William P. Gottlieb
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