M. J.

Roberts - 10/7/06

Chapter 6 - Time-Domain Analysis of

Continuous-Time Systems
Solutions
System Impulse Response

1. Find the impulse responses of the systems described by these equations.

(a) () ()
y
t + 5 y t = x t ()
()
Following the example in the text, h t = e
5t u t ()
(b) () () ()
y

t + 6 y
t + 4 y t = x t ()
() () () ()
h t + 6 h t + 4 h t =
t

()
For t < 0 , h t = 0 .

()
For t > 0 , h h t = K1e
5.23t + K 2 e
0.76t

Since the highest derivative of “x” is two less than the highest derivative of
“y”, the general solution is of the form,

() ( ) ()
h t = K1e
5.23t + K 2 e
0.76t u t

Integrating the equation once from t = 0
to t = 0+ ,

0+ 0+

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ()
h 0
h 0 + 6  h 0+
h 0
 + 4  h t dt =   t dt = 1
+

()
0 0

We know that the impulse response cannot contain an impulse because its
second derivative would be a triplet and there is no triplet excitation. We also
know that the impulse response cannot be discontinuous at time, t = 0 ,
because if it were the second derivative would be a doublet and there is no
doublet excitation. Therefore,

( ) ( ) ( )
h 0+
h 0
= 1  h 0+ = 1

This requirement, along with the requirement that the solution be continuous
at time, t = 0 , leads to the two equations,

Solutions 5-1

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

( )
h 0+ = 1 = 
5.23K1e
5.23t
0.76K 2 e
0.76t 
t =0+
=
5.23K1
0.76K 2

and
( )
h 0+ = 0 = K1 + K 2 .

(This second equation can also be found by integrating the differential

equation twice from from t = 0
to t = 0+ .)
Solving,

K1 =
0.2237 and K 2 = 0.2237

Then the total impulse response is

() (
h t = 0.2237 e
0.76t
e
5.23t u t ) () .

() ()
(c) 2 y
t + 3y t = x
t ()
()
The homogeneous solution is y h t = K h e
3t / 2 . The impulse response is of
the form,

() ()
h t = K h e
3t / 2 u t + K i t . ()
Integrating from 0
to 0+ ,

0+

( )
h (0 ) + 3  h (t ) = x (0 )
x (0 ) = 0
2  h 0 +
+

0

or
( )
2 h 0+ + 3K i = 2K h + 3K i = 0

Integrating a second time from 0
to 0+ ,

0+ 0+

() ()
2  h t =   t = 1  2K i = 1  K i =
1
2
.
0
0

Then K h =
3 / 4 . Therefore
() ( )
h t =
3 / 4 e
3t / 2 u t + 1 / 2  t() ( ) ()
() ()
(d) 4 y
t + 9 y t = 2 x t + x
t () ()
Solutions 5-2

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

()
The homogeneous solution is y h t = K h e
9t / 4 . The impulse response is of
the form,

() ()
h t = K h e
3t / 2 u t + K i t . ()
Integrating once from 0
to 0+ ,
0+ 0+

( )
h (0 ) + 9  h (t ) = 2   (t ) + x (0 )
x (0 ) = 2
4  h 0 +
+

0
0

or
4K h + 9K i = 2

Integrating a second time from 0
to 0+ ,

0+

()
4  h t = 1  4K i = 1  K i =
1
4
.
0

Then K h =
1 / 16 . Therefore
9

() ( ) () ( ) ()

t
h t =
1 / 16 e 4
u t + 1/ 4  t

Convolution

2. () ( ) ( )
If x t = 2 tri t / 4
 t  2 find the values of

 t
2
()
x t = 2 tri 
 4 

 1
2  1  3 3
()
(a) x 1 = 2 tri 
 4   = 2 tri 
 = 2   =
 4  4 2


1
2   3 1
( )
(b) x
1 = 2 tri 
 4 
= 2 tri 
4  = 2

3. () ( ) ( (
If x t = 5rect t / 2
 t + 1 +  t ) ( )) find the values of
() ( ( ) ( )
x t = 5 rect t / 2
 t + 1 + rect t / 2
 t ( ) ( ))

Solutions 5-3

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

  t + 1  t 
()
x t =
5  rect 
  2   + rect   
 2 

(a)
  1 / 2 + 1  1 / 2    3  1 
( )
x 1 / 2 =
5  rect 
  2   + rect 
 2    =
5  rect   + rect    =
5
  4  4 

  1  1 
( 
)
(b) x
1 / 2 =
5  rect   + rect 
  =
10
 4  4 

  3  5 
(c) ( 
)
x
5 / 2 =
5  rect 
 + rect 
  = 0
 4  4 

4. Find the values of these functions.

(a) () ( ) (
If g t = 4sin  t / 8
 t  4 find g
1 . ) ( )
 t4  ( )
() ( ) (
g t = 4sin  t / 8
 t  4 = 4sin  )
 8

 
1
4  ( )
( )
g
1 = 4sin   = 4sin
5 / 8 =
3.696 ( )
 8 

 t + 4
(b) ()
If g t = 5rect 
 2 
( )

 3t find g 1
g
4 . () ( )

 t + 4  t + 4
() 5
g t =  rect 
3  2 
5

 t =  rect 
3
()
 2 
 1+ 4
() 5
g 1 =
rect 
3  2 
(
=
5 / 3 rect 5 / 2 = 0 ) ( )

4 + 4 
( ) ( )
g
4 =
5 / 3 rect 
 2 
=
5 / 3

g (1)
g (
4 ) = 0
(
5 / 3) = 5 / 3

5. Graph g t . ()
 1/ 2

(a) () ()
g t = rect t
rect t = ( )  rect ( ) rect (t   ) d =  rect (t   ) d
 1/ 2
Probably the easiest way to find this solution is graphically through the “flipping
and shifting” process. When the second rectangle is flipped, it looks exactly the
Solutions 5-4

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

same because it is an even function. This is the “zero shift” position, the t = 0
position. At this position the two rectangles coincide and the area under the product
is one. If t is increased from this position the two rectangles no longer coincide and
the area under the product is reduced linearly until at t = 1 the area goes to zero.
Exactly the same thing happens for decreases in t until it gets to -1. The convolution
is obviously a unit triangle function. This fact is the reason the unit triangle function
was defined as it was, so it could simply be the convolution of a unit rectangle with
itself.

This convolution can also be done analytically.

For t <
1, in the range of integration,
1 / 2 <  < 1 / 2 , the rect function is zero and
the convolution integral is zero.

For t > 1 , in the range of integration,
1 / 2 <  < 1 / 2 , the rect function is zero and
the convolution integral is zero.

For
1 < t < 0 . Since the rect function is even we can say that
( ) ( )
rect t
 = rect 
t . This is a rectangle extending in
from t
1 / 2 to
t + 1 / 2 . For t’s in the range,
1 < t < 0 , t
1 / 2 is always less than or equal to the
lower limit,  =
1 / 2 , so the integral is from
1 / 2 to t + 1 / 2 .
t +1/ 2

() 
g t = (
rect 
t d )

1/ 2

This is simply the accumulation of the area under a rectangle and therefore increases
linearly from a minimum of zero for t =
1 to a maximum of one for t = 0 . For
0 < t < 1 . This is also rectangle extending in
from t
1 / 2 to t + 1 / 2 . For t’s in
the range, 0 < t < 1 , t + 1 / 2 is always greater than or equal to the upper limit,

= 1 / 2 , so the integral is from t
1 / 2 to 1 / 2 .
1/ 2

() 
g t = ( )
rect 
t d
t
1/ 2
This is also the accumulation of the area under a rectangle and decreases linearly
from a maximum of one for t = 0 to a minimum of zero for t = 1.

g(t)

t
−1 1

Solutions 5-5

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

g(t)
1
t
() ( ) ( )
3 1 1 3
(b) g t = rect t  1
rect t / 2 2 2 2 2

g(t)
1
t
() ( ) ( )
1 1 3 5
(c) g t = rect t  1
rect t / 2 2 2 2 2

(d) () ( ) ( )
g t =  rect t  5 + rect t + 5 
 rect t  4 + rect t + 4  ( ) ( )
() ( ) ( )
g t = rect t
5 * rect t
4 + rect t + 5 * rect t
4 ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
+ rect t
5 * rect t + 4 + rect t + 5 * rect t + 4 ( ) ( )
rect(t-5)∗rect(t-4) rect(t-5)∗rect(t+4)
1 1
t t
8 9 10 1 2

rect(t+5)∗rect(t-4) rect(t+5)∗rect(t+4) g(t)

1 1 1

t t t
-2 -1 -10 -9 -8 -9 -1 1 9

6. Graph these functions.

g(t)
1

t
() ( ) -1 1
(a) g t = rect 4t 8 8

g(t)
4

t
() () -1 1
(b) g t = rect(4t)
4 t 8 8

Solutions 5-6

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

g(t)

4
t
() ( ) (
(c) g t = rect 4t
4 t  2 ) 2- 81 2 2+ 81

g(t)
2

t
() ( ) ( ) -1 1
(d) g t = rect 4t
4 2t 8 8

g(t)

1
... ...
t
() ( ) ()
-2 -1 -1 1 1
(e) g t = rect 4t
1 t 88

g(t)

1
... ...
t
() ( ) ( )
-2 -1 -1 1 1
(f) g t = rect 4t
1 t  1 88

g(t)
1
2
... ...
t
() ( ) ( ) ()
-2 -1 -1 1 1
(g) g t = 1 / 2 rect 4t
1/ 2 t 88

g(t)

... 1 ...

t
() ( ) ()
(h) g t = 1 / 2 rect t
1/ 2 t () -2 -1 1

7. Graph these functions.

 t + 2  t + 1
(a) () ( ) ( ) (
g t = rect t / 2
 t + 2   t + 1  = rect 
 2 
)
 rect 
 2


Solutions 5-7

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

g(t)
1

t
-4 1

-1

 1/ 2

(b) () ()
g t = rect t
tri t = () () (
 rect  tri t   d = )  tri (t   ) d
 1/ 2

This is a challenging convolution because it is not so simple to do graphically

(although you can get a rough idea of what it looks like that way) and it is tedious
analytically.

t < -3/2 -3/2 < t < -1/2 -1/2 < t < 1/2
rect(τ) and tri(t- τ) rect(τ) and tri(t- τ) rect(τ) and tri(t- τ)
1 1 1

τ τ τ
-4 4 -4 4 -4 4

1/2 < t < 3/2 3/2 < t

rect(τ) and tri(t- τ) rect(τ) and tri(t- τ)
1 1

τ τ
-4 4 -4 4

If t <

3
2
, g t =0. ()
3 1
I f
<t<
,
2 2
t +1

t +1

t +1

()
g t =  1

( (

t  d = 1

t d = 
+  t 
2
))

1/ 2  >0   
1/ 2

1/ 2
2

( )  1  ( )
2 2
t +1  1
1 / 2
()
g t = t + 1

 2
+ t +1 t

+
 2

( 2
)


t
 2



()
2
t 3t 9
g t = + +
2 2 8
t
  1/ 2
 
1
If
< t <
1
()
, g t =   1


t  d +   1



t  d

1/ 2  <0 t  >0
2 2

Solutions 5-8

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

t 1/ 2
 2   
( )  (1
(t
 )) d +  ( ( )) 2
t 1/ 2

g t = 1

t d = 
 t +  + 
+  t 

1/ 2 t  2
1/ 2  2 t

 t2 1 t 1  1 1 t 
() t2
g t = t
t 2 + +

 + 
+
t +
t 2 
 2 2 2 8 2 8 2 2 

()
g t =
3 2
4

t

() ( )
By symmetry, g t = g
t and

 3
0 , t >
 2
t
()
2 3t 9 1 3
g t =
+ , < t <
2 2 8 2 2
 3 1
4
t ,
2
t <
2


g(t)
1

t
-2 2


(c) () ()
g t = et u t
et u t = ( )  e u ( ) e (  t  )
( )
u t   d


()
For t < 0 , g t = 0 .

For t > 0 ,
t t

()
g t = e e (


t
 )
d =  e
t d = te
t
0 0
Therefore
()
g t = te
t u t . ()

Solutions 5-9

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

g(t)
0.5

t
-1 5

   1

  1


(d) ()
g t =  tri  2  t +    tri  2  t    
 2 t ()
   2    2   

   1

  1


() ()
g t =  tri  2  t +  
 2 t  tri  2  t   
 2 t  ()
   2    2  

   

 

( )   tri  2  t
2n + 12  
tri  2  t
2n
12   
g t =
 n=
  
g(t)
1

t
-3 3

-1

(e) () (( )) ((
g t =  tri 2 t + 1 / 2  tri 2 t  1 / 2 
1 t
  )) ()
() (( )) ( )
g t =  tri 2 t + 1 / 2
1 t  tri 2 t  1 / 2
1 t 
  (( )) ( )

( )   tri ( 2 (t + n + 1 / 2))
tri ( 2 (t + n
1 / 2)) = 0


g t =
n=


g(t)
1

t
-3 3

-1

8. () ()
A system has an impulse response, h t = 4e
4t u t . Find and plot the response of
the system to the excitation, x ( t ) = rect ( 2 ( t
1 / 4 )) .

() () () (( )) () ( () (
y t = x t
h t = rect 2 t  1 / 4
4e4t u t = 4 u t  u t  1 / 2
e4t u t )) ()
Solutions 5-10

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

 t

()
u t
e4t u t = () () (
4 ( t   )
) 4 ( t   )
 u  e u t   d =  e d t ()
 0

()
u t
e4t u t =  () ( )( )
 1 / 4 1  e4t , t > 0  1 4t
 = 1 e u t ( ) ()
0 , t < 0  4
Invoking linearity and time-invariance,

() ( () ( )) () ( ) () (
y t = 4 u t  u t  1 / 2
e4t u t = 1  e4t u t  1  e ( ) u t  1 / 2
4 t 1/ 2
) ( )
y(t)
1

t
1.5

-1

9. () ()
Change the system impulse response in Exercise 8 to h t =  t
4e
4t u t and ()
find and plot the response to the same excitation, x ( t ) = rect ( 2 ( t
1 / 4 )) .

Using linearity, this response is the excitation convolved with a unit impulse at time
zero minus the response calculated in Exercise 8.

() (( )) ( ) () (
y t = rect 2 t
1 / 4
1
e
4t u t
1
e ( ) u t
1 / 2

4 t
1/ 2
) ( )
y(t)
1

t
1.5

-1

10. ()
In the circuit of Figure E-10 the excitation is v i t and the response is v o t . ()
(a) Find the impulse response in terms of R and L.

(b) If R = 10 k
and L = 100 µ H graph the unit step response.

Solutions 5-11

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

R
+ +
vi (t) L vo(t)

- -
Figure E-10 An RL circuit

() ()
vi t = R i t + vo t ()
()
vi t
vo t ()
()
i t =
R

()
vo t = L
d
dt
( ( ))
L
()
i t =  v i t
v o t 
R
()

() () () L
()
v i t =  v i t
v o t  +  v i t
v o t 
R
()
L
R
() ()
L
v
o t + v o t = v
i t
R
()
L
R
() () L
h t + h t =
 t
R
()
()
h t =0 , t<0

For times, t > 0 , the solution is the homogeneous solution,

()
h t = K h e
Rt / L , t > 0

Since the highest derivatives on both sides of this differential equation are the
same the impulse response contains an impulse and is of the form,

() ()
h t = K  t + K h e
Rt / L u t ()
Integrating both sides of the differential equation from 0
to 0+ ,

Solutions 5-12

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

  0+  
L
( ) ( )

h 0
h 0 +  h t dt =
+

R    0

L
R  
+
()
L
( ) ( )
 0
 0  K h + K = 0
R
 = K h =0



  =0 =0

= K

Integrating both sides of the differential equation a second time from 0
to 0+ ,

0+ 0+  
L
R 0

() ()
h t dt + K  u t dt =
L +
( ) ( )


u 0
u 0  K = 1
R  

  0


   =1 =0

= K =0

() () (
Then, from the first integration, K h =
R / L and h t =  t
R / L e
Rt / L u t ) ()
()
The unit-step response, h
1 t is the integral of the impulse response,

t t

()  ( ) (
h
1 t =  ) ( )
 
R / L e
R / L u   d  =   (  )
( R / L) e

R / L
 d


 0

For t < 0 the integral is obviously zero. Therefore h
1 t = 0 () , t<0

R  L
t

() R
R / L t
h
1 t = 1
 e d  = 1


 e
R / L 
= 1 + e
Rt / L
1 = e
Rt / L , t>0
L 0
L  R 0

() ()
h
1 t = e
Rt / L u t = e
10 t u t ()
8
, Step response

vo(t)

-0.01 0.04
t (µs)

11. Two systems have impulse responses, () () (

h1 t = u t
u t
4 ) and
 t
2
()
h 2 t = rect 
 4 
. If these two systems are connected in cascade, sketch the

()
response, y t , of the overall system to the excitation, x t =
t . () ()
The impulse response of the overall system is the convolution of the two impulse
responses,
Solutions 5-13

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

 t  2
() () ( )
h t =  u t  u t  4 
rect 
 4

() (
=  u t  u t  4 
 u t  u t  4  ) () ( )

() () ( ) () () (
h t =  u t  u t  4 
u t   u t  u t  4 
u t  4 ) ( )
() () () ( ) () () (
h t = u t
u t  u t  4
u t  u t
u t  4 + u t  4
u t  4 ) ( ) ( )
() ()
Using u t
u t = ramp t , ()
() () ( )
h t = ramp t
ramp t
4
ramp t
4 + ramp t
8 ( ) ( )
() ()
h t = ramp t
2 ramp t
4 + ramp t
8 ( ) ( )
h(t)

t
-4 12

12. Graph the responses of the systems of Exercise 0 to a unit-step excitation.

(a) ()
h t = e
5t u t()

( )
t t t

( )  h ( ) d =  e ( ) 1 1
t
h
1 t =
5 
u  d  =  e
5 d  =
 e
5  = 1
e
5t , t>0


 0
5 0 5

()
h
1 t = 0 , t < 0

( ) ( )(
h
1 t = 1 / 5 1
e
5t u t ) ()
h- 1(t)

0.2

t
1

(b) () (
h t = 0.2237 e
0.76t
e
5.23t u t ) ()

Solutions 5-14

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

( )() ( )
t t t

()  ( )
h
1 t = h  d  = 0.2237  e
0.76 
e
5.23 u  d  = 0.2237  e
0.76 
e
5.23 d  , t > 0


 0

() { t
h
1 t = 0.2237 
1.316e
0.76t 

0.1912e
5.23t 
0 0
t
} , t>0

() ( )
h
1 t = 0.2237 1.316 1
e
0.76t
0.1912 1
e
5.23t  , t > 0 ( )
() ( )
h
1 t = 0.2237 1.316 1
e
0.76t
0.1912 1
e
5.23t  u t ( ) ()
h- 1(t)

0.25

t
5

() ( ) () ( ) ()

t
(c) h t =
3/ 4 e 2
u t + 1/ 2  t

t
 3
3 / 2 t
t

h
1 () ( )
t =  h  d =  
e
 4
1 1 3
( ) ( )
u  +  
d  =
 e
3 / 2 d  , t > 0
2  2 04




()
h
1 t =
1 3 2
3 / 2 t 1 1
3t / 2
+ e
2 4 3
 = + e
0 2 2
1 , t > 0 ( )

()
h
1 t =
1
3t / 2
2
e u t ()
h (t)
-1

0.5

t
5

(d) () ( ) () (
h t = 1 / 4  t
1 / 16 e
9t / 4 u t ) ()
t
 1
9  / 4 t
t

h
1 () ( )
t =  h  d =  
e
 16
1 1 1
( ) ( )
u  +  
d  =
 e
9  / 4 d  , t > 0
4  4 0 16




Solutions 5-15

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

()
h
1 t =
1 1 4
9  / 4 t 1 1
9t / 4
+ e
4 16 9 
 = +
0 4 36 e
1 , t > 0 ( )
 1 1
9t / 4
()
h
1 t =  +
 4 36
e (

1 ) u (t )
h (t)
-1

0.25

t
5

System Stability

13. Find the impulse responses of the two systems in Figure E-13. Are these systems
BIBO stable?
x(t) x(t) +
-

∫ ∫
y(t) y(t)

(a) (b)
Figure E-13 Two single-integrator systems

(a) () ()
y
t = x t  h t = u t () ()
Impulse response is not absolutely integrable. BIBO unstable.

(b) () () ()
y t = x t
y t  h t = e
t u t () () BIBO Stable.

Impulse response is absolutely integrable. BIBO stable.

14. Find the impulse response of the system in Figure E-14. Is this system BIBO
stable?

x(t) + -

∫
y(t)

Figure E-14 A double-integrator system

Solutions 5-16

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

() () () ()
y t = x t
y t  h t = sin t u t () ()
Impulse response is not absolutely integrable. BIBO unstable.

15. Find the impulse response of the system in Figure E-15 and evaluate its BIBO
stability.

x(t) + -

- 0.1 ∫
+

0.05 ∫
y(t)

Figure E-15 A two-integrator system

() () ( ) () (
y t = x t + 1 / 10 y t
1 / 20 y t ) ()
( )
 2
1 / 10  + 1 / 20 = 0   = 0.05 ± j0.2179

Real parts of eigenvalues are positive. Therefore the system is unstable.

() ( ) () (
h t
1 / 10 h t + 1 / 20 h t =  t ) () ()
There can be no impulses or derivatives of impulses in the impulse response.
Therefore it has the form,

() (
h t = K h1e

1t
+ K h2 e

2t
) u (t )
Integrating from 0
to 0+ ,

    0+


( )
h 0

+
( )
1 
( ) ( )

 10    20 0


h 0
+
h 0
h 0 +
1
()
h t dt = u 0+
u 0

 
( ) ( )
 K h11 + K h 2 2 =0
 K h1 + K h 2 =0

  =1 =0
=0

( )(
K h11 + K h2 2
1 / 10 K h1 + K h2 = 1 )
Integrating twice from 0
to 0+ ,

Solutions 5-17

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

  0+ 0+ 0+

( ) ( )
 h 0+
h 0

1 h t dt + 1
    10 
20
()


h t dt = ramp


()
0+
ramp 0


 
( ) ( )
 K h1 + K h 2 =0 

0



0 0
=0 =0
=0 =0

K h1 + K h2 = 0

Solving the two equations simultaneously,

1
K h11
K h1 2 = 1  K h1 = =
K h2
1
 2
and
t  t
e 1
e 2
()
h t =
1
 2
u t ()

System Frequency Response

16. Graph the amplitudes of the responses of the systems of Exercise 0 to the excitation,
e j
t , as a function of radian frequency,
.

(a) () ()
y
t + 5 y t = x t ()
First realize that the excitation, e j
t , is periodic, that is, it has always existed and
will always exist repeating periodically. Therefore there is no homogeneous
solution to worry about. If the system is stable it died out a long time ago and if
the system is not stable, this exercise has no useful physical interpretation. So
the solution is simply the particular solution of the differential equation of the
form,

()
y p t = Ke j
t .

Putting that into the differential equation and solving,

1
K
e j
t + 5Ke j
t = ek
t  K =
j
+ 5

|K|
0.2

ω
-10 π 10π

(b) () () ()
y

t + 6 y
t + 4 y t = x t ()
Solutions 5-18

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

1
K=
4
 + j6
2

|K|
0.25

ω
-5 π 5π

(c) () ()
2 y
t + 3y t = x
t()
j

K=
j2
+ 3

|K|
0.5

ω
-5 π 5π

(d) () () ()
4 y
t + 9 y t = 2 x t + x
t ()
2 + j

K=
j4
+ 9
|K|
0.25

ω
-5 π 5π

System Realization

17. Graph Direct-Form 2 block diagrams of the systems described by these equations.
Use only integrators in the block diagrams.

(a) () () ()
2 y

t + y
t + 6 y t = x t ()

Solutions 5-19

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

1/2
x(t) + -

+
∫
+

6
∫
y(t)

(b) () () ()
y t
5 y t = x  t + 4 x t ()
x(t) + -

∫ +
y(t)
+

-5 ∫ 4

System Impulse Response

18. Find the impulse responses of the systems described by these equations.

(a) () () ()
4 y t = 2 x t
x  t

() () ()
4 h t = 2 t
  t

Integrate both sides twice to obtain

() () () () ( )
4 h t = 2 ramp t
u t  h t = 1 / 2 ramp t
1 / 4 u t () ( ) ()
(b) () ()
y t + 9 y t =
6 x  t ()
() ()
h t + 9 h t =
6  t () , Eigenvalues are ± j3

() (
Solution form is h t = K1e j3t + K 2 e
j3t u t . ) ()
Integrate once from t = 0
to t = 0+ to obtain

Solutions 5-20

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

0+  
( )
h 0 +




h ( )
 0

+ 9  h t dt ()
=
6  0
 
+

 0

( ) ( )
= j3K1
j3K 2 =0
0


   =0 =0

=0

j3K1
j3K 2 = 0

Integrate again from t = 0
to t = 0+ to obtain


0+ 0+ 
( ) ( ) 
h 0
h 0 + 9   h t dt =
6 u 0
u 0
 
+

 
+
()


( ) ( )
= K1 + K 2 =0 0
0


  =1 =0 
=0

K1 + K 2 =
6

Solving, K1 =
3 , K 2 =
3 .

() ( ) ()
h t =
3e j3t
3e
j3t u t =
6cos 3t u t ( ) ()
Check by plugging into the original equation.

() ( ) () ()
h t =
6cos 3t u t  h t = 18sin 3t u t
6cos 3t  t

  
( ) () ( ) ()
=
6 t ()
() ( ) ()
 h t = 18sin 3t  t + 54cos 3t u t
6  t

  
( ) () ()
=0

Substituting into the original differential equation,

( ) () ()
54cos 3t u t
6  t + 9 
6cos 3t u t  =
6  t ( ) () () Check.

(c) () ()

y t + 3 y t = 3x t + 5 x  t () ()
() () ()

h t + 3 h t = 3 t + 5  t () Eigenvalues are 0 and 3.

() (
Solution form is h t = K1 + K 2 e3t u t + K 3
t ) () ()
Integrate once from t = 0
to t = 0+ to obtain

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

h 0+ + h 0
+ 3h 0+
3h 0
= 3u 0+
3u 0
+ 5  0+
5  0



    


( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
=3K 2 =0 = K1 + K 2 =0 =1 =0 =0 =0

Solutions 5-21

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

3K1 = 3
K1 = 1

Integrate again from t = 0
to t = 0+ to obtain

0+

( ) ( )
  0

 
()

h 0 + h 0 + 3  h t dt = 3ramp 0+
3ramp 0
+ 5 0+
5 0

+

   
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
= K1 + K 2 =0
  =0 =0 =0 =0
= K3

( )

K1 + K 2 + 3K 3 = 0

Integrate again from t = 0
to t = 0+ to obtain

0+ 0+ 0+

()

 h t dt + 3   h (t ) dt = 3t ramp


(0)
3t ramp
+


(0) + 5u
(0 )
5u


(0 ) +

0
0
0





 =0 =0 =1 =0
= K3 =0

K 3 = 5  K 3 =
5

( ) (

K1 + K 2 + 3K 3 = 0 
1 + K 2
15 = 0  K 2 =
16 )
() (
h t = 1
16e3t u t
5 t) () ()
The derivatives are

() ( ) ()
h t = 1
16e3t  t
48e3t u t
5  t() ()
=
15 ( t )
48e u ( t )
5  ( t )
3t

h ( t ) =
15  ( t )
144e u ( t )
48e  ( t )
5  ( t )

3t 3t

Checking by substituting into the differential equation,

() ()


15  t
144e3t u t
48e3t t
5  t  () ()
( ) () ()
+ 3  1
16e3t  t
48e3t u t
5  t  = 3 t + 5  t () () ()
() () () ()
15  t + 48 t + 144e3t u t + 5  t
45 t
144e3t u t
15  t () () ()
= 3 ( t ) + 5  ( t )

() ()
3
t + 5
 t = 3
t + 5
 t() () Check.

Solutions 5-22

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

19. A rectangular voltage pulse which begins at t = 0 , is 2 seconds wide and has a height
of 0.5 V drives an RC lowpass filter in which R = 10 k
and C = 100 µ F .

(a) Sketch the voltage across the capacitor versus time.

(b) Change the pulse duration to 0.2 s and the pulse height to 5 V and repeat.
(c) Change the pulse duration to 2 ms and the pulse height to 500 V and repeat.
(d) Change the pulse duration to 2 µs and the pulse height to 500 kV and repeat.
Pulse Width = 2 s, Height = 0.5V Pulse Width = 0.2 s, Height = 5V
v(t) v(t)
1 1

t t
-1 5 -1 5

Pulse Width = 0.002 s, Height = 500V Pulse Width = 2e-06 s, Height = 500000V
v(t) v(t)
1 1

t t
-1 5 -1 5

Based on these results what do you think would happen if you let the input voltage be a unit
()
impulse? vout t = e
t u t ()
Convolution

20. A CT function is non-zero over a range of its argument from 0 to 4. It is convolved

with a function which is non-zero over a range of its argument from -3 to -1. What
is the non-zero range of the convolution of the two?

-3 to 3

21. ()
What function convolved with
2cos t would produce 6sin t ? ()
   
()

2cos t =
2sin  t +  = 2sin  t

 2  2

Therefore an impulse of some weight and position can produce the desired function.

 
(
2sin  t 
A t  t0 = 6sin t
 2

) ()
Then
A = 3 and t
t0
 / 2 = t or t0 =
 / 2 and the desired function is 3
t +  / 2 . ( )
Solutions 5-23

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

This answer is not unique.

22. Graph these functions.

(a)
() ( ( ) ) (
g t = 3cos 10 t
4 t + 1 / 10 = 12cos 10 t + 1 / 10 ( ))
= 12cos (10 t +  ) = 12cos (10 t )
g(t)
12

t
-0.5 0.5

-12
(b)

( )   (t  n) =  tri ( 2t )
 (t  n) =  tri ( 2 (t  n))

  

() ( ) ()
g t = tri 2t
1 t = tri 2t

n=  n=  n= 

g(t)
1

t
-2 2
(c)


() ( ) ( ) ()
g t = 2  tri 2t  rect t  1 
 2 t =  tri 2t  rect t  1 
( ) ( )   (t / 2  n)
n= 

(( )) (( ) )
 

() ( ) ( ) ( )
g t = 2   tri 2t  rect t  1 
 t  2n = 2   tri 2 t  2n  rect t  2n  1 

n=  n= 

g(t)
2

t
-2 2

-2

 


() ( ) ()
(d) g t = 8  tri t / 4 1 t 
 8 t =  tri t / 4 () ( )   ( t  m)

  ( t / 8  n )
 m=   n= 



      
   
( ) 
 tri  4t   (t  m)
  8t  n  =   tri  m4   (t  m)
  8t  n 
g t =
n=   m=   n=  m= 

Solutions 5-24

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06


 m 
 m
() ( ) ( ) ( )
3 3
g t =8   4

tri  t  m
 t  8n = 8   tri  4
  t  8n  m
n=  m= 3 n=  m= 3

g(t)
8

t
-10 10

( )  sinc ( 4 (t  2n))


() ( )
(e) g t = sinc 4t
 2 t =
n= 

g(t)
1

t
-3 3

-1

() ()
(f) g t = e2t u t
 4 t   4 t  2  () ( )


() e
g t = (

2 t
4n )
(
u t
4n
e ()

2 t
2
4n )
u t
2
4n ( )
n=


g(t)
1

t
-6 6

-1

 
( )  sinc (t  2n) rect  t 22n 


() ()
(g) g t =
sinc t rect t / 2 
 2 t = ( )
n= 

g(t)
1

t
-6 6

( )  sinc ( 2 (t  2n))


() ( ) ()
(h) g t = sinc 2t
 2 t  rect t / 4 = rect t / 4 ( )
n= 

Solutions 5-25

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

g(t)
1

t
-3 3

-1

23. For each graph in Figure E-23 select the corresponding signal or signals from the
()
group, x1 t
x 8 t . ()
() () ( ) () () ( ) () ( ) () ( )
x1 t =  2 t
rect t / 2 , x 2 t = 4 2 t
rect t / 2 , x 3 t = 1 / 4 1/ 2 t
rect t / 2
x ( t ) =  ( t )
rect ( t / 2 ) , x ( t ) =  ( t )
rect ( 2t ) , x ( t ) = 4 ( t )
rect ( 2t )
4 1/ 2 5 2 6 2

x ( t ) = (1 / 4 ) ( t )
rect ( 2t ) , x ( t ) =  ( t )
rect ( 2t )
7 1/ 2 8 1/ 2

A B C

4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
t t t
-4 -3 -2 -1-1 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1-1 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1-1 1 2 3 4
-2 -2 -2
-3 -3 -3
-4 -4 -4

D E

4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
t t
-4 -3 -2 -1-1 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1-1 1 2 3 4
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4

Figure E-23

x1
E , x 2
A , x 3
E , x 4
A , x 5
D , x 6
C , x 7
none , x 8
E

24. Find the signal power of these signals.

()
(a) x t = 4 rect t
 4 t () ()


() ()
4 rect t
 4 t = 4  rect t  4n ( )
n= 
This is a periodic signal whose period, T, is 4. Between -T/2 and +T/2,
there is one rectangle whose height is 4 and whose width is 1.
Therefore,
between -T/2 and +T/2, the square of the signal is

Solutions 5-26

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

T
2

() () () ()
2
2 1 16

4 rect t  = 16 rect 2 t and P =  16 rect t dt = 4  rect t dt = 4
2 2
  T T
2


2

() ()
(b) x t = 4 tri t
 4 t ()


() () (
4 tri t
 4 t = 4  tri t  4n )
n= 

This is a periodic signal whose period T is 4. Between -T/2 and +T/2,

there is triangle whose height is 4 and whose width is 2. Therefore, between -
T/2 and T/2, the square of the signal is

() ()
2

4 tri t  = 16 tri2 t
 
and

( )
T /2 2 1 1 1

P=
1

T
T / 2
()
16 tri2 t dt =
16
4
2
2
() 2 2
()
 tri t dt = 4  tri t dt = 8  tri t dt = 8  1
2t + t dt
2
()

1 0 0
1
P = 8 t
t 2 + t 3 / 3 = 8 / 3
0

25. Show that the area property and the scaling property of the convolution integral are in
( ) ( )
agreement by finding the area of x at
h at and comparing it with the area of
() ()
x t
h t .
() () ()
x t
h t = y t

( ) ( )
x at
h at =
1
a
y at ( )

( ) ( )
The areas of x at and h at are the areas of x t and h t divided by the () ()
magnitude of a because the scaling factor, a, does not change their heights but
compresses them in time by a. Therefore the product of the areas of x at and ( )
( )
h at is smaller by a factor of a 2 than the product of the areas of x t and h t . () ()
( )
The area of y at is smaller by a factor of a than the area of y t . Therefore the ()
y ( at ) is smaller by a factor of a ()
1 2
area of than the area of y t . QED.
a

26. ()
The convolution of a function g t with a doublet can be written as

Solutions 5-27

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

()
g t
u1 t = ( )  g ( ) u (t   ) d 1
.


()
Integrate by parts to show that g t
u1 t = g t . () ()
Let u=g
() and let dv = u1 t
 d . ( ) Then ()
du = g
d
and
( ) (
v = u 0 t
 =
 t
 )
d t
 ( )
(because
d
d
((
 t
 )) = d
(
d
t
)
(
 t

d
)
= u1 t

1 =
u1 t
 ). ( )( ) ( )
and


() () ( ) ( ) ( ( )) ( ) ()

g t
u1 t = g   t      t   g  d = g t

 

=0

System Stability

27. Write the differential equation for the systems in Figure E-27, find their impulse
responses and determine whether or not they are stable. For each system a = 0.5
and b =
0.1.
Then comment on the effect on system stability of redefining the response.

(a)
x(t) + -

+ a
∫
+

b ∫
y(t)

(b)
x(t) y(t)
+ -

+ a
∫
+

b ∫
Figure E-27

(a)

Solutions 5-28

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

x(t) + -

+ a
∫
+

b ∫
y(t)

() () () ()
y t = x t
0.5 y t + 0.1y t or () () ()
y t + 0.5 y t
0.1y t = x t ()
The eigenvalues are -0.653 and +0.153. We already know the system is
unstable because one of the eigenvalues has a positive real part.

() () () ()
h t + 0.5 h t
0.1h t =  t

()
There can be no impulses or discontinuities in h t . The general form of h t ()
() ( ) ()
is h t = K1e
0.653t + K 2 e0.153t u t . From the fact that it cannot be
discontinuous we know that K1 =
K 2 . Integrating once in an infinitesimal
range containing t = 0
  0+

( )
h 0


+
( )



( ) ( )
 
+


 
()

h 0 + 0.5 h 0
h 0
0.1  h t dt = u 0+
u 0
( ) ( )
=
0.653K1 +0.153K 2 =0  = K1 + K2 =0  0



 =1 =0
=0

0.153K1 + 0.653K 2 = 1
 K1 =
1.2406 and K 2 = 1.2406
K1 =
K 2

() (
h t = 1.2406 e0.153t
e
0.653t u t ) ()
The impulse response is not integrable. Therefore the system is unstable.

(b)
x(t) y(t)
+ -

+ a
∫
+

b ∫

Solutions 5-29

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

() () () ()
Let y t = z

t . z  t = x t
0.5z  t + 0.1z t () ()
We already know from part (a) that a system which produces z t according to ()
this differential equation is unstable because one of the eigenvalues has a
positive real part. That means that with a bounded excitation of any kind z t ()
will grow exponentially with time. If z t () grows exponentially then all its
()
derivatives do also. Therefore y t also grows exponentially with time and is
unbounded. If a system has eigenvalues with positive real parts changing the
designation of the output signal does not change the stability calculation at all
because the eigenvalues do not change.

The impulse response is the second derivative of the impulse response of part
(a) or
() (
h t = 1.2406 0.0234e0.153t
0.4264e
0.653t u t ) ()
which is also not integrable. Therefore this system is not stable.

28. Find the impulse response of the system in Figure E-28 and evaluate its BIBO
stability.

x(t) + -

+
2
3
∫
+
1
8 ∫
y(t)

Figure E-28 A two-integrator system

() () ( ) () ( ) ()
y t = x t
2 / 3 y t
1 / 8 y t

The homogenoeus solution is

() ( ) (
y h t = e
t / 3  K c cos 0.1179t + K s sin 0.1179t  )
implying that
() ( ) (
h t = e
t / 3  K c cos 0.1179t + K s sin 0.1179t  , t > 0 . )
The response cannot have a discontinuity at zero. Integrating the differential
equation once from 0
to 0+ ,
( ) ( )
h 0+
h 0
= 1  h 0+ = 1 . ( )
Solutions 5-30

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

Integrating the differential equation twice from 0
to 0+ ,

( ) ( )
h 0+
h 0
= 0  h 0+ = 0 ( )
Therefore
( )
h 0+ = K c = 0 and ( ) ( )
h 0+ =
1 / 3 K c + 0.1179K s = 1 .
Solving,
K c = 0 and K s = 8.482
and
() (
h t = 8.482e
t / 3 sin 0.1179t u t . ) ()
Frequency Response

29. Graph the magnitude and phase of the complex-sinusoidal response of the system
described by
() ()
y t + 2 y t = e
j 2 ft

as a function of cyclic frequency, f.

This is a complex exponential excitation which has been applied for all time.
The response is the particular solution of the form,

()
y t = Ke
j 2 ft

where K is a complex constant. Substituting the solution form into the equation,

j2 fKe
j 2 ft + 2Ke
j 2 ft = e
j 2 ft

or
1 1
K= .
2 1
j f

()
Therefore y t =
1 1
2 1
j f
e
j 2 ft

Solutions 5-31

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

Exercise 38
0.5

0.4

0.3

|K|
0.2

0.1

0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

1.5

0.5
Phase of K

-0.5

-1

-1.5
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Frequency, f (Hz)

30. Graph the magnitude and phase of the frequency response of the system in Figure E-
29in the range
2 <  < 2 .

x(t) + -

+ 0.2
∫
y(t)
+

0.1
∫

Figure E-29

() () () ()
Let z
t = y t . Then x t
0.1z t
0.2z  t = z  t or () ()
z

( t ) + 0.2z
( t ) + 0.1z ( t ) = x ( t ) . Then, differentiating once,

() ()
z


t + 0.2z

t + 0.1z
t = x
t () ()
or
() ()
y

t + 0.2 y
t + 0.1y t = x
t . () ()
The transfer function is

()
H s =
s
s + 0.2s + 0.1
2

j

H j
=( )
( j
)
2
+ j0.2
+ 0.1

Solutions 5-32

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

|H(jω)|
5

-2 2
ω

*H( jω )
π

-2 2
ω

−π

31. A spring with a spring constant K s of 50 N/m suspends a mass m of 5 kg above a

sleeping kitten. The kitten is breathing rythmically. When the kitten exhales, the air
blows directly on the underside of the mass. Approximating the force on the mass
caused by the kitten’s breath as sinusoidal, at what frequency should the kitten inhale
and exhale to cause the mass to eventually oscillate up and down on the spring with
maximum amplitude?

() ()
Neglecting any spring losses, the equation of motion is m y t = f k t
K s y t ()
()
where y t is the displacement of the mass upward from its equilibrium position and
()
f k t is the force exerted by the kitten’s breath on the mass or

() ()
m y

t + K s y t = f k t . ()
The transfer function from the force of the kitten’s breath to the displacement of the
mass is

()
H s = 2
1
ms + K s
.

Therefore the frequency response is

( )
H j
=
1
.
( )
2
m j
+ Ks

We want to maximize the frequency response and the maximum magnitude occurs
where the denominator is minimum, in this case, zero. That occurs when

( )
2
m j
+ K s = 0 
= ± K s / m = ±3.16 radians/s

which translates into a cyclic frequency of about 0.5 Hz for a period of about 2 s.
This analysis which neglects spring losses would indicate that the amplitude of the
Solutions 5-33

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

mass’s oscillation about its equilibrium point would approach infinity. With spring
loss that will not happen but the frequency is still correct. This illustrates that even a
very small excitation at resonance can cause a very large forced response.

System Realization

32. Sketch Direct-Form 2 block diagrams of the systems described by these equations.
Use only integrators in the block diagrams.

(a) () () ()
y

t + 3 y
t + 2 y t = x t ()
x(t) + -

+ 3
∫
+

2
∫
y(t)

(b) () () () ()
4 y t
3y t = x  t + 2 x  t
5x t ()
0.25 +
x(t) + - y(t)
+
∫ 2 +
+

-3 ∫ -5

Solutions 5-34