Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ou can certainly ignore motivation if you can do it. We discuss each of these in this essay with an
16 I Feature Articles
meaning something we do for its own sake. On a rainy Confidence as a reader
day, we might rather read our favorite mystery than do Belief in yourself is more closely linked to achievement
anything else. We are not trying to get a reward when than any other motivation throughout school. The
falling into a novel. reason is that confidence, which refers to belief in your
Motivation also brings to mind the reward for capacity, is tied intimately to success. This link occurs
success. Who doesn't like to win a trinket for hitting the for simple, daily reading tasks. A student who reads
target with a dart at the State Fair? Who doesn't want to one page fluently thinks he can read the next page in
earn serious money for working hard in a career? These the same book proficiently. The link is also forged for
are extrinsic rewards because someone gives them to us. reading in general. A student who reads fluently and
We do not give them to ourselves, and these rewards do understands well is also sure of himself as a reader. In
propel us to put out effort, focus energy, and get up in and out of school, people like the things they do well.
the morning. Conversely, students who struggle begin to doubt
Yet, extrinsic rewards do not motivate reading their abilities. They expect to do poorly in reading,
achievement in the long term. Students who read only writing, and talking ahout text. The real dilemma is
for the reward of money, a grade, or a future job are that lower-achieving students often exaggerate their
not the hest readers. The reason is that if you read for limitations. Believing they are worse than they really
the reward of a good quiz score, what happens after the are, they stop trying completely. Retreating from all
quiz is that you stop reading. If the test score is the only text interactions, they reduce their own opportunity to
thing that matters, it is OK to take shortcuts, not really do what they want to do more than anythingto be
understand, or cheat. It encourages students to become a good reader. Their low confidence undermines them
more interested in the reward than the learning. None even further in a cycle of douht and failure. By middle
of these generate long-term achievement. Sometimes a school, hreaking this cycle is a formidable challenge for
reward, such as candy or early recess, will jump-start teachers.
a group of students to read in this moment for this Partly due to their long history of difficulty,
purpose. But if the motivation is not intrinsic, it will middle school students need a safe environment. As
not increase achievement in the long term. Nicole Connolly, a middle school teacher, said about
For some individuals, grades represent their quality her struggling readers:
as a student and a reader. Being a high achiever is a
symbol of how they are doing. A high grade is an icon I know from a teacher's perspective, the first
of success and these students strive to feel successful. thing that you do in the classroom is that you
One student told us that he read as practice to improve have to create a safe environment, an environment
as a reader and get hetter grades. He said, "Reading a where they feel comfortable, they feel safe, they
lot helps you read better 'cuz at first I wasn't a very good feel respected and they feel heard. Ahsolutely
reader but now I'm doing real good." This point came under no circumstances is any child ever going
up again and again. Another boy said, "If I keep reading to be laughed at for saying anything wrong or
then like you can do better in high school and then that seems off the mark. Especially teaching
you'll get good, hetter grades." Readers who identify Reading/Language arts, sometimes the poetry
with school see grades as an emblem of their success can be a little deep and for example, today the
and a reason to have confidence. poem was about suicide and you know there are
Interest comes in two formssituational and raw feelings that start to come out so you have
enduring. Situational interest is fascination with a to set that environment. By this point, I am a
detail in the here and now: a picture in a hook, a link quarter ofthe way through the school year so that
in a Website, a funny comment by a character, or an environment is set in my room. It's very trusting
amazing fact ahout animals will all excite situational right now, but that's the first thing you have to
interest. This does not last until tomorrow or next week. do is just make it a safe environment. When the
Situational interest does not generate achievement relationships start to build, you are really giving
hecause it is locked into the local event. Situational each child a voice that only comes from confident
interest can hecome enduring if it recurs with teacher (or relationships. It's not easy.
other) continuing support. If a student finds one type of
novel he likes, such as realistic fiction, and is helped to For many students, a trusting relationship with
find more and to understand them fully, he may, over their teacher makes all the difference in huilding
time, grow an enduring motivation for reading fiction. confidence.
But the situational motivation is not sufficient to assure
the full maturation of intrinsic motivation. One of our Dedication
goals in schools is to foster intrinsic motivation, the Although intrinsic motivation is desirable because it
enjoyment and fulfillment in reading. is gratifying for the student, and because it energizes
18 I Feature Articles
Interviewer: Do you learn anything from Some students have career goals that they link to
information books in school? school subjects. Here is a dedicated female:
Student: It actually teaches you things and
makes you really think about life Interviewer: Can you think of some examples of
that's going on on this earth. reading assignments that you had
Interviewer: Can you think of some reading to do and you believed those will
assignments that you had to do help you in the future?
where you actually learned some- Student: I sort of want to be a vet when I get
thing new? Something you didn't older, so readings in science and
know before? learning about chemicals help me.
Student: In science [we read about] this Learning how to write things and
bacteria that I didn't know about all that stuff will help me later on.
and it's called hiking disease. Interviewer: And how long have you felt that
When you're hiking and you get reading things like that will help
some water from the pond and it's you in the future?
this little bug that if it hits you too Student: For a while cuz my parents said
long it can make you very sick. they will.
Interviewer: Okay. How about another class
where you learned something We can all learn from a page out of the book
new? written about Whitney High School in Cerritos,
Student: In social studies because we had to California. After languishing for years in poverty and
talk about South Africa and coun- low achievement, this school was transformed by a
tries. charismatic principal into the highest achieving school
Interviewer: How long have you felt that you (highest SAT scores) in California. Every student
can learn something new from graduated into college. Celia, a veteran of three years
reading assignments? in the school, expressed the motivations of students at
Student: Before middle school. Whitney High. Asked to comment on the "best about
life and learning at Whitney" she replied:
Values for the future. Dedicated high school students
think about their future. Here is one example: Basically, all the academic courses themselves?
Unimportant. While they do play [some] part in
Interviewer: Why do you think it's important academics in college I suppose, they won't stick
for you to be a good reader? with you the rest of your life. What is the most
Student: Well I guess if you are a good important, I think, is the discipline you have to
student and get a good education learn when your teachers force you to do this
then you can go somewhere in life. assignment or read that book; it's the fact that
Interviewer: Can you tell me why why do you you've had to do it that will be most important in
say it's very important for you to college because when mom and dad aren't there
read? strangling you and chaining you to your text, you
Student: Because by being a good student will get the lock and chain out and force yourself
you get in good colleges, and that's to work (Humes, 2003, p. 139).
what I'm trying to do.
Celia went on to talk about the sources of her self-
Another dedicated, high-achieving student discipline when she was asked about what she thought
reported: influenced her:
Interviewer: Can you tell me more about why I guess it comes out of knowing what your
you said being a good reader will parents want and striving to please them, yet also
help you in the future at school? knowing what you want and trying to stay true
Student: Being a good reader will help you to yourself... In Whitney it was possible to find
in the future because like if you got people who were like me, and liked me, rather
a job, you read a lot, like, even if than merely tolerated me. People who were
you didn't like it. If you didn't read interested in who I was... They were there when
in school, you wouldn't know the home life was rough, and held my hand walking
meaning of it. forward in my life (Humes, 2003, p.l41).
20 I Feature Articles
own value system. Therefore, reading for enjoyment do these students read conscientiously, but they seek
and reading for dedication are two different things. deeper meanings and relish the challenge of complexity
Students can be one but not the other. One student in books. Students who retreat from mastery goals and
could be dedicated but not interested, whereas another seek only to avoid getting low grades will obviously be
could be interested but not dedicated. A few students the lower achievers.
may be both dedicated and interested. Researchers have Across the grade levels, confidence in one's ability
found that in the elementary grades, students who are to read is a key attribute of success. Overwhelmingly,
both dedicated and interested, achieve far higher, and at all grade levels, the lowest achievers believe that it
read more proficiently than students who do not have is futile to hope that they can read like many of their
both of these motivations working for them (Guthrie, classmates. They feel helpless. In their overwhelming
Coddington, 6c Wigfield, 2009). sense of incompetence, these students cannot put forth
effort even when it is possible to succeed. Thus, resil-
Dedication impacts achievement ience is pervasive for achievers, and discouragement is
in grades K to 12. the hallmark of low achievers across the grade span of
When children enter school some are more interested K to 12.
in reading than others. Whether their parents read
to them daily, they acquired a curiosity by being ex- Motivational practices
posed to attractive books, or reading came easily to in the elementary classroomCORI
them. Motivated first graders gain rapidly in reading There are five motivation practices that are well
achievement. In this case, motivation is usually interest supported in research. These practices foster all of
and enjoyment in reading. It is not a one-way street. the motivations we mentioned including interest,
Children who grow rapidly in learning to read during dedication, and confidence. Found in the classrooms of
the primary grades also grow in motivation. So skill in many outstanding teachers in primary and intermediate
reading and motivation to reading are hand in glove and classrooms, these practices are not revolutionary, yet
operate reciprocally in the primary grades (Morgan 6c they are all too rare. To investigate how to generate
Fuchs, 2007). and sustain motivation, we developed Concept-
As students enter the intermediate grades of three Oriented Reading Instruction focused on grades three
to five, some students become dedicated as well as to five. Over 10 years, we performed 11 experiments
interested. They see reading as a contributor to who they with 75 statistical comparisons of experimental and
will become. It has been shown that interest alone does control groups (Guthrie, McRae, 6c Klauda, 2007),
not assure that a student will be a high achiever in the and other researchers have also documented their
intermediate elementary grades; however, dedication effectiveness (Guthrie 6cHumenick, 2004). Currently,
alone does not assure high achievement either. When we are documenting the impacts of CORI in middle
outstanding students can integrate their interest (reading school. These practices are not restricted to special
what they like) and dedication (reading what they events or grand occasions in which students have rare
must), their test scores and grades show positive effects opportunities, such as a field trip to a museum. These
(Guthrie, Coddington, 6c Wigfield, 2009). As students are daily actions that motivate long-term achievement
enter middle school, their dedication to reading takes including the following: success, thematic units,
the form of identity as a student. During grades six to choice, relevance, and collaboration or teacher-student
nine, students who believe that being a good student interaction. We next address each of these.
is part of who they are and those who embrace the
goals of learning through text are the highest achievers. Success
Dedication takes over as the most reliable motivation In some schools with some curricula, some adminis-
to fuel achievement. Some of these students may also trators claim that they support struggling readers by
be intrinsically motivated and enjoy reading (Otis, giving them special instruction or collaboration with
Grouzet, 6c Pelletier, 2005), but that is not the primary peers to help them decipher the texts. But this is not
driver of their achievement across subject matters and sufficient. Texts have to be user friendly to the student.
through time. By user friendly, we mean that students can read a text
At the high school level, dedication to reading aloud with 90% accuracy. Another standard for read-
may take the form of attempting to understand texts as able text is summarizing. Students should be able to
deeply as possible. This aspiration to comprehend fully write a coherent summary of a paragraph or a page in
is termed mastery goals by Pintrich and his colleagues the text used for instruction. Selecting readable texts
(Pintrich, 2000). These students want to piece together is a challenge and often means that multiple texts are
the different sections of a text and integrate them fully needed in the classroom. In CORI, we provide a class
with what they already know about the topic in the book for whole class instruction in a reading strategy;
information or the character in literature. Not only however, for guided reading, text-based writing, and
22 I Feature Articles
totally vivid way. After this 20-minute experience, stu- accountability, for individual work as well as for group
dents read avidly for 5 to 10 days about how animals products.
live, find food, and defend themselves from predators. In both primary and intermediate levels, research
Providing the owl pellet experience is providing rel- supports the power of motivational and emotional sup-
evance for reading. Not only do books about owls and port for building motivation. A nationwide observa-
mice come to life, but the broader issues of prdation, tional study of primary classrooms showed that when
competition, and food webs are suddenly interesting. teachers were sensitive to student interests, invited stu-
A student has looked at his own owl pellet, has had dent input into classroom decisions, and avoided harsh
a personal experience of excitement. This excitement criticism, students gained in reading achievement. The
transfers to a text with photographs of plants, animals, effect was strongest for at-risk students and low income
and prdation. In middle school CORI, we are provid- populations (Hamre 6c Pianta, 2006). For example,
ing similar relevance through videos of hunting in the Mrs. Warren has morning meetings in her elementary
Serengeti or symbiosis on a coral reef. For these middle classroom. She allows students to have friendly inter-
school students, the video experience generates intense actions and she greets each one by name daily. They
interest in reading. share recent experiences and build a repertoire of songs,
Practices of relevance in the classroom can take games, and poems that encourage a sense of belonging
many forms. For example, providing historical narra- (McTigue, Washburn, 6c Liew, 2009).
tives about Central American Indians for Hispanic stu- This collaborative emphasis may be especially
dents from Central America is generating relevance for valuable for African American students. In a study
text reading. Some forms of culturally relevant teaching of 10- to 11-year old African American students.
may generate relevance, but not all of them do. Hav- Dill and Boykin (2000) showed that collaborative
ing African American students read biographies of learning environments had advantages over individual
Booker T. Washington and Harriet Tubman does not learning environments. A collaborative (or communal)
automatically generate relevance simply because the learning setting increased the recall of stories that
texts are about African Americans. If the students do were read during collaborative interactions compared
not feel connected to those African Americans in the to individual reading. More centrally, enjoyment of
biographies, relevance will not be generated. Cultural the learning activity, and the desire to participate in
relevance can be an especially powerful motivational similar activities in the future, were accelerated by
practice for minority students if they frequently feel the collaborative learning structures for the African
little kinship and possess little background experience American students. One source of such a benefit may
with traditional texts peopled with European American be elaborated discussion.
populations (Tatum, 2005). Evidence suggests that African American students
Beyond locating books that students can connect respond to collaborative learning opportunities by
to, teachers can create tasks that enable students to build discussing text in relatively elaborate ways. In an
relevance for text. For example, in the "bubble project" experimental study, Webb and Farivar (1994) showed
for fourth graders, teachers encouraged students to that African American students who were taught
provide a social critique of advertisements (Gainer, communication and helping skills in small group
Valdez-Gainer, 6c Kinard, 2009). After locating ads for work during the reading of story problems had more
clothing to perfume to sports events, students studied elaborative and rich discussions than comparison groups.
the texts. They questioned the meanings, authors' On the other hand, European American students
intentions, and gender biases in the text. They wrote did not benefit from the training in communication
replies to the ads in the form of a bubble spoken by a skills. Thus, African Americans were more cognitively
character. The students experienced humor, social responsive in social interactions around text, and thus,
critique, and sheer enjoyment in this literacy event. gained cognitive competencies in these settings.
Students saw that the text was relevant not only to their Further evidence that teacher-student relationships
material interest, but to their thoughts and attitudes in the classroom may be important to engagement and
about popular culture. Such activities enable students achievement in literacy was presented by Decker, Dona,
to see that reading is important to their interests and and Christenson (2007). They examined the associations
their interactions with others. between the teacher-student relationship and outcomes for
African American students who were behaviorally at-risk
Collaboration and relationship-building for referral to special education. Students were identified
At the elementary school level, social relationships are by their teachers as having behavior problems. Participants
paramount for students' development as readers. In were 44 students and 25 teachers from two suburban
CORI, we provide partner reading, team summarizing, and three urban elementary schools in a mid-western
group posters, and peer conferencing. Each is state. A multi-rater, multi-method approach was used.
carefully orchestrated to assure full participation and As both teacher and student reports of teacher-student
24 I Feature Articles
to be working hard to gain skill. That may be true for Gettin' Through Thursday by Cooper because "They go
high-achieving, confident readers. However, students through almost the same thing we go through. That's
with a history of not being able to read the texts in why I chose this story instead of the other one. It's a
the classroom have lost their confidence, have little good book to me because they had to pretend they were
resilience, and may have developed many strategies of having a party because the mom didn't have any money"
avoidance, like procrastination. (Gray, 2009, p. 477). It was not the genre nor having
The single largest factor contributing to low African American characters in the book nor having a
reading achievement is avoidance of books, especially particular theme that mattered. It was connecting to the
information texts, in all subject matters of literature, character that was the most important criterion used by
science, social studies, math, and others. Students who students to select books.
initially find reading a little tough tend to avoid the Making reading relevant for your students can be
book whenever possible and put in minimum effort. a challenging task. As Cheryl Nuhfer, a middle school
Obviously, this prevents them from gaining skill and teacher, said:
they enter a cycle of failure to read and avoidance. The
most powerful way to break this cycle is to locate books It's hard to take a child whose parent has been a
that are within the readability level of the learner. farmer all his life and that's what they are going
Before students will try and try again to tackle to do. Why do they have to know Shakespeare?
new challenges, they need to believe in themselves. Why do they have to know Chaucer? Why do
This belief in oneself propels students toward higher they have to know literature? There isn't a real
achievement because they expect to succeed. Putting strong connection there. They have to know how
forth effort in reading depends mainly on whether you to read a bill of sale and more functional types
have succeeded in reading tasks in the past. A volume of reading. I think there is a disconnect between
of research shows that teachers who enable students to 'the curriculum with the classics' and the need
succeed grow the confidence of their readers (Schunk, to know.
2003). Teachers can promote this confidence building
by providing small steps for success. First, teachers can As this teacher continued, "The irrelevance is
set goals for reading words, sentences, or paragraphs, probably the biggest factor in students' avoidance of
and then students take the role of setting their own reading."
goals. But many students do not quite know whether One poignant way to make books relevant in the
they achieved a goal, such as understanding a paragraph, classroom is through videos. For example, a brief video
or not. Accurate feedback from the teacher is crucial. of 2 to 10 minutes can set the historical scene for a novel
The feedback should be specific to the students' task set at the turn of the 19th century in Europe. If the
achievement rather than a general "good job." A teacher topic of global warming is the subject of an information
might say, "Wow! You put yourself in the character's text that students will be reading, a brief video of
situation and figured out how he may feel," which is icebergs melting in the Arctic or glaciers disappearing
more effective than simply saying "nice reading." from high mountains will galvanize students' attention.
As students learn to set goals and recognize their As a resource for relevance. The Discovery Channel has
achievements, their resilience expands. They bounce more than 50,000 1 to 30 minute videos that can be
back from failure. They sustain their concentration viewed in any classroom in which the district has an
for longer times. Becoming actively persistent is the "inexpensive" subscription. When students observe a
essence of becoming dedicated in reading. However, video, they have had a vivid, personal encounter which
this persistence cannot come from a void. It is grounded they can take to text, bringing the print to life. When
in the belief that reading is important. students candidly say that the text connects to them,
they recognize the benefit of literacy and value its role
Assuring relevance in their lives.
Students do not become dedicated to reading unless it
is important to them. Obviously it is not the sounding Fostering awareness
out of words or the piecing together of paragraphs For many students, the benefits of reading to their
that creates relevance. It is the content and substance reading today or in the future are simply not obvious. As
of books that they must value to grow in dedication. one teacher said, "It's difficult for a middle school child
Students' first reason for being a dedicated reader is that to think too much past Friday's next dance." However,
the texts are relevant to them. teachers can help students create an awareness of the
In one survey, teachers found that African contribution of reading to their lives through a range
American students overwhelmingly selected literary of activities. In middle school, students are seeking
texts in which they could connect to the characters. freedom and are keen to read about people's experiences
For example, one student stated that he liked the book of freedom. In secondary school, students can explore
26 I Feature Articles
comprehension through questioning, and (6) synthesize of the lesson was not compromised. Teacher planning
information across texts. With these tools, students will time was minimal. In other words, the benefits were
read for understanding and their effort at comprehen- palpable in the classroom. The costs were minimal
sion will pay off for them. to the teacher. Our nagging quandary is this: Why
Too many teachers think of motivation for don't more teachers make more use of mini-choices in
reading and strategies for reading as opposites. Either teaching reading?
we are teaching hard, academic strategies or we are
having a motivational day. Students benefit most when Arranging social goals
motivations and strategies are fused together. If students Just as a student will work hard to maintain a good
become excited about a book or a topic, they need relationship with a teacher, students seek to win the
strategies for learning from the hook or enjoying it fully. respect of their friends and classmates. In this light,
Conversely, if students have a few effective strategies students will he dedicated to their reading when reading
they will never use them if they are bored, avoidant, or has a role in their social interactions with classmates.
otherwise unmotivated for reading. Therefore, teaching One way to set up social goals among students is to
students to he dedicated readers requires helping them create a project that will call for a student's organization
to work smart as they put forth high effort. and persistence in reading. For example, one of the
teachers we interviewed told us that she "will try to
Affording choices huddy them up so they will share the novels they are
More popular than any motivational support is reading in a literature circle sort ofthing, or even a hook
affording choices, which is widely supported in the sharing recommendation." For example, in CORI,
professional literature (O'Brien c Dillon, 2008). students work cooperatively to huild a group poster.
However, misconceptions abound. For example, many The group selects a theme related to survival in nature,
teachers provide "sustained silent reading" time to give such as mutualism or prdation. Each student reads
students a chance at self-selection. Yet, this technique and writes to create a contrihution to the poster. They
is often misunderstood as the only way to give choice. organize their work, create a timeline, and share their
Myriad little choices can be given during any lesson, work with each other building toward the culminating
which enable students to express small preferences that point of explaining their poster to another team or to
spur their reading. In a middle school classroom, one the class. This gives each student a social framework
of us asked a small group of struggling readers, "What in which their dedication to reading will bring positive
choices did your teacher give you today?" Students social interactions with their teammate.
replied: When students see that teachers are supporting
"We could read with a partner or not." their active collaboration, they become more cooperative
"We could take notes or not." and dedicate themselves to reading more conscientiously
"We got to choose which color card to write than if they are continually required to toil in isolation.
our question on." Many partnerships, team efforts, group projects,
"We could choose the word we thought was and peer cooperatives have been shown to motivate
the key word in the paragraph." students, and some have been shown to increase reading
comprehension directly (Murphy, Wilkenson, Soter,
Then we asked the $64 million dollar question: Hennessey, c Alexander, 2009).
"How did having a choice help you read?" Students
erupted with sublime self-reflections, such as: Professional development
"Having a choice whether to partner read made Teaching to the second side of reading, the will to read,
me feel better." like teaching to the first side, is a matter of teacher
"I could read alone, which helps me concen- expertise. There is no formula or off-the-shelf program
trate." for motivating students. The good news is that teachers
"I could read hy myself, which is faster for can rapidly learn to he more effective at encouraging
me. engagement. With a short amount of professional
"I liked flnding my own key word on the development, teachers can learn to give choices that
page." lend students a sense of empowerment (Reeve, 1996). In
a slightly longer, but realistic amount of time, teachers
Remarkahly, these struggling readers were aware can gain a grip on implementing all the CORI teaching
of how choice helped them think during reading. These practices for elementary school mentioned here. For
mini-choices lent students a bit more investment into secondary level, a book and guide for self-reflection
the hard work of learning to write good summaries. about engagement is available (Guthrie, 2008). Our
The total time for the choices was 2 minutes out of message for teachers and administrators is that a
a 45-minute period, which was not excessive. Content manageable amount of reading, thinking, and sharing
28 I Feature Articles
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Santa, C M . (2006). A vision for adolescent Educational Process, 25, 68-81.
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