MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

MIT 2.111/8.411/6.898/18.435
Quantum Information Science I
September 16, 2010

Problem Set #2 Solution

1. Density matrices. A density matrix (also sometimes known as a density operator) is a representation
of statistical mixtures of quantum states. This exercise introduces some examples of density matrices,
and explores some of their properties.

(a) Let |i = a|0i + b|1i be a qubit state. Give the matrix = |ih|, which you may compute using
linear algebra using the vector representations of |i and h|. What are the eigenvectors and
eigenvalues of ?
Answer:

|a| ab
   2 
a
a b =


= |ih| =
b ba |b|2

The eigenvalues of are 1 and 0 and the corresponding eigenvectors are

   
a b
,
b a

0 +1
(b) Let 0 = |0ih0| and 1 = |1ih1|. Give the matrix = 2 . What are the eigenvectors and
eigenvalues of ?
Answer:

 
1 1 1 1 0
= |0ih0| + |1ih1| =
2 2 2 0 1

1
The eigenvalues of are both 2 and the eigenvectors are

|0i, |1i

or any two orthogonal vectors in this Hilbert space.

(c) Compute tr(2 ) and tr( 2 ). In general, tr(M 2 ) 1, with equality if and only if M is a pure state.
Answer:

tr2 = tr(|ih|)2 = tr(|ih|) = 1,

1 1 1
tr( 2 ) = tr(|0ih0| + |1ih1|)2 = tr(|0ih0| + |1ih1|) =
4 4 2
2. Exponential of the Pauli matrices. Let ~v be any real, three-dimensional unit vector and a real
number. Prove that

exp(i~v ~ ) = cos()I + i sin()~v ~ , (1)

P3
where ~v ~ i=1 vi i , and i are the Pauli matrices, 1 = X, 2 = Y , 3 = Z.
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Answer:

0 0
X 1 X (1)k 2k0
X i(1)k 0
exp(i~v ~ ) = (i~v ~ )k = 0
(~
v ~
) + 0
(~v ~ )2k +1
k! 0
(2k )! 0
(2k + 1)!
k=0 k =0 k =0

The powers of Pauli matrices have a simple form. Note that,

X3 3
X
(~v ~ )2 = ( vi i )2 = vi vj i j
i=1 i,j=1

The commutation relation between Pauli matrices satisfies that

i j + j i = 0 and i2 = I

Hence,

3
X
(~v ~ )2 = vi2 I = I
i=1

Therefore,

0 0 0 0
(~v ~ )2k = 2k I (~v ~ )2k +1 = 2k +1~v ~

and

0 0
X (1)k 2k0 X (1)k 0
exp(i~v ~ ) = 0 )!
I +i 0 + 1)!
2k +1~v ~ = cos I + i sin ~v ~
0
(2k 0
(2k
k =0 k =0

3. Hadamard operator on n qubits. The Hadamard operator on one qubit may be written as
1 h i
H = (|0i + |1i)h0| + (|0i |1i)h1| . (2)
2
Show explicitly that the Hadamard transform on n qubits, H n , may be written as
1 X
H n = (1)xy |xihy|. (3)
2n x,y

Write out an explicit matrix representation for H 2 .

Answer:
Hadamard transform on 1 qubit can be written as

1 h i X
H = (|0i + |1i)h0| + (|0i |1i)h1| = (1)x1 y1 |x1 ihy1 |
2 x1 ,y1
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Here x1 y1 is multiplication mod 2.

Hadamard transform on n qubits can be written as

X
H n = ni=1 ( (1)xi yi |xi ihyi |)
xi ,yi

Pn
Define |xi = |xi i, |yi = |yi i, x y = i=1 xi yi
Therefore,

X X X
H n = ni=1 ( (1)xi yi |xi ihyi |) = (ni=1 (1)xi yi |xi ihyi |) = (1)xy |xihy|
xi ,yi x,y x,y

In particular,

1 1 1 1

   
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
H 2 = =
2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1

4. Single qubit rotations. Define the rotation operator

   

Rn () exp(i n
~ /2) = cos I i sin (nx X + ny Y + nz Z) , (4)
2 2
where n
is a real three-dimensional unit vector.
1. Prove that an arbitrary single qubit unitary operator can be written in the form U =
exp(i)Rn (), for some real numbers and .
Answer:  
a b
A single qubit operator U = can be expanded in terms of {I, X, Y, Z} as U = a0 I + a1 X +
c d
a2 Y + a3 Z, where

a+d b+c cb ad
a0 = a1 = a2 = a3 =
2 2 2i 2

U is unitary if U U = I.

U U = (a0 I + a1 X + a2 Y + a3 Z)(a0 I + a1 X + a2 Y + a3 Z)
= (|a0 |2 + |a1 |2 + |a2 |2 + |a3 |2 )I + (a0 a1 + a1 a0 + ia2 a3 ia3 a2 )X +
(a0 a2 ia1 a3 + a2 a0 + ia3 a1 )Y + (a0 a3 + ia1 a2 ia2 a1 + a3 a0 )Z

This requires that

|a0 |2 + |a1 |2 + |a2 |2 + |a3 |2 = 1

a0 a1 + a1 a0 + ia2 a3 ia3 a2 = 0
a0 a2 ia1 a3 + a2 a0 + ia3 a1 = 0
a0 a3 + ia1 a2 ia2 a1 + a3 a0 = 0
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Define cos 2 = |a0 |, then |a1 |2 + |a2 |2 + |a3 |2 = | sin 2 |.
Define
 

nx = |a1 |/| sin |
2
 

ny = |a2 |/| sin |
2
 

nz = |a3 |/| sin |
2

Obviously, n2x + n2y + n2z = 1 and n

is a three dimensional unit vector.



Define exp(i) = a0 / cos 2 . Denote the phase of a1 , a2 , a3 as 1 , 2 , 3 respectively.
As

0 = a0 a1 + a1 a0 + ia2 a3 ia3 a2
       

= exp(i(1 )) cos sin nx + exp(i( 1 )) cos sin nx +
2 2 2 2
   

i exp(i(3 2 )) sin2 ny nz i exp(i(2 3 )) sin2 ny nz
2 2
     

= 2 cos( 1 ) cos sin nx + 2i sin(3 2 ) sin2 ny nz
2 2 2

Therefore, cos( 1 ) = 0, sin(2 3 ) = 0. Hence 1 = /2, 2 = 3 .

Similarly, we find, 2 = 3 = /2, 1 = 2 = 3 .
Therefore,
 

a0 = exp(i) cos
2
 

a1 = i exp(i) sin nx
2
 

a2 = i exp(i) sin ny
2
 

a3 = i exp(i) sin nz
2

That is,
     

U = exp(i) cos I i sin (nx X + ny Y + nz Z) = exp(i)Rn ()
2 2

2. Find values for , , and n

giving the Hadamard gate H.
Answer:

1
H = (X + Z)
2

1 1
= /2, = , nx = , ny = 0, nz =
2 2
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3. Find values for , , and n

giving the phase gate
 
1 0
S= . (5)
0 i

Answer:

1+i 1i
S= I+ Z
2 2

= /4, = /2, nx = 0, ny = 0, nz = 1