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Acute Urticaria
Updated: Sep 13, 2016
Author: Henry K Wong, MD, PhD; Chief Editor: Michael A Kaliner, MD more...

OVERVIEW

Background
Urticaria (hives) is a vascular reaction of the skin marked by the transient appearance of smooth, slightly
elevated papules or plaques (wheals) that are erythematous and that are often attended by severe pruritus.
Individual lesions resolve without scarring in several hours. Most cases of urticaria are self-limited and of
short duration; the eruption rarely lasts more than several days, it but may be recurrent over weeks.
Chronic urticaria is defined as urticaria with recurrent episodes lasting longer than 6 weeks).

The development of urticaria is often an isolated event without systemic reaction. Rarely, it can be a
prelude to the development of an anaphylactic reaction. (See Anatomy.)

If any features of anaphylaxis (eg, hypotension, respiratory distress, stridor, gastrointestinal distress,
swallowing problems, joint swelling, joint pain) are present, immediate medical intervention should occur.
(See Physical Examination.)

Acute urticaria may be, in a short time, associated with life-threatening angioedema and/or anaphylactic
shock, although it usually presents as rapid-onset shock without urticaria or angioedema. (See Emergency
Care and Complications.)

New-onset episodes of urticaria can be associated with identifiable causes, and the method of exposure
(ie, direct contact, oral or intravenous [IV] routes) can be deduced by taking a careful history. (See
Etiology.)

Acute urticaria is generally diagnosed based on a detailed patient history and physical examination. (See
Clinical Presentation.)

Although clinically distinctive, urticaria may be confused with a variety of other dermatologic diseases that
can be similar in appearance and are pruritic, including atopic dermatitis (eczema), maculopapular drug
eruptions, contact dermatitis, insect bites, erythema multiforme, pityriasis rosea, and others. Usually,
however, the experienced clinician is able to distinguish these conditions from urticaria because of the
lesions' hallmark appearance (see the images below), a lack of epidermal change, the intense pruritus, the
presence of an advancing edge and a receding edge, the complete blanching of the lesions with pressure,
and are the transient nature of the lesions. [1] (See Clinical Presentation.)

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Urticaria associated with a drug reaction.

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Urticaria developed after bites from an imported fire ant.

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Local urticaria on a patient with latex allergy who was touched with a latex glove.
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The major goal of treatment is to control the severity of acute urticarial lesions. Antihistamines are the
primary agents used to treat urticaria. (See Treatment Strategies and Management.)

Pathophysiology
Urticaria results from the release of histamine, bradykinin, leukotriene C4, prostaglandin D2, and other
vasoactive substances from mast cells and basophils in the dermis. [2] These substances cause
extravasation of plasma into the dermis, leading to the urticarial lesion. The intense pruritus of urticaria is a
result of histamine released into the dermis. One study showed that D-dimer levels correlate with the
severity of acute urticaria and may serve as a marker of disease severity. [75]

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Individual lesions of acute urticaria can appear at different locations and fade without scarring, often in a
matter of hours. The development of urticaria can be an isolated event without systemic reaction or it can
be a prelude to the development of an anaphylactic reaction. Although urticaria results from transient
extravasation of plasma into the dermis, angioedema is the subcutaneous extension of urticaria that results
in deep swelling within subcutaneous/submucosal tissues and is associated with pain.

Immune-mediated urticaria

Histamine is the ligand for 2 membrane-bound receptors, the H1 and H2 receptors, which are present on
many cell types. The activation of the H1 histamine receptors on endothelial and smooth muscle cells leads
to increased capillary permeability. The activation of the H2 histamine receptors leads to arteriolar and
venule vasodilation. [3, 4, 5] This process is caused by several mechanisms as follows:

The type I allergic immunoglobulin (Ig) E response is initiated by antigen-mediated IgE immune
complexes that bind and cross-link Fc receptors on the surface of mast cells and basophils, thus
causing degranulation with histamine release.
The type II allergic response is mediated by cytotoxic T cells, causing deposits of immunoglobulins,
complement, and fibrin around blood vessels. This leads to urticarial vasculitis.
The type III immune-complex disease is associated with systemic lupus erythematosus and other
autoimmune diseases that cause urticaria. [4]

Non-immune-mediated urticaria

Complement-mediated urticaria includes viral and bacterial infections, serum sickness, and transfusion
reactions. Urticarial transfusion reactions occur when allergenic substances in the plasma of the donated
blood product react with preexisting IgE antibodies in the recipient. Certain drugs (opioids, vecuronium,
succinylcholine, vancomycin, and others) as well as radiocontrast agents cause urticaria due to mast cell
degranulation through a non-IgE-mediated mechanism. Urticaria from nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs) may be IgE-mediated or due to mast cell degranulation, and there may be significant cross-
reactivity among the NSAIDs in causing urticaria and anaphylaxis. [6]

Physical urticaria, in which some physical stimulus causes urticaria, includes immediate pressure urticaria,
delayed pressure urticaria, [7] cold urticaria, and cholinergic urticaria. [8]

For some cases of urticaria, especially chronic urticaria, no cause can be found, despite exhaustive efforts.
This is known as idiopathic urticaria, [2] although most of these are chronic autoimmune urticaria as defined
by a positive autologous serum skin test (ASST). [9]

Etiology
In 50% of patients with acute urticaria, a specific etiology can be identified. Brief episodes of urticaria can
be associated with identifiable causes, and the method of exposure (ie, direct contact, oral or intravenous
routes) is usually known. Urticaria is often associated with a recent infection.

Food allergies

Food allergy should be considered in acute urticaria and urticaria in children. Such foods as tree nuts,
peanuts, eggs, shellfish, and tomatoes should be considered (the involvement of food additives or
preservatives is controversial). [10] ) Please visit our main article to learn more about food allergies.

Drug allergies

Theoretically, almost any drug can cause an allergic reaction (see the images below); thus, allergic
reactions to a wide variety of drugs can occur. Antibiotics, such as penicillin, have been implicated most
frequently. [11] Urticarial reactions to penicillin can occur as long as 14 days after a course of treatment has
stopped. In this situation, serum sickness may be present.

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Urticaria associated with a drug reaction.

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Urticaria from drug reaction.

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Physical contact

Contact urticaria is an allergic reaction to a substance that comes into contact with the skin (eg, an
occupational exposure) (see the image below).

Insect bites

Papular urticaria is a variation of urticaria caused by insect bites (see the image below); the lesions may
last longer than 24 hours.

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Urticaria developed after bites from an imported fire ant.

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Hypersensitivity

Urticaria may be caused by other immediate hypersensitivity allergic reactions to an ingested, inhaled, or
percutaneously inoculated substance (eg, latex, stinging insects, occupational exposures). See the
following image.

Local urticaria on a patient with latex allergy who was touched with a latex glove.
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Nonallergic release of mediators

A number of drugs, such as aspirin, NSAIDs, opiates, succinylcholine, and certain antibiotics (eg,
polymyxin, ciprofloxacin, rifampin, vancomycin, some beta-lactams) can cause urticaria by a nonallergic
mechanism rather than by IgE-mediated hypersensitivity.

Certain foods or beverages, such as spoiled fish (scombroidosis), aged cheeses, or red wine, can contain
histidine, which is closely related to histamine. These foods are often listed as causes of urticaria in the
literature, but experimental evidence is scarce.

Certain venoms may cause urticaria.

Radiocontrast media sensitivity is not related to iodine, fish, or shellfish allergy.

Medical causes

Urticaria has been reported with infectious diseases. Viral infections associated with acute urticaria include
acute viral syndromes, hepatitis (A, B, and C), Epstein-Barr virus, and herpes simplex virus. Streptococcal
infection (see the photograph below) has been reported as the cause of 17% of acute urticaria cases in
children. [12] Urticaria has also been reported with chronic parasitic infections. [13]

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Urticaria associated with acute group A beta-hemolytic streptococci infection.

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Although sinusitis, cutaneous fungal infections, Helicobacter pylori infection, or other occult infections have
been reported in the literature to cause urticaria, the data are not strongly supported. [14, 15, 16, 17, 18]

Hormonal causes via endocrine tumors or ovarian pathology are rare. Oral contraceptive use or changes in
the menstrual cycle have been reported as a possible cause of urticaria: patients commonly report
worsening of hives with the menstrual cycle. This may be hormonally mediated, and the cyclical use of
analgesics should also be considered as a possible etiology.

Urticaria can be the presenting symptom of lymphoma, and a careful history and review of systems is
important.

Other medical causes of recurrent urticaria include the following:

Cryoglobulinemias (eg, associated with hepatitis C, chronic lymphocytic leukemia)

Serum sickness
Other immune complexmediated inflammation
Systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, or other
rheumatologic diseases (rare causes of urticaria)
Hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism, although euthyroid patients with antithyroid antibodies (ie, vide
infra) can be affected [19]
Lymphoreticular malignancies (eg, chronic lymphocytic leukemia)
Pregnancy (ie, pruritic urticarial papules and plaques of pregnancy [PUPPP])

Physical causes (physical urticaria)

See the list below:

Cold
Pressure
Vibration
Cholinergic (triggered by heat, exercise, or emotional stress)
Sunlight [20, 21]
Water
Dermographism (can occur as an isolated condition)
Exercise

Epidemiology
Urticaria (chronic, acute, or both) affects 15-25% of the population at some time in their lives. [22] The
incidence of acute urticaria is higher in people with atopy, [22] and the condition occurs most commonly in
children and young adults. [23]

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Some patients can have both urticaria and angioedema, occurring simultaneously or separately.
Approximately 50% of patients have both urticaria and angioedema, whereas 40% have urticaria alone,
and 10% have angioedema alone. [24] Hereditary angioedema (C1 inhibitor deficiency) accounts for only
0.4% of cases of angioedema but is associated with a high mortality rate.

Acute urticaria resolves within 6 weeks. Urticaria longer than 6 weeks duration is considered chronic and
must be ruled out as a symptom associated with a systemic medical illness.

Prognosis
The prognosis in acute urticaria is excellent, with most cases resolving within days. Acute urticaria usually
can be controlled using only symptomatic treatment with antihistamines. If a known triggering factor is
present, avoidance is the most effective therapy. Acute urticaria causes discomfort, but it does not cause
mortality, unless it is associated with angioedema involving the upper airways. [25, 26, 27] If a patient
continues to be exposed to a known trigger, the condition may become chronic.

Morbidity depends on the severity and duration of the condition. One study found that urticaria patients can
have as much psychologic, social, and occupational distress as patients who are awaiting triple coronary
artery bypass surgery. [28]

Patient Education
Avoidance of known triggering factors is important, and patients with urticaria should be discouraged from
scratching or irritating the skin when active lesions are present. Pressure urticaria may worsen the intensity
of the rash; therefore, avoiding tight-fitting clothes may be helpful.

Clinical Presentation

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Media Gallery

Urticaria associated with a drug reaction.

Urticaria developed after bites from an imported fire ant.
Local urticaria on a patient with latex allergy who was touched with a latex glove.
Urticaria from drug reaction.
Photograph of dermographism.
Pressure urticaria (dermatographia) developed after strokes.
Acute urticaria associated with dermatographism.
Urticaria associated with acute group A beta-hemolytic streptococci infection.
Acute urticaria in a toddler affecting the face. Likely cause is postviral syndrome.

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Contributor Information and Disclosures

Author

Henry K Wong, MD, PhD Professor and Chairman, Department of Dermatology, University of Arkansas for
Medical Sciences College of Medicine

Henry K Wong, MD, PhD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of
Dermatology, International Society for Cutaneous Lymphomas, Medical Dermatology Society, Society for
Investigative Dermatology

Disclosure: Serve(d) as a director, officer, partner, employee, advisor, consultant or trustee for: Seattle
GEnetics, Actillion, Celgene<br/>Serve(d) as a speaker or a member of a speakers bureau for:
Amgen<br/>Received income in an amount equal to or greater than $250 from: Celgene<br/>Received
honoraria from Amgen for speaking and teaching; Received grant/ Received grant/research funds from

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Acute Urticaria: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/137362-overview

Celgene for none; Received grant/research funds from Abbott Labs for independent contractor; Received
grant/research funds from Amgen for none; Received honoraria from Seattle Genetics for consulting. for:
Actelion-Advisory board, grants;Seattle Genetics - Advisory board.

Coauthor(s)

Javed Sheikh, MD Assistant Professor of Medicine, Harvard Medical School; Clinical Director, Division of
Allergy and Inflammation, Clinical Director, Center for Eosinophilic Disorders, Beth Israel Deaconess
Medical Center

Javed Sheikh, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Allergy Asthma
and Immunology, American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology

Disclosure: Received grant/research funds from Genentech for other.

Umer Najib, MD Clinical Research Fellow, Department of Medicine, Division of Allergy and Inflammation,
Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

Michael A Kaliner, MD Clinical Professor of Medicine, George Washington University School of Medicine;
Medical Director, Institute for Asthma and Allergy

Michael A Kaliner, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Allergy
Asthma and Immunology, American Association of Immunologists, American College of Allergy, Asthma
and Immunology, American Society for Clinical Investigation, American Thoracic Society, Association of
American Physicians

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Acknowledgements

Jeffrey P Callen, MD Professor of Medicine (Dermatology), Chief, Division of Dermatology, University of

Louisville School of Medicine

Jeffrey P Callen, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American
Academy of Dermatology, American College of Physicians, and American College of Rheumatology

Disclosure: Amgen Honoraria Consulting; Abbott Honoraria Consulting; Electrical Optical Sciences
Consulting fee Consulting; Celgene Honoraria Safety Monitoring Committee; GSK - Glaxo Smith Kline
Consulting fee Consulting; TenXBioPharma Consulting fee Safety Monitoring Committee

Kevin P Connelly, DO Clinical Assistant Professor, Department of Pediatrics, Division of General

Pediatrics and Emergency Care, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine; Medical Director,
Paws for Health Pet Visitation Program of the Richmond SPCA; Pediatric Emergency Physician,
Emergency Consultants Inc, Chippenham Medical Center

Kevin P Connelly, DO is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics,
American College of Osteopathic Pediatricians, and American Osteopathic Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Stephen C Dreskin, MD, PhD Professor of Medicine, Departments of Internal Medicine, Director of
Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology Practice, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center

Stephen C Dreskin, MD, PhD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Allergy
Asthma and Immunology, American Association for the Advancement of Science, American Association of
Immunologists, American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology, Clinical Immunology Society, and
Joint Council of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology

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Acute Urticaria: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/137362-overview

Disclosure: Genentech Consulting fee Consulting; American Health Insurance Plans Consulting fee
Consulting; Johns Hopkins School of Public Health Consulting fee Consulting; Array BioPharma Consulting
fee Consulting

Dirk M Elston, MD Director, Department of Dermatology, Geisinger Medical Center

Dirk M Elston, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Dermatology

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Daniel J Hogan, MD Clinical Professor of Internal Medicine (Dermatology), Nova Southeastern University
College of Osteopathic Medicine; Investigator, Hill Top Research, Florida Research Center

Daniel J Hogan, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American
Academy of Dermatology, American Contact Dermatitis Society, and Canadian Dermatology Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Shih-Wen Huang, MD Professor Emeritus, Pulmonology and Allergy, Department of Pediatrics University
of Florida College of Medicine

Shih-Wen Huang, MD, is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Allergy
Asthma and Immunology

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Harumi Jyonouchi, MD Associate Professor, Division of Pulmonary Allergy/Immunology and Infectious

Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, UMDNJ-New Jersey Medical School

Harumi Jyonouchi, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Allergy
Asthma and Immunology, American Academy of Pediatrics, American Association of Immunologists,
American Medical Association, Clinical Immunology Society, New York Academy of Sciences, Society for
Experimental Biology and Medicine, Society for Mucosal Immunology, and Society for Pediatric Research

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Robert A Schwartz, MD, MPH Professor and Head, Dermatology, Professor of Pathology, Pediatrics,
Medicine, and Preventive Medicine and Community Health, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New
Jersey-New Jersey Medical School

Robert A Schwartz, MD, MPH is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha,
American Academy of Dermatology, American College of Physicians, and Sigma Xi

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center
College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Medscape Salary Employment

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