9th Biology English

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BIOLOGY
CLASS IX
Editors
Dr. Kamal Mahendroo, Professor,

Vidya Bhavan Educational Resource Centre,
Udaipur, Rajastan.
Dr. Snigdha Das, Professor,

Udaipur, Rajastan.
Dr. Yashodhara Kaneria, Professor,

Udaipur, Rajastan.
Dr. N. Upendar Reddy,

Professor & Head C&T Dept.,
SCERT., A.P., Hyderabad.
Co-ordinators
Dr. T.V.S. Ramesh, Smt M. Deepika

Co-ordinator, C&T Dept., Lecturer,
SCERT, AP, Hyderabad. SCERT, AP, Hyderabad.
Published by the Government of Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad.
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Title Page 200 G.S.M. White Art Card
ii
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1
Chapter
Cell its structure and functions
In the previous class you have already structures, take photograph of them and
learnt about cells and their structure. You make of them. These have given valuable
have also learnt about discovery of the cell, information about the typical plant and
its sizes and shapes, unicellular and animal cells. Here we will try to study the
multicellular organisms. diagram of models of the cell.
Let us recall some of the activities
Typical Cell
related to these aspects. For example
Onion cells were nearly All the organelles shown in the typical
rectangular while the cheek cells plant or animal cell will not exist in every
were circular in shape. cell. For example, chloroplasts are always
Add other examples as the one given shown in the typical plant cell, yet all plant
above. cells do not have chloroplasts. chloroplasts
only in the cells of green plant parts like
1) __________________________
the leaf, tender stem etc. The organelles that
2) __________________________ feature in most of the cells are included in
3) __________________________ this model. The typical cell provides a way
Primarily, cells are studied under the to study cells. Once we arrive at such a
optical microscope. When we observe the model, we can compare any cell with it.
cell under a compound microscope, we can Observe the given diagrams of typical plant
see following organelles: cell wall, and animal cells (Fig-1 & 2).
cytoplasm, nucleus, chloroplast and the 1. What common features do you see
mitochondria. However, when the same in both the cells?
cells are observed under the electron 2. What cell organelles are found
microscope, a few other structures become exclusively in plant cell?
visible. 3. Compare the vacuoles of plant and
To study various cells scientists have animal cells, note down the
been trying to observe cells from different differences.
parts of plants and animals, draw their
Free distribution by A.P. Government 1
Endoplasmic reticulum Mitochondria
Nucleus Plasmame
Mitochondria Nuecleus
mbrane
Golgi apparatus
Cellwall
Chloroplast
Golgiapparatus
Vacuole
Endoplasmicreticulum Plasmamembrane
Plasmamembrane Fig-2 Tipical Animal cell

Fig-1 Typical Plant cell
solution on the membrane and leave it for

Let us study the different parts of plant 5 to 10 minutes.
and animal cell.
Cell membrane or Plasma
membrane
In your earlier class you have already
Fig-3(a) Rheo leaf peel cells with membrane
studied that cell membrane is the covering
of the animal cell. In plant cell there is (For preparing salt solution take 50 ml
another layer present over the cell of water and dissolve one tea spoon of salt
membrane known as the cell wall. With the in it. Stir it well.)
help of the given activity you will be able Plasma
to see a cell membrane. membrane
Activity-1
Observing cell membrane Shrunken
Take Rheo leaf, tear the leaf in single Cytoplasm
stroke. Observe it against the light. Take a
Fig-3(b) Cell membrane
small piece of leaf peal with light coloured
(transparent) portion. Put it on slide and put Observe it under microscope. Draw
a drop of water on it. Cover it with cover your observation in your note book.
slip and observe the light portion of leaf Compare the observations of both
under the microscope. activities or fig-3(a) and 3(b) and
Draw the diagram of what you have note down the differences?
seen? Can you guess the reason of the
Now put 1-2 drops of dilute salt differences?
2 Cell its structure and functions
When we put salt solution over the peel Cell wall

of rheo leaf, water present inside the rheo
This is a unique feature seen in plant
leaf cells come out. It results in the
cells. While the cell membrane acts as the
shrinking of the cytoplasm along with cell
outer layer in an animal cell, in a plant cell
membrane. The outer boundary of coloured
there is an extra layer (mainly of cellulose)
area is actually the cell membrane (fig-3(b))
outside the cell membrane which is known
which became separated from the cell wall.
as the cell wall. This is considered to be
However we can observe the structure one of the major differences between plant
of cell membrane only through an electron and animal cells.
microscope. Cell membrane is flexible and
The cell wall is a tough but flexible
is made up of mainly lipids and proteins.
porous layer that lends a definite shape to
The cell membrane is the outermost the cell and it also provides protection.
layer of the cell that separates cytoplasm Earlier it was believed to be inactive, but it
from the external environment. This is also is now considered to be one of the most
known as the plasma membrane. The cell significant organs of the cell that
membrane defines the shape and size of the continuously exchanges information with
cell, encloses the cytoplasm and protects other cells during growth and development.
it from the external environment. The
What is the role of cell wall in plant
internal environment of the cell is different
cells?
from that of outside. Inside a cell, one finds
It exerts an inward wall pressure to
a very specific composition of substances
resist the outward directed pressure
and balance of various substances is
exerted by cell sap hence; the plant cells
maintained. The cell membrane plays a
can withstand much greater changes in
crucial role in maintaining this balance.
surrounding medium than animal cells.
Any substance entering or leaving the cell
can do so only through this membrane. The Nucleus
uniqueness of this membrane lies in the fact
that it does not allow every substance to pass Lab Activity
through it. The exchange of substances Aim: To observe the nucleus in cheek
through the cell membrane happens very cells.
selectively. Hence it is known as selectively Material required: A tooth pick or
permeable membrane. This characteristic of ice-cream spoon or spatula, glass slide,
the membrane enables it to control the coverslip, watch glass, needle, blotting
exchange of substances between the cell and paper, 1% methylene blue, normal saline,
its external environment. You will learn more glycerine, microscope, etc.
about the function of cell membrane in the Procedure:
Chapter Movement of material across the 1. Wash your mouth and scrap a little
cell membrane. of the internal lining of your mouth
Cytoplasm
with a clean tooth pick or spatula 1 8 3 1 .
or ice-cream spoon. Cell membrane Brown had
2. Place the scrapping in a watch glass no idea
Nucleus about its
containing a very small quantity of
normal saline. function.
3. After cleaning, transfer the This is one
Fig-4 Nucleus cheek cells
material to a glass slide. of the most
4. Put a drop of methylene blue and important organelles of the cell. This is also
wait for a couple of minutes. known as the cells control room. The
5. Wipe off the extra stain with a fine nucleus is the largest and most distinct of
cloth or blotting paper. all cell organelles. Schleiden, who was one
of the proponents of cell theory, thought
6. Put a drop of glycerine over it.
that new cells were created from the
7. Place a coverslip. Tap the coverslip
nucleus and he called it the cytoblast.
with the blunt end of needle so as
Barring a few exceptions, almost all
to spread the cells.
eukaryotic cells have a nucleus. Red blood
Precautions:
cells in some mammals and phloem sieve
1. Do not scrap the cheek too hard as
tube in plants are examples of cells that do
it may injure you (buccal mucosa).
not have a nucleus. Even these cells do have
2. Scrapped material should be spread nuclei in the beginning, but it is later thrown
uniformly on the slide. out of the cells and destroyed.
3. Excess of stain should be drained The nucleus regulates and controls all
off. the functions of a cell and determines the
4. There should be no air-bubble characteristics of the organism. It consists
under the cover slip of all genetic information. The nucleus is
Observe the temporary mount under also closely involved in the process of cell
low and high power of microscope. Draw division.
your observations in your notebook. Genetic
Material
1. What was the shape of the cells that
Nuclear
you have observed? membrane
Nucleolus
2. Were these cells structure similar Nuclear
to the structure in onion peel cell? Nucleo Plasm
pore
3. Was there any darkly coloured
spherical or oval dot like structure
Fig-5 Nucleus
near the centre of the cell?
(view through Electron microscope)
You have already studied about this dark The membrane that encloses the
coloured dot in cells. This is the nucleus. nucleus and separates it from contents of
It was named by Robert Brown in the year cytoplasm is known as the nuclear
membrane. This is very similar to the cell when it became clear that the fluid is
membrane. Almost the entire genetic basically a medium in which various
material of the cells is found in the nucleus. particles and membranes float around and
On the basis of the presence or absense that the functions of the cell actually take
of the organised nucleus cells are place in these organelles, it began to be
categorized into two types, i.e. Prokaryotic understood that life resided in this
cells (without organised nucleus) and organization. In particular, the material
Eukaryotic cells (with organised nucleus). inside and outside the nuclear membrane
The above description was primarily was differentiated after the discovery of
about eukaryotic cells that contained a nucleus. Hence, protoplasm was renamed
membrane bound nucleus. Cells that do not as cytoplasm, that is, cell fluid. The fluid
have a nuclear membrane bound nuclear inside the nucleus came to be known as the
material are called prokaryotic cells. We nuclear fluid or nucleoplasm.
have mentioned earlier that the bacterium Cell organelles
is a prokaryotic cell. Cyanobacteria, blue-
green algae also belong to this category. Now let us discuss about some
important cell organelles. 1. Mitochondria,
Cytoplasm 2. Plastids, 3. Ribosoms, 4. endoplasmic
When we look at the temporary mounts reticulum, 5.Glogi apparatus,
of onion peel, we can see a large region of 6.Lysosomes, 7. vacuoles.
each cell enclosed by the cell membrane. They are important because they carry
This region takes up very little stain. It is out very crucial functions in cells.
called the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm is the
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
fluid content inside the plasma membrane.
It also contains many specialised cell When the cell was observed under the
organelles. Each of these organelles electron microscope, a network of
performs specific function for the cell. membranes was observed throughout the
Cell organelles are enclosed by cytoplasm. This network creates passages
membranes. In prokaryotes, beside the
absence of a defined membrane bound Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
nucleus (or nuclear region), the membrane-
bound cell organelles are also absent.
Protoplasm vs. cytoplasm
For a long time it was believed that the Smooth
essence of life was stored in the fluid found Endoplasmic
inside the cell. Hence this was named Reticulum
protoplasm which means life fluid. But Fig-6 Endoplansmic Reticulum

within the cytoplasm for the transport of came to be observed only under an electron
substances from one part of the cell to microscope.
another. This network of membranes is
known as the endoplasmic reticulum.
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a
large network of membrane-bound tubes
and sheets. The ER membrane is similar in
structure to the plasma membrane.
Endoplasmic reticulum may have some
granule like structure on there surface
called as ribosomes, such parts are called
as rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER). Fig-7 Golgi apparatus
Areas/sections that do not have ribosomes
This organelle is also made up of
on them are smooth endoplasmic reticulum
several membranes. These membranes
(SER). Rough endoplasmic reticulum is
create sac-like structures around which
sites of protein manufacture. The SER helps
many fluid-filled vesicles abound. The
in the manufacture of fat molecules, or
proteins and other substances produced in
lipids, important for cell function. The
the ribosome reaches the golgi body
manufactured proteins and lipids are then
through these vesicles. Here, these
sent to various places in the cell depending
substances are altered slightly. In one
on need, using the ER. Some of these
sense, the function of the golgi bodies is
proteins and lipids help in building the cell
to package various substances before they
membrane.
are transported to other parts of the cell.
Thus, one function of the ER is to serve
From here these substances are either sent
as channels for the transport of materials
towards the cell membrane or to another
(especially proteins) between various
organelle, the lysosome. After reaching the
regions of the cytoplasm or between the
cell membrane these substances are
cytoplasm and the nucleus. It also functions
secreted from the cell, and sometimes even
as a cytoplasmic framework providing a
used to regenerate or repair the membrane.
surface for some of the biochemical
The number of golgi bodies varies from
activities of the cell. In vertebrate liver cells
cell to cell. Their numbers are particularly
SER plays a crucial role in detoxifying
large in those cells that secrete hormones
many poisons and drugs.
and enzymes.
Golgi body or Golgi apparatus
Lysosome
Although Camillo Golgi had observed
One of the facts that troubled the
this organelle in the year 1898 using an
scientists for a long time was that, certain
optical microscope, its finer structure
enzymes present in the cell that had the
ability to destroy almost all the structures You can do this activity by taking other
in the cell didnt damage it. This puzzle was available material like leaves of Casiatora
solved when lysosomes were discovered as or Cheek cells.
tiny particles visible in the cytoplasm. It You may have observed green oval (or)
was found that they contained the cylindrical grains scattered in the
destructive enzymes. Thus the enzymes cytoplasm. These are the mitochondria
normally do not come in contact with the
rest of the cell. The materials that need to Matrix
Cristae Inner
be destroyed are transported to the
lysosomes. At times, the lysosomes burst Membrane
and the enzymes are released to digest the
cell. Hence, lysosomes are also known as
the suicide bags of the cell. Outer
Mitochondria Membrane
Fig-8(b) L.S. of Mitochondria
Activity -2
Mitochondria are small, spherical or
Observing Mitochondria cylindrical organelles. Generally a
Let us do this activity with onion peel. mitochondrion is 2-8 micron long and
i) Make a fresh solution of Janus about 0.5 micron wide. It is about 150 times
Green-B in a Beaker smaller than the nucleus. There are about
ii) Mix 200mg Janus Green-B in 100ml 100-150 mitochondria in each cell. When
of water seen under the optical microscope, the
iii) Take a watch glass pour some solution. mitochondria appear as oval or cylindrical
Put the onion peel in this solution and dots in the cell. Electron microscope
keep it for about half an hour. reveals their unique internal structure in
great detail.
iv) Keep a piece of onion peel on the
slide and wash thoroughly with Information derived from the electron
water. microscope tells us that the mitochondria
are made of a double-membrane wall. The
v) Cover the slide with a cover slip and
inner membrane of the wall protrudes into
observe it under microscope at high
the interior in folds and forms structures
magnification.
called cristae; the space between cristae is
Observe and
known as the matrix.
make a sketch of
Mitochondria are responsible for
the same in your
cellular respiration, a process through
note book.
which the cell derives its energy to do work.
Compare it with
Fig-8(a) Mitochondria Because of this, mitochondria are also
the given diagram. in onion peel cell known as the cells powerhouse of the cell.
Ribosomes that you have observed under the

microscope.
There are small granul like structures
in the cytoplasm of the cell. They are called Chloroplast is a type of plastid. Plastids
ribosomes. We can see ribosomes on the are present only in plant cells. Plastids are
surface of rough endoplasmic reticulam. mainly of two types chromoplasts
(coloured) and leucoplasts (colourless).
Plastids Chloroplasts are of different shapes
Activity - 3 Outer Membrane Granum
Observation of chloroplast in rheo Lumen
leaf
1. Take the peel of Rheo leaf and Inner Membrane
Thylakoids
Stroma
mount it in water on a slide.
2. Observe it under compund Fig-9(c)
microscope. disc, oval etc. In algae, these can be found

Let us make a drawing of the as ladders, stars, spirals or reticulate. The
observations. diameter of chloroplasts in higher plants
You will observe can vary between 4 to 10 micron. The
small green granules primary function of chloroplasts is to trap
called chloroplast. the energy from sunlight and transform it
They mainly contain to chemical energy, thus helping to carry
green substance out photosynthesis.
called chlorophyll. Fig-9(a) Vacuole
Activity-4
Activity-5
Observing chloroplast in algae
Observing vacuoles
Collect some algae from pond and
1. Take the leaf or stem of any
separate out thin filaments of them. Place
succulent plant (like the torch
a few filaments on a slide. Observe it under
cactus).
the microscope. Take the help of given
figure and draw the picture of chloroplast 2. Take thin cross section of stem of
cactus in a watch glass containing
water.
3. Stain it with dilute safranine
solution.
4. Observe the section under low and
high power microscope.
Fig-9(b) Chloroplasts in Algae

What do you observe? to see the thickness of the wall. This three-
The large empty spaces present in the dimensional image becomes clear if you
cell are vacuoles. These are fluid-filled sac- reduce the intensity of light as well.
like structures. In animal cells vacuoles are Each cell thus acquires its structure and
small in size while in plant cells they are ability to function because of the
large. In mature plant cells they might organization of its membrane and
occupy almost the entire cell space. organelles in a specific way.
Do you know? Where do cells come from?

Certain organelles are present in The observations so far made it clear
large number in the cell for example that all living beings are made of cells and
cells involved in photosynthesis may that each cell has a nucleus. Around 1838-
contain around 50 to 200 chloroplasts. 39, two scientists expressed this in the form
of a theory. The scientists were Matthias
Are cells flat? Jakob Schleiden (1804-1881) and Theodor
Usually when cells are seen under the Schwann (1810-1882). Schleiden was a
microscope, the image appears as flat and botanist while Schwann was a zoologist. For
two-dimensional. It seems that all the the record, it should be mentioned that
organelles in the cell are situated in one quite a few scientists had recognized by
plane. that time that cells were present in all living
In reality, cells have length, breadth and organisms and were expressing it in their
thickness. We can easily see the length and own ways. However, Schleiden and Schwann
breadth. Since we cannot see the thickness were the first to claim that this fact was
of the cells under the microscope, we tend true for the entire plant and animal
to think that these are flat objects. However, kingdom. In other words, they took the first
there are a few easy ways to observe the bold step of generalizing from observations
thickness of the cells. The easiest method and coming up with a theory which was
is to slightly change the focus while applicable to all living organisms. And
viewing plant cells on the slide and look at because of this, the credit for propounding
the cell wall. Youll find that you are able the cell theory goes to them. What is
noteworthy is that there was a gap of about
200 years between Robert Hooke first
observing cells and the formulation of the
cell theory.
Schleiden and Schwann together
formulated the cell theory. This theory
however did not explain as to how the new
Fig-10 Cell cells were formed. Rudolf Von Virchow

(1855) first explained that cells divided shape. Cell theory as understood today is
and new cells can formed only by the based on two cardinal principles.
division of the pre-existing cells. He (i) All living organisms are composed
modified the hypothesis of Schleiden and of cells and product of cell.
Schwann to give the cell theory a final (ii)All cells arise from pre-existing
cells.
Key words
Plasma membrane, Selectively Permeable membrane, Prokaryotic cell,

Eukaryotic cell, Chromoplast, Leucoplast, Cisternae, Vesicles, Cristae, Matrix.
What we have learnt?
The fundamental organizational unit of life is the cell.

Cells are enclosed by a plasma membrane composed of lipids and proteins.
Plasma membrane is a selectively permeable membrane.
In plant cells, a cell wall composed of cellulose is located outside the cell
membrane.
In prokaryotes nuclear membrane is absent.
The endoplasmic reticulum functions both as passageway for intra cellular transport
and as manufacturing surface.
Lysosomes are membrane bound sacs filled with digestive enzymes.
The Golgi apparatus consists of stacks of membranes bound vesicles that function
in the storage.
Mitochondria are also known as powerhouse of the cell.
Two types of plastids are present in cell; chromoplastids and leucoplastids.
Vacuoles are the storage sacs for solids or liquid contents.
All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Improve your learning
1. Differentiate between (A.S 1)

(a) Plant cell and animal cell
(b) Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

2. What happens if plasma membrane ruptures or breaks? (AS 2)

3. Prepare a model of plant cell or animal cell. (AS 5)
4. What would happen to the life of cell if there was no golgi complex? (AS 2)
5. What happen to cell if nucleus is removed? Give reasons to support your answer?
( AS 1)
6. Lysosomes are known as suicidal bags of the cell? Why? (AS 1)
7. Why do plant cell posses large sized vacuole? (AS1)
8. Prepare a temporary mount of any leaf peel observe the stomata draw their picture?
Write a short note on the same. (AS 5)
9. Cell is the basic unit of life, explain the statement.(AS 1)
10.How do you appreciate about the organization of cell in the living body?(AS 6)
11.If the organization of cell is destroyed due to physical and chemical influence what
will happen? (AS 6)
12.Read the chapter carefully collect the information about the functions of different
cell organelles and make a table which contains serial number. Cell organelle,
function. Dont forget write your specific findings below the table? (AS 4)
13.How could you appreciate function of tiny cell in a large body of an
organism (AS 6)
14.Look at the following cartoon of a cell. Find out the functions of cell
organelles (AS 5)
15.Who and when proposed cell theory. What are salient features of it? (AS 1)
Chapter
Plant tissues
Y ou have already learnt about

different cell organelles and their
functions in the chapter Cell its structure
also for all the other living organisms
dependent on them, either directly or
indirectly.
and functions. In unicellular organisms, Let us recall the information about
a single cell performs all the functions. But different parts of the plants and the
in multi-cellular organisms there are functions they are associated with.
numerous cells, performing various
functions. Activity-1
Plants that we observe around us are Parts of the plants and their
usually multi-cellular. They perform functions.
several life processes such as growth,
We have studied about the functions of
respiration, excretion, etc, similar to those
plant parts in earlier classes. Read the
performed by animals. In addition to these
functions given below and write the name
they can perform photosynthesis and
of the parts involved in performing the
prepare food not only for themselves but
respective function.
S.No Function Name of the parts
1 Absorption of water from soil
2 Exchange of gases (air)
3 Photosynthesis
4 Transpiration
5 Reproduction
How can the plants perform all the life Let us try to find out more about
processes? arrangements of cells in plants and their
Is there any specific arrangement of the functions by the following activities.
cells in plants that help in carrying out Do the following activities with the help
these processes? of your teacher.
12 Plant Tissues
Activity-2
Cells in onion peel
- Take a piece of an onion peel.
- Now place it on the slide.
- Put a drop of water and then a drop of
Fig-2 Betel leaf peel
glycerin on it.
has been torn under the microscope in
the same manner as you had observed
Cell wall
the onion peel.
Draw a diagram of what you observed
Nucleus
and compare with the following.
cytoplasm Are all the cells similar?
Is there any difference in their
arrangement?
What can we infer from the above
Fig-1 Onion peel activities?
Do you find cells in groups in both the
- Gently cover it with a cover -slip. activities?
- Observe it under the microscope. Compare and write a note on the
- Draw and label the diagram, what you arrangements of the cells as you see
have observed under the microscope. in both the activities.
Compare your drawing with the figure- You may have observed that the cells are
1 to find out labeled parts. present in groups with certain
arrangement. With the help of following
Are all the cells similar? activities we shall try to find out whether
How are the cells arranged? these arrangements have special roles to
play in the plant body.
Activity-3 Activity-4
Cells in a leaf peel. (a) Cells in root tip
- Take a betel leaf or a Tradescantia leaf. - Are the cells in the root similar to that
- Tear it with a single stroke. So that a in a leaf. Let us find out how the cells
thin edge be seen at torn end. are arranged in the root. For this we
- Observe the thin edge where the leaf need onion root tips.

- Take a transparent (plastic/glass) bottle

fill with water. Take an onion bulb
slightly larger than the mouth of the
bottle.
- Put the onion bulb on the mouth of the
bottle as shown in the fig-3.
Fig-4 Onion Root Tip
Activity-5
(b) Growing roots
Fig-3 Onion root
- Observe the growth of roots for a few - Take the onion used in the previous
days till they grow to nearly an inch. activity and mark the cut end of the
roots with a permanent marker.
- Take the onion out and cut some of the - Put it in the same set up as used in the
root tips. previous activity.
- Take an onion root tip. - Leave the set up aside for at least four
to five days. Take care that there is
- Place it on the slide.
enough water in the glass so that the
- Put a drop of water and then a drop of roots are submerged.
glycerin on it.
Did all the roots grow in a same
- Cover with cover-slip. manner?
- Put the 2-3 layer of filter paper on the What happened to the roots which had
cover slip, been cut off?
- Tap the cover-slip gently press with the Write down your findings, regarding the
blunt end of the needle or brush to cut roots and those that were not?
spread the material. We observe that by removing the tip of
- Observe the structure and arrangement the onion root, having a particular
of the cells. arrangement of cells, the growth of the root
in length is stopped.
- Draw diagram that you observed under
microscope. You have observed that cells are present
in groups. Cells in groups which are nearly
Are all the cells similar?
similar in structure perform similar
What is the arrangement of cells? functions. Such groups of cells are called
tissues.
14 Plant Tissues
Tissues that form outer coverings are

called as Dermal tissues.
Tissues that form the bulk of the plant
body, helping in packing other tissues
are called as Ground tissues.
Tissues that help in transport of
materials are called as Vascular tissues.
Fig-5 Growth of roots in onion bulb You have already observed some types
of tissues. To observe the various types of
One day Haritha went to a park with
plant tissues we need to know some
Latha. There she saw a gardener had been
techniques for preparing slides and cutting
cutting the tips of the plants with cutter. She
sections. See annexure-1 for the same.
had a doubt and asked the gardener.
Let us read the conversation Meristematic tissues
How do the plants grow if the tips have Observe the given figure of a stained
been cut off? section of a shoot tip.
He said Branches will grow from the
sides.
Later she saw another gardener, apical meristem
watering a stump. She went there and lateral meristem
asked.
intercalary
Why are you watering the stump? meristem
The stump will soon bear leaves He

Fig-6 L.S. of a Shoot tip
said
Haritha had a question in her mind, How From the above figure you can infer that
will the leaves come? Do you know the meristematic tissues are present on the tip,
answer? sides and in between layers of other
Now we will study about those tissues tissues. Meristematic tissues at the
that bring about growth, repair and other growing tip that bring about growth in
functions in a plant body. length are called as apical meristematic
tissues.
There are four basic types of tissues in
the plants. They are Tissues present around the edges in a
lateral manner and giving rise to growth in
Tissues that bring about overall growth
girth of the stem are called lateral
and repair are called Meristematic
meristematic tissues.
tissues.
Areas from which branching takes place Can we find the above tissues in the root
or a leaf or a flower stalk grows, we find a tip as well?
kind of meristematic tissue called as
intercalary meristematic (also called as Activity-6
Cambium) tissue.
Comparing the shoot tip and the root tip
Meristamatic tissue
Activity-5
Carefully observe the figures of
We had already observed the tissues root tip and shoot tip. Do you find any
present in the root tip in earlier activities. similarities or differences between the
Table -2 two? Note down your observations in the
following table-2
Arrangement of the cells (Tissues) Shoot tip Root tip

At the tip
At the lateral side
At the point of branching
From all this we can conclude that Observe it under the microscope.
different types of meristematic tissues are Draw and label the diagram.
present both in the root tip and shoot tip. Compare it with figure given below
Cells in the meristematic tissues are
Meristematic tissues
- Small and having thin cell wall.
- Living with prominent nucleus and
Voscular tissue
abundant cytoplasm.
- Compactly arranged without Ground tissue
intercellular spaces.
- Continuously dividing cells. Dermal tissue
Let us learn about the other types of
tissues.
Activity-7 Fig-7 Dicot stem (TS) - Tissues
What are the similarities between the
Dicot Stem tissues shoot tip tissues and the tissues as
Prepare a temporary mount of the TS shown in the above figure?
of a dicot stem. Are all the cells similar in shape and
structure?
16 Plant Tissues
How many different types of Slowly remove it and observe that peel
arrangement of cells (in the form of under the microscope (by preparing a
tissues) could you see in the given temporary mount).
figure? See the arrangement of cells .Are all
You have already studied about the cells similar? Are there any spaces between
meristematic tissues. The other major the cells?
groups that we shall study now are dermal This activity shows a part of the dermal
tissue, ground tissue and vascular tissue. tissue of plants.
These develop from the cells of the Dermal tissue (Dermis) usually consists
meristematic tissues during the growth and of a single layer of tissues showing
repair of the plants parts. variations in the types of cells. On the basis
Dermal Tissue of their functions and location. This tissue
What kind of arrangements do you is studied as three different types-
observe in the outer layer of the TS of epidermis (outer most layer), mesodermis
stem? (The middle layer) and endodermis (the
We can find the dermal tissue over the innermost layer).
entire surface of the plant body. The walls of the cells of dermal tissue
We will do the following activity to are thicker as compared to the cells of
observe the dermal tissue more closely. meristematic tissues. In desert plants it may
Activity-8 be even more thick and waxy. Small pores
are seen in the epidermis of the leaf, called
Rheo leaf - Dermal tissue. stomata. They are enclosed by two kidney
- Take a fresh leaf of Rheo or Betel plant shaped cells, called guard cells. Cells of
- Tear it with a single stroke, so that a the roots have long-hair like parts, called
thin whitish edge can be seen at torn root hairs.
end.
Guard Cells
Stomatal Aperture
Cuter Wall Inner Wall
Epidermal Cells
Chloroplasts
Stomata
Fig-8 Peel of Rheo leaf Dermal tissue

Do you ever saw sticky substance on the Stomata and root hair are also dermal
trunk or branches of tree like Acacia, Neem, tissues that are essential for gaseous
etc,. What is it? Where is the gum secreted exchange and transpiration as well as
from? absorption of water and minerals
respectively. Photosynthesis is also carried
Do you know?
out by certain cells of this tissue.
Plants have the ability to store certain
substances that are either their excretory Ground Tissue
products or accumulated food or some You have seen the ground tissue in the
secretary substances in different ways. T.S. of stem (Figure 7). Make a sketch of
Gum is secreted from the dermal layer the arrangement of cells you had seen.
of gum tree. You can see that cells appear larger with
prominent walls.
The dermal layer protects the plants These cells form the ground tissue. It
from loss of water, mechanical damage and forms the bulk of the plant body. The
invasion by parasitic and disease causing ground tissue is useful for storing food
organisms. In big trees the dermal tissue and providing physical support to the plant
forms several layers above the epidermis. body. There are mainly three types of
It is called bark. ground tissues. They are parenchyma,
collenchyma and sclerenchyma.
Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma

Fig -9 Ground tissue- Types
The cells of the parenchyma are soft, Collenchyma tissues have thicker
thin walled and loosely packed. The walled, longer cells compared to
Parenchyma which contains chloroplasts is parenchyma.
called Chlorenchyma. The Parenchyma In the sclerenchyma the cells are thick
which contains large air cavities or spaces walled and compactly arranged with nearly
is called Aerenchyma. The Parenchyma no spaces between them.
which stores water or food or waste
Let us observe the ground tissue of some
products is called Storage Tissue.
other stems
18 Plant Tissues
Activity-9
Take permanent slides of Chlorenchyma, Arenchyma, Storage Tissue in your laboratory
observe under microscope find out the characters and differences write in your notebook.
Chlorenchyma Arenchyma Storage Tissue

Fig -10
Do you know?
Nehemiah Grew (1641-1712) was practicing
physician and worked as the secretary of the Royal
Society, London. He began his work on the study of
internal structure of the plants in the year 1664.
Grews fundamental inference was Every plant organ
consists of two types of organical parts. One is pithy
and other is ligneous part.
Grew gave the term parenchyma for the pithy part.
Grew initiated the study of tissues (Histology) in plant
bodies and published his work as the book Anatomy of
Nehemiah Grew
Plants in the year 1682. (1641-1712)
Vascular Tissue
plant is kept in red coloured water. Some
We know that roots can absorb water of the parts of the plant turned red. Do the
from the soil and send it to other parts of same experiment again by keeping a small
the plant. The leaves and other green parts plant (with roots) in red coloured water?
prepare food and supply it to all the parts Leave it for two hours. Now cut a T.S. of
of the plant. the stem and observe it under the
Let us study the tissues involved in microscope.
transportation. Which portion of the plant is
We had performed an experiment on responsible for this transport?
transportation in class VII, in the chapter Draw a rough sketch of the portion and
on plant nutrition. We had seen that if the mark the portion that appeared red.
What do you conclude from your observation?

The tissues involved in transportation are vascular tissues. They are composed of different
types of cells and their specific arrangements.
Xylem
Phloem
Vascular
bundle
Fig-11 TS of stem
The part that appeared red is Xylem plants. Hence they are known as
tissues, while the cells adjacent to these conducting or vascular tissues. xylem and
(As shown in the figure 12) are of phloem phloem together form the vascular
tissues. Xylem is responsible for transport bundles.
of materials away from the root. Phloem The vascular tissue gives mechanical
helps in the transportation of the material support to the plant as well.
away from the photosynthetic parts of the
XYLEM PHLOEM
epidermis
cortex fibre sieve
pith sieve
trachieds
companion
sieve
vessel
xylem
phloem
phloem
xylem
Fig-12 Different Cells of Xylem and Phloem
20 Plant Tissues
Xylem contains elongated tracheid water to great heights in the plant body. It
cells, tubular vessels, fibres and is up to nearly 200 ft in Eucalyptus plants
parenchyma Phloem contains long sieve and up to nearly 330 ft in the red wood trees.
cells and sieve tubes, companion cells, We have seen in this lesson that plants
fibres and parenchyma. have different types of tissues which are
Do you know the vascular tissues carry arranged in specific manner to carry out
different functions in the plant body.
Key words
Tissue, Meristematic tissue, Apical meristem. Later meristem, Inter calary

meristem. Dermal tissue, Epidermis, Bark, Ground tissue, Parenchyma, Collenchyma,
Sclerenchyma, Vascular tissue, Xylem, Phloem, Vacular bundles, Trachieds, Vessels,
Fibres, Sieve cells, Sieve tubes, Companion cells.
Tissue is a group of cells similar in structure, and performing similar functions.

Meristematic tissue is the dividing tissue, present in the growing regions.
Meristematic tissue is mainly of three types. They are Apical meistem, Lateral
meristem and Intercalary meristem.
Dermal tissue covers the plant body and gives protection.
Ground tissue is bulk in all the parts of the plant and gives support and stores food.
It is of three types. They are Parenchyma. Collenchyma and Sclerenchyma.
Vascular tissue conducts transportation. It is mainly of two types. They are xylem
and phloem.
1. Define the terms (AS 1)

- Tissue
- Meristematic tissue
- Dermal tissue

2. Differenciate in between the following (AS 1)

- Meristematic tissue and Ground tissue
- Apical meristem and lateral meristem
- Parenchyma and collenchyma
- Sclerenchyma and parenchyma
- Xylem and phloem
- Epidermis and bark
3. Name the following (AS 1)
- Growing tissue, which cause growth in the length of the plant.
- Growing tissue, which cause growth in the girth of the plant.
- Large air cavities in the aquatic plants.
- Food material in pharenchyma.
- Pores essential for gaseous exchange and transpiration.
4. Compare and contrast the following (AS 1)
- Xylem and phloem
- Meristematic tissue and Dermal tissue.
5. Give reasons to the following (AS 1)
- Xylem is a conductive tissue
- Epidermis gives protection
6. Bark cells are impervious to gases and water. What experiment you will perform
to prove this? (AS 3)
7. Chlorenchyma, Arenchyma and storage tissue Even though these three are
parenchyma. Why do they have special names? (AS 1)
8. Draw and label the diagram of the T.S. of stem (AS 5)
9. Describe the functions of - Meristem, Xylem and phloem (AS 1)
10.While observing internal parts of plants, how do you feel about its structure and
functions? (AS 6)
11. If you want to know more about tissues in plants what questions you are going to
ask? (AS 2)
12.Collect information about dermal tissues of plants in what way they help to
them. (AS 4)
22 Plant Tissues
ANEXURE
In this technique fine sections of the material are cut. Figures in next page will
help you to understand this technique.
To get section cuttings pith material is taken as the support. A slit is made in the
pith material longitudinally.
The specimen (root or stem or leaf or bud) is inserted in the slit for section
cutting.
To get longitudinal section (LS) the specimen should be inserted in the pith
material transversely.
To get transverse section (TS) the specimen should be inserted in the pith material
longitudinally.
Thin sections should be cut, using the blade as a tool.
Collect the cuttings in a watch glass with water.
Select one thin section and put it on a glass slide with the help of a small brush.
Put a drop of glycerin on it.
Stain with a drop of safranin.
Gently cover with the cover-slip using needle.
Use blotting paper to remove the excess water or glycerin or stain.
Then observe under the microscope.

(a) Material (b) Making the pith material (c) Making slit in the pith material
(d) Cutting specimen to get TS (e)Inserting the Specimen to get TS (f) Section cutting with blade
(g) Taking the thin section with brush (h) Keeping the section on the slide (i) Putting a drop of water,
Glycerin
(j) Staining with safranin (k) Covering with cover-slip (l) Obsere under Microscope
24 Plant Tissues
Chapter
Animal tissues
We had learned about plant tissues in two tissues. Some tissues carry
the earlier chapter. Do animals also have information like responses.
the four major groups of tissues as in We will try to learn more about the
plants? To study about the animal tissue we tissues by doing the following activities.
can take examples of tissues present in
some animals that we see around us. In the Lab Activity
chapter on plant tissues we observed that
different types of functions were carried Aim: Identification of tissue in
out by different tissues. We will try to see collected sample.
whether this happens in animals also. Apparatus: Microscope, slide, dil Hcl,
We know that different organ systems forceps, brush.
work to carry out different functions. Procedure: Collect a small piece of
chicken with bone from your nearby
Enlist them: chicken centres or market.
1. ........................... For observing each type of tissue, you
2. ........................... need to follow specific procedure. After
3. ........................... completion of every activity, do not forget
Do some tissues help the organs to to draw the diagram and answer and discuss
carry out their functions? the questions.
How do they do so? Discuss with Put it in dilute HCl for two hours.
your friends and write. Take the skin part of chicken peice.
There are different kinds of tissues Place the material with forceps or
in the animals to perform different brush on the slide.
functions like plant tissues. Some tissues Then keep the another slide on it
cover and protect the body. Some tissues and press both gently.
helps in the movement which is performed Observe under microscope
by muscles and bones and other types of Draw the diagram of what you
tissues make connection between these observe under microscope in your
note book. Compare your diagram

with the following picture.
Fig-2 Blood
Fig-1 Epithelial Tissue Now try to find out the answers.

Now try to find out the answers. What you observe?
Are all the cells similar? Are all cells in your blood sample
How are they arranged. are same?
Are these cells tightly packed and Is there any fluid like substance?
formed as continuous sheath? While making a blood slide,
Is there any inter cellular space? sometimes air bubbles also
Think, why these cells look like formed. It may confuse you. Do
continuous sheath? not be hurry to observe.
Does this tissue covering protect Do you agree that blood is also a
inside and outside of the animal tissue?
body? Procedure - 3
Procedure - 2
Take a piece of muscle of chicken
Take a sterilized syringe needle.
which is collected for activity-1.
Collect one drop of blood from
Put in diluted HCl or vinegar and
finger tip by pricking with syringe
leave it for two hours.
needle. (Under guidance of
Next morning collect the piece of
teacher)
muscle on a slide with forceps.
Take a slide. Keep the finger on the
Put another slide on it and press
slide to collect one drop of blood
both sides gently.
Put another slide on it gently and
Observe under microscope.
press both sides.
Draw the diagram of what you
Observe under microscope
observe under microscope in your
Draw the diagram of what you
observe under microscope in your
26 Animal Tissue
Are the functions of all the above

tissues the same?
Let us study about tissue in our body.
Epithelial Tissue:
(Epi means-Outer, Theliuam means-Tissue)
Fig-3 Muscle Epithelial tissues are present in the
skin, lining of mouth, lining of blood
Now try to find out the answers.
vessels, lung alveoli and kidney tubules.
How are the cells arranged?
Do you find any difference Activity-1
between skin cells and muscle
cells? Collect the substance lining of mouth
If you want to observe the bone by using wooden spoon and observe this
tissue in the chicken bone, settle it under microscope. Draw the diagram that
in vinegar or diluted Hcl over night. you observed in the microscope, in your
It is better to do this one day before note book.
your discussion in the class. Then How are the cells arranged
only the bone becomes soft. Take Are there any inter cellular spaces?
a piece from it by using knife. The epithelial tissue, extremely thin
Do you find any relation among and flat, form a delicate lining. This is called
these tissues? as squamous epithelium. We find this type
Is this tissue useful for movements of epithelium in oesophagus, lining of
in our body? mouth, lining of blood vessels, lung alveoli
There are four types of tissues in the where transportation of substances
animals selectively occurs through permeable
Covering or protecting tissue, membrane (you will learn about
inside or outside of animal body, permeability next chapter transportation
is epithelial tissue. substance through plasma membrane).
A loosely spaced and imbedded in Apical Suface
intra cellular matrix whixh makes
connection between organs is
Nucleus
called Connective Tissue.
The tissue which is responsible for
movements in our body is known
Basolateral Suface Basement Membrane
as muscular tissue.
A specialized tissue that responds
to internal, external stimuli, nerves Fig-4 Squamous Epithelium
tissue.
The epithelial cells in skin are arranged Activity-3

in the form of layers. This is called as
stratified squamous epithelium. Take a permanent slide of columnar
epithelium from the slide box and observe
Think, why are the epithelial cells
under microscope.
in skin arranged in the form of layers?
If you drink hot tea or chilled cool
drink, how would you feel?
If your skin burns or wounded
which tissue would effected.
Activity-2
Take a permanent slide of cuboidal
epithelium from your laboratory slide box
and observe under microscope. Draw the Fig-6 columnar epithelium
picture in your note book. How are the cells
Draw the figure that you observed
arranged?
under microscope
How are the cells? Do you find any
hair like projections on the outer
surface of epithelial cells.
These types of cells are present where
absorption and secretion occurs. Try to
think where do this type of epithelial
tissues present in your body?
Do you know?The skin is also a kind of
Fig-5 Cuboidal Epithelium epithelial tissue. Where does nails, and hair
grow from. The scales of fishes, reptiles
These are the cuboidal epithelial cells and feathers of birds also grow from
form the lining of kidney tubules. The ducts epithelium. These are modified epithelial
of salivary glands were providing cells. You learn more about them in the
mechanical support. chapter: Adoption in Ecosystem.
Do you know? Connective tissue
Sometimes a portion of epithelial tissue If you tilt any part of your body, what
folds inward and formed a multi cellular will happen to internal organs? Is there any
gland. Hence it is called as granular displacement? The internal organs located
epithelium. at specific places ,because there is no
displacemet in organs due to connective
tissues. They connect organs and muscles.
28 Animal Tissue
These tissues are called connective tissue. Why do old people shiver in winter
Connective tissues help in binding the when compared to youngsters? Is there any
other tissues and organs together and insulator like substance to prevent the
provide a frame work and support to various escape of heat energy during winter?
organs in the body. These tissues also play Fat storing
a major role in the transport of material adipose tissue is
from one tissue to another. They also help found below the
in the body defence, body repair and skin and between
storage of fat. There are different types of internal organs.
connective tissues, each performing a The cells of this
different function. tissue are filled
How do glass wear items carry for with fat
longer distance? globules.
Fig-8 Adipose tissue
Areolar tissue is one type of Storage of fat
connective tissue which joins different also acts as insulator.
tissues. It helps in packing and helps to keep Are all tissues in our body smooth and
the organs in place. These cells are called soft?
fibroblasts. These are the major Which tissue gives definite shape to
components in this type of connective body of vertebrae?
tissue. These cells secrete fibrous material Bone is another type of connective
which holds the other tissue in position. tissue; it forms the frame work that
These cells also help in repair of the tissues supports the body. It is a major component
when they are injured. of the skeletal system of several vertebrae
(except some fishes like sharks).
Mat cell
Do you know?
Yellow elastic
Bone is made of calcium phosphate
fibres
and calcium carbonate. These salts are
Phagocyte
secreted by cells called osteocytes.
White fibres These cells are present in the central
Fibroblast hollow portion of the bone called bone
marrow.
Fig-7 Areolar Tissue
The muscle in our body is attached to

the skin and bone by this type of tissue. We
can see this type of tissue around blood
vessels and nerve. Fig-9 Bone

You know that, body movement is

because of muscles with the help of bones.
How muscles are attached to bones?
Tendon is a type of connective tissue
Osteon which is also made of fibres.
The tendon joins the muscle to the
bone. It is also made of collagen.
Haversian Canal Think and discuss

Osteocyte Canaliculi
Blood is a type of connective tissue.

Fig-10 Osteocyte (bone cells)
Why would it be called connective
tissue?
Cartilage is a type of connective tissue
found in the joints of bones, tip of ribs tip
Activity-4
of the nose, external ears and in trachea.
Embryos of several vertebrae do not have Invite a scientist or doctor to your
bone but have cartilage. The entire skeleton place. Recrod an interview about blood
of fishes like sharks is made of cartilage. structure and its functions. It is important
Cartilage is hard but not as hard as bone. to make a questionnaire inorder to conduct
interview. After completion of interview,
prepare a booklet about blood and display
it on bulletin board or class room library.
It differs from other types of
connective tissues. There are different
Articular
cartilage types of cells in blood and each one has a
different function. All the cells in the blood
cells float freely in the plasma. Extra
cellular space is filled with fluid called
Fig-11 Cartilage
plasma. There are no fibres in blood.
How two bones are connected at joints?
Ligament is yet another type of
connective tissue that connects bones at
the joints and holds then in position. It is
made up of large number of fibres. These
fibres are made of a protein called collagen.
This is very elastic in nature.
Fig-12 Blood cells
30 Animal Tissue
Story of blood Cells present in blood are corpuscles.

They are three types 1. RBC 2. WBC 3.
Recall the activity 2. Blood is also a
Blood platelets.
tissue which is having different
components. Let us know more about Red blood cells also known as
blood. erythrocytes are red in colour. They have
red coloured protein called haemoglobin.
There is red stream that flows in closed
Because of haemoglobine blood is red in
canals in our body. Think what is it?
colour, which helps in the transport of
The red stream that flows in closed tubes
oxygen and carbon dioxide 1ml of human
in our body is blood. It is also a type of
blood has about 5 millions of red blood
connective tissue. Blood explains many
cells which live for 120 days in blood.
things about us. Blood is the source to
We can make a chain of red blood cells
identify our wellness or illness. It is very
around the earth at equator with 7 circles.
interesting to know about blood current in
When you are in mothers womb your RBC
our body. There is highly sophisticated and
are formed in the liver and spleen. After
well developed mechanism to circulate the
your birth these RBC are generated from
blood to the entire body. Our heart pumps
the bone marrow of long bone. All mammals
the blood 36 thousand liters of blood in the
except camel and Ulama have red blood
distance of 20 thousand kilometers in the
cells without nucleus.
time period of 24 hours. Blood is red in
colour. Animals can not be our relatives. Do The second type of cells present in
you agree with the statement that animals blood are white blood cells. These cells do
with red coloured blood. The blood is always not have haemoglobin, hence they are
not red in all animals. The cockroach has colourless cells or leucocytes. These cells
white blood where as there is blue coloured are less in number when compared to the
blood in snail. It is really a wonder that blood RBC. There are two types - granulocytes
appears in different colours. and agranulocytes.
Normal adult human beings have about There are three types of cells in the
5 litres of blood. A chief component in granulocytes - Neutrophils, Basophils and
plasma is water. Esinophils. These cells attack and destroy
the microorganisms that enter the blood.
Besides water, it also has several Some white blood cells sacrify their
nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, life to fight against external enemy (micro
proteins, vitamins and hormones etc. organisms). These dead WBC come out of
required for the body and excretory wound. This is generally called pus.
products such as lactic acid, urea, salts etc. There are two types of agranulocytes
Plasma also contains factors responsible lymphocytes and monocytes. Lymphocytes
for blood clotting. Herarine helps to secret anti - bodies to guard against foreign
prevent blood clotting in blood vessels. material that enter into blood. So they are

called microscopic policemen. Monocytes Kit Components and Storage

move like amoeba and along with
All the reagents should be stored at
granulocytes. They attack the foreign
2-8C when not in use.
materials and engulf them. The foreign
Sl Components Quantity
materials are destroyed inside these cells.
No (100 tests)
They are called as scavengers.
Blood platelets are a separate group of 1 anti-A sera 5 ml
cells which do not have a nucleus. They are 2 anti-B sera 5 ml
disk like projections. Whenever a blood
vessel is injured, platelets accumulate at the 3 anti-RhD sera 5 ml
site of injury and help in the formation of a 4 porciline white plate 2
blood clot. The clot seals the wound in blood
5 Wax pencil 1
vessels and prevents further blood loss.
Your sisters and brothers are not your 6 Needle (24G) 100
relatives. This shocks you! Land Steiner, 7 Instruction manual 1
a German doctor, found a new blood
relation among us. He divided human beings Materials Required (not included in
in to four major groups. They are A, B, AB the kit):
and O. The person who lives on another Cotton, 70% alcohol, toothpicks.
side of the globe is same with same your Procedure:
blood group is also blood relative. Do you
1. Take one porciline plate, clean and
agree this? AB group human beings can
dry it. The plate must be very clean
receive the blood from any other groups. so that it does not interfere with the
Hence they are called as universal
reaction.
recipients. O group people can donate the
2. With a wax pencil, draw three
blood to any other group. So these people
circles on the plate to divide the
are known as universal donors.
surface into three parts and draw
three circles, one in each part as
Lab Activity shown in Figure1.
Find your blood relations:

A B Rh
Let us find out your blood relatives
in your class. For this we need a kit (That is
available in your school lab.) to find out
your blood group.
Aim : Identification of Blood Group
Apparatus : Blood Identification Kit, Fig-13 Template on a porciline plate
Glass Slide, Wax Pencil, Disposal Needle. for blood grouping.
32 Animal Tissue
3. Place one drop of the toothpick every time. The wax

corresponding antiserum (at room pencil circle will help to keep the
temperature) near the edge but sample isolated.
within each of the circles as shown 9. Watch to see if any of the samples
in Figure 2. show agglutination. The
agglutination will appear as the
grainy clumps of red blood cells
(RBCs) suspended in a clear
solution. Rh is slower to
agglutinate, so do not give up too
Fig-14 Addition of anti-sera soon.
on the glass slide. A B Rh
4. Choose a finger (usually left ring
finger). Clean this fingertip with an
alcohol in a cotton ball and let it
dry. Keep the cotton ball nearby, as
it is needed again. Dangle the hand Fig-15 Blood added on the glass slide.
down to increase the amount of
blood in the fingers. Result and inference :
5. Press on the bottom of the Determine the blood type depending on
fingertip with the thumb of the the result. Following table can be used to
same hand (to help hold blood in determine the blood type:
the fingertip) and quickly prick the Table: Determination of blood group
fingertip with the help of a needle. (type).
Note: The needle is sterile, so do not touch
Anti-A Anti-B Type
the tip with anything before using it.
6. Quickly, let one drop of blood get Yes No A
into each circle but not touching No Yes B
the anti-sera. Do not touch any of
the anti-sera. Yes Yes AB
7. After putting three drops of blood, No No O
apply gentle pressure to the wound
Independent of whether agglutination
with cotton ball.
occurs in anti-A and anti-B sera, clumping
Remember to properly dispose the may or may not occur in anti-RhD serum.
used needle. If agglutination occurs in anti-RhD serum,
8. Use a toothpick to mix the blood the Rh factor is positive; and if it does not,
and antiserum and stir gently. Do it the Rh factor is negative.
for each of the circles using a fresh
Result should Note in the given table Muscular tissue consists of elongated
Sl.No Name Blood Group cells called muscle fibres. This tissue is
responsible for movement in our body.
Muscles contain special protein called
contractile proteins which contract and
relax to cause movement.
During winter, body shivers. Why?
Note: While taking blood samples dont use When the body is exposed to cold air,
same needle for all. It is very dangerous. It we shiver. During shivering muscles
spreads different diseases. You should use contract and relax producing large amount
disposoble needles for each pupil. It is of heat. This keeps the body heat.
better to conduct such kind of test only with Based on their structure, location and
the help of Health Inspector. function, muscles are three types. They are
Muscle Tissue: striated muscle, non-striated muscle,
If you are wounded deeply, a deep scar cardiac muscle.
would form along with ditch? If we are We can move some muscles by our
wounded on skin, a lighter scar would form. conscious effort. For example the muscle
Why? The skin cells have regenerating present in inner limbs move when we want
character. Think about the muscle cell. Will them to, and stop when so decide. Such
they get regenerated like epithelial cells? muscles are called voluntary muscle. These
Muscles are responsible for the muscles also called as skeletal muscles as
movements of hands and legs and also of they are mostly attached to bones and help
several internal organs such as intestine and body movement; these muscles show
heart. Small amounts of muscle tissues also alternate light and dark bands or striations.
present in blood vessels. These helps in As a result, they are also called striated
increasing or decreasing the diameter of muscle. The cells of this tissue are long,
the blood vessel and thus the blood flows. cylindrical, un branched and having many
Heart is made of only one type muscle cells nuclei in the body (multi nucleated).
and they help in pumping the blood.
How do muscles contract and relax? Intercalated disks
Cross striations
Mitochondria Plasma Nuclei

Membrane
Cross striation
Myofibrils
Sarcolemma Nucleus
Sarcoplasm
Damaged tissue
Myocytes
Striated muscles Non-striated muscles Cardiac muscles
Fig-16
34 Animal Tissue
Activity-5
Collect three types of muscle slides (Striated muscles, Non-striated muscles, Cardiac
muscles) from slide box. Then observe these under microscope. Write your findings in the
following table.
Sl.No Striated muscles/ Non-striated muscles/ Cardiac muscles/
Characters Characters Characters
The movement of food in alimentary How would you know the water is hot?
canal or the contraction and relaxation of Or cold? If you put your leg on a sharp edged
blood vessels are involuntary. We can not stone while walking, how do you feel?
really start them or stop them simply by The feelings like the above situations
wanting to do so. Smooth muscle or is because of specialized mechanism in our
involuntary muscles control such body. It works like electric current passing
movements. They are also found in the Iris through wires. Brain, spinal cord and nerves
of the eye, in uterus and in the bronchi of play active role in this mechanism.
the lungs. The cells are long with pointed
ends and having a single nucleus (uni
Activity-6
nucleate). They are also called un striated Collect the slide of nerve cells from
muscle. slide box. Then observe these under
Can you tell why are they called as un microscope. Write your findings
striated muscle? Nerve cells are the only cells in the
The muscles present in the heart are body which do not have the ability of
responsible for pumping of blood. The cells regeneration. These are very specialized
are long branched and have nuclei. Cells are cells. No two neurons or nerve cells in the
joined to each other at their end. All the nervous system have same appearance.
muscle cells in cardiac muscle have Cells of nervous system are highly
striations. Though it resembles the striated specialized for transmitting the stimulus
in its structure, it is an involuntary muscle. very rapidly from one place to another
Nervous cells within the body. We can identify 3 distinct
parts in nerve cells. They are 1. Cell body
If you put your fingers in a glass of hot
or cyton 2. Axon 3. Dentrites
water, how do you feel?

Dendrite
Soma (Cell body)
Axon
Nucleus
Myelin sheath
Fig-17 Nerve cell

Cell body or cyton has a large nucleus longer than remaining projects. This is
and cytoplasm. The cytoplasm contains called axon. Some nerve cells have axon
granular structure called Nissals granules. covered with sheath like structure. This
There are some projections arising sheath called as myaline sheath. Nodes are
from cell body. These are called dentrite. called as Ranvier Nodes.
They are sharp, branched more in number. Axon of a nerve cell is connected with
One projection of the cyton is somewhat dentrites of a near by nerve cell to frame a
web like structure throughout body.
Key words
Tissue, Epithelial tissue, Connective tissue, Insulator, Bone narrow, bone,
cartilage, Connective tissue, Muscle tissue, Nerve tissue.
Tissue is a group of cells similar in structure and functions.

Animal tissues can be epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous tissue.
Depending on shape and function, epithelial tissue is classified as squamous,
cuboidal, columnar, ciliated and glandular.
The blood consists plasma, RBC, WBC, Platelets.
The different types of connective tissues in our body include areolar tissue, adipose
tissue, bone, tendon, ligament, cartilage and blood.
Striated, unstrained and cardiac are three types of muscle tissues.
Nervous tissue is made of neurons that receive and conduct impulses.
36 Animal Tissue
1. What do you understand by the term tissue? (AS1)

2. Show the difference between the three types of muscle fibres with diagrams. (AS3)
3. What is the specific function of the cardiac muscle? (AS1)
4. Differentiate between striated, unstriated and cardiac muscles on the basis of their
structure and site / location in the body. (AS1)
5. Draw a labelled diagram of a neuron. (AS 3)
6. Name the following. (AS1)
a) Tissue that forms the inner lining of our mouth.
b) Tissue that connects muscle to bone in humans.
c) Tissue that transports food in animals.
d) Tissue that stores fat in our body.
e) Connective tissue present in the brain.
7. Identify the type of tissue in the following: skin, bone, lining of kidney tubule,
vascular bundle. (AS1)
8. If the platelets are not present in the blood what happens? (AS2)
9. If you touch at elbow, you get a shock like feeling. Why? (AS 7)
10.The blood is also a fluid connective tissue but in the fluid form. Justify the statement.
11.Identify your blood group with help of kit? (AS 3)
12.Ramu felt weak. Ramus father took him to hospital. The doctor advised a blood
test. The report says that he does not have the required levels of haemoglobin.
What are it ill effects? (AS 6)
13.Blood group of Koushik is O+ve and Pranavi is B+ve. Whom can they donate blood
and why? (AS 1)

Chapter Movement of materials across

the cell membrane
All the organisms in the world are

Activity-1
made up of cells. You know that cell is the
Basic unit of life. You have learnt about Get in-go out
different parts of and their specific duties
in the chapter Structure and functions of Let us look at the substances in the
cell. It is very interesting to know how table. Some are needed by the cells while
substances pass through cells. There is a some are discarded by the cells.
wonderful mechanism. Let us learn.
Substance Should go into the cell Should go out of the cell
Oxygen
Glucose
Proteins
Fats
Vitamins
Minerals
Carbon dioxide
Wastes
Identify and tick mark which Can you name any other
substances should go in and which substances, which should enter into
substances should go out of the cell. the cell?
Which substances should enter into Which substances should enter into
the cell? Why? the cell and go out of the cell?
Which substances should come out You know that cell performs different
of the cell? Why? functions. For these different types of
38 Movement of Materials a Cross the Cell Membrane

substances are required by the cell. These in the 100 ml of water is the concentration
are solids like glucose, liquids like water, of the sugar.Which beaker has the most
and gases like oxygen. To understand the concentrated solution?
entry or exit of substances into and out of
the cell, let us do the following activities. Lab Activity
For doing these activities, we have to
Aim : Observation of material in different
prepare different solutions.
solutions
Preparing Solutions:
Material: 1. Two beakers 2. Tap water
To prepare sugar solution we need sugar 3. Sugar 4. Dry grapes or kishmish
and water. In a sugar solution sugar is the
Procedure: Take 100 ml of water in a
solute and water is the solvent. Sugar
beaker. Keep dry raisin (kishmish) in it.
dissolves in water forming sugar solution.
Preparation of saturated solution :
Take 100 ml of water in a beaker.
Add sugar/salt. Stir till it is dissolved.
Repeat it till little amount of it is left at
the bottom of the beaker which will not
dissolve. This is the saturated solution of
sugar/salt (in cold water).
Fig-1 Kishmish kept in tap water
Which one is more concentrated Leave it for one hour Observe what has
solution?: happened. Take it out and compare it with
Take three beakers with one hundred ml. the dry raisin. Is there any change in the
of water in each. Add half teaspoonful of size of kishmish. (You may try the same
sugar to the first beaker, one teaspoonful activity with slightly dried carrots and other
to the second and one and a half such vegetables) Do you ever observe that
teaspoonful to the third.Compare the three your mother dipped witted vegetables in
solutions and answer the following. The water. Can you identify the reason.
solution of which beaker will be most Then take 100 ml of saturated solution
sugary? What is the reason?Can we convert of sugar in a beaker, which was already
the solution of beaker I into solution of prepared.
beaker III? How?How can we make the
solution of the third beaker indicated to that
of the first?How much water should we add
to the solution in the third beaker to make
it similar to solution of the first beaker?
Solutions with different amount of solute
dissolved in them are solutions of different
concentrations.The amount of sugar present Fig-2 Swollen kishmish keep in tap water

Chapter
Diversity in Living Organism
There are so many plants and animals groups of them on the basis of differences
around us. We know very little about them. and similarities found among them. This
Most of them belong to a world not visible helped to identify largely varied and closely
to the unaided eye, as you have already related groups of organisms.
studied in the chapter on, Microbial Thus our knowledge of the entire living
World. The types of organisms that we have world depends on first making meaningful
studied so far are also in lakhs! Existing from groups to carry out our study in a systematic
mountain peaks to deserts and to the deep manner.
oceans, from extreme cold conditions to In this lesson we will try to study the
extreme hot ones and many more, such diversity present among several living
diversity is the symbol of nature. organisms, classify and appreciate natures
Studying about diversity as it is, would miracle.
be a very chaotic and difficult task.
Moreover describing and naming each
Diversity in plants
organism individually without knowing the Activity-1
organisms that might be sharing common
characteristics would be insignificant. Thus Observation of plants
people who have tried to study diverse Collect leaves from different plants.
organisms in nature have tried to make Observe them carefully and fill the table.
S.No. Name of the Length Width of Colour of Shape/Size Margin of Venation
plant (the of the the leaf the leaf of the leaf the leaf of the
leaf of which leaf leaf
is taken)
50 Diversity in Living Organism

Could you find any two leaves Activity-2

which are similar with respect to
any of the characters, size, shape, Observation of external characters
colour or any other as mentioned of plants (monocot and dicot)
in the table? Collect at least five different plants (at
Note down the differences you least two must be either grass, maize, paddy
observed in the sample of leaves etc. plants) with flowers from your
collected by you. Write two such surroundings. Observe their external
characters that differed most. characters carefully. Draw the following
To study more about such table in your notebook and note down your
characters let us do another findings. You can also do this with as many
activity. flowering plants as possible.
S. Name of Length Length Leaf Flower No. of No. of Taproot/

No. the plant of the between venation Single/ petals sepals fibrous
Stem nodes born in root
group
Which characters given above collected by you and note down

varied most? some other characters not
Select a character mentioned above mentioned in the table.
which shows minimum diversity. Did you notice any two plants
Did you find any similarities? What which were alike with regard to the
were they? above characteristics? If not, note
Did you find patterns like plants down what differences you found?
with fibrous roots had flowers Note down some similar characters
borne in groups? Note some other that you have observed.
patterns that you may have We can see that there are several
observed. characters that we can choose to make
Carefully observe the plants groups of plants, some groups would have

many plants taken in our sample, while day and observe them carefully. Take a
some would have just a few. maize seed and press it between your
So far we have discussed about plants fingers . Does a small whitish structure
and their leaves but what about their seeds? come out? Actually maize seeds from fresh
You know that seeds look different. But soft corn cobs would easily let this
if we open them would they show similar structure out. Observe it carefully. It is the
structural make up or completely different baby plant /embryo. The portion left in your
ones? hand within the seed coat has a single
To find out more about this let us do cotyledon(or seed leaf). Repeat the activity
the following activity. with soaked whole grains of wheat and rice
and the other seeds as well.
Activity-3 Use a hand lense for your careful and
Observation of seeds close observations. Make a table like the
Collect some seeds from the plants of one given below in your copy and note down
green gram, red gram, Bengal gram, wheat, your observations in the table.
paddy, groundnut, maize. Soak them for a
S. Name Colour Shape/size No. of Others

No. cotyledons(seed
leaves )
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
In case you do not know names The following activity leads us into the
write a number or give name on systematic way of grouping. You will again
your own. need the soaked and softened seeds for this
Note down what differences that you purpose.
observed. Open the given seeds. When you try to
Name any character as mentioned in the do this with peanut seeds, two thick
table that helped you to roughly divide the portions come out which are its cotyledons.
sample of seeds into two groups. See if you find such structures in other
seeds taken by you. If needed, you can take
help of hand lens as well.

Activity-4
Observation of different characters in monocot and dicot plants
Collect the plants or pictures of the whole plants to complete the following table( you
can take the help of annexure to this chapter as well)
S. Name of the plant Leaf venation No.of cotyledons / Tap root system or
No. seed leaves fibrous root system
1. Maize
2. Paddy
3. Grass
4. Beans
5. Green gram
6. Ground nut
Here as we finish our activity we would They share some common
have established some common characteristics like venation (dicots have
characteristics of land plants- those having reticulate/branched, while monocots have
two seed leaves are called dicotyledons, parallel venation).
while those having single seed leaf are By doing the above activity we can
called monocotyledons. understand how grouping is done in biology
by observing the similarities and
differences among diverse groups in the
sample under study. We will do some
similar exercises with animals now.
Diversity in animals
Activity-5
Observation of external characters
of insects
Collect housefly, mosquito, ant, dung
beetle, butterfly, moth and cockroach from
your surroundings. Observe them carefully.
Take the help of a magnifying glass to get a
closer view.
Are all insects of the same size or
Fig-1 shape?
S. Name of the No. of No. of Colour Shape/Size body parts Other

No. Insect Legs Wings (Segmentation) characters
What differences did you observe The examples of insects given above
with regard to legs? are of different species. Hence they show
What differences did you observe a lot of difference and we say they are
with regard to wings? diverse. If we were to compare insects of
Is there any relationship between the same type that is to say two houseflies
the number of wings and legs? we would perhaps still find some
Did you find any two insects with same differences(try it out yourself) and these
characters? If yes, display in the class. If would be variations.
no, note down the differences in your note Let us see some variations that are
book. present in human populations
Even though all these are insects and Variations in humans
you see that they show several differences. Activity-6
Can you find at least one character that is
similar to the whole group, what is it? Variation in animals (external
How would you group insects? Would characters)
it be based on number of body segments or
Do this activity in a group of atleast 10
number of legs they have?
children. Draw the table in your notebook
and fill it.
S. Name of the Height Weight Lenth of Thumb Palm

No. Student fore finger Impression Length Width

After observing the table try to answer Is there any other structure in the human
the following questions. body that is as unique as the thumb
Which character helps you to make the impression? What is it?
maximum number of groups? We have seen variations in animals let
Which character helps you to have just us see how we could study the same in
a single individual in a group? plants.
Compare your group table with that of Variations in plants
other groups and note down the differences
you found. Activity-7
Did you find same observations of any
Variation in two different neem
two students in your class?
plants
You might have observed that no two
thumb impressions are alike. It is a very Collect two small almost equal sized
specific character of an individual. neem plants from your surroundings
observe them carefully and fill the table.
S. Name of the Length No. of Size / Shape Colour of Margin Venation

No. Plant of the Leaves of the the Leaves
stem Leaves
1. Neemplant -1
2. Neemplant -2
What differences could you find in Variation between different species is

the similar looking neem plants? always greater than the variation within a
Why do you think such differences species. As we have observed so far,
are present in nature? variation forms a basis for selection of
So far we have done some activities to characters to group organisms. Grouping
study, appreciate and group living organisms on the basis of certain
organisms on the basis of the diversity and characters which vary over populations
variations present in nature. Several indicating some common lineage of each
exercises have been done to select varied group , or the way in which the
characters to group organisms on the basis organism may have evolved is
of similarities and differences between classification. Thus classification in
them. The presence of differences between biology is the systematic study of
organisms of the same species is called organisms present in nature with respect
variation. to their evolution.

What is the need of classification? see today had variations that accumulated
over years to allow the organism possessing
It gives better knowledge and better
them to survive better. Charles Darwin first
understanding of organisms that are
wrote about this in his book, The Origin
studied.
of Speciesin 1859. When we connect the
It helps to study the organisms in a
idea of evolution to classification we find
proper and systematic manner.
in some groups of organisms, the body
It helps to make comparison in an
designs have not changed over the years
easier way.
while several organisms have acquired body
It helps in understanding the
designs relatively
relationship among the organisms
recently. Since
and their interdependence.
complexity of
Classification makes our study design has
more focused and helps us to increased over the
handle huge population of years and is yet to
organisms. increase, we may
It gives us an idea of evolution say that older
(How organisms have evolved in organisms are
nature?). simpler as
Classification and evolution compared to the
younger. Charless Darwin
All living things are identified and
categorized on the basis of their their
structure and function. Some History of classification
characteristics are likely to make more
In India, classification had been the
wide-ranging changes in body design than
basis of studies in medicines and dates back
others. There is a role of time in this as
to first and second century A.D. Charak and
well. So, once a certain body design comes
Sushrut had classified the plants on the
into existence, it will shape the effects of
basis of their medical importance. There
all other subsequent design changes, simply
after Parasar in his book Vrikshyurveda
because it already exists. In other words,
(The science of life of trees) documented
characteristics that came into existence
the classification system for several land
earlier are likely to be more basic than
plants for the first time. This classification
characteristics that have come into
mainly deals with the structure of the
existence later.
flowers
This means that the classification of
Let us study how biologist from 16th
life forms are closely related to their
century have been trying to classify diverse
evolution. Evolution is the process of
organisms so far.
acquiring change. Most life forms that we
Classification done by biologists till date:

The following table shows how different biologists have gone about forming the first
category in classification..
Linnaeus Haeckel Chatton Copeland Whittaker Woese et al. Cavalier-Smith

1735 1866 1925 1938 1969 1990 1998
2 kingdoms 3kingdoms 2empires 4 kingdoms 5 kingdoms 3 domains 6 kingdoms
Prokaryota Monera Monera Bacteria Bacteria
Archaea
(not treated) Protista
Protoctista Protista Protozoa
Chromista
Plantae Plantae
Eukaryota Eukarya
Vegetabilia Plantae Plantae Fungi Fungi
Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia
Although biologists in the 16th and family, order,

seventeenth centuries did not recognize class, phyla etc
that the similarities and differences among were defined by
organisms were consequences of Linneaus on the
evolutionary mechanisms, they still sought basis of the
a means to organize biological diversity. In similarities and
1758 Carl Linneaus proposed a system that differences studied
has dominated classification for centuries. by him in groups of
Carl VanLinneaus
Linnaeus gave each organism two names, organisms.
denoting genus and species such as Homo The first major break from the Linnaean
sapiens(the former representing genus model came from Thomas Whittaker. In
while the latter representing species). He 1969 Whittaker proposed a "five kingdom"
then grouped genera(several genus) into system in which three kingdoms were
families, families into orders, orders into added to the animals and plants: Monera
classes, classes into phyla, and phyla into (bacteria), Protista, and Fungi. Whittaker
kingdoms. Linnaeus identified two defined the kingdoms by a number of
kingdoms: Animalia (animals) and Plantae special characteristics. First, he specified
(plants). All the terms like species, genus, whether the organisms possessed a true

nucleus (eukaryotic) or not (prokaryotic). places where the temperatures were near
The eukaryotic unicellular organisms were or even above the boiling point of water
placed into the kingdom Protista. The rest (the thermophiles). Others, the extreme
were three multicellular eukaryotic halophiles, were able to tolerate very high
kingdoms that distinguish themselves by the salt concentrations. Other techniques like
general manner in which they acquire food. DNA (the chemical of design of life)
Plants are generally autotrophs and use sequence data also increasingly suggested
photosynthetic systems to capture energy that these prokaryotes were most unlike
from sunlight. Animals are heterotrophs the traditional bacteria. Thus other
and acquire nutrients by ingesting plants or modifications in the classification scheme
other animals, and then digesting those came into existence.
materials. Fungi are also heterotrophs but,
Do you know?
unlike animals, they generally break down
large organic molecules in their There are various hypotheses as to
environment and live on them. the origin of prokaryotic and eukaryotic
The five kingdom system was certainly cells. Because all cells are similar in
an advance over the previous system nature, it is generally thought that all cells
because it captured the diversity of life in came from a common ancestor cell
a better way. Three groups bacteria, fungi, termed the Last Universal Common
and protists - did not fit well into either Ancestor (LUCA). These LUCA
the animal or plant category. Moreover, eventually evolved into three different
each of these three groups appeared to cell types, each representing a domain.
possess diversity comparable to that of The three domains are the Archaea, the
animals or plants. Thus, the designation of Bacteria, and the Eukarya (a classification
each as a kingdom seemed fitting. as suggested by Woese).
In the years since Whittaker's system Archaea and bacteria are prokaryotic
was developed, however, new evidence and cells that is they do not have a membrane
new methods have shown that the five- bound nucleus, the nuclear material is
kingdom system also fails to adequately present dispersed in cytoplasm.
capture what we now know about the The cell walls of bacteria unlike the
diversity of life. Microbial biologists archaea contain a fat like chemical
became aware of these limitations as they peptidoglycan..
discovered unicellular organisms that Eukarya have eukaryotic cells or
appeared to be prokaryotic, but were cells having a membrane bound nucleus.
extremely distinct in their internal
structure and other characteristics from the The hierarchy of classification
traditional bacteria. Some of these unusual Classification is done starting from
prokaryotes lived in hot springs and other grouping living organisms into domains for

example prokaryota, Life

A. One-celled organisms
eukaryota, archaea B. Cells have no membrane bound nucleus
which form the largest C. Reproduce by splitting in two
categories with D. Absorb nutrients from outside their
several dissimilar and bodies
few similar characters E. They move with the help of
to species forming the locomotory organs like flagella, cilia
smallest category or hair like structures present on them.
with several similar
F. Some monerans cause diseases, but
and few dissimilar
others are helpful to people.
characters. Broadly, a
G. Examples: bacteria
species includes all
organisms that are Fig-2 Heirarchy
similar enough to
interbreed and perpetuate or even
individually reproduce
Why do you think classification
system has undergone changes over Fig-3 Bacteria
the years? Three major groups of organisms come
If you were asked to classify under this group. They are archaebacteria
organisms what would be your basis (ancient bacteria present till date, some
of classification? species found in hot springs come under
Now let us study some of the characters this), eubacteria (streptococcus,
that have been considered to classify rhizobium, e.coli etc) and cyanobacteria
organisms under the five kingdoms of which are also called blue green bacteria
classification. as they appear similar to blue green algae
Monera externally but internally are more like
bacteria(but they are not bacteria).
Observe the given slides carefully and
say Protista (protoctista)
How many cells are found in the Observe the given slides carefully and
organism? say
Do you find any nucleus in the How many cells are found in the
middle of the cell? organism?
Are there any other cell organelles Do you find any nucleus in the
found in the cell? middle of the cell?
By observing the above characteristics Are there any other cell organelles
we conclude that Monerans are found in the cell?
Are there any locomotory organs Characteristics of fungi

in them? A. Most are many-
Characteristics of protists celled(multicellular) and some are
one-celled organisms.
A. Most are one-celled (unicellular),
B. Eukaryotes with well defined
but some have many cells.
prominent head (you usually see
B. Cells have a membrane around the
them propping out from the ground
nucleus.
or on barks of trees during rainy
C. Some get nutrients and energy by season).
eating other organisms.
C. Get nutrients and energy by
D. Some get energy from the sun, and absorbing/ digesting the surface
nutrients from the water around they live on through root like
them. structures which are fine thread
E. These live either solitary or in a like parts of their body.
colony. D. Most of these reproduce by spores.
F. Some of the cell organelles are E. Examples are yeast, mushrooms,
present inside the cell. bread moulds, and lichens.
G. Most reproduce by splitting in two.
H. Examples are paramecium,
amoeba, algae, kelp etc.
Fig-4 Aemoeba, Euglena, Paramecium
Fungi
Observe the specimen and diagrams
Fig-5 Bread mould, Mashroom, Yeast
given below and answer the following
questions.
Plantae
What is the colour? Can they Several plants grow around you. Do
prepare their own food as green all of them produce seeds?
plants? Think if grass produces
Make a sketch of the main parts of the seeds(hint:compare with rice plants
body. and think).
Do you find root like structures? Name some plants that produce
Guess why? seeds.
Which part of the plant produces

seeds? Where is it located?(recall
structure of plant parts studied in
earlier classes)
Do all plants have a definite
structure to produce seeds?
Plants are diverse in nature. The basis
of classifying them is the way they acquire
their food, the type of reproductive
structures they have and the way they
reproduce. They are multicellular, Fig-6 Mass
eukaryotic with cell walls. They are usually These are not exactly flowers but
autotrophs and use mainly chlorophyll for structures that contain seed like structures
photosynthesis. called spores. Spores contain very little
The first level of classification among food while the seed stores a lot of it.
plants depends on whether the plant body Moreover where seeds are produced from
has well differentiated, distinct parts. ovule of flower, spores are produced within
The next level of classification is based structures called as sporangium in a
on whether the differentiated plant body has different manner.
special tissues (vascular tissues) for the If you get a fern to observe, try to see
transport of water and other substances the brownish or blackish dot like structures.
within it. Further classification looks at the These are the spore bearing bodies.
ability to bear seeds and whether the seeds
are enclosed within fruits.
Lets look at some plants like moss and
ferns more closely.
Activity-8
Fig-7 Sporangium
Observation of moss plants through
Plants like moss and fern which do not
hand lens.
produce flowers and have sporangium as
You can collect mosses from the reproductive
greenish velvety growth on bricks during structures are
the rainy season. Scrap a bit of this greenish called non-
growth over a slide and observe with a hand flowering
lens or under a dissection microscope. You plants or
may find structures like that shown in the cryptogams,
fig-5. those that Fig-8 Mango seed

produce flowers are mango) and those without it are

phanerogams like pine, gymnosperms (e.g. pine).The following
cycas, neem, mango etc. pictures will help you see this.
Among flowering Write down the characteristic
plants those having seeds features of dicot and monocot
enclosed within fruits are plants that you have studied in
angiosperms (e.g. Fig-9 Pine earlier sections of this chapter.
Flow chart
Plant
Kingdom
Cryptogams
Phanerogams
( Non- flowering ( flowering &
and non -seed seed bearing )
bearing)
Brayophyta
Pteridophyta Gymnosperms Angiosperms
( have false
roots & (true roots & (naked seeds) (seeds in a
leaves) leaves) fruit)
Note: Try to add examples to the above flow

chart. you can refer annexures given in the last Monocot Dicot
page this chapter. (one seeded ( Two seeded
leaf) leaf )
Classification of Animals attached to some

solid support.
These are organisms which are
There are holes or
eukaryotic, multicellular and heterotrophic.
pores, all over the
Their cells do not have cell-walls. Most
body. These lead to
animals are mobile. They are further
a canal system that
classified based on the extent and type of Fig-10 Sycon
helps in circulating
the body design differentiation found.
water throughout the body to bring in food
Major groups are:
and oxygen. These animals are covered with
Porifera a hard outside layer or skeleton. The body
design involves very minimal
The word Porifera means organisms
differentiation and division into tissues.
with holes. These are non-motile animals
They are commonly called sponges, and are
mainly found in marine habitats. Some be made, which is why such animals are
examples are Euplectelea, Sycon, spongilla called triploblastic. This allows outside and
etc. inside body linings as well as some organs
to be made. There is thus some degree of
Coelenterata/Cnidarians
tissue formation. However, there is no true
These are internal body cavity or coelom, in which
aquatic forms welldeveloped organs can be
showing more accommodated. The body is flattened
body design dorsoventrally, meaning from top to
differentiation as bottom, that is why these animals are called
compared to flatworms. They are either freeliving or
poriferans. There is parasitic. Some examples of freeliving
a cavity in the body. animals like planarians, or parasitic
The body is made up animals like liverflukes and tapeworms.
of two layers of Fig-11 Hydra
cells: one forming Nematoda
the outer layers while the other forming the The nematode body is also bilaterally
inner layers. Some live in colonies ,like the symmetrical and triploblastic. However, the
corals that are tiny (nearly 3 to 56 mm) but body is cylindrical rather than flattened.
their colonies where we may find several There are tissues,
types of them are as huge as say an island but no real
(1800 sqkm ), while others like hydra, organs, although
jellyfish and sea anemones are common a sort of body
examples. cavity or a
pseudocoelom is
Platyhelminthes Fig-13 Round worm
present. These
The body are very familiar as parasitic worms causing
of animals in diseases, such as the worms causing
this group is elephantiasis (filarial worms) or the worms
far more in the intestines(roundworm or pinworms).
complexly
designed than Annelida
in the two Annelid animals are also bilaterally
Fig-12 Tape worm
other groups symmetrical and triploblastic, but in
we have considered so far. The body is addition they have a true body cavity. This
bilaterally symmetrical, meaning that the allows true organs to be protected in the
left and the right halves of the body have body structure.
the same design. There are three layers of
cells from which differentiated tissues can
There is, thus, extensive organ Mollusca

differentiation.This differentiation occurs
In the
in a segmental
animals of this
fashion, with the
group, there is
segments lined
bilateral
up one after the
symmetry. The
other from head Fig-16 Snail
coelomic cavity
to tail. These
Fig-14 Earthworm is reduced. There is little segmentation.
animals are
They have an open circulatory system and
found in a variety
kidney-like organs for excretion. There is
of habitats fresh water,marine water as
a foot that is used for moving around.
well as land. Earthworms and leeches are
Examples are snails and mussels.
familiar examples (see Fig.16)
Echinodermata
Arthropoda
In Greek,
This is probably the largest group of
echinos means
animals. These animals are bilaterally
hedgehog, and
symmetrical and segmented. There is an
derma means
open circulatory system, and so the blood
skin. Thus,
does not flow in well defined blood vessels.
these are spiny Fig-17 Sea star
The coelomic cavity is blood-filled. They
s k i n n e d
have jointed legs (the word arthropod
organisms. These are exclusively free-
means jointed legs). Some familiar
living marine animals. They are
examples are prawns, butterflies,
triploblastic and have a coelomic cavity.
cockroaches, houseflies, spiders,
They also have a peculiar water-driven tube
scorpions and crabs (see Fig-17).
system that they use for moving around.
They have hard calcium carbonate
structures that they use as a skeleton.
Examples are starfish and sea urchins.
Protochordata
These animals are bilaterally
symmetrical, triploblastic and have a
coelom. In addition, they show a new
feature of body design, namely a
notochord, at least at some stages during
their lives. The notochord is a long rod-like
Fig-15 support structure (chord=string) that runs

along the back of the animal separating the Do you know?

nervous tissue from the gut. It provides a
Fishes are cold blooded animals.
place for muscles to attach for ease of
They can change their body temperature
movement. Protochordates may not have a
according to their surroundings. Most
proper notochord present at all stages in
of the fishes are oviparous but some give
their lives or for the entire length of the
birth to young ones. We do not call them
animal.
fishes which give birth to young ones.
Protochordates are marine animals.
We call them aquatic mammals.
Examples are Balanoglossus, e.g.Dolphin and whales. Hippocampus
Herdmania and Amphioxus (Seahorse) is another fish like animal in
which males carry babies as our mothers
do. Sea horses are used in Chinese
medicine. Seahorse population are
thought to have been endangered in
recent year by overfishing and habitat
Fig-18 Herdmania and Amphioxus destruction.
Vertebrata
These animals have a true vertebral
column and internal skeleton, allowing a
completely different distribution of muscle
attachment points to be used for movement.
Vertebrates are bilaterally symmetrical,
Hippocampus
triploblastic, coelomic and segmented, with
complex differentiation of body tissues and
organs. All chordates possess the following
features:
(i) have a notochord
(ii) have a dorsal nerve cord
(iii) are triploblastic
(iv) have paired gill pouches
(v) are coelomate.
Vertebrates are grouped into five
classes.
1. Pisces 2. Amphibians
3. Reptiles 4. Birds / Aves
5. Mammals

Vertebrates
66
Animals with Notochord (Notochord replaced by vertebral column in adults)
5 4 3 2 1
Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibia Fish

Suckle young (feed babies with milk, skin covered by hair/fur (Aves) have dry skin young live (Pisces)
feathers, and scales, in water, but have fins
breathe air give birth to fully formed young once)
tow wings, lay eggs, adults live on
and tails,
Land Mammals Mammalia Marines Flying land, smooth
claws, lay breath air, breath
Outer ears four limbs (arms / legs) Mammals Mammals slimy skin,
eggs. Cold lay eggs. underwater
Animals use blooded
Warm First using gills,
Marsupials Primates Rodents which grow echolocation,
blooded animals, vertebrates, Cold
Care for Well Gnawing and live in nocturnal, animals, most of can live both blooded
and feed developed animal, the water, roots in in water and
four them have a animals
their hands / feet large some only trees or land,
chambered three and hearts
young in with fingers / incisor have sparse caves, under Poikilothermic,
teeth hearts. chambered have only
their toes, can judge covering of roots. hibernate
(two heart, but two
sacks. distance, very hair. during
parts) use crocodiles winter, chambers.
intelligent have four
like aestivate
social animals/ heart
chisels to during
form bonds chambers. summer,
gnaw on
with family hard Heart is
friends. foods. three
chambered.
Diversity in Living Organism

Lab Activity What are the differences you

observed between tape worm and
Observe in your School Lab the round worm?
Slide of a hydra (whole mount)/ How does the head and tail look
picture of a hydra like in the specimen?
Is the body made of a single cell or These animals are round shaped and
a group of cells? depend on others for food (parasites). You
Did you find any hollow structure cannot find true body cavity in these
inside the body? animals (pseudo coelomates).
Did you find any other characters Both platy and nematy helminthes are
in it? together called Helminthes.
If you find any characters note down in Observe in your School Lab the
your note book. Also draw a diagram of the Specimen of Earthworm
given specimen.
Collect a big earth worm from your
The hollow structure found inside the surroundings without causing any harm to it.
body is called Coelom or body cavity.
Touch the skin of the earthworm
Observe in your school Lab and say how do you feel?
Specimen of a tape worm What is the colour ?
Carefully observe the given specimen Are there any differences you
and note, the external characters you found, observed in its body colour and
in your note book. among the body parts?
How does the body look like? How does it move?
Did you see a body cavity in it? Are there any ring like structures
How does the head and tail look seen in its body?
like? Draw a diagram of an earth worm
The organisms which have flat body are in your note book and show all the
called as flat worms, (platy-flat, characters you observed in it.
Hilmenthes- worms), hence they are The body of earthworm is made of
included in the name Platyhelminthes. several ring-like structures. (annulus:
Observe in your School Lab the rings, edios: form)
Specimen of a round worm Hence they are included under
(Ascaris) Anneldians. Body cavity is clearly visible
Observe the given specimen and note in it.
down the characters what you found / Observe in your School Lab the
observed in it. Specimen of a Cockroach.
Does the body look same as in the Collect a cockroach or any insect and
Platyhelminthes? observe it carefully.
How does the skin look like? characters carefully. If not possible, go to
Did you observe any hard layer on your school lab and observe the specimen
the skin? of star fish. Note down your observations
How many parts is the body divided in your note book.
into? What do you find on the skin of the
Observe the legs and says how does star fish?
it look like? Are there any arms and ray shaped
Name some more animals whose structure in it?
legs are jointed as seen in the Did you find a small hole in the
cockroach? middle of the star fish?
These are included in Arthropoda These are exclusively marine living and
(Arthro-jointed, pod-legs) as they have spine skinned animals. (echino: spines,
jointed legs. Most of the animals in this derm: skin)
group are the insects. Body is divided into All echinoderms are marine; they
three parts. Head, thorax and abdomen. cannot live in freshwater or on land.
Observe in your School Lab the They are bottom dwellers and benthic.
Specimen of Snail. Most are pentamemal, it means that
Observe a snail collected from a pond they have fivefold symmetry with rays of
and keep inside a glass beaker. arms in fives or multiples of five.
Observe against sunlight. Ask your teacher and write five
Note down its characters you observed examples of echinoderms and draw
in your note book. diagrams in your note book.
How does the outer body look like? Observe fish in your school lab.
Keep the snail unmoved for some Collect a fish from a fish monger and
time and when it starts moving observe its external characters. You might
observe its body. have seen a long spine inside the body of a
Is the body soft or hard? fish. This is the back bone of the fish. From
Did you find any antennae like fishonwards, all animals possess back
structure in it? bones and they are termed as Vertebrates
These animals whose body is soft and (animals that have ventebral columns).
enclosed in a hard shell is called Molluscs. Observe the skin of the fish. How does
Pearls are produced from a mollusc it look like?
called oyster. Write the body parts of the fish where
scales are not present?
Observe in your School Lab the
Open the mouth of the fish. What is
Specimen of starfish. seen in it?
Collect a star fish when you visit a Open side part of the fish where usually
nearby sea beach. And observe its external ears are located. What did you see there?
Cut open the fish and observe its heart. Nomenclature

How many chambers are seen in its heart?
Why do we need to give universally
What will happen if you keep a small accepted names to organisms?
fish out of water for some time? Think,
Think , discuss with your friends and
why?
write on this.
Fishes are the first organisms
Let us see what happens when we go
possessing back bones. Body is covered
about using local names.
with scales. Heart is two chambered. These
Do you know the common names
are aquatic animals and cannot survive on
of potato in different languages?
land. There are specialized organs called
Gills useful for its respiration. Suppose you used the name batata
where people knew only English,
(You need not complete all the
would you get your potatoes?
activities in a single Lab period. You must
be catious while observing the specimens We see that local names may create a
to find out its characters.) lot of confusion. This would hinder study
about an organism as talking about it in one
Common Telugu Hindi Tamil Marathi Odia

Name Name Name Name Name Name
Potato Bangala Aloo Urulakkiz Batata Bilati Aloo

Dumpa Hangu
place would not match with the other.

When printed, the scientific name
This problem was resolved by scientists
should be in italics.
by agreeing upon a scientific name for
When written by hand, the genus
organisms in the same manner that
name and the species name have to
chemical symbols and formulae for various
be underlined separately.
substances are used over the world. Naming
For example, the scientific name of a
of organisms with a distinctive scientific
Mango tree is Mangifera indica and a
name is called Nomenclature. It is unique
Human being is Homo sapiens.
and can be used to identify organisms
anywhere in the world. Activity-9
Certain norms are followed while Try to find out the scientific names of
writing scientific names. They are- at least 10 organisms that you see around
Genus should begin with a capital you.
letter. To classify just keep the following
Species should begin with a small points in mind
letter.

Procedure organism as done by other

Observe, make a labeled sketch of scientists
the organism (use dissecting Try to findout answers for these
microscope as necessary) questions
Write a brief description of the 1. Is the organism prokaryotic or
organism, focusing on the eukaryotic?
characteristics that distinguish it as 2. Is the organism unicellular,
a member of its group. multicellular, or colonial?
Select a criteria for classification 3. How does the organism reproduce?
for example body structure. 4. What are the sources of energy and
Research the classification of the carbon for the organism?
Key words
Flora, fauna, diversity, variation, classification, evolution, kingdom, domain,
phylum, class, order, family, genus, species, nomenclature

Diversity is the hallmark of nature. Variation among the organisms leads to evolution
and growth of diversity.
Scientists started classification of organisms depending upon the similarities and
differences in them (sample under study).
Differences that are observed in very closely related populations are called variation.
In nature no two organisms are identical.
Classification helps us in exploring the diversity of life forms.
Classification is the systematic study of organisms present in nature.
Classification of life forms is closely related to their evolution.
The major characteristics considered for classifying all organisms into five major
kingdom are:
i. Whether they are made of prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells.
ii. Whether the cells live solitarily or in colonies.
iii.Whether the cells have a cell wall and whether they prepare their own food.
According to Whittaker, all living organisms are divided into five kingdoms, namely:
1. Monera 2. Protista
3. Fungi 4. Plantae 5. Animalia

Plantae and animalia are further divided into subdivisions on the basis of increasing
complexity of body design of organisms.
Recently Cavalier-Smith classified the organisms into six kingdoms as
1. Bacteria, 2. Protozoa 3. Chromista 4. Plantae 5.Fungi
6. Animalia.
Naming of organisms with a distinctive scientific name is called Nomenclature.
Nomenclature provides a uniform way of identification of the vast diversity of life
around us.
Carolus Linnaeus introduced Binomial nomenclature by which an organism is named
by two words- a generic name and a specific name.
1. Variations in organisms lead to diversity in living organisms? State reasons (AS1)

2. What was the basis of early classifications? (AS1)
3. What are the advantages of classifying organisms? (AS1)
4. What is the need of classification? What questions you will ask for this? (AS 2)
5. How do monocots differ from dicots? (AS1)
6. One day Kavitha soaked seeds of green grams, wheat, maize, peas and tamarind.
After they became tender, she tried to split the seed. Name which would split, which
would not and identify them according to the characters. (AS 4)
Sl. Name of the seed Split into half (y)/ Monocot Dicot
NO. does not Split (N) (M) (D)
1
2
3
4
7. Make a flow chart of invertebrates in the kingdom Animalia, based upon their
characteristic features. (AS 5)
8. Write some common characters of Pisces, Reptilia and Aves. (AS 1)
9. Name the kingdom to which these organisms belong according to Whittaker.(AS1)

10.Explain how animals in vertebrata are classified into further subgroups.(AS1)

11.Platypus or Echidna is a group that forms a link between reptiles and mammals.
Think and write about some characteristic features that these would have. (AS 4)
12.Sujata says Bat is not a bird but a mammal. How can you support Sujatas statement?
13.Which phylum do I belong to (AS1)
a) My body is made of pores. I live in water. I do not have back bone also .
b) I am an insect. I have jointed legs . .
c) I am a marine living animal with spiny skin. My body is radially symmetrical

14.How can you appreciate the effort of scientists in classifying a wide range of
organisms? (AS 6)
ANNEXURE-1
Maize plant Rice plant Grass plant
Bean Plant Green gram plant ground nut plant

ANNEXURE-2
Plantae
!
!
Do not have have differentiated plant body
differentiated plant
body
!
!
!
Without specialised With vascular tissue

Thallophyta vascular tissue
!
Bryophyta
!
!
Do not produce produce seeds
seeds ( Cryptogams) ( Phanerogams )
!
Pteridophyta
!
Bear naked seeds Bear seed inside fruits

!
!
Gymnosperms Angiosperms
!
Have seeds
Have seeds with
two cotyledons with one cotyledons
Dicots Monocots

ANNEXURE-3
Animalia
!
Cellular level of Tissue level of

organisation organisation
!
!
Porifera
!
!
No body cavity between Pseudocoelom Coelomate
epidermis and gastrodermis
!
Nematoda
!
Coelenterata, platyheleminthes
!
!
Mesodermal cells from a Coelom fromed from pouches
single cell during growth of pinched off from the endoderm
the embryo
!
!
!
No Notochord Notochord
Annelida, Mollusca,
present
!
Arthrolpoda
Echinodermata Chordata
!
Notochord present in at least larval forms, Notochord replaced by

but vety rundimentary
vertebral column in adults
!
Protochordata Vertebrata
!
Exoskeleton of Gills in larva, Exoskeleton of Exoskeleton of Exoskeleton of

scalesm, lungs in most scales, laying feathers, lay eggs hair external ears,
endoskeleton of mostlygiving
bone/cartilage, adults, slimy eggs outside outside water, birth to live
breathing skin water flight possible young
through gills
!
!
!
Pisces Amphibia Reptilia Aves Mammalila

Chapter
Sense Organs
We enjoy the beauty of nature with our some activity (called as stimuli). As for
eyes, the melodious music with our ears, example tasty foods draw us towards them
the fragrance of flowers with our nose, the and our mouth starts watering. Our senses
taste of food with our tongue and feel the also help us locate mates, seek shelter, and
cool breeze on our skin. What do we do recognize our friends. Incidentally, our
when suddenly bright light falls on our eyes senses also give us the opportunity to find
or a hot utensil is touched by chance? All pleasure in music, art, athletics, etc.
these situations show just how our senses There are yet other things that our
pick up informations and react to them. senses do. You may have experienced
Our senses aren't just a part of us, they feeling hurt to see someone in pain.
define us. This is because nothing that we Usually when we have strong emotional
experience in our life, from the most ties to someone and when he or she
important to the most boring, would be experiences pain, so do we( not just
possible without the intricate power of our emotional ties we could be influenced by
senses. situations not directly related to us and yet
Nothing in the entire universe of feel the pain e.g. sympathising and feeling
scientific exploration can even come close pain of drought affected people).
to matching the ability of our brain to use How do our senses accomplish all this?
information sensed by our eyes, ears, skin, The complete answer is complex, but it
tongue, and nose to produce a rich sensory involves one elegantly simple idea that
experience in a matter of milliseconds! applies across the sensory system. Our
But how much do we know about sensory impressions of the world involve
our senses? nerve signals. These play a very important
role in the way we react or respond to
What do our senses do? various stimuli or even to same stimuli in
Our senses have several roles to play. different situations.
They aid our survival by directing us toward For example generation of flavor
certain informations of our environment preferences by our brain is usually based
that are important for us and influence on what our body needs. Like cooked fish
may not smell good to some people. But if biting you on your leg through your eyes.
the person is very hungry and has no other The response works through motor nerves
option and particularly if the body has a from the brain to your hands to strike and
need for protein, fish may suddenly smell kill it.
good!
Stimuli from the environment around
are received by our body through some
sense organs. As we already know, they are
the eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin. Let's
try to understand the path of receiving a
stimulus to expressing a response
(sensation).
Stimulation to Sensation
There are certain conditions,
substances etc in nature that trigger the
Fig-1 schematic representation
process of sensing them by our body. These
of nerve stimulation to response.
are stimulants. Information carried by these
stimulants are picked up by certain organs Activity-1
called as receptors present in our sense
Note down a few lines of any text in
organs and converted into nerve signals.
your book.
These are carried to the brain and processed
to create a sensation. For example when Write about the stimuli and responses
reflected light (stimulus) from the surface and the sensory and motor functions with
of a green leaf and its surroundings reaches respect to the sense organs involved.
receptors in our eyes, it is converted into Do you think our sense organs work
nerve signals. These signals reach the brain together? Why, why not?
and are interpreted as green coloured shape All stimuli may not lead to responses.
against a background. We see this as the Only a particular level of stimulus will give
leaf. rise to a response. Moreover changes in
Brain is the centre for all the sensitive stimulus also go unnoticed if they are not
activities. It receives information through of a particular level.
sensory nerves that bring nerve signals Activity-2
from the sense organs and after
Dissolve a pinch of sugar in a glass of
interpretation sends off signals through
water. Drink a little of this. Does it taste
another type of nerves called as motor
sugary? Why?
nerves to parts that are to show the
response. For example, you see a mosquito You could try this for different
concentrations of sugar ,adding by proper
76 Sense Organs
quantification, that is, weighing and You may have often noticed while
preparing solutions to find out how much drinking tea or coffee that if you eat a very
sugar in solution starts off your sensation. sweet substance in between, your tea or
(you could take 1/4th teaspoonful sugar coffee appears to be less sweet as
each time which would be nearly 2grams, compared to the sips taken before eating
for your convenience) the sweet (Thus, salty snacks go with tea
or coffee!).
Looking back in History

Scientists from ancient times have wondered about the senses. Nearly 2300 years
back Plato and then Aristotle mentioned the five senses of humans among which the
sense of touch was considered the most important. In ancient Indian and Chinese medical
documents also, mention of senses have been found. Thereafter for over a thousand years
no documents regarding the role of senses had been found till Albertus Magnus
contributions (around 1220 AD).
He was a bishop in a church in Italy, a keen observer of nature and a lover of science
who followed Aristotelian ideas, but commented on them for the first time making them
accessible for wider academic debate. He mentioned the role of nerves for the first time
in the sensation of touch.
Physiology of sensation could be studied in great detail only from the 17th century
as this was the prime time when several instruments were being invented to aid the unaided
eye to observe more closely. Johannes Kepler (1600 AD), well known for his contributions
to astronomy regarding the rotation and revolution of earth,
established the role of eye as a sense organ. In recent years,
scientists have uncovered new insights into how our senses work
and all the amazingly complex and fascinating things they can do,
whether we are aware of them or not. The electrochemical basis
of transmission of nerve signals and functions of specific areas
in the brain involved in sensations are also better understood.
The number of senses from Aristotelian era to the
nineteenth century stands at five, while in the modern era this
number signifies the sense organs in our body.
Though it is classically considered that humans have five
senses, but in fact, we may have many more. We have one
sense of touch dedicated to pressure, another for heat and
cold, and yet another for vibration and texture and that's
just one of our traditional sense of touch!

This usually happens because a higher receptor is highly sensitive to specific

level of the same stimulus masks that of stimulus types.
the lower level. Remember the poem
1. Eye
Tinaga Tinaga Vemu Thiyyanundu.
We should consider our sense organs Vision helps us detect desired targets,
to be change detectors. If you have ever threats, and changes in our physical
jumped into a cool pool on a hot day, you environment and to adapt accordingly. So,
know that sensation is critically influenced how does the visual system accomplish
by change. In fact, a main role of our this? We shall do a few activities and read
stimulus detectors is to announce changes the following section to find out about this.
in the external worlda flash of light, a Activity-3
splash of water, a clap of thunder, the prick
of a pin etc. The receptors present in our 1. Observe the external structure of
sense organs specialize in gathering your friend's eye, draw the diagram
information about new and changing events. and label it (you can take the help
of diagram given in this section).
Though our senses are change
detectors, usually small changes or 2. Observe the eye ball of your
unchanging stimuli often go unnoticed. Our friend in normal light. Then throw
senses accommodate to unchanging a beam of torchlight on your
stimulation and we become less and less friend's eye.
aware of constant stimulation. For example What is his or her reaction? Why
the sounds in a printing press may be very is it so?
uncomfortable for a worker landing there
for the first time. Eventually as time passes,
the person would not find the sounds so
uncomfortable. Sclera Fig-2(a) The Human Eye
What does all this mean for our
Cornea Choroid
understanding of human sensation? The
general principle is this: We are built Fovea
to detect changes in stimulation and Retina
Pupil
relationships among stimuli and often
adapt to certain stimuli. Lens
Our Sense Organs

Iris
As we all know, we have five main
sense organs, the eyes, ears, skin, nose
and tongue. These sense organs have
sensory receptors. Each type of Fig 2(b) Human eye: schematic cross sectional view
78 Sense Organs
Now ask your friend to keep the eye fluid whereas vitreous chamber is filled
closed for around two minutes. Now let with jelly like fluid.
her/him open the eye. Observe the size of Retina contains the cells, called rods
the small black portion in the centre. Ask and cones. The area of no vision, called
your friend to keep her/his eye open blind spot and the area of the best vision,
forcibly as you throw the beam of torch called yellow spot are present in the retina.
light this time. Observe what happens to the The yellow spot is also called Macula or
small dark portion. Fovea.
What happened to the small dark
Functioning of the eye:
portion called the pupil? Guess why.
The Visual Sensation
Structure of the eye You might think of the eye as a sort of
video camera that the brain uses to make
Our eye contains eye lids, eye lashes, motion pictures of the world. Like a
eyebrows and lachrymal glands. A thin camera, the eye gathers light through a
layer, called conjunctiva covers the front convex lens, focuses it, and forms an image
portion of the eye. The eye ball is located in the retina at the back of the eye. The lens,
in the eye socket. Only 1/6 portion of the turns the image left to right and upside down
eye ball is visible to us. (you may have studied in the chapter on light
Eye has three main layers. They are that we get an inverted /upside down image
sclerotic layer or sclera, choroid layer and through a convex lens). This visual reversal
retina. The outer most thick, tough, fibrous, may have influenced the very structure of
non-elastic and white coloured layer is the brain, which tends to maintain this
sclera. The sclera bulges and forms cornea. reversal in its sensory processing regions.
The end of sclera connects to the optic Thus, most information from the sense
nerve. The second layer is choroid layer. organs crosses over to the opposite side
This layer is black in colour and contains a of the brain. Likewise, maps of the body
lot of blood vessels. It encloses the eye in the brains sensory areas are typically
except the part pupil. The part formed by reversed and inverted. But while a digital
the choroid layer around the pupil is iris. camera simply forms an electronic image,
Radial and circular muscles are present in the eye forms an image that gets extensive
the iris. Biconvex Lens is present further processing in the brain.
immediately behind the pupil is attached to The unique characteristic of the eye
the ciliary muscles and suspensory that makes it different from other sense
ligaments. organs, lies in its ability to take the
The lens divides the inner eye ball as information from light waves then
aqueous chamber and Vitreous chamber. transform the characteristics of light into
Aqueous chamber is filled with water like neural signals that the brain can process.

This happens in the retina, the light- absorb light energy and respond by creating
sensitive layer of cells at the back of the nerve impulses.
eye that acts much like the light-sensitive But why are there two sorts of
chip in a digital camera. As with a camera, photoreceptors? Our eyes function
things can go wrong. For example, the sometimes in near darkness and sometimes
lenses of those who are nearsighted focus in bright light. These two types of
images short of (in front of) the retina; in processors involving distinct receptor cell
those who are farsighted,the focal point types named for their shapes have evolved
extends behind the retina. Either way, for this purpose.
images are not sharp without corrective Fig 5 a Fig 5 b Schematic Representation
lenses. Rods and cones in the human retina
Nearly 125 million tiny rods containing
The real work in the retina is performed
the pigment rhodopsin see in the dark" that
by light-sensitive cells known as
is, they detect low intensities of light at
photoreceptors. These photoreceptors
night, though they cannot make the fine
consist of two different types of
distinctions that give rise to our sensations
specialized cells the rods and cones that
of color.
Rod
Synaptic endings
Nuclei Discs
Rods
Cones
Cone
Synaptic endings Discs

Nuclei
Fig-3 Cones and rods
Cells and tissues in the eye yellow and the array of colours formed by
their combinations. Thus the yellow field,
Making the fine distinctions necessary
the bright red morning sun, the blue sky and
for color vision is the job of the nearly
all other colours in nature are sensed. Let
seven million cones containing the pigment
us observed the figure 5a, 5b.
iodopsin that come into play in brighter
light. Each cone is specialized to detect the The cones concentrate most in the very
light waves we sense either as blue, red, or center of the retina, in a small region called
80 Sense Organs
the fovea, which gives us our sharpest Activity-4

vision. With movements of our eyeballs,
Hold the text at arms length, close your
we use the fovea to scan whatever interests
right eye, and fix your left eye straight on
us visually, the features of a face or,
the fig-4. Keep your right eye closed and
perhaps, a flower.
bring the book slowly closer. When it is
There are other types of cells in the about 8 to 10 inches away the gap
retina that do not respond directly to light. disappears as it is on the blind spot of your
These handle the job of collecting impulses left eye. But you will not see a hole in
from many photoreceptors (rods and your visual field. Instead, your visual
cones) and shuttling them on to the nerve system fills in the missing area with
cells. Presence of some other receptor information from the blue line on either
cells sensitive to edges and boundaries of side.
objects and those that respond to light and
shadow and motion in the retina have also
been reported recently.
Bundled together, the nerve cells make
up the optic nerve, which transport visual
information from the eye to the brain. Fig-4
Again, it is important to understand that Eye protection

the optic nerve carries no light. Only
Each eye is protected by eyelids, eye
patterns of nerve impulses conveying
lashes, eye brows and lachrymal or tear
information derived from the incoming
glands. A thin membrane covers the front
light is carried. Each of the eyes collects
part of the eye. This membrane is called
slightly different view of an object. The
conjunctiva. The conjunctiva is made up of
brain puts the two views together and a three
transparent epithelium. It is also a
dimensional picture is formed.
protective cover to the eye. Whenever
Just as strangely, there is a small area
unwanted substances come in contact with
of the retina in each eye where everyone is this layer the lachrymal glands are
blind, because that part of the retina has no stimulated to wash the substance out of the
photoreceptors. This blind spot is located
eye. The fluids that are filled in the eyeball
at the point where the optic nerve exits each (vitreous and aqueous chambers) protect
eye, and the result is a gap in the visual field. the lens and other parts of the eye from
You do not experience blindness there
mechanical shocks. Cornea is the clean
because what one eye misses is registered window in the sclera in front of the Iris. It
by the other eye, and the brain fills in the protects the eye from direct exposure to
spot with information that matches the
light.
background.

is their focal length can be changed with

Think and Discuss
the help of cilliary muscles and suspensory
What will happen if we have no eye ligaments. They can change the shape of the
lashes? lens from a moderately to more convex
form.
Is tears good for us?
Eye: Some structures that bring Activity-6
about adjustments 1. Enter into a dark room from a very
The Iris is a muscular structure which bright place. What happens?
adjusts the size of the pupil which is nothing 2. Sit in a dark room for some time. Then
but a gap between the iris in front of the go into a bright light room. What
lens. Adjustments are made depending on
happens?
light intensity.
Do you know the impression of an
Cilliary muscles and suspensor
image stays in the retina for about 1/16 of
ligaments are capable of adjusting the focal
a second. If the still images of an object
length of the eye lens.
are flashed at the rate faster than 16 per
Activity-5 second. The eye receives it as moving. This
1. Observe the Iris and its is how we see movies.
surroundings of your friends eye. Eye and Illusions
Can you find the pupil?
Activity-7
2. Observe the colours and patterns in
the iris of your friend' s eyes. Take two pieces of white papers with
Is there any difference from one same size. Draw the picture of a cage on
another? Select a minimum of ten members one paper and the parrot on the other. Then
and note the result. Use a hand lens for insert a stick and attach the blank sides of
close observation. Record your the papers with gum see the adjacent figure.
observations in your notebook. Let it dry then twist the stick rapidly.
What do you notice? Guess why.Let us
Do you know? observe the following figures.
While issuing identity cards like
AADHAR. They take photographs of
your eyes. Do you know why did they
take photo of your eye? Iris patterns are
individual specific and can be used for
Fig-5(a) Fig-5(b)
identification just as our finger prints.
The lenses in our eyes are very special. fig-5a :are these lines straight or not
They are biconvex and crystalline in nature. fig-5b: wich one is having big circle
Their shape is adjustable to some extent that in the centre
82 Sense Organs
intersections of the white bars. But when

you focus on an intersection, the spot
vanishes. Why? The answer lies in the way
receptor cells in your visual pathways
interact with each other. The functioning
of certain cells that are sensitive to light
dark boundaries inhibits the activity of
adjacent cells that would otherwise detect
Fig-5(c) Fig-5(d) the white grid lines. This makes you see
the grayish regions, even though you know
fig-5c: Why do the dots, gray painted
that the squares are black and the lines are
as appearing at the intersections of the
white, this knowledge cannot overcome
grid?
the illusion.
fig-5d: which line is smaller
What illusions tell us about Sensation Diseases and defects of the eye
When your mind deceives you by The main diseases and defects of the
interpreting a stimulus pattern incorrectly, eye are - Night blindness, Xeropthalmia,
you are experiencing an illusion. Such myopia (near sightedness), Hypermetropoia
illusions can help us understand some (far sightedness), glucoma, cataract and
fundamental properties of sensation and colour blindness. Some persons may have
particularly the discrepancy between what eye defects by birth due to various reasons.
we see and external reality. Ask your teacher about these eye defects
Lets first examine the black-and-white and write one or two sentences for each
grid. As you stare at the center of the grid, in your notebook.
note how dark, fuzzy spots appear at the
Taking care of our eyes

You know the saying Sarvendriyanam Nayanam Pradhanam. How you take care of your
eyes? Let us observe the following check list as your teacher how to get points.
Wash eyes with fresh water atleast thrice or four times per day. Yes/No
Keep the distance between the book and eyes about 25 cm
while reading. Yes/No
Dont give continuous stress and strain to the eyes.
Stop the work for some time when ever your eyes feel stressed. Yes/No
Eat food materials like green leafy vegetables
carrots etc rich in Vitamin A. Yes/No

Work under good lighting. Yes/No

Dont rub your eyes if anything falls in them, just wash
the eyes immediately. Yes/No
Remove dust in eye by using tongue, ring, blowing air etc. Yes/No
Consult the eye specialist immediately whenever
you face any vision related problems. Yes/No
Avoid to see lightening gas welding sporks, eclipse. Yes/No
How many points you got? Are you aware of your eyes?
Ear
Apart from hearing ear helps in maintaining the equilibrium of our body. Do you know
by which bone your ears made of? Observe the following picture how inside your ear is?
1. Auditory canal
2. Ear drum 1 34 5 6
2 7
3,4,5. Semicircular canals
6. Cochlea
7. Vestibular nerve
8. Cochlear nerve
9. Eustacian tube
10. Ear Asslcles 8
11. Outer ear (Pinna)
11 9
10
Fig-6 Ear
External ear: and sebaceous glands (oil producing).

It is the visible part of the ear on either These help to keep the ear cannal lubricated
side of our head. It is a flap like structure, prevent the dust and other particles from
called the Pinna. It leads to the ear canal. entering into the ear canal. The ear canal
The pinna is crumpled and made up of is also called Auditory Meatus. A thin layer,
cartilage. called tympanum or ear drum is present at
Have you ever observed wax like the end of the auditory meatus. It is present
substance in your ear? Do you know in between the external and middle ear. It
is in the shape of a cone. Its narrow area
where does it comes from.?
connects to the first bone malleus of the
Pinna has ceruminous (wax producing)
middle ear.
84 Sense Organs
If we have not our external ear what will The vestibular and cochlear nerves join
happen to us? together and form auditory nerve.
Middle ear: The Hearing/Auditory Sensation
Middle ear plays an important role in External ear collects the sound waves.
amplifying the vibrations received on the They enter into the auditorymeatus. Then
tympanum membrane. The chain of three they strike the tympanum. The vibrations
bones, malleus, incus and stapes helps to from the tympanum reach the malleus,
do the same. Oval window is a membrane, incus and stapes. They magnify the
covered ending of the middle year it opens intensity of the sound vibrations. The stapes
into the inner ear through round window. transmits the vibrations to the membrane
Internal ear or Inner ear: of oval window. Then they transmit to the
cochlea. The bacillary membrane is moved
Internal ear consist of bony labyrinth then the vibrations reach to the organ of
enclosing the membranous labyrinth. The carti. The impulses are sent to the brain
membranous labyrinth consists of through the auditory nerve. The hearing can
vestibule, three semicircular canals and be done according to the responses given
cochlea. The anterior part of the vestibule by the brain.
is sacculus and the posterior part is
utriculus. Nerve fibers from them form Activity-8
vestibular nerve. Take a plastic or Iron funnel.
The semicircular canals are connected Stretch a piece of rubber balloon
to the vestibule and filled with endolymph. and cover the wide part of the funnel
Vestibule and semilunar circles together with it. Tie it with rubber band. Put
form vestibular apparatus. If maintains the four or five rice grains on the
equilibrium of the body, pertaining to the sheet. Ask your friend to shout Oh
posture and balance of the body. at the narrow opening of the funnel.
Cochlea is a spiral shaped structure. It Observe the movements of the rubber
has three parallel tubes called scala sheet while he is shouting. Observe the rice
vestibuli, scala media and scala tympani. grains also. What happens to the rice
The first two are separated by the grains? Why?
vestibular membrane. The second and third Later remove the grains. Keep the
are separated by the basilar membrane. Scala wide part with balloon sheet on the
vestibli and scala tympani are filled with chest of your friend. Put the
perilymph. Scala media is filled with narrow end at the opening of your
endolymph. It contains organ of conrti and ear. Could you hear any sound?
tiny cells called primary sensory cells. What is it?
Cochlear nerve fibres form cochlear nerve.

Functions of the ear: Smell and our Nose

To collect and transform vibrations Smell serves a protective function by
produced by sound to nerve sensing the odur of possibly dangerous
impulses to be carried to the brain food or, for some animals, the scent of a
for processing. predator. We humans seem to use the sense
of smell primarily in conjunction with taste
To maintain balance or
to locate and identify foods, avoid spoiled
equilibrium:
foods etc. Humans use the sense of smell
Ask your teacher in what way ear
in much limited manner as compared to
maintain balance.
other animals.
Caring for the ears
Dont insert any sharp edged thing Olfactory receptors
in the ears to clean the ear cannal. Nasal septum
If any blockage occurs due to ear Mucus membrance
wax, use the ear drops, or a few
drops of coconut oil to loosen it. Nossile cavity
A specialist may be consulted
whenever needed.
It is very danger to pore boiled oils,
leafy juices in the ear. Sometimes
it may cause deafness. Fig-7 Nose
Ear diseases:
The Smell or Olfactory sensation
Common ear-diseases like formation
Smell from flower like Artabotrys
of pus, infection of ear drum etc may be
(Sampenga) and fruits like Jack fruit
caused by bacterial and fungal infections.
(Panasa) is good for some people but not
If any infection occurs, one must consult
for others. How we get smell either it is
the qualified doctors and use prescribed
good or bad?
medicines.
Biologically, the sense of smell, or
Nose olfaction, begins with chemical events in
Structure of the nose the nose. There, odurs (in the form of
airborne chemical molecules) interact with
Our external nose has two nostrils.
receptor proteins associated with
They lead to the nasal cavity. Nasal septum
specialized nerve cells. These cells,
divides the nasal cavity into two halves. The
incidentally, are the bodys only nerve cells
nasal cavity is lined with mucus membrane
that come in direct contact with the outside
and small hairs. Olfactory receptors are
environment. Receptors present at the base
present in the mucus membrane.
of the skin lining the inner walls of the
86 Sense Organs
nose, are highly sensitive to odor Activity-9

chemicals. These odor chemicals can be
complex and varied. For example, freshly Blindfold your friend and ask him/her
brewed coffee owes its scent to as many to identify different things by smell like
as 600 volatile compounds (substances that lemon, tea, coffee, potato, tomato,
reach gaseous state quickly as they have low tamarind, spinach, curd, brinjal, etc. Keep
boiling points.) as many things but be careful in choosing
List out how many odors did you them. They should not be in powdered
able to smell? form. Dont allow your friend to touch
More broadly, scientists have cataloged them.
at least 1,500 different odor-producing How does the sense of smell work in
chemicals. Exactly how the nose makes identifying some substances mentioned
sense of so many odors is not completely above?
understood, but we do know that nasal Taking care
receptors sense the shape of odor Take proper care of your nose by
molecules. washing it with water as you take bath and
We also know that the noses receptor during nasal infection by washing them with
cells (see figure11) transform information lukewarm saltwater.
about the stimulus into nerve signals and
convey it to the brains smell centers
Tongue
located on the underside of the brain. Structure of the tongue
There, our sensations of smell are initially Our tongue is made up of voluntary
processed and then passed on to many other muscles. It contains about 10 thousand
parts of the brain. Unlike all the other taste buds. The taste buds are located in the
senses, smell signals are not relayed walls of the papillae.
through the hypothalamus an important part Foliate
Vallate papillae
of brain that coordinates our nervous papillae
systems and endocrine or hormone
secreting system.
If you are suffering from cold did
you smell things in the natural way?
Do you find any relation between
smell and taste?
Fungi form Tongue
The hairs and mucous in the nasal cavity Taste buds
papillae Fig-8 Tongue
keep dust, germs and other unwanted
materials away from gaining entry into our Taste and our tongue
bodies through the nose. Like smell, taste is also a sense based
on identifying chemicals in food and the
texture of it. But the similarity doesnt end Developmental Changes in Taste
there: The senses of taste and smell have a Infants have heightened taste
close and cooperative working relationship. sensitivity, which is why babies try to sense
So many of the subtle distinctions you may everything by taste. This super sensitivity,
think of as flavors really come from odors. however, decreases with age. As a result,
(Much of the taste of an onion is odor, many elderly people complain that food has
not flavor. And when you have a cold, youll lost its taste.
notice that food seems tasteless because
your nasal passages are blocked.) Activity-9
Most people know that our sense of Close the eyes of your friend with a
taste, or gustation, involves four primary piece of cloth. Give her/him a piece of
qualities or dimensions: sweet, sour, bitter, ginger, garlic, tamarind, banana and jaggery
and salty. Generally our Telugu people one by one. Ask her/him to taste by just
consider six types of tastes (Shadruchulu) taking these one at a time on the tongue.
which includes spicyness, Vagaru but Remember that your friend needs to rinse
actually they are tastes. his /her mouth between each test.
Less well known, however, is a fifth Could your friend tell the taste by just
taste called umami . Umami is the savory putting the substances on the tongue?
flavor found in protein-rich foods, such as Now repeat the above experiment by
meat, seafood, and cheese. It is also asking your friend to take a bite and press
associated with monosodium glutamate the food on the palate. What difference does
(MSG) also called as huching, often used he or she feel now?
in Asian cuisine. As food enters our mouth, we bite and
Metallic taste is the taste of some chew it and press it against the palate with
artificial processed food material. our tongue. This releases the chemicals in
The taste receptor cells, located in the food that trigger off our taste buds to act
taste buds on the top and side of the tongue, and carry stimulus to the brain to be
sample flavors from food and drink as they processed for recognition of taste. The
pass by on the way to the stomach. These same taste bud is capable of producing
taste receptors cluster in small mucous- different signals corresponding to the
membrane projections called papillae. different chemicals in food.
Each is especially sensitive to molecules
Activity-10
of a particular shape.
Moving beyond the receptors on the Observe your tongue by standing in
tongue, a specialized nerve hotline front of the mirror by sticking your tongue
carries nothing but taste messages to out.
specialized regions of the brain. See how many different kinds of
structures you can see on your tongue.
88 Sense Organs
Compare with the given diagram. Wash the mouth cavity, after eating the
You can clearly see flake like structures food.
that are the filiform papillae. If any problem arises consult the doctor
The roundish structures are fungiform immediately.
papillae.
There are large roundish ones at the Think and Discuss
back of the tongue which are circumvallate
papillae. On the sides of the tongue the Why we are suggested not to take too
bump like structures are foliate papillae. cool or too hot food material.
Taste buds are present on all of these If you are suffering from fever that
except the filiform papillae that are not the time to your not able to enjoy the taste
sites of taste sensation. of food why?
Do you know? Skin
Each taste bud has a cavity with a The sense of touch had received
pore. The pore is called taste pore. The supreme importance in the sphere of
epithelial cells, surrounding the taste senses from ancient time. The organ
buds form taste cells or the receptors. involved is our skin.
The receptor cells and the cells 9
supporting them are situated in the 1
cavity. Each receptor cell connects to a 8
nerve fibre. All the nerve fibres connect
to main nerves that carry messages to
the brain and spinal cord for further 7
processing.
Activity-11
Blindfold your friend and ask him/her
to close his or her nose as well. Give a few 2 6
cumin seeds to your friend and ask him/ 3 4
5
her to chew. Ask your friend to identify what Fig-9 Skin
you gave. You could try this with a small
Structure of the skin
piece of potato as well.
1. hair 2. Oil gland
What do you observe? Why?
3. blood vessel 4. sweat gland
Taking care about the tongue 5. nerve 6. fat lobules
Clean and wash the tongue before going 7. endodermis 8. epidermis
to bed at night and after rising up in the 9. pore
morning.
Our skin is the sense organ for touch. there is no sensation and with numbers
It contains cutaneous receptors for touch. depending on the number of points
The skin consists of two main layers, called identified.
epidermis and dermis. Repeat this with some of your friends.
Epidermis is the layer for protection. Where on the palm do you find
It has sweat pores and small hairs. It maximum sensation?
contains three layers. They are outer Where did you find minimum
stratum corneum or cornified layer sensation?
containing dead cells, middle granular layer Are palm sense patterns same for
containing living cells and inner malpighian all your friends?
layer containing the cells dividing The colour of the skin is due to the
constantly. Dermis lies below the presence of the pigment, called melanin.
epidermis. It is made up of elastic This pigment gets stimulation, when
connective tissue. It contains sweat glands, exposed to sun light. The skin becomes dark
sebaceous glands hair follicles, blood to protect other layers of the skin from
vessels and fats. harmful effects of light. Skin is sensitive
Skin and touch: to touch, temperature and pressure. It
Skin is the outer most covering of our contains the separate receptors such as
body. It regulates the body temperature and tactile receptors for touch, pacinian
eliminates certain waste material through corpuscles for pressure, nociceptors for
sweat. It is the sense organ of touch. The temperature etc.
sense of touch is done by the cutaneous
Activity-13
receptos. It is the largest organ of all. It
provides the first level of protection to the Press your thumb gently on the tip
body. of a sharpened pencil. Later press it on the
How sensitive is our skin? blunt end of the pencil.
How do you feel? Why?
Activity-12
Do you know?
Make bundles of three toothpicks. See In Braille script, the letters are written
to it that their pointed ends are at the same in the form of elevations and depressions.
level. Now ask your friend to make an So, the visually impaired students can read
outline of one of her/his palm. Ask you the script merely by touching.
friend to close her/his eyes. Now starting Taking care about skin:
from the tip of the thumb keep pricking We should take bath regularly
lightly with your toothpick bundle all over Use soap to clean the body
the plam and keep asking your friend how If any redness, itching, decolouration
many points she/he could identify each and rashes appear on the skin
time. Remember to record with w cross if immediately consult the doctor.
90 Sense Organs
Some of the diseases, affecting the skin Pellagra the disease due to the
are. deficiency of vitamines.
Viral diseases such as measles, Fungal diseases such as ring worm.
chicken pox etc. Sense organs are the gate way of
Bacterial diseases such as leprosy knowledge. We see, hear and feel the nature
Leucoderma, the disease due to the by these sense organs. Taking care of sense
deficiency of melanin. organs provide good health which leads to
better lively hood.
Key words
Sensory receptors, lacrinal glands, conjunctiva, sclera, cornea, iris, pupil,
choroid layer, suspensory ligaments, vitreous chamber, aqueous chamber, retina,
blind spot, fovea, optic nerve, night blindness, myopia, hypermetropia, cataract
colour blindness. pinna, ceruminous glands, sebaceous glands, auditory meatus,
malleus, incus, stapes, tympanum, vestibule, semilnar canals, cochlea, basilar
membrane, auditory nerve, chemoreceptors, olfactory sense fungiform papillae,
filiform papillae, vallate papillae, foliate papillae. Melanin, ceruminous glands,
sebaceous glands, cutaneous receptors, tactile receptors, leucoderma
What we have learnt

Sense organs are five, sense organs work together for particular sensations.
There is a particular level at which the process of sensation is triggered.
Stronger sensation masks weaker ones.
The lens in the eye is adjustable.
Lachrnmal glands secrete lubricant for the eye aiding in movements of the eye.
Retina contains mainly Rods for near dark (dim light) vision while Cones help in
bright light colour vision.
Blind spot is the area of No vision where the optic nerve leaves the eye.
Fovea is the area of distinct vision.
Each eye gets a slightly different view of an object.
The image forms on retina.
Our ear has three main parts. They are external ear, middle ear and internal ear.
Ceruminous glands and sebaceons glands are present in the ear.
Tympanum or ear drum is present at the end of the auditory meatus or ear
cannal.Vibrations of this due to sound travelling through ear cannal, starts the process
of hearing
The middle ear contains three bones, called malleus, incus and stapes that amptify
sound.
Tongue contains nearly 10000 taste buds present on the papillae.
Skin has cutaneous receptors. It is the sense organ of touch.
Sense organs send messages through sensory pathways to the brain where they are
processed and sent to required sense organs to function through motor pathways.
I. Give reasons for: (AS 1)

1. We usually do not see bright colours in dim light
2. Removal of wax layer too often will raise incidence of ear infection
3. During severe cough and cold we lose taste of food.
4. While cutting onions our tears start flowing.
II.Find out the false statements and rewrite them as correct ones. (AS 1)
1. The rationale behind seeing is just the impression of the image in the retina.
2. Ear functions only to hear.
3. Iris patterns are like finger prints used in identifying individuals.
4. Saliva helps the taste buds in taste sensation.
5. We are not able to adapt to sensations.
III.State the difference between the two (AS 1)
1. Rods and cones
2. Iris and Pupil
3. Pinna and Tympanum
4. Nasal cavity and ear canal
IV. How do the following processes occur? (AS 1)
1. When we see an object, a real inverted image is formed on the retina.
2. The sound waves, collected by the pinna are changed as vibrations.
3. We move our hand away from a hot object.
4. A pungent odour, makes us close our nose.
V. Fill in the blanks with suitable words. Then give reasons why the words
are suitable. (AS 1)
1. Chroid layer provides to the eye.
2. The relationship between the tongue and is more.
92 Sense Organs
3. Iris pattern is used for individual

4. Area where optic nerve leaves the eye is called the
5. The ear drum is the .
VI Choose the correct option (AS 1)
1. This vitamin is essential for the health of eye.
a) Vitamin A b) Vitamin B c) Vitamin C d) Vitamin D
2. Sensation is a complex pathway involving -
a) Sense organs b) Sense organs and nerve impulses
c) Sense organs,nerve impulses, brain
d)Brain and nerve impulses
3. The sound waves if not focused by external pinna and ear cannal will result in
a) Hearing several types of sound loudly b) Not hearing anything
c) Slight hearing d) Not being able to make out the type and origin of sound
4. The muscles of the eyeball of a person becomes non functional, the invariable
effect would be-
a) The person fails to close eyes
b) Fails to move eye and see colours clearly
c) Feels pain in the eye
d) The nerves reaching the muscles become nonfunctional.
5. The tongue of a person is exposed to a high salty taste then:
a) The person learns to taste salty things better
b) Loves tasting salty things
c) Hates tasting salty things
d) Fails to taste a less salty thing just after the exposure.
VII Draw and label the diagrams, showing the structure of the (AS 5)
1. Eye 2. Ear 3. Tongue
VIII How would you pay concern towards disabled people who is lacking sensory organs?
IX How do you appreciate the functions of sensory organs which helps us to enjoy
the beauty of nature? (AS 6)
X Form a group with five students in your class and collect eye diseases and its
characteristics by talking with ophthalmic assistant. (AS 4)
XI What happens if our skin loss its sensory nature? (AS 2)
XII Sagar is not able to listen things properly. Guess what would happen to
him. What suggestions you would like give to him? (AS 7)

Chapter
Animal behaviour
Fig-1 (a) Butterfly on a flower (b) Gorilla at rest (c) A bird making a nest
Observe the above figures. You must What do we mean by Animal

have observed all these things in your Behaviour?
surroundings. While observing them you
Animal Behavior is the scientific study
might have got questions like these.
of the wild and wonderful ways in
Why fish do not need to learn how to
which animals
swim?
interact with each
How can butterfly get to know about other, with other
nectar? living beings, and
How ants search their food and give with the
information to each other about this? environment. It
Who does teach a bird to make a nest? explores how
In this lesson we will try to understand animals relate to
Fig-2 Weaver bird
about why animals behave in a specific way. their physical
Is there any pattern in their behaviour? environment as well as to other organisms,
What are the factors that affects their and includes topics such as how animals
behaviour? find and defend resources, avoid predators,
choose mates, reproduce, and care for their
young.
94 Animal Behaviour
The study of animal behavior begins mates and forming into groups for protection,
with understanding how an animals etc.
physiology and anatomy are integrated with What is going on in the figure?
its behavior. Both external and internal Will you consider spinning the web
stimuli prompt behaviors external by spider as an instinct behaviour?
information (For example threats from Why or why not?
other animals, sounds, smells) or weather If your hand touches something hot or
and internal information (For Example sharpened are accidentally it automatically
hunger, fear). Scientists are drawn to the moves away. This is because of reflex
study of animal behavior for varied reasons action. Reflexes are also a type of instinct
and the field is extremely broad, ranging behaviour. We do not have to learn this.
from research on feeding behavior and Give two examples of reflexes?
habitat selection to mating behavior and
Imprinting
social organizations.
You might have observed this type of
Different types of Animal situations. Chickens and ducklings are able
Behaviour to walk almost immediately after hatching
There are several types of behaviours from the egg. Duckling can even swim after
in humans and other animals that have been a few days. They recognise their mother
described and investigated by researches. because of a behaviour type called
The following types have been studied so far imprinting.
Instinct
Imprinting
Conditioning
Imitation
Instinct
Instinctual behaviours are behaviours
that need not be learned. They can be
complex like making nest by birds, choose
Fig-4 Hen with ducklings
Ducklings will follow the first moving

object they meet after hatching. They
become socially attached to this object and
treat it as their mother. Imprinting lets
young animals recognise their mother from
a young age. They can follow her for food
Fig-3 A Spider spinning its web and protection.
Imprinting is useful if the first moving experiences they had learnt when to
object they see really is their mother. But perform which function. They would be
ducklings will imprint on people, balls and wrong sometimes.
even cardboard boxes if these happen to be Ivan Pavlov (1849 to 1936) was a
the first things they see. Russian scientist who has investigated
Try to find out more examples of conditioning. He discovered that dogs
imprinting from your surrounding. produced extra saliva when they were
offered food. This is
Do you know? a natural response
Konrad Lorenz (1903 to 1989) was to a stimulus - food
an Austrian scientist who studied animal makes a dog's mouth
behaviour. He discovered that if he reared water. The saliva
geese (give local name of this) since produced is needed
they hatched; they became imprinted on to start digesting
him. They followed him around and food and to make
preferred to be near him even when they swallowing food Ivan Pavlov
had grown into adult geese. easier.
Pavlov noticed that they also did the
Conditioning
same when the person who fed them came
Conditioning is a type of behaviour into the room, even if the person had not
involving a response to a stimulus that is brought any food. Pavlov went on to ring a
different from the natural one. It is a type bell at the start of feeding time, and
of learned behaviour. eventually the dogs produced extra saliva
If we take ringing of school bell as an when they heard the bell, before any food
example, student shows different types of was brought in.
conditioning to a school bell as per the
time.
When the school bell rings in the
morning, students gather for assembly.
When school bell rings at the end of
break time, the students leave the
playground and go to their classrooms.
When school bell rings at the last Fig-5 Dog Experiment
period students rush to leave their A dog salivating when it hears a bell is
classroom. not a natural response. They would not do
There is one stimulus of ringing the this without being conditioned to do so. The
school bell, but students show different behaviour has been learned. It's called a
responses to it. It is only because by their conditioned response.
96 Animal Behaviour
Imitation
Imitation is a type of behaviour where
one animal copies another animal. Humans
often imitate each other, often without
realising it. When people talk to each other,
they may stand or sit in a similar way, and
copy each others movements. Scientists
Fig-6 Electric fences stop grazing animals think that this happens so that the speakers
straying feel more at ease with other.
Some scientists think that humans are
People and animals can be conditioned
the only animals that copy each other. Other
to avoid certain things. For example,
scientists have observed chimpanzees and
grazing animals get an unpleasant electric
other primates imitating each other. For
shock when they touch an electric fence.
example, chimpanzees can use sticks to
They eventually avoid the fence, even
spear juicy grubs to eat. Other chimpanzees
when it is turned off.
copy this behaviour. In this way they learn
Can you recall some other examples
new skills. Do you ever heard monkey
of conditioning? try to enlist at least five
imitate us. Read and discuss about the story
of them.
'Monkey and Hat marchant'
Fig-7 Behaviour of Chimpanzee
Human behaviour Instinct

Humans show many of the same types Humans have instincts, but it is
of behaviour as other animals. But human possible for us to overcome natural urges
behaviour is often more complex because to follow certain behaviour. For example,
we are more intelligent and aware of hungry persons might want to start eating
ourselves. immediately when they sit down at the
dinning table, but they have learned that
good manners mean they should wait until
everyone is seated and ready to eat. Animals can signal to each other. For
Imitation example, they may call to each other to
warn of danger. Some scientists are
People often imitate each other. This
interested in such signals. They record and
can help them learn something new and
study them to work out what the signals
useful, such as new skill in lessons, sport
mean.
or at work. It can also leads them to show
less useful or harmful behaviour. For Tagging
example, young people may start smoking, You have studied about bird migration
drinking alcohol or taking drugs as a result in the chapter biodiversity and its
of copying each other to fit in. But it is conservation. Like birds some other
very dangerous for our health. animals also migrate over large distances
Conditioning to find food or nesting sites. Animals can
be tagged by attaching tracking devices to
Conditioning can be used to change the
them. Tagging lets scientists follow the
behaviour of people. Advertisers are very
journeys the animals make.
skilled at this. They use pictures of their
products which make them look glamorous
or exciting, often by using famous actors
Lab Activity
or sports people. By associating the The work of Lorenz and Pavlov has been
product with attractive images the mentioned in the earlier sections. These
advertisers are trying to set up a scientists studied animal behaviour under
conditioned response to their product. controlled conditions.
People will respond positively and buy the
You can also study the behaviour of
product.
cockroach. For this you will need a choice
Investigating behaviour box. You can make a choice box by
Behaviour can be investigated in the following the given steps-
field or in the laboratory. It can be Take a box, and divide it into four
observed and measured, and experiments chambers with the help of a
can be designed to test how it works. cardboard as shown in figure.
Human behaviour is affected by many Make tiny holes in any two
variables. It can be more difficult to study chambers of one side so that light
than the behaviour of other animals. can pass through these holes into
Investigations in the field the chambers. Let other two
chambers as it is (Dark).
Some scientists spend many hours
watching and studying the behaviour of Now create humid environment
animals. They may be interested in how the with help of moist cotton wool in
animals live alone, group into families or one of the lightened and one of the
form large groups such as herds. dark chambers.
98 Animal Behaviour
So the box has been divided into Cover the box and leave the setup
four chambers with different for 15-20 minutes.
conditions i.e. light and dry, light Count the number of cockroaches
and humid, dark and dry, dark and in each chamber.
humid. Preparations are over. In which chamber the number of
Make four groups in your class. cockroaches is highest?
Each group will put several Compare your observations with
cockroaches into a choice of other groups. Write down the
chamber with four different differences if any.
conditions: From your experiment try to write
light and dry down a short note about behaviour
light and humid of cockroaches regarding their
dark and dry living conditions.
dark and humid
This half is This half is

in the light in the dark
This half is kept dry Light Dark

whene calcium chloride and dry and dry
Light and Dark and

This half is kept damp
damp damp
with moist cotton wool
Fig-8 Choice box showing different conditions
Cockroaches prefer dark and damp Activity-1

conditions.
Let us observe the following behaviours
The quarter of the choice chamber with of different animals. Identify their
these conditions contains most or all of the imprinting, instinct, conditioning or
cockroaches. imitation.
Our pet dog barks only on

strangers. If you do not stop dogs searching and communicating nature of

into kitchen, how would they ants is because of pheromones. (ask your
behave? teacher about pheromones)
Ants which usually go in a line Let us know some interesting behaviour
reach sweet kept in tin. How do which reflects their intellectual abilities in
they know the way to reach the tin? animals. It is very interesting to watch
Mosquitoes, cockroaches come making of nest. It varies from species to
out of their places only when it is species. Birds build their nests in different
dark. How do they know the ways. Weaver bird selects three broad
difference between light and dark? leaves one for bottom, two for top and sides
Bats and owl move and search for and collect threads to make their nest by
food during night only. How could stitching these three leaves. Some of the
they know what is a day what is a birds build its nest only with leaflets.
night?
When you untie the neck of your
bull at the time of plouging, it
moves towards plough without any
instructions. In the same way, it
moves towards tub at the time of
feeding. How does the bull respond
differently? Fig-9 Nesting Birds
Birds collect material which is
soft, strong to build its nest. How Observe different birds building their
do they know the quality of nests in your sorroundings.
material. Collect material and try to build same
Puppies, kitten fight each other type of nest on your own. Try to
when they saw a piece of cloth. understand how the birds are so
They try to tare it off why? intelligent.
In a particular season, some birds Beaver, a mammal, which lives in North
in our surroundings migrate from America builds dams across water streams.
long distances. How do they know Beaver cut big trees by its sharp teeth to
their way?
Offsprings (kids) of different animals,
either they live on land or in water perform
activities by instinct, imprinting, imitation
or conditioning. Animal behaviour is based
on different bio chemical reactions.
Fig-10 Beaver carrying log
Identifying or smelling ability of dogs and
100 Animal Behaviour
fell the trees across the stream.Then the

beaver constructed nearly four feet wall
by using twigs, stones and mud. Stagnated
water is the living home for beavers family.
Wasp is an intelligent bee which builds
its home keeping in view its future needs.
Wasp builds its hive on the walls by using
mud.
also that show the same behaviour.

Fig-12 Scrubjay bird
A bird called scrubjay hides its food.
Fig-11 Wasp making nest But unfortunately when it searches back its
own food, it finds that another scrubje had
They select suitable mud for already stolen. An experiment proved that
constructing its hive. If it is dry the wasp a scrubjay had hidden its food in presence
makes it wet by adding drops of water. If it of another bird. After some time it was
is wet airs it for some time to make balls found that the other bird had stolen it by
to build its hive. Then they search for food. fixing a plan.
They collect food material by injecting its
venom (usually other larvae) and kept in it
its hive. Wasp lay its eggs on the food
material, which is used as food for larvae
of wasps.
Some experiments towards
Fig-13 Squirrell
animal intelligence
Squirrells too hide their food in a
Let people believe or not, cheating / fascinating way. They always behave in such
bluffing, hiding are also characteristic a manner that somebody is trying to steal
features of self consciousness. In other their food. In order to misguide others they
words,we can say that you know what others dig holes in many places and heap leaves,
think of you and vice versa. So, in order to starch etc to cover them. Sometimes, most
make them confused, you do something that of the holes does not contain any food. In
others can not guess your plans. Not only this way, they cheat others to make believe
humans, but there are some other animals that these holes contain food.

If we think of logic, we must remember than 100 words. He then arranged the words
Dolphins. Dolphins have great logical in such a way that Alex can frame its own
thinking power. sentences. After some days, he showed
It was proven by Hermon. Hermon Alex one yellow bowl and another yellow
studied four bottle nose Dolphins at Kavalo dish. The dialogues between them are:
Basin mammal labarotory of Hawai islands. Pepperburg: What is the similarity?
He named them Akkikomoi, Phoenix, Allen Alex: Colour?
and Hippo.
Pepperburg: What is the difference?
Alex: Shape?
Fig-14 Dolphins playing
He could understand by his study that

Dolphins can remember their names and
understand a code language if they are
trained by practice. Even they could reply
to complex code language. For example,
the closed fist shows a tub, raised arms
show a ball and one hand raised tells 'bring
here'. The altogether actions are understood
by the Dolphins. If we show the above
actions in a sequence, the Dolphins would Fig-15 African Grey parrot
bring the ball from the tub. If we reverse Likewise Alex could recognise even
the actions they throw the ball into the tub. minute similarities and differences
They remember their names by short between any two objects irrespective of
and long whistles.Variety of whistles are colour, site, shape etc. it even tried to teach
recognised by them. If a Dolphin of other parrots of its group. When they utter
particular whistle is called, all the dolphins wrongly it instructed them to say clear.
stare at ,while the particular one comes to Besides, wonderful thing is that it calls
you. an apple as Bannery because it tastes like
Another wonder behaviour is remarked a banana and look, like a big cherry. Naming
with Alex, an African grey parrot. In 1977, in this way is a sign of creativity in
Evirin Pepperberg bought a parrot and language. Before Alexs death it could even
trained it. Slowly he made it learn more learnt upto 7th table.

Activity-2 Select any one of the animals in your

surroundings.Observe how it behaves in
Every species in animal kingdom has
the following situations.
its own standards of intelligence which
reflects through their behaviour. Animals 1. Name of the animal:
also express feelings like happiness, threat, 2. Place where it lives
fear, anger, sadness etc. Your pet dog is a 3. How it builds its place:
best example to observe different types of 4. Way of collecting food / prey:
feelings. After returning from fields in the 5. External characters:
evening cow licks its calf. It reflects its 6. Expressions:
affection towards its baby. You also see this Happiness, Sadness, Fear, Threat,
types of behaviour in other animals. Quarrel, Caring self / young ones
Hissing of snakes, barking of dogs, 7. Group behaviour
stiffing of nailed hair of hedgehog (Mulla Display your observations in the
Pandi), bad flavour from skin of Tasmanian classroom
Devil etc, are all the expression to protect Animals also behave like us in most of
themselves from predators. the situations. It is very interesting and
Do you know? important to understand animal behaviour
to conserve bio-diversity. Ethology is the
Some animals spray bad smell
scientific and objective study of animal
through their body to protect from
behaviour and a sub- topic of zoology. The
predators. Tasmanian Devil is the worst
focus of Ethology is on animal behaviour
smelling animal in animal kingdom. We
under natural conditions. This is the
are also familiar with a beetle with foul
combination of laboratory and field science
smell called Bombardier Beetle.
with a strong relation to certain other
disciplines such as Neuro anatomy,
Ecology and Evolution. Ethology began
during 1930 with the works of Duch
Biologist NIKOLAS TINBERGEN and by
Austrian biologist KONRAD LORENZ and
Fig-16(a) Fig-16(b) KARLVON FRISCH. They got Nobel prize
Tasmanian Devil Bombardier Beetle
for their works on animal behaviour in
It has two chemicals hydroquinone 1973.
and hydrogen peroxide stored in its body.
Whenever the beetle feels threatened, Key words
these chemicals mix with some special
enzymes and that heat up the liquids, which Instinct, Reflex, Imprinting,
gives out bad smell from its body. Conditioning, Imitation.

What we have learnt

Animal shows different types of behaviour.
Animal behaviour is the scientific study of the ways in which animals interact with
each other, with other living beings, and with the environment.
Finding of resources and defending them, avoiding predators, choosing mates,
reproduction, and taking care of their young etc are examples of some of animal
behaviour.
Scientists categorize animal behaviour into different categories like, Instinct,
Imprinting, Conditioning, Imitation.
Human behaviour is more complex because we can control our behaviour and aware
of ourselves.
Animal behaviour can be investigated in controlled conditions as well as in the
field.

1. What is advantage of reflex action? (AS 1)
(a) It has to be learned (b) It happens differently each time
(c) It does not have to be learned (d) None of them
2. If a rat is given a mild electric shock when it goes to a certain part of its cage, it
eventually avoids going there. This is because of- (AS 1)
(a) Imitation (b) Conditioning
(c) Instinct (d) Imprinting
3. Describe all four types of behaviour discussed in the lesson with appropriate
examples. (AS 1)
4. Differentiate between (AS 1)
(a) Imitation and Imprinting
(b) Instinct and Conditioning
5. How behaviour of human is different from behaviour of other animals? Explain
with an example. (AS 1)
6. Observe ants going on a line. Meanwhile two talk each other to communicate
infectives ask you teach how they communicate and write a note on this. (AS 4)
7. "Understanding of animal behavour creates positive attitude towards animals." how
you suppot this statement? Explain with suitable examples. (AS 6)
8. Look at this picture. How do you feel about sibbiling care nature of animals.
Do you ever see such kind of situations in your soroundings? Expalin in
your own words. (AS 7)
Chapter Challenges in improving

agricultural products
From the chapter Our food in Class 6 kilometers .Can you estimate how much
you came to know that we require different area of land would be required to grow the
kinds of foods. They include various kinds quantity of grain needed for your family in
of seeds like wheat, rice, dal, different a year? You know if the members of a family
types of leaves like spinach, menthi and increase, food requirement also increases
many other things. In addition, non- accordingly. If the requirement cannot be
vegetarians eat meat, fish, eggs etc. While met it leads to food crisis. We know that
discussing food chains in the chapter population of our country increases every
Ecosystem we also learned that our diet year. Is the food production able to meet
as well as that of several of our domestic the need of increasing population? Does the
animals is eventually linked to plants. rate of food production increase
Try to estimate how much grain your proportionately to population growth? We
family consumes in a month. shall try to find out the answers to some of
Also, try to guess how much land is such questions by doing the following
required to grow this amount of grain? exercise.
Given below is the tabulated data of
A family consisting of four members
population growth and production of food
requires 50kgs of grains per month or
grain of the concerned decade. Read the
600kg per year. The area of land required
table carefully and find out answers for the
for the same is around 1.4 square
given questions.
Table:1 Rate of growth of population and food grain production
Decade Population Food grain Ratio

Growth(PG) production(FP) FP/PG
1961-1971 2.4 2.83 1.18
1971-1981 2.23 1.8 0.80
1981-1991 2.16 3.13 1.45
1991-2001 1.95 1.1 0.56
2001-2011 1.65 1.03 0.62
In which decade population growth is In this chapter, we shall discuss what

higher? methods are used to increase the
In which decade food grain production production of the crops we grow for food.
is higher? There is one thing that needs to be stressed
when we talk about increasing production.
What major differences did you find in
It can be explained more easily through an
the table?
example. Suppose we plant a crop of wheat.
Is food grain production increasing Suppose the plants grow nice and healthy
according to population growth? but they do not produce any grain. Would
In which decades production of food you call this a good wheat crop? So when
grains not satisfied the needs of we talk about increasing production, what
population? What will happen if the we mean is increasing that part of the crop
production is not sufficient? that is useful for us.
The decade 1991-2001 shows that rate Let us now begin our discussion on
of food production was nearly half as increasing production.
compared to population. What can you The production of a crop does not
infer from the decade when population increase because of any one factor alone.
growth was highest? Only when there is a proper combination
Increasing food production in of several factors, the production can
proportion to compensate the needs of increase. Some of these factors include the
increasing population is a big challenge for kind of seeds planted, the properties of the
our country. Our farmers are constantly soil, the availability and proper application
trying to meet the challenge against all of irrigation and fertilizers, the weather,
odds. controlling insect attacks, the growth of
weeds and so on.
Write your suggestions to improve
food production.

.
.

..

.
.
..

.
.

..

.
.
..
Share your ideas with classmates. What
are the common suggestions in your
list?
Apart from human beings, other living
creatures also need food to survive. Many
of these animals have been domesticated
Fig-1 Paddy
and live with us. So we need to provide them
fodder, grain etc.
106 Challenges in Improving Agricultural Products
Experiments done with corn have shown the impact of some of these factors on crop
production. Some results of these experiments are given in Table 1.
Table-2
Method Production Gain

(kg/he) (kg/he)
Time of planting
A month after the onset of rains 3,400
Immediately after the onset of rains 5,830 2,430
Density of planting
plants per hectare 39,600 4,100
plants per hectare 19,800 5,130 ..
Weeding
Once 4,040
Twice 5,200 ..
Nutrient application
Without phosphorus 4,570
56 kg of phosphorus 4,660 ..
Without nitrogen 4,320
78 kg of nitrogen 4,900 ..
The table shows us the gains achieved How to increase the food
in production by using different methods. production?
For example, planting the seed at the
correct time resulted in a production gain We know that the cultivated land is
of 5,830 - 3,400 = 2,430 kg per hectare. very limited. If we make use of plenty of
land for cultivation some forests may be
Calculate the exact gain from each
destroyed. So we need to think of another
method mentioned in the table and note the
solution. Observe the following solutions.
results in the table.
1. Increasing the area of cultivated land.
You now have some idea about some
of the factors that affect the production of 2. Increasing production in the existing
various crops. land.
Let us now discuss the various factors 3. Developing high yielding varieties.
that affect the production of crops in more 4. Alternating crops.
detail. 5. Mixed crops.
6. Cultivating short term crops like Rabi.

Which of the above option do you think An experiment was conducted to find
is more meaningful? out how irrigation affected the production
You have already learnt about long term of a crop. In the experiment, crops were
and short term crops or Kharif and Rabi grown in two fields. One field was irrigated
crops. Short term varieties produce grains while the other wasnt. The same amount
more than long term varieties. of nutrients, like nitrogen, was applied to
Alternating of crops preserve the soil both the fields. However, the amount of
fertility. Mixed crops system helps the nitrogen was increased by the same quantity
farmers to produce variety of crops as well for successive crops in both the irrigated
as increase production. and unirrigated fields. The results of the
To get high yield 3 types of methods experiment are illustrated in Graph-1.
are being used.
Production (Ton per Hectore)

1. Improving high yielding varieties.
2. Using high yield management methods.
(Crop production management)
3. Crop protection management.
Improving high yielding varieties
Observe the size and colour of maize
in your kitchen. (if not, ask your mother
why she doesnot purchase maize as a food
material) Some seeds are small with yellow Supply of Nitrogen (Kg. Per Hectore)
colour and some are large with white
colour. The white coloured large ones are Sufficient supply of water
hybrid variety. They give high yielding. Less supply of water
Graph-1
On the basis of Graph 1, explain the

Fig-2(a)
HybridVariety importance of irrigation in increasing crop
production.
What difference is there in crop
production when the same quantity of
nitrogen is applied to both the irrigated and
unirrigated field?
Irrigation
Fig-2(b) Local What does a plant do with
Variety
water?
We learned in the chapter Nutrition in
plants in Class 7 that a plant absorbs water
from the soil. What does it do with this That means, if a plant absorbs one litre
water? We saw that the plant combines of water, only one millilitre will be used to
water and carbon dioxide with the help of produce carbohydrate. The remaining 999
sunlight to produce carbohydrates. Starch millilitres evaporate from the leaf.
is one such carbohydrate. Different types
The relationship between water
of sugar and cellulose are also
carbohydrates. A chemical analysis will and crop yields
show that 100 grams of water react with You may have wondered what
260 grams of carbon dioxide to form 180 difference it would make if water is scarce
grams of carbohydrate. when only 0.1 percent is used to produce
But the plant does not use all the water carbohydrate. Lets investigate the matter
it absorbs through its roots to produce a little more in depth. Graph 2 below tells
carbohydrates. Actually, most of this water us how much water evaporates from plants
evaporates into the air. in different seasons.
Activity-1
Take a polythene bag. Cover the bag on
leaves and tie it. Keep it 4-5 hours. You
observe it. What did you find in the
polythene bag? Where did they come from?
Do this experiment during day time and
night time separately. Note the differences
in your note book.
January to December
Water evaporates from plants( in m.m )

Graph-2
Find out from the graph the months in

which the most water evaporates from
plants.
Are these the same months in monsoon
season when the rainfall is heavy?
So how does the availability of more
Fig-3 Transpiration
If you tie a plastic bag over a leaf, you water effect the plant?
will be able to see how much water a plant Let us now look at an interesting fact.
releases in the air. It is estimated that a plant Most of the water released by plants
uses only 0.1 percent of the water it absorbs evaporate from the leaves. The leaves have
to form carbohydrate. tiny, microscopic holes called stomata.
Water evaporates through these stomata. What are the main water sources in your
We know that more water evaporates when village for agriculture? How farmers
the weather is hot. In such a situation, the utilize them?
stomata begin to close. This lessens the Paddy require more quantity of water.
amount of water that evaporates from the Can you give such examples?
leaves. Cultivation of paddy, wheat and sugar cane
are suitable where places have rich water
resources. If we cultivate such crops under
wells and bore wells what will happen?
Most of the farmers of our state
cultivate crops like paddy, sugar cane
irrespective of proper availability of water,
Fig-4 Stomata in the leaf only because of supporting price and
marketing facility. So farmers invest more
We learned in the chapter Nutrition in
on irrigation of water, electricity bills,
plants that plants absorb carbon dioxide.
pesticides and fertilizers. Agriculture
The carbon dioxide also enters the leaves
Officers advise to cultivate dry land crops
through the stomata.
(Aruthadi Pantalu) in less water areas. And
When the weather is hot and the stomata also to practice different water
close, what effect would this have on management practices.
the absorption of carbon dioxide by the Make a list of crops which require
plant? less amount of water.
What effect would a change in the Drip irrigation is a good practice in
amount of carbon dioxide absorbed agriculture to prevent water wastage. In drip
have on the growth of the plant? irrigation, water is supplied through small
If the plant does not get water at this pipes. These pipes have small holes through
time, what effect would this have on its which water passes drop by drop.
growth? Discuss in your class and
findout reasons. Think and discuss
Plants cannot absorb nutrients directly
!! In what way this kind of water
from soil. Only the nutrient that dissolves
supply is useful to the crop as
in water is absorbed by the roots of the
well as the farmer?
plant. We discussed about transportation of
substance in the chapter Transportation of !! Water Shed is a process to
substances through plasma membrane and improve ground water level. In
in the chapter Plant Cell. Try to think of what way it is related to
how xylem and phloem are useful in irrigation? Support with your
transportation. answer.
Activity-2 Plants also absorb different kinds of

mineral salts from the soil, in addition to
Make a block diagram of irrigation of water. Among these are the salts that plants
water from major water resources in require in larger quantities. For example,
your village? plants need nitrogen, phosphorus and
Draw the route map of Jawahar and Lal potassium salts in larger quantities. These
Bahadoor Canals of Nagarjuna Sagar in are called Macro Nutrients. Some nutrients
are necessary for plants in small quantities.
Andhra Pradesh map.
These are called Micro Nutrients. Ex: Iron,
Plant nutrients Manganese, Boron, Zink, Copper,
Just as we need different kinds of Molybdenum, Chlorine etc.
nutritious food, plants also require different These salts are obtained from the soil.
kinds of nutrients. You know that a plant When we grow a crop, the plants absorb
absorbs carbon dioxide from the air and some salts from the soil. Table-3 shows the
water from the soil and produces amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus and
carbohydrates with the help of sunlight. potassium salts absorbed from the soil by
different crops.
Table-3: Absorption of salts by different crops
Crop Yield per hectare Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium

Rice 2,240 34 22 67
Wheat 1,568 56 22 67
Millet 1,792 56 15 146
Corn 2,016 36 20 39
Sugarcane 67,200 90 17 202
Groundnut 1,904 78 22 45
Every time, any of these crops sown in Let us examine this question in more
a field, absorb these amounts of nutrients. detail.
Nutrients present in the soil are
Soil Nutrients
consumed by plants and are replenished or
If a field is cultivated for many years, returned to the soil in many different ways.
what would happen to the nutrient In nature the continuous process of death
content of the soil? and decay add nutrients to the soil and the
How does the soil get back or replenish process is too slow to be commercially
these nutrients? useful. Rotating crops, adding organic

manure or chemical fertilizers etc. are man provide some nutrients to it. Growing
made processes. leguminous crops result in an increase in
the quantity of nitrogenous salts in the soil.
Crop rotation
Thus to grow a leguminous crop between
Usually, farmers do not grow only one cereal crops is beneficial either by
crop in a field. Different crops are grown alternating cropping system or by mixed
in different seasons. It has been seen that cropping.
cereal crops take lot of nutrients from the Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium
soil. Legumes are different. While they do are the important nutrients.
take nutrients from the soil, they also Let us observe the following table.
Table-4:
Nutrient Uses
Nitrogen New leaves, flowers arise fast.
Phosphorus Penetrates roots deep in to the soil to absorb nutrients quickly
Potassium Resistance towards pests, increases the quality of smell, colour, and taste
of fruits.
To avoid nutrient deficiency in the soil, What is the benefit of crop rotation?
farmers cultivate alternate crops. When cereals are cultivated more
A farmer cultivated sugar cane in his nutrients are utilized. If legumes are grown
land for the last five years. Another in the soil, less nutrients are utilized. Not
farmer cultivated sugarcane in the first only this, they synthesise some nutrients
year and soya bean in the second year into the soil. Do you find any crop rotation
and sugarcane in third year. methods in your village? What are they?
Ask your village elders and collect the
In which case do you think has the land
information about it.
lost most of its nutrients?
Crop rotation is the process in which Cultivating mixed crops
one crop is followed by another crop on an Have you ever seen two types of crops
agricultural field. Some best combinations in the same field?
for crop rotation are given below. Which crops are grown in this way?
After cultivation of paddy, blackgram/ What are the uses of cultivating mixed
groundnut has to be grown, followed by crops?
paddy again for cycle to continue. Discuss in groups and display your
After cultivation of tobacco, mirchi has writings in your classroom.
to be grown for the cycle to go on. If more than one crop is cultivated in
After cultivation of redgram, maize/ the same field then it called mixed crop.
paddy has to be grown for the cycle to Because of mixed crop cultivation the soil
go on. becomes fertile. The nutrients which are
used by one crop will be regained by

cultivating another crop.
Which crops can be cultivated as mixed
crops? Observe the following...
Soya grown along with Pea
Pea grown along with Green gram
Corn grown along with Black gram
Groundnut grown along withsunflower
Fig-7 Betel Leaf
Maize grown along with Red gram
Sorghum grown along withPea Is betel (Tamalapaku) a mixed crop?
Cotton grown along with Groundnut How can you justify your answer?
Can you name some leguminous crops?
Leguminous crops usually have many small
nodules on their roots. Several different
kinds of bacteria live in these nodules.
These bacteria absorb nitrogen from the air
and convert it into a form that can be used
by the plant.
Ask your teacher about names of the
Fig-5 Red gram in Haldhi nitrogen fixing bacteria.
You could uproot a soya bean plant or a
Bengal gram plant to see the nodules on
their roots.
Root nodules in legume plants

The microorganisms in the nodules use
some of the nitrogen for their own purpose.
Fig-6 Cabbage in ground nut Some nitrogen is used by the leguminous
plant itself. But after the crop is harvested,
Generally pulses and cereals are grown
the roots remain in the soil. So the soil gets
as mixed crops. Short term crops are grown
some nitrogen in this way.
in Long term crop fields. In the fruit
growing fields like Lemon, Pomegranate, Experiments have shown that a
Papaya, etc., pulses like Red gram, Black leguminous crop gives about 50 kg to 150
gram, Green gram, etc., are cultivated as kg of nitrogen per hectare. The crop grown
mixed crops. after the leguminous crop can take
advantage of the availability of more
nitrogen in the soil.

The organic (natural) manure is

produced by decaying the plant and animal
wastes! The manure produced from
decomposed plant and animal products has
more organic material. This gives good
nutrients to the soil. It makes the soil
fertile. Because of humus, the natural
manure, water holding capacity of soil is
increased.
Fig-8 Rood Nodules
Natural organic manures are generally
Nowadays a bacterial culture is also divided into two types. One is concentrated
available. This is mixed with the seeds. organic manures and the other is Macro
When the seeds are sown, the plants are able organic manure.
to produce more nodules on their roots.
Groundnut, Gingili, Castor, Coconut,
Apart from this, there are various kinds Neem, Jetropa Seed powders are the
of blue-green algae that add nitrogen to the examples of Concentrated organic
soil. Blue-green algae culture is also manures. These are also used as fodder for
available. It is applied in rice fields. cattle and poultry.
So if a leguminous crop is rotated with Animal excreta, compost, deep litter
a cereal crop, the leguminous crop are the examples of Macro organic manure.
replenishes, to some extent, the nitrogen Nutrients are rich in the concentrated
taken from the soil by the cereal crop. But organic manures than in macro organic
potassium, phosphorus and other nutrient manure.
elements cannot be replenished in this way.
By organic manure we normally mean
Organic manure the plant and animal residues in the field,
Do you ever saw a herd of goats in a such as stalks and roots, cow-dung, urine
vacant field? Why shepherds make etc. The percentage of various nutrient
arrangements to stay their goats and sheeps elements in one tonne of organic manure
in the fields? is given in Table 5.
Table-5: Percentage of nutrient elements in organic manure (kg/tone)

Manure Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium
Goat manure 5-7 4-7 3-4
Dry compost 5-10 4-8 6-12
Dry organic manure 4-15 3-9 3-10
Neem powder 5-6 1-2 1-2
Vermi compost 1-3 1-2 1-2

(Dry organic manure is made by If the total weight of the green manure
mixing cow-dung, hay, urine etc) crop in a field is 8 to 25 tonnes per hectare,
Suppose a paddy crop is grown in a field the amount of nitrogen it provides on being
and five tonnes of rice are harvested. ploughed back into the soil is 70 kg to 90
Calculate from Table 3, how much kg per hectare.
nutrient elements this crop must have taken Farmers, who have no sufficient time
from the soil. To replenish this quantity of for making Green manure, are suggested
nutrient elements in the soil, how much of to use green leaf manure. Any plant leaves
dry compost needs to be added? are used as green leaf manure.
Find out whether all the green manure
Green Manure crops crops mentioned in Table 6 are leguminous
Do you know that some crops are crops.
grown so that they can be ploughed back On the basis of Table 6, explain the
into the soil? Some examples are berseem, reason for growing green manure crops.
kulthi, sunhemp, lobia, green gram etc.
Details of these crops and the nitrogen they Soil testing
provide per hectare are given in Table 6. How do farmers know what type of
crop needs to be cultivated? What types
of crops are suitable for the soil in their
fields? Farmers, who are experienced, are
able to make out from the colour and
texture of the soil.
You had also studied about the same in

Fig-9 Green manure crops your earlier class. Ask a farmer to find
Table-6: Percentage of nitrogen in out about crops that can be grown in
different green manure crops different types of soil.
Nowadays, Agricultural officer and the
Name of crop Nitrogen Soil Testing Technologist are available in
(kg /tonne) every area. They observe the field and
suggest what to do.
Lobia, beans 7.1
Have you ever heard about Bhusara
Dhaincha 6.2
Pariksha Kendra' (Soil Testing Centre)?
Kulthi 3.3 At these centers the soil technologist
Green gram 7.2 collects soil samples from fields and tests
the fertility levels of soil. They give us
Sanhemp 7.5
knowledge about the soil. The testing
Horsegram 8.5 centers are situated in division and district

levels. If you send the sample of soil from which is more. This helps the farmer to
your field, they send you a report after select the type of crop, manure, fertilizer
testing it. By the report you will be able etc and its quantity. This prevents wastage
to know that which nutrient is lesser and and minimizes investment.
Vermi Compost
To replenish soil nutrients, adding of wet with water. They collected house
natural manure is a good practice. Vermi hold waste of dry cattle dung from the
compost is one of the techniques in soil village to fill the bed. They did not use,
nutrient management. Let us read the wet dung. They were careful to avoid
following case study to know about vermi glass, polythene, rubber and metal
compost. objects in the bed.
The farmers are Bomma Raju Cheruvu After two weeks of making bed, they
of Vinjamur Mandal faced many problems kept thousand earth worms per square
in using of chemical fertilizers. They meter and covered the bed with Gunny
searched for alternate practices. Farmers bags to maintain 30 to 40% of moisture.
understand the importance of soil health. After 60 days they collected their first
They formed a group to grow vermi manure. Second time they, got the
compost with the help of Agriculture manure within 40 to 45 days. Every year
Field Officers of DOT centre. they got the manure 6 times from these
They constructed 10X1X1/2 meters beds. They got one ton of compost from
vermi compost beds in sheds which protect three tons of organic wastes. They said
these beds from direct sunlight and rain. that after using this organic manure,
They collected coconut, banana and investment on chemical fertilizers and
sugarcane leaves, coconut coir and dry other pesticides became reduced and the
black gram plants. They made them into quality their agricultural products
3 to 4 inches layer. This inner layer was increased.
Fig-10 Vermi compost culturing Fig-11 Vermi compost beds

Think and discuss Organic farming

By using chemical fertilizers, we can
In what way vermy compost is better
get high yielding for only 20 to 30 years.
than chemical fertilizer.
After that soil becomes reluctant to plant
Panchgavya growth. These chemicals damage soil
fertility. If the soil health is proper, then
This is also a natural manure. The main
only the soil responds to fertilizers.
ingredients of Panchgavya are milk, curd,
Otherwise, using of fertilizers become
ghee, dung and urine of cow. Mix cow dung
mere waste.
and cow ghee. Settle it for four days. On
the fifth day, add urine, milk and curd of Long term high yielding capacity of
cow. Also add kallu, coconut water and soil (soil productivity) depends on both
sugarcane juice to the mixture. And then availability of nutrients in the soil (soil
add banana paste. Settle it for ten days. Stir fertility) and suitable physical, chemical
the material morning and evening. Then you and biological characters of soil (soil
will get Panchagavya the only sprayer type health).
of manure. 3% of Panchgavya is helpful to To maintain soil productivity organic
grow crop with higher yielding. It is also farming comes into existence. In this type
used as food for hens and fish in ponds. of farming, farmers use natural manures
and natural pest controlling methods and
they also practice crop rotation and mixed
crop systems.
In organic farming farmers use bio
fertilizers, instead of using chemical
fertilizers and synthetic pyrithroids, to get
higher yielding.
Some micro-organisms which are
useful to synthesise nutrients from the
environment or from soil to plants. These
are called microbial cultures or bio-
fertilizers.
Fig-12 Panchagavya Bio fertilizers

Bacteria Algae Fungi
Nitrogen Phosphorus Nitrogen Phosphorus phosphorus
Fixers: Solubulisers: fixer: moralizers: solubuliser:
Ex: Rhyzobium Ex:Bacillus Ex: Bluegreen algae Ex:Micoryza Ex: Pencillium
Azotobacter Pseudomonas
Azospyrillum
Generally bio fertilizers are two types. The percentage of nutrients differs in
One is nitrogen fixers and the other is various chemical fertilizers. So a farmer,
Phosphorus moralizers, solublelisers. who uses a chemical fertilizer, first checks
Observe the flow chart of different bio- how much of which nutrient he gets from
fertilizers. that fertilizer before applying it in his
What do you find from the flow chart fields.
What are the major nutrients Table 5: Percentage of nutrients in
synthesized by this. different chemical fertilizers
Bio fertilizers are useful to maintain
soil health and productivity. These do not Name of fertilizer N P K
have nutrients in them like organic (%) (%) %)
manures. They synthesize nutrients from Urea 46 0 0
environment and soil. These are also called
Superphosphate 0 8-9 0
farmer (eco) friendly fertilizers.
Ammonium sulphate 21 0 0
Potassium nitrate 13 0 44
If we use 50 kg of urea, then according

to Table 5, 23 kg of nitrogen (46 percent)
will be added to the soil.
To get the same quantity of nitrogen,
how much ammonium sulphate should
we add?
Fig-13 Bio fertilizers
If 50 kg of superphosphate is added to
Chemical Fertilizers the soil, how much phosphorus would
You may have heard names like urea, the soil get?
NPK and superphosphate. These are But whether we use organic manure
chemical nutrients. These are partially or or compost or chemical fertilizers, it is not
completely synthetic in origin. enough to know the percentage of nutrient
We have already seen that plants get elements they contain. It is important to
many of their nutrients from the soil. The know how much of this nutrient is finally
quantity of nutrients in the soil decreases available to the plant. It is also necessary
if plants continue to absorb them. We have to know which is the best time to provide
also seen some ways in which soils the nutrients so that the plant can make the
replenish their nutrient content. There is fullest use of them. We must also examine
one other way in which soils can receive which is the best way to add the nutrients
nutrients by adding chemical fertilizers. to the soil. For example, would it be better

to sprinkle them in the field or to dissolve Suppose 120 kg of nitrogen per hectare
them in the irrigation water or to place are added to a crop of Sonora-64 wheat. A
them under the soil. total of 5.3 tons of wheat will be produced.
On the basis of Table 2, calculate how
The Method Determines The
much of phosphorus and potassium will be
Effect absorbed from the field by this wheat crop.
It is not necessary that the production Is it advisable to add only nitrogenous
of all crops increases equally if an equal fertilizer to increase production? What
amount of nutrients is applied. The type of effect will this have on other nutrients in
crop determines the effect of the nutrients. the soil? Explain with reasons. Now let us
For example,the effect of applying nitrogen consider the last factor relating to crop
fertilizers on an indigenous rice variety production.
(Peta) and a hybrid rice variety (IR-8) is Crop protection
shown in Graph-3.
Suppose we take best variety of seeds,
sow them at the correct time, apply
fertilizers properly at proper intervals and
IR-8 irrigate a crop well. Will there be any
obstacle in getting a good crop?
There are many other factors that affect
a crop production. Lets look at some of
Peta them.
Weeds
Often, other plants grow in a field along
Graph-3 with the crop. These plants are called
What is the difference in effect of weeds. Do you know any names of weeds
nitrogen fertilizer on Peta and IR-8? in paddy field?
Normally, a farmer uses chemical What effect do weeds have on a crop?
fertilizer to increase the crop production Before trying to answer this question,
from his fields. The question is, how much discuss the following points in your class:
fertilizer should he add? 1. How would weeds affect the supply of
Graph 3 shows the resultant increase nutrients to the crop?
in crop production for different quantities 2. How would they affect the sunshine
of chemical fertilizers. available to the crop?
Look at the graph and say whether crop 3. What effect will there be on the water
production will continue to increase as available for the crop?
we add more and more quantities of
Will these factors affect crop
nitrogenous fertilizers?
production? Look at the crop figures
relating to weeding in Table 1 and The diseases caused by insects and

explain what effect there would be on microorganisms affect crop production.
crop production if a field is not weeded. The question is, how should we deal with
What do you think should be done to this problem? Nowadays, farmers use
rid a field of weeds? insecticides, fungicides and other
chemicals. However, there are other ways
Activity-3 to solve the problem. For example,
weeding could rid a field of weeds. Or
Make a list of the major weeds in your insects can be captured and removed from
area. Find out which weeds grow with which the fields.
crops. If possible, collect these weeds and Insecticides are actually chemicals.
make display. Find out what farmers do to They are used to kill insects.
get rid of these weeds. Ask your teacher about whether insects
Insects and plant Diseases can develop immunity to the insecticides
used to destroy them? Immunity means the
Apart from weeds, plants are affected
insecticide no longer has any effect on the
by insect attacks. Some insects eat the
insect it targets.
stems of plants, some nibble at the leaves,
while others destroy the roots. But there There is another problem when we use
are also insects that are useful for plants. insecticides to kill pests or weedicides/
For example, many insects help in the herbicides to destroy weeds. A large
pollination of plants. percentage of these chemicals remain in
the soil. From the soil, these chemicals find
There are several microorganisms that
their way into water sources. Do you think
destroy plants. We cannot see them, but we
that a chemical used to kill insects will have
can see the destruction they cause in plants.
no effect on humans?
These include shriveling and discolouration
of leaves, rusting of the stem and leaves, People who spray these chemicals in
fungal growths etc. There are, however, the fields are exposed to them and some
some useful microorganisms that make of the chemicals enter their body. What
nitrogen available for plants. effect do you think these chemicals will
have on their health? discuss in yourclass.
Fig-14 Diseases in plants

Another problem is that these

chemicals destroy all insects. We have seen If insects that pollinate crops are killed,
earlier that some of these insects are useful what effect will this have on crop
and helpful to plants. In our state, production?
Prakasham and Guntur districts are the In recent times, why farmers touch the
places where pesticides and insecticides flowers with handkerchiefs in
are used in large quantities. sunflower fields?
Look at the pictures
Fig-15 I nsects and birds helping in pollination Pollination with hands

Some people ask this question: If we of this method say the process can be
don't use these chemicals, how can we speeded up. For example, if a lighted bulb
get a good crop? How can we increase (Deepapu Teralu) is placed in a field, insects
production? Is there an answer to this would cluster around it.
question? What could it be? Discuss with your friends and try to
Suppose we can use some other find out some other alternates for
methods that do not give rise to these pesticides.
problems. For example, they say we can Natural pest controlling
make use of the natural food chains to
methods
control pests. Remember, we had
Generally farmers use synthetic
discussed food chains in the chapter
pyrithroids like pesticides, insecticides to
Different Ecosystems. There are many
control pests on crops. There are so many
insects that eat other insects. They are
natural pest controlling techniques.
called predatory insects. We can make use
Which are followed by our farmers?
of these insects. There are also birds that
Some insects control the harmful
eat insects. We can use these birds to get
insects and they are called friendly insects.
rid of insects.
Spiders, dragon fly, Krisopa, mirids, lady
Similarly, people say we can capture
bird beetle, etc., are the insects that eat
harmful insects and kill them. The
worms like jasids, trips, and stem borers.
problem is that this method is both slow
Trycoderma bacterium lives in the eggs of
and time consuming. However, supporters
stem borer, tobacco cater pillar, gram cater Some mixed crops also control some
pillar and destroy these pests at the egg pests and diseases. After paddy, cultivating
stage. Some bacteria like Bacillus black gram, groundnut etc. prevents Tungro
Turengenisis destroy some pests. virus disease on paddy. After cotton,
cultivating maize and gingili prevent gram
cater pillar. After Red gram, cultivating
maize and corn prevents spotted bole worm
and dried disease. These are called
Akarshaka Pantalu.
Do you know why Jetropa in cotton
fields, marigold in Mirchi fields
cultivated?
Improvement in food production
and sustaining soil health, environmental
protection are the both sides of agriculture
practices. Farmers should be aware of
Fig-16 Biological control by natural enemies
quality, innovative practices in agriculture.
(Predatory Insects)
Key words
Weeds, insecticides, fertilizers, fungicides, irrigated farming, unirrigated
farming, predatory insects, bacteria, immunity, stomata, carbohydrate, bacterial
culture, crop rotation, mixed crop, organic farming, vermi compost.
What we have learnt
Food production is not increasing in accordance with increase in population.

Factors for the increase of food production are quality and variety of seed planted,
properties of the soil, availability and proper application of irrigation and
fertilizers, weather, controlling insect attacks, controlling the weeds etc.
Mixed crops system helps the farmers to produce varieties of crops as well as
increasing production also.
Alternative of crops preserve the soil fertility.

Seeds with the desired characters were developed by using the Hybridization methods
and Genetic Engineering techniques.
Plants utilize 0.1% of water which it absorbs to form carbohydrates during
photosynthesis process.
Absorption of CO2 and evaporation of water occurs through Stomata.
Dry land crops (Aruthadi pantalu) are suitable for less water available areas.
Plants need Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potassium salts in large quantities, these are
called Macro nutrients.
Plants need some nutrients like Boron, Iron, Copper etc., in small quantities. These are
called Micro nutrients.
Nutrients are replenished to the soil by rotating crops, adding organic manure or chemical
fertilizers.
Mixed crop cultivation makes soil fertile. The nutrients which are used by one crop
will be regained cultivating another crop.
Humus and water holing capacity are increased in the soil by applying the natural manure.
Any plants leaves can be used as green manure.
Vermi compost is far better than chemical fertilizers.
Over usage of pesticides leads to Soil pollution, water pollution and hazard to
Bio- diversity.
1. Suggest some ways in which our country could increase the production of rice to meat
atleast global limits. (AS1)
2. How are biofertilizers more beneficial as compared to chemical fertilizers? (AS1)
3. (a) Find out the adverse effects of chemical fertilizers needed for growing the high
yielding varieties of crops? (AS1)
(b) Can high yielding varieties be grown without them as well? How? (AS1)
4. What threats to nature do chemical fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides and herbicides
pose? (AS 6)
5. What are the adverse effects of using high yielding varieties of seeds? (AS1)
6. What are the essential measures that a farmer needs to take before sowing the seeds of
a crop? (AS1)
7. Suppose you had a farm in a drought striken area of your state what crops would you
grow and how? (AS1)
8. What measures will you take to save your field from seasonal outburst of insects?
9. What basis would you adopt to explain to a farmer using chemical fertilizers switch
over to organic fertilizers? (AS 4)
10. A farmer had been using a particular insecticide for a long time. What consequences
will it have on- a) insect population b) soil ecosystem? (AS 2)
11. Venkatapuram village is in drought prone area. Somaiah wants to cultivate sugar cane in
his fields. Is it beneficial or not? You want to convey him-which questions will you ask
him? (AS 7)
12. Draw a block diagram of water resources in your village? (AS 5)
13. Ramaiah has soil testing done in his field. The percentages of nutrients are 34-20-45.
Is it suitable for cultivating sugar cane crop? Which crops can be cultivate without
using pesticides in Ramaiahs field? (AS 2)
14. Organic manure is helpful to Bio diversity. How do you support this statement? (AS6)
15. Make a list of the major weeds in your area (you have already conducted the project).
Find out the weeds which are grown in different crops? (AS 4)
Name of the Crop Weeds that grown on crop
16. Spraying high dose of pesticides is hazardous to bio diversity and crop yielding. How
can you support this statement? (AS 6)
17. Natural pest controlling methods are useful to Bio diversity. Comment it? (AS 7)

ANEXURE
a) Hybridization
In recent times the biotechnologists have developed high yielding varieties of different
crops particularly food grains and vegetables. By using hybridization methods and genetic
engineering techniques the seeds with desired characters are developed. You will learn
more about this in future courses.
Tomatoes are soft and fleshy but they are not suitable to preserve for more than week
days. If the tomato is somewhat harder and fleshy it would be suitable to preserve. So
biotechnologists select the desirable characters and develop hybrid varieties. Seedless
fruits like grapes and papaya are hybrid ones.
Think, why we need hybrid variety of paddy, millets and cereals?
Lab Activity
Take one example from each of millets, cereals,

vegetables and fruits. First you have to list out the known
characters of the above and then list out the characters
that you want to change or modify in them. But you need
to give your own reasons- why do you want to make such
changes in them?
Hybrid tomato
S. Type Example Known characters To be changed Reasons

No. characters
1 Fruits
2 Vegetables
3 Millets
4 Cereals
5
b) Hybrid Varieties:
Biotechnologists develop hybrid varieties by crossing between two plants which have
genetically different characters and thus developing new variety with useful characters.

Hybridization as a process to yield high yielding variety of rice in India for commercial
production was started in 1911. It was started by Dr. G. P.
Hector, the erstwhile Economic Botanist during 1911 in
undivided Bengal with headquarters at Dacca (now in
Bangladesh). Subsequently, in 1912, a crop specialist was
appointed exclusively for rice in Madras Province. Prior
to the establishment of the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR) in 1929, Bengal and Madras were the
only provinces which had specialist exclusively for rice
crop. Later several other research stations were opened
which released 445 improved varieties of rice by 1950.
These varieties were of various characters such as-giving
produce early, deep water and flood resistant, drought
resistant, disease resistant etc
Pomato
The hybrid varieties that are produced by hybridization techniques are high yielding,
disease resistant, can thrive on less rainfall and will grow in acidic soils also.
You people also can develop your own hybrid varieties. Its very interesting to do.
Let us do the following Experiment and record your observations carefully.
Red and yellow equal to rellow
If you want to make your own hybrid flower you need to do the following. But it is time
consuming process and patient job too. For this you need red and yellow colour
Chandrakantha plants.
Select 5 or 6 red flowers on a plant.
Remove all the other flowers of that plant.
Take each flower, remove stamens carefully.
Take yellow flower and rub with that flower gently on the stigma of selected red
flower for pollination (You need to do this process in evening only. Because these
flowers bloom in the evenings and fall down in the next morning).
Tie a tag with a thread loosely to the pollinated flowers to avoid confusion in identifying
these flowers for seeds in the next few days.
Within a week days you will get black seeds.
Keep them another two weeks to dry and sow them in a pot.
Take care to grow the plants until they flower.
Observe the colour of the flowers. How are they?

Record your findings at every step and discuss with your teacher.
You know that it is a time consuming and patiently job. Think- how the scientists work
for?
Do you know? You know Tomato and potato. Do you Know Pomato? Look at this
photo.
Scientists developed pomato plant by the hybridization of Tomato and Potato plants. It
produces tomatoes on the top and potatoes under the ground. How wonderful it is!
Is it beneficial or not?
c) Genetic engineering:
Another method of improving crop production is genetic engineering. The substances
which carry desired characters are introduced into the plants and produced new varieties.
These varieties are otherwise called as genetically modified seeds (GMS).
Ask your teacher as to why some people fight against GMS.
The seeds thus produced are of good quality and grow in areas with different climatic
conditions and different soils. This type of seeds is necessary for farmers. These are useful
for them to improve crops in their areas.
Think- in what way less yielding time and cultivation of dwarf varieties are also good
characters. Discuss in groups and write your findings in your notebooks.
Other side of the coin

Increase in production of crops is not at all a questionable task. To maintain balance
between population growth and food requirement, there should be a need to implement
more productive practices. Genetically modified seeds are solving the problem. But they
the whole diversity of the food grains. Traditional and local varieties become extinct.Such
mono-cultural practicesleadto increasing uncontrollable pests and diseases on plants.
For this farmers use pesticides beyond limits. This causes undesirable damage to the eco
system. For example cultivation of B.T. Cotton and Brinjal seed varieties resulted in
committing suicides of farmers. Multinational companies impose the countries
throughout globe to cultivate those seeds only. Think- how people like us raise our voice
against this issue.

Comparison chart
Chemical Fertilizer Organic fertilizer
(compost / biofertilizer)
Example: Ammonium sulphate, ammonium Cottonseed meal, blood meal, fish
phosphate, ammonium nitrate, emulsion, and manure and sewage
urea, ammonium chloride etc. sludge, etc.
Advantages: Add natural nutrients to soil, increases

Chemical fertilizers are rich
equally in three essential nutrients soil organic matter, improves soil
i.e. Nitrogen, Phosphorus and structure , improves water holding
Potassium that are needed for capacity, reduces soil crusting
crops and always ready for problems, reduces erosion from wind
immediate supply of nutrients to and water, Slow and consistent release
plants if situation demands. of nutrients,
Disadvantages: Several chemical fertilizers have Have slow release capability;
high acid content. They have the distribution of nutrients in organic
ability to burn the skin. Changes fertilizers is not equal
soil fertility.
Rate of High, because of immediate Moderate, because of slow release of
production: supply of nutrients. nutrients.
Nature: Chemical fertilizers are Organic fertilizers are made from
manufactured from synthetic materials derived from living things.
material
Preparation: Artificially prepared. Prepared naturally. One can prepare organic
fertilizers, themselves or can also buy.
Cost: Costly Cheap
NPK Ratio: 20 to 60% About 14%
Nutrients: Have equal distribution of three Have unequal distribution of essential
essential nutrients: phosphorous,
nitrogen, potassium. nutrients.

A progressive farmer
Now a days, farmers - the back bone of the remaining 16 acares I used to grow food
our country- believe that agriculture is a grains like paddy, groundnut, redgrams, and
non profitable occupation. In this scenario green grams, and black grams etc.,
Gudivada Nagaratnam Naidu, a progressive vegetables like tomato, brinjals etc,
farmer started revolution in agriculture and flowers and also fruits. I never consulted
proved that it is one and only profitable any agriculturists for this purpose ever
occupation. before. Having known my efforts,
He got many National and International agriculturists are approaching me.
awards for his innovative practices in his My efforts taught me that plants indeed
fields. Scientists, intellectuals and get 95% of nutrients from nature and
presidents of different nations visited his sunlight. Remaining 5% are supplemented
field where glories of agriculture products by micro organisms present in the soil. So
practiced. I realized that I have to take care of growing
To overcome the challenges in the field micro organisms in the soil. A healthy soil
of agriculture, farmers should attain only nourishes the plants with the fertilizers
knowledge of modern technologies in we use.
agriculture and marketing. It is direly A plant uses the nutrients that it
essential for getting more profits. Let us requires and leaves the remaining for other
look at his experience in his words. plants. This is what I think as Biodiversity.
"I am Gudivada
Nagaratnam Naidu. I am a
peasant; still I did not take any
loan from any bank till today.
Besides, I never lent any
money from others. I feed my
family with what I grow in my
field. I grow oilseeds,
uncontaminated fruits,
flowers in my field for me and
for others.
The root of my success
lies in growing mixed crops. I
started cultivation in one acre out of 17
acres of land which is situated in outskirts For example some plants maximum
of Hyderabad of Hayathnagar mandal at sunlight while others are exposed to limited
Taramathi pet. But later i started cultivating sunlight. This is possible only because of

biodiversity. Drumstick plants are grown

under coconut and Hellconia flowers can
be grown under drum sticks. Aspergillus
can be grown under coffee plants. This
is the way of growing more plants with
less investment in a limited area. This
becomes success and beneficial when
you implement the right pattern.
Usually it is difficult to yield 30 bags
of paddy from an acre, but I yield 92 bags
just by adapting some techniques. Most
of the farmers are in wrong notion that
SRI vari is a special type of seed. Actually, SRI vari is a system of cultivation in which we
require less water and seeds. The real meaning of SRI is System of Rice Intensification.
You can select any seed for this purpose. In this pattern of cultivation to get one kilo of
paddy, we require only 2500 to 3000 litres of water. Where as in traditional system, for the
production of same quantity of paddy, we require 5000 litres of water.
We should not prefer to cultivate a single crop, rather we should practice mixed crop
for yielding. We should not blindly follow the ways and means what other farmers do."

Chapter Adaptations in Dirrerent

Ecosystems
Let us discuss these questions evolved to have curious looking projections

What is a habitat? from their roots called pneumatophores, or
Is a tree habitat only for a crow? knees.
In what way an ecosystem is different
from habitat?
We found that there were differences
between the ecosystems of land and water
and different ecosystems on land and water
as well. We can see differences within
ecosystems in very small areas as well.
We have studied in class VI in the
chapter 'habitat' about the variations in the
living communities, as well as organisms Fig-1 Mangrooves
present at different levels, in the pond These knees develop from the lateral
ecosystem and the tree. In this chapter we roots that are growing near the surface, and
will see how organisms have started protrude up to 12 inches out of the soil or
inhabiting certain areas, what needs they sediment. The precise function of these
have and how they acquire different knees is not known, but there is general
conditions from their surroundings to meet agreement that they aid the plants in
them. maintaining adequate root respiration in a
To adjust themselves to diverse and watery environment. We do not find such
distinct changes in ecosystems, organisms structures in plants growing around us.
have to adopt different means for better All such ways and means that organisms
survival. For example, some trees such as adopt or develop over a certain period of
mangrooves and cypress have evolved a time in different conditions for better
curious way to deal with the problems of survival are adaptations of organisms. We
growing in a wet and salty place. They have may also say that adaptation is a feature that
is common in any population because it stored in the tissues of the stem (succulent
provides some improvements for better stems). This helps the plant to live in
survival. conditions of water scarcity as we come
Let us try to know more about across, in deserts. Kalabanda are found in
adaptations in different ecosystems. our surroundings these days as well but you
may have heard that they are generally called
Activity-1 as desert plants (xerophytes).
Take a kalabanda (aloevera) and a
balsam plant in two separate pots. Water
each of them with two tablespoons of
water. Do not water them for a week.
Observe the condition of the plants after a
week.
Which plant showed growth?
Which plant dried first? Why?
Activity-2
Collect an aquatic plant out of a water Fig-2 Aloevera
body( Eg. duck weed, hydrilla, vallisneria
Think and Discuss
etc. either floating at the surface or
propping out of it). Carry it back home and Can you give some examples of
plant it in a pot and water it. fleshy leaved plants?
What do you observe? Compare Why xerophytic plants do not have
your observation with that of broad leaves?
activity1 and write a note on what You may see Kittanara, a xeric
you find. plant, grown as fence around crop
From the above activity we see that fields in some areas in our state.
some plants dry up without water very Actually those places are not
quickly, while others can grow even with desert. How can they grow there?
very little water. Each of these plants are
Opuntia, cactus are some desert plants.
adapted to the conditions in their
surroundings on the basis of need of water. Do you know about Boabab the tree.
Its trunk is swollen. What do you think it
Organisms in nature create adaptable
situations around them on the basis of their
needs. They also adapt to situations
specifically. For example in kalabanda the
leaves are reduced to spines so that there
is little transpiration loss and water is
Fig-3 Desert plants
132 Adaptations in Different Ecosystems

contains? It stores water in its trunk and voluntarily to protect from blowing sand.
survives the scorching heat of dry seasons. Long legs - keeps the body away from hot
Do you know ground.
though these are
called Living
stones they are
not stones. The
swollen leaves are Fig-4 pebble plant
adapted to desert
conditions, minimizing water loss and
storing water. These are also called pebble Fig-6 Camel
plants . Each pebble is actually a leaf with a
cut window that lets in light. The stone like Think and discuss
appearance deceives the animals and saves
Do all animals living in desert
it from being eaten.
conditions show adaptations?
Now a days, many xerophytes are
Why some animals have scales on
grown as ornamental plants in pots at
their body?
homes. Some plants as a whole seem to be
Why the animals that lives in
flowers. Some with thorns, some have
burrows usually wander during
flowers with bright colour petals. Now a
night time only?
days these kind of plants are used as gifts
for Birthdays and other occasions also. Adaptations in some more desert
Like plants, adaptations can be seen in animals
animals also. What adaptations can we see
The side-winder adder snake crawls
in Camel? How do
sideways with only a small amount of its
they help? Hump -
body pressed against the hot sand. This
stores fat for later
technique helps it to keep itself cool. The
use. Long eye
golden mole escapes the heat of the sun by
lashes - Protects
swimming through the sand just below the
eye from sand.
Fig-5 Cactus
surface. It rarely emerges out as it finds all
Nostrils - closes
the needs below the ground.
Fig-7 Side winder sanke, Rat, Golden mole, Sand grouse

Some animals show extraordinary Adaptations in Aquatic ecosystems

ability to survive in the desert. The
We shall study two different types of
kangaroo rat of western North American
ecosystems in water (aquatic ecosystems)
desert can live without drinking water
and some conditions in the environment that
through out its life. Because its body
influence adaptations.
synthesizes little water in the process of
Aquatic ecosystems are mainly
digestion. The desert bird the Sand grouse
classified into two different types as Fresh
flies long distances to an oasis in search
water and Marine ecosystems.
of water, which it carries back in its crop
for its nestlings. Ponds, Lakes, Rivers are the examples
of Fresh water Ecosystems
The furry soles of fennec fox helps it
walk on hot sand and loses heat through its Seas, Oceans are the examples of
ears. When the sand becomes too hot the Marine Ecosystems
sand diving lizard holds its feet in the air to As the living conditions are different
cool down. we come across various adaptations in
several organisms living in these
Do you know? ecosystems.
Animals which are active during You may know animals that live in
night and sleep during the day are called water. You see some of them every
Nocturnals. These creatures generally day. Do you find in them any
have highly developed senses of hearing suitable characters adopted to live
and smell. They have specially adopted in water. Write a note on them in
eye sight to see well in dark. Animals like your notebook.
bats, emit a high pitched sound which General aquatic adaptation as can be
bounses off objects to find prey or seen structurally (in body structure) are
protect from predators. like presence of some special air spaces
Cats, Rats, Bats, Owls are the inside bodies or presence of such
Nocturnals generally seen in our substances that help organisms to swim and
suroundings. Some insects like crickets, float in water to inhabit different levels in
firefly and fishes like cuttle fish are the water body, or bear specialized
active during night only. Some desert structures to swim like flippers as in turtles
animals become nocturnals inorder to and fins in fishes. Fishes, dolphins etc have
escape extreme day time heat. floaters in their body (special structures of
their digestive canals) to be able to inhabit
We know that organisms need shelter, particular levels in the water body.
food, light, air and many other things for Microscopic photosynthetic organisms
their survival. Organisms often show like planktons have droplets of oil in their
adaptation according to these requirements. cells that keeps them float. Larger plants

have long tough leaves and flexible stems. studied about in the chapter Force and
In what way flexible stem is useful Pressure in VIII class and let us recall
to the aquatic plants. Ask your them.
teacher or collect information Which limits our depths significantly
from your school library and write unless we use diving craft specifically
a note on it. designed to maintain one atmosphere.
Marine ecosystem Secrets of swimming
Over the last 2,000 million years, plant Swimming is the fundamental
and animal life on earth has continuously characteristic feature of aquatic animals.
evolved from its simple beginnings in the Their bodies have certain adaptation to
oceans to the complex existence on land fight with pressure of underwater current.
today. It is no accident that protoplasm, a Let try to find out these secretes.
substance found in every living cell, Yet, all sorts of other organisms thrive
strongly resembles seawater. Although at high pressure. Some of them are even
some animals emerged from the sea air-breathing surface dwellers like us.
millions of years ago to fill all available Some seals can dive up to a mile, and sperm
places on land, some remained in the ocean whales can go much deeper than that (these
and evolved and adapted to life beneath the are mammals like us). All these animals
surface. seem to share the same secret: instead of
The ocean covers a larger part of the fighting the pressure, they let it collapse
planet, yet it remains a little understood their lungs completely. Some oxygen
place as scientists have limited scope for remains in their lungs, but they mostly
the study of habitats that lack physical store it in their muscles, where it is needed;
boundaries with a span of thousands of their muscle tissue contains much higher
miles. concentrations of oxygen-binding
Each form of marine life has become chemical than ours.
adapted to a specific area with a relatively Moreover, collapsed lungs give deep-
narrow variation in salinity, temperature, diving mammals another big advantage,
and light. The high salt content found in the once a seals lungs have collapsed, it
ocean can support the large bodies of giant becomes heavier than water, and so it sinks.
squids and whales, which has allowed them Thus it doesnt have to flap flippers all the
to evolve without the use of strong limbs way down; it reaches great depths mostly
for support. Nevertheless, salt water exerts by gliding effortlessly, saving its oxygen
enormous pressure on the air spaces of stores, for the strenuous climb back to the
marine animals at depth (fluids like blood surface.
are practically incompressible). For every The deep seafloor itself, well beyond
10 meters pressure increases by one the range of diving mammals, is inhabited
atmosphere (105 Newton/metre2). You
by an incredible diversity of animals. Some have an antifreeze-like substance in their

of the fish even have lunglike swim blood to keep it flowing. It is interesting
bladders to control their buoyancy (ability to study the dramatically different
to float in a medium). They move up in the adaptations in marine life on a vertical scale
water column by secreting gas into the in the water. Animals and plants living in
bladder and inflating it, and down by surface waters have access to high nutrient
reabsorbing gas into their blood. levels, increased temperatures, reduced
Researchers have observed that such fishes pressure, and more light and therefore lack
hang motionless a few feet above the the adaptations of deep sea creatures that
seafloor. A swim bladder does not collapse must live in highly pressurized, cold, dark
at depth because the gas inside is at the waters with scarce nutrients.
same pressure as the water outside which Marine life has adapted to an incredible
means if that external pressure suddenly variety of conditions and habitats.
decreases, the bladder will swell greatly, Barnacles and mussels have developed
when such a fish is brought up from depth, mechanisms that allow them to cling to
its swim bladder sticks out of its mouth. rocks in environments where they might
Marine animals must also regulate the otherwise be easily washed out by strong
interaction of freshwater and saltwater in waves. Brightly-colored clownfish have
their bodies. Specially developed kidneys, adapted symbiotic relationships with
gills, and body functions help to maintain anemones to protect both the clownfish and
salt concentrations across membranes the anemone from predators. Sperm whales
through osmosis. Marine animals must also and herring gulls have adapted the ability
be able to absorb dissolved gases like to travel long distances and the ability to
oxygen from the water needed to release survive in a variety of environments.
the energy from food. Simple animals, such Marine adaptations also include
as anemones or worms, absorb the gases symbiosis, camouflage, defensive
through their skin. Mobile animals use gills, behavior, reproductive strategies, contact
or even lungs to absorb oxygen from the and communication like most other
water and air. All animals in the ocean ecosystems on earth and adaptations to
release carbon dioxide into the water as environmental conditions like pressure,
waste, which is then used by plants to temperature, light and salinity.
produce energy. Ask your teacher about symbiosis,
Temperatures vary dramatically camouflage, go for internet to find
between the surface and the ocean floor. out some more details to prepare
Marine life has developed many adaptations your paper to submit in your school
to the variations in temperature. Many symposium.
marine mammals have blubber for Now lets study light related adaptations
insulation from the cold, and some fish of marine life forms.

The following diagram shows how

certain zones in a marine ecosystem on
the basis of availability of light at
different depths are demarcated.
Fig-8 shows different Zones in the
Marine Ecosystem
You can see different types of
organisms at different depths in marine
ecosystem. (this is only a representative
figure showing only a few types of
organisms).
The following table shows some Fig-8 Different zones in marine ecosystem
more abiotic characteristics and some
types of organisms present at different depths in a marine ecosystem.
Table-1
Oceanic Zones Light Temperature Depth Plants / Animals
Euphotic zone
(sunlit zone) Brightly lit Upto 300c 0-200m Planktons, physalia, dolphins,
flying fish, green turtles, sea
anemones.
Bathyal zone
(twilight zone) Dimly lit 40c - 390C 200m-2000m Whales, lantern fish, red, brown
kelps. sea cucumbers, fish,
squids, octopus, sponges, corals
etc.
Abyssal zone
(dark zone) Dark 20- 30C 2000m-6000m Brittle star, angler fish, tripod
fish etc.
How many zones can you see in the What happens to the temperature
figure on the basis of light and pressure as depth increases?
penetration? Name them. Which zone has more animals?
What types of abiotic conditions Guess why?
do you find as per the given table? The above analysis shows that there are
What will affect adaptation to different oceanic zones with variations in
marine life other than the temperature, pressure, light etc. These
conditions shown in the table and abiotic factors give rise to various
figure? adaptations in organisms in the different
zones.
Adaptations on the basis of light

penetration
Euphotic zone
The organisms living in this zone are
mostly floaters and swimmers. Animals in
this zone usually have shiny bodies
reflecting light away to merge with shiny
water surface are transparent. These usually
have very sharp vision. Plants are mostly Fig-10 Ray fish
green and photosynthetic activity is
maximum in this zone. Some flora and Abyssal zone
fauna of this zone are trouts, herrings,
These zones are
dolphins, jelly fishes, different type of coral
dark and cold
colonies which are extremely colourful,
throughout the year.
different types of algae & sea grasses
Photosynthetic
(emergent plant species: rooted to the
activity is absent.
sides, in marine ecosystems these are
Deep sea animals are
rooted in the continental shelf area)
mostly predators and Fig-11(a)
diatoms etc. Nearly 80% of marine flora
scavengers. The larger Angluar fish
and fauna are found in this zone.
forms have wide
mouths and huge curved teeth which
prevent escape of any prey. Absence of
skeleton, flattened bodies are some other
characteristics observed. Some also have
special structures that produce light on
their bellies, around their eyes(which are
usually nonfunctional that is, the organisms
Fig-9 Coral colonies are blind) and at the sides of their bodies,
some animals glow (shows bio
Bathyal zone
luminiscence) in the dark waters.
Most of the plants found in this zone
are the red and brown kelps, sponges, corals
even animals with tubular bodies like
squids and large animals like whales etc.
Some of these have a flat body like the ray
fishes. You may have big eyes sensitive to
very dim light.
Fig-11(b) Brittle star
Do you know? Freshwater Ecosystems:

Electric Eel is an electric fish. It is
Fresh water ecosystems are stagnant
capable of generating power electric
water types as well as running water types.
shocks of upto 600 Volts, when it uses
They may vary in size from as small as a
for hunting self defence. It is an apex
puddle and pond to a large lake, river etc.
predator. Despite its name, it is not an
Osman sagar, Durgam cheruvu,
eel, but rather a knife fish.
Shamirpet lakes of Hyderabad and
Think and discuss Vaddepalli cheruvu of Warangal, Paleru
Cheruvu of Khammam, Kolleru lake of
Which organism among the two Krishna District are some fresh water lakes
shown above do you think is of our state.
present in euphotic zone? Does Pulikat lake of Nellore come
What kinds of adaptations can be under fresh water ecosystem or
seen in the organisms of the not. Why?
euphotic zone? Just like the marine ecosystems, to
What kind of adaptations can be study environmental conditions in lakes,
seen in the organisms of abyssal some zones are marked. The littoral zone,
zone ? limnetic zone and profundal zones on the
What differences can you find in basis of light penetration. Based on
the animals of bathyal zone when availability of light different kinds of
compared to animals of euphotic organisms are found in these zones.
(sunlit zone) and abyssal (dark Different factors like light, salt content,
zones)? food, oxygen effect the organisms and their
How organisms of different zones populations in different ways.
of marine ecosystem are adapted.
Fig-12 Zones in Lake Ecosystem and Types of Organisms present

Littoral zone: The shallow zone near glossogobius(isika dondu) , snails, turtles
the shore is also called as littoral zone. The etc. They adapt themselves by feeding on
water near the shore is usually muddy or dead animals that settle down. Many kinds
turbid. This topmost and warmest zone at of bacteria (detritus) thrive here that help
the edge of a water body is home to snails, in decomposing the dead organisms. Mud
clams, insects, several crustaceans, fishes of the bottom floor, tiny particles of dead
and amphibians and the eggs and larvae of and decaying matter of plants and animal
dragonflies etc. bodies make the water very turbid. Hence
Several organisms in this zone have the bottom dwellers , rely mostly on smell
well developed sight, usually have dull and and auditory (related to hearing) senses
greyish bodies and are fast swimmers. rather than vision to aquire their food.
Plants like mosses, water lily, vallisneria, The surface layers in the lake
hydrilla etc are found here along with ecosystem gets heated while the deeper
several types of algae. High photosynthetic layers remain cool during day time. Often
activity occurs in this zone. Predators of some organisms migrate to deeper layers
this zone are tortoise, snakes and ducks. during the day and reach the surface layers
The limnetic zone is the open water during night time when it cools down.
zone at the top of the water body and Other organisms found are like-
consequently receives a good deal of light. Mammals (like badgers, otters) live
This zone contains a variety of freshwater near water and are capable of swimming to
fish with bright shiny, greyish or silver catch their main food source, particularly
black scales that help them to merge with fish.
the surroundings. Transparent or whitish Amphibians and reptiles like toads,
bodied crustaceans like daphnia, cyclops, frogs, alligators, crocodiles, salamanders
small shrimps are also found in this zone. start life underwater as eggs and tadpoles,
There are different types of floating plants and then move to ground as adults.
like water hyacinth, wolffia, pistia along Insects such as skaters, water beetles,
with a variety of algae. Photosynthetic mosquitoes and dragonflies can skim over
activity is highest. the surface of ponds, playing a critical role
Both littoral and limnetic zones are in the food supply for other animals.
photic zones. Many species of ducks, geese and
The profundal zone is dimly lit and swans also reside in and around the lake
cold. Mostly heterotrophs (animals that eat ecosystem feeding on a number of
dead organisms) are found in this region. different items including fish.
Most of the animals, the so called bottom Think, why birds live in and around
dwellers, that live here are mostly ponds have webbed feet?
scavengers and predators, for example Why cranes have long legs and long
crustaceans, crabs, fishes like eels and beaks?
Activity-3 It is the ability to regulate this salt

absorption that determines the tolerance of
You know some of the animals that
a freshwater fish for saline water. When the
reside in and around lake or pond. Make a
water salinity level exceeds the fishs
list of those animals and the characteristics
ability to adjust its salt regulation
of their body.
mechanisms, the delicate salt and fluid
Webbed feet of these help them to adapt
balance is upset and the fish dies.
to conditions on land as well as in water.
Webbed feet and streamlined bodies have Think and discuss
enabled them to be good swimmers.
Wading birds such as herons and egrets Organisms of the oceans have a
which have long thin legs wander through lesser salt content in their bodies
the mud shallows searching for insects. than the sea water (around
3.5%).The fluid could drain out of
Water salinity and fish adaptation
the body of the organism into the
Different fish species have very sea. This could be dangerous and
different tolerances for water salinity. All fatal to the organism. How do they
marine and freshwater fish maintain a survive under such conditions?
constant internal salt concentration, which Can fish in estuarine ecosystem
is midway between that of fresh water and survive in river as well as sea?
sea water. Several marine species have a
lower internal salt concentration than that During summer the water in the lakes
of the water they swim in, so they tend to gets heated up and evaporates. Other
dehydrate as water is lost by osmosis. To requirements necessary to the organisms,
compensate, they drink large amounts of like oxygen and nutrients gets decreased.
water, and excrete the salts both via their This leads to the death and decomposing
kidneys and through highly specialised of organisms which makes living
cells in the gills. conditions unsuitable. In cold regions, the
In contrast, freshwater fish have a extreme low temperatures, the water in the
higher internal salt content than their lakes and ponds gets frozen, killing all the
medium, and they tend to bloat, because organisms.
osmosis leads to excess water entering the How are marine ecosystems
body through the permeable membranes in different from fresh water ones?
the mouth and gills. The water can be Write two types of adaptations you
excreted in the form of urine, but to find in marine ecosystems,
maintain a suitable salt balance freshwater different from freshwater
fish need to reabsorb salt through the ecosystems.
kidneys, and collect additional salts What are the similarities in
through salt-collecting cells in the gills. adaptation on the basis of light

penetration in the two aquatic surface with stomata present on the upper
ecosystems? surface of the leaf, while incompletely
Which zone do you think,when submerged plants like hydrilla, stomata are
compared to marine ecosystem, is absent, leaves are thin, stems are highly
absent in freshwater ecosystem? flexible. The main adaptations that give
What would be a major factor hydrilla an advantage over other native
leading to different types of plants are: it can grow at low light
adaptations in marine, freshwater intensities, it is better at absorbing carbon
ecosystems? dioxide from the water (diffuses into
leaves), it is able to store nutrients for later
Adaptations in some aquatic plants use, it can tolerate a wide range of water
quality conditions for example salinity(can
grow in saline waters as well), and it can
propagate sexually and asexually.
Other adaptations
Adaptation to temperature in plants
The effect of temperature on plants
terrestrial ecosystem can be seen in
Fig-13(a) water hyacinth (floating) hydrilla
different ways.
(submerged) Do all plants shed their leaves at
same time in a year throughout the
world.
Some plants in
temperate regions
shed their leaves
before the winter
starts. This is to
m i n i m i z e
Fig-13(b) Water lily (emergent)
transpiration loss as
well as reduce
Partially submerged plants have photosynthetic and Fig-14 Fall season
numerous air spaces inside the stems other metabolic modified stem
,leaves ,roots that aid in gaseous exchange activities, as low
and buoyancy. Leaf bases of water temperature renders several chemicals
hyacinth(Eichhornia crassipes) form air inactive for some time. In tropical regions
filled structures to keep them afloat. In some plants shed their leaves before the
water lilies leaves are flat, have an oily start of summer. Plants growing in hot

climates, usually keep the stomata closed

during the day to reduce transpiration loss.
High temperatures also lead to adaptations
like reduced leaf.
Let us recall why xerophytic plants have
modified stems and leaves.
Are thorny leaves also an
adaptation to temperature?
If the trees have broad leaves at the Fig-15(c) Seal
time of snow fall season what will
happen? Animals living in these regions adapt
themselves in different ways. They have a
Adaptation to temperature in
thick layer of fat deposited under their
animals skins, or thick fur coat or hair covering
Heat changes occur due to increase or their bodies. These act as insulators
decrease in atmospheric temperatures. preventing heat loss from their bodies. The
These changes greatly affect the life of fat not only insulates the body but helps in
organisms in different ecosystems. producing heat and energy. Such adaptations
can be seen in whales, seals, bears etc.
Adaptation as a response to
Fig-15(a) adverse situations
Polar bear
Some adaptations, to cope with adverse
situations, are quite peculiar and prominent
and yet go unnoticed by us.
Observe these pictures .You may find
many kinds of organisms living
Fig-15(b) Blue whale
underground like this. Why did they choose
such places?
In cold regions the upper layers of the
lakes get frozen during winter and the lower
layers does not. Hence organisms migrate
to deeper layers of the lake which is warmer
and survive.
Why polar bear has thick for on its
body?
In what way thick skin helps the
seal to protect from cold weather? Fig-16 Hibernation

Many organisms that live in the hot The above picture shows the successful
deserts or polar regions migrate to the adaptation of algae and fungi colonies. The
deeper layers of the earth to protect fungus colony attacks an algal colony where
themselves from the extreme conditions of most of the algal colony that fails to
heat and cold. For example seasonal compete dies out. The more adaptive forms
adaptations can be seen in amphibians like live on to form symbiotic relationship with
frog .To protect themselves from the the fungi in colonies called Lichens. The
extremes of hot and cold conditions they figure shows such a colony growing on a
burrow deep in the ground and remain tree trunk. The fungus provides water and
motionless until the conditions are minerals to the alga, while the alga
favourable. During this period the rate of performs photosynthesis and supplies food
metabolic activities slow down and the in the form of sugars to the fungus. Due to
animal goes into a nearly unconscious such symbiotc adaptations lichens are able
sleepy condition called Hibernation to survive even in extreme conditions.
(winter sleep) and Aestivation (summer Adaptation to environment is not a
sleep). simple phenomena. If we keep our cow in
Collect information about hibernation a desert it will be modified like a camel. If
and aestivation and make news a giraffee is kept in a forest with short trees
bulletin. For this your need to go for or plants it would not convert like a goat.
library or internet and also take your Adaptation takes place over a long period
teachers help for more examples. of duration.
Lichens Story of Darwin's Finches
You may have observed greenish areas Charles Darwin in the year 1885
on the bark turn into a greyish whitish mass landed from the famous ship H.M.S
and then to a peculiar flaky or greenish Beagle on one of the islands of around
growth. What do you think it is? A 120 small islands of the group of
flavouring agent in the name of patther Galapogos islands. He studied about
phul is used in preparing biryani. It is also different organisms of the islands. His
a type of lichen. most remarkable observation had been
about finches (our state bird is also a
finch). He was amazed to see that 13
types of finches that differed with respect
to beaks and the colour of feather were
present in the small region of the
Galapagos islands. He noted that some
finches eat seeds,while some eat fruits
and the others eat insects.
Fig-17 Lichen

Adaptive Radiation in Galapagos Finches
Medium tree finch Large tree finch
Small tree finch

Mangrove finch
Vegetarian finch Wood pecker finch
Mainly Seeds
Large Cactus finch Mainly insects
Warbler finch
Cactus seeds and parts
Buds and fruits
Cactus finch Cocos Island finch
Small ground finch

Sharp beaked ground finch
Medium ground finch

Large ground finch
Fig-18
Try to guess it there any relation for food and shelter and showed a lot of
between type of food taken and the variation even within the same species,
structure of beak. especially with respect to the form of
The seed eaters had thick and heavy beaks. He made a sketch of the same as
beaks. shown in the above figure. Thus he
The fruit eaters had stubby beaks. concluded that adaptation was something
The insect eaters had sharp and that an organism is undergoing
long beaks. . continuously, even within very closely
Darwin observed that these birds had related forms in a particularly
adapted to their immediate surroundings geographically separated area.
Key words
Adaptations, ecosystems, photosynthesis, transpiration, xerophytes,

scavengers, euphotic zone, bathyal zone, Abyssal zone, littoral zone, limnetic zone,
profundal zone, phytoplanktons, bio luminescence, amphibians, aestivation,
hibernation.


Organisms adjusting to diverse conditions of the ecosystem for better survival by
adaptations.
Different adaptations are found in organisms of marine and fresh water ecosystems.
For their survival organisms have developed special characters to adapt themselves
to temperature, water availability, pressure etc.
Most of the xerophytic plants have fleshy, succulent and green coloured stem and
reduced leaves.
Marine ecosystem is divided as euphotic, bathyal and abyssal zones.
Fresh water ecosystem of a lake has littoral, limnetic and profundal zones.
In temperate regions, some plants shed their leaves before winter.
Animals in cold regions have thick fur coat and a fat layer below their skin that act
as insulators.
The factors that affect the aquatic ecosystems are salt content, oxygen, food, light
and pressure.
Animals living in the bottom layers of the sea are usually blind.
Hibernation and Aestivation seen in amphibians like frogs is an example of
adaptation.
1. What do you understand by adaptations in organisms and why do they adapt? (AS 1)
2. With the help of two examples, explain how these organisms have adapted themselves
in the ecosystem? (AS1)
3. Collect some aquatic plants- cut the leaves and stems Observe them under
microscope and record your observations like air presence /absence of air spaces
etc., and answer the below. (AS 3)
a) Why do they float on water?
b) What make them float?
c) Are there any other reasons for their floating?
d) Draw a diagram of what you have observed under microscope?
4. What special adaptations can be seen in the following organisms? (AS1)
a) mangrove trees b) camel c)fish d) dolphins e)planktons.

5. If an animal of euphotic zone has to survive in abyssal zone, what adaptations are
required to survive there? (AS1)
6. Marine water fishes drink more water than fresh water fishes. Do you agree? Justify.
7. Visit a nearby pond or a lake. Record the organisms you have observed and their
adaptations? (A S 4)
8. Draw a lake showing different zones. Why are they called so? (AS 5)
9. Collect information of one lake from internet and prepare a table of organisms
adapted at different zones? (AS 4)
10.Write the effect of temperature on the organisms adapted in a lake and pond in a
tabular form. (AS1)
11.Amphibians are wonderful creatures on the earth. How do you appreciate their
adaptation? (AS 6)
12.Some animals and plants survive only in certain conditions. Now a days, human
activities cause damage to these conditions. What do you think about this? (AS7)
13.In the chapter on ecosystem, we had studied about the mangrove ecosystems. What
kind of abiotic conditions did you study in them?(AS1)
14.How is the Coringa ecosystem different from the marine ecosystem you studied?
15.Are there any rivers meeting in the Bay of Bengal in the Coringa ecosystem collect
information and make a note on them? (AS 4)
16.The aquatic ecosystem of Coringa mangrove region would be less saltier than the
bay. Do you agree to this why? Why not? (AS1)
17.The Murrel (korramatta) and Rohu are fishes found in rivers. Will they be able to
live in the Coringa ecosystem? Give reasons for your answer. (AS 2)
18.Crocodile, alligator are both the same? Actually they are not similar. Do you find
any differences between them? What are they? (For this you need some references.
Please go through your library.) (AS 4)

Chapter
Soil pollution
!
Our environment is composed of

What is soil?
atmosphere, earth and water. The
interaction of the atmosphere, lithosphere, Soil is one of the th ree major natural
hydrosphere and biosphere is continuing resources, alongside air and water. It is one
for years together. It was clean and of the marvellous products of nature and
enjoyable. But due to the various activities without which there would be no life. It is a
of man, the composition and complex natural medium on the surface of the earth
nature of environment got changed. The in which plants grow.
activities include industrialization,
construction, transportation, agriculture and
deforestation. Such activities are though
desirable for human development and Air 25% Mineral
welfare release unwanted materials into the Particles 45%
environment causing it to be imbalanced Water 25%
rendering our life miserable.
We have learnt so far about soil
formation and its properties in class VII,
and also about air and water pollution in
Organic
previous chapters. Here we will study about Matter 5%
land pollution. But before that, let us
recall what we have learnt about soil. Fig-1 Components of soil
We Indians worship earth as mother.
We get everything for our living from soil. (Organic matter contains Organisms 10%,
You have studied about structure of the soil Roots 10%, Humus 80%)
in class VII. Let us recall, what you have Soil is made up of minerals and
learnt in class VII. decomposed organic matter, along with air
and water. Soil can create a habitat for fungi,
148 Soil Pollution

bacteria and related organisms, which in Soil properties

turn feed and support plant life.
Crop quality directly depends on
Healthy soil is fundamental to the the quality of the agricultural soil in which
quality of food it produces and to the health it is grown. The higher the quality of the
of those who eat the food produced from it. soil, the higher the quality of the crop
How is soil formed? produced. To determine how to obtain high
quality soil, we must first understand the
Soil formation is a long and complex
fundamental properties of soil. These can
process and it can take 100 to 10,000 years
be divided into three major categories-
to create one inch of top soil! It is driven
physical, chemical and biological
by many factors such as climate,
properties.
topography, living organisms and the type
of parent material. Parent materials come (i) Physical properties of soil
from break down of underlying rocks or Soil comprises of minerals, organic
from deposits by streams and rivers, seas matter, water and air. The composition and
and gulfs, hills, wind and glaciers or organic proportion of these components greatly
plant residues. influences soil physical properties
Over time, these materials are including colour texture, structure and
weathered by the effects of freezing, porosity. These properties regulate and
thawing, wetting, drying, heating, cooling, affect air and water movement in the soil
erosion, plants and animals and from and thus, soil ability to function. Organic
chemical reactions. Eventually the parent matter is the organic component of soil
material is divided into three horizontal which includes the residues of dead plants,
layers, the top layer consists of mostly animals and organisms.
organic matter and biological activity, the It consists of nutrients necessary for
middle layer is the zone of maximum plants growth such as nitrogen, phosphorus
material accumulation and the bottom layer and potassium. Soils which contain 30% or
bold is mainly the parent material, but more organic matter are considered
slightly altered. organic soil; all other soils are identified
The top soil is important since it is the as mineral soils. Organic matter in soil
foundation for the life on the earth. improves water infiltration, decreases
evaporation, and increases the water
Do you know? holding capacity. Also, where there is
organic matter, there will be numerous
In one acre of land where the top soil
organisms present helping to convert it
is eight inches thick nearly five and half
back to nutrients and these organisms help
tons of Bacteria are present. 50,000
to create crumb, ideal for cultivation. Thus,
Earthworms are also present in it.
balancing a natural state of soil.

(ii) Chemical properties of soil

The term pH is used to indicate the level People
of acidity or alkalinity of a soil. The range
of pH values of a good soil lies from 5.5
to 7.5. Below pH 7 the soils are termed as
Animals Plants
acidic and above pH 7 alkaline.
The pH of soil is important in
determining the type of vegetation that will
Biological
grow in the soil and the type of organisms Roots / Weeds / Fertility,
Bacteria & Fungi,
that will live there. Also, presence of Insects & Earthworms
organic matter in soil has a close
Physical Chemical
relationship with soil pH. Soil richer in Air
HUMUS
NPK
Water
organic matter is acidic in nature as a result Tilth / Structure
Micro / Macro
Nutrients
of degradation of various substances Organic matter
pH
Salinity
produces various acids in soil. Availability
of plants nutrients is strongly tied to the
pH in soil. Fig-2 Biological properties of soil
The availability of N, K, Ca, Mg and S Soil microbes also have influence in
tends to decrease with decreasing pH since controlling the quantities and forms of
conditions which acidify the soil such as various chemical elements found in soil.
weathering and plant uptake also result in Most notable are the cycles of carbon,
removal of these nutrients or in decreased nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus, all of
microbial activity. which are elements important in soil
What will happen if there is increase fertility. Soil microbes convert organic
in acidic or basic nature of soil? forms of elements to their inorganic forms
(iii) Biological properties of Soil and liberate carbon dioxide, ammonia,
Soil is not a dead mass but an abode of sulphate, phosphate and inorganic forms of
millions of organisms. It is the most other elements. This process is known as
abundant and diverse ecosystem on the mineralization.
earth. Soil organisms include both plants This is the basis of nutrient cycles in
and animal forms ranging from sub all major ecosystems of the world. Besides
microscopic viruses to earthworms, to their role in controlling the rates of
large burrowing animals such as gophers production of inorganic forms from various
and ground squirrels. Major microbial organic forms, soil microbes, particularly,
groups in soil are bacteria, fungi, algae and soil bacteria also control the forms of ions
protozoa. These feed on plant residues in which these nutrients occurs. We shall
burrow the soil and help in aeration and study this in detail in the chapter of
percolation of water. Biogeochemical cycles.
150 Soil Pollution
Thus, we can conclude that physical, chemical and biological properties of soils affect
many processes in the soil that make it suitable for cultivation and other purposes.
SOIL FERTILITY
Fertility of soil is closely associated with the properties of soil and is defined by its
capacity to hold water and nutrients and supply them to plants when they need them,
independent of direct application of nutrients. Transfer of nutrients from the soils organic
matter to the mineral stage strongly depends on the soil organisms activity and diversity.
Soil organisms also contribute to buildup soil organic matter, including humus, the soils
most important nutrient reservoir.
Physical
Well developed structure and texture
Adequate porosity for air and water exchange
Ample water holding capacity
Biological Chemicals
Abundance of biological activity Balanced
Humus available for plant nutrient uptake Available mcaro nutrients
Cycling of nutrients Optimal trace elements
Fig-3 Properties of soil

When nutrients are bound in biological 90% of all plant roots. The plant roots
or organic form, they are neither lost nor provide sugar for the growth of mycorrhiza.
bound to soil particles in a way which makes In reverse, the fungus explores the soil and
them unavailable to plants. Therefore, soil brings back water as well nutrients such as
fertility can be described in terms of soil phosphate, zinc and copper that are not
organic matter content of the soil, with easily available to plants. Mycorrhizae
good living conditions for soil organisms enlarge the rooting zone of plants and enter
and growing conditions for the roots, which small soil pores, where plant roots cannot
are closely linked to soil structure, the access. Iimproving soil structure,
availability of nutrients, the soils water mycorrhizal action in soil and take plant
holding capacity and its biological activity. carbon from the air and deposit into soil
It is interesting to know that a major organic matter and stable soil aggregates.
part of the soil microbial biomass is In addition to the above, soil PH, its
composed of fungi. Important acidity or alkalinity, is highly relevant to
representatives of the soil fungi, the how readily nutrients become available in
mycorrhizae, grow in symbiosis with about soil.

Arbuscular
Ectomycorrhiza mycorrhiza perform its job. As compared to the other
resources, it has taken a long time to
become aware of the wealth, complexity,
usefulness and fragility of the soil. When
the quality of air and water deteriorates, the
threat to public health is felt immediately.
But as long as we can walk on the earth
under our feet, wheres the danger?
The impacts of various human
activities for development and welfare are
invisible and land pollution is a good
example of that. We cant easily see the
Endobacterium
Rhizosphere bacterium poisons that seep from underground
Other bacterium
Fig-4 mines, the garbage we have dip into landfills

or from industrialization, agriculture and
Proper soil fertility management is
other mismanagement by human being.
very important for successful crop
Land pollution, in short, is a much bigger
production and farming. Organic farmers
and more subtle problem than it might
approach soil fertility management by
appear. How does it occur? And what can
protecting the soil and feeding it organic
we do about it? These are the questions to
material, and then letting it feed the plants
think about. But first let us understand up
in a balanced way. When the soil is fertile
to what extent we are as human being,
in the organic sense, it can produce good
responsible for producing this waste.
crop yields for several years. You learned
Let us read the following conversation and
about organic forming in the chapter
'Challenges in improving agriculture.' prepare the list as per the instructions.
During interval time Venu was eating a
Soil pollution fruit. He was about to throw the peel in
''The Earth, the air, the land and the corner of the varandah. His friend Ramu
water are not an inheritance from our stopped her. Ramu said you should not
forefathers but on loan from our throw waste in the varandah. Drop it in the
children. So we have to handover to litter given.
them atleast as it was handed over to Now let us think, what will happen if
us.'' - Mahatma Gandhi. you throw the wastes where ever you want?
As we discussed above, soil serves as Prepare a list of waste materials we
the interface between earth, air and water; throw out in a day from morning to evening
fulfilling a variety of complex, classifying them as wet wastes and dry
interdependent functions essential to life. wastes with the help of the example given
Yet human activities alter its ability to in the table below.
152 Soil Pollution

S. No. Wet waste Dry waste Can you imagine the quantity of waste
we produce in a day and what happens to
1. Vegetable peels Biscuit wrapper the waste materials we throw or dispose?
2.
Activity-1
3.
Weight the wet wastes, which you have
4. listed in the table for one day. Divide the
5. weight by number of people in your home.
The result will be the per capita wet waste
we are producing in one day.
Total weight of wet waste materials
Per capita wet Wastes produced at home =
No. of persons in your family
Multiply it by 30 = ............... per month as Rural areas. Some of these wastes are
Multiply it by 365 = ............... per year decomposed but some are not. Let us do
the following activity. For this you need to
You will be surprised to note this
observe more than one month.
astonishing figure of the waste we are
Take a polythene bag/plastic bucket /
producing in a day. Do you know what
or any container. Fill half of it with soil.
happens to the waste materials we produce?
Keep wet wastes and other wastes in it.
Activity-2 (Wastes should include vegetable peels,
rubber, plastic etc). Add some more soil
Dumping and decomposing
and sprinkle water regularly on it. Dig it
We are producing tons of wastes in our and observe in 15 days intervals. Note your
daily activities. It is dumped at wherever observations in the table.
the vacant place is available in Urban as well
Material What has happened What has happened What has happened
in the 1st fortnight in the 2nd fortnight in the 3nd fortnight
Vegetable peels
Vegetable with
removed peel
Banana
Plastic cup
paper
rubber

Now think, why some of the waste ii) Non-biodegradable waste cannot be
materials are mixing with soil quickly while easily degraded. Aluminium cans, plastics,
some do not? glass, DDT, etc. are examples of non-
The waste generated from various biodegradable wastes. Radioactive wastes
sources can be categorized into two types: produced during nuclear reactions take a
i) Biodegradable waste includes long time to decay and are harmful to
substances that can be degraded by human beings. Now a dyas 'e-waste'
microbes into harmless and non-toxic (computer, mobile wastes) is also leads to
substances. Agricultural and animal wastes soil pollution
like leaves, twigs, hay, dung, etc. are Decomposition is the process of
biodegradable wastes. materials being digested and broken down
into simpler substances, making nutrients
Glass
Texttiles Construction &
2%
2% Demolition 8%
Paper plastic15%
20%
Other
5%
Peat Waste
1%
Metal
7%
Organic
Composite Waste 32%
materials 8%
Fig-5 Soil pollutants
more available to plants. Thus, bio- adversely affect the quality of soil or its
degradable materials contribute directly to fertility Generally polluted water also
the fertility of the soil. But when the pollute soil. Solid waste is a mixture of
disposed amount of bio-degradable plastics, cloth, glass, metal and organic
materials exceed it contributes the matter, sewage, sewage sludge, building
imbalance in the nature creating negative debris, generated from households,
impacts. On the other hand, non- commercial and industries establishments
biodegradable materials directly contribute add to soil pollution. Fly ash, iron and steel
to land pollution due to the excessive slag, medical and industrial wastes disposed
amount and improper waste management. on land are important sources of soil
Thus, soil or land pollution can be pollution. In addition, fertilizers and
understood as addition of substances which pesticides from agricultural use which
154 Soil Pollution
reach soil as run-off and land filling by to subsurface strata, oil and fuel dumping,
municipal waste are growing cause of soil leaching of wastes from landfills or direct
pollution. Acid rain and dry deposition of discharge of industrial wastes to the soil.
pollutants on land surface also contribute The most common chemicals involved are
to soil pollution. petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents,
pesticides, lead and other heavy metals. The
Think and discuss
occurrence of this phenomenon is
Today what are the pollutants correlated with the degree of
produced from your school. How industrialization and intensities of
many of these are non-degradables. chemical usage.
A soil pollutant is any factor which
Causes of land pollution deteriorates the quality, texture and mineral
There are many different ways by which content of the soil or which disturbs the
land pollution can occur. Soils are biological balance of the organisms in the
commonly used as dumps for household soil. Pollution in soil has adverse effect on
and industrial wastes. In many intensively plant growth and living organisms in the
farmed areas, leaching of nutrients from soil.
manure or inorganic fertilizers and Pollution in soil is associated with
effluents from processing plants may lead Indiscriminate use of fertilizers
to high level of nitrate and other chemicals Indiscriminate use of pesticides,
in ground water. Atmospheric deposition insecticides and herbicides
where soil gets contaminated when air Dumping of large quantities of
pollution falls on to it, are much apparent solid waste
still contributing to soil pollution. Thus, on
Deforestation and soil erosion
the basis of sources of pollutants, soil
pollution can be classified into the Indiscriminate use of fertilizers
following categories: Soil nutrients are important for plant
Agricultural Soil Pollution growth and development. Plants obtain
Soil pollution by industrial carbon, hydrogen and oxygen from air and
effluents and solid wastes water. But other necessary nutrients like
Pollution due to urban activities nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium,
Soil pollution is caused by the magnesium, sulfur etc., must be obtained
presence of man-made chemicals or other from the soil. Farmers generally use
alteration in the natural soil environment. fertilizers to correct soil deficiencies.
This type of contamination typically arises Fertilizers contaminate the soil with
from the rupture of underground storage impurities, which come from the raw
links, application of pesticides, and materials used for their manufacture.
percolation of contaminated surface water Mixed fertilizers often contain nitrogen as

ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), phosphorus water, it biomagnified up the food chain and
as P 2 O 5, and potassium as K 2O. For disrupted calcium metabolism in birds,
instance, As, Pb and Cd present in traces in causing eggshells to be thin and fragile. As
rock phosphate mineral get transferred to a result, large birds of prey such as the
super phosphate fertilizer. Since the metals brown pelican, ospreys, falcons and eagles
are not degradable, their accumulation in became endangered. DDT is now banned in
the soil above their toxic levels due to the most of the western countries.
excessive use of phosphate fertilizers Ironically many of them including USA still
becomes an indestructible poison for crops. produce DDT for export to other
The over use of NPK fertilizers reduce developing nations whose needs outweigh
quantity of vegetables and crops grown on the problems caused by it.
soil over the years. It also reduces the Besides DDT the most important
protein content of wheat, maize, grams, pesticides are BHC, chlorinate dihydro
etc., grown on that soil. The carbohydrate carbons, organo phosphates, aldrin,
quality of such crops also gets degraded. malathion, dieldrin, furodan, etc. The
Excess potassium content in soil decreases remnants of such pesticides used on pests
Vitamin C and carotene content in may get adsorbed by the soil particles,
vegetables and fruits. The vegetables and which then contaminate root crops grown
fruits grown on over fertilized soil are in that soil. The consumption of such crops
more prone to attacks by insects and causes the pesticides remnants to enter
diseases. human biological systems, affecting them
adversely.
Indiscriminate use of pesticides,
Pesticides not only have toxic effect
insecticides and herbicides
on human and animals but also decrease the
Plants on which we depend for food are fertility of the soil. Some of the pesticides
under attack from insects, fungi, bacteria, are quite stable and their bio- degradation
viruses, rodents and other animals, and must may take weeks and even months.
compete with weeds for nutrients. To kill Biomagnification
unwanted populations living in or on their
The nutrients necessary for plant growth
crops, farmers use pesticides.
(e.g., nitrogen and phosphorus) are found
The first widespread insecticide use at very low concentrations in most natural
began at the end of World War II that waters. In order to obtain sufficient
included DDT (dichloro diphenyl trichloro quantities for growth, phytoplankton must
ethane) and gammaxene. Insects soon collect these chemical elements from a
became resistant to DDT and as the relatively large volume of water.
chemical did not decompose readily, it
In the process of collecting nutrients,
persisted in the environment.
phytoplankton also collects certain human-
Since it was soluble in fat rather than made chemicals, such as some persistent
156 Soil Pollution
13.8ppm Tertiary consumers
2.07ppm Secondery consumers
0.23ppm Primary consumers
0.04ppm Producers
Fig-6 Bio magnification

The numbers are representative values of the concentration
of DDT and its derivatives (in parts per million, ppm) in the tissues.
pesticides. These may be present in the Dumping of solid wastes
water at a very low concentrations that they
The sight of a dustbin overflowing and
cannot be measured even with a very
the stench rising from it are all too familiar
sensitive instruments. The chemicals,
sights and smells of a crowded city.
however, biologically accumulate
You look in some other direction and
(bioaccumulation) in the organism and
hold your nose as you cross it. Since the
become concentrated at levels that are
beginning, humankind has been generating
much higher in the living cells than in the
waste, be it the bones and other parts of
open water. This is especially true for
animals they slaughter for their food or the
persistent chemicals-substances that do not
wood they cut to make their carts. With the
break down readily in the environment - like
progress of civilization, the waste
DDT and BHCs that are stored in fatty tissues.
generated became a more complex issue.
The small fish and zooplankton eat vast
At the end of the 19th century the industrial
quantities of phytoplankton. In doing so, any revolution saw the rise of the world of
toxic chemicals accumulated by the consumers. Not only did the air get more
phytoplankton are further concentrated in and more polluted but the earth itself
the bodies of the animals that eat them. This became more polluted with the generation
is repeated at each step in the food chain. of non-biodegradable solid waste. The
This process of increasing concentration increase in population and urbanization are
through the food chain is known as largely responsible for the increase in solid
biomagnification. waste.
Solid waste means any garbage, trash, biodegradable in landfills. Similarly, most
waste tire, sludge from a waste treatment agricultural waste is recycled and mining
plant, water supply treatment plant and waste is left on site.
other discarded materials, including solid, The portion of solid waste that is
liquid, semisolid or contained gaseous hazardous such as oils, battery metals,
materials arises from human and animal heavy metals from smelting industries and
activities. In other words, solid waste may organic solvents are the ones we have to
be defined as the organic and inorganic
pay particular attention to. These can in the
waste produced by various activities of the
long run, get deposited to the soils of the
society which have lost their value to the
surrounding area and pollute them by
first user.
altering their chemical and biological
Solid waste, on the basis of its sources
properties. They also contaminate drinking
of origin can be classified as:
water aquifer sources. More than 90% of
1. Municipal Solid Waste: It consists
hazardous waste is produced by chemical,
of household waste; construction
and demolition debris, sanitation petroleum and metal-related industries and
residue. small businesses such as dry cleaners and
2. Hazardous Solid Waste: industrial gas stations contribute as well.
and hospital waste is considered to Toxic chemicals leached from oozing
be hazardous waste as they contain storage drums into the soil underneath
toxic substances. homes, causing an unusually large number
3. Infectious Solid Waste: of birth defects, cancers and respiratory,
Biomedical or hospital waste nervous and kidney diseases.
generated during diagnosis Deforestation
treatment etc. which include sharp,
chemical wastes, discarded Soil Erosion occurs when the
medicines and human excreta etc. weathered soil particles are dislodged and
carried away by wind or water.
In general, solid waste includes
Deforestation, agricultural development,
garbage, domestic refuse and discarded
temperature extremes, precipitation
solid materials such as those from
including acid rain, and human activities
commercial, industrial and agricultural
contribute to this erosion. Humans speed
operations. They contain increasing
up this process by construction, mining,
amounts of paper, cardboards, plastics,
cutting of timber, over cropping and
glass, old construction material, packaging
overgrazing. It results in floods and cause
material and toxic or otherwise hazardous
soil erosion.
substances. Since a significant amount of
urban solid waste tends to be paper and food Forests and grasslands are an excellent
waste, the majority is recyclable or binding material that keeps the soil intact
158 Soil Pollution

Biodegradable materials (like

vegetables, animal wastes, papers,
wooden pieces, carcasses, plant twigs,
leaves, cloth wastes as well as
sweepings) and many non-
biodegradable materials (such as plastic
bags, plastic bottles, plastic wastes,
glass bottles, glass pieces, stone /
cement pieces). On a rough estimate
Indian cities are producing solid city
Fig-7 wastes to the tune of 50,000 - 80,000
and healthy. They support many habitats and metric tons every day. If left
ecosystems, which provide innumerable uncollected and decomposed, they are a
feeding pathways or food chains to all cause of several problems such as:
species. Their loss would threaten food Clogging of drains: Causing
chains and the survival of many species. serious drainage problems
During the past few years quite a lot of vast including the burst / leakage of
green land has been converted into deserts. drainage lines leading to health
Deforestation is slowly destroying the most problems.
productive flora and fauna areas in the Barrier to movement of water:
world, which also form vast tracts of a very Solid wastes have seriously
valuable sink for CO2. damaged the normal movement of
water thus creating problem of
Pollution due to urbanization inundation, damage to foundation
Pollution of surface soils of buildings as well as public health
Urban activities generate large hazards.
quantities of city wastes including several Foul smell: Generated by dumping
the wastes at a place.
Increased microbial activities:
Microbial decomposition of
organic wastes generate large
quantities of methane besides many
chemicals to pollute the soil and
water flowing on its surface
When such solid wastes are
hospital wastes they create many
health problems: As they may have
Fig-8 dangerous pathogen within them

besides dangerous medicines, remaining. That might not sound a problem

injections. where theres plenty of land in rural areas,
but its certainly a concern where productive
Pollution of underground Soil
agricultural land is concerned, especially
Underground soil in cities is likely to as the worlds population continues to
be polluted by increase.
Chemicals released by industrial The biggest problem comes when
wastes and industrial wastes. contaminated land is returned to use, either
Decomposed and partially as building or agricultural land. Houses
decomposed materials of sanitary might be built on brown field (former
wastes. industrial) sites that havent been cleaned
Many dangerous chemicals like up properly, putting future owners and their
cadmium, chromium, lead, arsenic, families at risk. Or people might get their
selenium products are likely to be water from rivers supplied by groundwater
deposited in underground soil. Similarly contaminated by landfill sites, mine
underground soil polluted by sanitary workings, or otherwise polluted land some
wastes generates many harmful chemicals. distance away.
These can damage the normal activities and Illnesses such as cancer develop over
ecological balance in the underground soil. years or decades for a variety of reasons
and its extremely difficult to prove that
Effects of soil pollution
theyve been caused by something like
With luck and the right atmospheric local environmental pollution, especially
conditions, air and water pollution disperse when people move homes during their
and disappear. What makes land pollution lifetime. No-one knows how much land is
such a problem is that land is static, so land contaminated, how contamination varies
pollution stays exactly where it is until and from one place to another, or how land
unless someone cleans it up. Land thats contaminants react with one another once
polluted stays polluted; land thats they enter water resourses and become
urbanized almost invariably stays urbanized. water pollution. So the scale of the problem
As we know, plastics take hundreds of and its ultimate effects are impossible to
years to disappear while radiation can determine.
contaminate land for ten times longer. That However, we do know what effect
means landfill sites and radioactive waste individual pollutants have. We know, for
dumps remain that way pretty much example, that lead is a toxic heavy metal
indefinitely. that has all kinds of unpleasant effects on
The simplest effect of land pollution human health; its been implicated in
is that it takes land out of circulation. The developmental deficits (such as reductions
more land we use up, the less we have in intelligence) in children. We know that
160 Soil Pollution

some chemicals are carcinogenic (cancer- Pollution of drinking water

causing) while others cause congenital sources
defects such as heart disease. Foul smell and release of gases
Thus, effects of soil pollution are vast Waste management problems
and these can be summarized into three
broad categories as follows: Environmental long term effects
of soil pollution
1. Hazardous chemical entered into
the food chain from soil, causes When it comes to the environment
disruption of biochemical process. itself, the toll of contaminated soil is even
2. Soil becomes infertile because of more dire. Soil that has been contaminated
water logging and salinity. should no longer be used to grow food,
3. Toxic chemicals affect plant because the chemicals can leech into the
growth and animal life. food and harm people who eat it.
If contaminated soil is used to grow
Agricultural
food, the land will usually produce lower
Reduced soil fertility yields than it would if it were not
Reduced nitrogen fixation contaminated. This, in turn, can cause even
Increased erodibility more harm because lack of plants on the
Larger loss of soil and nutrients soil will cause more erosion, spreading the
Deposition of silt in tanks and contaminants onto land that might not have
reservoirs been tainted before.
Reduced crop yield In addition, the pollutants will change
Imbalance in soil fauna and flora the makeup of the soil and the types of
microorganisms that live in it. If certain
Industrial
organisms die off in the area, the larger
Dangerous chemicals entering predator animals will also have to move
underground water away or die because theyve lost their food
Ecological imbalance supply. Thus its possible for soil pollution
Release of pollutant gases to change whole ecosystems.
Release of radioactive rays
causing health problems
Control of soil pollution
Increased salinity The following steps have been
Reduced vegetation suggested to control soil pollution. To help
prevent soil pollution, we can limit
Urban
construction in sensitive area. In general
Clogging of drains we would need less fertilizer and fewer
Inundation of areas pesticides if we could all adopt the three
Public health problems Rs: Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle. This

would give us less solid waste. For example in the state of Andhra
Reducing chemical fertilizer and Pradesh 32 large towns and cities are there.
pesticide use The average per capita solid wastes
Applying bio-fertilizers and manures produced per day is 364 grams. To dispose
can reduce chemical fertilizer and pesticide all the wastes we need an area equal to the
use. Biological methods of pest control can size of Hyderabad city(590 sq km) by the
also reduce the use of pesticides and year 2012.
thereby minimize soil pollution. Thus, Proper methods should be
adopted for management of solid waste
Reusing of materials
disposal. Solid waste management involves
Materials such as glass containers, activities including collection, transfer and
plastic bags, paper, cloth etc. can be reused transport to suitable sites, and safe disposal
at domestic levels rather than being of wastes by methods which are
disposed, reducing solid waste pollution. environmentally compatible.
Recycling and recovery of materials
This is a reasonable solution for
reducing soil pollution. Materials such as
paper, some kinds of plastics and glass can
and are being recycled. This decreases the
volume of refuse and helps in the
conservation of natural resources. For
example, recycling of one tonne of paper
can save 17 trees.
Reforesting
Control of land loss and soil erosion Fig-9 Water recycling
can be attempted through restoring forest
Industrial wastes can be treated
and grass cover to check wastelands, soil
physically, chemically and biologically
erosion and floods. Crop rotation or mixed
until they are less hazardous. Acidic and
cropping can improve the fertility of the
alkaline wastes should be first neutralized;
land.
the insoluble material if biodegradable
Solid waste management should be allowed to degrade under
controlled conditions before being
The solid wastes which are accumulated
disposed.
on the soil will pose a great problem to us.
Throwing the wastes in dump yards is not As a last resort, new areas for storage
the solution to the problem. For throwing of hazardous waste should be investigated
wastes we need enormous land area. such as deep well injection and more
secure landfills. Burying the waste in
162 Soil Pollution

locations situated away from residential

areas is the simplest and most widely used
technique of solid waste management.
Environmental and aesthetic
considerations must be taken into
consideration before selecting the dumping
sites. Incineration of other wastes is
expensive and leaves a huge residue and
adds to air pollution.
Pyrolysis is a process of combustion
in absence of oxygen or the material burnt
under controlled atmosphere of oxygen. It Fig-10 Bio remediation
is an alternative to incineration. The gas and
soil, water, and sediments. Plants have also
liquid thus obtained can be used as fuels.
been used to assist bioremediation
Pyrolysis of carbonaceous wastes like
processes. This is called phytoremediation.
firewood, coconut, palm waste, corn
Biological processes have been used for
combs, cashew shell, rice husk paddy straw
some inorganic materials, like metals, to
and saw dust, yields charcoal along with
lower radioactivity and to remediate
products like tar, methyl alcohol, acetic
organic contaminants. With metal
acid, acetone and a fuel gas, may reduce
contamination the usual challenge is to
soil pollution.
accumulate the metal into harvestable plant
Anaerobic/aerobic decomposition of
parts, which must then be disposed of in a
biodegradable municipal and domestic
hazardous waste landfill before or after
waste is also being done and gives organic
incineration to reduce the plant to ash. Two
manure. Cow dung which releases methane
exceptions are mercury and selenium,
into the atmosphere, should be processed
which can be released as volatile elements
further in gobar gas plants to produce
directly from plants to atmosphere.
gobar gas and good manure.
Natural land pollution
Bioremediation
Land pollution occurs massively during
Bioremediation means to use a
earth quakes, landslides, hurricanes and
biological remedy to abate or clean up
floods. All cause hard to clean mess, which
contamination. This makes it different from
is expensive to clean, and may sometimes
remedies where contaminated soil or water
take years to restore the affected area.
is removed for chemical treatment or
These kinds of natural disasters are not
decontamination, incineration, or burial in
only a problem in that they cause pollution
a landfill. Microbes are often used to
but also because they leave many victims
remedy environmental problems found in
homeless.
Soil conservation No-till farming

Soil is one of the most important When soil is prepared for farming by
natural resources. The importance of soil ploughing it, the process is known as tiling.
conservation is relatively less talked about No-till farming is a way of growing crops
as compared to the conservation of water without disturbing it through tillage. The
and other natural resources. The almost- process of tilling is beneficial in mixing
omnipresent soil is mostly taken for fertilizers in the soil, shaping it into rows
granted. Its omnipresence is ironically the and preparing a surface for sowing. But the
reason behind us, human beings, taking it tilling activity can lead to compaction of
for a ride. We rarely even think of it as a soil, loss of organic matter in soil and the
natural resource that needs to be conserved, death of the organisms in soil. No-till
a part of the natural wealth that needs to be farming is a way to prevent the soil from
preserved. There are several ways possible being affected by these adversities.
for soil conservation that can be achieved Contour ploughing
through agricultural practices and measures This practice of farming across the
that can be taken at home. slopes takes into account the slope gradient
Plant trees and the elevation of soil across the slope.
We all know that the roots of trees It is the method of ploughing across the
firmly hold on to the soil. As trees grow contour lines of a slope. This method helps
tall, they also keep rooting deeper into the in slowing the water runoff and prevents the
soil. As the roots of the trees spread deep soil from being washed away along the
into the layers of soil, they contribute to slope. Contour ploughing also helps in the
the prevention of soil erosion. Soil that is percolation of water into the soil.
under a vegetative cover has hardly any Crop rotation
chance of getting eroded as the vegetative Some pathogens tend to build up in soil
cover acts as a wind barrier as well. if the same crops are cultivated
Terraces consecutively. Continuous cultivation of
Terracing is one of the very good the same crop also leads to an imbalance
methods of soil conservation. A terrace is in the fertility demands of the soil. To
a leveled section of a hilly cultivated area. prevent these adverse effects from taking
Owing to its unique structure, it prevents place, crop rotation is practiced. It is a
the rapid surface runoff of water. Terracing method of growing a series of dissimilar
gives the landmass a stepped appearance crops in an area sequentially. Crop rotation
thus slowing the easy washing down of the also helps in the improvement of soil
soil. Dry stonewalling is a method used to structure and fertility.
create terraces in which stone structures
Soil pH
are created without using mortar for
The contamination of soil by addition
binding.
of acidic or basic pollutants and acid rains
164 Soil Pollution
has an adverse effect on the pH of soil. Soil crops in soil. Salinity of soil is detrimental
pH is one of the determinants of the to the vegetative life in the soil. The death
availability of nutrients in soil. The uptake of vegetation is bound to cause soil
of nutrients in plants is also governed to a erosion. Hence, salinity management is one
certain extent, by the soil pH. The of the indirect ways to conserve soil.
maintenance of the most suitable value of Soil organisms
pH, is thus, essential for the conservation Organisms like earthworms and others
of soil. benefiting the soil should be promoted.
Water the soil Earthworms, through aeration of soil,
We water plants, we water the crops, enhance the availability of macronutrients
but do we water the soil? If the answer is in soil. They also enhance the porosity of
negative, it is high time we adopt the soil. The helpful organisms of soil promote
method of watering soil as a measure of its fertility and form an element in the
conserving soil. Watering the soil along conservation of soil.
with the plants is a way to prevent soil Indigenous Crops
erosion caused by wind. Planting of native crops is known to be
Salinity management beneficial for soil conservation. If non-
The salinity of soil that is caused by native plants are grown, the fields should
the excessive accumulation of salts has a be bordered by indigenous crops to prevent
negative effect on the metabolism of the soil erosion and achieve soil conservation.
Key words
Parent Material, soil fertility, mycorrhizal, minaralisation, bio degradable

waste, non bio degradable waste, soil errosion, bio magnification, bio remediation.
What we have learnt
Our environment is composed of atmosphere, earth, water and space and the
interaction of the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere is continuing
for years together.
Human and animal activities has interfered the composition and complex nature of
environment and hence the problem of pollution raised.
Soil is one of the three major natural resources alongside air and water composed
of minerals and organic matter along with air and water. Soil is the most abundant
and diverse ecosystem on the earth

Soil formation is a long and complex process that takes from 100 to 10,000 years
and driven by many factors including climate, topography, living organisms and
types of parent material.
Soil properties are classified into three groups, i.e., Physical, chemical and
biological properties of the soil.
Soil fertility is closely associated with soil properties and it is defined as its capacity
to hold water and nutrients and supply them to plants when they need them,
independent of direct application of nutrients.
Soil or land pollution can be defined as Soil pollution is defined as the build-up in
soils of persistent toxic compounds, chemicals, salts, radioactive materials, or
disease causing agents, which have adverse effects on plant growth and animal health.
Wastes generated from various sources are categorized into biodegradable and non-
biodegradable waste.
Biodegradable material is any organic material that can be broken down by
microorganisms into simpler more stable compounds. Most organic wastes like-
wood, paper, are biodegradable.
Materials that cannot be degraded by microbial action are said to be non-
biodegradable materials.
Land pollution is broadly caused by agricultural practices, Industrial wastes, urban
activities.
Biomagnification is the sequence of processes in an ecosystem by which higher
concentrations of a particular chemical, such as the pesticide DDT, are reached in
organisms higher up the food chain, generally through a series of prey-predator
relationships.
Soil erosion is a natural process. It became a problem due to various human activities
causing it to occur much faster than under natural conditions.
Deforestation, agriculture development, temperature extremes, precipitation
including acid rain and human activities contributed to this faster soil erosion.
Soil pollution leads to an imbalance in ecosystem and is closely associated with air
and water pollution. The harmful effects are not seen clearly but reduced crop yield
due to reduced soil fertility and loss of soil and nutrients, groundwater pollution,
foul smell and public health problems are some of the effects that attract human
being to think of this problem.
There are many ways to control soil pollution which includes, three Rs principles:
Reduce, Reuse and Recycle, reforesting, proper solid waste management and
bioremediation.
Conservation of soil can be achieved through agricultural practices and measures
that can be taken at home.
166 Soil Pollution
1. Define soil pollution. (AS1)

2. Why are plastic bags a big environmental nuisance? (AS 6)
3. Describe an environmental friendly method to profitably dispose off human waste
and cattle waste. (AS1)
4. Chemical fertilizers are useful to crops. In which way they cause environmental
pollution? (AS1)
5. What steps can be taken to reduce pollution due to particulate matter from industries?
6. What is a medical waste? Why it is called hazardous waste? What is the safe way to
dispose medical waste? (AS1)
7. Prepare flow chart to describe soil pollution, causes and methods of control.(AS 5)
8. What soil problems do you find in your area? Prepare a list of those problems and
suggest a method for each of them to control those problems.(AS 7)
9. What farm practices impact soil? Do they impact soil in a positive or a negative way?
10.Rank the negative impact practices in your area in the order in which you think they
should be eliminated. (AS1)
11. Rank the positive impact practices in order in which you think they should be used for
the most benefit on your farm. (AS1)
12.Ravi said soil health is important? How can you support him? (AS 7)
13.How would soil texture affect the nutrients in soil? What would be its impact on crop
production? (AS 2)
14.What are the three main physical properties of soil? What effects do this have on the
plants? (AS1)
15.What is pH? What is its range? What are the negative impacts if the pH of soil is too
low or too high?(AS1)
16.What is soil fertility? What are the sources of soil fertility? (AS1)
17.Name 10 living things that live in soil. What do these things do to affect the soil? (4)
18.What is organic matter? Why it is important to plants? (AS1)
19.What are the factors affecting organic matter levels in soil? How this level of organic
matter can be increased? (AS1)
20.What is solid waste? Explain best practices for solid waste management. (AS1)
21.What is bioremediation? How it helps in controlling soil pollution? (AS1)
22.Why soil conservation is important to us? What will happen if no preventive measures
would be taken? (AS 2)
23.Look at the following symbol what does its mean.

place and bury it in soft soil. (Fifty times

ANNEXURE its own weight)
Earthworm During breeding season the female lays
eggs in dung. The larvae grow by eating
Most farmers are well aware that the
dung. They play remarkable role in
presence of earthworms is a sign of fertile
agriculture. By burying and consuming
soil. But what makes them so valuable?
dung they improve nutrient recycling and
Earthworms fulfill several crucial
soil structure. They also protect the live
functions. First, they accelerate the
stock, such as cattle, by removing the dung
decomposition of plant material on the soil
which, if left could provide habitat for
surface by removing dead plant material
pests/such as flies.
from the soil surface. During the digestion
Many countries introduced dung beetle
of organic material, they mix organic and
in their country for the benefit of animal
mineral soil particles and build stable
husbandry. In Northern Thailand, it is taken
crumbs in their excrements, which help
as food. Chinese use dried beetles in
improve the soil
medicine. The Dung beetles help in
structure.
reducing green house gas emission from
Earthworm
agricultural sector. In Ancient Egypt it is
excrements contain
worshipped.
5 times more
They are found on every continent
nitrogen, 7 times
except Antarctica. These live in habitat that
more phosphate, 11
range from forests to deserts. Most prefer
times more potash and 2 times more
the dung of Herbivores. Some eat excreta
magnesia and calcium than normal earth.
of omnivores.
The tunnels created by earthworms
They help new trees to grow for us. The
promote infiltration and drainage of
rainwater and thus contribute to prevention seeds which the animals eat pan out
undigested. The seeds are buried along with
of soil erosion and water-logging.
dung. Soon a new tree sprouts.
Dung beetle:
On a busy might the Dung beetle can
Have you bury 250 times its own weight of dung.
noticed one or two
small black, insects The plastic nightmare?
rolling a large ball of Plastic with its exclusive qualities of
dung which is larger being light yet strong and economical has
than their size? There are called dung invaded every aspect of our day-to-day life.
beetles (Scrab Beatle) Shiny metallic It has many advantages: it is durable, light,
coloured. What do they do with that ball of and easy to mould, and can be adapted to
dung? Dung is their food. They collect the different user requirements. Once hailed
dung makes it a ball and rolls it to a safety
168 Soil Pollution
as a wonder material, plastic is now a the soil and causes problems for
serious worldwide environmental and groundwater recharge. Plastic disturbs the
health concern, essentially due to its non- soil microbe activity, and once ingested,
biodegradable nature. can kill animals. Plastic bags can also
In India, the plastic industry is growing contaminate foodstuffs due to leaching of
phenomenally. Plastics have use in all toxic dyes and transfer of pathogens. In
sectors of the economy infrastructure, fact, a major portion of the plastic bags i.e.
construction, agriculture, consumer goods, approximately 60-80% of the plastic waste
telecommunications, and packaging. But generated in India is collected and
the good news is that along with a growth segregated to be recycled. The rest remains
in the use, a country-wide network for strewn on the ground, littered around in
collection of plastic waste through rag open drains, or in unmanaged garbage
pickers, waste collectors and waste dealers dumps. Though only a small percentage lies
and recycling enterprises has sprung all strewn, it is this portion that is of concern
over the country over the last decade or so. as it causes extensive damage to the
More than 50% of the plastic waste environment.
generated in the country is recycled and The plastic industry in the developed
used in the manufacture of various plastic world has realized the need of
products. environmentally acceptable modes for
Conventional plastics have been recycling plastics wastes and has set out
associated with reproductive problems in targets and missions. Prominent among
both wildlife and humans. Studies have such missions are the Plastic Waste
shown a decline in human sperm count and Management Institute in Japan, the
quality, genital abnormalities and a rise in European Centre for Plastics in
the incidence of breast cancer. Dioxin a Environment, the Plastic Waste
highly carcinogenic and toxic by-product Management Task Force in Malaysia.
of the manufacturing process of plastics is Manufacturers, civic authorities,
one of the chemicals believed to be passed environmentalists and the public have
on through breast milk to the nursing begun to acknowledge the need for plastics
infant. Burning of plastics, especially PVC to conform to certain guidelines/standards
releases this dioxin and also furan into the and code of conduct for its use. Designing
atmosphere. Thus, conventional plastics, eco-friendly, biodegradable plastics are the
right from their manufacture to their need of the hour. Though partially
disposal are a major problem to the biodegradable plastics have been
environment. developed and used, completely
Plastics are so versatile in use that their biodegradable plastics based on renewable
impact on the environment are extremely starch rather than petrochemicals have only
wide ranging. Careless disposal of plastic recently been developed and are in the early
bags chokes drains, blocks the porosity of stages of commercialization.
Chapter
Bio geo chemical cycles
We have learnt about environmental on from one level to the other as well as
pollution and ecosystem in the previous from one state to the other. The cycles that
chapter. Living things within an ecosystem involve the flow of nutrients in on earth
interact with each other and also with their (elements essential for the living cell) from
non-living environment to form an environment to organisms and back through
ecological unit that is largely self- certain pathways are known as
contained. Sometimes this renewal process biogeochemical cycles.
is gradual and gentle. Sometimes it is
Biogeochemical cycles
violent and destructive. Nevertheless,
ecosystems contain resources within A constant interaction, between the
themselves which can regenerate. biotic and abiotic components of the
There is usually a physical state, biosphere, makes it a dynamic, but stable
chemical form, and location in the cycle system. These interactions consist of
in which nature stores the bulk of the transfer of matter and energy between the
various chemical elements. Pollution different components of the biosphere.
occurs when the cycle is sufficiently Biogeochemical pathways determine the
disturbed either by accumulation of any path of transfer of matter on earth. Let us
element at some point in the cycle in look at some of the major biogeochemical
inappropriate physical state or chemical cycles.
form or amount disrupting environmental Biogeochemical cycles as we may see
balance. from the name itself includes both
Thus, this is important to understand biological , geological and chemical or
how nature is maintaining itself and what physicochemical pathways. This means the
are the impacts of human activities on this reservoir or pool of nutrients on earth may
self contained ecological unit. To contain some chemicals of biological
understand these, we would need to know origin while others may be purely inorganic
atleast some of the cycles of nature in in nature also may be geochemical
which nutrients are exchanged and passed (obtained from rocks and soil) in origin.
170 Bio Geo Chemical Cycles
Water though not considered as a might think.Nearly 97% of all the water on
biogeochemical cycle by most ecologists the earth is in the oceans, and so only about
actually is the precursor of the major 3% is fresh water. About 2% of this fresh
elements hydrogen and oxygen as some water is permanently frozen in glaciers and
living organisms use them for making the at the polar ice caps.
basic food molecules for several Thus only about 1% is available fresh
organisms in nature. water. Again about 1/4 of this 1% is present
Water is also a universal solvent and as groundwater. Only about 0.009% of
essential for various reations to take place water on earth is in the rivers and lakes.
within a living cell. Thus we shall also take Rest is present in the bodies of living
up water cycle briefly in this chapter. organisms, as soil moisture, as humidity of
Though the nutrient pool involves several atmosphere etc. Water is the most essential,
elements of nature but, we shall study just abundant substance in living things.
the cycling of some major elements like The human body for example, is
oxygen, nitrogen and carbon. composed of about 70% water (remember
all living organisms together constitute
The water cycle
only 0.005% of water on earth). Water
All of the water that is on the earth has participates in many biochemical
always been here. Earth never gets water mechanisms, including photosynthesis,
added to it nor does water disappear from digestion and cellular respiration. It is also
the earth. Water is constantly recycled in a the habitat for many species of plants,
process known as the hydrological or water animals and microorganisms, and it
cycle. participates in the cycling of the materials
Fresh water is more scarce than you used by living things. So, it is important
that we protect our water
resources.
You have seen how water
evaporates from the water
bodies in the form of water
vapour and the subsequent
condensation of this water
vapour leads to rain.
The whole process in which
water evaporates and falls
back on the surface of the
earth as rain and other forms
of precipitation including its
Fig-1 Water cycle flow from land into the sea/

oceans via several routes like rivers, of nitrogen in rain water leads to acid rain.
ground water channels etc is known as
The nitrogen cycle
the water-cycle.
This cycle is not as straight-forward Nitrogen is both the most abundant
and simple as this statement seems to imply. element in the atmosphere and, a building
All of the water that falls on the land does block of proteins and nucleic acids. The
not immediately flow back into the sea. nitrogen cycle is a complex
Some of it seeps into the soil and becomes biogeochemical cycle in which nitrogen is
part of the underground reservoir of fresh- converted from its inert atmospheric
water. molecular form (N2) into a form that is
Some of this underground water finds useful in biological processes.
its way to the surface through springs. Or The element Nitrogen is constantly
we bring it to the surface for our use moving in a giant circle from the air,
through wells or tube wells. Water is also through the soil, into the bodies of plants
used by terrestrial animals and plants for and animals, and eventually back to the air
various life-processes. Water provides by the process of nitrogen cycle. All living
hydrogen and oxygen that form integral part things need nitrogen mainly for growth,
of basic organic compounds of life. repair and development (nitrogen being
Let us look at another aspect of what essential for protein formation). Even
happens to water during the water-cycle. As though the earths atmosphere is made up
you know, water is capable of dissolving a of 78% nitrogen, plants and animals cannot
large number of substances. Thus, it cleans use it in this form.
the environment as it rains and water The atmospheric nitrogen is thus
soluble pollutants are transported to converted into certain compounds that
different water bodies like lakes and plants may take up from the soil by some
oceans. biochemical (caused by certain bacteria
This dilutes the intensity of pollutants like Rhizobium, Nitrosomonas etc) and
Also, as water flows through or over rocks physicochemical (caused by lightning)
containing soluble minerals, some of them processes. Animals get the required amount
get dissolved in the water. Thus rivers carry of nitrogen from plants either directly
many nutrients from the land to the sea, and (herbivores) or indirectly (carnivores).
some of these are used by the marine The nitrogen cycle contains several
organisms and rest of these get deposited stages:
which takes a longer time to cycle 1. Nitrogen fixation
completely through the system.
Atmospheric nitrogen occurs primarily
On the other hand, it creates troubles
in inert form (N2) or non reactive form that
as well. Dissolution of some harmful
few organisms can use; therefore it must
substances, like gases like SO2 and oxides

be converted into a compound - or fixed - Nitrogen can also be fixed as nitrates

form in a process called nitrogen fixation. by lightning. This reaches soil and
Most atmospheric nitrogen is fixed water through precipitation that follows.
through biological processes. A number of Nitrates are taken up by plants to form
bacteria and blue green algae are known to proteins and nucleic acids.
be able to fix atmospheric nitrogen into
2. Nitrification
compounds in their own body. These may
be symbiotic (Rhizobium) or freeliving Nitrates can also be converted to
(Nitrosomonas) respectively. These ammonia by the denitrifying bacteria in the
organisms convert atmospheric nitrogen soil (especially in waterlogged soils). The
into the organic nitrogen for their own nitrifying bacteria may then use this
cells. As they die rapidly( they grow rapidly ammonia to synthesize compounds for
as well), this nitrogen, now present in the their own cell and eventually convert to
soil as compounds become available to proteins, nucleic acids, nitrites and nitrates.
plants. In leguminous plants like pea, beans Nitrites are produced mainly by
etc there is a symbiotic relationship of the Nitrosomonas, while nitrates by
nitrogen fixing bacteria with the plant, thus Nitrobacters that are also capable of
nitrogenenous compounds are added to the utilizing nitrites and converting them to
soil after a leguminous crop is grown. nitrates. Death of these microorganisms
add the nitrogenous compounds to the soil.
Plants take up nitrate as well as ammonium
Atmospheric N2 ions from the soil to convert them to
proteins and nucleic acids.
Nitrification can thus be summarized as:
Denitification Bacteria Nitrogen fixing Bacteria
Nitrates
Denitrifying Bacteria
Ammonia
Soil Nitrogen Nitrosomonas
Nitrite
Nitrobacter
Nitrate
Clays, Rocks, Detritivores
Sediment
Plants
Plants
3. Assimilation
Consumers Nitrogen compounds mainly as nitrates
or ammonium ions(NH4+) are taken up
Fig-2 Nitrogen fixation from soils by plants which are then used in

the formation of plant proteins and as Human intervention and nitrogen

animals eat these plants, animal proteins cycle
are synthesised.
Unfortunately, humans are interfering
4.Ammonification with the natural balance when they overuse
Production of ammonia (NH3) from artificially produced nitrates as agricultural
nitrates and other nitrogenous compounds fertilizers that are often washed into water
in called ammonification. bodies by rain as well as by releasing
exponential amounts of untreated domestic
Describe a path of ammonification
sewage into water bodies. Before these
discussed in the above section.
nitrates can be converted into atmospheric
Ammonification also occurs when
nitrogen, they are often carried off by rain
plants and animals die, or when animals
or irrigation to streams and rivers and even
emit wastes, the nitrogen in the organi c
seep down to groundwater.
matter reenters the soil and water
bodies where it is broken down by
other microorganisms, known as
decomposers. This decomposition
produces ammonia which is then
available for other biological
processes.
Note: Processes 2-4 also
contribute to nitrogen fixation.
5.Denitrification
Nitrogen makes its way back into
the atmosphere through a process
called denitrification, in which Fig-3
solid nitrate (NO3) is converted back to In some parts of the world, water for
gaseous nitrogen (N2). Denitrification humans and animals contains such high
occurs primarily in wet soils where water concentrations of nitrates that it is unsafe
makes it difficult for microorganisms to for consumption. These excessive amount
get oxygen. Under these conditions, certain of nitrates and other nitrogenous
organisms - known as denitrifiying bacteria compounds, when they reach rivers and
- will process nitrate to gain oxygen, lakes, cause too much algal growth. This
leaving free nitrogen gas as a byproduct. over-abundance of algae uses up too much
Thus, the nitrogen content of the earth of the oxygen in the water. When oxygen
and its atmosphere remains in a perfect level falls, other forms of life in the water
balance. bodies die off.

These were just a few examples of Carbon dioxide is also responsible for
human intervention. maintaining the Earth as a greenhouse with
temperature conditions suitable for life.
The carbon cycle
Thus, carbon exists in the biosphere as the
Carbon is found in various forms on the central element of life. Carbon Dioxide or
Earth. It occurs in the elemental form as CO2, now makes up about 0.04% by volume
say soot, diamond and graphite. In the of air.
combined state, it is found as gases, carbon Have you ever thought how this level
dioxide and carbon monoxide in the of carbon is being maintained in the nature?
atmosphere, as carbonate and hydrogen Carbon is incorporated into life
carbonate salts in various minerals, while through various processes. The main
all life-forms are composed of carbon reservoirs of carbon are sedimentary rocks,
containing molecules like proteins, fossilized organic carbon including the
carbohydrates, fats, nucleic acids and fossil fuels, the oceans, and the biosphere.
vitamins. The endoskeletons and
exoskeletons of various animals are also Photosynthesis
formed from carbonate salts. The first step in the biological
carbon cycle is the conversion of
inorganic atmospheric carbon into a
biological form. This fixing of
carbon in biological form takes place
within plants and other organisms -
known as producers - in a process
called photosynthesis, by which
energy from sunlight is converted into
chemical form.
In photosynthesis, light energy
helps to combine carbon dioxide and
water to create the simplest of sugars,
the carbohydrate molecules known as
glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ). In oceans,
photosynthesis is carried out by
microscopic aquatic plants called
phytoplankton. The carbohydrates
then become the source of chemical
energy that fuel living cells in all
plants and animals. In plants, some
Fig-4 Carban cycle carbon remains as simple glucose for

byproducts are emitted. Combustion of

fossil fuels and other carbon containing
substances, forest fires, volcanic emissions
etc. also return carbondioxide to the
atmospheric reservoir.
Other pathways are like- When a plant
dies, it is broken down by microorganisms
- called decomposers - that feed on the
dead organic matter. As the
microorganisms consume the plant matter,
they release some of the plants carbon into
Fig-5 the atmosphere in the form of CO 2 ,
although some is destined for longer-term
short-term energy use, while some are storage in trunks and branches of trees and
converted to large complex molecules such in the bodies of plant-eating animals or
as starch for longer term energy storage. carnivorous animals that eat plant-eating
Cycling and storage animals.
Animals return more of the carbon to
The movement of carbondioxide takes the atmosphere as CO2 through respiration
place from the atmospheric reservoir of as we already know, although some will be
carbon dioxide directly as such to stored within their bodies until they die and
producers mainly the green plants, to decompose in the soil. Carbon in the form
consumers and from both of these groups of several compounds will remain stored
to the microbial decomposer organisms. in the soil as organic matter for example
Fossil fuels, carbonate rocks and the fossil fuels that we use.
carbondioxide dissolved in the oceans are
major additional reservoirs of carbon. Carbon cycle and human
The first two of these additional intervention
reservoir are not directly available to plants Carbon buried under the ocean floor
for fixation. CO2 from these resources might take millions of years to return to
becomes available when either fossil fuels the atmosphere, if it does at all. Throughout
are burnt or insoluble carbonates are the Earths history, the emission of
converted to soluble bicarbonates. The CO2 (and many other gases) from deep
return of carbondioxide to the atmospheric below the planets surface happens as
reservoir is accomplished in many ways. geological events, such as volcanic
Mainly through respiratory processes eruptions. A large part of the atmospheric
wherein food molecules are broken carbon dioxide that we have today was
down for energy and CO2 gas and other

contributed by such geological events of The green house effect

the past.
A greenhouse is a small house made of
Human beings tap into the geological
glass that is used to grow plants. It traps
carbon cycle by extracting oil and coal,
the suns rays and keeps the heat from
which are both hydrocarbons(formed of
escaping. It is warm inside. In the same way
carbon and hydrogen), for use
that the glass traps heat in a greenhouse,
in automobiles and power plants. A by
some gases present in the atmosphere such
product of combustion of these
as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons is CO2 and CO gases. Since
methane and water vapour trap heat from
the Industrial Revolution began, carbon
radiating back to the space. The natural
dioxide levels in the atmosphere have
greenhouse gases act like a big blanket
increased measurably, mostly as a result of
around the earth, keeping it warm and
human use of fossil fuels.
Humans have also altered the biological
carbon cycle, increasing atmospheric
CO2 levels, through forest clearing and
land use. Trees store large amounts of
carbon; when they die and decompose,
much of this stored carbon is released as
CO2.
However, when humans clear large
Places of forest, primarily through the use
of fire, the levels of atmospheric carbon
are affected in two ways. First, during Fig-6 Green house effect
combustion, stored carbon is released making life possible without which

directly into the air as CO2, and second, the temperatures would have fallen to sub zero
clearing of land takes away a key values.This phenomenon of naturally
mechanism for removing excess carbon warming up is called Greenhouse effect.
dioxide from the atmosphere (via But the extent of this natural warming
photosynthesis). up process have been grossly affected now.
Since carbon dioxide is a Due to various human activities like burning
primary greenhouse gas, the increase in of fossil fuels, deforestation and
atmospheric CO2 due to human activities industrialization, an excessive amount of
has resulted in an enhanced greenhouse carbon dioxide and other green house gases
effect resulting in higher global has been emitted to the environment. As a
temperatures. result more heat gets trapped. This causes
the temperature of the earth to rise, which
results in Global Warming. Global

Now, answer the following

questions:
Do both thermometers record
the same temperature? If no, which
one is higher?
Can you explain why these two
temperature records are not the
same?
Oxygen cycle
Fig-7 Green house gases Oxygen is an abundant element,
next to Nitrogen, on our Earth. It is
Warming is the recorded increase in the
found in the elemental form in the
average temperatures of the earths
atmosphere to the extent of nearly 21%. It
atmosphere and oceans. Global Warming
also occurs extensively in the combined
affects the weather patterns on Earth and
form in the Earths crust as well as in the
causes Climate Change. Climate change
air in the form of carbon dioxide. In the
results in higher sea levels, more rainfall
crust, it is found as the oxides of most
and severe droughts and floods.
metals. It is also present as carbonate,
What effect does climate change have
sulphate, nitrate and other compounds. It
on humans and animals? Discuss and write
is also an essential component of most
in your note book.
biological molecules like carbohydrates,
Lab Activity proteins, nucleic acids and fats (or lipids).
Aim: Test the effect of a greenhouse Atmospheric Oxygen O2
on temperature
Materials required: Plastic bottle,
Organic Molecules
nail, 2 thermometers, notebook and pencil. C6H12O6
Procedure: Make a hole near the top
of the plastic bottle with the nail. Insert the OXYGEN
first thermometer into the hole. Place the Photosynthesis Respiration
second thermometer next to the bottle. CYCLE
Make sure that the same amount of sunlight
reaches both thermometers. After 10 CO2
minutes, note temperature values from both
thermometers. Record the data in the
notebook. Take the temperature records H2 O
again after another 10 minutes and repeat
it for 2-3 times more. Fig-8 Oxygen cycle

Do you Know? decompose the waste. As the wastes get

degraded and the dissolved oxygen is used
Though we usually think of oxygen
up proportionately, the need or demand for
as being necessary to life in the process
oxygen increases i.e. the BOD increases.
of respiration, it might be of interest to
Thus BOD is a good indirect indicator for
you to learn that some forms of life,
amount of biodegradable waste.
especially bacteria, are poisoned by
elemental oxygen. In fact, even the The cycle and storage
process of nitrogen-fixing by bacteria
Oxygen from the atmosphere is used
does not take place in the presence of
up mainly by the processes, combustion,
oxygen.
respiration and in the formation of oxides
Oxygen is vital for life in many ways. of elements like nitrogen, iron etc. Oxygen
Respiration utilizes oxygen releasing is returned to the atmosphere in only one
carbon dioxide to atmospheric pool major process, that is, photosynthesis.
maintaining a balance in nature. Dissolved
Ozone layer
oxygen supports aquatic life. Oxygen
dissolves in water on the basis of different The Earths atmosphere is divided into
conditions. High temperatures do not several layers. The lowest region, the
support the process while a lot of troposphere, extends from the Earths
turbulence in water usually at the surface surface up to about 10 kilometers (km) in
helps greater amount of oxygen to dissolve. altitude. Virtually all human activities occur
Oxygen is needed for the in the troposphere. Mt. Everest, the tallest
decomposition of organic waste. Wastes mountain on the planet, is only about 9 km
from living organisms are biodegradable
because there are aerobic bacteria that
convert organic waste materials into stable
inorganic materials. If enough oxygen is not
available for these bacteria, for example,
because of enormous quantities of wastes,
they die and anaerobic bacteria that do not
need oxygen take over. These bacteria
change waste material into H2S and other
poisonous and foul-smelling substances.
The content of biodegradable
substances in water is expressed by a
special index called biological oxygen
demand (BOD), representing the amount
of oxygen needed by aerobic bacteria to Fig-9 Ozone layer

high. The next layer, the stratosphere,

continues from 10 km to about 50 km.
Most commercial airline traffic occurs in
the lower part of the stratosphere. most
atmospheric ozone is concentrated in a
layer in the stratosphere, about 15-30
kilometers above the Earths surface.
Ozone is a molecule containing three
oxygen atoms. It is blue in color and has a
strong odor.
Normal oxygen, which we breathe, has
Fig-10 Ozone
two oxygen atoms and is colorless and
depletion
odorless. Ozone is much less common than
normal oxygen. Out of each 10 million air fluorine atoms to
molecules, about 2 million are normal the stratosphere,
oxygen, but only 3 out of 10 millions are where they destroy
ozone. ozone in chemical
reactions. Important
However, even the small amount of
examples are the
ozone plays a key role in the atmosphere.
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), used in
The ozone layer absorbs a portion of the
almost all refrigeration and air conditioning
radiation from the sun, preventing it from
systems. Most of these gases accumulate
reaching the planets surface.
in the lower atmosphere because they are
Most important of all it absorbs the
unreactive and do not dissolve readily in
portion of ultraviolet light which causes
rain or snow. Natural air motions transport
many harmful effects, including various
these accumulated gases to the
types of skin cancer and harm to some
stratosphere, where they are converted to
crops, certain materials, and some forms
more reactive gases. Some of these gases
of marine life.
then participate in reactions that destroy
At any given time, ozone molecules
ozone. The ozone hole is not really a hole,
constantly get formed and destroyed in the
but it was observed that there is less ozone
stratosphere. The total amount, however,
in Antarctica than in the arctic region.
remains relatively constant.
Montreal protocol
Ozone depletion
The discovery of an ozone hole over
Certain industrial processes and
Antarctica prompted action to control the
consumer products result in the emission
use of gases which have a destructive effect
of ozone-depleting substances to the
on the ozone layer. From this concern
atmosphere. These gases bring chlorine and
emerged the Montreal Protocol on
substances that deplete the ozone layer, (chlorofluorocarbons) and their

signed by 24 countries in 1987. It came derivatives. A meeting in 1992 was held in
into force in 1989 and has since been Copenhagen to revise the Protocol. This
ratified by 120 countries. The original meeting agreed to bring forward the phase
agreement was to control and phase out the out of halons to 1994, and CFCs and other
production and supply of ozone depleting halocarbons to 1996. These targets have
chemicals, specifically CFCs since been met.
Key words
Water Cycle or hydrologic Cycle, Nitrogen Cycle, Nitrogen Fixation,

Nitrification, Assimilation, Ammonification, Denitrification, Carbon Cycle,
Greenhouse Effect, Global warming, Oxygen Cycle, Ozone Depletion.
Representations of biological, geological and chemical processes that involve the

movement of an element or compound about the surface of the earth are collectively
known as Biogeochemical cycles.
Living things within an ecosystem interact with each other and also with their non-
living environment to form an ecological unit that is largely self-contained.
Ecosystems contain within themselves the resources to regenerate themselves and there
is usually a physical state, chemical form and location in the cycle in which nature
stores the bulk of various chemical elements.
Biogeochemical cycles are complex in nature and consist of pools of several elements
(like carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous, calcium, potassium, sodium, iron etc)
essential for life that circulate through living systems and are replenished in the pool.
They include a variety of biological, geological and chemical processes.
Water, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen are the key elements for life and are continuously
recycled in the nature.
Denitrification is the conversion, principally by bacteria, of compounds of nitrogen in
soil and aquatic systems to the gases, nitrogen (N2) and nitrous oxide (N2O) and eventual
release of these into the atmosphere.

Biological oxygen demand is an indicator of amount of biodegradable waste in an

ecosystem.
The warming of the Earths atmosphere and surface by the atmospheric greenhouse
gases such as Carbon dioxide, methane and water vapors is called greenhouse effect.
Nitrification is the process of the conversion of ammonium to nitrite and nitrate by
bacteria.
Nitrogen fixation is the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen gas into ammonium and
nitrates. Fixation may take place due to lightning and bacteria (into nitrates and into
ammonium ions )
A substance that supplies nutrition to a living organism, like carbohydrates, fats, proteins,
vitamins, salts, iron, calcium, phosphorus etc are called nutrients.
1. What is the importance of different biogeochemical cycles in the nature? (AS1)

2. What do you understand by Ozone layer? Write an essay to participate in elecution
compitation on importance of ozone layer. (AS 6)
3. What emissions from human activities lead to ozone depletion? And what are the
principal steps in stratospheric ozone depletion caused by human activities? (AS1)
4. Why could we say that biogeochemical cycles are in balance? (AS1)
5. What role does carbon dioxide play in plant life processes? (AS 7)
6. If all the vegetation in the pond died, what effects would it have on the animals?
Why? (AS 2)
7. Burning of fossil fuels a concern for scientists and environmentalists, why? (AS 6)
8. How human activities caused an imbalance in biogeochemical cycles? (AS 7)
9. List three ways we, as humans, have affected the water cycle.(AS 7)
10. Describe interdependence of biotic and abiotic components by taking Nitrogen cycle
as an example.Draw Nitrogen Cycle. (AS 5)
11. Go to a nearby pond observe organisms living in the pond and bio degradable substances
mixing in water. How they effect on those organisms? write your observation.(AS4)
12. Prepare slogans on Green house Effect to announce in your school assembly (AS 7)

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Inspire is a National level programme to strengthen the roots of

Attract intelligent students towards sciences

Daisies, daffodils, Each one is a wonder in itself

Please make a call - save a life.

Dr. Kamal Mahendroo, Professor,

Dr. Snigdha Das, Professor,

Dr. Yashodhara Kaneria, Professor,

Dr. N. Upendar Reddy,

Dr. T.V.S. Ramesh, Smt M. Deepika

Published by the Government of Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad.

Respect the Law Grow by Education

Free distribution by A.P. Government i

Government of Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad.

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

This Book has been printed on 70 G.S.M. S.S. Map litho,

Endoplasmic reticulum Mitochondria

Plasmamembrane Fig-2 Tipical Animal cell

solution on the membrane and leave it for

When we put salt solution over the peel Cell wall

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Ribosomes that you have observed under the

Observation of chloroplast in rheo Lumen

microscope. disc, oval etc. In algae, these can be found

8 Cell its structure and functions

Do you know? Where do cells come from?

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Plasma membrane, Selectively Permeable membrane, Prokaryotic cell,

What we have learnt?

The fundamental organizational unit of life is the cell.

Improve your learning

1. Differentiate between (A.S 1)

10 Cell its structure and functions

2. What happens if plasma membrane ruptures or breaks? (AS 2)

Y ou have already learnt about

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- Take a transparent (plastic/glass) bottle

Fig-4 Onion Root Tip

Tissues that form outer coverings are

The stump will soon bear leaves He

Arrangement of the cells (Tissues) Shoot tip Root tip

Fig-8 Peel of Rheo leaf Dermal tissue

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Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma

Chlorenchyma Arenchyma Storage Tissue

What do you conclude from your observation?

Fig-12 Different Cells of Xylem and Phloem

Tissue, Meristematic tissue, Apical meristem. Later meristem, Inter calary

What we have learnt?

Tissue is a group of cells similar in structure, and performing similar functions.

Improve your learning

1. Define the terms (AS 1)

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2. Differenciate in between the following (AS 1)

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note book. Compare your diagram

Fig-1 Epithelial Tissue Now try to find out the answers.

Are the functions of all the above

The epithelial cells in skin are arranged Activity-3

Fig-7 Areolar Tissue

The muscle in our body is attached to

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You know that, body movement is