THE SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL- SP

SP is the electrical potential difference existing, spontaneously, between an

electrode in the borehole, and a remote reference electrode on surface. This potential
varies from formation to formation, usually within the range of a few tens or hundreds
of millivolts (mV), measured relative to the level in shales, The hole must be filled with
conductive mud. No SP can be measured in oil-base mud, empty holes, or cased holes.
The scale of the SP log is in millivolts. There is no absolute zero; only changes in
potential are recorded. The SP can be recorded simply suspending a single electrode in
the bore hole and measuring the voltage difference between the electrode and a ground
electrode (which is usually called a fish) making electrical contact with the earth at the
surface.

SOURCE OF SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL

The potential sensed is a combination of four electrical potentials set in motion when the
drilled hole penetrates the formations. They are, in order of importance
An electrochemical potential, Membrane Potential ESh, existing across the

impermeable shale between its horizontal interface with a permeable zone and
its vertical interface with the borehole
An electrochemical potential, Liquid Junction potential Ed, existing across

the transition between invaded and noninvaded zones in the permeable bed
 An electro kinetic potential, Emc, existing across the mud cake.
An electro kinetic potential, ESb, existing across a thin layer of shale next to the

borehole

Liquid junction potential or Diffusion potential (Ed) is an e.m.f. established at

the contact of the mud filtrate and connate water in an invaded formation (Fig.). Ions
Na+ and C1- have different mobilities, and therefore do not diffuse at the same rates

between the two electrolytes. Na+ tends to be less mobile because of its larger size and

an affinity for water molecules. Consequently, a build-up of C1 - ions occurs in the

weaker solution, and of Na + ions in the more saline solution. This imbalance causes an
e.m.f., Ed described by: Ed = K log (aw / amf)

The coefficient K = 11.6 mV at 25C (77F). It is approximated by:

K = 2.3 . (v u) . RT
(v + u) F
Where:
v= mobility of C1 (67.6 x10 -5 cm2/sV);

u=mobility of Na (45.6 X 10 -5 cm2/sV);

Membrane potential (Esh) is the e.m.f. developed when two electrolytes of different
ionic concentrations (mud and formation water) are separated by shale (Figs.). The clay

minerals in shale are made up of lattices of atomic Al, Si, 0 etc. 02- ions occupy the outer
extremities, and there is a net negative charge on the lattice. As a result, Na+ ions from
solution are attracted and allowed to pass through the shale, while C1- ions are repelled.
Na+ ions thus migrate between the two solutions, with a net influx from the more saline
to the less. The resulting imbalance of ions on either side of the shale constitutes an
e.m.f., the membrane potential (Esh).
Esh = K log(aw/amf )

where:
K = 2.3 RT/F
(the term 2.3 takes care of the conversion from naperian to base- 10 logarithms);
R =ideal gas constant (8.314 joules/"K-mol);
T = absolute temperature (in degrees Kelvin);
F = Faraday constant (96, 489 coulombs/mol);
aw =the ionic activity of the formation water;

amf =the ionic activity of the mud filtrate;

K =59.1 mV at 25C (77F).
For all intents and purposes, E sh can be considered constant with time, the actual rate

of ionic diffusion being very small (a few mA of current) and the volumes of electrolytes
very large.

Esh = K log (aw/amf)

Electrokinetic Component
The electrokinetic component of the SP is emf produced by the flow of an electrolyte
through
a) across the mud-cake in front of the permeable formation;
b) across the permeable formation being invaded; and
c) across the shale beds.
It depends on several factors, among which are
1. differential pressure across the medium, p,
2. effective resistivity of the moving filtrate, Rmf,
3. dielectric constant of the filtrate, D,
4. zeta potential, ;
5. viscosity of the filtrate, .
Usually, little or no electrokinetic emf is generated across the permeable formation
itself, because practically all the differential pressure (between the borehole and
formation) occurs across the much less permeable mud cake. The remaining differential
pressure across the formation is normally not large enough to produce an appreciable
electrokinetic emf.
Appreciable electrokinetic effect may be observed in very low permeability formations
and shales, in which a rather great portion of the pressure differential is applied across
these formations. If the formation permeability is so low that no mud cake is formed,
the total pressure differential is applied to the formation itself. If the formation water is
brackish, then the mud is resistive, and the formation is clean with some porosity, the
electrokinetic effect may be quite large.

THE STATIC SP
The spontaneous potential is drawn for the idealized case where no current is
allowed to flow in the borehole. The SP is constant across the permeable bed, dropping

sharply to zero in the shales (dashed curve). This is the static SP, or SSP, given by SSP
-Ec = - K log [ (Rmf)e / (Rw)e ]

The SSP, being defined as zero in the shale, all deflections are measured relative
to the SHALE BASE-LINE. Consequently, it is of the utmost importance to correctly
define the shale base-line. In reality, a current loop is completed through the mud and
an SP profile similar to that of Fig is produced. Note that the SP builds up rather
gradually from the base-line and that the peak value is less than the SSP. This is
referred to as the pseudo-static SP or PSP, and is strongly dependent on bed thickness,
the resistivities of the invaded and virgin zones, depth of invasion, shaliness, and so on.
These factors also affect the shape of the peak.
- The SP is reduced by an increase in hole size, all other factors remaining
unchanged.
 - In the virgin zone-as Rt /Rm, increases, the SP deflection decreases-and the bed
boundaries are less sharply defined. The presence of hydrocarbons therefore
attenuates the SP. Neighbouring beds-the SP increases with Rs / Rm ; invaded

zone- the SP increases with Rxo/Rm,.

- The boundaries of tight beds are difficult to locate precisely, but are always
associated with a change of slope, or curvature, on the SP log, with a concave side
towards the shale base-line.
The SP log has many useful functions including:
Correlation of formations from well to well.
Gross lithology (reservoir vs. non-reservoir).
Estimate of formation water resistivity, Rw.

Estimate of shale (clay) content.

Qualitative indication of permeability.
Identification of depositional environments.

GROSS LITHOLOGY
Reservoirs are shown as deflections (either positive or negative) from a relatively stable
(and arbitrary) shale SP baseline. The direction of the deflection is determined by the
relative salinities (resistivities) of the formation water (Rw) and the mud filtrate (Rmf),
and is not directly related to formation porosity or permeability.

As a rule of thumb the following relationships are true:

If Rmf > Rw, then the SP deflection is negative.

If Rmf = Rw, then the SP deflection is zero.

If Rmf < Rw, then the SP deflection is positive.

ESTIMATE OF FORMATION WATER RESISTIVITY (Rw)

SP response equation:

SP = - K log [ (Rmf)e / (Rw)e ]

SP = Spontaneous Potential (from the log)
K = temperature-dependent factor (K=61+ 0.133*T; T in F).
Rmfe = equivalent mud filtrate resistivity.
Rwe = equivalent formation water resistivity.
 The magnitude of the SP is measured from the shale baseline near the zone of
interest. The baseline is usually assumed to have a value of zero. "Equivalent"
resistivities are required to correct for the non-linear relationship between resistivity
and ionic activity which exists at high NaCl concentrations, and when significant
amounts of divalent (non-NaCl) ions are present. A good estimate of Rw (at formation
temperature) can be obtained from the following equation:

Rw = 10 (K log (Rmf) + SP)/K

Where, Rmf is corrected to formation temperature.

ESTIMATE OF SHALE (CLAY) CONTENT

Shale/clay volume equation:

Vshale = vclay = (SPclean -SPlog) / (SPclean SPshale)

Where,
Vclay = Vshale = Shale or clay volume.

SPlog = SP in the zone of interest (read from the log).

SPclean = maximum SP deflection from a nearby clean wet zone in the same
well.
SPshale = SP value at the shale baseline (often considered to be zero).
It is assumed that Rw is a constant for all zones considered. It also assumes that
the response of the SP to shaliness is linear.
THE MEASUREMENT OF RESISTIVITY
The measurement of formation resistivity is fundamental to the evaluation of
hydrocarbon saturation. There are several measuring techniques in use, all variations
of a common basic system: an emitter (electrode or coil) sends a signal (electrical
current, electromagnetic field) into the formation. A receiver (electrode or coil)
measures the response of the formation at a certain distance from the emitter.
Generally, an increase in the spacing of the system results in an improved depth of
investigation (and a reading nearer to R,), at the expense of vertical resolution.
By the principle of resistivity we know that,

R = .A/L where,

- is the resistance
- Ris the resistivity which is a property of the material of which the conductor is
made, but does not depend on the conductor's physical shape.
 - A- Area of Uniform Cross Section = A is in m2
- R= ohm.meter2/meter = ohm meter, (ohm m2)
Thus, the resistivity of a formation, in ohm meter, is the resistance of one meter cube,
when the current flows between opposite faces. If we define A/L =K, then

R = .K
K can therefore be considered the constant of proportionality that converts resistance
to resistivity. K has the units of length.
From Ohms law we know Resistance =V/I Therefore we obtain the general resistivity
equation: R = K . V/I
Resistivity can be computed if the voltage drop and current are known. The K constant
is only a function of the geometry of current flow (which is controlled by the specific
shape and arrangement of electrodes for a current emitting resistivity device in the
wellbore). The geometry of current flow defines the shape of the equipotential surfaces
associated with the flow.
Measuring principle
A single point electrode, A, sends current in an infinite, homogeneous medium, to
a remote return B.(Fig) The current will radiate uniformly in all directions, and the
equipotential surfaces will be concentric spheres centred on A. If the potential at
distance r from A is V(r), then the difference dV between two equipotentials dr apart is

-dV = (RI/4r2) . dr
where I is the total current flowing, and R is the resistivity of the medium (so that
Rdr/4r2 is the resistance between the two surfaces). Integrating dV between r and
infinity (zero potential):

The field H is given by:

and from these we obtain R:

and
The above two Equations suggest two ways of measuring the resistivity viz., Normal
and Lateral/inverse.

NORMAL CONFIGURATION

The measuring electrode M is situated close to the current electrode A, (Fig. a). A
constant current I flows from A to the remote return B. The potential V , of M is
measured with respect to a reference electrode N (at zero potential) by means of a volt-
meter. Although, theoretically, N should be on surface (at infinity), inductive
phenomena necessitate placing it downhole, but at a distance from M considerably
greater than is A (one of the bridle electrodes, for instance) (Fig. b). From equation
above:
neglecting borehole effects, i.e. we assume an infinite homogeneous medium. Since I is
held constant, VM is proportional to R. 4AM is the coefficient KN, of the normal

device:

Thus a continuous recording of VM , on an appropriate scale is a log of the resistivity.

There are two conventional AM spacings for the normal:

AM= 16, the short normal;
AM= 64, the medium normal.

Lateral and inverse configurations

In the lateral configuration (Fig.a), two measuring electrodes, M and N, are

placed close together below A. The difference AV between the spherical equipotential
surfaces on which M and N lie, is derived as follows:
VM is the potential at electrode M, from eq

VN is the potential at electrode N, from eq.

The constant 4AMAN/MN is the coefficient KL , for the lateral device. So:

The formation resistivity R is proportional to V if the current is constant. In

practice, return electrode B is placed downhole. and a modified, but equivalent
inverse configuration is used (Fig. b). The electrode pair A-B takes the place of M-N;
however, by the principle of reciprocity the resistivity relationship derived above
still holds, with measure return electrode N remote from M.

For the lateral, M and N are very close relative to their distances from A. If O is the
mid-point of MN, then since MN << AM and AN (from eq.):

dV/dl is the intensity of the electric field ( H , eq.) at 0, and R is proportional to this
intensity. For the inverse, AO is replaced by MO. The spacing AO (or MO for the
inverse array) is usually 188.
In reality, where the surrounding medium is certainly not homogeneous, the
situation cannot be described in terms of simple spheres. The volume of material
contributing to the signal depends very much on the geometry and resistivity of the
zones of inhomogeneity the borehole, mud-cake, invaded and
virgin formation. However, in general
(a) All other factors being equal, the radius of investigation is greater the larger the
spacing of the electrode array.
(b) For a given electrode configuration, it will be smaller when the formation is more
resistive than the mud.
(c) For a given spacing, a normal device investigates more deeply than a lateral or
inverse
The following are the short-comings of the ES type tools:
(a) In thin beds ( h of the same order as the spacing) the apparent
resistivity is a poor estimate of the true value, because of the influence of the adjacent
beds.
(b) The borehole (mud-column) and invaded zone signals are often
appreciable.
(c) The available correction charts go some way towards correction for
these environmental effects, but are rarely 100% effective.
(d) Bed boundaries are difficult to define precisely. The current path of a
focused tool is constrained to flow in a desired direction.
This is achieved using focussed devices such as :
Electrodes: laterologs (LL), spherically focused log (SFL);
Coils: induction (IL).

Induction Principles
A transmitter coil, with an alternating current passing through it, sets up an
alternating magnetic field(Foucault effect). Faraday's law predicts this time-varying
field will establish an emf in the formation. The emf causes eddy currents to flow in
circular paths around the tool (coaxial with the borehole) in areas of formation known
as "ground loops." The eddy currents are 90 out of phase with the transmitter
currents. Their magnitude depends on the surrounding formation's conductivity.
Ampere's law predicts that these eddy currents will produce their own magnetic
fields. These fields cut through the receiver coil and induce an alternating voltage at the
receiver that is proportional to the strength of the secondary magnetic field and
therefore related to formation conductivity. (Fig)
Figure shows the relative phases of the emitter current, Foucault formation current
loops, receiver measure current (R-signal), and direct coupled X-signal. The R-signal is
180 out of phase with the transmitter current and reflects formation conductivity. The

180o out of phase formation signal is referred to as the in-phase or Real signal, with
the out of phase attenuated component being referred to as the Quadrature signal.
It's phase relationship to the transmitter current is as follows: The magnetic lines of flux
(BT) produced by the transmitter is in phase with the transmitter current. Voltage
induced into the formation by BT produces an eddy current (IL) that lags the
transmitter current by 90. Secondary magnetic lines of flux (BL), in phase with the
formation current, surround the ground loops. BLcauses a voltage (R-signal) to be
induced into the receiver that lags the formation current by 90. Thus, the total phase
differential between the transmitter current and the R-signal is 180. The X-signal (or
quadrature signal) is 90 out of phase with the transmitter current. This signal is from
direct mutual induction between the transmitter and receiver coils. Magnetic lines of
flux, produced by the transmitter induce a voltage directly into the receiver coil that is
90 out of phase with the transmitter current (see Figure). The X-signal usually larger
than the R-signal, (often as high as several thousands millimhos) therefore its
contribution to the total receiver signal must be eliminated, leaving only the R-signal.
According to this theory, the received voltage R-signal is proportional to the
conductivity of the formation in the loop.
The constant of proportionality varies with the radius and position of the loop
along the tool axis, as well as the position and construction of the coils. This constant of
proportionality is the geometric factor.
The primary method of eliminating the undesirable X-signal is with the use of a
multicoil sonde. Modern induction tools combine multiple transmitter coils and receivers
coil wound and counter wound to try to eliminate this signal. These so called mutually
balanced sondes practically eliminates the mutual coupling X-signal component. For
such sondes, the residual coupling signal between the transmitter and receiver is known
as sonde error.

Factors Influencing The Conductive Measurement

The induction tool voltage response for the R-signal (VR) can be explained by considering

three contributions:
Geometric factors
Skin effect
Equipment constant

The geometrical factor

If we ignore the mutual and self-inductances of the coaxial current loops, the
signal from each elemental loop will be proportional to its conductivity. The constant of
proportionality ios called the Geometrical factor.The geometrical factor will depend on
the position of the loop relative to the tool.
e = KgC where,
e = e.m.f., in volts, at the receiver coil;
g =geometrical factor for the elemental loop;
C =conductivity of the loop;
K =constant for the sonde configuration.

where,
f = emitter current frequency (cps);
I =emitter current intensity (amp);
L = coil spacing (m);
SE SR , =surface area of one emitter (receiver) coil winding (m2)= Swinding X nE (or

nR ) ;

nE , nR =number of windings in the emitter (re-

= formation magnetic permeability (henry/m)

g can be expressed either as a function of an angle or in terms of radial (r) and
vertical (Z) distance relative to the plane passing through O (the mid point of ER ),
perpendicular to the sonde axis, describing the position of each loop:

(Or)

Thus for the total receiver signal E = K g g C dr dz

E = K [ gbh Cbh + gs Cs + gxo Cxo + gt Ct ]

Where,

gbh + gs + gt +

gxo = 1

and gbh, gs, gt, gxo are integrated geometrical factors.

Bore hole gs Shoulder Bed

Flushed zone
Cs

Bed Thickness gt Virgin zone

gxo gbh Ct
Cbh
Cxo

Shoulder Bed
Radial geometric factor
The geometrical factor of the homogeneous medium contained between two cylinders
(whose axis is that of the sonde) of radius r and r +dr, extending vertically to +00 and
00 is written as:

Gr is shown in Fig. as a function of r for a two-coil system. Such a geometrical factor

would correspond to a very thick homogeneous formation, so that shoulder-bed effects
were negligible. The major part of the electromagnetic field propagates within a radius
L/4 to L, L being the coil-spacing.

Vertical geometric factor

A vertical geometrical factor, at vertical distance Z from the sonde measure point (Fig.),
is defined as:

from which follows:

A bed of thickness greater than L is therefore hardly affected by the adjacent
formations, and the vertical definition is of the same order of magnitude as the spacing.

The vertical geometrical

factor is used to investigate the
tools vertical resolution,
L Coil
whereas the radial geometrical
spacing
factor similarly reveals what
fraction of the measured signal
comes from a specific radial
distance from the tool.

Focussing
With the single-transmitter, single-receiver system shown, contributions
from the borehole and invaded zone as well as from neighbouring beds above and
below the coil pair would constitute a significant portion of the receiver signal.
Practical Induction tools therefore utilize an array of auxiliary transmitter and receiver
coils, spaced above and below the main ones, to minimize these contributions and to
maximize depth of penetration and vertical resolution. Typically, six or more coils with
approximately 40-in. spacing between the main transmitter-receiver pair are used (Fig)
to obtain the deepest reading curve, denoted ILd. Fewer coils are used to provide the
medium reading curve, denoted ILm The Induction log requires no conductive fluid

in the borehole for its operation. It works very well in holes filled with air or gas or with
oil-base mud. No other resistivity tool can be used under these circumstances.
The sondes represented in Fig. are multi-coil systems, the 6 in 6FF40 indicating a total
of six coils, and 40 between main emitter and receiver coils FF denotes Fixed Focussed .
The extra coils are used to focus the signal, i.e. to enhance the response from the virgin
formation at the expense of the invaded zone. The response can be estimated by considering
each transmitter-receiver coil pair in turn, and adding their responses algebraically, taking into
account polarity and position relative to the measure point. Focusing achieves several
improvements in signal response:
(a) Better vertical resolution by stronger suppression of the adjacent bed signals;
(b) Smaller borehole effect, and deeper investigation, by suppression of the unwanted
signals (hole and invaded zone); and (c) Reduced X-signal component.
Skin effect
Each ground loop is not independent of the others, as we had assumed in the
simplified treatment. E.m.f.'s are induced as a result of the self- and mutual
inductances of the loops, which alter both the amplitude and the phase of the signal
reaching the receiver coil. The loops nearer the tool tend, in fact, to reduce the
electromagnetic field reaching the deeper formation. This effect, stronger for higher
conductivities, is the result of the interactions between the current loops, and is such
that the measured conductivity is too low
(a) energy is dissipated by current flow in the loops, diminishing the energy
available for transmission to the remoter formation.
(b) The out-of-phase electromagnetic fields produced by the Foucault currents
nearer the tool destructively interfere with the emitter field propagating farther out The
formation actually contributing to the received signal is therefore a skin of a certain
depth, defined as:

Where,
= the depth (m) at which 63% of the emitter signal amplitude has been
attenuated. This is the skin depth. (63% corresponds to ( 1 1/e), where e = 2.7 18);
 = 2 f and f = signal frequency (Hz);

=magnetic permeability (4 x 10- 7 for free space);

C= conductivity (mmho/m).
Figure 3-20 shows how the skin depth is reduced

LATEROLOGS
Laterolog systems utilize a multiple electrode array to force survey current to travel
laterally across the mud and into the adjacent formation. The advantages of this
technique are the ability to operate in very salty mud, while providing excellent bed
definition, independent of neighbouring bed resistivities. There are two basic types of
focused-electrode laterolog arrays. One is the 3-electrode system commonly called guard
log or LL3 and the other is the 7 to 13 electrode system, with designation LL7, LL8, and
dual laterolog (with 9 to 13 electrodes). Both systems operate on much the same
principle, as illustrated below showing the LL3 and LL7. These types of logging tools
are designed in such a way that the source current is kept from flowing up and down in
the drilling fluid. This is accomplished by placing focusing electrodes on both sides of a
centrally located source electrode as seen in the LL7 representation. All of the electrodes
are maintained (essentially) at the same potential and send currents out in the same
sense (i.e. all currents have the same phase).
LateroLog3(LL3):
Ao is the main current electrode, which emits a variable current Io to a remote
return. A1 and A1 are two long guard electrodes, connected together. Their potential Vg
is maintained equal to an internal reference potential VR by a self-adjusting bucking
current Ig which flows from A1,-A1. The potential Vo of Ao is held equal to Vg by
varying the main current Io . A1-Ao-A1are thus an equipotential surface, and current
Io can only flow out perpendicularly, as a disc of thickness 00. The magnitude of Io is
measured; it is proportional to the formation conductivity, since:
KVo = RIo
so that: Io = KVoC, where C is the conductivity. The LL3 is thus better suited to
conductive formations.

LateroLog7 (LL7):
A constant current Io is sent from central
electrode Ao to a remote return. A bucking
current IB flows from the symmetrical guard
electrode pair A1-A1, so as to maintain the
monitor electrode pairs M1-M1, and M2-M2
at the same potential. Equipotential
surfaces, shown dotted in Fig., are thus
created. The current from Ao is constrained
by these equipotentials to flow as shown, in a
disc of thickness 00 perpendicular to the
sonde. The potential of one of the M electrodes is measured; since Io is constant, Vm is
proportional to the formation resistivity. The LL7 is more suited to resistive beds than
the LL3.

Dual Latero log(DLL):

This 9-electrode tool makes simultaneous deep and shallow readings (LLD, LLS). The
principle of focusing and measurement is
similar to that of the LL7. Symmetrically
placed electrodes are connected in pairs A1-
A1, A2- A2etc. The LLD system uses remote
(surface) returns for the main and bucking
currents. The LLS system uses the A2-A2
electrode pair as the return for the bucking
current from A1,-A1 which reduces the
effectiveness of the focusing of Io .

Spherically focused log-SFL:

This configuration gives a shallow measurement, with minimal borehole effect even in
highly resistive formations, and a good vertical definition. Referring to Fig. the tool
consists of a central current electrode Ao and eight symmetrically placed electrodes,
connected in pairs Mo-Mo', A1-A1' etc. A variable current Io is sent from Ao so as to
maintain M1-M1, and M2-M2 at the same potential. A focusing current Ia , flows
between Ao and the A1-A1 pair, to hold the potential difference between M1-M1, and
M2-M2 equal to a fixed reference level Vref. The path of Ia is shown in Fig.. It has the
effect of forcing Io out into the formation. The equipotential surfaces are roughly
spherical. In the figure, the surface B passing from Mo to Mo and C from the mid-point
0 of M1-M2 to 0 of M1-M2 are at a constant potential difference equal to Vref. The Io
current intensity is therefore inversely proportional to the resistivity of the formation
contained between the two equi-potentials, and almost the entire measured signal comes
from this volume. Bringing M1,-M1 and M2,-M2 nearer to Ao will reduce the depth of
investigation, at the expense of an increased
borehole effect. The SFL is essentially an Rxo
measurement.

MICRO LOG or MINI LOG:

Three electrode buttons are mounted in line
on the face of an oil-filled rubber pad (Fig.).
The pad-face is pressed against the borehole
wall by a hydraulically controlled spring
pressure system. The electrodes are 1
apart, and are combined electrically in two
configurations which operate
simultaneously-a micro-normal (2) and a micro-
inverse (1 x I).
The electrode arrangement AM1M2 is a lateral type
measurement having an AO spacing of 1.5 inches.
The AO spacing is the distance from the current
electrode A to the mid-point between electrodes M1
and M2. This electrode arrangement measures the resistivity of the material which is
between M1 and M2. The resistivity curve obtained from this is called the micro-lateral,
RLML and is derived from the difference in potential measured between electrodes M1
and M2.
Electrodes AM2 provide a 2 inch micro-
normal arrangement where the difference
in potential created by current electrode A
is measured between electrode M2 and a
reference electrode, normally the tool
housing. Hence the micro-normal, RNML
measures the resistivity of the material
outside the 2 inch potential surface,
therefore it has a deeper depth of
investigation than the RLML curve.
The RLML curve has a radius of
investigation equal to the AO electrode spacing of 1.5 inches. Since this is a very shallow
investigation curve, its response is primarily influenced by the resistivity and thickness
of the mud cake deposited on the borehole wall of porous and permeable formations.
The RNML has a radius of investigation approximately two times the electrode spacing
of 2 inches. A 4 inch radius of investigation, although substantially affected by the mud
cake, is primarily influenced by the formation resistivity immediately behind the mud
cake. When invasion of the formation is greater than 6 inches, the formation beyond the
invaded zone has very little effect on either curve.
The Minilog provides the resistivity curves necessary to detect mud cake formed
on the borehole wall. Detection of the mud cake infers a porous and permeable
formation. The ability of the logging device to measure resistivity changes in great detail
makes it an excellent log for accurate determination of effective pay thickness.

Micro-Proximity log:

The pad design of the Micro-proximitylog is comprised of a beam electrode in the

centre of the pad surrounded by focusing electrodes. These small electrodes are
embedded in an insulated oil filled rubber pad.

The current beam maintains a reasonably uniform shape through the mud cake,
spreading as the distance from the borehole wall increases. A drop in potential is created
by the resistance of the formation to the flow of current to a remote current return
electrode, part of the tool housing. A measurement of the potential difference between
the centre electrode and the return electrode in combination with a calibrating constant
serves as a measure of the apparent resistivity of the formation.

The Micro-proximitylog is used to measure the resistivity of the flushed zone. The
resistivity of the flushed zone, Rxo, may he used to determine porosity and estimate
water saturation. To estimate water saturation the log values are combined with deep
investigation resistivity measurements. The Micro-Laterolog is most widely used in
wells drilled with low resistivity muds and when the resistivity of the mud filtrate is
approximately equal to or less than the resistivity of the formation water.

Microlaterolog-MLL:
The principle of measurement is the same as that of the LL-7. The electrode array is
mounted on an oil-filled rubber pad, as shown in Fig. The central Ao electrode is
surrounded by three concentric rings of buttons, constituting the M1, M2 and A1
electrodes respectively. (This amounts to a circular LL-7 array, in fact.) A constant
current Io flows from Ao to the return electrode in the bridle. The variable bucking
current holds M1 at the same potential as M2 thus forcing Io to flow out perpendicularly
to the pad-face, at least for a short distance. Since Io is constant, the potential Vo of M1
and M2 is proportional to the resistivity of the formation.
Very shallow invasion will produce a reading somewhere between Rxo and Rt. In this
case, we can compute Rt by combining several different resistivity measurements, and
using the step-profile model.
MICRO SPHERICALLY FOCUSED LOG:

This is a small-scale SFL array, mounted on a flexible rubber pad. Fig. shows the
MSFL array. Five rectangular electrodes are mounted on an insulating pad that is
forced to ride the side of the hole. Survey current Io flows from Ao and bucking current
ia flows between Ao and A1. The latter current is adjusted to maintain zero voltage
between the monitor electrodes indicated. This forces the survey current directly into
the formation, where it bells out quickly and returns to a nearby electrode. The voltage
V between electrode Mo and the monitor electrodes M1-M2 is measured. Resistivity is
proportional to V/Io. With this system the MicroSFL has sufficiently shallow penetration
to read flushed-zone resistivity, Rxo, directly, even in the presence of mud cakes up to :
1/4 in. thick.
INDUCTION vs.

LATEROLOG, When?
The induction is the
preferred Rt, tool in fresh muds (R t
< 2.5Rxo,, and di > 100, but Rt <
500 Rm). The induction is the only
resistivity tool that can be run in
oil-based muds, or air-drilled
holes. It is less effective in saline
muds, and very high resistivities
( Rt > 100 ohm-m), because of the
large borehole signal in the former
case, and the zero-reading
uncertainty of +/- 2 mmho/m in the latter. Bed thickness effects became significant in
beds thinner than 5' (6FF40) or 34' (6FF28). The Dual Induction (DIL) combines a
deep reading 6FF40 (ILd) with a medium investigating ILm, and a shallower electrode
device (either the LL8 or SFL described later) in one sonde.

Applications:
The following are the applications of the resistivity logs.
1) HYDROCARBON
SATURATION
2) POROSITY
3) WATER
RESISTIVITY
4) CORRELATION
BETWEEN WELLS
5) COMPATION AND
FRACTURING
6) LITHOLOGY
7) BED THICKNESS
Hydro carbon Saturation: The
major application of resistivity logging is in the determination of water (and hence
hydrocarbon) saturation, in the flushed and virgin zones. Rxo can be measured fairly
directly with microtools. Rt can rarely be measured directly because of the omni-present
borehole and invaded zone signals, and the effects of adjacent beds. Under favourable
conditions, the focused deep-reading tools (LLd, ILd) can be read very closely to Rt even
without correction. Given any three different resistivity measurements, like a shallow, a
deep and a micro Rt can be estimated by calculation or charts.
POROSITY: If we assume a formation to be clean and 100% water-bearing, its porosity

can be calculated, since: F = Ro/Rw = Rxo/Rmf and : F = a/ m and can be easily

determined.
WATER RESISTIVITY:
Given the porosity, we may obtain Rw or Rmf in a clean, wet formation:
Rwa=Rt/F and Rmfa=Rxo/F
Rwa and Rmfa in clean, 100% water-wet zones correspond to Rw and Rmf