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b) No solution
d) x 23 (mod 73 ).
2. Let p 1 (mod 4). Show that the equation x2 + y 2 = p has a solution mod q for
all primes q. Note this includes the case q = p. Nontrivial means (x, y) 6= (0, 0).
Proof. For the case q = p, we can use x = 1 and y = 1. For the case q 6= p, we have to
solve:
x2 = y 2 + a (mod q)
where a 6= 0. There are q+1 2 possible values for the left and right hand side, so they
must coincide somewhere by the pigeonhole principle. Since (0, 0) isnt a solution to this
equation, this solution we obtain combintorially must be a nonzero solution. In fact, this
equation actually has q 1 solutions in general, quite a few more than the combinatorics
tells you!
3. Let f (x) Zp [x] be a polynomial with p roots. Show that (xp x) | f (x).
Proof. If f (x) is constant, then it must be 0, and we are done. Otherwise, we apply the
division algorithm and write:
f (x) = (xp x) q(x) + r(x)
With deg(r(x)) < p. Then r(x) has p distinct roots and degree less than p, so it must be
0.
Proof. This is actually false when p = 2. Assume p 6= 2. Then g and g 0 are quadratic
non-residues by Eulers criterion. So their product is a quadratic residue, which cant be a
generator also by Eulers criterion.
Proof. We want to show the cubing map from Up to Up is surjective when p 2 (mod 3).
By cardinality considerations, this is the same as showing injectivity. If this map were
not injective, then a3 = b3 for a 6= b. Then c3 = (ab1 )3 = 1. Then we must have
ord(c) | 3. However c 6= 1, so ord(c) = 3. However, ord(c) | p 1, which is a contradiction
as ord(c) = 3 and p 2 (mod 3). So the map is injective, so it is surjective, so every unit
is a cube. Finally, 0 = 03 , so every element of Zp is a cube.
117
. Does the equation x2 + 13x + 13 0 mod 163 have a solution?
7. Compute 163
Since 2 is a unit in Z163 , the quadratic formula holds true. Thus, the solution to this
congruence is:
13 117
x=
2
117
This is an element of Z163 as long as 163 = 1. We compute that now:
117 9 13
=
163 163 163
163
=
13
7
=
13
13
=
7
1
=
7
= 1
We have x 1, 2 (mod 3), and x 2, 3 (mod 5), and x 3, 4 (mod 7). Consider 70,
21, and 15. We have 70 1 (mod 3) and is a multiple of 5 and 7. The other two play
analogous roles for 5 and 7. Then we can find all solutions in the form n = 70i + 21j + 15k
where i = 1, 2 and j = 2, 3 and k = 3, 4, giving 8 solutions in total.
p
12. Find the smallest prime p so that 163 = 1.
p = 41. Really!
2i
13. Let p = e p = cos 2 2 p
p + i sin p . Notice that (p ) = 1, and it is called a primi-
tive pth root of unity. Show that:
p1
!2
2
X a a 1
(Gp ) := = p
p p p
a=0
Proof. We have:
X X ab
2
(Gp ) = pa+b
p
aZp bZp
We write b = ac and our variable from b to c:
X X a2 c
2
(Gp ) = pa+ac
a c
p
We cancel the a2 , change the order of summation, and factor:
XXc
2
(Gp ) = pa(1+c)
c a
p
Consider the inner sum for c 6= 1. Then the powers of p are a rearrangement of
1, . . . p 1, so that sum is pc , because 1 + p + . . . pp1 = 0. When c = 1, we
get 1 p (p 1). Overall:
X
2 1 c
(Gp ) = (p 1) +
p p
c6=1
1
=p
p
The last part follows since the sum of all the Legendre symbols is 0.