1.

5 Phase 1Scanning

This phase is involved with the scanning strategyselecting the correct scanning
technique, preparing the part to be scanned, and performing the actual scanning to capture
information that describes all geometric features of the part such as steps, slots, pockets, and
holes. Three-dimensional scanners are employed to scan the part geometry, producing clouds
of points, which define the surface geometry. These scanning devices are available as
dedicated tools or as add-ons to the existing computer numerically controlled (CNC) machine
tools. There are two distinct types of scanners, contact and noncontact.

1.5.1 Contact Scanners

These devices employ contact probes that automatically follow the contours of a
physical surface (Figure 1.4). In Ithe current marketplace, contact probe

Figure 1.4. Contact scanning touch probe. Originally published in Rapid Prototyping
Casebook, McDonald,

J.A., Ryal, C.J. and Wimpenny, D.I., 2001, John Wiley and Sons Limited. Reproduced with
permission.

Scanning devices are based on CMM technologies, with a tolerance range of +0.01 to
0.02 mm. However, depending on the size of the part scanned, contact methods can be slow
because each point is generated sequentially at the tip of the probe. Tactile device probes
must deflect to register a point; hence, a degree of contact pressure is maintained during the
scanning process. This contact pressure limits the use of contact devices because soft, tactile
materials such as rubber cannot be easily or accurately scanned.

1.5.2 Noncontact Scanners

A variety of noncontact scanning technologies available on the market capture data

with no physical part contact. Noncontact devices use lasers, optics, and charge-coupled
device (CCD) sensors to capture point data, as shown in Figure 1.5. Although these devices
capture large amounts of data in a relatively short space of time, there are a number of issues
related to this scanning technology.

The typical tolerance of noncontact scanning is within 0.025 to 0.2 mm.

Some noncontact systems have problems generating data describing surfaces, which
are parallel to the axis of the laser (Figure 1.6).

Noncontact devices employ light within the data capture process. This cre- ates
problems when the light impinges on shiny surfaces, and hence some surfaces must be
prepared with a temporary coating of fine powder before scanning.

Figure 1.5. Optical scanning device. Originally published in Rapid Prototyping

Casebook, McDonald, J.A.,

Ryal, C.J. and Wimpenny, D.I., 2001, John Wiley and Sons Limited. Reproduced
with permission.
Figure 1.6. Vertical facestouch probe versus a laser. Originally published in Rapid
Prototyping Casebook,
McDonald, J.A., Ryal, C.J. and Wimpenny, D.I., 2001, John Wiley and Sons Limited.
Reproduced with
permission.

These issues restrict the use of remote sensing devices to areas in engineering, where
the accuracy of the information generated is secondary to the speed of data capture. However,
as research and laser development in optical technology continue, the accuracy of the
commercially available noncontact scanning device is beginning to improve. The output of
the scanning phase is point cloud data sets in the most convenient format. Typically, the RE
software provides a variety of output formats such as raw (X, Y, Z values separated by space
or commas).

2.1 reverse enginnering

Reverse engineering provides a solution to this problem because the physical model is
the source of information for the CAD model. This is also referred to as the physical-to-
digital process depicted in Figure 1.2. Another reason for reverse engineering is to compress
product development cycle times. In the intensely competitive global market, manufacturers
are constantly seeking new ways to shorten lead times to market a new product. Rapid
product development (RPD) refers to recently developed technologies and techniques that
assist manufacturers and designers in meeting the demands of shortened product development
time. For example, injection-molding companies need to shorten tool and die.

Figure 1.2. Physical-to-digital process

development time drastically. By using reverse engineering, a three-dimensional physical

product or clay mock-up can be quickly captured in the digital form, remodeled, and exported
for rapid prototyping/tooling or rapid manufacturing using multi-axis CNC machining
techniques.
1.4 Reverse EngineeringThe Generic Process

The generic process of reverse engineering is a three-phase process as depicted in

Figure 1.3. The three phases are scanning, point processing, and applicationspecific
geometric model development.
Reverse engineering strategy must consider the following:

Figure 1.3. Reverse engineering the generic process

Reason for reverse engineering a part

Number of parts to be scannedsingle or multiple
Part sizelarge or small
Part complexitysimple or complex
Part materialhard or soft
Part finishshiny or dull
Part geometryorganic or prismatic and internal or external
Accuracy requiredlinear or volumetric
2.4.1 Solidworks 2010

SolidWorks is a 3D mechanical CAD (computer-aided design) program

that runs on Microsoft Windows and was developed by Dassault Systmes SolidWorks Corp.,
a subsidiary of Dassault Systmes, S. A. (Vlizy, France) [8]. This product reflects the latest
achievements in the world of engineering design, exclusively easy to understand and use and
available for every machinebuilding company. These are the first and major characteristics of
SolidWorks 2010 - SP4.0. The latest version of the product is the latest achievement in
succession, which affirms it as a standard among the three-dimensional design systems
operating under Windows [14].

A tool for reflecting engineering ideas SolidWorks 2010 accelerates the process of
reflecting and conveying engineering ideas. It allows alterations of dimensions, relations and
geometry of engineering components to be made at any time and allows the user to return and
rearrange the history of their creation. All data are 100% editable. All connections between
details, assembled units and drawings are constantly current [14]. SolidWorks 2010 allows
fast and efficient operation adequately using all typical means of Windows menus like
indicating, selecting, copying, holding and shifting objects. It is easy to organize and develop
complicated projects using the so-called FeatureManager, which reflects the history of
creation of engineering components. The work of the user has been additionally facilitated by
Internet access provided by the so-called FeaturePalette, a constantly updated library of
standard details and engineering components [15]. The product Solidworks Viewer allows a
wide
 Efficiency and ease in creating drawings Solidworks 2010 offers means
for efficient generation of technical documentation at minimum effort. Drawings are
generated automatically from three-dimensional models and include all drafting elements
views, cross-sections, dimensions and notes. The drawings generated are completely
associated with respective three-dimensional models-details and assembled units, so each
change in the drawing is reflected in the model and vice versa. Adopted are the standards
ISO, ANSI, DIN, JIS, BS and GOST [15]. The latest version provides simpler detail means
especially when making detail views and crosssections. Various layers could be maintained.
The conditions for more complete implementation of company standards and proprietary
symbols, texts and formatting frames have greatly been improved [16]. Some capabilities
have been added to provide copying views from different sheets, making tabulated drawings
as well as adjustment of various gauges for materi

Impressive capabilities for designing assembled units

Improved detail design means

SolidWorks 2010 provides the user with more than what could be expected for a three
dimensional design system. He can easily create with it three-dimensional objects without
using the
Extrude and Revolve operations, build cavities, make rounds and create bodies and surfaces
using the Loft and Sweep operations. A significant improvement is the so-called dynamic
editing of geometric objects where a certain body reacts to the alterations in real time from
the very process of editing side views over which this body is to be built
3. Cadcam System Selection, Evaluation & Management
In this chapter a report for a CADCAM selection, evaluation and management
(implementation) of the system is described. This is a case study method of research with
focus for an in-depth investigation on the use of CADCAM systems. Engineers act as
consultants in a small company involved in the introducing CAD-CAM systems.
What does it mean to introduce a CAD-CAM system? It involves complex activities
covering all stages; from identifying customer needs giving consideration to its individual
capabilities, to the selection stage and instalment of the optimum software meeting customer
needs [1].

3.1 Pros & Cons Of Introducing A Cadcam System

The current task has been to consult the introduction of a suitable CADCAM system
in Pumpco a manufacturer of pumping equipment for various industrial applications. The
main objective of the company is to implement the CADCAM system to optimise the design
process and provide integration with production. Following discussions with the managerial
board and the undertaken study, we were able to identify the factors influencing the selection
of a suitable CADCAM system for Pumpco:

Pumps are being designed within the company itself. A number of the components are
company manufactured as well.
Most pumps are specifically designed and manufactured to suit particular customer needs.
Each individual pump is sold with its own assembly drawing and parts list.
Fig. 3.2
As specialists, we are aware of the benefits of implementing CADCAM, nonetheless
the hardest part was to convince the Pumpco managerial board, in order to achieve the
optimum result. Hence, a presentation was made where we included all arguments in favour
of introducing CADCAM. Also, and decided to explain possible drawbacks which could
cause difficulties.

Firstly, we emphasised the benefits associated with the 2D drawing process:

The average statistics indicates that a draftsman will produce drawings three times
faster using CAD systems compared to when using a conventional drawing board
[1];

High drawing accuracy. Every point in a CAD drawing has its precise position;
Perfectly made drawings. CADs graphics system and computer printing ensure
excellent lines and text;
Assembling of drawings. Every completed drawing or part of a drawing can be
computer memorised for further use.
We also emphasised the benefits offered by CAD systems for 3D modelling:
Fast calculations and analysis ensured by modern computer equipment and software
packages;
Superior form of design. Powerful computer modelling techniques, such as finite
element analysis, have freed the designer from the shackles of restrictive
conventional formulae and allowed more inventive shapes to be developed. These
shapes may be quickly modified and optimised for cost savings to an extent which
would have previously been too timeconsuming.
Less development required. CAD simulation and analysis techniques can drastically
cut the time and money spent on prototype testing and development - often the
costliest stage in the design process.
Integration of design with other disciplines. The vastly superior communications
available under an integrated computer network enables CAD to work far more
closely with other engineering departments than was possible under the old type of
design organisation.
Access to CAD technology means that the marketing personnel can be included in the
concurrent engineering process. When designs are finalised and prototypes developed,
marketing can use these to generate illustrations for packaging [1].

Another advantage to be explained was the CAD-CAM interrelation. It needed some

clarification:
CADCAM is an integration of CAD and CAM techniques into one complete process. This
means, for example, that a component can be drawn on a VDU screen and the graphics data
then
transferred via coded electrical signals along a cable link to a manufacturing system, where
the
component would be automatically produced on a CNC machine.

Simulation

Simulation in manufacturing refers to a broad collection of computer based applications

to imitate the behavior of manufacturing systems. A system is a facility or a process either
actual or planned such as factory with workers, machine tools, materials handling devices,
storage devices etc. Simulation is intended to study the model of this real world system by
numerical evaluation using software. Simulation is carried out to evaluate the performance
of a system, product or process before it is physically built or implemented. Simulation
was discussed in this book earlier in different contexts- design simulation using finite
element technique, manufacturing process simulation also using finite element technique,
simulation of robots and simulation of CNC machines. Another type of simulation, which
has become very popular of late, is manufacturing or factory simulation. Factory simulation
involves creating a virtual factory. Here, instead of simulating a process or a work centre
the entire factory is simulated to have a clear understanding of the working of the plant as
a whole.

21.3 TECHNIQUES OF SIMULATION

Simulation can be carried out in three ways.
i. Programming in general purpose simulation languages
ii. Simulation using simulation languages
iii. High level simulators
These are briefly explained in the subsequent sections.

21.3.1 SIMULATION USING GENERAL PURPOSE LANGUAGES

Simulation programs can be written in high level languages like FORTRAN or C. This
approach was popular when simulation languages where not available. The advantage
of this approach is the opportunity to design the system to a specific application in a
customized manner. However, the process is tedious, time consuming and error prone.

21.3.2 SIMULATION LANGUAGES

General Purpose Simulation System (GPSS) is one language popularly used for simulation.
GPSS is a family of mostly-declarative languages designed for discrete-event simulation
and system modeling. A GPSS simulation program consists of a set of blocks which include
generators, queues, servers, selectors or routers, data collectors, timing and computational
nodes. Data types supported in simulation models vary between versions, but usually
include integers, real numbers, strings, and records. GPSS systems always had sophisticated
random sample generators to model various probability distributions that to model realworld
processes. SIMSCRIPT, SLAM, SIMAN etc were later developed and became popular
with
manufacturing industry. These are very flexible to simulate variety of systems.

21.3.3 HIGH-LEVEL SIMULATORS

High level simulators differ from the simulation languages as the latter feature in addition
powerful graphics user interfaces, menus and dialog boxes. Standard constructs enable
the user to model a system quickly. This makes model creation faster. However, there is
a trade off in flexibility. The facility for dynamic graphic animation gives the user to
visualize the actual working of the system.

21.4 SIMULATION PROCESS FOR MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

The process of simulating a manufacturing system involves the following steps.

Model design: In this step the issues to be addressed are identified based on which the project
is planned. Next step is to develop a conceptual model.

ii. Model development: The simulation engineer chooses a modeling approach suitable for the
problem. After building the model it is tested to verify and validate the model.

iii. Model deployment: The model is used to carry out experiments like What if analysis.
The results are then studied and used for making decisions.

Polymer

A polymer is a compound formed of repeating structural units called mers, whose

atoms share electrons to form very large molecules. Polymers usually consist of
carbon plus one or more other elements such as hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and
chlorine. Polymers are divided into three categories: (1) thermoplastic polymers,
(2) thermosetting polymers, and (3) elastomers.

Thermoplastic polymers can be subjected to multiple heating and cooling cycles

without substantially altering the molecular structure of the polymer. Common
thermoplastics include polyethylene, polystyrene, polyvinylchloride, and nylon.
Thermosetting polymers chemically transform (cure) into a rigid structure upon
cooling from a heated plastic condition; hence the name thermosetting. Members
of this type include phenolics, amino resins, and epoxies. Although the name thermosetting
is used, some of these polymers cure by mechanisms other than heating.

Elastomers
are polymers that exhibit signicant elastic behavior; hence the name elastomer. They include
natural rubber, neoprene, silicone, and polyurethane.

Nylon

Polyamides An important polymer family that forms characteristic amide linkages

(CO-NH) during polymerization is the polyamides (PA). The most important members of the
PA family are nylons, of which the two principal grades are nylon6 And nylon 6,6 (the
numbers are codes that indicate the number of carbon atoms in the monomer).
The data given in Table 8.3(f) are for nylon6,6, which was developed at DuPont in
the 1930s. Properties of nylon-6, developed in Germany are similar. Nylon is strong, highly
elastic, tough, abrasion resistant, and self-lubricating. It retains good mechanical properties at
temperatures up to about 125C (250F). One shortcoming is that it absorbs water with an
accompanying degradation in properties. The majority of applications of nylon (about 90%)
are in bers for carpets, apparel, and tire cord.

The remainder (10%) are in engineering components; nylon is commonly a good

substitute for metals in bearings, gears, and similar parts where strength and low friction are
needed. A second group of polyamides is the aramids (aromatic polyamides) of which Kevlar
(DuPont trade name) is gaining in importance as a ber in reinforced plastics. The reason for
the interest in Kevlar is that its strength is the same as steel at 20% of the weight.
Manufacturing Processes

A manufacturing process is a designed procedure that results in physical and/or

chemical changes to a starting work material with the intention of increasing the value of that
material. A manufacturing process is usually carried out as a unit operation, which means
that it is a single step in the sequence of steps required to transform the starting material into
a nal product. Manufacturing operations can be divided into two basic types:
(1) processing operations and (2) assembly operations.

A processing operation transforms a work material from one state of completion to a

more advanced state that is closer to the nal desired product. It adds value by changing the
geometry, properties, or appearance of the starting material. In general, processing operations
are performed on discrete work parts, but certain processing operations are also applicable to
assembled items (e.g., painting a spot-welded car body).
An assembly operation joins two or more components to create a new entity, called
an assembly, subassembly, or some other term that refers to the joining process (e.g., a
welded assembly is called a weldment). A classication of manufacturing processes is
presented in Figure 1.5. Some of the basic processes used in modern manufacturing date from
antiquity (Historical Note 1.2).
DENFORD
A 3 axis CNC Router with totally enclosed interlocking guard, suitable for all levels
of education and training. With its large capacity the Router 260o is ideal for cutting a range
of resistant materials such as hard and soft wood, plastic modelling foam, acrylic and
prototyping material In addition, the Router 2600 can cut non-ferrous metals

THE ROUTER 2600/2600 PRO COME AS STANDARD WITH: VR CNC Milling

Operating Software (PC not included). QuickCAM 2D Design software (1 seat) Aluminium T
Slot Table. Outlet for Dust Extraction System. Workholding clamps. Installation and
Instruction Manuals. USB Connection. opTIONAL EQUIpMENT INCLUDES: Vacuum Bed.
Vacuum Pads, F1 in Schools Car Manufacturing Fixture, 4th Axis Programmable Rotary
Fixture 3D seanning Attachment Dust Extraction Unit an Universal Machine Bench

Please refer to page 29. RECOMMENDED SOFTWARE PROGRAMS All software

necessary to control the Router 2600 Router 2600 Pro is included. Also included is a seat of
QuickCAM 2D Design an easy to use 20 CAD package. 2D Designs The VR Milling
software can import DXF, DWG, EPS and Gerber files in addition to G& M code programs
and as such will link with programs such as Techsoft 2D Design and CorelDraw. 3D
Designs: o enable import of STL files from 3D design packages such as Autodesk
Inventor. SolidWorks, Pro DESKTOP s ArtCAM, QuickCAM Pro software is required
(see pages 40-41 ROUTER ROUTER MECHANICAL
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