Task: 01

1.1 Explain the use of 5 different kinds of earth moving equipment for various type of soil
excavation.

Ans: Excavation:

Excavation generally means work involving the removal of soil or rock from a site to form an
open face, hole or cavity using tools, machinery or explosives.

Earth moving equipment:

There are many kinds of earth moving equipment some of them are mentioned below:

Excavators:

Excavators are large construction equipment that can be available over wheels or tracks. A
traditional excavator usually has a long bucket arm attached to a pivoting cab that can rotate a
full 30 degrees. The operator sits in the cab and from there he/she can be able to have visibility
over the site. Excavators are used most of the times to dig dirt or to lift heavy pieces including
prefab pieces, pipes and other smaller equipment. The most common uses of an excavator are:

Excavators are heavy construction equipment consisting of a boom, stick, bucket and cab on a
rotating platform (known as the "house"). Excavators are also called diggers

Excavator is show in the figure 1 below:

Figure 1: Excavator

1
The most common uses of an excavator are:

Material handling
Digging or Excavation of trenches, holes and foundations.
Brush cutting with hydraulic attachments.
Demolition.
General grading/landscaping.
Heavy lifting and pipe installation.
Mining, especially, but not only open-pit mining.
River dredging
Forestry work
Heavy lift, e.g. lifting and placing of pipes

Backhoe Loaders:

Backhoe loaders are very similar to tractors with a slight difference: they contain an adjustable,
shovel in front of the equipment, and a small bucket in the back of the loader used for digging.
They can move dirt, backfill, dig trenches and place smaller pipes into place. One of the best
attributes of backhoe loaders is that they are tire mounted and they can be used in urbanized
areas and patios.

This machine makes some works in the construction workplace such as Small Demolitions,
Excavation, Land Leveling, Digging Holes, Road Paving and Landscaping.

Backhoe Loaders is shown in the figure 1.1 below:

Figure 1.1: Backhoe Loader

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Applications:

It is the most suitable machine for digging below the machine level, such as, trenches,
footings, basements etc.
It can be efficiently used to dress or trim the surface avoiding the use of manual effort for
dressing the excavated the surface.
It can dig small excavations, dig trenches, and using the loader attachment on the front of the
machine can move material such as sand or gravel and can be used to can load trucks.
Backhoe loaders are usually the best choice for smaller jobs which need to be completed in a
more restrained space.
They are used mainly as trench or large scale open excavation. But sometime they are also
used as loading machines. They also helping cleaning construction site.

Also removes the dirt and dump it in the bean.

This allows loading of excavated materials to transportation or dumping truck.

Back hoes can be used to excavate soil in construction and mining sites or load waste in
dumpsites.
It can also be used to drag collapsed soil, ice or other debris away from roads.

Trenchers:

Trenchers, or ditchers as they are sometimes called, are similar to excavators in the sense that
they penetrate the earth, breaking soil and rock, and remove it from the ground. They differ from
excavators in that the soil is removed in one continuous movement. Trenchers are specifically
used for digging trenches for pipes, but other machines have been improvised in the past to serve
this purpose.

Trenchers come in two designs, chain trencher or wheel trencher.

Chain trencher is shown in the figure 1.2 below:

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 Figure 1.2: Chain trencher

Wheel trencher is shown in the figure 1.3 below:

Figure 1.3: Wheel trencher

Application:

Used for excavating trenches for laying pipelines, sewer, cables etc.
Trenchers are used to penetrate the earth it means it can break the rocks and soil.
Trenchers are mainly used for trenches excavation.

Dragline Excavator:

They are used to excavate soft earth from below ground and to deposit or to load in wagons.
They are used for bulk excavation below its track level in loose soils, marshy land and areas
containing water. Drag lines are useful for digging below its track level and handling softer
materials.

The work done in the construction work place by Dragline Excavator: Road Excavation, Deep
down pile diving, Construction of Ports, Harbor , ETC , Surface Mining, Deep down Excavation
and under Water Excavation.

Draglines are shown in the figure 1.4 below:

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 Figure 1.4: Wheel trencher

Applications of Dragline:

It is used for Road excavation, deep down pile driving, deep down excavation and under
water excavation.

It is also used for Construction of ports, harbor etc. and surface mining.

It is the most suitable machine for dragging softer material and below its track level
It is very useful for excavating trenches when the sides are permitted to establish their angle
of repose without shoring.
It is mostly used in the excavation for canals and depositing on the embankment without
hauling units.
Draglines are especially suited for the excavation of soft and loose materials from a distance
at a level beneath or slightly above their tracks and may be used to excavate under water.
Excavated material can be removed directly to a stockpile or loaded into haulage vehicles or
conveyer hoppers by rotating the machine with the bucket in the upward position.

Power shovels or Front shovel:

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They are high-end machines used in sectional excavation such as mining and digging. They
consist of a revolving device, crane with lifting arm and bucket, counter weight and maneuvering
controls.

A front shovel (also stripping shovel or power shovel or electric mining shovel or Dipper
Shovel's power shovel) is a bucket-equipped machine, usually electrically powered, used for
digging and loading earth or fragmented rock and for mineral extraction

Front shovel is shown in the figure 1.5 below:

Figure 1.5: Front shovel

Applications of Front Shovel:

It is used in various types of jobs such as digging in gravel banks, clay pits, digging cuts in
road works, road-side berms, etc.
It is Capable of digging very hard materials, like rocks
It can remove big sized boulders.
Suitable for close range of work.
This is for cutting of larger boulders or rock

6
1.2 Discuss appropriate techniques to ensure safe and productive activities in deep
excavations.

Ans:

Ground collapse is one of the primary risks to be controlled in excavation work. Ground collapse
can occur very quickly and without warning, giving a worker virtually no time to escape,
especially if the collapse is extensive. A buried worker is likely to die from suffocation before
help arrives (for example, either the head is buried, or the chest is so restricted by the weight of
ground that the worker can no longer breathe).

Figure 1.2.1 shows a typical example of ground failure where material collapses onto a worker
pinning them against the wall of a trench. Trench collapses of this nature can cause fatal injuries.

Figure 1.2-1: Trench collapse and associated ground forces

Hazards expected to occur during excavation or trenching:

Undertaking excavation or trenching work can cause or introduce additional hazards to the
worksite.
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 The collapse of the excavation or the earth.
Objects or persons falling into the excavation
The fall or dislodgement of earth or rock.
Falls and falling objects.
Inappropriate placement of excavated materials, plant or other loads.
All safety devices and systems are in place, being used correctly and operating correctly

Safe and productive techniques for the activities in deep excavations:

When handling with the deep excavations or trenches there are some safe and productive
precautions. Following safe and productive measures or precautions are applied for the handling
of deep excavations activates.

1 Shoring /temporary support systems and retaining structures.

2 Battering.
3 Benching.
4 De-watering systems.

1. Shoring:

Definition: Shoring is a method of placing vertical soldiers sets (planks or sheeting)

against the trench wall and holding them in place with timber struts or metal screw/hydraulic
jacks. This effectively restrains the trench wall and prevents collapse.

Shoring is used to support the ground on either side of the excavation/ trench to protect the
workers and prevent collapse of the sides of the trench.

Shoring is the provision of support for excavation faces to prevent movement of soil and
therefore ground collapse. Shoring or shielding is used when the location of an excavation or the
depth of cut makes battering or benching impracticable.

Some of the common types of shoring are:

hydraulic systems
timber systems (for example, soldier sets)
steel sheet piling
steel trench sheeting
precast concrete panels
ground anchors, and
Caissons.

Shoring is shown in the figure 1.2.2 below:

8
 Figure 1.2.2: Shoring

Where ground is not self-supporting and benching or battering are not practical or effective risk
controls, shoring should be used when there is a risk of the earth, rock or other material forming
the side of or adjacent to any excavation work being dislodged or falling and burying, trapping or
striking a person in the excavation.

Where such a risk also exists for those installing shoring, other appropriate risk control measures
must be in place to ensure the health and safety of persons entering the excavation.

2. Benching:

Benching is the creation of a series of steps in the vertical wall of an excavation to reduce the
wall height and ensure stability (see Figure 1.2.3). Its a method of preventing collapse by
excavating the sides of an excavation to form one or more horizontal levels or steps, with vertical
surfaces between levels.

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 Figure 1.2.3: Benching

Benching is a method of preventing collapses or cave-ins by excavating the sides of an

excavation to form one or a series of horizontal levels or steps, with vertical surfaces between
levels. The excavation is cut in a series of steps. Each step should not be deeper than 1.5m and it
should be set back enough so that if the top level was to collapse it would not fall into the bottom
of the trench. This method requires a lot more material to be excavated however no shoring is
required.

As a general rule, the bottom vertical height of a trench excavation should not exceed 1.2 metres
for the bench. Subsequent benches should also be 1.2 metres vertical height, although 1.5 metres
may be used in very cohesive soils

3. Battering:

Battering is where the wall of an excavation is sloped back to a predetermined angle to ensure
stability (see Figure 1.2.4). Battering prevents ground collapse by cutting the excavated face
back to a safe slope. Battering should commence from the bottom of the excavation.In battering
the sides of the excavation is sloped at the Angle of Repose so that the sides are self-supporting.

This method also requires a lot more material to be excavated however no shoring is required

10
 Figure 1.2.4: Battering

Battering the sides of an excavation to provide safe working conditions is often only economical
for shallow excavations in open ground with minimal obstructions.

Employees need to be protected from loose rock or soil falling or rolling from a sloping face.
Hand scaling of loose material from the face may be necessary, and in some instances protective
barriers may be necessary on the face to contain falling material.

Employees also need to be protected from excavated or other materials or equipment that could
fall or roll into the excavation. Materials and equipment should be kept at least 600 mm from the
edge of excavations.

Benching and Battering:

It is a combination of benching and battering. Both benching and battering of excavation walls
are methods which minimise the risk of the soil or rock slipping onto the excavation. The design
of benching or battering risk controls should be developed by a competent person (geotechnical
engineer) relative to the soil type, the moisture content of the soil, the planned height of the
excavated face and any surcharge loads acting on the excavated face.

Benching and Battering is shown in the figure 1.2.5 below:

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 Figure 1.2.5: Combination of benching and battering controls

4. Dewatering systems:

Employees should not work in excavations where water has accumulated or where water is
accumulating from any source, unless adequate precautions have been taken.

Water may accumulate from a number of sources:

high ground water table seeping into the excavation

storm water drains
surface run off after heavy rain or
Swamp, dam, lake or river.

The precautions necessary to protect employees adequately will vary with each situation, and
include water removal and special support or shield systems to protect from cave-ins. Water
control may involve the relatively simple removal of small amounts of water at the bottom of an
excavation by electrically driven sludge pumps.

It may also involve the control of large quantities of water in situations where an excavation is
below the level of the ground water table. In this situation, dewatering systems consisting of
pumps and suction points, or 'well-points' connected to pipelines are located around an
excavation or alongside a trench to pump the water to waste and lower the water table below the
bottom of the trench or excavation.

Excavation in water bearing ground is always troublesome. Steel sheet piling or closed sheeting
are not always a practicable solution, and often the most effective way is to drain the ground
before excavation begins to enable work to be carried out in the dry. Drainage is achieved by
jetting well-points or 'spears' into the ground to the desired depth, and pumping out the water at a
rate exceeding the inflow from the surrounding water table.
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Prevent people from falling: Edges of excavations should be protected with substantial barriers
where people are liable to fall into them.

To achieve this, use:

Guard rails and toe boards inserted into the ground immediately next to the supported
excavation side or

fabricated guard rail assemblies that connect to the sides of the trench box

the support system itself, eg using trench box extensions or trench sheets longer than the
trench depth

13
1.3 Illustrate few types of temporary works required to deal with groundwater using
sketches.

Ans: Groundwater: Water that is naturally found underground in the soil or in the voids of rock
layers.

Dewatering:

The process of dewatering can be defined as pumping from wells or sumps to temporarily
lower groundwater levels, to allow excavations to be made in dry and stable conditions below
natural groundwater level.

Dewatering is the term for the control of groundwater by pumping. On construction sites it may
be known as construction dewatering. The method is also used on mine sites mine dewatering

Dewatering involves controlling groundwater by pumping, to locally lower groundwater levels in

the vicinity of the excavation.

Temporary works required to deal with groundwater:

The Different Methods of Dewatering & Groundwater Control: To prevent significant
groundwater seepage into the excavation and to ensure stability of excavation side slopes and
base it may be necessary to lower groundwater levels in advance of excavation. This is known as
pre-drainage.

Following are the Temporary works required to deal with groundwater:

Pre-drainage methods include:

1. Deepwell systems.
2. Wellpoint systems.
3. Ejector systems.
4. Sump pumping.
5. Horizontal wells.

Other specialist dewatering techniques are also sometimes used:

Relief wells.
Artificial recharge.
Siphon drains.

Pre-drainage methods include:

1. Deep well systems:

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A deep well system consists of an array of bored wells pumped by submersible pumps, each
fitted with a multi-stage electric submersible borehole pump. As water is pumped from each
well, the groundwater is lowered creating a cone of depression or drawdown around itself.

Deep well systems consist of one or more individual wells, each of which has its own
Submersible pump at the bottom of the well shaft. Such systems are particularly suitable. Where
large volumes of water in highly permeable sand and gravel areas permitting rapid recharging of
ground water from surrounding areas exist. The Range of permeability under which the deep
well system is applicable

The wells are generally sited just outside the area of proposed excavation, and are pumped by
electric submersible pumps near the base of each well. Water collection pipes, power supply
generators, electrical controls and monitoring systems are located at the surface.

A typical deep well consists of a drilled hole within which is a lower screened casing which
admits water to the pump an upper casing which prevents soil from reaching the pump and,
within the casing, the pump and its discharge pipe. The discharge pipe supports the pump to
which it is attached. Electrical wiring for the pump motor runs between the discharge pipe and
the casing. The space between the drilled hole and the casing is normally packed with filter
material (for example, coarse sand and/or gravel) to minimize the pumping of solid material
from the soil surrounding the well.

Deep well dewatering system is shown in the figure below:

15
 Fi
gure 1.3.1: Deep well dewatering system

Why Deep Well Systems are used:

Deep well dewatering is suited to deep excavations and where soil permeability is moderate to
high. Deepwell systems also work well where artesian groundwater pressures threaten base
stability. Capable of pumping tens of thousands of gallons of water per minute, deepwell systems
are effective when there are large volumes of groundwater. The flexibility on the well depth and
the well spacing means access restrictions are kept to a minimum.

2. Wellpoint systems:

Wellpoint systems help to lower groundwater levels and provide stable working conditions.

Wellpoint dewatering is widely used for excavations of shallow depths, especially for pipeline
trench excavations. In appropriate ground conditions a wellpoint system can be installed speedily
and made operational rapidly. They consist of a series of small diameter wells that are connected
by a header pipe to a wellpoint pump. The pump creates a vacuum in the header pipe drawing
water up from the ground.

For long pipeline trenches, horizontal wellpoints may be installed by special trenching machines.

Wellpoints are typically installed in lines or rings around the excavation, the height to which
water can be drawn by vacuum in this way is approximately 6m (20ft).To function at greater

16
depths, well points can be installed in stages as the excavation proceeds. Wellpoint are pumped
by diesel or electrically powered pumps, with associated header mains, water discharge pipes,
power supply generators, electrical controls and monitoring systems.

Well point system is shown in the figure Figure 1.3.2 below:

Figure 1.3.2: Well point system

Why Wellpoint Systems are used:

Wellpoint systems are used to lower groundwater levels to provide stable working conditions.
Wellpoint systems are particularly suited to dewatering for shallow foundations and excavations,
so they are often used for pipeline trench work. A wellpoint system can be installed quickly in
most ground conditions and they are easy to maintain.

3. Ejector or eductor system:

The ejector or eductor system is based on wells that are drilled to lower the groundwater level to
provide stable working conditions. Ejectors use air within the wells to produce a vacuum to draw
water out of the soil. Ejector system is used to control pore water pressure in low permeability
soils such as very silty sands, silts, or clays with permeable fabric.

Ejector or eductor system is shown in the figure 1.3.3 below:

17
 Figure 1.3.3: Ejector or eductor system

Eductors have the advantage that they can allow vacuum-assisted drainage, to draw water out of
poorly draining fine-grained soils. The system works by circulating high pressure water (from a
tank and supply pumps at ground level) down the well to a small-diameter nozzle and venturi
located in the eductor in each well. This generates a vacuum of up to 9.5 m of water at the level
of the eductor. The vacuum draws groundwater into the well from where it is piped back to
ground level via a return riser pipe and thence through the reservoir tank back to the supply
pump for recirculation.

Why Ejector Systems are used:

Ejector dewatering systems work to control pore water pressure in low permeability soils so this
method of dewatering is best suited for sites with soils such as silts and fine sands.Eductors are
typically used to help stabilise the side slopes and base of excavations in soils that would be
difficult to dewater with wellpoints or deep wells.

4. Sump pumping:

The simplest form of groundwater control is sump pumping where groundwater is collected in a
sump and pumped away from the excavation site.

Sump pumping is the simplest form of dewatering and can be very reliable. Groundwater is
allowed to flow into the excavation and is collected in sumps where it is then pumped away. In
certain conditions, sump pumping can be very efficient and is highly cost effective, however
uncontrolled seepage into the excavation can cause instability and other construction problems.
Additionally, the disposal of the water needs to be handled carefully, to ensure that the quality of
the water is suitable for discharge.
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Sump pumping system is shown in the figure below:

Figure 1.3.4: Sump Pumping:

Why Use Sump Pumping: Sump pumping is particularly suited to shallow excavations in
permeable soils, and for deeper excavations in rock or cemented soils where there is no concern
over ground stability and seepage flow conditions.

Sump pumping is shown in Figure 1.3.5 below:

Figure 1.3.5

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 Task: 02
2.1 Explain types of shallow foundations. Select a suitable and economical foundation
for a selected place and justify the selection of foundation for your site.

Ans: Shallow foundation:

A shallow foundation is a type of foundation which transfers building loads to the earth very near
the surface, rather than to a subsurface layer or a range of depths as does a deep foundation.

In shallow foundation, generally, the depth at which the foundation is placed is less than its width
i.e. the ratio of depth of foundation to its width is less than unity. This type of foundation spreads
the load of superstructure into the ground laterally. Hence shallow foundations are generally
known as spread footing. From design point of view, shallow foundations are classified as
follows:

1. Wall footing.
2. Spread/Isolated /column or pad footing.
3. Combined footing.
4. Cantilever or strap footing.
5. Mat foundation.

1. Strip foundation : (Wall footing)

A strip foundation is the most common foundation technique used for constructing traditional
brick and mortar homes.

In order to spread the load carried by the wall into the soil, a wall footing is provided. The
foundation is continuous along the direction of the wall. In such a foundation depth to width ratio
is 1:2 or 1:3 i.e. the base width is generally two or three times more than the width of the wall at
ground level.

Strip footings are commonly found in load-bearing masonry construction, and act as a long strip
that supports the weight of an entire wall. Different materials like stones, bricks and sometimes
plain or reinforced concrete are used to construct the wall footing.

Strip foundations are shown in the figure 2 below:

20
 Figure 2: Strip foundations

2. Spread/Isolated /column or pad footing:

The spread/isolated/pad footing is generally constructed to support an individual column. The

spread footing may be circular, square or rectangular slab of uniform thickness. Sometimes it
may be designed as stepped or haunched to spread/distribute the load over a larger area.

Column footing is suitable for the foundations with depth greater than 1.5 m

Spread footing is shown in the figure 2.1 below:

21
 Figure 2.1: Spread footing

3. Combined footing:

In cases of multiple columns in footing, it is used. When a footing is to be made common for two
or more columns in a row, it is called combined footing. This type of footing is normally used
along the walls of the buildings at property lines where the footing for the column cannot extend
outside the limit of structure. It is designed to support two parallel columns. It is principally used
what the two columns are so close that to one another that their individual footing would overlap.
It can be either trapezoidal or rectangular in shape.

Combined footing are shown in the Figure 2.2 below:

22
 Figure 2.2: Combined footing

4. Cantilever or strap footing:

Under certain conditions when we have to compromise and it is not possible to further extend an
edge footing beyond the boundary of a site due to the presence of an adjoining property, strap
footing is used.

In strap footing, the edge column footing is combined with interior column footing by means of a
strap beam. Such footings are known as strap footings.

Strap footing is shown in the figure 2.3 below:

23
 Figure 2.3: Cantilever or strap footing

5. Mat or raft foundation:

When a common foundation is provided for columns in two or more rows, the footing is called a
mat or raft foundation. In case of low bearing capacity of the soil and when the foundation
requires quite large area for load distribution, mat foundation is provided. A mat is required when
the allowable soil pressure is low or where the columns and walls are so close that individual
footings would overlap or nearly touch each other.

Mat foundation is shown in figure 2.4 below:

Figure 2.4: Mat or raft foundation

Mat foundation is most suited in clayey soil as the whole area under the foundation contributes to
the load distribution and this is more effective. Sometimes a mat foundation is used as a floating
foundation in a deposit of very soft clay for controlling total as well as differential settlement.

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Selection of site:????

This part is missing check

2.2 Describe methods of constructing pile foundations.

Ans: Pile foundation:

It is a foundation system that transfers loads to a deeper and competent soil layer.

A pile is basically a long cylinder of a strong material such as concrete that is pushed into the
ground to act as a steady support for structures built on top of it. Foundation provide support
for structure transferring their load to layers of soil or rock that have sufficient bearing capacity
and suitable settlement characteristics.

Bored piling is a method that involves boring a circular hole into the ground, installing steel
reinforcement and filling the bore hole with concrete to form a pile. Boring is carried out to the
required depth by means of either a crawler crane-mounted rotary boring unit or a purpose-built
hydraulic drilling machine.

Why Pile foundation is required:

Pile foundation is required when the soil bearing capacity is not sufficient for the structure to
withstand.
When there is a layer of weak soil at the surface. This layer cannot support the weight of the
building, so the loads of the building have to bypass this layer and be transferred to the layer
of stronger soil or rock that is below the weak layer.
When a building has very heavy, concentrated loads, such as in a high rise structure, bridge,
or water tank.

Methods for the construction of piles:

Different types of typical construction methods, the dry, casing, and slurry methods are most
common. The dry method, as long as the hole is stable, has little influence on the capacity. The
casing and the slurry method have been analyzed and tested as to their impact on the axial
capacity.

1. Steel Casing Method:

When drilling will take place in both self-restraining soils and soils prone to caving, the casing
method may be used. Casing is generally a steel pipe pile, as shown in Figure 2.2.1 below, with

25
an outer diameter six inches greater than the required diameter of the hole (ONeill and Reese
1999, Caltrans 1997). Casing is placed in the layer that is likely to collapse or slough, and the
remainder of the excavation can be carried out as with the dry method.

Figure 2.2.1: Pile casing

The casing used may be permanent or temporary, however, since casing can significantly reduce
skin friction, it is optimal to remove it when feasible and provide grouting. If the casing cannot
be removed, grouting around the outside of the casing will aid in retrieving some of the side
resistance (e.g. Reese et al. 1985, Littlechild 2000).

Other tests have shown that even when casing is removed there still may be a slight drop in side
resistance. This drop in resistance could be attributed to the smoothing of the sides of the
borehole, which reduces the friction at the soil-concrete interface (e.g. Camp et al. 2002).
Typical design procedures by Caltrans discount any side resistance in cased areas (Caltrans 1997
and correspondence, August 2003).

Surface casing is used when the site contains weaker top soils, underwater conditions, and
artesian conditions. Surface casing extends above the soil or water surface to provide a guide for
the drill, ensure safety precaution for workers, and prevent debris from falling in the hole. Since
casing has been shown to reduce skin friction, the soils surrounding the pile will have less effect
of downdrag when shrinking or uplift when expanding. The casing method should not be used if
the pile is designed to resist loads by skin friction, which may be reduced up to 90% with casing
(e.g. Camp et al.)

Procedure for the construction of steel casing piles is shown in figure 2.2.2 below:

26
 Figure 2.2.2: Procedure for the construction of steel casing piles

Construction method:

1. Positioning and drilling of the first section of the drill casing (recoverable steel casing as
temporary support during the boring process)

2. While drilling, the drill casing inside equipped with a drilling head fixed on a rod - is
oscillated into the soil. (back and forth movement / twisting in place)
3. As the drilling process progresses, soil is removed from the borehole by the excavating tool
(bucket barrel excavating the pile shaft) and additional sections of casing are jointed (added)
to protect the soil from collapsing into the borehole during drilling. When drilling in non-
cohesive soils below the groundwater level, a water overpressure (delta h) should be created
in the temporary casing.

4. After reaching the design depth, clean-up of the borehole front, removal drilling tool, drilling
fluid (water) pumped out from the bore Formation of the pile: insertion and lowering of the
reinforcement cage, pouring of the concrete. In the presence of water, concreting is carried
out by means of a plunger tube to avoid segregation of the concrete (tremie pipe technique).

5. During the continuous concreting process, the temporary casing elements are progressively
withdrawn whereby the concrete forms the pile shaft.

27
 Figure 2.2.3: Construction method for Steel Casing piles

2. Augering method:

Cased auger piling:

A cased auger pile is formed using the twin rotary-drive system (also called FoW or Front of
Wall system), with extraction of soil under a temporary casing.
The system is particularly suitable for the manufacturing of a pile wall (secant pile wall, tangent
pile wall, contiguous independent piles).
The execution is vibration-free and with limited noise pollution. The reinforcement is placed
after the concreting phase.

Augering method is shown in the figure 2.2.4 below:

28
 Figure 2.2.4

Construction method:

1. Positioning of the auger housed inside a steel drill casing. The auger and the casing are
mounted on two independent, superimposed rotary heads rotating in opposite directions.
2. Auger and casing are simultaneously screwed into the soil, but rotate in opposite directions.
Closing of the sealing flap fixed at the bottom of the auger prevents any infiltration of water
and/or soil into the hollow, central axis of the auger during the screwing-in phase.
3. Lowering of auger and casing to the designed depth. The soil which is loosened at the auger
tip is conveyed to the surface by the auger flights inside of the casing.
4. Discharge of the excavated soil through openings located at the top of the casing, underneath
the rotary drive.
5. Opening of the closing flap. Pouring of concrete through the hollow stem of the auger as
auger and casing are simultaneously withdrawn and formation of the pile shaft.
6. Placement of the reinforcement cage in the freshly concreted pile.
7. Finished cased auger pile.

Continuous Flight Auger piles: Continuous Flight Auger (CFA) Piling is the quietest form of
piling and is a fast and very economical technique. It is a cast in-situ process, very suited to soft
ground where deep casings or use of drilling support fluids might otherwise be needed.

Construction method:

1. Drilling a full length auger with a hollow stem (temporarily plugged) into the soil using a
constant penetration rate.
2. After reaching the design toe level, concrete is pumped through the hollow stem of the auger
while the auger is extracted. It is important that the auger always remains embedded into the
concrete.
3. Positive concrete pressure is maintained throughout the placement of concrete. CFA piles
have to be poured to platform level to facilitate reinforcement installation and avoid pile
necking.
4. After completion of the concrete placement process the reinforcement cage is plunged into
the fluid concrete.

3. Bored pile under thixotropic fluid:

The large diameter bored pile under thixotropic fluid is a cast-in-place circular cross-section
concrete pile.
For the construction of this non-displacement pile a borehole is made using purpose designed
drill tools, with removal of soil. Where boreholes are required to penetrate considerable depths of
unstable soil a support fluid, e.g. bentonite mud or polymer and a temporary recoverable top
casing assist in stabilizing the bore and allow the perfect insertion of heavily reinforcement steel
cages.

29
 Figure 2.2.5: Bored pile under thixotropic fluid

Construction Method:

1.Implantation, set up, installation and centering of the top casing on the centre of the pile pre-
drilling
2.Drilling of first casing segment, subsequently filled with support fluid (bentonite mud or
polymer).
3.The boring continues through filling with thixotropic fluid upon reaching the required depth.
A positive head of support fluid above the groundwater table of at least 2 m is required in order
to maintain the required counter pressure.
4.Clean-up of the borehole front at the design depth, removal and recycling of the support fluid
(bentonite mud is returned to the surface for sedimentation and desanding). Lowering of the
reinforcement.
5. Concrete displaces the support fluid. Concreting is usually carried out by the tremie method.
6. As the concrete reaches the top of the hole, the tremie pipe is retrieved and the short temporary
casing is being withdrawn.
7. Complete extraction of the temporary casing and control of the final concrete level

4. Slurry method:

The slurry method of construction involves the use of a prepared slurry to keep the bore hole
stable for the entire depth of excavation. The soil conditions for which the slurry displacement
method is applicable could be any of the conditions described for the casing method. The slurry
method is a viable option at any site where there is a caving soil, and it could be the only feasible

30
option in a permeable, water bearing soil if it is impossible to set a casing into a stratum of soil
or rock with low permeability.

The various steps in the construction process are shown in Fig. 2.2.6 It is essential in this method
that a sufficient slurry head be available so that the inside pressure is greater than that from the
GWT or from the tendency of the soil to cave.

Bentonite is most commonly used with water to produce the slurry. Polymer slurry is also
employed. Some experimentation may be required to obtain an optimum percentage for a site,
but amounts in the range of 4 to 6 percent by weight of admixture are usually adequate.

The bentonite should be well mixed with water so that the mixture is not lumpy. The slurry
should be capable of forming a filter cake on the side of the bore hole. The bore hole is generally
not underreamed for a bell since this procedure leaves unconsolidated cuttings on the base and
creates a possibility of trapping slurry between the concrete base and the bell roof.

If reinforcing steel is to be used, the rebar cage is placed in the slurry as shown in Fig. 2.2.6 (b).

After the rebar cage has been placed, concrete is placed with a tremie either by gravity feed or by
pumping. If a gravity feed is used, the bottom end of the tremie pipe should be closed with a
closure plate until the base of the tremie reaches the bottom of the bore hole, in order to prevent
contamination of the concrete by the slurry. Filling of the tremie with concrete, followed by
subsequent slight lifting of the tremie, will then open the plate, and concreting proceeds. Care
must be taken that the bottom of the tremie is buried in concrete at least for a depth of 1.5 m (5
ft). The sequence of operations is shown in Fig. 2.2.6 (a) to (d).

31
 Fig. 2.2.6 Slurry method of construction

(a) Drilling to full depth with slurry

(b) Placing rebar cage

(c) Placing concrete

(d) Completed shaft

5. Dry method:

The dry method is applicable to soil and rock that are above the water table and that will not cave
or slump when the hole is drilled to its full depth. The soil that meets this requirement is a
homogeneous, stiff clay. The first step in making the hole is to position the equipment at the
desired location and to select the appropriate drilling tools. In Fig. 2(a) below gives the initial
location. The drilling is next carried out to its fill depth with the spoil from the hole removed
simultaneously.

32
After drilling is complete, the bottom of the hole is underreamed if required. Fig.
2.2.7(b) and (c) show the next steps of concreting and placing the rebar cage. Fig 2.2.7 (d) shows
the hole completely filled with concrete.

Figure
2.2.7D ry

method of construction:

(a) figure shows the Initiating drilling,

(b) Figure shows the Starting concrete pour,

(c) Figure shows the Placing rebar cage, and

(d) ) figure shows the Completed shaft

2.3 : What are the types of excavation used in construction? Select

one/more suitable
33
 excavation methods for the proposed site in Task 2.1 and
illustrate with necessary sketches and values.

Ans: Excavation is one of major part of substructure. It should be done to build up every
building (Super Structure).

Types of excavation

A common method of classifying excavation is by type of excavated material: topsoil, earth,

rock, muck, and unclassified.And there are several types of excavation used in the building
process and all of them depending on the amount of ground to be excavated as follows below.

1. Soil Trip (Top Soil Removing)

2. Reduced Level Excavation (Cut and Fill Method)
3. Bulk Excavation
4. Trench Excavation
5. Hole or Pit Excavation
6. Earth excavation
7. Muck excavation.

1. Soil trip or Topsoil excavation:

It is removal of the exposed layer of the earths surface, including vegetation. Since the topsoil,
or mantle soil, supports growth of trees and other vegetation, this layer contains more moisture
than that underneath. So that the lower layer will lose moisture and become easier to handle, it is
advantageous to remove the topsoil as soon as possible. When removed, topsoil usually is
stockpiled. Later, it is restored on the site for landscaping or to support growth of vegetation to
control erosion.

The Top Layer of ground contains material which is decomposing, along with active plant life in
the form of grass, flowers, roots or shrubs etc. These kinds of materials are easily compressible
and as such are unsuitable for construction purposes.

Therefore, the top layer of soil should be removed before starting the construction work on the
soil and this removal is called as soil trip excavation /top soil removal.

The equipment are used for the soil trip excavation are shown below in the figures:

34
Figure 2.3 Motor grader: Figure 2.3.1 Bull dozer

Figure 2.3.2: Excavator

35
2. Reduce level excavation (cut and fill method)

It is usually necessary to provide a level surface from which construction may take place, and
this level may be lower than the top of the existing soil level.so in this case excavation should
have to be done to reduce the level of ground

And if the excavated material is suitable for filling purposes, it can be used to fill the part if the
construction work is going on a sloping land.

Here also the same equipment which has been used for soil strip Excavation can be used.

3. Bulk excavation:

Where the large volumes of soil are required to be excavated in order to reach the formation
level, the excavation is known as bulk excavation. This type of excavation may be to reduce the
levels or to provide the basement areas. And the excavation will be done step by step.

And the equipment are used for excavation is excavator & bull dozer.

36
 Figure 2.3.3: Excavator

4. Trench excavation:

After the preparation of formation level, it may be necessary to excavate trenches for the
foundation.

Trenches required outside of the building for laying the pipes and cables for supplying utilities.
This can be done manually or using backhoe wheel loader.

In case of width consideration the excavator also can be used.

Trench excavation is shown in the figure 2.3.4 below:

Figure 2.3.4: Trench excavation

5. Hole or pit excavation:

Whenever it is necessary to excavate a hole or pit or excavate a small amount of area to place for
example septic tank or mechanically driven Augers or drills are used.

37
 Figure 2.3.4: Trench excavation

6. Earth excavation: It is removal of the layer of soil immediately under the topsoil and on top
of rock. Used to construct embankments and foundations, earth usually is easy to move with
scrapers or other types of earthmoving equipment. Rock excavation is removal of a formation
that cannot be excavated without drilling and blasting. Any boulder larger than 12 yd3 generally
is classified as rock. In contrast, earth is a formation that when plowed and ripped breaks down
into small enough pieces to be easily moved, loaded in hauling units, and readily incorporated
into an embankment or foundation in relatively thin layers. Rock, when deposited in an
embankment, is placed in thick layers, usually exceeding 18 in.
7. Muck excavation: It is removal of material that contains an excessive amount of water and
undesirable soil. Its consistency is determined by the percentage of water contained. Because of
lack of stability under load, muck seldom can be used in an embankment. Removal of water can
be accomplished by spreading muck over a large area and letting it dry, by changing soil
characteristics, or by stabilizing muck with some other material, thereby reducing the water
content.

Selection of excavation:

Bulk excavation:

According to the site conditions the bulk excavation has been selected.

The bulk excavation is selected because:

In the reason of large volume should be excavated in order to reach the formation level. And the
selection of foundation also should match this type of excavation only.

Task -03
3.1 Briefly describe the construction methods used in drainage works.

Ans: Drainage work:

A cross drainage work is a structure carrying the discharge from a natural stream across a canal
intercepting the stream.Canal comes across obstructions like rivers, natural drains and other
canals.

The separate forms of drainage systems in common use are considered.

1. Culvert.
2. French Drains
3. Piped Drainage.
38
4. Side drains

1. Culvert:

culvert is a structure that allows the easy passage of water through a physical obstruction that
can be a hill or a roadway or a passage or a walkway. It is a transverse and totally enclosed
drain under a road or railway.Culvert is typically embedded by a soil or surface. Culvert can be
made up of a reinforced concrete or even steel as well.

Pipe or circular culvert is shown in the figure3.1:

Figure 3.1

Type of Culverts

1. Pipe Single or Multiple

2. Pipe Arch Single or Multiple

3. Box Culvert Single or Multiple

4. Bridge Culvert

5. Arch Culvert

Method statement for standard Culverts:

1. Site Survey: Surveyor to set out of points and establish of Temporary Bench Mark (TBM)
level. Positioning of point will carry on based on construction detail drawing from the
engineer.

39
2. Site clearance and Excavation: Site need to remove all of the vegetation and stumps that
will disturb the construction process. Excavation of drainage according to drawing
specification need to be carried out.

3. Setting out for drain: After excavation has been done. Setting out for the drainage need to
be carried out with depth 1425mm and width 1200mm.

4. Formwork installation: Installation of formwork need to be done before concreting work

are carried out. Fully support for formwork structure are need to make sure formwork are not
collapse.
Installation of formwork is shown below:

Figure 3.2: Formwork installation

5. Sand blinding: this compacted sand act as a cover for the drainage. The specification are
include in the drawing that depth 150mm, width 1200mm and length 1900mm.

Sand blinding is shown in the figure below:

40
 Figure 3.3: Sand blinding:

6. Reinforcement installation: Reinforcement needs to be installed before of concreting work.

Based on this drawing, reinforcement steel Y10 are used.

Figure 3.4: Reinforcement installation:

7. Concreting work: Concrete grade 20 is used in this drainage work.

41
 Figure 3.5: Concreting work

8. Lay the U-Drain Based on the drawing, U-Drain is used for this type of drainage. U-drain
are made of ceramic and it also not durable for rugged work this too easy for broken.

Figure 3.6

9. Concrete mass: Concrete mass need to be lay surrounding the U-drain for the protection
purposed. With this concrete mass layer it will prevent the U-drain from the crack or broken.

42
 Figure 3.7

10. PVC Weephole: Install PVC Weephole 230mm x 230mm x 300mm every 3m alongside of
the drainage to allow the underground water flow into the drain.

11. Concrete cover: Concrete cover are made of reinforced concrete. This is used to cover the
drainage from any foreign material into the drainage and will blockage the flow of water.

Figure 3.8

12. Drain trap: Drain trap are 1200mm x 150mm. every 3m need to leave avoid 400mm x
400mm for water from the above flow into the drain.

43
 Figure 3.9

13. Backfill: Backfill the drainage and compact the sides.

Pipe culvert:

Method statement for Pipe culvert:

1. Marking of Alignment:

The surveyor marked out the alignment for the trench to be dug.

2. Digging/Excavation:

The surveyor marked out the depth of the culvert to be excavated with an excavating machine.
For a 1m pipe culvert, the mathematical process of obtaining the required depth is to sum
together the total width of the pipe + base + blinding.

Excavated area is shown in the figure Figure 3.10.

44
 Figure 3.10: Excavation

For depth:

A pipe of width 1000 mm, base of 150 mm and blinding of 50 mm(though optional).

Hence 1000mm + 150mm + 50mm = 1200mm (1.2 m)

So an excavation of 1200mm (1.2m) is required from the to level of the natural ground (sub
grade level) surface.

For width:

A minimum of (2.5 x width) m is advisable.

For a 1m pipe drainage,

Since the drainage internal width is 1m, using

1.5 x width =2.5 x 1m = 2.5m

2.5m width excavation minimum is acceptable to create space for construction work area.

3. Concrete blinding and foundation base preparation:

After excavation of drainage is the concrete blinding and foundation base preparation.

Figure 3.10: Concrete blinding and foundation base preparation

Blinding (though optional) is done on the surface area in order to correct any irregularities in
level of the bed of the excavated surface, and to provide a smooth, level and regular surface to
receive the concrete base. Its usually 50 mm depending on the rate of regularity of the surface
area. Concrete grading C15 is acceptable.

45
(See concrete grading and mix ratio). A concrete base of 150 mm is to be laid or cast on the
blinded floor, concrete grade C15 of ratio 1:2:4 is allowed (See concrete grading and mix ratio).

A guiding panel is placed into position to guild in the laying of the concrete base in order to
achieve a uniformly alignment base edge, thickness and width, also to manage concrete material
while pouring. The base is cast with the U shape reinforcement bottom in between the concrete
base achieving concrete cover below and above.

4. Arranging pre-cast pipe Culvert/Rings into the align position:

After setting, curing and drying of the concrete base, next is to arrange the pre-cast pipe
Culvert/Rings into the align position.

Figure 3.11

5. Arranging the form work panel and then casting of concrete.

Taking the pipe/ring dimension to be 1000 mm (1.0m), the thickness of the concrete from the
form work panel to the pre-cast ring/pipe is 200mm more or less on both sides depending on the
design.

Hence the total width thickness of the drain would be

i.e. 1000mm + 200mm + 200 mm = 1400mm (1.4m)

The total height of the drain would be

Taking the pipe/ring dimension to be 1000 mm (1.0m), the thickness of the top slab concrete
from the top of the pre-cast ring/pipe is between 200mm - 300mm more or less depending on the
design.

Hence, the total height of the drain would be

46
i.e. 1000mm + 300mm = 1300mm (1.4m)

Assuming the thickness of the top slab concrete from the top of the pre-cast ring/pipe is between
300mm,

Also, the reinforcement for the head wall is placed into position.

The concrete is then cast

Formwork panel installation is shown in the figure Figure 3.12 below:

Figure 3.12: Formwork Installation

After casting, and setting, the panel is removed and concrete cured.

Concrete is casted and removal of formwork is shown in the figure below:

Figure 3.13: Concrete is casted and removal of formwork

47
Preparation of head wall panel in preparation to casting

1. Backfilling :

Back filling and compaction is then carried out in order to avoid future settlement. The material
used for the backfilling of those portions of culverts or pipes subjected to traffic loads shall be
selected material of at least sub-base quality. Where the excavated material is not of adequate
quality, selected materials shall be imported for this purpose.

Backfilling is shown in the figure 3.13 below:

Figure 3.13: Backfilling

2. French Drain:

French drain comprises a perforated pipe laid in a shingle-filled trench topped, if desired, with
turf. The pipe has a fall of approximately 1:80 and is typically 100-150mm in diameter
accommodated within a trench 150-200mm wide by 200-300mm deep. Modern methods employ
a geotextile filter membrane to line the trench and the pipe is sometimes wrapped in the same
material.

French Drain is shown in the figure:

48
 Figure 3.14: French Drain with components

Method statement for French drain:

1. Dig the trench: Digging the trench is the least complicated step in building a French drain.

The width and depth of the drain you dig will depend on the severity of the drainage problem
and the digging tool you're using. However, most standard French drains are approximately
6" wide and 18" to 24" deep.
Trenching tools will cut wider trenches (which is ideal for more severe drainage issues) and
will cut the digging time in half. However, using a trenching tool will also increase your
costs as you'll need to pay for the rental and buy additional gravel to fill the larger trench.
The same goes for hiring someone to cut the trench for you with a backhoe, as backhoes cut
very wide and deep trenches and will incur both labor and rental costs.
Periodically check the depth of the trench as you dig, to ensure it is consistently sloping
downwards.

49
 Figure 3.14: Trench Digging

2. Line the trench with landscape fabric. Once you have finished digging the trench, you will
need to line it with the water permeable landscape fabric.

Leave approximately 10 inches (25.4 cm) of excess fabric on either side of the trench.

Temporarily pin the excess fabric to the sides of the trench using pins or nails.

Figure 3.15

3. Adding gravel: Shovel approximately 2 or 3 inches (5.1 or 7.6 cm) of gravel along the
bottom of the trench, on top of the landscaping fabric.

50
 Figure 3.16

5. Lay the pipe: Place the perforated drain pipe into the trench, on top of the gravel. Make sure
the drain holes are facing down, as this will ensure the greatest drainage.

Figure 3.16: Laying pipe in trench

5. Cover the pipe: Shovel more gravel over the pipe, until there is 3 to 5 inches (7.6 to 12.7 cm)
between the gravel and the top of the trench.
Then unpin the excess landscaping fabric and fold it over the layer of gravel.

51
 This will prevent any debris from entering the drain, while still allowing any water to
filter through.

Figure 3.16: Covering the pipe

6. Fill in the trench: In the last step fill the rest of the trench with the displaced soil. At this
point you can finish the trench in whatever way you like:

You can lay sod on top, reseed with grass or even cover with a layer of large, decorative
stones.
Some people even build the drain pipe with a slight curve, so it looks like an intentional
design feature upon completion.

Figure 3.17: Backfilling for trench.

52
3. Side drains:

Construction method of side drains:

1. Marking of Alignment:

The surveyor marked out the alignment for the trench to be dug.

2. Digging/Excavation:

The surveyor marked out the depth of the trench to be excavated with a mechanical excavating
machine.

For a 1m x 1m drainage, the mathematical process of obtaining the required depth is to sum
together the depth of the required drain + base + blinding.

3. Concrete blinding:

After excavation of drainage concrete blinding will be started.

Blinding is done on the surface area in order to correct any irregularities in level of the bed of the
excavated surface, and to provide a smooth, level and regular surface to receive the concrete
base. Its usually 50 mm depending on the rate of regularity of the surface area. Concrete
Grading C10 or C15 as sub-soil might require.
The blinding is a mass concreting and its advisable to spread to cover entire width of the
excavated trench except where there is need for material management.

Figure 3.18: Concrete Blinding for side drain

4.Reinforcement (iron Rod) positioning:

For a 1m x 1m drainage, a 12mm U shape reinforcement (spaced between 150mm to 300 mm or
as designed) is placed into position on the blinded surface but positioned at the centre of the base
with the aid of concrete biscuit to create a concrete cover.

53
Reinforcement has been installed for the side wall of drain is show in the figure 3.19 below

Figure 3.19: Installation of Reinforcement

There should be concrete cover between the reinforcement and the base of the drain concrete
base and the top of the drain wall.

Hence, Reinforcement Rod height needed should be:

1000mm (reinforcement height) + 75mm (base top conc. Cover) - 25mm (wall top concrete
cover) = 1035mm (1.035m)

5. Concrete laying:

In this step concrete base is laid on the blinded surface and the positioned reinforcement.

Figure 3.20: Concrete laying on blinding surface of drain

54
A concrete base of 150 mm is to be laid or cast on the blinded floor, concrete grade C20 of ratio
1:2:4 is allowed.

6. Installation of formwork panels and pouring of concrete:

After setting and drying of the concrete base, next is to position the side wall panel formwork.

Formwork installation is shown in the figure 3.21 below:

Figure 3.21: Installation of formwork

The floor base is marked to give the required one meter (1000 mm) internal width where the
panel will be positioned. The panel wall spacing is 100mm, and wall height of 1000mm (1
meter), the panel is lubricated, clipped and prepared to accept the concrete.

After formwork is done, concrete pouring will be started and poured into forms, which is mould.

Concrete pouring for side walls of drain is shown in the figure 3.22 below:

Figure 3.22: pouring of concrete

55
After casting, and setting, the panel is removed and concrete cured.

Formwork panels have been removed as shown in the figure Figure 3.23 below:

Figure 3.23: Formwork Removal

7. Back filling: Back filling and compaction of the back filling is done immediately after the
back filling in order to avoid settlement.

Figure 3.23: Back filling and side drain construction is completed

56
3.2 Explain the use of false work and formwork in reinforced concrete structures.

Ans: Formwork:

Formwork is best described as A structure which is usually temporary but can be whole or part
permanent, it is used to contain poured concrete to mould it into required dimensions and support
until it is able to support itself.

Or

If we want to make something to a particular shape than we need a mould. Mould is called form
in concrete industry. Procedure of making concrete form is called formwork. Therefore, we can
say, Formwork is the making a temporary construction to give fresh concrete a shape and support
till it hardens.

Figure: 3.2.1: Wall Vertical formwork Figure: 3.2.2: Horizontal formwork

Its a total system of support for freshly placed concrete, including the mold or sheathing that
contacts the concrete and all supporting members, hardware, and necessary bracing.Formwork
includes the forms on or within which the concrete is poured and the frames and bracing which
provide stability. Although commonly referred to as part of the formwork assembly, the joists,
bearers, bracing, foundations and footings are technically referred to as falsework.

Use of Formwork:

Formwork is used to contain green concrete .Formwork structure is used to support temporarily
the fresh or green concrete until it gets hardened. Formwork is a die or a mould including all

57
supporting structures, used to shape and support the concrete until it attains sufficient strength to
carry its own weight.

Formwork in construction is the use of support structures and moulds to create structures out of
concrete which is poured into the moulds.Formwork is used in foundations, also to support
vertical structure like walls, For Ceiling and to support the column also.

Normally sheeting panels with formwork bearers in the form of walers are used for foundation
formwork.Wall form: Form, which are used in vertical member, such as column, is called wall
form.

Concrete formwork is the use of support structures and moulds to create structures out of
concrete which is poured into the moulds.Formwork is used by creating moulds out of wood,
steel, aluminium or prefabricated forms into which the concrete is poured.

Formwork is required wherever monolithic concrete and reinforced concrete structures or

structural components are constructed, such as for

Solid structures (foundations, columns...),

Structures with special functions (containers, chimneys, hydraulic structures ...),
Structures to meet great statical requirements (bridges, towers...),
reconstruction of structures,
Public buildings and structures of irregular arrangement.

Below are the common types of formwork material used in concrete construction:

Timber
Steel
Plywood
Aluminum
Plastic
Fabric, etc.

Generally, each formwork is of provisional nature and is to be removed after hardening of the
concrete placed. The formwork is not to be removed after hardening of the concrete placed.

Permanent formwork can also be utilized as the facing materials of in situ reinforced concrete.
Stayin-place formwork is used generally for the supporting parts of a structure. This type of
formwork consists of insulating concrete forms which are filled with reinforced concrete and
once set, are left in place.

58
Falsework:

Falsework means the temporary structure used to support a permanent structure, material, plant,
equipment and people until the construction of the permanent structure has advanced to the stage

where it is self-supporting.

Formwork is the term given to either temporary or permanent moulds into which concrete or
similar materials are poured. In the context of concrete construction, the falsework supports the
shuttering moulds. Falsework includes the foundations, footings and all structural members
supporting the permanent structural elements.

Falsework is shown in the figure 3.2.3 below:

Figure: 3.2.3: Falsework

Formwork and falsework is shown in the figure below:

59
 Figure: 3.2.4: Formwork and Falsework

Use of falsework:

Falsework consists of temporary structures used in construction to support spanning or arched

structures in order to hold the component in place until its construction is sufficiently advanced
to support itself. This usage is specifically called centering.

It is any temporary structure used to support a permanent structure and formwork until the
permanent structure is self-supporting. Falsework also includes temporary support structures
for formwork used to mould concrete to form a desired shape, scaffolding to give workers access
to the structure being constructed, and shoring which is temporary structural reinforcement used
during repairs.

Formwork is either temporary or permanent moulds into which concrete or similar materials are
poured. In the concrete construction, the falsework system is used to support the shuttering
moulds. It is also used to support other structures such as precast girders, steel girders, and
existing bridges.

The use of the falsework helps to prevent collapse of certain sections of the construction while it is
underway and often provides workers with a stable support surface as they work on different aspects of
the building system. It is used to support arches and similar elements during construction is
generally referred to as Centring.

Falsework can be used to support formwork for in-situ concrete, prefabricated concrete elements,
steel sections or stone arches, for example during bridge construction.Falsework can be used to
support a range of permanent structures before their completion including:

Prefabricated concrete elements for building or civil construction.

Falsework trusses are used for forming and concreting bridges.
Formwork and reinforcing steel for in-situ concrete structures.
60
 Large steel beams and fabrications, and
Bridge spans including arches (see Figure 3.2.5 below).

Figure 3.2.5

Falsework which supports the pre-cast concrete structure is shown in figure 3.2.6 below

Figure 3.2.6: Falsework

61
 TASK -04
4.1 Visit construction sites in Qatar, Asses and identify the hazards from civil
engineering activities

Misssing ?

4.2 Explain the health, safety and welfare requirements in Task 4.1.
Develop a simple safety plan.

Ans:

Work health and safety regulatory framework includes the below:

Managing compliance and enforcement activities under the WHS Act.

Promoting prevention as the primary means of reducing the human and financial costs of
injury and disease, as well as identifying and targeting priorities and evaluating results.
Developing and administering safety policy aimed at improving the regulatory
framework to make sure it provides strong accountability, reflects risks and is outcome
based.

Work Health and Safety Act:

The WHS Act provides a balanced and nationally consistent framework to secure the health and
safety of workers and workplaces.

WHS Act states that the primary duty requires a person that is carrying out a business should
make sure that the workers as well as other individuals involved in the work are not exposed to
health and safety risks arising from the activity.

The WHS Act defines:

duty holders and their general duties

workplace arrangements including health and safety management arrangements, health and
safety committees, work groups, as well as health and safety representatives
The role of Comcare investigators in determining compliance with the Act and regulations.

The WHS Act is supported by a framework of legislative instruments (regulations and approved

Codes of Practice) that prescribe duties and provide guidance to employers and others on how to

62
meet the requirements of the legislation.

Work Health and Safety Regulations:

The WHS Regulations impose mandatory requirements for duty holders to comply with when

managing work health and safety.

The regulations cover:

the health and safety representative election process

investigators and statutory notices
details about incident notification
exemptions
Detailed information about the duties in relation to high risk areas such as construction
work and hazardous chemicals.

The regulatory framework in practice:

The WHS regulatory framework eliminates risks to health and safety as far as reasonably
practicable, by assigning general duties to those who are in a position to control the origin of
risk. The duties specify broad obligations to ensure the health and safety of workers and other
people present at, or near, a workplace.
Risk management is an important consideration in determining whether a general duty (qualified

by reasonably practical) has been complied with. As a general principle, if reasonably practicable

steps were available to a duty holder and these would have reduced the risk of a foreseeable

incident, and such steps were not taken, the general duty may have been breached.

Essentially, a duty holder must weigh up prevention and control measures against a degree of

risk when making decisions about how to respond.

Health & Safety Law:

The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 is the major piece of the health and safety

Legislation in Great Britain. It provides the legal framework to promote, stimulate and

Encourage high standards.

The Act, when first introduced, provided an integrated system dealing with workplace
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Health and safety and the protection of the public from work activities. By placing

General duties upon employees, employers, the self-employed, manufacturers, designers

And importers of work equipment and materials, the protection of the law, rights and

Responsibilities are available and given to all at work.

Regulations made under the Act have the same scope and provide the potential to achieve

Clear and uniform standards. Examples of such regulations are:

The Management of Health & Safety at Work Regulations 1999

The Workplace (Health, Safety & Welfare) Regulations 1992

Duties of Employers:

An employer has a general duty to, as far as is reasonably practicable, safeguard the

Health, safety and welfare of employees by ensuring: -

Plant and equipment are safe

Safe handling, storage, maintenance and transport of articles and substances
Provision for employees of information, instruction, training and supervision
A safe working environment and adequate welfare facilities
Safe access and egress
A safe system of work.

Where there are five or more employees, an employer has an absolute duty to provide a

Written health and safety policy and to ensure that all employees have seen it.Employers must

consult with employees on health and safety matters.

WHS Implementation:

Implementation of the Safety Management System is done in accordance with AS/NZS

4804:2001 having an effective WHS system balance the responsibility between all staff.it should

start with every staff it means having all of workers sign off an undertaking that they will follow

the policies and work safely.

The system enable the organization to:

Establish an Occupational health and safety/Keeping the work place safe (OHS) policy as per
the organization
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 Carry out hazard identification, Hazard or risk assessment and control of hazards / risk
arising from past information and existing planned activities.
Identify the relevant legalistive and regulatory requirement. Identify priorities and set up
appropriate OHS Objectives and targets
Establish a structure and OHS Management plans to implement the policy and achieve the
targets
Facilitate planning, control, monitoring, corrective action, auditing review activities to ensure
the both the policy is complied with.

4.3 Evaluate the role of the Technical supervisor in civil engineering activities

Ans: Role of the Technical supervisor in civil engineering activities:

A civil construction supervisor monitors ongoing construction to ensure that the work is being
done correctly and the project stays on schedule. Construction supervisors are responsible for
directing, planning, coordinating and budgeting activities related to the maintenance and
construction of facilities, structures and systems

Participating in the conceptual development of a construction project and overseeing the

scheduling, organizing and implementation is also a part of the job. Construction supervisors
develop and implement quality control programs as well.

The duties required of a construction supervisor include directing and supervising other workers,
obtaining all of the necessary licenses and permits, evaluating construction methods and
determining the cost-effectiveness of each plan.

They also determine labor requirements and dispatch workers to constructions sites. Construction
supervisors prepare contracts and negotiate revisions, as well as interpret and explain contract
terms and plans to co-workers, staff and clients.

Daily Operations: After construction begins on the project, the supervisor must visit the work
site daily and speak to managers, workers and vendors to prevent miscommunication and resolve
issues. This helps all parties stay updated on any changes to the plans and stick to the schedule as
the project progresses. Monitoring the job's progress daily helps the supervisor spot problems
quickly and contact the subcontractor or vendor to correct the issue immediately. This prevents a
small problem from escalating into a large budget overrun.

Engineering: A civil construction supervisor must be familiar with the construction and material
specifications for the infrastructure in the local area. The construction supervisor must also be
able to analyse the project's design and plan ahead for the safety of workers and members of the
public who will be using the facility for decades to come.

Scheduling: At the beginning of the project, the supervisor must establish the job schedule,
which includes setting completion goals for subcontractors and delivery dates for materials.
Because this is a civil project, the schedule must be coordinated with the maturity dates of
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municipal bonds that provide the financing. Once the schedule has been finalized, the
construction supervisor will distribute copies to all parties involved with the job.

Resource Management: Civil projects are subject to greater scrutiny than private jobs because
they generally use public money to fund construction. This requires the construction supervisor
to constantly monitor the use of employees, materials, funds and other resources to eliminate
wastefulness. The construction supervisor should watch the material inventory to see if any are
being used faster than expected. If an unusual usage rate is detected, the supervisor can order
more material to keep up with the need or analyse the construction process to look for
inefficiencies.

More about the role of Technical supervisor:

Getting Information: Observing, receiving, and otherwise obtaining information from all
relevant sources.

Making Decisions and Solving Problems: Analyzing information and evaluating results to
choose the best solution and solve problems.

Communicating with Supervisors, Peers, or Subordinates: Providing information to

supervisors, co-workers, and subordinates by telephone, in written form, e-mail, or in person.

Organizing, Planning, and Prioritizing Work: Developing specific goals and plans to
prioritize, organize, and accomplish your work.

Coordinating the Work and Activities of Others: Getting members of a group to work
together to accomplish tasks.

Communicating with Persons outside Organization: Communicating with people outside the
organization, representing the organization to customers, the public, government, and other
external sources. This information can be exchanged in person, in writing, or by telephone or e-
mail.

Establishing and Maintaining Interpersonal Relationships: Developing constructive and

cooperative working relationships with others, and maintaining them over time.

Updating and Using Relevant Knowledge: Keeping up-to-date technically and applying new
knowledge to your job.

Analyzing Data or Information: Identifying the underlying principles, reasons, or facts of

information by breaking down information or data into separate parts.

Scheduling Work and Activities: Scheduling events, programs, and activities, as well as the
work of others.

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Provide Consultation and Advice to Others: Providing guidance and expert advice to
management or other groups on technical, systems-, or process-related topics.

Guiding, Directing, and Motivating Subordinates: Providing guidance and direction to

subordinates, including setting performance standards and monitoring performance.

Monitor Processes, Materials, or Surroundings: Monitoring and reviewing information from

materials, events, or the environment, to detect or assess problems.

Resolving Conflicts and Negotiating with Others: Handling complaints, settling disputes, and
resolving grievances and conflicts, or otherwise negotiating with others.

Documenting/Recording Information: Entering, transcribing, recording, storing, or

maintaining information in written or electronic/magnetic form.

Monitoring and Controlling Resources: Monitoring and controlling resources and overseeing
the spending of money.

Inspecting Equipment, Structures, or Material: Inspecting equipment, structures, or materials

to identify the cause of errors or other problems or defects.

Duties and responsibilities Technical supervisor in civil engineering activities:

1. Supervises and leads foremen, Lead men, skilled labor, and work crews in all activities
concerned project. Ability to optimize resources (manpower, equipment and materials) to ensure
efficient and timely completion of the project. Able to demonstrate excellent labour management
skills, following policies, procedures and work practices, and developing improvements where
necessary

2. Commands respect of his foremen, Lead men, skilled labour and discipline workforce, and
develops excellent working relationships with all other department personnel. .

3. Competent in reading and understanding Specifications, drawings, and all other discipline
related project and engineering documentation. Familiar with and enforces strict compliance with
all QA/QC and Safety procedures, plus all Company rules and regulations.

4. Understands the principles and importance of planning. Monitors and tracks daily progress
and work completed, comparing planned to actual. Takes appropriate mitigating action to ensure
compliance with the plan, based on knowledge of available manpower, equipment, materials.

5. Ensures that the foremen, Lead men understand and implement the work plan, by explaining
and engaging in proactive communication with the crews.

6. Follows the three week and one week lookahead plans for the civil works of the project, in
close liaison with construction, planning and other departments and disciplines.

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7. Reviews quantities of materials received or used during specified periods, in order to minimize
wastage and inefficiency.

8. Must be an excellent communicator. Able to give instructions and transfer knowledge in an

efficient and effective way to coworkers and staff. Liaises with other discipline staff to ensure
the optimum interface of the various operational activities, with the overall objective of
successful completion of the project.

9. A civil supervisor is responsible for the inception of work and giving instruction to the
workers. Technical supervisor should update the progress report of construction activities.

10. Ensures that all work is in conformity to standards and specifications. Interprets
specifications and discusses deviations from specified civil procedures to ensure full compliance
with QA/QC inspection plans and procedures.

11.Identifies and implements onthejob training programs with the aim of developing and
improving team members competency in required skills and abilities.

12. Civil supervisor should organize meeting with workers and should attend progressive
meetings with clients.

13. Complies with all statutory requirements connected with the implementation of project.

14. Civil supervisor should coordinate with subcontractor and contractor.

15. Complies with the highest level of safety during all stages of project execution to avoid any
type of incidents and or accidents. Take reasonable care of own health and safety and that of
others in the workplace.

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TASK -05
5.1 Briefly describe the Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

Ans: Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

The Standard Penetration test (SPT) is a common in situ testing method used to determine the
geotechnical engineering properties of subsurface soils. It is a simple test to estimate and find out
the following things:

The relative density of soils and approximate shear strength parameters.

Relative density of cohesion less soils.

Angle of shearing resistance of cohesion less soils.

Unconfined compressive strength of cohesive soils.

Its a field test used to estimate the penetration resistance of soil.

Figure shows standard penetration test.

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Instruments:

Drilling equipment for boreholes.

Split spoon sampler.
Drive weight assembly.
Cathead.
Hammer.
a) Safety Hammer b) Donut Hammer

c) Automatic Hammer

Procedure:

1. Drilling of borehole:
Drill the borehole to the desired sampling depth and clean out all disturbed material.
The equipment used shall provide a clean borehole, 100 to 150 mm in diameter, for insertion
of the sampler to ensure that the penetration test is performed on undisturbed soil.

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 Casing shall be used when drilling in sand, soft clay or other soils in which the sides of
borehole are likely to cave in.

2. Driving the Casing:

Where casing is used, it shall not be driven below the level at which the test is made or soil
sample is taken.
In the case of cohesion less soils which cannot stand without casing, the advancement of the
casing pipe should be such that it does not disturb the soil to be tested or sampled the casing
shall preferably be advanced by slowly turning the casing rather than by driving, as the
vibration caused by driving may alter the density of such deposits immediately below the
bottom of the borehole.

3. Assembling equipment:

Attach the split-spoon sampler to the drill rod and lower into the hole until it is sitting on the
undisturbed material.
Attach the drive weight assembly.
Lift the 63.5 kg hammer approximately 0.76 m and allow it to fall on the anvil delivering one
seating blow.
Mark the drill rod in 3 successive .15 m increments to observe penetration.

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4. Penetration testing:

Raise and drop the hammer 0.76 m successively by means of the rope and cathead, using no
more than two and one forth wraps around the cathead.

The hammer should be operated between 40 and 60 blows per minute and should drop freely.

Record the number of blows for each .15 m of the penetration.

The first 0.15 m increment is the "seating" drive.

The sum of the blows for second and third increment of 0.15 m penetration is termed
"penetration resistance or "N-value". The N-value provides an indication of the relative
density of the subsurface soil, and it is used in empirical geotechnical correlation to estimate
the approximate shear strength properties of the soils.

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Correlations of SPT values for cohesionless soil Correlations of SPT values for cohesive soils

N Denseness N Consistency qu (kN/m2)

If the split spoon sampler is driven less 0-2 Very soft < 25
0-4 Very Loose < 28
than 45 cm (total), then the penetration
resistance shall be for the last 30 cm of 2-4 Soft 25< 50
4 -10 Loose 30
penetration (if less than 30 cm is 4-8 Medium 50 - 100
penetrated, the logs should state the
10 - 30 Medium 30 - 36
number of blows and the depth 8-15 stiff 100 - 200
penetrated).
30 - 50 Dense 36 - 42
15-30 Very Stiff 20-400
If the no. of blows for 15cm drive
> 50 Very dense > 42 > 30 Hard > 400
exceeds 50, it is taken as a refusal and
the test is discontinued.

Tests shall be made at every change in stratum or at intervals of not more than l-5 m
whichever is less. Tests may be made at lesser intervals if specified or considered necessary.

The intervals be increased to 3 m if in between vane shear test is performed.

The entire sampler may sometimes sink under its own weight when very soft sub-soil stratum
is encountered.

Under such conditions, it may not be necessary to give any blow to the split spoon sampler
and SPT value should be indicated as zero.

Corrections for SPT value:

Correction for Overburden Pressure

For Cohesionless soils,

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Where q is Effective overburden pressure in kN/m2.

Correction for Dilatancy

Terzaghi and Peck (1967) recommended the following correction-

N = 15 + 0.5 (N 15) for N > 15

N = N for N 15

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5.2 Present the superstructure elements of a multi stories building and their appropriate
construction methods.

Ans:

Superstructure: Superstructure is that part of the structure which is above ground level, and
which serves the purpose of its intended use. A part of the super-structure, located between the
ground level and the floor level is known as plinth.

Superstructure and Substructure is shown in figure 5.2.1 below:

Figure: 5.2.1: Superstructure and Substructure

Superstructures Elements:

Following mentioned below are the Elements of Superstructure.

Column.
Beam.
Slab.
Floor.
Masonry and roof.
Plinth.
Arches.
Lintel and arches
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 Chajjas.
Parapet.
Steps and stairs.

Figure 5.2.2 below shows the Elements or components of superstructure:

Figure: 5.2.2: Elements or components of superstructure

Elements of superstructure in building are shown in the figure below:

Figure: 5.2.3: Elements of superstructure in buildings

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This question is continued in the powerpoint slide I sent u

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