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4
Industrial High De Voltage
1. Fields
2. Break downs
3. Tests
Industrial High De Voltage
1. Fields
2. Breakdowns
3. Tests
F.H. Kreuger
Kreuger, F.H.
Industrial high DC voltage: 1. fields, 2. breakdowns, 3. tests!
F.H. Kreuger. - Delft: Delft University Press. - TIL
ISBN 90-407-1110-0
NUGl832
Subject heading: elektrotechniek
This study is based on resear ch work that has been perfor med at
the
Delft Unive rsity of Technology, the Nethe rlands . It makes use of
the
work of my Ph .D. studen ts, in the first place of those who specifically
worke d with DC insula tion:
I thank dr.ir. P.H.P. Morsh uis for his assista nce in accom plishin
g this
book and I thank Mrs. S. Noote boom for typing the text.
F.R. Kreuger
Contents
Fields
Chapter l. Introduction 1
Chapter 2. AC and DC fields 5
Chapter 3. Surface charges 35
Chapter 4. Space charges 55
Breakdown
Chapter 5. Partial dis charges, detection 89
Chapter 6. Partial discharges, physics 117
Chapter 7. Breakdown and voltage life 135
Tests
Chapter 8. Test rules 161
1 Introduetion 1
1.1 DC does not occur 1
1.2 Physical consequences 3
1.3 Applications 4
2 Electric fields 5
2.1 Transient phenomena 5
2.2 Maxwell Capacitor 8
2.3 Fields at different stages 15
2.4 Fields after polarity reversal 22
2.5 Effect of temperature and field strength 24
2.6 Some examples 26
2.7 Design 30
3 Surface charges 35
3.1 Alternative methods 35
3.2 Capacitive Probe 36
3.3 Compressed gas insulation 44
3.4 Surface charges under oil 51
4 Space charges 55
4.1 Space charge measurements 55
4.2 Voltage wave method 55
4.3 Pressure wave method 61
4.4 Space charge formation 70
4.5. Actual observations 81
8 Testing 161
8.1 Dielectric te~ts in generaI 161
8.2 Impulse tests 162
8.3 Stability tests 163
8.4 Discharge detection 165
8.5 Leakage current 169
8.6 Dielectric loss 169
8.7 Specifications 170
8.8 Survey 176
Bibliography 189
Index 195
Chapter 1
Introduetion
Is there a need for a separate study on high voltage DC? Are the
differences between AC and DC so large that a separate volume on
DC is needed?
The answer is "yes". There are at least three differences between high
voltage AC and DC that justify a separate study:
1
2 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
pure De
/
/'
/' -
/
/
/
t--
Fig. 1.1. Switching a DC voltage on and off . The dotted line represents the growth of
internal charges. Only if th is growth has been satu rated a pure DC field is
established.
t-
From the previous points, it follows that both the design and the
ways of testing DC constructions are greatly influenced by its actual
use, be it continuous, intermittent, with or without polarity reversals,
etc.
1.3 Applications
High voltage AC is used in electricity supply. High voltage DC is
mainly used in non-energy applications: X-ray equipment, radar,
television sets, electron microscopy, among others. There is one
notable exception i.e. the use of HVDC cab les for submarine power
transmission where large amounts of power are handled.
The understanding of dielectrics in DC lags far behind the knowledge
of the dielectric phenomena at AC voltage. This is mainly due to the
economie impact of the AC-operated electricity supply. The
consequences of a failure in an electric power system are tremendous
and high reliability and a long voltage life of its components are
absolute musts. The reliability of the components for electricity
supply, for instanee of large power transformers, is measured in
fractions of one failure per 100 component years. The voltage life
amounts to 25 years and more.
For DC applications this is another story: an X-ray apparatus is
readily replaeed after 10 years, the high voltage units of television
sets fail far more often than once per 100 component years. The only
exception is the high voltage DC cabIe, which is part of the electricity
supply system and has to perform considerably better.
This difference in attention is also found in the number of scientific
publications: in the literature, there are few publications on DC; at
high voltage conferences DC is seldom discussed (except, again,
HVDC for power transmission). This book aims at reducing this lack
of knowledge.
Chapter 2
Electric fields
. dU
lc = C dt
I
l
I ...... - - - -=--+----
t-
5
6 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRIC FJELDS
field in the oil cavity but the field strength in the paper
adjacent to the cavity is considerably increased. In the thin
oil layers between the papers, L in figure 2.3, a similar
mechanism may occur which adds to the effect.
and from
it follows that
d
VoE + dt VeE = O.
where
bEa + ab
r = bo; + aab .
This result shows the transition from the capacitive field distribution
at t = 0 to the resistive field distribution at t = 00, if t = 0 and t = 00 are
entered in the equation.
In figure 2.7, upper part, the transition of the field strength Ea in
dielectric a is shown.
_ _ _E_b_
oU Fig. 2.7. The slowly changing phenomena
bEa+aEb
in a Maxwell capacitor. Field strength Ea
in the upper slab, field strength Eb in the
lower one and the growth of the surface
charge Kat the interface.
_E_a_
ou
bEa+aEb
t-
2.2. MAXWELL CAPACITOR 11
By introducing
the transition of the field strength in section b can also be shown, see
the middle part of figure 2-.7.
The growth of the surface charge at the interface can be calculated
with the Maxwell equation
'VEE = p.
At the interface this changes into
It then follows
be + be E
'l'- ""2 -a Zep,
- bo + fraction
a""b
In that case
Applications
ut
/
,/
,,/
- -
-,
-,
-,
/ -,
/ <,
/ <,
I II m TI[
t-
Fig. 2.8. The four stages when switching on and switching off a De voltage. The
dotted line represents the growth and the decline of internal charges.
16 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRIC FJELDS
Stage I
When raising the voltage (and for a short time after that) the field
distribution is capacitive and the c's if the insulation materials are
directing the field, as shown in the simple example of figure 2.9. The
well-know calculation methods developed for electrostatic fields can
be applied, see volume I chapter 2, including the usual field plotting
programs.
Stage 11
t
IJ)
Cl
.l!l
~
IJ)
;;
rf. L-=========================- t-
Fig. 2.10. Transient in a 3-layer Maxwell capacitor. The field in layer b has a
transient value that is higher than at the start (capacitive distribtition) and at the end
(resistive distribution); such overstressing in stage II ( ay occJ'r in 'constructions
where 3 or more than 3 dielectrics are present. i .
Stage 111
In this stage, a pure resistive field occurs. This field can be calculated
with the same methods used for a capacitive field, with one
important difference: in resistive fields the specific conductivities (J of
the materials are introduced instead of the permittivities E. As long
as (J is chosen, the calculations given in volume I pages 21 to 37, the
computer simulation of pages 46 to 54 and the graphic
approximation of pages 55 to 57 can be used [1]. Any of the
commercially available ca1culation programs for AC fields can be
used for this purpose as long as the program can cope with the large
variations in (J which might appear. In order to show the difference
with stage I the same simple configuration as that given in figure 2.9
is plotted in figure 2.11 for a DC field. The different distribution of
the field over Huid and solid and the altered shape of the
equipotentiallines is clearly shown.
18 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRIC FJELDS
xr :
v] + ~-O
at - ,
2.3. FJELDS AT DIFFERENT STAGES 19
l(
a: = 0 so that~. \7 J =- 0
It follows for the abrupt change at the interface that <J"lEnl = <J"2En2'
If the normal field strength were calculated in a capacitive field
ff D n dA = 4!.,would apply as .shown in figure 1.7 in [1] and it
follows that ~fE n l - 2En2 = -K, where Kis the surface charge at the
interface. .
Comparing the two calculation methods:
Calculated as Calculated as
resistive field capacitive field
En = Et2 En = Et2
<J"lEnl = <J"2 En2 O1E n l - ~En2 = -K
f i :).
The two sets of conditions become identical if the surface charge Kis
equal to
20 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRIC FIELDS
It then follows:
2 o 0 o 0
-JlC/m o 0 o
v C\l C)l
2.3. FJELDS AT DIFFERENT STAGES 21
where Enl and En2 are taken from the resistive field.
Stage IV
In many cases these fields will not cause problems. However, in some
cases the reversed field will be larger than the original one, see-fer
-instance figure 2.15 where the resulting fields in ft triple Maxwell
- ap acitor are shown, with Ga 1, Cb 1, Cc ;) and 0'8 3.3, CJ'b 1-,
~ 1 In laye-r-a-,-ilie reversed field~ftel Hwi" hing oEf is larg~r tl-laR
tbe original De field. Thus in actual cases, an estimation must be
made of the surface charges which are generated during the DC stage
and the charge-induced field that arises after switching off must be
calculated. If space charges are present the situation is still more
complicated; this situation is studied in chapter 4.
+u-------,
0 0
-,
<,
---
<,
<,
"-
-u
I s: ~ I zn
Fig. 2.15. Three stages after polarity reversal. The dotted line represents the decline
and growth of charges in the dielectric.
The four stages above have shown that the calculation of fields in DC
insulation is more complicated than in the case of AC. If now the DC
voltage is reversed, the complication goes even further, as shown in
the following section.
Stage V
During the polarity reversal and for a short time af ter that, a
capacitive field is generated in the opposite direction of the original
field. At the same time the surface charges from the previous stage
remain and affect the field as well. In an actual case as shown in
figure 2.16, a field plot is made with a computing program that
calculates the capacitive field and introduces the effect of the surface
charges which were found in figure 2.13. The closed contour lines are
seen here as weU.
Stage VI
In this stage the old surface charges graduaUy disappear and new
charges are formed . The fields from stage V graduaUy change into
those of stage VI.
Stage VII
not always the case: there are configurations where the field
distribution of a positive voltage differs from that of a negative
voltage.
o 20 40 60 80 100
c _
Critical Situation
L.V. L.V.
H.V. H.V.
cap. res. Fig. 2.20. Voltage drops over the oil gaps
o b o b o and barriers b in the transformer of
figure 2.19 . In order of succession:
capacitive field in stage I, resistive fjeld in
- + stage Ill, charge induced field in stage IV
and reversed field in stage V.
+ +
+ +
In the capacitive field it is mainly the oil that will be stressed, in the
resistive field the solid.
There is a third situation to be analyzed: the field distribution after
polarity reversal, because polarity reversals often occur with HVDC
transmission. This analysis goes as follows [10]: the potential drop
over an oil gap 0 and an adjacent barrier b is determined, both in the
capacitive and the resistive case, see figure 2.20. The difference
between these two potential drops is the effect of the surface charges. It
can be expected that after removing the external voltage a field
remains that is equal to this difference, see the third illustration in
figure 2.20. When there is polarity reversal a capacitive field occurs in
the opposite direction. This field is superposed on the charge-
induced field and a high field strength is developed in the oil barrier,
as can be seen from the last illustration in figure 2.20.
The second example relates to a joint in a high voltage high vacuum
tube. In figure 2.21, the resistive field distribution is shown for the
case where the material of the joint has a far higher resistivity than
the glass of the tube. It is clear that the compression of the field by
the high-ohmie material causes a high field strength in the joint. This
can considerably be improved by using a jointing material that is
2.6. SOME EXAMPLES 29
interface
cable sheath
order to reduce the longitudinal field strength, the stress cone is made
longer than for AC. Furthermore, the equipotentiallines in the high-
ohmic paper rolls tend to stay in the paper. In order to prevent
concentration at the top, the paper roll is chosen to be longer than in
an AC terminal.
2.7 Design
Checklist
(a) ~r------ - - - - - -
(b) ----.5'--_-----'[1 lL
(c) ~ __ l..O.Jl
(d)~ L __ r=--
(e)~ L __ ~
(f)~ I --
NVYYV\/~\, - -
(g)
Fig. 2.24. Various service situations as discussed in the check list on De design.
Temprature Gradient
If conductor losses cause a temperature gradient in the construction,
the resistive fields will be greatly affected. Space charges will be
developed which affect the fields if polarity reversals take place. See
section 2.5.
Permissible fields
Field Grading
The last step that can be taken is to improve a design by lowering the
field strengths at the critical points (increasing of course the fields at
other locations). In volume I, chapter 11 [1] four methods for shaping
a field configuration are shown under the heading "field grading". All
four methods can be used for De as well. They are discussed below
although in a slightly modified manner,
1. Electrode grading
The highest field strength occurs of ten at one of the
electrodes. By skilfully modifying the shape of the electrode
the field can favourably be affected, see for instanee volume
I, section 11.2 [1].
34 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRIC FJELDS
Powders
Field mill
35
36 CHAPTER 3. SURFACE CHARGES
-~-
current is directly promotional to the
surface charge (here +) to be measured.
. =~
1 dt = A 1(n,
Principles
If the probe is carried from far away to near the surface, the effect of
the charge qat surface A will be divided over capacitance C3 and the
series conneetion of Cl and C2, see figure 3.3. The induced voltage u
is then
/(=M u,
where
Vs
and it follows
_ EO Ve
M - h .U
e
Universal calibration
shielding
;~~==Fr-l-:r-::c~Up
-r 2
The above relations are applied to the formula for Mand it follows
that
the same value was derived for the flat sample given in figure 3.2. In
that case only one calibration needs to be made.
42 CHAPTER 3. SURFACE CHARGES
Variation of M
40 C
36
32
28 -!--.-----r----,---.------1
o 10 20 30 40 50
z,mm_
Measuring at an angle
c c
5 n c
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
10
r, mm
8
60 80 100 120
with emission
conductor
Fig. 3.11. Resistive field in the vicinity of an epoxy-resin spacer. The gas conducts
charges caused byemission.
46 CHAPTER 3. SURFACE CHARGES
The normal field in the gas is almost zero and there remains only a
tangential field at the interface. The equipotentiallines are practically
perpendicular to the surface.
If the voltage is lower than the threshold voltage, which also assumes
that the electrode is very smooth, the conductivity 0"2 of the gas is far
smaller than that in the solid:
without emission
conductor
Fig. 3.12. Resistive field in the vicinity of a spacer. No charge emission at the
electrodes.
The situations in figures 3.11 and 3.12 show the fields for a wedge-
shaped spacer. In both cases the field is seriously disturbed. Such
spacers have been designed to be ideal for AC fields, but they turn
out to be unsuitable for DC In the case of DC, a straight spacer with
the surface parallel to the field would appear to be a better design. A
3.3. COMPRESSED GAS INSULATION 47
Tests with cylindrical spacers have confirmed this [4]. In figure 3.15
the initial normal field strength, En (capacitive), is shown at the
surface of a cylindrical spacer with curved electrodes at the ends. The
normal field varies and attains both positive and negative values. The
measured surface charge x is shown as well. The relationship
48 CHAPTER 3. SURFACE CHARGES
12
40
t 20
8
4 t
En
0 0
-20 -4
-8
-40
-12
0 10 20 30 40
cm -
Fig. 3.15. Normal field strength along a cylindrical spacer calculated in the capacitive
field. The resulting charge deposit is everywhere opposed to this initial field.
Scatter
The values for Kin figure 3.15 are averages, the individual results
show a large scatter. The highest values agree wen with the above-
stated equation K = e En, the lowest values are far lower. The reason
for this large scatter is not known. Measurement errors can have
some influence. In the first place, the observation takes place quite a
long time after switching off of the voltage. Further, the probe may
disturb the local field and cause charge shifts. However, th ere are
more aspects: the effect of the surface roughness of the spaeer is
striking. Figure 3.16 shows the scatter at three degrees of roughness:
0.5 11, 7 11 and 13 11 The value of 0.5 11 represents the natural
smoothness of the cast-resin spaeer, the va lu es of 7 11 and 13 jl were
obtained by treating the surface with pearl jets. The pearl blasting has
a favourable effect on the scatter, but the reason for this effect is
unknown.
3.3. COMPRESSED GAS INSULATION 49
~C/m2 0 .5~
o 7~
10
o 1 3~
-5 +---.-------.------r----r-----r----,,---.----
20 30 40 50 GO 70 80 90
mm-
Fig. 3.16. Scatter of the surface charge at a spacer. The surface roughness 0,5 /.1, 7/.1 or
13/.1, affects the scatter [4].
Time constants
From various tests it is known that the time constant after switchi ng
on is other than that af ter switching of! Af ter switching on, a
compressed gas installation saturation is reached in 2 to 5 hours, in
line with the mechanism described in the sections 2.1 and 3.3. The
decay of the surface charge af ter switching oH, however, takes
another course. Usually, the start of the decay is fast, for instanee
down to half-value in half an hour; thereafter the charge stays on: for
instance after 1000 hours 10% of the original charge is still present. In
figure 3.17 the growth and decay of the surface charge in SF6
surro undings is shown.
10 100 1000
hour s -
Fig. 3.17. Growth and decline of surface charges in 5F 6 gas. The growth takes place in
the normal exponential way. The decli ne takes place in two stages: a fast decline at
the first hour, followed by an extremely slow one . A fraction of the charge may still
be present after 1000 hours.
When this field has attained a fairly low value, ionisation stops and
another mechanism sets in. Through natural ionisation there are
always pairs of ions present in a gas. One of such a pair may
neutralize a charge of opposite polarity when it arrives at the surface
of the spacer. This is confirmed by observations in SF6 and dry air. In
SF6 100 ion pairs per m 3 per Pascal are formed every second, in dry
air this amounts to 20 pairs/m3 sPa. The decay of surface charges in
SF6 has indeed been found to be 4 to 5 times faster than in dry air
[14]. In moist air yet another mechanism takes over. The surface
resistivity at the spacer increases there dramatically and a fast decay
of charge is created.
AC voltage
this does not occur so that some rectification of the leakage current
takes place. This mechanism causes negative charges to be
accumulated at the spaeer surface, in principal at the same sites as
found for De. The same characteristics as far DC are valid: the time
constant amounts to one or a few hours and the magnitude of the
surface charge is maximallY-2Enl'
Actual tests in Sf6 at 100 kPa and at a field strength of 7.5 kV/mm in
the presence of a fairly rough electrode (r = 15 u) showed alocal
charge concentration of -15 ~C/m2. A surface charge of this
magnitude may affect the local field with 1 to 1.5 kV /mm. At one
polarity of the AC voltage this field adds to the AC field and is thus
detrimental to the breakdown voltage of the system. This is one of the
reasons why electrodes in compressed gas systems should be well
polished, also at the low voltage side.
Measuring
JlC/m 2
20
10
5 10 15 20 \-
min. - 0 \ 5 10 15
Fig. 3.18. The growth and decline of surface charges under oil follow a normal
course. In contrast to gasses no asymmetry occurs.
Interface synthetics-oil
The field in a combination of synthetics and oil does not differ very
much from that of paper with oil. However, the equipotential lines
are more pushed into the solid. This is usually advantageous as the
oil is then more relieved of the electric field. In certain cases, this
compression of equipotentiallines can be too much as can be seen in
figure 3.19, case A. By adding a layer of paper with a somewhat
lower resistivity, a layer of surface charge is deposited at the
interface, see case B in figure 3.19 and the field concentration at the
corner decreases.
The magnitudes of the surface charge and of the time constant when
building up the charge do not differ from the values indicated for
paper in the section above.
54 CHAPTER 3. SURFACE CHARGES
Fig. 3.19. Relieving the field at a sharp corner. By introducing a less resistant layer of
paper surface charges are generated at the interface paper-synthetic.
Chapter4
Space charges
55
56 CHAPTER 4. SPACE CHARGES
I + I
I I __
__ -1 ++1-
I I
I + I
.-l + + I----. p
I I
I + I
.-l + + I----.
I I
I I
Fig. 4.1. Voltage wave method for measuring space charge in dielectric bodies. A
high voltage impulse over the electrodes causes a pressure pulse P at alocation with
space charge. The pressure pulse travels as an acoustical wave through the dielectric
and is recorded with a sensor at the electrode.
I + I I -I
1+ +I -=--... I-I ~
I + I I-I o
zsc
1+ +1 I-I o
I + I I-I e.o
1+ +1 I-I rJl
.c
1+1- 1-1 l
1+ +1 I-I
__ - - - - - -
-----(
I ,
1\
piezo
electric
film
1\
-p
Fig. 4.2. The voltage wave method in actual use . The pressure pulse caused by
voltage pulse U travels to the electrode. A delay block is used so that the pressure
wave arrives at the piezo-electric sensor after the disturbances of firing the impulse
generator have died out. Absorption blocks prevent unwanted reflections. If time t is
recorded from left to right the oscillogram shows the charge distribution at its true
position x.
K=qE
p =~ E = pEb,
or shorter
u = KQ. p,
Calibration
Factor /(0 can be deducted from the pressure wave created by the
receiving electrode and appears [3] to be
u 1
KQ=A.b U C '
Attenuation
Px = poe-ax I
Coaxiallayout
Fig. 4.3. Coaxial version of the volt age w ave technique. Becau se perf ect acoustical
interfaces are difficult to achieve a plan -parallel con figuration may be used as we ll
(see dott ed line) .
U
E=--R
x ln-
r
The pressure wave further decreases with .yx as the energy is divided
Over an increasingly larger surface. The ratio between the waves at
60 CHAPTER 4. SPACE CHARGES
U 1
P :: -{R In ~ -p- {X .
r
Conclusion
Example
: + P + :
I + + + I
I + + I
I + + I
I + + I
I + + I ~areaA
I + + I
I I
6x=vt
I. x
s .1
Fig. 4.5. Pressure wave method for measuring space charge. The pressure wave of
width LU has an impact on an area with space charge Pand creates a charge
displacement K"in the electrode.
A
ul(=
1/ e - Cl / + xp) / e' A ~
-irtp LU,
s e
0= l/e- (1 + xp)/e'
vro
s e -pSx
!l l(= - /
4.3. PRESSURE WA VE METHOD 63
a. Short-circuited terminals
Now
._ A d K _ A d K . dx
1- dl - ett: dl'
dx
dl =v
yields
. AD 2
1=-/
s E v -t-p,
or
i = eonst p.
64 CHAPTER 4. SPACE CHARGES
b. Open terminals
In this case the terminals remain open and the voltage V between the
terminals is recorded with a high-ohmie measuring device. The
charge displacement ~K' at the terminals causes now a voltage drop
~ V at the terminals:
1 vr8
~V= - A - p Sx
C slE I
and with
C=-
EA
s
it follows that
~V=vr8pt.
After integration:
x
V = vr8 f p L1x.
o
V= v r8eE x
or
V = Const - Ex .
Example
t
. -~.-l;~------ used with open electrodes) displays the
local field strength, in the dielectric. Full
E line: calculated field distribution caused
Calibration
1
Kcal = c- 2" h-b,
or
2 Kcal
c=~,
p = cy (in !lCI cm 3 ).
The scale factor for the field strength Ex is derived in a similar way.
4.3. PRESSURE WA VE METHOD 67
-- --
Ucal
--
-- --
h
ti,y
---
t=vx
Fig. 4.7. Calibrating the pressure wave circuit. A known DC voltage Ucal is applied
to the electrode. The pressure pulse P causes a current i which is proportional to the
surface charge Kcal at the electrodes. The scale factor C (in IlC/cm 2 per mm deviation)
can be derived from the deflection in the oscillogram.
Coaxial samples
Actual equipment
Laser pulse - A laser pulse is used to create the short pressure pulses
[24]. An Nd-Yag laser with 1.061l wavelength is aimed at alto 2 cm 2
metal surface, e.g. aluminium. The energy of the laser beam is in the
order of 109 W /m 2 and causes immediate evaporation of the
aluminium surface. A heavy pressure pulse is generated in this way.
The duration of the pressure pulse is about 1 ns for testing thin films
and 5 to 10 ns for testing cable insulation.
Resoluiion - At a wave velocity of Zmrrr/us this leads to aresolution
of 2 Il in thin films and 10 to 20 Il in cable insulation.
Sensitivity - The sensitivity for space charges is estimated to be in the
order of 1 JlC/cm3 . The sensitivity for surface charges is in the order of
10 IlC/m2; that is less sensitive than with the static method discussed
in the previous chapter. It should, however, be remembered that the
statie method can only be applied to surfaces under oil or gas which
are physieally accessible.
Electrodes - The pressure wave is emitted from the aluminium laser
target to one of the electrodes and from this to the dielectric. The
interfaces should be carefully constructed. Electrodes are sometimes
made of a stiff material or are not well connected to the dielectric.
Unexpected reflections or loss of energy may arise. Good results have
been obtained with the semi-conducting sereens in cable construc-
tions. These sereens are well attached to the dielectrie material and
possess about the same acoustical characteristics, so that a fluent
transition takes place.
Wave velocity - The propagation velocity of the wave amounts to
about 2 mm per microsecond in polymers: in polyethylene 1.95
mm/jis has been measured, in Teflon 2.3 mm/jis. The velocity in
ceramic materials is in the order of 3 to 6 mm/jis,
Bandwidth - The amplifiers and oscilloscopes are normal commer-
cially available instruments. For testing thin films a bandwidth of 1
GHz is required, for cable insulation 200 MHz has been reported.
4.3. PRESSURE WA VE METHOD 69
b)
- I +I I-I +
- 1+/1 +
- ':1 +
- 1+++1 1::::1 +
- 1+++1 I-I +
- 1+ +1 1=1 +
short
c)
It follows from these cases that only situation (a) can be used for a
well-defined calibration.
These mechanisms are known from solid state physics and from
research on crystals. Although polymers are not crystalline in this
sense, the notions of solid state physics can well be used for the
description of the phenomena in polymers. A study of the molecular
structure of a polymer is therefore needed. This will be made here for
the example of polyethylene, which is one of the most widely used
polymers.
Structure of polyethylene
regular shape of the macro molecules. The main chains have a length
of thousands to tens of thousands CH2-groups [25,26]. These chains
run partly parallel to themselves or to other chains, see figure 4.10.
These parallel regions form the crystalline part of the polymer. For
another part of their length, the chains follow an arbitrary path and
create amorphous regions. In _these amorphous regions additives, such
as impurities and anti-oxidants, are accumulated. This has an impor-
tant effect on the formation of space charge as will be seen later.
H H H H H H H H H H H
I I I I I I I I I I I I I
-c-c-c-c-c-c- c-c-c-c-c-c-c-
I
H
I
H
I
H
I
H
I
H
I
H
I
H
I I
H
I
H
I
H
I I
H-C-H
I
H
LDPE HPDE
Density [g/cm 3 ] 0.92 0.95
Crystallinity 55% 90%
Young's modulus 200-400 600-1500
Yield strength [MPa] 10-20 25-50
Ultimate strength [MPa] 15-25 35-55
Elongation at fracture 400-700% 100-600%
Electrical resistivity ~ 1015 Om > 1018 Om
The amorphous regions conduct charges far better than the crystal-
line ones, so that the specific resistivity of polyethylene depends
largelyon the crystallinity as shown in the tab Ie above. This is
important for the generation of space charge and for the time
constants that are involved in generating these space charges.
Why are some materials good conductors and other materials good
insulators? The explanation of this difference gives an understanding
of the behaviour of polymers subjected to electric fields [27, 28]. The
explanation is based on the atom model of Niels Bohr: a number of
electrons move in separate orbits around the nucleus of an atom. Not
every orbit is possible; a limited number of orbits which are situated
at discrete distances from the nucleus are available. An electron may
leap from one orbit to another, it cannot move in between; every orbit
represents a distinct energy level.
The available orbits appear to be concentrated in energy bands where
these orbits are situated close together, see figure 4.11.
There are two important energy bands: the valenee band and the
conduction band. In the valenee band the electrons are firrnly coupled
to the atom. They can leave this band only by means of chemical
processes: e.g. two hydrogen atoms lose an electron each (H+ and
H+) and one oxygen atom receives these electrons (0-) in which case
water is formed.
4.4. SPACE CHARGE FORMATION 73
vacuum
level
I e
conduclion
band
\0: electron
band
gap
valence
band
The upper band in figure 4.11 is the conduction band. Electrons in this
band can easily leap from one atom to the other; they are, as it were,
jointly owned electrons. Metals form an extreme example of this
situation where the electrons of the conduction band repre sent an
electronic gas, which explains the great conductivity of metals.
Between these two bands lies a forbidden area, the band gap. No
electrons can occur in this band gap. An electron from the valenee
band can reach the conduction band only if it obtains sufficient
energy (thermal or otherwise) to pass the forbidden band gap in one
single leap.
The same consideration is valid for "holes". In the example of
hydrogen H + the vanished electron leaves a hole, which represents a
positive charge. If such a "hole" wants to join the conduction band it
must also pass the forbidden band gap in one single leap.
It follows from these considerations that the conductivity of a
material depends on the size of the band gap. If this gap is large it is
extremely improbable that an electron can pass the gap and add to
the conductivity. The width of this gap is expressed in electron volts:
the number of volts that is required for an electron to leap over the
band gap. (One eV represents an energy of - 100 k] per mol).
OOj1JrJc-A\Jj~
The resisti"ityof a material is then equal to
a= enJ1,
74 CHAPTER 4. SPACE CHARGES
concentration resistivity
e1ectrons oer m 3 Qm
CONDUCTOR narrow < 0.2eV 1027 to 1029 10-7 to 10-6
band
SEMI- restricted 0.2 to 2 eV 1011 to 1026 10-5 to 1010
CONDUCTOR band
INSULATOR wide >2eV o to 10 10 1011 to 1020
band
Amorphous regions
b
Q"= A. e 1"',
It follows that
Injection
W=cp-x
W= Eg-cp+ X,
where cp and X are the work functions for bringing a charge to the free
level of vacuum.
4.4. SPACE CHARGE FORMATION 77
- . - - - - - , - - vacuum -ooor-----..--
I I
I I
-x -<1>1 xI
I
,..----'-- insulator
I
I
I
electrode
Fig. 4.12. Barrier at the interface between electrode and dielectric. An electron has to
pass a barrier Ij> - X to be injected in the dielectric, a hole has to pass a barrier Eg - Ij> +
X to be extracted.
-w +~ f3{E
i = AT2 . exp [ kT ] ,
- -----=--
------=-- -=---="---- -- - - - - - - - - ---------
10.9 +----.--.---,--,-----,r--!
o 100 200 300
kV/mm-
2 345 6
hours -
4.4. SPACE CHARGE FORMATION 79
Oscillations
At high field strengths (> 70 kV/mm) the leakage current may start
to oscillate, see figure 4.17 [35]. Oscillation is often a precursor of
breakdown, as shown in the figure for 100 kV/mm. The oscillations
are caused by clouds of space charge that run away from the cathode.
The formation of space charge causes the field strength to fall below
the Skottky barrier, the injection stops and the space charge runs off,
the injection is restored, etc. This causes great local changes in field
strength which may lead to breakdown.
t 60
Fig. 4.17. Sample with internai di s-
charges, near the breakdown stress.
i(nA) Oscillations in the ieakage current may
40
wam against breakdown.
20
o -r---.-----.--.,---{
o 20 40 60 ao
min-
4.5. ACTUAL OBSERVATIONS 81
4.5. Actualobservations
Cable insulation
Many tests have been carried out on plastic insulated cab les with
semi-conducting screens. The sereens were of the same construction
as those used for AC cables and shown in volume I, section 9.8.
A currently occurring charge distribution is that shown in figure 4.18
[29 to 32]: hetero charges appear which are either concentrated at the
electrodes (full line) or are more diffuse (dotted line). It takes some
hours to accumulate the full charge, see figure 4.19 [21].
-p~
x(mm)_
1.6
Fig. 4.19. Growth of space charges in XLPE, E '" 25 kV/mm De. Mirror charges
induced by the space charge can be seen at the electrodes.
30 kV/mm/
/
/
/
/
/
/ , 5,
+
o 2
z(mm)-
Fig. 4.20. Space charge in LDPE after about 250 h for three different volta ges.
4.5. ACTUAL OBSERVATIONS 83
/ +
x(mm)_
Fig. 4.21. Space charge in LDPE after about 280 hand 15 kV/mm. The same test was
performed with LDPE the same specification but from a different manufacturer; a
distribution as in figure 4.18 (dotted line) was the result.
As has been said, the time required to charge the dielectric amounted
to several hours. The time required to discharge the dielectric,
however, is far longer. Cases have been reported where a length of
AC cable was tested on site at high DC voltage. The cable was
removed, shipped and re-installed in a laboratory, where it was
found that quite high DC voltages reappeared some months later.
Apparently charge carriers are preserved in deep traps in the
amorphous regions of the polyethylene, which charges take a long
time to be liberated.
0.3
M
t 0.2 P
E 0.1
~
:::t +
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
0 20 40 60 80 100
% insulation thickness _
0.3
M
t
E
0.2
~ 0.1
:::t
+
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
0 20 40 60 80 100
% insulation thickness _
Fig . 4.22. Space charge in XLPE after 3 days, 20 kV /mm and 70 oe. Curve L: the
electrodes consist of a low-conductive compound with a low carbon-content. Curve
H: a highly conductive one with much carbon-black.
The results with HDPE, e.i. polyethylene with high crystallinity, were
noteworthy as high values of space charge were measured and the
local field strengths increased 3 times, in extreme cases even to 10
times the original value [33]. The time constant for the charge
accumulation was difficult to determine but was in the order of
hundreds of hours. HDPE is apparently a material that is not weU
suited to De applications.
+200
C')
t +100
P
E
~
0
::i.
-100
-200
0 10 20 30 40
llm-
4
t
E 0
E
......
>
..:.:: -4
-R
Fig. 4.23. Space charge in a 50 ~ Mylar film after 10 min and 240 kV /mm. The charge
induced field E is shown in the lower graph.
General
The effect of field strength is insofar c1ear that a higher stress E leads
in generaI to more space charge; there is, however, no proportionality
and the shape of the distribution may change with the field strength.
The effect of temperature is in generaI that higher temperatures T
favour injection and rnight affect the charge distribution in this way.
General rules to predict the intensity and the distribution of space
charge can, however, not bee-n given.
Chapter 5
Partial discharges, detection
II
- 1/1
-.\
\
~N)
' .........
--
\
-,
<,
-
<,
<,
89
90 CHAPTER 5. PARTIAL DISCHARGES, DETECTION
b dv 1
n~-- .-
e dt u'
v - Re .(1 - e-t/T). V
e - Rb + Re '
a
92 CHAPTER 5. PARTIAL DISCHARGES, DETECTION
vs +-- - - - - - - - - - ---:=---
-- ---
u --t------::;or----::::;oor-
t r = -vrln (1 -~)
Vs '
indefinitely for the next discharge. In the case of AC, at least one
discharge per period occurs so that at least 50 discharges per second
appear, which can elearly be observed on an oscilloscope. This is not
the case with DC and the voltage should further be increased until
5.2. DISCHARGES IN THE RESISTIVE STAGES 93
Repetition rate
1
t r = -vr ln (1--)
x
1 1 1 1
-In (I-x) =x + 2x2 + 3x2
In actual cases this often comes true: if the walls of the cavity in
figure 5.4 have no conductivity, e.i. Re = 00, the voltage over the defect
approximates (Re/(R t + Re))V ~ V and the voltage over the defect is
almost as large as that over the sample.
In this expression is
R
n = =(b-+-c"7":)R=-b
n:: iR,
The discharge frequency is thus (for one and the same defect at constant
voltage) propartianal ta the leakage current of the dielectric [35].
5.2. DISCHARGES IN THE RESISTIVE STAGES 95
u-+------7'!''------1f-----...,.",..~
1-
Fig. 5.6. Waiting for a starting electron during time t[ causes the voltage over the
defect to rise to Vi. Then breakdown takes place and the voltage drops to V r Bath the
time-lag t and the discharge magnitude q vary from discharge to discharge.
On the average, however, the statement above holds true. This may
be illustrated by the example given in figure 5.7, where results are
shown for a cavity of 0.3 x 3 mm in polyethylene [35]. The repetition
rate n closely follows the polarization current ip.
96 CHAPTER 5. PARTIAL DISCHARGES, DETECT/ON
~n1t i
p
nA
t
100 \ 31
10
20 kV
10
12kV
1 +------,----,--.------1 0.1+------,----,--.------1
o 60 120 180 240 0 60 120 180 240
min_ min-
Fig. 5.7. The discharge frequency n closely follows the polarization current ip. Cavity
in polyethylene, 0.3 x3 mm, sample thickness 1 mmo
The basic diagram for detecting discharges is shown in figure 5.8. The
circuit has been divided into four parts, which will be further
discussed below. Three parts are identical to those for AC detection:
k
De source
l~
II------
"~I~~
J
amplifier
circuit quadripole observation
Fig. 5.8. Circuit for detecting DC discharges: (a) the lef! hand part of the circuit is
identical to that for AC discharges. (b) the observation unit is specific for DC
discharges.
The fourth part differs basically from that of AC as the 50(60) Hz time
base is missing:
Circuit
q
D =a + C (1 + al k) .
De
i
a a'
~ ~'1
+ cfj:
~ ==
r-- --,
I I
-L
RA
V V -L
I ;;; lte 1"1 R' I
I I
'--- ----'
7....
Fig. 5.9. Balanced detection for DC discharges. The bridge is identical to that for AC
discharges and can be balanced by varying Rand C. A balanced bridge rejects
external disturbances and can also be used for locating discharges in or outside the
samples a and d . The observation unit differs from that for AC.
Detection impedance
Amplifier
whieh discharges originate from the sample and whieh from outside.
This suppression of disturbance, however, is made at the expense of a
loss of data. During the short period in whieh an undesired impu1se
is rejected, a desired impu1se cannot be recorded. If the frequency of
the disturbing impu1ses is fo and the maximal pu1se frequency of the
detector is fmax the Ioss of information is
JsL .100%
fmax '
Recording
1
q
q
I. t t t t t
Evaluation at AC voltage
Classification of AC discharges
b) --11111111
I!HI
c) --11111' 11111'
{~'IIIIIIIIII~~IIIIIIIII
0 0 0
Fig. 5.13. Statistica! ana!ysis of AC discharges begins with storing the number n and
the size q of all discharges in any phase-window ffJ.
Fig. 5.14. AC statistical distributions of the average discharge magnitudeij, the max.
q
magnitude or the number of discharge n as a function of the phase angle lfJ. These
distributions, both in the positive and in the negative half of the sine wave, are
characteristic for the type of discharge in question.
The attribution may be sharp, the first stave in the diagram is then
almost 100% and the others are small or neglectible, as shown in
figure 5.15. In other cases the attribution may be uncertain, the first
stave is then far smaller than 100% and other possible sourees are
indicated with rather high percentages.
5.4. RECORDING WITH AC VOLTAGE 105
Ul
Ul
'"
U
Qj
C-
C
pc-
class-magnitude
Fig. 5.16. A currently used display of De discharge: the number of discharges (for a
given period of time) is shown as a function if the discharge magnitude in pc. The x-
axis is devided in a number of classes with a discharge magnitude from qn to qn+lo
q = b~V
Some examples:
A cavity of 1 x 1 mm by 60 11 height (in a polyethylene
insulation of 10 mm thickness) is expected to generate
discharges of 1 pc.
A cavity of 3.5 x 3.5 mm by 1 mm height (in the same
dielectric) has an expected discharge magnitude of 100 pc.
Do these expectations come true if actual samples are measured?
From a number of observations [3, 35, 38] the following could be
inferred.
Surface discharges in air - See figure 5.18. Surface discharges in air are
generally larger than those in cavities. They ignite at fairly low
voltages and increase fast with increasing voltage. Surface discharges
near a sharp electrode at 5 kV negative to earth amounted to 100 to
1000 pC, with a repetition rate of 100 discharges per minute. A
pasitive electrode generated stilllarger discharges: 1000 pC to 10 nC
with a similar repetition rate [9].
generates a curve with a far longer tail as shown in figure 5.19 (b) and
corona is characterized by a concentration around one magnitude
with little scatter, as shown in figure 5.19 (c).
500 x 1000
n1 n1 n110
3200 400 8
2800
2400 300 6
2000
1600 200 4
1200
800 100 2
400
0 0
0 250 500 250 500 0 25 50 75
pC- pC- pC-
a) b) e)
Fig. 5.19. De discharge frequency = f(q) according to figure 5.16 for th ree different
types of discharges: (a) cavity discharges. (b) surface discharges in air, (c) corona.
t 2 +--t----+--+------i
nC
t 0.8
...-~
./
/'
qmed 1 - t - - t - - - j - - t - - - j 0.4
qmed
o- t - - t - - - j - - t - - - j o
10 15 20 25 30 6 8 10 12 14
a) kV- b) kV-
Fig. 5.20. Median discharge magnitude as a function of the De test voltage: (a) cavity
discharges (b) surface discharges.
A special case
t 8
discharges. The average magnitude of a
q
discharge suc following a discharge of
4
....'... ....
'. '.,
u.
'.
-,
given magnitude q: (a) cavity discharges
(b) surface discharges (c) corona.
2
a) 0 -!--.---,----.---.---.--
o 5 10 15 20 25
q_pC
nC 20
t 16
qsuc 12 . ,.. '
8 .. . z:
.',':'
4 ..
b) 0 -!----,,----r----,-------,.---,-
o 5 10 15 20 25
q-pC
pC 40
t
qsuc
30 ......
20
10
c) 0 +----,----r----,-------,,---,-
o 10 20 30 40 50
q_pC
Fig. 5.22. Difference in time lag before (pre) and after (suc) of a given dischar ge q.
The average time delay ~Tpre is now recorded and shows an incre asing
relationship with increasing d ischarge magnitude q, as m ay be
expected. Figure 5.23 (a) shows the results of an actual tes t.
o
3:l 0.15 so 0.2
t 0.12
al 0.09
a.
l:;:j 0.06
0.03
o o
o 16 32 48 64 80 o 16 32 48 64 80
a) q_pC b) q_pC
Fig. 5.23. Average time lag before (a) and after (b) a disc harge of q pico-coulombs in
an actual test on a fully discharging cavity.
~tsuc = tRsuc + tL
The average time delay Tsuc is recorded and shows also an increasing
relationship with increasing discharge magnitude q, but bya different
curve. Figure 5.23 (b) shows the results of an actual test. Such curves
are characteristic of this type of discharge. Characteristic shapes have
also been found for corona; but surface discharges, for instance,
generated an indistinct result.
De
I I I 111I11
Fig. 5.24. In analogy to the phase ang le rp with AC, the time lag M between DC
discharges can be chosen as a base for stat istics. The variation in time lag is large 50
and
q = f(n) .
Partial discharges are characterized by the fact that only a part of the
dielectric breaks down. This partial breakdown usually takes place in
an air gap. The physical mechanism of the breakdown is not always
the same, it depends on the character of the air gap: a cavity in a
dielectric, adielectric surface, a protrusion in air, etc, but it also
depends of the ageing of the dielectric. Various discharge mechanisms
will be described here, but not before a description is given of the
measuring methods which are used for the study of these
mechanisms.
6.1 Observation
The discharges in this study have been observed in three ways:
117
118 CHAPTER 6. PARTIAL DISCHARGES, PHYSICS
camera
t-
/
Fig. 6.1. Observation of the physical phenomena in cavity discharges. A video camera
with an image intensifier is used to observe the luminous images of the discharges.
The shift of charge in the cavity is measured with an extremely fast digital
oscilloscope. After demolition of the sample the cavity-surface is examined with a
stereo microscope.
N = Noe ad,
where No is the number of initiating electrons,
a is the ionisation coefficient, which increases fast with the
field strength
dis the length of the air gap,
see [1] section 5.2.
A situation occurs where the number of ions exceeds 108 , which is the
condition for a streamer discharge: the space charge of the ions in the
avalanche head then affects the field and the field strength near the
head increases considerably. The ionisation in that region becomes
intensive and more intensive photons are generated. These photons
can now ionize the gas atoms near the avalanche and new avalanches
are generated as shown in figure 6.2 (a). More and more new
avalanches are created and a narrow channel is formed as shown in
figure 6.2 (b). This mechanism is more quantitatively described in [1]
section 6.1. The streamer-like discharge in the virgin cavity has thus
the following characteristics [5]:
a) b)
f\
t
mV
390
260
\
130
\
-,
r--...
r-- r- t--
o
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
ns-
Fig. 6.3. The pulse of a streamer-like discharge has a short front and a fairly short tail.
30
t
lil
c 20
~
"
.3:
Ol 10
lil
S
a.
initiating electron is accelerated and ionizes the gas atoms, see figure
6.5 (a). Positive ions remain and the new electrons collide again with
the gas atoms, ionize these atoms and form an avalanche as shown in
figure 6.5 (b). :rhe positive iOllS fa:!l back Oll tlte eonduclive layer-at
the cathode end generale new stafting c1ectrons, see figure 6.5 (c). By
this feed-back mechanism more and more avalanches are formed and
a complete breakdown of the cavity takes place, see also [1] sections
5.2 and 5.3.
- rn.. tlif. prlJc e ~s; ?ht.b ~c~ C<ec,-t.e...i- l?c..t g'et\e.qj c. Vle.,J s.1M-t~ .J u~
llt i4 Cc.lioo,4e L pLtclv icrlj ,1t .":\I\ . - - - --
I lfU"'" - ++ + -
- + + + -
+ ++ + + -
+ +
+ +
o
,t e-
e-
6
.l-
a) b) c)
mvt
10
8
6
4 /
2
j
~ V' --."
o 20 40 60 80
ns -
Fig. 6.6. The pulse of a Townsend-like discharge has a langer front and a far long tail
then in figure 6.2.
t 800
Ui'
.s
s:
600
~
.~ 400
IJl
:;
Co
200
This second stage persists for quite a while; for an AC field strength
of 5 kV / mm some hundred hours. At the end of this period the
concentration of by-products becomes so large that the conductive
layer tends to crystallize. Under AC conditions the next stage may
appear.
Fig. 6.8. Field concentrations near the edges of crystals formed after a prolonged
exposure to discharges.
5
4
3
2 1\ I
1
'IV'
" ........ M"I '1 ~ .IOA.
o v
./
o 10 20 30 40 50
ns-
Fig. 6.10. A typical oscillogram of pitting discharges: very short fronts and short tails
and a high repetition rate.
126 CHAPTER 6. PARTIAL DISCHARGES, PHysICs
Fig. 6.11. Pitting discharges at AC. The repetition rate is the higher if the extinction
voltage V e is doser to the ignition voltage Vi' Such small and extremely frequent
probes remain unnoticed by a conventional discharge detector.
Different materials
Virgin state
Aged cavity
A third stage?
A third stage has never been found when stressing with DC voltage
[9, 35]. The conductive layer remains liquid, no trace of crystallization
has been observed. Nevertheless, breakdown takes place af ter
prolonged stressing as will be shown in the next chapter. The relation
between DC discharges and DC breakdown is, on the grounds of
these observations, very uncertain. There remain three possible
reasons for breakdown in the presence of DC discharges:
128 CHAPTER 6. PARTIAL DISCHARGES, PHYSICS
For the time being, no choice can be made between these three
hypotheses, but they affirm that discharge detection is a meaningful
test for DC energized dielectrics.
Fig. 6.12. Surface discharges on a dielectric. Positive discharges are larger and are
more branched than discharges from a negative electrode.
6.6. SURFACE DISCHARGES 129
6.7 Corona
Corona occurs around sharp edges in a highly stressed electric field,
independent of whether this field is generated by AC or DC voltage.
There is a distinct difference between corona around negative or
positive electrodes.
130 CHAPTER 6. PARTIAL DISCHARGES, PHYSICS
Negative corona
a)
b)
~1
Faraday
dark space
~
rad i u s 500 Il
radius 200 Il
radius 10 Il
Fig. 6.16. PuIses of negative corona in air. The pulse-width increases with increasing
radius of the needle-shaped conductor.
Positive corona
Corona in oil mayalso occur around sharp edges. The high field
strength in the vicinity eauses first a partial breakdown of the oil. An
unstable form of corona then occurs in the gaseous by-products of the
breakdown, see figure 6.14 (b). Although such corona is not
detrimental to the dielectric it might pollute the oil and impair the
dielectric strength in the long run.
Chapter 7
Breakdown and voltage life
intrinsic breakdown
thermal breakdown
treeing
discharge breakdown
breakdown in interfaces.
Intrinsic breakdown
135
136 CHAPTER 7. BREAKDOWN AND VOLTAGE LIFE
kVlmmt
j
1000
800
600
r--::::: r-,
<, -
r--.....
~ '-.. <,
<;
....::::: - -
<, -
intrinsic
10-4 sec
200
f'-..... r-- 1 sec
30 sec --
o
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100
T(C)-
Fig. 7.2. Breakdown strength of glasses a function of temperatures, measured for test
periods ta between 10-4 sec and 30 sec. Below a certain combination of test period
and temperature thermal breakdown is prevented and the intrinsic breakdown
strength of glass is reached.
PI =f(E).
The electrons collide with the crystallattice and transmit an energy
flow P2 to the lattice:
P2 = F(T,a),
where T is the absolute temperature and a is a measure for the
energy traps in the dielectric.
As long as PI < P2 the system is in balance and nothing happens
except some heating of the dielectric. If PI> P2 the energy dissipation
is unlimited, the high-energy electrons destroy the crystallattice and
intrinsic breakdown takes place.
138 CHAPTER 7. BREAKDOWN AND VOLTACE LIFE
Thermal breakdown
The applied voltage and the leakage current represent a loss that is
converted into a heat flow in the dielectric. If the applied voltage is
increased the heat generation increases strongly, and if this heat flow
exceeds the flow that can be removed by thermal conduction an
instabie situation occurs. The temperature of the dielectric increases
beyond contral and the dielectric melts or burns so that breakdown
follows.
The condition for thermal breakdown can be deduced for DC in a
similar way as that done for AC in volume I section 9.3.
A small cross-section of 1 x 1 mm is considered as shown in figure
7.3. In this cross-section a loss Wl is generated:
7.1. BREAKDOWN Of SOLIDS 139
f d
U2 _ 4 T(}th
dp - d
140 CHAPTER 7. BREAKDOWN AND VOLTAGE LIFE
or
U2 = 4.T.p.(Jth'
U2
Pbreakdown = 4 T (Jth .
If we enter here U = 100 kV, T = 400 "K and (Jth = 3.5 for polyethylene
or 5.5 W /(Km) for paper, the specific resistivity required for DC
breakdown becomes about 10 6 nm. This value is characteristic for
semi-conductors, not for insulating materials.
Only with extremely high field strengths, approaching the intrinsic
breakdown strength, such low values for resistivity can be expected:
the emission current increases exponentially with field strengths over
250 kV /mm, as has been shown before in figure 4.13.
Treeing
\V \V \V
/ /
a) b) c) d)
Fig 7.4. Different causes of treeing in a dielectric (a) sharp inclusion (b) protrusion on
the electrode (c) sharp gap (d) non-conductive particIe.
-
The initiation of a tree is far more difficult in DC circumstances. The
charge injection in the material occurs in one direction and is
supplied by the leakage current only. Moreover, homo charges may
be formed which shield the affected area. Tree initiation occurs thus
at far higher field strengths and/ or after far longer initiating periods.
But after the first channel has been formed the growth proceeds faster
7.1. BREAKDOWN OF SOLIDS 143
as a higher driving field is available. The tree surges out with hardly
any retention for channel forming, as shown in figure 7.6.
Breakdown by discharges
~---
+ + + +
~-:---:-:+ :-:--
a) b)
Fig. 7.7. Fields around a discharging cavity (a) field concentration at the edge of the
surface charge in the cavity (b) Space charges caused by the discharges in the cavity
reliweth edge and stress the adjunct dielectric.
down. This may lead to breakdown. It has been found [46] that there
is a relationship between the discharge intensity and this breakdown.
In figure 7.9 the repetition rate for all discharges over 2000 pC is
shown as a function of the time during cooling down. In figure 7.9 (a)
the curve is shown during a test where no breakdown took place, but
in figure 7.9 (b) a curve is shown when breakdown occurred after
about 3.5 hours. The repetition rate hardly increases in the first
example, but increases ten to twentyfold in the example with
breakdown and it grows out of bounds just before the breakdown
occurs. As in the case of polymers, it cannot be concluded that
discharges are the cause of breakdown, their increase might weIl be
the result of a common cause, e.g. an increased conductivity caused
by the electron bombardment. But the fact remains that an increasing
discharge activity is the predecessor of breakdown.
The repetition rate measured here is not high compared to the usual
repetition rates with 50 Hz AC. It would correspond there to l~O
discharge per half-cycle and would cause comparatively little
damage. However the DC field strength is here at least two times as
high as corresponding type tests with AC. This high E has an
appreciabIe effect on that of the expected lifetime L as follows from
the relationship L = cl En.
'e:
t 80
60
>2000 pC Slight increase of the repetition rate after
"
switchi ng off the curren t when more
current
40 cavities appear near the con ductor.
switch-oft
20
-100
+-
o 100
...-...
o-I=~~"""'i=:::o.t;:::::::;::::::...,~:;::=o-j
200
a) mi n _
,/
t 100 >2000 pC
f
A Fig. 7.9.(b) Discharges in HVDC cable
after sw itching DH the current. A lar ger
80 fiv
'7
e: r--
" 60 N \ incre ase in repetition ra te is a fore
.....
warning to breakdown.
40 -current
s~itch;off
20 I ),
-I.
0
-100 o 100 200
b) min_
also attract each other so that bridges of inferior quality are formed
where breakdown eventually takes place. With DC the sensitivity to
dust is stilllarger so that slightly lower breakdown voltages ma y be
expected. The de sign stress as shown in volume I remains abo ut the
same, the only difference being that here crest voltages shall be taken
instead of kilovolts r.m.s.
volume I section 4.5 are valid here as well, after allowing for the
difference in crest and r.m.s. voltage.
1. Solid to fluid
2. Solid to solid
Solid-to-fluid interface
Printb oard
Fig. 7.10. Printboard in oil . High De voltages are applied between conductor A and
B.
o 10 20 30 40
kV-
Solid-to-solid interface
HVDCplug
/
Quasi homogeneous bodies
The effect of the test duration (a) is here primarily investigated, the
other variables (b) to (d) follow thereafter. The knowledge of voltage
life in De applications is restricted; the available knowledge is
collected in the following sections and turns out to be sufficient to
draw some general conclusions.
Fig. 7.14. Pol yethylene discs for voltage life test s with De.
7.4. VOLTAGE LIFE OF SOLIOS 153
Flat models
Tests were carried out with flat polyethylene discs [42] as shown in
figure 7.14. Breakdown took place in the central part of 0.8 mm
thickness. The voltage life of the samples was determined as a
function of the field strength in this central part. The results are
shown in figure 7.15 and subsequent figures.
t
E
500
EB:::==<2E)
~ 300
...::: l::::""
200
r-- t--
150
100
- r--- ,....
r-- ~
r--A
r-B
70
50
0.1 0.5 1 5 10
hours_
Fig. 7.15. Results of DC voltage life tests with polyethylene discs. Curve A: electrodes
of conductive silicon grease. Curve B: sprayed-en electrodes of graphite.
E
t 500
EB:::==<2E)
~ 300
.... t--
200 f-
t-- I---
150
100
70
r-- -- r-- t---
- 20 C
70 C
50
0.1 0.5 1 5 10
hours_
Fig. 7.16. Results of DC voltage life tests for two different temperatures.
154 CHAPTER 7. BREAKDOWN AND VOLTAGE LIFE
Voltage life - It turns out that the breakdown strength decreases with
time in a way similar to that which is known for AC. The slope of the
curve appears to be dependent on the material of the electrodes.
Curve A corresponds to an electrode that is made with conducting
silicon grease, curve B to an electrode made with a graphite spray.
This dependenee on electrode material is characteristic for DC and
can be attributed to differences in the formation of space charge. For
short test periods of one hour or less, the results of both electrode
types are equal, after longer periods the difference is evident: space
charge has had time to be generated.
Polyethylene - It was remarkable that no differences were found when
different types of polyethylene were used. Three brands were tested,
with different amounts of anti-oxidant and voltage stabilizers, all
three of the same density: 0.922 g/cm3 .
Volume - The field strengths obtained here are high, in the order of
one third of the intrinsic breakdown strength. This can be explained
by the small insulation thickness and the small volume under test.
Temperature - The effect of temperature is shown in figure 7.16, where
the life curve for 70C is shown. The breakdown va lues decrease to
60 to 70% of the ambient value. This decrease is more than with AC
where the breakdown strength for that temperature decreases to
about 95% of the original value.
Defects - The effect of foreign particles is shown in figure 7.17. Metal
particles of 100 ~ length were added to the polyethylene. This gave
two results. It was in the first place found that the life curve is
steeper, i.e. the breakdown values decrease appreciably for longer
test durations. If the voltage life Land field E are related in the usual
way
c
L = En '
-
300
t 200
-.
l"-
r-
~
50
0.1 0.5 1 5 10
hours_
Cable samples
300
t 200 -- ---- ~
E 150
:-
/
~
~ 100
<, <,
r-
70
50
0.1
---
0.5 1 5 10
-FO
hours-
Fig. 7.18. Results of De voltage life test on XLPE cable samples. Polarity effect related
to the asymmetry of the sample.
Polarity effect d n contrast to the former tests where the field was
homogeneous,):lolarity effects may be expected here, caused by the
radial field. This agrees with the re su lts shown in figure 7.18 where
the breakdown values for negative conductor were lower than those
for positive conductor.
Life curve - The slope of the life curve is not uniform, but if the
average slope is taken a directional constant n = 9 is obtained.
Temperature - The effect of temp rature has been determined as well.
There were not so many results, but it appeared that the breakdown
strength of a negative cable was hardly affected, whereas for positive
conductor the breakdown strength tended to decrease, e.i. for 83 oe
with a 25%.
Volume - The life curve of the former tests with flat disks has been
entered in this figure for comparison purposes. The breakdown
values of the cable appear to be far lower than those of the discs. This
is explained by the larger insulation thickness and the larger volume
under test.
hour. After that the breakdown voltage remains constant: either the
sample breaks down within an hour or the sample does not break
down at all. Whether ageing would be absent for tests over 500 hours
rema ins uncertain.
300
t 200 -- ~
- --
I-
150
s
.:L. 100 r-::::: "'-
;d,l$~MijI
70
50
0.1 0.5 1 5 10
hours _
Fig. 7.19. Results of De voltage life tests with artificial cavities in polyethylene.
This result is in contradiction with all other results, the au thor of [35],
however, reported that breakdowns outside the active area of the
cavity were omitted, which could have had a significant effect on the
results.
300
t 200 -- I- _
-- -
150
~
~ 100
1#11lk'%wi@\1&1
/
70
50 - -
t-- I
r- -!..
--
30
0.1 0.5 1 5 10
hours_
Fig. 7.20. Results of De voltage life test with cavities in quartz filled epoxy resin.
Bimodal distribution
t 99 .9
98 .0
90.0
/
----
'ij 63 .0
i'L 50 .0
30 .0
20 .0
10.0
_.
_.
5.0
2.0
1.0
0.5
0.2
0.1
10. 1 1 2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10 10 10
a) t-
t 5
t1P 4
t1t
3
0
10. 1 1 2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10 10 10
b) 1-
Fig. 7.21. (a) Weibull curves of the Iife tesIs in figure 7.20. (b) Failure rate curve of the
bimodal distribution above.
5ummary
1. Impulse tests
2. Stability tests
3. Discharge detection
4. Leakage tests
and as a possible addition
5. tg 8 tests with AC
In all these cases a distinction must be made between type tests and
routine tests. Type tests are performed on a prototype. Such a test is
161
162 CHAPTER 8. TESTING
Type test
Stability tests are of the utmost importance in type tests. They are
performed in circumstances which represent operational circum-
stances, such as high temperatures, heat cycles, mechanical stresses,
etc. The test voltage is chosen to represent the full lifetime at
operational voltage. The relation of the test voltage to the operational
voltage is derived from the life curves of solids as reported in section
7.4. In order to keep the test on the safe side, a low directional
constant is chosen, n = 9, which corresponds to the worst case of a
poor dielectric with many defects. The slope of that curve is shown in
figure 8.1; an acceptable lifetime at operational voltage is chosen first
and an adequate test procedure is derived from that starting point.
Two examples are described below.
1"" <,
-, slabilitytests
<,
~ <,
2.5
<,
r- <, r-.
r-.
2
-,
-,
r-, r-,
1.5 <,
r-, -.
1 2
r-.
3
r-,
4
-,
r-,
5
10 10 10 10 10
I I I I I I
1day 1wk 1rnth 1 yr 10 yr 50 yr
hours_
Fig. 8.1. Stability tests based on the life expectancy L = clU n. Curve 1: subrnarine
cabie; curve 2: X-ray generator.
Routine test
Type tests
It must first be ascertained how the test object is used in practice and
which of the operational models of figure 2.24 is valid, so that it can
be decided whether discharges will be measured in DC situations
only, or also in transient stages where AC fields are dominating.
166 CHAPTER 8. TESTING
Routine tests
-\ 4 ~th 4
0
"'- <, I,
x: unsafe
2;" -,
"\,5
" r-,
1
0
3 <, , -, 0: safe
"'- "'- 3 1"'-
-,
0
2
"\
-,
S -,
"-,I"R"<, I"<, t-,
-, "" -, 9~ ~
01
")
-, I'\. -,
0
~ , 5i t-,
"'-.6 <, 7
n
10. 1 1 2 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
mln
. -1 _
Fig. 8.2. Devising an acceptance test for partial discharges. In the diagram the
repetition rate n of all discharges larger than the threshoId value qth is indicated as a
function of qth. Experience with safe and unsafe situations are entered in the
diagram as points 1 to 9. A risky area Rand a safe area 5 are indicated. The area
below 5 is assumed to be safe for HVDC equipment and is characterized by the
requirement qn = 2 nC min-1.
8.4. DISCHARGE DETECTION 167
500
o +----.-----,----,---j
10 2
3
10. 1 10 10 1 10
mln
. 1_
8.5. LEAKAGE CURRENT 169
t(min)-
kV:=:-
8.7 Specifications
This chapter is concluded with the description of three different test
specifications. The knowledge and the techniques reported in this
book can be found back in these specifications. The requirements are
partly fictitious and partly based on existing rules. They should
therefore not be taken literally, but seen as examples of how such
specifications might be built up.
Converter transformer
The first example, see table 8.1, relates to aconverter transformer for
DC power transmission [47]. The specifications apply to the DC
windings only, the other windings are tested in the conventional way
as AC parts.
The stability test (2) is short in order not to expend the voltage life.
Although it is not required, it may be assumed that the manufacturer
has made exhaustive life tests on prototypes of these windings. The
stability test is performed at ambient temperature as the field
distribution over the oil and the solid parts is unfavourable in that
case.
8.7. SPECIFICATIONS 171
The polarity reversal test (3) is realistic because of the many polarity
reversals that may take place in service. It is to be expected here as
wen that the manufacturer has tested his prototypes with large
numbers of polarity reversals, instead of one as has been specified
here.
The discharge test [47] specifies a limit of 1 discharge per minute
larger than 2000 pC, but with a view to the generaI rule developed in
the preceding section, a limit of 2 nC min"! might be set for other
discharge levels as wen. As it is difficult to measure large
transformers with a sensitivity better than 20 pC, a limit of 102 min"!
for discharges of 20 pC and more is added to the specification.
The AC stability test (5) is identical to the "induced overvoltage test"
which is customary for AC power transformers.
The leakage current test (6) and the tg 0 test (7) do not figure in the
official specification. It would, however, be useful to introduce them.
There are several windings which figure in a converter bridge; the
leakage current of these windings can be specified to deviate not
172 CHAPTER 8. TESTING
more from each other then 10% or 20%. The tg 8 of the windings can
be specified in the same way as is customary for AC transformers.
Subrnarine cab Ie
Tests (1), (2) and (3) in this table are in accordance with the CIGRE
specification [30]. Variations on this theme are used in relation to the
operational circumstances.
Discharges detection (4) is required in accordance with the higher
stresses imposed on modem cables. The specification is in accordance
with the phenomena described in section 7.1.
Leakage current (5) and -tg 8 (6) are measured here to serve as a
standard for the results of routine tests.
1. STABILITYTEST
- 2 Ua during 1 hour
2. DISCHARGE DETECTION *
in last 10 minutes of test (1)
require s; 2 nC min-1
3. LEAKAGE CURRENT TEST *
require within 10% of type test
4. tg 8 TEST *
require within 10% of type test
The routine tests are described in table 8.3 and require fewer
comments than the type test.
In real1y long submarine cables the tests marked with * cannot be
performed: test 2 because the sensitivity for discharges is insufficient
and tests 3 and 4 because the required power cannot be made
available. In such cases a sample test can be performed on a shorter
length of cable; the sample may be cut from the full-sized cable or be
manufactured in the same batch as the full-sized one.
X-ray generator
The routine test is described in table 8.5. The stability test (1) is
somewhat more than 2 decades shorter than the type test, so that the
unit is not prematurely aged by the routine test. Discharge detection
can be performed on parts of the construction only. However, the
transformer (2) cannot be tested with its square wave as the fronts of
the wave are too steep and will interfere with the detection. The best
way is to perform the test is with a sinusoidal voltage of the same
frequency as the square wave.
product. But none of these items should, in the opinion of the author,
be left out.
1. STABILITYTEST
1.5 u, for 250 hours
and/or 1.3 u, for 1 month
induding thermalloading cycles
2. START/STOP TESTS
10 tests on 1.5 Ua at full load
10 tests on 1.5 Ua at no load
3. INTERMITTENT OPERAnON
(if applicable)
1.5 u, for 250 hours
and/or 1.3 u, for 1 month
length of the test cycles equal to those in
op era tion
4. Specific tests representing operating
circumstances mav be added
8.8 Survey
The knowledge collected in this book can be summarized in 15 pro-
positions. Some of these propositions have newly been discovered,
other have been collected from widely scattered sourees in literature.
Conclusion
---- 9 C/mm
s
---- s
Fig. AU.
where <JO is the conductivity for 0 oe and <J is a constant. Now V(/ <J)
*" 0, so that a space charge p will be generated which can be
ca1culated with the aid of the Maxwell-equation
VeE = p
179
180 APPENDIX 1
I = (JE.
or
dp
'VI + (ft =0
'VI = 0
and
e
J 'V -(J = p,
or
(J'V - 'V (J
(JE (?- = p.
rr .
'V(J
p=-E
APPENDIX 1 181
1 der
P =-EE(j dx .
For d a/ dx we in troduce -
da dT
ar : dx .
1 drr
P = -EEg a d T .
and
1 der
cr dT = a.
This applied to the above equation for p yields
P=-EgaE.
tuE = 0,
or
f E dl =0,
see chapter 1 volume I.
t-
o
P
rt,--_
~
L
t-
x
I: 1 s
.1
Fig. A2.1.
183
184 APPENDIX 2
e' 1<:
E3 =- E2 +-
cc'
e' - (s - x)
El =E . e(s - vr) + e(vr)' '1<:,
- (s - x)
1<:1 = Dl = eEl (s - vr)1 e + (vr)' I ~
-p dx .
In the same way the surface charge 1<:2 is derived after the pressure
pulse has passed layer L:
_ -(s-x-vr)/e+(vr)'/~ . dx
Ki - (s-vr)le+ (vr)'/~ p .
The difference in surface charge ~IC before and after the impact of the
pressure wave is
~ vrle - (vr)' I ~ d
1<:= si E>: vrl e + (vr)' I ~ p x.
APPENDIX 2 185
As the width of the compressed area (v-r)' differs little from that of the
non-compressed area v-r (certainly if compared to the thickness 5 of
the sample) the expression becomes
A V-r/E-(v-r)'/~ d
u/= / p x.
5 E
A I/E-(l+xp)/E' A~
u/= / v-r p U.
5 E
Appendix 3
Repetition rate of De discharges with a
residual voltage
If the voltage over the defect does not drop to zero, but to a residual
voltage e as shown in figure A3.1, the recovery time i, becomes
V -u
t r = - 'l'ln - s - .
V s -e
Vs
----
---
--
./
./
./
t--
Fig. A3.1.
In V s - e- u + e
V s -e '
or
187
188 APPENDIX 3
or as
IJ.
In (1 - ---) see figure A3.1
VS -et
it follows that
IJ.
t :::::r--
r Vs - e'
or
IJ.
:::::r-
V r
s
References [1] and [2] are the first two volumes, the present book is
the third volurne in the series "Industrial High Voltage". Delft
University Press 1991, 1992, 1995.
[8] K'C, Wen a.o., "A calculation methad and some features of
transient fields in HVDC insulation". IEEE transactions on
power delivery, Vol. 8, no. 1 [anuary 1993.
189
190 BIBLIOGRAPHY
[17] M.S. Khalil e.o., "The effect of cable structure on space charge
formation" . IEEE Trans. on El. Ins., Vol. 23, no. 6 Dec. 1988.
195
196
The author
The author was for many years the director of an industrial
High Voltage laboratory and was simultaneously known as a
scientist because of his classic book on discharge detect ion.
He is a professor at the Delft University of Technology.
The baak
Professor Kreuger presents newly acquired knowledge and
discloses existing information on DC which was widely
scattered in literature.
He explains why high voltage DC requires a separate
treatment:
IS BN 90-407 - 1 110-0