Nonlinear Solid Mechanics

Andrew Hazel
Introduction

I Typically, want to determine the response of a solid body to

an applied load.
I If a solid body is not rigid, then it can deform.
Introduction

I Typically, want to determine the response of a solid body to

an applied load.
I If a solid body is not rigid, then it can deform.

@
@
Introduction

I Typically, want to determine the response of a solid body to

an applied load.
I If a solid body is not rigid, then it can deform.

@
@

I Question: How do we measure the (finite) deformation of a

deformable body?
Lagrangian coordinates
I We parametrise the position vector to any material point
within the undeformed body, r by Lagrangian coordinates, i .

Tangent vector
g = r
i i
Lagrangian coordinates
I As the body deforms, the Lagrangian coordinates remain
attached to the same material points in the body.

Tangent vector
g = r
i i

Deformed position, R( i )

Tangent vector
G = R
i i
The metric tensor

I A vector line segment dr = gi d i has length (squared)

(ds)2 = drdr = gi d i gj d j = gij d i d j ,

where
gij = gi gj ,
is called the (covariant) metric tensor.
The metric tensor

I A vector line segment dr = gi d i has length (squared)

(ds)2 = drdr = gi d i gj d j = gij d i d j ,

where
gij = gi gj ,
is called the (covariant) metric tensor.
I gij expresses information about the length of material lines in
the undeformed body.
I If the global and Lagrangian coordinates coincide gij = ij .
The strain tensor

I An objective measure of the deformation (strain) is given by

the Green strain tensor
1
ij = (Gij gij ) .
2
I gij is the metric tensor of the undeformed configuration.
I Gij is the metric tensor of the deformed configuration.
The strain tensor

I An objective measure of the deformation (strain) is given by

the Green strain tensor
1
ij = (Gij gij ) .
2
I Decompose the deformed position into

R( i ) = r( i ) + u( i ),

where u( i ) is the displacement field and   1, then

 
u u u
Gi = gi + i Gij = gij + gi j + gj i +O(2 ).

The strain tensor

I An objective measure of the deformation (strain) is given by

the Green strain tensor
1
ij = (Gij gij ) .
2
I Decompose the deformed position into

R( i ) = r( i ) + u( i ),

 
1 u u
ij =  gi j + gj i
2
The strain tensor
I An objective measure of the deformation (strain) is given by
the Green strain tensor
1
ij = (Gij gij ) .
2
I Decompose the deformed position into

R( i ) = r( i ) + u( i ),

 
1 u u
ij =  gi j + gj i
2
I If i are chosen to be global Cartesian coordinates
 
1 ui uj
ij  + , the infinitessimal strain tensor.
2 xj xi
Example
I Consider the simple radial expansion of a unit cube
0 i = x i 1, with deformed position given by

R = 2 r = 2 x.
I Lagrangian coordinates are global Cartesian coordinates so
x
gi = = ei (a unit vector) gij = ij .
x i
I The deformed metric tensor is
2x
Gi = = 2ei Gij = 4ij .
x i
I Hence the strain tensor is
3
ij = ij ,
2
I Note that the infinitessimal strain tensor (with  = 1) would
give ij ij
An aside: Non-Cartesian tensors
I Starting from the position vector as a function of the
Lagrangian coordinates r( i ), we found the tangent vectors
r
gi = .
i
I For a general set of coordinates, i , these vectors are not
necessarily orthonormal,
(
1 i =j
gi gj 6=
0 otherwise

I We define another set of vectors gj so that

(
j j 1 i =j
gi g = i =
0 otherwise

I The up-down index notation is used to simplify notation.

An aside: Non-Cartesian tensors

I We decompose r into global Cartesian base vectors

X
r= r k ek ,
k

where ek is a unit vector in the k-th global Cartesian direction.

I Hence,
r k
gi = ek ,
i
I It follows that
j
gj = en ,
r n
... from which we deduce that

gi = gij gj and gj = g ji gi , where g ji = gj gi .

Forces and loads

I A deformable body is typically subject to surface loads (or

tractions), t, and body forces, F.
I The stress vector t on a surface S within the strained body
is defined by
F
t = lim ,
S0 S

where F is the (statically equivalent) force acting on the

surface.
I t represents the force per unit area exerted by the material
located to one side of the surface on that to the other.
The stress tensor

I We consider a force balance on an infinitessimal tetrahedron

in the deformed configuration.
I Three faces are aligned with the planes i = const and
spanned by the other two covariant (lower index) tangent
vectors Gj .
I The vector representation of the face i = const is

Gi Si
,
2 G ii
p
where Gi / (G ii ) is a unit vector normal to the face and the
area of the face is Si /2.
I Note that we have had to use the contravariant (upper index)
vector to ensure orthogonality.
The stress tensor

I Vector representation of the remaining face is nS/2 and so

X Gi Si
nS = p .
i
(G ii )

I Decomposing the normal n = ni Gi , then

q
ni (G ii )S = Si .
The stress tensor

I Vector representation of the remaining face is nS/2 and so

X Gi Si
nS = p .
i
(G ii )

I Decomposing the normal n = ni Gi , then

q
ni (G ii )S = Si .

I If the tetrahedron is in equilibrium then

X
tS = ti Si ,
i
The stress tensor
I Vector representation of the remaining face is nS/2 and so
X Gi Si
nS = p .
i
(G ii )

I Decomposing the normal n = ni Gi , then

q
ni (G ii )S = Si .

I If the tetrahedron is in equilibrium then

X
tS = ti Si ,
i

X q
t= ni (G ii ) ti ,
i
The stress tensor
X q
t= ni (G ii )ti ,
i

I t is invariant if n remains the same (Cauchys principle).

p
I However, ni are components of a covariant vector so ti (G ii )
must be contravariant.
I In other words q
ti (G ii ) = ij Gj .
I The quantity ij is called the stress tensor.
The stress tensor
X q
t= ni (G ii )ti ,
i

I t is invariant if n remains the same (Cauchys principle).

p
I However, ni are components of a covariant vector so ti (G ii )
must be contravariant.
I In other words q
ti (G ii ) = ij Gj .
I The quantity ij is called the stress tensor.
I Physical components of the stress tensor are obtained by
expressing the stress vectors in terms of unit tangent vectors
X q q
ti = (ij) Gj / (Gjj ) (ij) = (Gjj )/(G ii ) ij .
j
Rate of Work

I In the strained body, the total rate of work is

ZZ ZZZ  
RW = tR dS + F R R dV ,

where the R is the velocity of the material and R is its the

acceleration.
Rate of Work

I In the strained body, the total rate of work is

ZZ ZZZ  
RW = tR dS + F R R dV ,

where the R is the velocity of the material and R is its the

acceleration.
ZZ ZZZ 
ni 
RW = Ti R dS + F R R dV ,
G
p
where Ti = ti (GG ii ) and G = det Gij .
Rate of Work

I In the strained body, the total rate of work is

ZZ ZZZ  
RW = tR dS + F R R dV ,

where the R is the velocity of the material and R is its the

acceleration.
ZZ ZZZ 
ni 
RW = Ti R dS + F R R dV ,
G
p
where Ti = ti (GG ii ) and G = det Gij .
I Now use the divergence theorem (see Green & Zerna)

1 i
ZZ ZZZ
ai ni dS = (a G ) dV .
G i
Rate of Work

I The rate of work becomes

ZZZ
1    
RW = T i R + F R R dV ,
G i
Rate of Work

I The rate of work becomes

ZZZ
1    
RW = T i R + F R R dV ,
G i

Ti 
ZZZ  
1 R 1
= Ti i + + G F R R dV ,
G G i
Rate of Work

I The rate of work becomes

ZZZ
R
RW = ij Gj i dV

Rate of Work

I The rate of work becomes

ZZZ
R
RW = ij Gj i dV

I By symmetry of the stress tensor
ZZZ !
1 R R
RW = ij Gj i + Gi j dV
2
Rate of Work

I By symmetry of the stress tensor

ZZZ !
1 ij R R
RW = Gj i + Gi j dV
2

I But recall
1
ij = (Gij gij ) ,
2
so !
1 1 R R
ij = (Gi Gj ) = Gi j + i Gj .
2 t 2
I Hence ZZZ
RW = ij ij dV .
Rate of Work

I By symmetry of the stress tensor

ZZZ !
1 ij R R
RW = Gj i + Gi j dV
2

I But recall
1
ij = (Gij gij ) ,
2
so !
1 1 R R
ij = (Gi Gj ) = Gi j + i Gj .
2 t 2
I Hence ZZZ
RW = ij ij dV .

I ij and ij are a work conjugate pair.

The principle of virtual diplacements

I Consider a deformable body that is load by a surface traction

T and a body force F
I The body is subject to a virtual displacement R
The principle of virtual diplacements

I Consider a deformable body that is load by a surface traction

T and a body force F
I The body is subject to a virtual displacement R
I The virtual work induced by the displacement is

2R
ZZZ   ZZ
F 2 R dV + TR dS
t
The principle of virtual diplacements

I Consider a deformable body that is load by a surface traction

T and a body force F
I The body is subject to a virtual displacement R
I The virtual work induced by the displacement is
2R
ZZZ   ZZ
F 2 R dV + TR dS
t
which must be balanced by a change of internal energy
ZZZ
ij ij dV
The principle of virtual diplacements

I Consider a deformable body that is load by a surface traction

T and a body force F
I The governing variational principle is

2R
ZZZ ZZZ   ZZ
ij
ij dV F 2 R dV TR dS = 0.
t
The principle of virtual displacements

I The variation of the strain is given by

 
1 R R
ij = Gi j + i Gj .
2
I Using the symmetry of the stress tensor we can write the
variational principle as

2R
ZZZ   ZZ
ij R R
F 2 R dV TR dS = 0.
i j t
Working with the variational principle

I The integral is over the deformed domain, which is unknown.

I It is much more convenient to integrate over the undeformed
domain.
I We already know the mapping from undeformed to deformed
domain R( i ).
p
I The Jacobian of the mapping is G /g .
p
I Hence dV = G /g dV0 and
Working with the variational principle

I The integral is over the deformed domain, which is unknown.

I It is much more convenient to integrate over the undeformed
domain.
I We already know the mapping from undeformed to deformed
domain R( i ).
p
I The Jacobian of the mapping is G /g .
p
I Hence dV = G /g dV0 and
s s 
2R
ZZZ  ZZ
G ij R R G
F R dV0 TR dS = 0.
g i j g t 2
Working with the variational principle

I The integral is over the deformed domain, which is unknown.

I It is much more convenient to integrate over the undeformed
domain.
I We already know the mapping from undeformed to deformed
domain R( i ).
p
I The Jacobian of the mapping is G /g .
p
I Hence dV = G /g dV0 and
2R
ZZZ   ZZ
ij R R
f 0 2 R dV0 TR dS = 0.
i j t
p
where ij = G /g ij is the second PiolaKirchhoff stress tensor,
f is the body force per unit undeformed volume,
0 is the undeformed density.
Finite element approximation of the Largange coordinates
I The undeformed position is given by

r( i ) = r k ( i )ek .

I If there are no special symmetries, choose Lagrangian

coordinates as the global Cartesian coordinates.
Finite element approximation of the Largange coordinates
I The undeformed position is given by

r( i ) = r k ( i )ek .

I If there are no special symmetries, choose Lagrangian

coordinates as the global Cartesian coordinates.
I Then components of undeformed position are r i ( i ) = i .
Finite element approximation of the Largange coordinates
I The undeformed position is given by

r( i ) = r k ( i )ek .

I If there are no special symmetries, choose Lagrangian

coordinates as the global Cartesian coordinates.
I Then components of undeformed position are r i ( i ) = i .
I The tangent vectors are Cartesian base vectors

gi = ei
Finite element approximation of the Largange coordinates
I The undeformed position is given by

r( i ) = r k ( i )ek .

I If there are no special symmetries, choose Lagrangian

coordinates as the global Cartesian coordinates.
I Then components of undeformed position are r i ( i ) = i .
I The tangent vectors are Cartesian base vectors

gi = ei

I Undeformed metric tensor is Kronecker delta gij = ij .

Finite element approximation of the Largange coordinates
I The undeformed position is given by

r( i ) = r k ( i )ek .

I If there are no special symmetries, choose Lagrangian

coordinates as the global Cartesian coordinates.
I Then components of undeformed position are r i ( i ) = i .
I The tangent vectors are Cartesian base vectors

gi = ei

I Undeformed metric tensor is Kronecker delta gij = ij .

I Approximate the Lagrangian coordinates by a finite element
basis X
i = li l ,
l

li is the i-th Lagrangian coordinate at the l-th node.

Finite element approximation of the variational principle
I Use the same basis function for the unkown positions
(isoparametric mapping)
X
Rk = Rlk l .
l

I The basis functions are fixed so

X R X k l
R = Rlk l ek and j = Rl ek .
j
l l
Finite element approximation of the variational principle
I Use the same basis function for the unkown positions
(isoparametric mapping)
X
Rk = Rlk l .
l

I The basis functions are fixed so

X R X k l
R = Rlk l ek and j = Rl ek .
j
l l

I Thus the principle of virtual displacements becomes

X Z Z Z  R k l  2R k
 
ij k
f l Rlk d 1 d 2 d 3
i j t 2
l
ZZ
Tk l Rlk dS = 0.
Finite element approximation of the variational principle
I The discrete variations may be taken outside the integrals
X Z Z Z  R k l  2R k
 
ij k
f 0 l d 1 d 2 d 3
i j t 2
l
ZZ 
[Tk l ] dS Rlk = 0.
Finite element approximation of the variational principle
I The discrete variations may be taken outside the integrals
X Z Z Z  R k l  2R k
 
ij k
f 0 l d 1 d 2 d 3
i j t 2
l
ZZ 
[Tk l ] dS Rlk = 0.

I The variations of the nodes are independent, so the terms in

braces give one discrete equation for each nodal unknown.
ZZZ  k 2R k
  
ij R l k
f 0 l d 1 d 2 d 3
i j t 2
ZZ
[Tk l ] dS = 0.

I These may be assembled in an element-by-element manner.

Summary of the method
I Divide the undeformed domain into elements.
I For each element compute the contribution to the discrete
volume residual
ZZZ  k 2R k
  
ij R l k
Rkl = f 0 l d 1 d 2 d 3
i j t 2
I Note that the integral is over the Lagrangian coordinates
(undeformed domain).
Summary of the method
I Divide the undeformed domain into elements.
I For each element compute the contribution to the discrete
volume residual
ZZZ  k 2R k
  
ij R l k
Rkl = f 0 l d 1 d 2 d 3
i j t 2
I Note that the integral is over the Lagrangian coordinates
(undeformed domain).
I Loop over the surfaces to add any tractions
ZZ
[Tk l ] dS.

I Note that this integral is over the deformed surface

Summary of the method
I Divide the undeformed domain into elements.
I For each element compute the contribution to the discrete
volume residual
ZZZ  k 2R k
  
ij R l k
Rkl = f 0 l d 1 d 2 d 3
i j t 2
I Note that the integral is over the Lagrangian coordinates
(undeformed domain).
I Loop over the surfaces to add any tractions
ZZ
[Tk l ] dS.

I Note that this integral is over the deformed surface

I Assemble the contributions into a global residuals vector.
I Compute the Jacobian (by finite differences if necessary).
I Solve the linear system.
Constitutive Laws

I Assembling the residuals requires knowledge of the stress

tensor.
I For an elastic material, the stress depends only on the current
state of strain
ij (jk ).
I The specific relationship between stress and strain is known as
a constitutive law.
I Given a constitutive law and a compressible material then we
simply compute  
ij 1
(Gij gij ) ,
2
at all the integration points within the element.
I What about incompressible materials?
Incompressible Solid Mechanics

I If a solid material is incompressible, its volume cannot change

det Gij = det gij (1)

I Enforce the condition (1) by a Lagrange multiplier that plays

the role of a pressure so that

ij = p G ij + ij (kl ),

where ij is the deviatoric part of the stress tensor.

Incompressible Solid Mechanics

I If a solid material is incompressible, its volume cannot change

det Gij = det gij (1)

I Enforce the condition (1) by a Lagrange multiplier that plays

the role of a pressure so that

ij = p G ij + ij (kl ),

where ij is the deviatoric part of the stress tensor.

I The resulting linear system is again of saddle-point type and
so the combinations of pressure/velocity finite elements
appropriate for NavierStokes equations can be reused.
Incompressible Solid Mechanics

I If a solid material is incompressible, its volume cannot change

det Gij = det gij (1)

I Enforce the condition (1) by a Lagrange multiplier that plays

the role of a pressure so that

ij = p G ij + ij (kl ),

where ij is the deviatoric part of the stress tensor.

I The resulting linear system is again of saddle-point type and
so the combinations of pressure/velocity finite elements
appropriate for NavierStokes equations can be reused.
I If material is nearly incompressible it is also advantageous
to use a mixed formulation.
Example problem: Compression of a block

I A square block of material is compressed.

I What are appropriate boundary conditions?

xx = 0 xx = 0
xy = 0 xy = 0

u=0
I Fix the base vertically (and horizontally?)
I Leave the sides traction free (do nothing).
Example problem: Compression of a block

I A square block of material is compressed.

I What are appropriate boundary conditions?
u = K ey

xx = 0 xx = 0
xy = 0 xy = 0

u=0
I Fix the base vertically (and horizontally?)
I Leave the sides traction free (do nothing).
I Impose a displacement on the top.
Example problem: Compression of a block

I A square block of material is compressed.

I What are appropriate boundary conditions?
ij nj = pni

xx = 0 xx = 0
xy = 0 xy = 0

u=0
I Fix the base vertically (and horizontally?)
I Leave the sides traction free (do nothing).
I Impose a pressure load on the top.
Example problem: Compression of a block

I A square block of material is compressed.

I What are appropriate boundary conditions?
ij nj = (0, L)

xx = 0 xx = 0
xy = 0 xy = 0

u=0
I Fix the base vertically (and horizontally?)
I Leave the sides traction free (do nothing).
I Impose a vertical load on the top.
Example problem: Compression of a block
I A square block of material is compressed.
I What are appropriate boundary conditions?
ij nj = (0, L)

ux = 0 ux = 0
xy = 0 xy = 0

u=0
I Fix the base vertically (and horizontally?)
I Constrain sides horizontally
I Impose a vertical load on the top.
I Incompressible material?
Example problem: Compression of block

I Incompressible Mooney-Rivlin material

I Loaded on top by P cos(x)N
Example problem: Compression of block

I Incompressible Mooney-Rivlin material

I Loaded on top by P cos(x)N
Example problem: Compression of block

I Incompressible Mooney-Rivlin material

I Loaded on top by P cos(x)N
Example problem: Compression of block

I Incompressible Mooney-Rivlin material

I Loaded on top by P cos(x)N
Example problem: Compression of block

I Incompressible Mooney-Rivlin material

I Loaded on top by P cos(x)N
Example problem: Compression of block

I Incompressible Mooney-Rivlin material

I Loaded on top by P cos(x)N

ux = 0, xy = 0
xx = 0
xy = 0

uy = 0, xy = 0
Summary of the method

I Choose type of element (pick an LBB stable one if

incompressible problem).
I Choose a timestepper (must compute second derivatives).
I Generate mesh in undeformed solid domain.
I Specify boundary and initial conditions
I For Dirichlet conditions, replace the discrete weak form.
I For traction conditions, assemble the surface integral.
I Loop over elements and assemble the global residuals and
Jacobian matrix for each time step
I Solve the (non)linear residual equations using Newtons
method.
I Repeat for as many timesteps as desired.