Chapter 1

Crystal Properties and Growth of Semiconductors

What is semiconductor? What makes semiconductor materials natural choices for electronic
device investigations?
Semiconductors are a group of materials having electrical conductivities intermediate between metals
and insulators. It is significant that the conductivity of these materials can be varied over orders of
magnitude by changes in temperature, optical excitation, and impurity content. This variability of
electrical properties makes the semiconductor materials natural choices for electronic device
investigations.
What are elemental semiconductors and compound semiconductors? Why silicon and
germanium are called elemental semiconductors?
The column IV semiconductors, silicon and germanium, are called elemental semiconductors because
they are composed of single species of atoms.
Compounds of column III and column V atoms, as well as certain combinations from II and VI, and
from IV, make up the compound semiconductors. Examples of compound semiconductors are
Binary: GaAs , GaP
Ternary: GaAsP
Quaternary: InGaAsP
Which semiconductor elements are common in LEDs?
The two-element (binary) III-V compounds such as GaN , GaP ,GaAs are common in light-
emitting diodes (LEDs).
Which characteristic of a semiconductor distinguishes it from metals and insulators?
One of the most important characteristics of a semiconductor, which distinguishes it from metals and
insulators, is its energy band gap. For example, the band gap of GaAs is about 1.43 electron volts (
eV ), which corresponds to light wavelengths in the near infrared. In contrast, GaP has a band
gap of about 2.3 eV , corresponding to wavelengths in the green portion of the spectrum.
What is doping? Why doping is used?
The process of controlled addition of impurities is called doping. The electronic and optical properties
of semiconductor materials are strongly affected by impurities, which may be added in precisely
controlled amounts. Such impurities are used to vary the conductivities of semiconductors over wide
ranges and even to alter the nature of the conduction processes from conduction by negative charge
carriers to positive charge carriers. For example, an impurity concentration of one part per million can
change a sample of Si from a poor conductor to a good conductor of electric current.
What is Unit cell?
The volume of a lattice is called unit cell, which represents the entire lattice and is regularly repeated
throughout the crystal.
What is lattice?
The periodicity in a crystal is defined in terms of a symmetric array of points in space called the lattice.
What is primitive cell?
The smallest unit cell that can be repeated to form the lattice is called primitive cell.
What is cubic lattice?
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The simple cubic structure has an atom located at each corner of the unit cell; this kind of lattice is
known as cubic lattice.
What is the difference between primitive cell and a unit cell in the case of crystalline solid?
A primitive cell has lattice points only at the corners of the cell. Thus, the effective number of lattice
points belonging to the primitive cell is always unity.
A unit cell allows lattice points not only at the corners, but also at the face center & body center.
What is packing fraction?
The volume of total spheres per cell is known as packing fraction.
What is diamond lattice?
The basic crystal structure for many important semiconductors is the fee lattice with a basis of two
atoms, giving rise to the diamond structure, characteristic of Si ,,C in the diamond form.
What is Zinc blende?
In many compound semiconductor atoms are arranged in a basic diamond structure, but are different
on alternating sites. This is called a zinc blende structure and is typical of the III-V compounds.
What is crystalline solid, Amorphous solid and Polycrystalline solid?
A crystalline solid is distinguished by the
fact that the atoms making up the crystal
are arranged in a periodic fashion. That is,
there is some basic arrangement of atoms
that is repeated throughout the entire solid.
Amorphous solids have no periodic
structure at all.
Polycrystalline solids are composed of many
small regions of single-crystal material.
What is simple cubic, body-centered cubic and face-centered cubic structure?
The simplest three-dimensional lattice is one in which the unit cell is a cubic volume, such as the three
cells shown in Fig. 1-3.
The simple cubic structure
(abbreviated SC) has an atom located
at each corner of the unit cell.
Example: Polonium.
Body centered cubic (BCC) lattice
has an additional atom at the center.
Example: Cr, Fe, K, Li, Na
Face-centered cubic (FCC) lattice has
atoms at the corners and centered on faces. Example: Al, Ca, Cu
All three structures have different primitive cells, but the same cubic unit cell.
What are the ranges of energy band gap for the materials that emit visible light?
The two-element (binary) III-V compounds such as GaN, GaP, and GaAs are common in light-emitting
diodes (LEDs). The energy band gap range is 1.43eV to 3.4eV.
How can we calculate maximum packing fraction?
2
We can calculate the maximum fraction of the lattice
volume that can be filled with atoms by
approximating the atoms as hard spheres. For
example, Fig. 1-4 illustrates the packing of spheres in
a face-centered cubic cell of side a, such that the
nearest neighbors touch. The dimension a for a
cubic unit cell is called the lattice constant. For the fee
lattice the nearest neighbor distance is one-half the
1
diagonal of a face, or ( a 2 ) . Therefore, for the
2
atom centered on the face to just touch the atoms at
each corner of the face, the radius of the sphere must
be one-half the nearest neighbor distance, or
1
(a 2) .
4
How the three integers describing a particular plane are found?
The notation system generally adopted uses a set of three integers to describe the position of a plane
or the direction of a vector within the lattice. We first set up a xyz coordinate system with the origin at
any lattice point (it does not matter which one because they are all equivalent!), and the axes are lined
up with the edges of the cubic unit cell. The three integers describing a particular plane are found in
the following way:
1. Find the intercepts of the plane with the crystal axes and express these intercepts as integral
multiples of the basis vectors (the plane can be moved in and out from the origin, retaining its
orientation, until such an integral intercept is discovered on each axis).
2. Take the reciprocals of the three integers found in step 1 and reduce these to the smallest set of
integers h, k, and l, which have the same relationship to each other as the three reciprocals.
3. Label the plane ( hkl ).
Example of labeling a plane
The plane illustrated in Fig. 1-5 has intercepts at 2a, 4b, and 1c along the
three crystal axes. Taking the reciprocals of these intercepts, we get 1/2,
1/4 and 1. These three fractions have the same relationship to each
other as the integers 2, 1, and 4 (obtained by multiplying each fraction
by 4).Thus the plane can be referred to as a (214) plane. The only
exception is if the intercept is a fraction of the lattice constant a. In that
case, we do not reduce it to the lowest set of integers.

Label the plane illustrated below

Fig (a) Fig (b)

x y z x y z
3 3 3 3 2 2
1/ 1/ 1/ 1/ 1/ 1/
3 3 3 3 2 2
1 1 1 2 3 3

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What are Miller indices? What is the advantage of taking the reciprocals of the intercepts?
The three integers h, k, and l are called the Miller indices; these three numbers define a set of parallel
planes in the lattice. One advantage of taking the reciprocals of the intercepts is avoidance of infinities
in the notation.
EXAMPLE 1.1: For a bcc lattice of identical atoms with a lattice constant of 5 , calculate the
maximum packing fraction and the radius of the atoms treated as hard spheres with the
nearest neighbors touching.
SOLUTION: Each corner atom in a cubic unit cell is shared with seven neighboring cells; thus, each
unit cell contains one-eighth of a sphere at each of the eight corners for a total of one atom. The bcc
cell contains one atom in the center of the cube. Thus, we have
1
Nearest atoms are at a separation= 52 +52 +52=4.330
2
1
Radius of each atom= 4.330 =2.165
2
4 3 3
Volume of each atom= ( 2.165 ) =42.5
3
1
Number of atoms per cube=1+ 8 =2
8
42.5 2
Packing fraction = =68
( 5 )3
Therefore, if the atoms in a bcc lattice are packed as densely as possible, with no distance between the
outer edges of nearest neighbors, 68% of the volume is filled.
Prove that packing fraction of FCC is 74%

Total number of atoms per cell = 1 + 3 = 4

1
Nearest neighbor distance= ( a 2 )
2
4 1 3 a3 2
3 (
Volume of each sphere= a 2
4) =
24
a3 2
4
No . of spheres Volume of each sphere 24 2
Fraction= = 3
= =74
Volume of unit cell a 6

EXAMPLE 1.3: Calculate the volume density of Si atoms ( no of atoms /cm 3 ), given that the
lattice constant of Si is 5.43. Calculate the areal density of atoms ( no /cm2 ) on the (100)
plane.

SOLUTION: On the (100) plane, we have four atoms on corners and one on the face center.
1
4 +1
4
( 100 ) plane= =6.8 1014 cm2
( 5.43 10 )( 5.43 10 )
8 8

For Si, we have 8 corner lattice points, 6 face centered points, and 2 atoms.

1 1
(
Number of atoms per cube= 8 + 6 2=8
8 2 )
8
Volume density= =5 1022 cm 3
8 3
( 5.43 10 )
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Compare conductivity and resistivity of Metal, Semiconductors and insulators.

Material Conductivity (S/m) Resistivity ( . m )

Metal 63.01 106 (Silver) 1.587 108
Semiconductor 300 (Pure Silicon) 3.33 10
3

Insulator 1 10
16
10
16

resistance area
Resistivity= = . m
length
Examples of miller index:

1 -1 -2 -1 -1 -1

1 -1 -1/2 -1 -1 -1

2 -2 1 -1 -1 -1

(2 2 1) 1 1 1

2 3 -1 1

1/2 1/3 1/ -1 1 1/

3 2 0 -1 1 0

(3 2 0) 1 1 0)

a a 1 1 2

1/a 1/a 1/ 1 1 1/2

1 1 0 2 2 1

(1 1 0) (2 2 1)

a a a

1/a 1/a 1/a

1 1 1

(1 1 1)

a
1/a 1/ 1/
1 0 0
(1 0 0)

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EXAMPLE 1.4: A Si crystal is to be grown by the Czochralski method, and it is desired that the
ingot contain 1017 phosphorus atoms /cm3 . What concentration of phosphorus atoms should
the melt contain to give this impurity concentration in the crystal during the initial growth? For
P in Silicon the distribution co-efficient is 0.35.
SOLUTION:
Given,
Concentration of impurity in solid, C S=1017 cm3
Distribution co-efficient, k d =0.35
Concentration in the Liquid, C L =?
We know,
CS C 1017 cm3
kd = C L= S = =2.86 10 17 cm3
CL kd 0.35
We know the first transistor was made of germanium. Why the transition from germanium to
silicon was necessary?
Silicon first was chosen mainly by the military establishment when a rugged application required
high-temperature operation (125C). The normal operating temperature of germanium devices did
not exceed 70 C. Engineers preferred silicon diodes where pure rectification was the goal, typically in
power supplies where higher voltages and temperatures dominated.
However, as device structures diminished in size, it became apparent to the researchers that silicon
was the material of the future. Its intrinsically higher energy gap meant that silicon devices could
operate at a significantly higher ambient temperature than could germanium. At a given temperature,
the rate of thermally generated charge carriers is lower in silicon than in germanium because the
former requires more energy to move an electron from the valence band to the conduction band,
resulting in lower leakage currents. In addition, silicon has a higher thermal conductivity, allowing
heat to flow away from the junction at a much faster rate in silicon than in germanium.
By the end of 1960, practically all computer logic designers had switched from germanium diodes to
silicon transistors and diodes. The development of the planar process provided the semiconductor
industry with the capability of mass producing reliable miniaturized high-performance silicon devices
whose switching speeds, rectification efficiencies, breakdown voltages, and power-dissipation ratings
were superior to those of germanium.
Find the maximum fractions of the unit cell volume that can be filled by hard spheres in the
diamond structure.
Total number of atoms per cell=4+ 4=8
1
Nearest neighbor distance= ( a 3 )
4
1
r max = ( a 3 )
8
3 3
4 1 a 3
3 (
Volume of each sphere= a 3
8 ) 8=
16
a3 3
No . of spheres Volume of each sphere 16 3
Fraction= = 3
= 100 =34
Volume of unit cell a 16

6
What is the basic difference between a diamond lattice and a zinc blende lattice?
In the top view of figure, atoms belonging to the original fcc are represented by
open circles, and the interpenetrating sub lattice is shaded. If the atoms are all
similar, we call this structure a diamond lattice; if the atoms differ on alternating
sites, it is a zinc blende structure. For example, if one fcc sub lattice is composed of
Ga atoms and the interpenetrating sub lattice is As, the zinc blende structure of
GaAs results.
Draw the band diagram of a degenerate P-type semiconductor

7
8
 Chapter 3
Energy Bands and marge Carriers in Semiconductors
Explain the Fermi-Dirac distribution function
Electrons in solids obey Fermi-Dirac statistics. The distribution of electrons over a range of allowed
energy levels at thermal equilibrium is
1
f ( E )= ( E E )/ kT
1+e F

Where, k is Boltzmann's constant ( k =8.62 105 eV / K=1.38 10 23 J / K ). The function f ( E ) , the

Fermi-Dirac distribution function, gives the probability that an available energy state at E will be
occupied by an electron at absolute temperature T. The quantity E F is called the Fermi level.
1 1 1
For E=E F , f ( E F ) =[ 1+ e( E E
F F ) / kT
] = =
1+1 2
Thus an energy level at Fermi level has probability

of 1/2 of being occupied by an e .

1
If E> E F , T =0, then, f ( E ) = =0
1+
1
If E< E F , T =0, then, f ( E ) = =1
1+0
We can see that at 0k temperature, the available
s
energy state up to E F is filled with , but
e
all the energy state above E F are empty.
Define direct and indirect band gap semiconductors and draw their respective (E, K) diagram.
In a direct semiconductor such as GaAs , an electron in
the conduction band can fall to an empty state in the
valence band, giving off the energy difference E g as a
photon of light.
On the other hand, an electron in the conduction band
minimum of an indirect semiconductor such as Si cannot
fall directly to the valence band maximum but must
undergo a momentum change as well as changing its
energy. For example, it may go through some defect state
within the band gap.

Suppose at room temperature the position of three conduction band minima for a ternary
compound ( A x B1x C ) is shown in figure where x is the mole fraction. Can we say that
A 0.3 B0.7 C is a direct band material? Justify your answer.
Here x=0.3 .

9
We know, for x 0.45 , the direct-indirect transition occurs.
As the value of x is less than 0.45, this is a direct band material.

Suppose the effective density of states at valence and conduction

bands are equal for silicon which is doped with 1017 /cm3 donors
and the donor level is 0.25eV below conduction band edge. If Fermi energy level is 0.3eV below
conduction band edge, compute the intrinsic and extrinsic carrier concentration at room
temperature.
Given,
17 3
The effective density of states , N c =10 / cm
Donor Level , E C =0.25 eV
Fermi Level, E F =0.3 eV
kT =0.026 eV
no =?
( EC EF )/ kT
no =N c e =1017 e (0.250.3 )/ 0.026=1017 e 0.5/0.026=2.24 1025 /cm 3
A silicon sample is doped with 1020 Aluminium atoms / cm3 . What is the equilibrium electron
concentration at room temperature? Show that Fermi level relative to the intrinsic level.
Given,
20 3
po=10 /cm
10 3
ni=1.5 10 /cm
Since N d ni , we can approximate no =N d and
2
ni2 ( 1.5 1010 ) 2.25 1020
no = = = =2.25 cm3
po 10
20
10
20

We know,
Ei EF )/ kT Ei EF )/ kT p o E iE F p p 1020
po=ni e( e( = =ln o E F Ei =kT ln o =0.026 ln
ni kT ni ni 1.5 1010
Ei EF =0.588 eV
So, Fermi level is relative to intrinsic level.
Define electron mobility
Electro mobility describes the ease with which electrons drift in the material. Mobility is a very
important quantity in characterizing semiconductor materials and in device development. It is
denoted by
q t
n=
m
n

10
 Chapter 4
Excess Carriers in Semiconductors
Show how mobility is related to the diffusion co-efficient.
Relation of mobility to diffusion co-efficient:
D kT
=
q
Where,
D=Diffusion coefficient
=Mobility
'
k =Boltzman s Constant
T =Temparature
q=charge
What is IMREF?
It is often desirable to refer to the steady state electron and hole concentrations in terms of Fermi
levels, which can be included in band diagrams for various devices. The Fermi level E F is
meaningful only when no excess carriers are present. We can write expressions for the steady state
concentrations in the same form as the equilibrium expressions by defining separate quasi-Fermi
levels Fn and F p for electrons and holes. The resulting carrier concentration equations
( F nEi )/ kT
n=ni e
Ei F n) / kT
p=n i e (
This can be considered as defining relations for the quasi-Fermi levels. In some texts the quasi-Fermi
level is called IMREF, which is Fermi spelled backward.
Consider a silicon sample is doped with 1018 donor atoms /cm 3 and the excess carrier
concentrations for electrons and holes are equal to 1014 /cm3 . Calculate the steady state
concentrations for electrons & holes. Draw Fn relative to F p .
Given,
18 3
no =10 cm
14 3
n=p =10 cm
F nE t ) /kT F nE t ) /0.026
n=no +n=1018 +1014 =1.000110 18=ni e( =( 1.5 1010 ) e (
Fn Et )/ 0.026 1.0001 10
18
F Et
e( = 10
n =ln ( 66.67 10 6 ) F nE t=0.026 ln ( 66.67 10 6 )
1.5 10 0.026
F nEt =0.468 eV
11
 2
ni2 ( 1.5 10 10)
p=p+ p o=p + =1014+ =ni e ( E F ) / kT t p

no 10
18

F nE t ) /0.026
p=( 1.5 1010 ) e ( =( 1.5 1010 ) e ( 0.468) /0.026=1.48210 10

Chapter 5
Junctions
KT N a N d
Show that the built potential of a pn junction can be shown as ,V o= ln 2
q Ni
To obtain a quantitative relationship between V o and the doping concentrations on each side of the
junction, we must use the requirements for equilibrium in the drift and diffusion current equations.
For example, the drift and diffusion components of the hole current just cancel at equilibrium

[
j p ( x )=q p p ( x ) E ( x )D p
dp(x )
dx
=0 ]
This equation can be rearranged to obtain
p 1 dp(x )
E ( x) =
Dp p( x ) dx
Where, the x-direction is arbitrarily taken from p to n. The electric field can be written in terms of
the gradient in the potential, E ( x )=d V (x )/dx so that equation becomes
q d V ( x ) 1 dp(x )
=
kT dx p( x ) dx
Integration of equation gives
Vn pn
q 1 q p

kT V
d V = dp ( V n V p )=ln pn ln p p=ln n
p kT pp
p p p

The potential difference V nV p is the contact potential V o . Thus we can write V o in terms of
the equilibrium hole concentrations on either side of the junction:

kT p
V o= ln p
q pn

If we consider the step junction to be made up of material with N a acceptors/cm3 on the p side and a
concentration of N d donors on the n side, we can write the equation as

kT N kT N a N d
V o= ln 2 a = ln
q ni / N d q ni 2
How the Zener breakdown occurs in a p-n junction? Explain with energy band diagram.

12
When a heavily doped junction is reverse biased, the energy bands become crossed at relatively low
voltages (i.e., the n-side conduction band appears opposite the p-side valence band). As Figure
indicates, the crossing of the bands aligns the large number of empty states in the n-side conduction
band opposite the many filled states of the p-side valence band. If the barrier separating these two
bands is narrow, tunneling of electrons can occur. Tunneling of electrons from the p-side valence band
to the n-side conduction band constitutes a reverse current from n to p; this is the Zener effect.

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