Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ABC of hypertension
Blood pressure measurement
Part IIConventional sphygmomanometry: technique of auscultatory blood
pressure measurement
Gareth Beevers, Gregory Y H Lip, Eoin OBrien
Observer error
In 1964, Geoffrey Rose and his colleagues classified observer
Rose classification of observer error
error into three categories.1
x Systematic error
Systematic error x Terminal digit preference
This leads to both intraobserver and interobserver error. It may x Observer prejudice
be caused by lack of concentration, poor hearing, confusion of
auditory and visual cues, etc. The most important factor is
failure to interpret the Korotkoff sounds accurately, especially
for diastolic pressure. Observer training techniques
Terminal digit preference x Direct instruction by an experienced observer
This refers to the phenomenon whereby the observer rounds off x Instruction manuals and booklets
the pressure reading to a digit of his or her choosing, most often x Audiotapes
to zero. Doctors may have a 12-fold bias in favour of the terminal x Video films
x CD Rom presentations
digit zero; this has grave implications for decisions on diagnosis
and treatment, although its greatest effect is in epidemiological
and research studies in which it can distort the frequency
distribution curve and reduce the power of statistical tests.2
Attitude of observer
Before taking the blood pressure, the observer should be in a
comfortable and relaxed position, because if hurried the pressure
will be released too rapidly, resulting in underestimation of
systolic and overestimation of diastolic pressures. If any
interruption occurs the exact measurement may be forgotten and
an approximation made, so the blood pressure should always be
written down as soon as it has been measured.
Inflation-deflation system
The inflation-deflation system consists of an inflating and
deflating mechanism connected by rubber tubing to an
occluding bladder. The standard mercury and aneroid
sphygmomanometers used in clinical practice are operated
manually, with inflation being effected by means of a bulb
compressed by hand and deflation by means of a release valve,
which is also controlled by hand. The pump and control valve
are connected to the inflatable bladder and thence to the
sphygmomanometer by rubber tubing.
Rubber tubing
Leaks due to cracked or perished rubber make accurate
measurement of blood pressure difficult because the fall in
mercury cannot be controlled. The rubber should be in a good
condition and free from leaks. The minimum length of tubing
between the cuff and the manometer should be 70 cm and Mercury sphygmomanometer
between the inflation source and the cuff the tubing should be
Consequences of defects in the control valve
at least 30 cm in length. Connections should be airtight and
easily disconnected. Pumping control valve little or no effort required
Excessive squeeze on the pump filter blocked
Control valve With valve closed mercury at level steady
A very common source of error in sphygmomanometers is the Falling mercury leak in inflation system
control valve, especially when an air filter rather than a rubber With valve released controlled fall of mercury
valve is used. Defective valves cause leakage, making control of Failure to control mercury fall leak in inflation system
pressure release difficult; this leads to underestimation of
systolic and overestimation of diastolic pressures. Faults in the
control valve may be corrected easily by simply cleaning the
filter or replacing the control valve. It is helpful to have a
checklist of possible faults and the means of rectifying these. Advice to be included in the instructions accompanying a
sphygmomanometer using a mercury manometer
Hazards of mercury (from European Standard EN 1060-2)
The mercury sphygmomanometer is a simple and accurate
B1 Guidelines and precautions
device, which can be easily serviced, but there are rightly
A mercury-type sphygmomanometer should be handled
concerns about the toxicity of mercury for individuals using with care. In particular, care should be taken to avoid
mercury sphygmomanometers, and for those who have to dropping the instrument or treating it in any way that could
service them. Users should be alert therefore to the hazards result in damage to the manometer. Regular checks should
associated with handling mercury.7 be made to ensure that there are no leaks from the inflation
However, the greatest concern about mercury is its toxic system and to ensure that the manometer has not been
effects on the environment. The call to have mercury removed damaged so as to cause a loss of mercury.
from hospitals comes from the environmental lobby, which, B2 Health and safety when handling mercury
quite correctly, sees mercury as a toxic, persistent, and Exposure to mercury can have serious toxicological effects;
bioaccumable substance. What happens, they ask, to the many absorption of mercury results in neuropsychiatric disorders
tons of mercury supplied for the manufacture of and, in extreme cases, nephrosis. Therefore precautions
sphygmomanometers and then distributed throughout the should be taken when carrying out any maintenance to a
world to hospitals and countless individual doctors? Quite mercury-type sphygmomanometer.
When cleaning or repairing the instrument, it should be
simply it finds its way back into the environment through
placed on a tray having a smooth, impervious surface which
evaporation, sewage, or in solid waste, most seriously damaging slopes away from the operator at about 10 to the horizontal,
the marine environment, and it accumulates in soil and in with a water filled trough at the rear. Suitable gloves (eg of
sediments thereby entering the food chain. latex) should be worn to avoid direct skin contact. Work
The mercury thermometer has been replaced in many should be carried out in a well ventilated area, and ingestion
countries, and in Sweden and the Netherlands the use of mercury and inhalation of the vapour should be avoided.
is no longer permitted in hospitals. However, in other European For more extensive repairs, the instrument should be
countries, including the UK and Ireland, the move to ban securely packed with adequate packing, sealed in a plastic
mercury from hospital use has not been received with enthusiasm bag or container, and returned to a specialist repairer. It is
on the grounds that there is no accurate alternative device to the essential that a high standard of occupational hygiene is
maintained in premises where mercury containing
mercury sphygmomanometer. None the less, the fear of mercury
instruments are repaired. Chronic mercury absorption is
toxicity is making it difficult to get mercury sphygmomanometers known to have occurred in individuals repairing
serviced, and the precautions recommended for dealing with a sphygmomanometers.
mercury spill are influencing purchasing decisions. Indeed, this is
B3 Mercury spillage
what central governmental policy in many countries would When dealing with a mercury spillage, wear latex gloves.
favourthe gradual disappearance of mercury from hospitals Avoid prolonged inhalation of mercury vapour. Do not use
should a ban become operative.810 an open vacuum system to aid collection. Collect all the
small droplets of spilt mercury into one globule and
Preparing for the end of the mercury sphygmomanometer immediately transfer all the mercury into a container, which
Although it will be some years before any move is made to should then be sealed.
replace the millimetre of mercury, we must prepare for changes After removal of as much of the mercury as practicable,
in clinical sphygmomanometry. Several simple measures can be treat the contaminated surfaces with a wash composed of
instigated immediately. Healthcare providers are being equal parts of calcium hydroxide and powdered sulfur mixed
encouraged to phase out mercury sphygmomanometers and with water to form a thin paste. Apply this paste to all the
replace them only with devices that have been independently contaminated surfaces and allow to dry. After 24 h, remove the
validated against the relevant protocols. Automated devices paste and wash the surfaces with clean water. Allow to dry and
should provide blood pressures in both millimetres of mercury ventilate the area.
and kilopascals, so that users can become familiar with B4 Cleaning the manometer tube
kilopascals. Finally, the medical and nursing professions, which To obtain the best results from a mercury-type
constitute the clinical market for blood pressure measuring sphygmomanometer, the manometer tube should be cleaned
at regular intervals (eg under the recommended maintenance
devices, must ensure that manufacturers provide us with accurate
schedule). This will ensure that the mercury can move up and
devices designed to our specifications, rather than accepting, as down the tube freely, and respond quickly to changes in
we have done in the past, devices in which these considerations pressure in the cuff.
are secondary to the commercial success of the product.11 During cleaning, care should be taken to avoid the
contamination of clothing. Any material contaminated with
Aneroid manometers mercury should be sealed in a plastic bag before disposal in a
Aneroid sphygmomanometers register pressure through a refuse receptacle.
bellows and lever system, which is mechanically more intricate
than the mercury reservoir and column. The jolts and bumps of
everyday use affect their accuracy; they lose accuracy over time,
usually leading to falsely low readings with the consequent Pointer
underestimation of blood pressure. They are therefore less Hairspring
accurate in use than mercury sphygmomanometers. When Scale
calibrated against a mercury sphygmomanometer a mean
difference of 3 mm Hg is considered to be acceptable; however, Linkage
58% of aneroid sphygmomanometers have been shown to have
errors greater than 4 mm Hg, with about one third of these
having errors higher than 7 mm Hg.12 Moreover, aneroid
sphygmomanometry is prone to all the problems of the
auscultatory technique, namely observer bias and terminal digit
preference.
Bellows
Position of manometer
The observer should take care when positioning the
manometer:
x The manometer should be no further than three feet (92 cm)
away so that the scale can be read easily. Pressure
x The mercury column should be vertical (some models are
Mechanism of an aneroid sphygmomanometer
designed with a tilt) and at eye levelthis is achieved most
effectively with stand mounted models, which can be easily
adjusted to suit the height of the observer.
x The mercury manometer has a vertical scale and errors will
occur unless the eye is kept close to the level of the meniscus.
The aneroid scale is a composite of vertical and horizontal
divisions and numbers, and must be viewed straight on with
the eye on a line perpendicular to the centre of the face of
the gauge.