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This article explores the psychosocial and behavioral adjustment outcomes associated with
verbal, emotional, physical, and sexual abuse amon^ homeless young adults as well as the
associations among abuse types. Convenience sampling was used to select 28 homeless young
adults (ages IS to 24) fnini one drop-in center. Overall, subjects experienced high rates of
direct abuse (that is, verbal, emotional, physical, and sexual abuse) and indirect abuse (chat
is, witnessing family verbal and physical abuse). Chi-square tests revealed that pniportions
of clinical depression, internalizing and externalizing behaviors, alcohol use, and foster care
histor>' were higher among subjects who experienced abuse than among those vvithout
reported abuse histories.The findings suggest that homeless young adults experience coexisting
types of direct and indirect abuse, which can negatively influence outcomes R'!:ited to their
psychosocial functioning and behavioral adjustment. An inclusive multi-type abuse approach,
with both direct and indirect abuse types, is needed to draw accurate conclusions reg;irding
the ctTfCts of each specific abuse type on hoineless young adults" psychological and behiivioral
adjustment.
H
omeless young people are highly likely 16% for male subjects (Finkelhor, 1994). Up to 22%
to come from multi-problem and abusive of male subjects and 20% of female subjects report
fiimilies. Various studies have cited high childhood physical abuse (Briere & Elliott, 2003).
rates of physical abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, and
parental rejection among this population (Powers, EFFECTS OF ABUSE ON YOUTH
Eckenrode,i^Jaklitsch, IWO;IUw.Taylor-Seehafer, DEVELOPMENT AND OUTCOMES
& Fitzgerald, 2K)l ; Ryan, Kilmer, Cauce,WaCanabe, Researchers have documented the deleterious effects
ik Hoyt, 2000; Tyler, Cauce, & Whitbeck, 2004; of abuse on homeless young peoples development,
Whitbeck, Hoyt. & Ackley, 1997a, 1997b). Parental psychological adjustment, and future outcomes.
abuse is frequently among the primary reasons Kurtz, Kurtz, and Jarvis (1991) found that homeless
homeless youths give for leaving home (Ryan et youths who were physically and sexually abused
al-, 2000; Sullivan & Knutson, 2000; Thompson, experienced a greater number of personal, fiimily,
McManusA'Voss,2006;Tyleretal.,2004;Whitbeck, and school problems than those without abuse his-
Hoyt.& liao,2000). tories. Having a history of physical and sexual abuse
Evidence suggests that parental abuse is more is also considered a risk factor for suicide attempts
prevalent among homeless youths than in the general in homeless youths (Kurtz et al., 1991; Molnar et
population (Rew et al.. 2001; Ryan et al., 2000). al., 1998; Powers et al., 1990; Rew et al.. 2001)
Previous studies reveal that 50% to 83% of homeless and mental health problems, such as depression,
youths have experienced physical or sexual abuse conduct disorder, and trauma symptoms (Ryan et
(Cauce et al., 2000; Molnar, Shade, Kral, 13ooth, & al., 200(1; Stifiiian, l989;Thompson, Maccio, Des-
Watters, t99B;Ryan et al.,20()0;Thrane,Hoyt. Whit- selle, & Zittel-Palamara, 2007; Whitbeck, Hoyt, &
beck, & Yoder, 2006; Warren, Gary, & Moorhead, Yoder, 1999).
1994). Extant studies show that childhood sexual Extant findings further indicate that early sexual
abuse prevalence rates in the general population abuse increases the probability of running away
range from S% to 32% for female subjects and 1% and early independence (Sullivan & Knutson, 2000;
CCC Code: I070-S3D9/09 S3.00 C2009 National Association of Social Workers 219
Thrane et al., 2006;Tyler, Hoyt, & Whitbeck, 2000) types are associated with more negative outcomes
and using illicit substances and other deviant behav- than are single forms of abuse or neglect (Higgins
iors,such as trading sex to survive on the streets (Rew &c McCabe, 2001).
et aJ., 2001; Simons & Whitbeck, 1991 ;Tyler et al., Prior research also reveals that abuse types fre-
2000;Ty]er.Hoyt,Whitbeck,&Cauce,2001a,2001b: quently co-occur (Arata et al., 2007; Higgins &
Tyler et al., 2004; Whitbeck et al., 1999). Sexual McCabe, 2001). For example, psychological abuse,
abuse histories are also associated with an increased emotional abuse, and neglect were found to be
likelihood of being physically and sexually victim- predictors of psychological outcomes in children
ized once on the streets (Ryan et al., 2000; Simons who also experienced physical and sexual abuse
e Wliitheck, 1991;Thrane et al., 2006;Tyler et al., (Briere, 1988). Likewise, existing studies show that
2000,2001a. 2001b; Whitbeck etal., 1997a). individuals who experience one type of abuse are
likely to be victims of other forms of abuse or neglect
MULTI-TYPE ABUSE (Hi^ins & McCabe, 2001).
Multi-type abuse refers to the co-occurrence of one
or more types of abuse, including physical abuse PRESENT STUDY
sexual abuse, emotional abuse, psychological abuse, Given the likelihood ofmultiple abuse types among
verbal abuse, and witnessing familial abuse (Higgins homeless young people and the lack of studies in this
&: McCabe, 2001). Recently, researchers have con- area, further research is needed and has been called
ducted several systematic literature reviews on how for by other researchers (Ryan et al., 2000;Tyler &
prior studies have measured the effects of multiple Cauce, 2002).The purpose of the present study was
abuse types on adjustment. Higgins and McCabe's thus to expand the literature on multi-type abuse
review identified 29 studies that examined multi- among homeless young adults by conducting pre-
type abuse. In fewer than half of these studies (H = 12), liminary analyses of correlates ofmultiple abuse types
researchers assessed psychological abuse or neglect. and associations among them. Notably, most studies
Adjustment-related outcomes were assessed in only assessing abuse histories of homeless young people
12 studies in which subjects reported experienc- have focused on a single form of abuse (physical or
ing multi-type abuse. Across each of these studies, sexual abuse) (Rew et al.. 2001 ;TyIer et al.. 2000,
increasing combinations of abuse were associated 2001 b) orn both physical IM/sexual abuse (Kurtz
with more severe adjustment problems, et al., 1991; Molnar et al., 1998; Ryan et al., 20(K);
Arata, Langhinrichsen-Rohling, Dowers, and Simons & Whitbeck, 1991 ; Stiffnian, 1989; Sullivan
O'brien (2007) updated this earlier review, locating & Knutson, 2000;Tyler & Cauce. 2002; Whitbeck
22 additional studies of the effects of multi-type etal., 1997a, 1997b). Several studies have examined
abuse. Psychological abuse and neglect, which were the effects of physical and sexual abuse with neglect
assessed in 15 studies, were still given less attention (Kurtz et al., 1991; Powers et al-, 1990; Ryan et al.,
than were other types. Consistent with the earlier 2000;Thrane et al., 2006;Tyler et al., 2004) or with
review, individuals who experienced multiple abuse emotional abuse (Powers et al., 1990; Tyler et al.,
types presented the most p.sychological symptoms. 2004; Whitbeck et al., 1997b). Studies that assess
In the Higgins and McCabe (2001) review, only one up to four types of abuse among homeless youths
study addressed multi-type abuse among homeless are less common (Powers et al., 1990; Tyler et ai.,
youths, whereas no study reviewed by Arata et al. 2004), whereas those that examine more than four
was with this population. abuse types by including verbal abuse or witnessing
family physical and verbal abuse are largely absent
More recently, researchers have begun to examine (Tyler, 2006).
the differential effects of multiple forms of abuse,
although few have used neglect or psychological This gap presents limitations in the current un-
abuse measures in their studies (Arata et a!., 2007). derstanding of primary abuse correlates, given the
When neglect and psychological abuse are included high co-occurrence rates of abuse types found in
in multi-type abuse models, they are found to be prior research (Arata et al., 2007; Hi^ins & McC'abe,
significant predictors of the internalizing and exter- 2001). Unless other forms of abuse are concurrently
nalizing behaviors associated with other abuse types, assessed along with physical and sexual abuse in
such as physical and sexual abuse (McGee,Wolfe, & homeless youtiis, one cannot conclude that certain
Wilson, 1997). Also, occurrences of multiple abuse outcomes are specific to the particular abuse type
FHRGUSON / Exploring ePsychosociat and Behavioral Adjustment Outcomes of Multi-Type Ahuse among Homeless Young Adaits 221
were .90 for internalizing and .86 for externalizing caregivers say mean, insulting, or threatening things
behaviors (Cauce et al., 20<K)). However, because to each other), and witnessing family physical abuse
the subjects in the present study were older (ages (youth saw or heard caregivers hit or hurt each
18 to 24), adult measures were used to facilitate other physically).
[racking over time in future studies. One possible In addition to whether the abuse type occurR'd,
explanation for the low reliability on the ASR subjects were a.sked to indicate their age at each
scales is that adult instruments may not be the most abusive episode (age at onset), their age when the
appropriate measures for transition-age homeless abuse stopped (age at last episode), the identity of
young adults, who often experience cognitive and the perpetrator and all parties involved, how close
developmental delays .is a result of their histories they were to the perpetrator at each episode, and
and street involvement (further discussed in the the frequency with which each episode occurred.
Study Limitations section) (Thompson, Pollio, & Abuse frequency was measured as 1 (rarcly/less than
Constantine, 2(t(12). one to two times per year). 2 (occasionally/one to
High-risk behaviors consisted of three variables two times per year), 3 (often/one to two times per
that have consistently been used in homeless youth month). 4 (a lot/one to two times per week), or 5
studies (Cauce et al., 200(1; Kipke, Unger, Palmer, (every day/one or more tunes per day). Subjects also
and Edgington, 19%): high-risk sex and two types indicated how severe they found each episode to
of substance abuse. High-risk sex was a single-item be.The severity rating was measured as I (not at all
indicator measuring the number of times that the upsetting),2 (a little upsetting), 3 (moderately upset-
respondent had been drunk or high during sexual ting), 4 (very upsetting), or 5 (extremely upsetting).
intercourse without a condom in his or her life. Finally, subjects were asked to describe the details
Substance abuse was assessed with two variables of each abusive episode.
on the ASR. each measured over the previous six
months (Achenbach, 20i)3). Alcohol use measured Data Collection and Analysis
the number of days the young person had been Researchers conducted .l 611- to yO-mniute struc-
drunk. Drug use measured tbe number of days the tured interview with 28 subjects at the host agency.
young person had used drugs (including marijuana, All subjects received a SIO gift card after the inter-
cocaine, and other drugs) for nomiiedical purposes. view. Raw data from the interview's were entered by
Higher scores reflect a greater use of substances, a research assistant into SPSS 14. Given the sensitive
liorderline clinical ranges comprised raw scores topics di.scussed, interviewers held MSW degrees
between 27 and 47 (for men) and 10 and 19 (for and used a risk-assessment protocol to assess for
women) for alcohol use and between 21 and 118 suicidal and homicidal ideation. Specific items on
(for men) and 4 and 19 (for women) for drug use. the ASR and the trauma interview were used to
Clinical ranges comprised raw scores above 47 (for assess suicidal and homicidal ideation or attempts. In
men) and 1 ^) (tor women) for alcohol use and above the event that harm to self or others was identified,
118 (for men) and 19 (for women) for drug use. interviewers invited the agency's hcensed clinical
Different cutoff scores for men and women reflect social workers into the interview for immediate or
differing distributions of responses in the national subsequent clinical attention. After the interviews,
normative sample (Achenbach, 2003). researchers debriefed with the subjects to connect
Abuse history included assessment of six abuse them to other agency staff and resources.
types that were adapted from Noll, Horowitz, Global empirical analysesincluding frequency
Bonanno, Trickett, and Putnam's (2003) Time 3 distributions, means, standard deviations, and
Comprehensive Trauma Interview. Subjects were medianswere used to describe characteristics
asked about the nature and extent of their abuse among the variables. Chi-square and Fishers ex-
related to verbal abuse (adults said mean, insulting, act tests were used to assess group differences in
or threatening things to youth), emotional abuse/ categorical psychosocial and behavioral variables
rejection (youth felt rejected by family), physical and the abuse variable. Continuous mental health
abuse (youth had been beaten or physically mis- variables were categorized using clinical cutof"
treated).sexual abuse/sexual assault (adult had done scores to assess differences between subjects in
or tried to do something sexual that youth did not the clinical and borderline clinical ranges and the
want), witnessing family verbal abuse (youth heard subclinical range and to facilitate interpretation
FERGUSON / Exploring the Piychosocial and Behavioral Adjustment Outcomes of Multi-Type Abuse among Homeless Young Adults 223
Table 2: Frequencies and Percentages of testimonies with these data provides support for the
Psychosocial and Behavioral Outcomes association between verbal abuse and depression
Sample
and internalizing behaviors. As one youth noted,
"At least once a month, my stepmom and stepdad
Variable i
would say mean things to melike that I was fat
or stupid. It would make me feel upset and insecure
No 12 about myself."
y 16 57
Age (in years) began living on srrecEs
The proportion of high-risk sexual behaviors
8 53 was also higher among subjects who experienced
0-17
verbal abuse, although this finding only approached
7 47
statistical significance. The mean score of high-risk
Total depression (RDSI)
sexual encounters among those experiencing verbal
SubdiniGil range (ft-l) 13
abuse was 4.65 {SD = 6.85).
CLnical range (11+)
Internalizing behaviors (ASR)
For subjects who experienced emotional abuse,
the proportion of alcohol abuse was higher among
Subdinical range 16 57
those who reported abuse. The mean number of
Borderline and clinical range 12 43
days in the previous six months on which subjects
F.xrcrnaninglH-hiiviors (ASR)
with emotional abuse histories were drunk was
Siibclinical range 14 50
15.86 {SD = 42.44). Testimonies from the youths
Bonk'fline and clinical range 14 50
support the association between substance use and
Tuial alaihol (previous 6 monrhs)
family problems: "I'd take a bunch of medications
0 days 16 57
hke Tylenol, and then I'd vomit. I did this when I
It days 12 43 had relationship problems and family issues. Once
Total drugs (previous 6 months) I did it because my son's mother took my son away
0 days 12 43 .Hid told me he was dead six months later."
1 + days 16 57
High-risk sex
Among subjects reporting physical abuse, the
proportion of foster-care involvement was higher
0 times u 48
among those with abuse historics.Thc mean number
1+ times 12
Notes A/= 28. Sample siie vanea for Ihewariable age began living on itrmiiui = of placements for those experiencing physical abuse
15) given that nol all yuulhs were living on the ilteets at the time ot the study nd was 3.36 {SD = 2,73). The average age at which
for high-rijli sex (n = 3) given thai there were five nonresponsei for thij variable.
ROSI = ReynntdDeprsion Screening Inventory [Reynolds S Kobak. 1998); ASH = these subjects entered foster care was 8.55 years
Adull Sell-Report (Achenbach. 2003); total akohol = dayt iubject had been drunk;
lotal drijgi ^ dayi subject had uled drugs for nonmedical purposei; higH-risl! iex = {SD = 5.20). One youth with a history of foster
numbei of tma sub)t had been drunk or fiigh during semial imeicourie without care noted that "like 3 times a week growing up
a condom.
my uncle, grandpa, cousin, and brother would hit
me wherever they could land a punch. Tbey left
bruises, black eyes, bloody noses. I started fighting
outcomes between subjects with and without the them back when I was 16. It just got worse when
four direct abuse typesverbal, emotional, physical, I started fighting back."
and sexual abuse. Percentages, chi-squarc statistics, Similar to physical abuse, the proportion of foster-
and significance levels for the categorical outcome care involvement was also higher among subjects
variables by abuse type are presented in Table 3. who experienced sexual abuse.The mean number
The proportions of borderline clinical or clinical of foster care placements for subjects with histories
depression, internalizing behaviors, and external- of sexual abuse was 3.67 (SD = 2.96). The average
izing behaviors were higher among subjects who age at which these young adults entered foster care
experienced verbal abuse.The mean RDSI score for was 7.44 years (SD = 4.98).
subjects who experienced verbal abuse was 15.42 In addition, the proportion of subjects who began
(SD - 9.16).The average ASR internalizing score living on the streets by age 18 was higher among
among subjects with a verbal abuse history was 22.84 those who reported a history of sexual abuse.The
{SD = 13.37).The mean ASR externalizing score mean age at which the young people who reported
among subjects experiencing verbal abuse was 20.79 sexual abuse began living on the street was 19.50
(SD = 9.91). Triangulating the youths' qualitative yean {SD = 1.87). As one youth who was living on
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a rooftop at the time of the study revealed, "Over homeless young adults in several ways. First, statistics
three years my stepdad began molestint; me when on abuse frequency and severity, age of onset and
I was three. I shot liim when I was six with my last episode.and number of perpetrators have rarely
mom's revolver." been reported in prior research (Ryan et al.. 2000).
These data are important complements to the study
Associations between Abuse Types of these phenomena, given that most studies have
Significant associations were observed between relied exclusively on dichotomous abuse measures
six abuse types. There was a significant moderate (Higgins & McCabe. 2001 ; Ryan et al., 2000).This
relationship between verbal abuse and witnessing study provided a more nuanced depiction of abme
family verbal abuse ((() = .54,p = .01).Among those by measuring its nature, type, frequency, and severity
reporting verbal abuse, 6S% witnessed co-occurring and the young people s perceptions of abuse episodes,
family verbal abuse. Conversely, among those wit- along with ages at abuse episodes and number of
nessing family verbal abuse, 93% reported verbal perpetrators.
abuse as well. Verbal abuse and witnessing family Regarding abuse frequency, prevalence rates for
physical abuse also had a significant moderate asso- the six specific abuse types ranged from 39% to
ciation {(|> = .40.;) = .049). Among those reporting 68%. These findings support existing abuse preva-
verbal abuse, 53% witnessed family physical abuse. lence rates among homeless young people, which
For those witnessing family physical abuse, 91% range from 50% to 83% for physical or sexual abuse
reported verbal abuse. (Molnar et al., 1998; Ryan et al., 2000;Thrane et al.,
Emotional abuse had a significant moderate a.s- 2006). However, these results also expand on prior
sociation with physical abuse ((}) = .43. p = .02). work with this population given that studies assessing
Among subjects with a history of emotional abuse, more than four abuse types are largely absent.
71% reported physical abuse. Likewise, among With respect to perceptions of abuse severity,
subjects who reported physical abuse.71% reported subjects rated their emotional reactions to each
emotional abuse. Emotional and sexual abuse also abusive episode on a five-point severity scale.
revealed a significant moderate association {ij> = .51 ,p Among abuse types, sexual abuse was rated as the
= .01). For subjects reporting emotional abase,64% most emotionally distressing, followed by physical
also reported se.^ual abuse. In contrast, among sub- abuse, and then emotional abuse. It is interesting
jects who experienced sexual abuse, 82% reported to note that no correlation was found between
co-occurring emotional abuse. frequency and severity among abuse types, except
In addition, physical and sexual abuse had a for verbal abu.se. Even though abuse may happen
significant and strong association ((j) = .80, p = fi-equently, the victim may not perceive it as emo-
.0(1). Among subjects reporting physical abuse. 79% tionally distressing. Conversely, abusive episodes that
reported sexual abuse. Conversely, among the 11 occur infrequently may have an enduring effect.
who reported sexual abuse. 100% had co-occurring This suggests that high distress may be associated
physical abuse. with either high or low abuse frequency; that is, the
Finally, a significant and strong association was relationship between abuse frequency and severity
observed between witnessing family verbal and is not a linear one.
family physical abuse ((j) = .80, p = .00). Among In the case of verbal abuse, a significant, moderate
those witnessing family verbal abuse. 79% reported correlation was found between abuse frequency and
family physical abuse as well, in contrast,among the severity, suggesting that youths experienced greater
I1 subjects who reported a history of witnessing distress with the increasing frequency of caregivers'
family physical abuse, 100% also witnessed family mean, insulting, or threatening comments. Because
verbal abuse. verbal abuse was the most prevalent abuse type (oc-
curring among 68% of subjects), it is possible that
DISCUSSION other more severe abuse types arose from initial
The aim of this study was to explore adjustment heated verbal exchanges within families. Future
outcomes among homeless young adults that are inclusion of verbal abuse in homeless youth studies
associated with multiple forms of abuse and the will help elucidate the relationship between verbal
interrelationships among abuse types. The present and other abuse types. One direction for future re-
findings add to the literature on the abuse histories of search would be to examine whether verbal abuse
FERGUSON / [^ploring che Psychosocial and Behavioral Adjustment Outcomes ofMulti-Type Abuse among Homeless YoungAdults 227
studies, given that greater numbers of placement izing behaviors and specific abuse types. In future
can increase a young people's exposure to potential work with this population.it is crucial for researchers
perpetrators of abuse. to develop and norm appropriate instruments for
young adults and to adapt existing youth and adult
STUDY LIMITATIONS measures to increase their relevance to young adults.
Tlie study fmdings and the conclusions drawn However, until reliable young adult measures exist,
from them should be taken with caution because youth measures may be more appropriate.
of several limitations. First, the present sample is not Finally, these data are cross-sectional and consist
likely representative ot the greater homeless young of retrospective abuse reports. Biases in subject recall
adult population, given that the screening criterion of past information may bave contributed to some
in the original pilot study required subjects to have over- or underreporting of events. For instance,
received services at least two times per week in the subjects may have experienced peritraumatic disso-
month before the study. As such, the study subjects ciation during their traumatic events so as not to be
were likely to have been more engaged in services emotionally overwhelmed by the events (Noll et al.,
and to have experienced longer service histories 2003).This primitive coping mechanism may have
than those young adults who did not meet the inclu- contributed to problems with their recall of trau-
sion criterion for the original study. Also, because matic events. One strength in our design, however,
subjects were selected within a drop-in center, it
is that a young adult population was interviewed
is highly likely that street-engaged young people
many of whom experienced abuse that was relatively
who do not access agency services and who may
recent or, in some cases, ongoing.
have more severe mental health problems were not
appropriately represented in this sampIe.The sample
IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH
size was also restricted due to the design and time
AND PRACTICE
frame of the pilot study, which hampered the use
of more advanced statistical analyses. Overall, several implications for social work research-
ers and practitioners with this population can be
Further, abuse assessments were conducted by derived fix)m this study. First, it is imperative that
self-reports and not corroborated with agency or researchers assess for multiple abuse forms in addi-
other official records.The youths may also have been tion to using the common measures of physical and
reticent to convey sensitive information about their sexual abuse. In this study, the majority of young
abuse histories to adults (Thompson et al.. 2007). adults experienced three or more forms of abuse. A
However, a notable strength of the current study comprehensive array of psychosocial and behavioral
was that the interviewen bad previously served as outcomes should be included in fiature work with
staff with street-youth organizations and were thus this population as well. As noted, data on multiple
familiar witli street culture. Because the interviewers abuse types,frequenc7,andseverity are largely absent
were known and trusted by many of tbe subjects, it from prior studies with homeless young people.
was less likely that the youths would bias their re- Comprehensive assessment of multiple abuse types is
sponses. In a prior study comparing homeless youth needed,given that negative sequelae can result from
self-reports with data collected from their parents abuse epi.sodes that occur relatively infrequently or
Whitbeck et al. (1997b) found no tendency for the are not considered severe. One area that warrants
youths to overreport family abuse histories. ' future study is whether severity could be a mediator
Similarly, adult instruments such as the RDSI and between the abuse experience and the development
ASR were used with these young adults, which may of behavioral and psychological problems-
have contributed to the marginal reliability on the Given the high rates of multi-type abuse found
two ASR scales found here. As noted, the Cronbach in this study, practitioners should also be attuned
alphas for the ASR scales were considerably lower to the prevalence of co-occurring abuse types and
than those reported in earlier studies using theYSR assess for symptoms and outcomes of multiple forms
with younger homeless youths (Cauce et al..2000). of abuse.The co-occurrence of various abuse types
The low reliability on the internalizing and external- is of clinical concern because less severe forms of
izing scales may indeed have inuenced the results abuse {for example, verbal abuse) are associated with
and the interpretation of the fmdinji by attenuating depressive symptoms and internalizing and external-
the associations between internalizing and external- izing behaviors. Yet when they are identified, such
FERGUSON / Exploring the Piyehosocial and Behavioral Adjuscment Outcomes ofMulti-Type Abuse among Homeless Young Adults 229
the sexual victimization of homeless and runaway
youth. I'iolence and Victims. 16, 441-455.
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(20()lb).The impact of childhood sexual abuse on
later sexual victimization among runaway youth.
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Homeless and runaway adolescents iml their families. New
York:Aldine de Ciruyter.
Whitbeck. L. U., Hoyt, D. R., & Ackley. K.A. (1997a).
Abusive family backgrounds and later victimization NASW PRESS POLICY ON
among runaway and homeless adoiescentN. foiinia! of ETHICAL BEHAVIOR
ke.-earch on Adoksawe. 7.375-392.
Whitbeck. L. B.. Hoyt, I). R..& AckJey. K.A. (!997b).
Families ot homeless and runaway adolescents:A
comparison of parent/caretaker and adolescent
perspectives on pa.renting, family violence, and ado-
T he NASW Press expects authors to ad-
here to ethical standards for scholarship
as articulated in the NASW Code of Ethics
lescent conduct. Child Abuse & N'eglect, 21, 517-528.
Whitbeck, L. B., Hoyt. D. R., & Bao.w' (2000). Depressive
.lud IVritiu^iifor '^'^ NASW Press: hiforrnatiou
symptoms and co-occurring depressive symptoms, for Authors. These standards include actions
substance abuse, and conduct problems among such as J
n.maw.Ty and homeless adolescents. Child Development, .
71, 721-732.
Wliitbcck. L. B,, Hoyt, D. R., & Yodcr. K.A- (1999). A risk- taking responsibility and credit only for
amplitlcation model of victimization and depressive
symptoms among runaway and homeless adoles- work they have actually performed
cents. American Journal oJ Community Psychology, 27, honestly acknowledging the work of
273-296. others I
Kristin M. Ferguson, PhD, MSHis as.'niaate professor. School submitting only original work to
oJ Social IVork, Unirersily of Sotithern California. 669 West journals
34th Street. LosAngchXA 90089-0411;e-ntail:knfergus@ fiilly documenting their own and otliers'
usc.eilu. lilispiht iindy was supported by the Ljirson Bihu-mait related work.
for hinovative iescarch ai the School ofSodal Worbj University
ofSoutiiern California. If possible breaches of ethical standards have
Original mangscripl received Match 11. 2008 been identied at the review or publication
Final revision received March 27, 2009 process, the NASW Press may notify the au-
Accepted April 22, 2009
thor and bring the ethics issue to the attention
of the appropriate professional body or other
authority. Peer review confidentiaiity will not
apply where there is evidence of plagiarism.