BONDING IN BRICKWORK

Bonds in brick work means method of arranging the bricks in courses so that individual brick
units are tied together and the vertical joints of the successive courses do not lie in same vertical
line.

PURPOSES OF BRICK BONDING

Obtain maximum strength whilst distributing the loads to be carried throughout the wall,
column or pier.
If bonds in brick work are not arranged properly, then a continuous vertical joint will result.
This is called an un-bonded wall having little strength and stability. (See fig. below)
RULES FOR BONDING IN BRICKWORK
For getting good bond, the following rules should be observed.

RULE-1
The bricks should be of uniform size. The length of the brick should be twice its width plus one
joint, so that uniform lap is obtained. Good bond is not possible if lap is non-uniform.

RULE-2
The amount of lap should be minimum brick length along the length of the wall and brick
length across the thickness of the wall.

RULE-3
Avoid using brick bats unless it is necessary or required in special locations.

RULE-4
In alternate courses, the centre line of header should coincide with the center line of the
stretcher, in the course below or above it.

RULE-5
The vertical joints in the alternate courses should be along the same vertical axis.

RULE-6
The stretcher should be used only in the facing; they should not be used in the hearting. Hearting
should be done in headers only.

RULE-7
It is preferable to provide every sixth course as a header course on both the sides of the wall.

RULE-8
Use of raked and other joints that provide horizontal water tables should be avoided. Concave
and weathered joints should be provided.

Types of Joints between Masonry Units

10 DIFFERENT TYPES OF BRICK CUTS USED IN BRICK
MASONRY
The below mentioned terminologies are used to express different forms of cut bricks used in
brick masonry construction.

1. CLOSER
It is the portion of the brick cut along the length in such a way as one long face remains intact.

2. QUEEN CLOSER
When a brick is cut along its length, making it two equal halves then it is called queen closer.
Thus a queen closer is a broken brick portion whose width is half as wide as the original brick.
This is also called as queen closer half.

3. QUEEN CLOSER QUARTER

If a queen closer is broken into two equal pieces then it is known as queen closer quarter. Such
a closer is thus a brick piece which is one quarter of the brick size.

4. KING CLOSER
If a brick is cut in such a way that the width of one end becomes half that of a full brick, while the
width at the other end is equal to the full width, then it is called as king closer. It is obtained by
cutting out a triangular portion of the brick between the centre of one end (width side) and the
centre of the other end (lay side). Thus it has half header and half stretcher face.

5. BEVELED CLOSER
It is a form of king closer in which the whole length of the brick (i.e. stretcher face) is chamfered
or beveled in such a way that half width is maintained at one end and full width is maintained at
the other end.
6. MITRED CLOSER
It is a portion of a brick whose one end is cut splayed or mitred for full width. The angle of splay
may vary from 450 to 600. Thus one longer face of the mitred closer is of full length of the brick
while the other longer face is smaller in length.

7. BAT
When a brick is cut across the width, the resulting piece is called bat. Thus a bat is smaller in
length than the full brick.

8. HALF BAT
If the length of the bat is equal to half the length of the original brick, it is known as half bat.

9. THREE QUARTER BAT

It is a form of brick bat having its length equal to three quarter of the length of a full brick.

10. BEVELED BAT

A brick bat is called beveled bat, when its width has beveled.
 STEPS INVOLVED IN BRICK
MANUFACTURING
Manufacturing of bricks consists of the following 4 operations or steps.

1. Preparation of brick clay or brick earth

2. Moulding of bricks
3. Air drying of bricks
4. Burning of bricks

1. PREPARATION OF BRICK CLAY OR BRICK

EARTH
In this step the soil is excavated in steps and then laid on leveled ground. Then the soil is
cleaned of impurities such as vegetation matter, stones or pebbles etc. After removing impurities
it is exposed to weather for few months. This is called the process of weathering. After
completion of weathering process the soil is blended with other material to prepare good brick
earth. Then the mixed soil is tempered by being thoroughly broken up, watered and kneaded.
The tempering is usually done in pug mill.
2. MOULDING OF BRICKS
Bricks are moulded in many ways depending on the quality of the product to be made. Generally
the moulding is done in the following two ways

Hand moulding
Machine moulding

For hand moulding the tempered clay is forced in the mould in such a way that it fills all the
corners of the mould. Extra clay is removed either by wooden strike or frame with wire. Mould is
then lifted up and raw brick is left on ground.

Machine moulding is is used where large numbers of bricks are to be made. Machines used for
moulding is generally of two types.

Plastic clay machines

Dry clay machines

In plastic clay machine the clay in plastic state is forced to rectangular openings of a size equal
to the length and breadth of the bricks and are then cut into strips of thickness of the brick with
wires in frames.

In dry clay machines, dry clay is reduced to powder, filled dry into mould by the machine and
then are subjected to high pressure to form hard and well shaped bricks.

3. DRYING OF BRICKS
Drying is usually done by placing the bricks in sheds with open sides so as to ensure free
circulation of air and protection from bad weather and rains. The bricks are allowed to dry till they
are left with 5 to 7 percent moisture content. The drying period usually varies from 7 to 14days.
The moulded bricks are dried because of the following reasons.

If damp bricks or green bricks are directly taken to burning then, they are likely to be
cracked and distorted
To remove maximum moisture from the brick so as to save time and fuel during burning
To increase the strength of raw bricks so that they can be handled and stacked in greater
heights in the kiln for burning without damage.

4. BURNING OF THE BRICKS

It is the very important step in manufacture of bricks. Bricks may be burnt by two distinct methods
given below.

Burning in a clamp or Pazawah known as clamp burning

Burning in a flame kiln or Bhatta known as kiln burning
In clamps, one batch of green bricks is heaped along with firewood, coal etc. and sealed with
clay. It is then fired slowly to intense heat which may take many days. Modern kilns, however,
permanent structures consisting of many chambers. There are intermittent and continuous kilns.
Moulded clay is stacked in the chambers. They are then slowly dried and burned to high
temperature and cooled. One cycle of loading, drying, burning, cooling and emptying may take
as much as two weeks. These processes are carried out intermittently in intermittent kilns and in
cyclic order in continuous kilns.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF A BUILDING
A building consists of following basic components.

1. FOUNDATION
A foundation is necessary to evenly distribute the entire building load on the soil in such a
manner that no damaging settlements take place. Hence, the foundations need to be constructed
on good/solid ground.

2. PLINTH
A plinth is normally constructed just above the ground level and immediately after the foundation.
It raises the floor above the ground level and herewith prevents surface water from entering the
building.
3. DAMP PROOF COURSE (DPC)
Damp proof course is a layer of water proofing material such as asphalt or waterproof cement.
Walls are constructed above the damp proof course.

Damp proof course prevents surface water from rising into the walls.

Dampness reduces the strength of the walls and creates unhealthy living conditions. Also it
affects the paint and plaster and increasing the cost of maintenance.

Damp proofing layer is not required where a plinth beam is constructed, because the plinth beam
already performs like a DPC.

4. PLINTH BEAM
A plinth beam is constructed depending upon the type of the structure of the building and nature
of the soil. It provides additional stability in regard to settlements of the building and earthquake
damages.

5. FLOOR
This is the surface on which we do most of our activities. Floorings is laid over the filling of the
plinth and on subsequent floors.

Flooring can be done with different materials, but care must be given that the ground below the
floor is well compacted. Flooring is done to prevent dampness from rising to the top and to have
a firm platform that can be kept hygienic and clean.

6. WALLS
Walls are the vertical elements on which the roof finally rests. They can be made of different
materials like bricks, stones, mud, concrete blocks, lateritic blocks etc. If the walls are very long,
columns can be provided to carry the roof.

Walls provide privacy and enclosure. Walls also provide security and protection against natural
elements such as wind, rain and sunshine.

Openings are to be provided in wall for access and ventilation.

7. OPENINGS
Openings are normally provided in the walls as door, windows and ventilators.

Doors provide access; windows and ventilators provide light and ventilation.

Lintels are constructed just above the openings. It is normally a stone slab or a concrete slab.

Sill is the part of the wall that is just below the window.
Lintels are constructed to hold up the walls above the openings. In earthquake prone areas a
continuous lintel beam is provided all over the walls.

8. STAIRS
A stair is a sequence of steps and it is provided to afford the means of ascent and descent
between the floors and landings.

The apartment or room of a building in which stair is located is called staircase. The space or
opening occupied by the stair is called a stairway.

There are different kind of stairs are used in buildings, like RCC stair, wooden stair, metal stair,
brick stair etc.

9. ROOF
The roof provides protection for the building and the people living in it. The roof rests on the walls
and requires proper anchoring so that wind and other mechanical impact cannot destroy it. A roof
can have different shapes but it is always either flat or sloping.

Roof is typically made of RCC, stone slab, tiles etc.

10. SURFACES / FINISHES

External finishes are the outer most layer of protection, which protect the structure from
weathering. Internal finishes are the layers given on internal faces. They give durability and
pleasing appearance to the inside.
REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD BUILDING
STONES
The following are the quality requirements of good building stones:

1. STRENGTH
Generally most of the building stones have high strength to resist the load coming on it.
Therefore it is not of prime concern when it comes to check the quality of stones. But when the
stones are to be used in large structures, it becomes necessary to check the compressive
strength of stones.

Compressive strength of building stones generally fall within the range of 60 to 200N/mm2.

2. DURABILITY
Building stones should be capable to resist the adverse effects of natural forces like wind, rain
and heat. It must be durable and should not deteriorate due to the adverse effects of the above
natural forces.

3. HARDNESS
When stones are used in floors, pavements or aprons of bridges, they become subjected to
wearing and abrasive forces caused by movement of men or machine over them. So it is
required to test hardness of stone.

Hardness of stone is determined by Mohs scale.

4. TOUGHNESS
Toughness of stones means it ability to resist impact forces. Building stones should be tough
enough to sustain stresses developed due to vibrations. The vibrations may be due to the
machinery mounted over them or due to the loads moving over them. The stone aggregates
used in the road constructions should be tough.

5. SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The more the specific gravity of stone, the more heavier and stronger the stone is.

Therefore stones having higher specific gravity values should be used for the construction of
dams, retaining walls, docks and harbors. The specific gravity of good building stone is between
2.4 and 2.8.

6. POROSITY AND ABSORPTION

Porosity of building stones depend upon the mineral constituent and structural formation of the
parent rock. If stones used in building construction are porous then rain water can easily enter
into the pore spaces and cause damage to the stones. Therefore building stone should not be
porous.
Water absorption of stone is directly proportional to the porosity of rock. If a stone is more porous
then it will absorb more water and cause more damage to stone.

In higher altitudes, the freezing of water in pores takes place and it results into the disintegration
of the stone.

Permissible limits of water absorption for some the commonly used building stones are as follow.

Type of Stone Maximum limit of Water Absorption (%)

Sandstone 10

Limestone 10

Granite 1

Shale 10

Slate 1

Quartzite 3

7. DRESSING
Giving required shape to the stone is called dressing. It should be easy to dress so that the cost
of dressing is reduced. However, the care should be taken so that, this is not be at the cost of the
required strength and the durability.

8. APPEARANCE
In case of the stones to be used for face works, where appearance is a primary requirement, its
colour and ability to receive polish is an important factor.

Light colored stones are more preferred than dark colored stones as the colour are likely to fade
out with time.

9. SEASONING
Good stones should be free from the quarry sap. Lateritic stones should not be used for 6 to 12
months after quarrying. They are allowed to get rid of quarry sap by the action of nature. This
process of removing quarry sap is called seasoning.
10. WORKABILITY
Stone should be workable. Stone is said to be workable when the work involved in stone working
(such as cutting, dressing & shaping) is economical and easy to conduct.

11. COST
Cost is an important consideration in selecting a building material. Proximity of the quarry to
building site brings down the cost of transportation and hence the cost of stones comes down.

12. FIRE RESISTANCE

Stones should be free from calcium carbonate, oxides of iron, and minerals having different
coefficients of thermal expansion. Igneous rock show marked disintegration principally because
of quartz which disintegrates into small particles at a temperature of about 575C. Limestone,
however, can withstand a little higher temperature; i.e. up to 800C after which they disintegrate
5 EASY STEPS TO CHOOSE MOST APPROPRIATE TYPE OF FOUNDATION

There are three principle factors to consider before choosing the most appropriate type of
foundation for a given structure. These are as follow

Function of the structure and loads it must carry

The sub surface condition
Cost of foundation in comparison with cost of the superstructure

Because of these factors, there exist several acceptable solutions for a foundation problem.
So the judgment of an engineer plays an important role in foundation engineering. The role
of an engineer is to find out the most suitable type of foundation considering both the
subsurface condition and the function of the structure. Thereafter considering the economy
he makes his final decision.

If an engineer is new to this field or has less experience, then it is better for them to rely on
scientific studies and experience of other engineers related to this field. The 5 steps given
here, if followed in a logical manner, then it will help an engineer to arrive at a most suitable
type of foundation, without the danger of serious error.

The steps to follow are given below.

1. Obtain at least approximate information concerning the nature of the superstructure

and the loads to be transmitted to the foundations.

2. Determine the subsurface conditions in a general way

3. Consider briefly each of the customary types of foundation to judge whether they
could be constructed under the existing conditions, whether they would probably be
capable of carrying the required loads, and whether they might experience
detrimental settlements. Eliminate, in this preliminary way, obviously unsuitable
types.

4. Make more detailed studies and even tentative designs of the most promising types.
These studies may require additional information concerning the loads and
subsurface conditions and generally must be carried far enough to determine the
approximate size of footings or piers or the approximate length and number of piles
required. It may also be necessary to make more refined estimates of settlement in
order to predict the behaviour of the structure.

5. Prepare the estimate of the cost of each promising type of foundation, and choose
the type that represents the most acceptable compromise between performance and
cost.
WHAT IS CONTRACTION JOINT?
A contraction joint is one in which the two concrete surfaces are free to move away from one
another as a result of shrinkage or thermal movement. Relative movement in the plane of the
joint is prevented.

WHY TO PROVIDE CONTRACTION JOINT?

As concrete hardens and dries out, it shrinks. Unless this shrinkage is unrestrained, it creates
tensile stresses in the concrete which may cause it to crack.

Whilst reinforcement will resist these tensile stresses and help prevent the formation of large
cracks, it does not completely prevent cracking. It merely ensures that the cracks, as they occur,
are more closely spaced and of smaller width. In properly designed reinforced concrete, they will
not be obvious or of concern when seen from normal viewing distances.

Unreinforced concrete, on the other hand, will tend to develop somewhat larger cracks at more
irregular intervals; wherever the tensile strength of the concrete is exceeded by the shrinkage
stresses.

To prevent such cracks, contraction joints must be installed at appropriate intervals. It may also
be advisable to install contraction joints in reinforced concrete rather than relying solely on
reinforcement to control shrinkage stresses.

Contraction joints may also be required in mass concrete or very large members, to allow for the
shrinkage or reduction in volume which occurs as concrete cools or loses temperature after it has
been placed.

HOW TO LOCATE CONTRACTION JOINT?

The location of contraction joints is a matter for the designer or supervising engineer to decide.
For example, their location will often be defined on the drawings for pavements, industrial floors
and similar applications, while in other cases they will be in a regular pattern or be an integral
part of the architectural features.

Generally they will be situated where the greatest concentration of tensile stresses resulting from
shrinkage are to be expected:

At abrupt changes of cross-section; and

In long walls, slabs.

Contraction joints are most common in large areas of concrete pavement where they are used to
divide the concrete into bays. Ideally, these should be approximately square. They may also be
necessary in long walls, particularly where an unplanned crack would be undesirable.

Contraction joints form a convenient point at which to stop concrete work at the end of the day.

Construction joints should never be formed in the middle of a bay.

CONSTRUCTION

Contraction joints are formed by creating a vertical plane of weakness in the slab or wall.
Movement is allowed at this point to accommodate that due to shrinkage. On the other hand, it is
usually necessary to prevent movement in other directions, i.e. in directions parallel to the plane
of the joint Fig-1. These twin requirements have the following consequences:

The bond between abutting concrete surfaces in the joint must be broken.
Reinforcement is terminated on both sides of the joint.
Dowel bars if used must be unbonded on one side of the joint.

CONTROL JOINTS

A control joint is a form of contraction joint which is formed by building a plane of weakness
into either a vertical or horizontal member. As the concrete shrinks, tensile stress is concentrated
on this plane causing the concrete to crack there rather than elsewhere.

Normally, mechanical interlock across the two faces of the joint is expected to prevent other
movement in the joint.

Control joints are, therefore, a relatively simple alternative to a fully formed contraction joint. They
are placed wherever a formed joint would have been placed and are most widely used in
unreinforced floors and pavements. Joint spacing in these applications, range from 1 m for thin
pedestrian pathways and driveways to, say, 5 m for road pavements.

Control joints can be made at any one of three stages during construction, viz:
 A premoulded strip may be inserted into the concrete, as it is being placed, to create a plane
of weakness. Metal strips inserted into terrazzo or preformed plastic strips inserted into
concrete pavements to form the centre line of the pavement are examples.
A joint can be formed in the surface of the concrete with a suitable jointing or grooving tool.
Upon hardening, the concrete cracks at this point, creating a joint.
After the concrete has hardened sufficiently to prevent ravelling of the edges, a sawn joint
may be formed. The joint should be made as early as possible and prior to drying shrinkage
starting to occur. Delay can result in unplanned cracking of the pavement. The sawn joint is
then filled with a joint sealant to prevent dirt and other debris entering it Fig-2 as unsealed
joints tend to fill with dirt and become ineffective.
MOISTURE CONTENT DRY DENSITY
RELATIONSHIP
At a given input of compaction energy there exists a relationship between moisture content or
water content and dry density, which is of the form shown in Fig-1.

On the dry side, the added water creates a coating of a thin film of water on the surface of the
particles imparting a lubricating effect on them which enables them to move closer to each
other under the influence of the compaction effort. This results in the reduction of air voids which
goes on till the peak is reached at which we obtain the maximum dry density (d ) the
max

corresponding moisture content being called optimum moisture content (O.M.C.).

Fig-1 Moisture content dry density relationship

Beyond the peak the added water starts occupying the pore space preventing the soil
particles from moving into that space. As a result the dry density starts decreasing from the
peak value. The corresponding moisture content is an optimum and not a maximum value
unlike dry density which is a maximum value. The curve of Fig-1 is called the moisture
content-dry density curve or simply the compaction curve.

The moisture content corresponding to the ascending part of the

compaction curve is marked as the dry side of optimum and that
corresponding to the descending part as the wet side of optimum.

ZERO AIR VOIDS CURVE

Zero air voids correspond to a degree of saturation (S) of 100%. The relationship
between d, wand S, is as follow

d = G* w / [1+(G*W/S)]

Where

d = Dry density of soil

G = Specific gravity of soil solids

w = Unit weigh of water

W = Water content of soil

S = Degree of saturation

Substituting S = 1 (100%) we can obtain d for various values of w and plot the result which
is also shown in Fig-1 marked as zero air voids curve or the saturation curve.

It is noted from the figure that zero air voids is a theoretical limit which can never be reached
in practice, signifying thereby that it is impossible to fully expel the pore air or make the soil
fully saturated in the compaction process.

The above equation can be used to plot the w-d relationship for different values of S such
as 95%, 80% etc.
INFLUENCE OF VARYING THE COMPACTIVE
EFFORT
If we successively increase the compactive effort and plot the corresponding compaction
curves, the results will be as shown in Fig-2.

Fig-2 Effect of compactive energy on dry density and OMC

With increasing compactive effort the maximum dry density

increases with decreasing OMCs, both being favorable results. These
results automatically reverse sign on the decreasing side of the
compactive effort.
SELECTION OF TYPE OF FOUNDATION
The selection of a particular type of foundation is often based on a number of factors, such
as:

1. ADEQUATE DEPTH
The foundation must have an adequate depth to prevent frost damage. For such
foundations as bridge piers, the depth of the foundation must be sufficient to
prevent undermining by scour.

2. BEARING CAPACITY FAILURE

The foundation must be safe against a bearing capacity failure.

3. SETTLEMENT
The foundation must not settle to such an extent that it damages the structure.

4. QUALITY
The foundation must be of adequate quality so that it is not subjected to deterioration, such
as from sulphate attack.

5. ADEQUATE STRENGTH
The foundation must be designed with sufficient strength that it does not fracture or break
apart under the applied superstructure loads. The foundation must also be properly
constructed in conformance with the design specifications.

6. ADVERSE SOIL CHANGES

The foundation must be able to resist long-term adverse soil changes. An example is
expansive soil, which could expand or shrink causing movement of the foundation and
damage to the structure.

7. SEISMIC FORCES
The foundation must be able to support the structure during an earthquake without
excessive settlement or lateral movement.

Based on an analysis of all of the factors listed above, a specific type of foundation (i.e.,
shallow versus deep) would be recommended by the geotechnical engineer.

The image given below can be used as a guide for selection of an appropriate type of
foundation based on different soil conditions.
WHAT IS THE GRADING LIMITS FOR COARSE AGGREGATES?
The grading of coarse aggregate may be varied through wider limits than that of fine aggregates,
since it does not affect the workability, uniformity and finishing qualities of concrete mix. As per
IS-383 the grading limit of coarse aggregate, both for single size as well as graded should be as
per the table given below.

GRADING LIMITS FOR SINGLE-SIZED AGGREGATE

OF NOMINAL SIZE
63 mm 40 mm 20 mm 16 mm 12.5 mm 10 mm
Sieve Size
(mm)
(Percentage of Passing)

80 100

63 85 to 100 100

40 0 to 30 85 to 100 100

20 0 to 5 0 to 20 85 to 100 100

16 85 to 100 100

12.5 85 to 100 100

10 0 to 5 0 to 5 0 to 20 0 to 30 0 to 45 85 to 100

4.75 0 to 5 0 to 5 0 to 10 0 to 20

2.36 0 to 5

GRADING LIMITS FOR GRADED AGGREGATE OF

NOMINAL SIZE
40 mm 20 mm 16 mm 12.5 mm
Sieve Size (mm)
(Percentage of Passing)

80 100

63

40 95 to 100 100

20 30 to 70 95 to 100 100 100

16 90 to 100

12.5 90 to 100

10 10 to 35 25 to 55 30 to 70 40 to 85

4.75 0 to 5 0 to 10 0 to 10 0 to 10

2.36
PROCEDURE
1. Excavate a pit of required depth. (preferably equal to the depth of foundation)
2. Take a solid ball or square cube of known weight and dimension.
3. Drop the ball or square cube several times, from a known height on to the bottom surface of
excavated pit.
4. Calculate the average depth of impression made several times on the bottom surface of the
excavated pit. Let d is the average depth of impression.

CALCULATION
Calculate the ultimate resistance of soil ( R ) using the formula given below.

R = (w * h) / d

Where,

R = Ultimate resistance of soil (in kg)

d = Average depth of impression (in cm)

w = Weight of the solid ball or square cube (in kg)

h = Height of fall of solid ball or cube (in cm)

If A is the cross-sectional area of the solid steel ball or cube, then resistance of soil per unit
area is calculated using following formula.

Resistance of soil per unit area (in kg/cm2) = R / A

Safe bearing capacity (in kg/cm2) = R / (A * F.O.S)

Where,

F.O.S = Factor of safety

NOTES TO REMEMBER
1. F.O.S varies from 2 to 3 depending upon the type of structure and site condition.
2. In order to get reliable test result, perform this test on different types of soil and then use
your judgment to reach at any conclusion.
3. Instead of using solid steel ball or square cube, we can also use CBR test plunger, or Cone
(used for cone penetration test)
PRESUMPTIVE BEARING CAPACITY
The table given below shows the presumptive bearing capacity values for different types of soils.
This table will guide you to reach at any conclusion after conducting the test.

Type of Soil / Rock Safe / Allowable Bearing Capacity (kg/cm2)

Rock 32.40

Soft rock 4.40

Coarse sand 4.40

Medium sand 2.45

Fine sand 4.40

Soft shell / Stiff clay 1.00

Soft clay 1.00

Very soft clay 0.50

NOTES TO REMEMBER
1. For non-cohesive soils the values should be reduced by 50% if the water table is above or
near base of footing.
2. These values should be used only for preliminary design. The actual bearing capacity of soil
should be calculated as per the standard codes.
ON-SITE IDENTIFICATION & CLASSIFICATION OF
SOIL
The principle terms used by civil engineers to describe soils are

Gravel (particle size larger than 4.75 mm)

Sand (particle size within 4.75 mm to 0.075mm)
Silt & Clay (particle size less than 0.075mm)

Most natural soils consist of a mixture of two or more of these constituents and may contain an
admixture of organic material in a partly or fully decomposed state. The mixture is given the
name of the constituent that appears to have the most influence on its behaviour, and the other
constituent are indicated by adjectives.

For example, silty clay has predominantly the properties of clay but consists a significant amount
of silt.

While identifying and classifying the soils in the field, we need to use the following steps in a
logical sequence.

1. Identifying as Coarse Grained Soil or Fine Grained Soil

2. Classifying Coarse Grained Soil
3. Classifying Fine Grained Soil

STEP-1 [IDENTIFYING AS COARSE GRAINED SOIL OR

FINE GRAINED SOIL]
In the first step we try to identify the soil as coarse grained soil (CGS) or fine grained soil
(FGS).

Coarse grained soils are those soils whose individual particles are visible by the naked eye.
Sandy soil and gravelly soil fall in this group.

Fine grained soils are those soils whose individual particles are not visible by the naked eye. Silty
soil and clayey soil fall in this group.

To know more about coarse grained soil and fine grained soil please read my post what are the
primary differences between coarse grained soil & fine grained soil

The following procedure is adopted in the field to identify the soil as CGS or FGS

Take a representative sample of soil and spread it on a flat surface or palm of the hand.
Remove all particles whose sizes are larger than 75 mm.
If the soil contains more than 50% of visible particles then the soil is said to be a coarse
grained soil.
 If the soil contains less than 50% of visible particles then the soil is said to be a fine grained
soil.

Once the soil is identified as coarse grained soil or fine grained soil, then we further sub divide it
on the basis of percentage of different sizes present in the soil mass. Coarse grained soil can be
sub divided into gravelly soil or sandy soil.

STEP-2 [CLASSIFYING COARSE GRAINED SOIL]

A coarse grained soil is said to be gravelly soil if the percentage of gravel is greater than
sand.
If percentage of fines (i.e. silt & clay) present in a gravelly soil is less than 5%, then it is
identified as clean gravel. Clean gravel can be either classified as well graded gravel
(GW) or poorly graded gravel (GP).
GW if there is good representation of all particle sizes
GP if there is an excess or absence of intermediate particle sizes.
If percentage of fines (i.e. silt & clay) present in a gravelly soil is more than 12%, then it is
identified as dirty gravel. Dirty gravel can be either classified as silty gravel
(GM) or clayey gravel (GC).
GM if the fines have little or no plasticity
GC if the fines are of low to medium to high plasticity.
Gravels containing 5 to 12% fines are given boundary classification, which is generally done
at laboratory.
A coarse grained soil is said to be sandy soil if the percentage of sand is greater than
gravel.
If percentage of fines (i.e. silt & clay) present in a sandy soil is less than 5%, then it is
identified as clean sand. Clean sand can be either classified as well graded sand
(SW) or poorly graded sand (SP).
SW if there is good representation of all particle sizes
SP if there is an excess or absence of intermediate particle sizes.
If percentage of fines (i.e. silt & clay) present in a sandy soil is more than 12%, then it is
identified as dirty sand. Dirty sand can be either classified as silty sand (SM) or clayey
sand (SC).
SM if the fines have little or no plasticity
SC if the fines are of low to medium to high plasticity.
Sand containing 5 to 12% fines are given boundary classification, which is generally done at
laboratory.

STEP-3 [CLASSIFYING FINE GRAINED SOIL]

Fine grained soil is primarily of two types i.e. silt & clay. The distinction between silt & clay cannot
be based on particle size because the significant physical properties of the two materials are
related only indirectly to the size of particles. Furthermore, since both are microscopic, physical
properties other than particle size must be used as criteria for field identification. There are 4 nos
of field test that we can easily conduct on the field to describe or classify silt & clay. These are

Dilatancy.
Dry strength.
Toughness.
Dispersion.

Let us discuss each one of them one by one.

1. DRY STRENGTH TEST

The dry strength provides one basis for distinction. A small briquette of the soil is molded and
allowed to dry in the air. It is then broken and a small fragment about 1.0 cm in size is pressed
between thumb and forefinger. The effort required to break the fragment provides a basis for
describing the strength as ver low, low, medium, high or very high. A clay fragment can be
broken only with great effort, where as a silt fragment crushes easily.

2. DILATANCY OR SHAKING TEST

Since silts are considerably more permeable than clays, the dilatancy or shaking test may also
be used to distinguish between the two materials. In this test a small amount of soil is mixed with
water to a very soft consistency in the palm of the hand. The back of the hand is then lightly
tapped. If the soil is silty, water rises quickly to its surface and gives it a shiny or glistening
appearance. Then if the soil pat is deformed, in some instances by squeezing and in others by
stretching, the water flows back into it and leaves the surface with a dull appearance. Usually,
the greater the proportion of clay in the sample, the slower the reaction to the test. The reaction
is described as rapid, slow or none.

3. TOUGHNESS / PLASTICITY TEST

The property of plasticity is characteristic of clays and may be used as the basis for a simple field
test. At certain moisture contents a soil that contains appreciable quantities of clay can be
deformed and remoulded in the hand without disintegration. Thus, if a sample of moist soil can
be manipulated between the palms of the hands and fingers and rolled out into a long thread, it
unquestionably contains a significant amount of clay. As moisture is lost during continued
manipulation, the soil approaches a non-plastic condition and becomes crumbly. Just before the
crumbly state is reached, highly plastic clay can be rolled into a long thread, with a diameter of
approximately 3mm, which has sufficient strength to support its own weight. Silt, on the other
hand, can seldom be rolled into a thread with a diameter as small as 3mm without severe
cracking, and is completely lacking in tensile strength unless small amounts of clay are present.
The record of a simple plasticity test should indicate not only whether a plastic thread can be
formed, but also the toughness of the thread as it nears the crumbling stage. This condition is
described as weak and friable, medium, or tough.
4. DISPERSION TEST
The fourth procedure, known as the dispersion test, is also useful for distinguishing between silt
& clay, and for making a rough estimate of the relative amounts of sand, silt and clay in a
material. A small quantity of the soil is dispersed with water in a glass cylinder or test tube and
then allowed to settle. The coarser particles fall out first and the finest particles remain in
suspension the longest. Ordinarily sand settles in 30 to 60 sec. Materials of silt size settles in 15
to 60 min, whereas that of clay size remains in suspension for at least several hours and usually
for several days unless the particles of clay combines in groups or floccules.

Typical Dilatancy Toughness of Time to settleIn

Dry Strength
Name Reaction plastic thread Dispersion test

None to very Weak to

Sandy silt Rapid 30 sec to 60 min
low friable

Weak to
Silt Very low to low Rapid 15 to 60 min
friable

Rapid to 15 min to several

Clayey silt Low to medium Medium
slow hours

Slow to 30 sec to several

Sandy clay Low to high Medium
none hour

Medium to Slow to 15 min to several

Silty clay Medium
high none hour

High to very Several hour to

Clay None Tough
high days

Weak to 15 min to several

Organic silt Low to medium Slow
friable hour

Organic Medium to Several hour to

none Tough
clay very high days
BASIC COMPONENTS OF PAINTS
Paint is a very complex material consisting of many components. Modern paints can have ten to
twenty components, each responsible to give a specific quality to the paint. However, basically all
paints consist of the following five components.

1. BASE PIGMENT
White lead, red lead, aluminium powder, etc were the pigments that were used initially in oil
paint. These materials form the bulk of the paint in a finely divided state. It gives the durability
and protection to the painted surface as they have high resistance to the elements. The base
should suit the material to be protected. For example, white lead gives no protection to steel. It is
used only for wood work. Red lead base is used for steel.

2. VEHICLE OR BINDER
Materials like linseed oil when used as binder facilitate the spread of the paint and also bind the
paint and the surface together. Binder can be oils, resins, and bitumen or cellulose derivatives.

3. SOLVENT OR THINNER
It adjusts the viscosity of the paint to suit the method of application. Turpentine is generally used
as a thinner in oil paints. In emulsion paints, water is used as a thinner.

4. DRIER
It accelerates the process of drying of the paint. Substances like cobalt, lead, manganese
dissolved in volatile liquids are used as driers.

5. COLOURING PIGMENTS OR EXTENDERS

They are added to give colouring and may also act as partially cheap substitute for the expensive
base pigment.
PIPES FOR WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM
Pipes which are commonly used in water supply system are given below.

1. Cast Iron (CI) Pipes

2. Steel Pipes
3. Galvanized Iron (GI) Pipes
4. Copper Pipes
5. Plastic or Polythene or PVC pipes
6. Asbestos Cement (AC) Pipes
7. Concrete Pipes

1. CAST IRON PIPES

These pipes are most commonly used in water distribution system mainly because of the
following reasons.

They are cheaper in cost

It has high resistance to corrosion
It is highly durable

C.I. pipes are manufactured by following 4 methods.

1. Horizontally cast (MC ware pipes)

2. Vertical cast (pit cast in sand moulds)
3. Centrifugally cast in sand lines moulds spun type
4. Centrifugally cast in water cooled metal moulds

Now a days horizontally cast C.I. pipes are no longer used.

Centrifugally cast pipes posses fine grained dense structure and uniform thickness and therefore
they are widely used.

Special care has to be taken during transportation and making connection of these pipes, to
prevent damage.

2. STEEL PIPES
Use of steel pipes in water supply system is suggested when,

pipes are subjected to very high pressure (i.e. above 7 kg/cm2)

large diameter pipes are required

Steel pipes are used because they are stronger and lighter in weight as compared to C.I. pipes.
These pipes, however, require adequate preventive measure to sustain adverse atmospheric
conditions.

When steel pipes are encased in cement mortar or cement concrete, they are called Hume Steel
pipes.

3. GALVANIZED IRON (GI) PIPES

This type of pipe is used for water supply work inside the building. These pipes are wrought steel
pipes provided with zinc coating.

They are available in light, medium and heavy grades depending on the thickness of the metal.
For a 15 mm GI pipe, the thicknesses are 2.0, 2.65 & 3.25 for the light, medium and heavy
grades, respectively. Generally the medium grade pipes are used for internal plumbing in
building.

Mostly screw and socket joints are used for G.I. pipes.

4. COPPER PIPES
These pipes are used in hot water installation. They have high tensile strength and can therefore
have thin walls and they can be bent easily.

Copper pipes are sometimes coated with chromium to enhance its appearance.

5. PLASTIC OR POLYTHENE OR PVC PIPES

These pipes are being used increasingly these days for supply of cold water in external and
internal plumbing work.

They are light in weight, non-corrosive, lower in cost and do not require any threading for
connections.

There are 3 common types of plastic pipes are available in market, as given below.

Unplasticized PVC (UPVC) or rigid pipes for use with cold water
 Plasticized PVC pipes which are plasticized with addition of rubber. It has lower strength
and lower working temperature than UPVC pipes.
Chlorinated PVC (CPVC) pipes which can withstand higher temperatures upto 1200 (used to
carry hot water)

For pipes used in soil and waste water discharge systems, the thickness of the wall will be larger
than that of used for roof drainage.

Rigid PVC pipes are used for distribution of water with temperature below 450C.

At higher temperature, the strength of the pipes decreases. Similarly ultraviolet radiation from
sunlight as well as frequent changes in temperature reduces the life of PVC pipes.

These pipes are costlier than AC pipes but cheaper than GI pipes.

6. ASBESTOS CEMENT (AC) PIPES

These pipes are used for drainage of rainwater from roofs, soil and waste and also for ventilation.
They come in two profiles one with beading around socket (WB) and the other without beading
around socket (WOB). The latter type is more common than the former.

The pipes come in lengths of 3 meters.

The principal defects of these pipes are that they are heavy and they break easily.

These pipes are cheaper than PVC pipes.

7. CONCRETE PIPES
Unreinforced pipes of small diameters as well as reinforced and prestressed concrete pipes of
large diameters are available for water supply and other uses.

Small unreinforced concrete pipes are very much used for drainage of rain water.

Large diameter pipes are generally used for major water supply works.
WHAT IS QUICKSAND AND PIPING?

QUICKSAND
Quicksand is a condition and not a soil type. This condition is created in saturated thick
layers of loose fine sandy soils when disturbed either due to vibration, such as, from pile
driving in the neighborhood, or due to pressure of flowing water (at the time of heavy
pumping in excavation).

The particles, in trying to achieve a closer packing will force the pore water upwards and out
at the surface, and if this has sufficient velocity to cause a flotation or boiling up of the
particles, the sand particles begin to move horizontally and get lifted up, the bottom sand
rising up and its space is occupied by the adjoining particles, thus making a regular
movement. The finer the sand the more readily it is affected by a flow of water, especially if it
contains a little clay.

PIPING
Piping is a particular form of quicksand. This type of condition is met with in coffer dam
failure. Under such conditions the material may be carried off from under a structure which
can result in the settlement of buildings at a considerable distance. Even if a full flow is not
created, the stability of the soil is lessened due to the upward seepage pressure. The
condition can be corrected by lowering head of water by underground drainage.
3 COMMON METHODS OF CONCRETE PROTECTION AGAINST
WEATHERING
Concrete structures which are subjected to freezing and thawing are likely to deteriorate earlier.
Structures which are mostly affected under similar climatic conditions due to freezing and
thawing are the exposed surfaces of the top 60 cm of walls, piers, parapets, cornices etc. the
durability of such structures can be improved by adopting certain weather proofing measures. It
has been observed that concrete surface if applied with curing compounds, linseed oil, epoxies
etc, last longer.

In general protection measures against weathering are not adopted for new concrete surface
unless they show some signs of deterioration, which is evident by the formation of fine cracks,
close and parallel to edges and corners. It is better to treat such surfaces in earlier stages to
avoid later uneconomical and difficult repairs. Concrete should be made waterproof to make it
durable against freezing and thawing. The following methods of protection against weathering
are known to have given good results.

1. Application of oils & paints

2. Application of varnishes
3. Application of chemical solutions

1. APPLICATION OF OILS & PAINTS

New concrete surfaces after completion of the curing should be allowed to dry for 1 or 2 weeks
before waterproofing treatment is applied. Such new surfaces are brushed with a solution of 40
gm of phosphoric acid and 16 gm of zinc chloride to a liter of water. This is done to prevent the
saponification of linseed oil. This treatment is not necessary for old concrete surfaces. Before
adopting waterproofing measures the surface must be made clean and dry. After it apply two
coats of linseed oil as mentioned below.

A mixture of 50% raw linseed oil and 50% turpentine heated to a temperature of 800C is
applied with ordinary brush as first coat
Raw linseed oil heated to 800C is applied as a second coat with ordinary brush after 24
hours of application of the first coat.

After the second coat waterproofing coat becomes thoroughly dry, the entire treated surface is
given two coats of standard white lead and oil paint. The application of the paint is necessary
otherwise the previously applied oil treatment will deteriorate. In order that the colour of oil paint
should match with the colour of concrete surface, lamp black or burnt sienna is added to the
paint.

In case any open cracks formed in the surface area to be treated, these should be first repaired
by filling the cracks and then the surface is brushed with oil.
2. APPLICATION OF VARNISHES
Sometimes varnishes are applied to concrete surfaces which are effective against attacks due to
mineral and vegetable oils. There are various bituminous paints, pitches and mastics available
these days. They save the surface against acid attacks.

3. APPLICATION OF CHEMICAL SOLUTIONS

MAGNESIUM OR ZINC FLUOSILICATE SOLUTION
The treatment consists of applying two or more coats of the compound. For the first coat, a
solution of 1 kg of the compound per 10 liters of water is used. For subsequent coats, about 2 kg
of the compound per 10 liters of water are used. The solution is painted on the surface and each
coat is allowed to dry before the next coat is applied. At the end, the surface is brushed and
washed with water. This treatment hardens the surface and makes it impervious by chemical
action. It protects concrete against the attack of all mineral and vegetable oils, salts and alkalies.

SODIUM SILICATE SOLUTION

It is a viscous liquid and should be diluted with three times its volume of water. It should also be
applied as above. It is better to scrub each coat with water after it has hardened before applying
the next coat. The later coats are of a stronger solution. It also protects concrete against the
same attacks as Fluosilicate.
REMOVAL OF FORMS
Forms should not be removed until the concrete has sufficiently hardened in order that it can
carry safely its own weight and any other live loads it is subjected to.

The supporting period (period between placing of concrete in forms and removal of forms) differ
according to the type of cement used and the design of formwork. In general structures carrying
construction loads, side timbers shall not be removed within 7 days and supporting timbers within
28 days of placing of concrete.

In no circumstances shall forms be stuck until the concrete reaches strength of at least twice the
stress to which the concrete may be subjected at the time of striking.

The strength referred to shall be that of concrete using the same cement and aggregates, with
the same proportions, and cured under conditions of temperature and moisture similar to those
existing on the work. Where possible, the formwork should be left longer, as it would assist the
curing.

In normal circumstances (generally where temperatures are above 200C), and where ordinary
cement is used, forms may be struck after expiry of following periods.
Type of Form Removal Time Period

24 to 48 hours as may be decided by the

Walls, columns and vertical sides of beams
engineer-in-charge.

Slabs (props left under) 3 days

Beam soffits (props left under) 7 days

Removal of props to slabs (Spanning upto

7 days
4.5 m)

Removal of props to slabs (Spanning over

14 days
4.5 m)

Removal of props to beams and arches

14 days
(Spanning upto 6 m)

Removal of props to beams and arches

21 days
(Spanning over 6 m)

For rapid hardening cement, 3/7 of the above period will be sufficient in all cases except vertical
sides of slabs, beams and columns which should be retained for 24 hours.

All formworks should be removed without shock or vibration as this would damage the reinforced
concrete. Before the soffit and struts are removed, the concrete surface should be exposed,
where necessary in order to ascertain that the concrete has sufficiently hardened. Proper
precautions should be taken to allow for the decrease in the rate of hardening that occurs with all
elements in the cold weather.

REFERENCE
IS-456 Plain and Reinforced Concrete Code of Practice
 CORROSION OF CONCRETE
REINFORCEMENT
Corrosion is a chemical process of destruction of material because of its reaction with the
environmental conditions. The most predominant among various factors of corrosion is the
atmospheric corrosion which causes the rusting of steel. Appreciable corrosion only starts when
the relative humidity of the air exceeds around 65%. In dry, pure air and below freezing point of
water there is no danger of the corrosion.

Corrosion may be defined as the involuntary destruction of substances such as metal and
mineral building materials by surrounding media.

Corrosion of steel results in reduction of cross-section area of steel and also causes cracks and
splitting of cover concrete. Due to reduction of cross-section, the load carrying capacity is
reduced, in addition to reduction of elongation properties and fatigue strength.

FACTORS INFLUENCING CORROSION OF

REINFORCEMENT
In reinforced cement concrete construction the corrosion of reinforcement takes place due to the
presence of chlorides and sulphates beyond a critical limit and when sufficient alkalies is not
obtained within the concrete to maintain steel in a positive condition.

The following factors are responsible for corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete structure.

1. QUALITY OF CONCRETE
Concrete consists of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, cement and water. The right quality of
materials with proper w/c ratio, correct mixing, adequate compaction by tamping or vibration and
proper curing results in good quality concrete. If any of the above mentioned steps are not done
in a specified manner, then that will result in a not so good concrete and there is a chance of
corrosion of reinforcement.

High strength concrete, i.e. dense concrete is impervious to a large degree and generally resists
the carrion of embedded steel.

2. COVER THICKNESS OF CONCRETE

REINFORCEMENT
The reinforcement is protected by suitable concrete covering over it. The greater the cover
thickness more is the degree of protection against the various climatic and other environmental
conditions. For various structural members, the cover thickness should be different depending
upon their importance and degree of exposure. Evenness of concrete cover over the
reinforcement is also very important for its corrosion protection.
3. CONDITION OF REINFORCEMENT
The surface condition of the steel reinforcement, at the time of its placing in concrete, affects its
corrosion rate. If the reinforcement is contaminated with salt or badly corroded, the corrosive
action on reinforcement after placement in concrete is promoted rapidly.

4. EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND OTHER

CHEMICALS
Chemical either from environmental or from within the concrete making materials are the main
source of deterioration process. Due to attack of chemicals, the concrete develops cracks, which
is the first sign of deterioration. The effect of chemicals is mainly due to presence of salt,
carbonation, chloride attack and reaction of sulphates with tricalcium aluminate (C3A) present in
cement.

Concrete is an intimate mixture of cement, aggregate and water which in the green state is highly
alkaline. The hydration of cement develops calcium hydroxide which increases the pH value up
to 12.5. In such alkaline conditions, the reinforcing steel is covered with a film of oxide which
protects the steel.

5. POROSITY OF CONCRETE
The penetration of aggressive chemicals is possible due to permeability or porosity of concrete.
the porosity of concrete depends on size, distribution and continuity of capillary pores. This
depends upon the w/c ratio for given degree of hydration. The porosity also depends upon other
factors, such as

Age of concrete
Degree of compactness
The size and grading of aggregate
Type of cement

6. EFFECT OF HIGH THERMAL STRESS

Normal concrete can withstand temperature upto 1000C. Beyond this temperature the
deterioration of concrete starts. The concrete in industrial plants and power stations required
special protective measures otherwise the concrete may develop thermal cracks. Cracked
concrete structures are consequently affected by the environmental chemical and the process of
corrosion starts.

7. FREEZING AND THAWING CONDITION

In cold regions, the moisture in the pores of concrete freezes. The ice formation gives rise to
volumetric expansion which may excess bursting pressure of surrounding concrete mass. This
results in development of cracks in concrete and can lead to corrosion of reinforcement.

REMEDIAL MEASURES TO PROTECT

REINFORCEMENT FROM CORROSION
The deterioration of concrete may be due to either corrosion of concrete / reinforcement steel or
formation of expansive chemical compounds such as calcium silicates hydrate (C-S-H) in
aggressive environments. The loss due to corrosion of steel is heavy. To produce durable
concrete and resist the harmful effects of aggressive environment, the concrete should be
produced with utmost care.

The following methods will help to protect concrete reinforcement from corrosion.

1. IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF CONCRETE

By adopting the rich mix: Higher cement content and lower w/c ratio give stronger and
impermeable concrete
Adopting the best mix proportion: By designing the best suitable mix proportion the
impermeable concrete can be produced
Efficient compaction during casting: This gives dense concrete with minimum voids
Leak proof formwork: This reduces the leakage of cement slurry during casting of
concrete.
Adopting salt free sand: The salt content of mix can be reduced by washing the sand
properly.
Using plasticizers: The use of plasticizers improves the workability without increasing the
water content
Using sulphate resisting cement and Pozzolana cement

2. INCREASING DEPTH OF CONCRETE COVER TO

REINFORCEMENT
Extra cover depth lengthens the time for ingress of corroding agents. Such a remedy increases
weight due to additional concrete requiring changes in structural design. Increased cover
thickness should be provided when surfaces of concrete members are exposed to the action of
harmful chemicals, acids, vapors, saline atmosphere, sulphurous smoke etc.

As per observation, the increase in cover thickness may be between 15 mm and 40 mm, the
total cover thickness should not exceed 50 mm. concrete cover more than 50 mm is not
recommended as it may give rise to increase crack widths which may further allow direct ingress
of deleterious materials to the reinforcement.
3. CONCRETE COATING AND SEALERS
When untreated reinforcing bar is used, the best method is to apply protective coatings to
concrete surface to seal entry of moisture, carbon dioxide and chlorides.

The dry concrete surface should be roughened by chiseling. Then, a workable mixture of 1:3
cement sand mortar should be applied on the concrete surface after watering over the surface
properly by trowelling to a thickness of 6 mm. The surface should be finished with neat cement
slurry consisting of water and cement in the ratio 2:1.

4. GALVANIZING
In this type of treatment, Zinc itself becomes a sacrificial anode and then protects the bar from
corrosion for five years approximately. This method is used when no superior treatment is
available.

5. FUSION BONDED EPOXY COATING (FBEC)

Today the world over, fusion bonded epoxy coating (FBEC) has proved to be most effective,
reliable and long-term economical method of anti corrosive treatment for reinforcing bar.

It is applied directly on the reinforcing steel which prevents corrosion by isolating and insulating
the steel from the corrosive environment. These coatings protect against external and internal
corrosive agents.

6. COATING OF REBARS
The corrosion of rebars can be prevented by applying proper coating to rebars. The coating can
be one of the following:

Paint
Chemical compound
Metallic epoxy coating
Fusion bonded epoxy

7. PROPER STORAGE & STACKING OF

REINFORCING STEEL
Steel reinforcement should be stored in such a way as to avoid distortion and to prevent
deterioration and corrosion. It is desirable to coat reinforcement with cement wash before
stacking to prevent scaling and rusting.

In case of long storage, reinforcement bars should be stacked above ground level by at least 150
mm. Also in coastal area or in case of long storage; a coat of cement wash shall be given to
prevent scaling and rusting.
HOW MUCH AGGREGATE SAMPLE SHOULD WE COLLECT?
The amount of aggregate sample to be collected is dependent on the maximum nominal size of
aggregate. The quantity of aggregate sample should be of such amount, so that the required test
can be performed to judge its quality. Sample of aggregate is collected using a sampling scoop.

Collect a no of increments (at least 10), at regular interval, so that the minimum amount of gross
sample becomes equal to the amount given in the following table.

MINIMUM WEIGHT OF GROSS SAMPLE

Maximum Nominal Size of Aggregate (mm) Minimum Weight of Gross Sample (kg)

For Fine Aggregate

2.36 10

4.75 10

For Coarse Aggregate

9.5 10

10 10

12.5 15

13.2 15

16.0 20

19.0 25

20.0 25

25.0 50

37.5 75

40.0 80

50.0 100

63.0 125

75.0 150

80.0 160

90.0 175
SAND-BLASTING
Sand blasting is the process of roughening and cleaning the surface of old and set
concrete (or in any corroded steel surface) by means of coarse sand and air applied
under pressure of 90 to 100 pounds per square inch (6.33 to 7.03 kilogram per
square centimeter) through a nozzle, so as to erode the laitance and grout from the
old and fresh concretes monolithic.

Sand blasting of rock is also done so that concrete may be placed on or against a
clean surface as required according to specifications.

There are two types of sand blasting, namely wet sand blasting and dry sand
blasting. In wet sand blasting water is also used along with sand and air under
pressure, while in the latter, only sand and air under pressure are used. Normally the
concrete and rock surface etc., are wet sand blasted to keep down the dust.
The percentage of different sizes of sand particles for efficient sand blasting shall be
as follows:

Size Percentage

8 mesh per inch (25.40 mm) 26

16 mesh per inch (25.40 mm) 30

30 mesh per inch (25.40 mm) 23

50 mesh per inch (25.40 mm) 21

For effective sand blasting it is essential that pressure of air should be between 90 to
100 pounds per square inch (6.33 to 7.03 kilograms per square centimeter). If
pressure falls below 90 pounds per square inch (6.33 kilograms per square
centimeter), sand blasting becomes in effective. If sand having large percentage of
fines is used, it will not provide the requisite cutting power and the whole effort goes
waste. A good quality well graded sand-blast-sand is needed for achieving the
objective of sand blasting.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SCAFFOLDING, SHORING &
UNDERPINNING

SCAFFOLDING
When temporary structures are provided to support platform for workmen, structural material and
appliances required during construction at raised height (normally more than 1.5 m) it is
calledscaffolding.

Scaffolding

APPLICATIONS OF SCAFFOLDS
Scaffolding is necessary in following situations.

To support the working platforms where masons can stand and carry on their duties such as
plastering, brick laying or painting etc.
Scaffolding is also provided where demolition or maintenance work of the building has to be
carried out.

KEY POINTS TO CONSIDER DURING SCAFFOLDING

Construction and design of scaffold comes under safety regulation of building site. For
example when a person is liable to fall from more than 2m, the platforms of the scaffolds are
to be provided with a guard rail to a height of 1m and also a tie board at least 200 mm
above the platform.
 About 35 to 40 percent of all the accidents that takes place in building construction sites is
due to faulty scaffolding. Therefore strict supervision should be followed according to
standard practice during scaffolding erection.
All scaffolding should be properly fixed so that they do not fall away from wall laterally.
Similarly it should be stable longitudinally also.
The platform should be wide enough to accommodate a person working on it. It should not
be less than 425 mm in width when the height is more than 1.8 m.
When materials are to be stored on the platform then the width of the platform should not be
less than 850 mm.
Workmen should not work under the scaffolding.

TYPES OF SCAFFOLDING
The following different types of scaffolding are in common use.

1. Single scaffolding or bricklayers scaffolding

2. Double scaffolding or masons scaffolding
3. Cantilever or needle scaffolding
4. Birds cage scaffolding
5. Ladder or trestle scaffolding
6. Suspended scaffolding

SHORING
Construction of temporary structures to support an unsafe structure is called shoring.
APPLICATIONS OF SHORING
Shoring is provided in following situations

When a building wall shows sign of bulging or leaning outward

At the time of dismantling or reconstructing a defective building wall, shoring is provided to

support the floors or roofs connected to that wall.

Shoring is also provided to support super structure when large openings are required to be made
in the walls.

KEY POINTS TO CONSIDER DURING SHORING

Temporary support by means of shores to unsafe structures may be given externally or internally
or may be from both sides.

To maintain equilibrium, it is essential that the lines of actions of overturning forces in floors and
roofs, the forces in walls and the reaction of the shores must meet at a single point.

Shoring can be made of timber or steel considering the load it has to withstand.

Shoring should be strong enough to resist the acting forces, consistent with economy

TYPES OF SHORING
Depending on the supporting characteristic or their positions in the space, shorings are classified
into following 3 types.

1. Raking or inclined shores

2. Flying or horizontal shores
3. Dead or vertical shores

UNDERPINNING
Structures provided underneath of an existing foundation to maintain its stability is termed as
underpinning. Underpinning is used to repair, strengthen or renewal of the foundation of an
existing building.

During underpinning, the existing structure is required to be temporary supported by means of

raking shores.
APPLICATIONS OF UNDERPINNING
The following situations demand underpinning.

When defective foundation of wall is to be replaced with new foundation or when existing
foundation of a wall is required to be strengthened to enable it to carry more loads.
To strengthen shallow footings of the existing building when a building with deep foundation
is to be constructed adjoining to it.
To safe guard against the danger of excessive or differential settlement of foundations of
existing structure.
To increase depth of foundation to increase its bearing capacity so as to sustain heavier
loads.
During construction of basement of an existing building structure.

KEY POINTS TO CONSIDER DURING

UNDERPINNING
Building should be first examined for presence of any weakness such as poor brickwork or
masonry and for effects of settlement which may arise during the underpinning operation.
Temporary support should be provided by adequate shoring and by strutting up of openings
and inside of floors.
In case of underpinning below high rise buildings, check must be made to measure any
movement of the building by means of plumb bob or total station.
TYPES OF UNDERPINNING
There are several methods of underpinning of foundation of which the three popular methods are
as follow.

1. Pit method it involves strengthening by excavation and building below the existing
foundation.
2. Pile method it involves supporting the building on newly built piles of various types
without excavation.
3. Pier method this is a combination of pit and a pile method where first excavation is done
below the foundation and a pir is built up for the new foundation.
WHAT IS A SHEAR WALL BUILDING?
Reinforced concrete (RC) buildings often have vertical plate-like RC walls called Shear
Walls (Figure 1) in addition to slabs, beams and columns. These walls generally start at
foundation level and are continuous throughout the building height. Their thickness can be as low
as 150mm, or as high as 400mm in high rise buildings. Shear walls are usually provided
along both length and width of buildings (Figure 1). Shear walls are like vertically-
oriented wide beams that carry earthquake loads downwards to the foundation.

ADVANTAGES OF SHEAR WALLS IN RC BUILDINGS

Properly designed and detailed buildings with shear walls have shown very good performance in
past earthquakes. The overwhelming success of buildings with shear walls in resisting strong
earthquakes is summarised in the quote:

We cannot afford to build concrete buildings meant to resist severe

earthquakes without shear walls. by Mark Fintel, a noted consulting
engineer in USA

Shear walls in high seismic regions require special detailing. However, in past earthquakes, even
buildings with sufficient amount of walls that were not specially detailed for seismic performance
(but had enough well-distributed reinforcement) were saved from collapse. Shear wall buildings
are a popular choice in many earthquake prone countries, like Chile, New Zealand and USA.
Shear walls are easy to construct, because reinforcement detailing of walls is relatively straight-
forward and therefore easily implemented at site. Shear walls are efficient, both in terms of
construction cost and effectiveness in minimizing earthquake damage in structural and non
structural elements (like glass windows and building contents).

ARCHITECTURAL ASPECTS OF SHEAR WALLS

Most RC buildings with shear walls also have columns; these columns primarily
carry gravity loads (i.e., those due to self-weight and contents of building).

Shear walls provide large strength and stiffness to buildings in the direction of their orientation,
which significantly reduces lateral sway of the building and thereby reduces damage to structure
and its contents. Since shear walls carry large horizontal earthquake forces, the overturning
effects on them are large. Thus, design of their foundations requires special attention. Shear
walls should be provided along preferably both length and width. However, if they are provided
along only one direction, a proper grid of beams and columns in the vertical plane (called
a moment-resistant frame) must be provided along the other direction to resist strong earthquake
effects.

Door or window openings can be provided in shear walls, but their size must be small to ensure
least interruption to force flow through walls. Moreover, openings should be symmetrically
located. Special design checks are required to ensure that the net cross-sectional area of a wall
at an opening is sufficient to carry the horizontal earthquake force.
Shear walls in buildings must be symmetrically located in plan to reduce ill-effects of twist in
buildings (Figure 2). They could be placed symmetrically along one or both directions in plan.
Shear walls are more effective when located along exterior perimeter of the building such a
layout increases resistance of the building to twisting.

DUCTILE DESIGN OF SHEAR WALLS

Just like reinforced concrete (RC) beams and columns, RC shear walls also perform much better
if designed to be ductile. Overall geometric proportions of the wall, types and amount of
reinforcement, and connection with remaining elements in the building help in improving the
ductility of walls. The Indian Standard Ductile Detailing Code for RC members (IS: 13920-1993)
provides special design guidelines for ductile detailing of shear walls.

OVERALL GEOMETRY OF WALLS

Shear walls are oblong in cross-section, i.e., one dimension of the cross-section is much larger
than the other. While rectangular cross-section is common, L- and U-shaped sections are also
used (Figure 3). Thin-walled hollow RC shafts around the elevator core of buildings also act as
shear walls, and should be taken advantage of to resist earthquake forces.
REINFORCEMENT BARS IN RC WALLS
Steel reinforcing bars are to be provided in walls in regularly spacedvertical andhorizontal grids
(Figure 4a). The vertical and horizontal reinforcement in the wall can be placed in one or two
parallel layers called curtains. Horizontal reinforcement needs to be anchored at the ends of
walls. The minimum area of reinforcing steel to be provided is0.0025 times the cross-sectional
area, along each of the horizontal and vertical directions. This vertical reinforcement should be
distributed uniformly across the wall cross-section.

BOUNDARY ELEMENTS
Under the large overturning effects caused by horizontal earthquake forces, edges of shear walls
experience high compressive and tensile stresses. To ensure that shear walls behave in a ductile
way, concrete in the wall end regions must be reinforced in a special manner to sustain these
load reversals without loosing strength (Figure 4b). End regions of a wall with increased
confinement are called boundary elements. This special confining transverse reinforcement in
boundary elements is similar to that provided in columns of RC frames. Sometimes, the
thickness of the shear wall in these boundary elements is also increased. RC walls with
boundary elements have substantially higher bending strength and horizontal shear force
carrying capacity, and are therefore less susceptible to earthquake damage than walls without
boundary elements.

READING MATERIAL
IS 13920, (1993), Indian Standard Code of Practice for Ductile Detailing of Reinforced Concrete
Structures Subjected to Seismic Forces, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi

Paulay,T., and Priestley,M.J.N., (1992), Seismic Design of Reinforced Concrete and Masonry
Buildings, John Wiley & Sons, USA
10 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD STAIRS FOR
BUILDING

REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD STAIRS

A good stair should provide an easy, quick and safe mode of communication between the
various floors of the building. General requirements of good stairs are as mentioned below.

1. LOCATION
It should preferably be located centrally, ensuring sufficient light and ventilation.

2. WIDTH OF STAIR
The width of stairs for public buildings should be 1.8 m and for residential buildings 0.9 m.

3. LENGTH
The flight of the stairs should be restricted to a maximum of 12 and minimum of 3 steps.

4. PITCH OF STAIR
The pitch of long stairs should be made flatter by introducing landing. The slope should not
exceed 400 and should not be less than 250.
5. HEAD ROOM
The distance between the tread and soffit of the flight immediately above it, should not be less
than 2.1 to 2.3 m. This much of height is maintained so that a tall person can use the stairs with
some luggage on its head.

6. MATERIALS
Stairs should be constructed using fire resisting materials. Materials also should have sufficient
strength to resist any impact.

7. BALUSTRADE
All open well stairs should be provided with balustrades, to avoid accidents. In case of wide stairs
it should be provided with hand rails on both sides.

8. LANDING
The width of the landing should not be less than the width of the stair.

9. WINDERS
These should be avoided and if found necessary, may be provided at lower end of the flight.

10. STEP PROPORTIONS

The ratio of the going and the rise of a step should be well proportioned to ensure a comfortable
access to the stair way.

Following empirical rules may be followed.

Treads/Goings in cm + 2 (rise in cm) = 60

Treads/Goings in cm x (rise in cm) = 400 to 450 appx.
Treads/Goings in cm + (rise in cm) = 40 to 45 appx.
Standard sizes: Tread 30 cm, Rise 14 cm

Other combinations of rise and going can be calculated by subtracting 20 mm from going and
adding 10 mm to rise. Thus other combinations of rise and going would be

Rise 15 cm x Tread 28 cm
Rise 16 cm x Tread 26 cm
Rise 17 cm x Tread 24 cm

Generally adopted sizes of steps are:

Public buildings: (27 cm x 15 cm) to (30 x 14 cm)

Residential buildings: 25 cm x 16 cm
OUTPUT OF A CONCRETE MIXER
The output of a mixer essentially depends upon the capacity of a mixer. In addition, it depends
upon the duration of mixing, supply of materials to the mixer and the speed at which charging
and discharging operations are carried out. Sometimes the speed of transporting concrete from
mixer to the formwork limits the output of a mixer. The following example illustrates the
calculation of output of a mixer per day.

NON-TILTING DRUM MIXER

CALCULATING OUTPUT OF A MIXER OF 200

LITRES CAPACITY PER DAY
Time required for one batch of concrete

1. Raising skip, discharging into drum and lowering = min

2. Adding water and mixing in the drum (During this time the skip is reloaded) = 2 min
3. Discharging content of drum and completing loading of skip = min

Then total time required for one batch of concrete = + 2 + = 3 min

In a day of 8 hours there will be effective mixing for 7 hours. One hour being occupied in clearing
drum, chutes, etc and starting and oiling the engine.

No. of batches in one working hour = 60/3 = 20 (considering 3 minutes mixing cycle)

No. of batches in 7 hours = 20 x 7 = 140

Considering 90% efficiency, output per batch = 200 x (90/100) = 180 litres

Output per day = 180 x 140 = 25200 litres = 25.2 cu-m (say 25 m3)
CALCULATING TIME REQUIRED TO COMPLETE A
JOB
Output also enables to calculate time required to complete a job. The following example
illustrates this.

Find the working hour required to complete a concrete slab 30 m * 50 m 8 0.20 m size using 200
T mixer.

With three minute cycle time for one complete operation,

The output per hour = 20 * 180 = 3600 litres i.e. 3.6 cubic meters

So number of working hours = (30*50*0.2)/3.6 = 83.3 hours

DIFFERENT CLASSES OF URBAN ROADS
The urban road are classified as under

Express way
Arterial streets
Sub-arterial streets
Collector streets
Local streets

1. EXPRESSWAYS
The city roads which are reserved for motor traffic with full or partial control access and are
provided with grade separation at intersections are called expressways. These are generally
constructed to have direct connection between major points of traffic generation in industrial or
commercial or business districts. Along expressways, the motor traffic attains very high speeds.
Neither the loading nor unloading of the goods is permitted on these expressways. Pedestrians
too cannot cross the expressways.

2. ARTERIAL STREETS
The city roads which are meant for through traffic usually on a continuous route are called arterial
streets. Arterial streets are generally spaced at less than 15 km in developed business centres
whereas in less important areas, these may be 8 km apart. Arterial roads are also divided
highways with fully or partially controlled access. Parking, loading and unloading are carefully
regulated. Pedestrians are permitted to cross them at intersection only.
3. SUB-ARTERIAL STREETS
The city roads which provided lower level of travel mobility than arterial streets, are called sub-
arterial streets. Their spacing may vary from 0.5 km in central business districts to 3 to 5 km in
sub-urban areas. Loading and unloading are usually restricted. Pedestrians are allowed to cross
these highways at intersections.

4. COLLECTOR STREETS
The city roads which are constructed for collecting and distributing the traffic to and from local
streets, and also to provide an access to arterial and sub-arterial streets, are called collector
streets. These are located in residential, business and industrial areas. These roads are
accessible from the buildings along them. Parking restrictions are few and that too during peak
hours.

5. LOCAL STREETS
The city roads which provide an access to residence, business and other buildings, are called
local streets. The traffic carried either originates or terminates along the local streets. Depending
upon the important of the adjoining areas, a local street may be residential, commercial or
industrial. Along local streets pedestrians may move freely and parking may be permitted without
any restriction.
HOW TO CLASSIFY WALLS IN A BUILDING? [BASED ON
FUNCTION]

Walls are built to partition living area into different parts. They impart privacy and protection
against temperature, rain and theft. Depending upon their functions, Walls may be classified into
the following two primary classes

1. Load bearing walls

2. Partition walls.

1. LOAD BEARING WALLS

If beams and columns are not used, load from roof and floors are transferred to foundation by
walls. Such walls are called load bearing walls. They are to be designed to transfer the load
safely. The critical portion of the walls are near the openings of doors and windows and the
positions where concrete beams rest.

Minimum wall thickness used is 200 mm. It is also recommended that the slenderness ratio of
wall defined as ratio of effective length or effective height to thickness should not be more than
27. The effective height and effective length of a wall may be taken as shown in tables-1 and 2
respectively.

Table-1 [Effective height of walls in terms of actual height H]

End Condition Effective Height

Lateral as well as rotational restraint 0.75 H

Lateral as well as rotational restraint at one end

0.85 H
and only lateral restraint at other

Lateral restraint but no rotational restraint at

1.0 H
both ends

Lateral and rotational restraint at one end and no

restraint at other ends (compound walls, parapet 1.5 H
walls etc.).
Table-2 [Effective length of walls of length L]

End Condition Effective Length

Continuous and supported by cross walls 0.8 L

Continuous at one end and supported by cross

0.9 L
walls at the other end

Wall supported by cross walls at each end 1.0 L

Free at one end and continuous at other end 1.5 L

Free at one end and supported by cross wall at

2.0 L
other end

2. PARTITION WALLS
In framed structures partition walls are built to divide floor area for different utilities. They rest on
floors. They do not carry loads from floor and roof. They have to carry only self-weight. Hence
normally partition walls are thin. Table 8.4 shows the differences between load bearing walls and
partition walls. Depending upon the requirement these walls may be brick partition, clay block
partition, glass partition, wood partition, and aluminium and glass partition.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LOAD BEARING AND

PARTITION WALLS
Differences between a load bearing wall and a partition wall is given in the following table

LOAD BEARING WALLS PARTITION WALLS

They carry loads from roof, floor, self-weight

They carry self-weight only.
etc.

They are thick and hence occupy more floor These walls are thin and hence occupy less
area. floor area.

As the material required is more the As the material required is less, construction
construction cost is more. cost is less.

Stones are generally not used for the

Stones or bricks are used for the construction
construction
HOW TO SELECT DOORS & WINDOWS FOR HOUSE? (4
FACTORS TO CONSIDER)

Doors and windows are the important part of a house. Right type of doors and windows for house
would greatly enhance its overall look and appearance. There are many verities of door and
windows available in market. So the process of selection of appropriate doors and windows for
house is quite difficult.

There are several factors to be considered before finalizing the option for their adoption.

Selection of Door and Window

FACTOR FOR CONSIDERATION

There are many factors which influence the type of doors/windows to be selected for the house.
Out of which the 4 important factors are as follow:

Climatic Condition
Function and Location
Type of Material
Architectural Design

1. CLIMATIC CONDITION
In areas closer to the sea it would be advisable to use a material which is not affected by
corrosion and accordingly steel frames and shutters would not be a good option.
In extreme climatic condition (either hot or cold) the sizes of the doors and windows should
be such that there is least effect of the external environment to that within the house.
In moderate climatic condition the extent of sunlight coming into the house has to be
considered and accordingly the area for glazing has to be decided.

2. FUNCTION AND LOCATION

Doors should be picked at according to the function they are expected to perform. For
example. Front door and back door may have two totally different sets of requirements, and
they are different from interior doors.
Exterior doors should always be of a sturdy material and should have secure fastening.
Interior doors, on the other hand, should be light enough for all family members to handle
easily.

3. TYPE OF MATERIAL
Careful consideration has to be given to the type of material to be used.
Good materials include heavy wood, steel, glass or fiber glass construction, which will serve
well for many years.

4. ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
The final step would be to choose the design including colour scheme of door/window, the
liking and taste of which varies from individual to individual.
CROSS SECTIONAL ELEMENTS OF A
PAVEMENT
The characteristics of cross-sectional elements are important in highway geometric design
because they influence the safety and comfort. The 7 basic cross sectional elements of a
highway pavement are

1. Camber
2. Width of Carriage way
3. Kerb
4. Road Margin
5. Width of Formation
6. Right of Way (ROW)

1. CAMBER
Camber or cant is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the road surface in the transverse
direction to drain off rain water from road surface. The objectives of providing camber are:

Surface protection especially for gravel and bituminous roads

Sub-grade protection by proper drainage
Quick drying of pavement which in turn increases safety

Too steep slope is undesirable for it will erode the surface. Camber is measured in 1 in
n or n% (Eg. 1 in 50 or 2%) and the value depends on the type of pavement surface. The values
suggested by IRC for various categories of pavement are given in Table 1. The common types of
camber are parabolic, straight, or combination of them (See Figure shown below).

Table 1: IRC Values for camber

Surface Heavy Light

type rain rain

Concrete/Bituminous 2% 1.7 %

Gravel/WBM 3% 2.5 %

Earthen 4% 3.0 %
2. WIDTH OF CARRIAGE WAY
Width of the carriage way or the width of the pavement depends on the width of the traffic lane
and number of lanes. Width of a traffic lane depends on the width of the vehicle and the
clearance. Side clearance improves operating speed and safety.

The maximum permissible width of a vehicle is 2.44 and the desirable side clearance for single
lane traffic is 0.68 m. This require minimum of lane width of 3.75 m for a single lane road.

However, the side clearance required is about 0.53 m, on both side and 1.06 m in the center.
Therefore, a two lane road require minimum of 3.5 meter for each lane.
The desirable carriage way width recommended by IRC is given in Table 2.

Table 2: IRC Specification for carriage way width

Single lane 3.75

Two lane, no kerbs 7.0

Two lane, raised kerbs 7.5

Intermediate carriage 5.5

Multi-lane 3.5

3. KERBS
Kerbs indicate the boundary between the carriage way and the shoulder or islands or footpaths.
Different types of kerbs are shown in the figure below.
LOW OR MOUNTABLE KERBS
These types of kerbs are provided such that they encourage the traffic to remain in the through
traffic lanes and also allow the driver to enter the shoulder area with little difficulty. The height of
this kerb is about 10 cm above the pavement edge with a slope which allows the vehicle to climb
easily. This is usually provided at medians and channelization schemes and also helps in
longitudinal drainage.

SEMI-BARRIER TYPE KERBS

When the pedestrian traffic is high, these kerbs are provided. Their height is 15 cm above the
pavement edge. This type of kerb prevents encroachment of parking vehicles, but at acute
emergency it is possible to drive over this kerb with some difficulty.

BARRIER TYPE KERBS

They are designed to discourage vehicles from leaving the pavement. They are provided when
there is considerable amount of pedestrian traffic. They are placed at a height of 20 cm above
the pavement edge with a steep batter.

SUBMERGED KERBS
They are used in rural roads. The kerbs are provided at pavement edges between the pavement
edge and shoulders. They provide lateral confinement and stability to the pavement.

4. ROAD MARGINS
The portion of the road beyond the carriageway and on the roadway can be generally called road
margin. Various elements that form the road margins are given below.

SHOULDERS
Shoulders are provided along the road edge and are intended for accommodation of stopped
vehicles, serve as an emergency lane for vehicles and provide lateral support for base and
surface courses. The shoulder should be strong enough to bear the weight of a fully loaded truck
even in wet conditions. The shoulder width should be adequate for giving working space around
a stopped vehicle. It is desirable to have a width of 4.6 m for the shoulders. A minimum width of
2.5 m is recommended for 2-lane rural highways in India.

PARKING LANES
Parking lanes are provided in urban lanes for side parking. Parallel parking is preferred because
it is safe for the vehicles moving on the road. The parking lane should have a minimum of 3.0 m
width in the case of parallel parking.

BUS-BAYS
Bus bays are provided by recessing the kerbs for bus stops. They are provided so that they do
not obstruct the movement of vehicles in the carriage way. They should be at least 75 meters
away from the intersection so that the traffic near the intersections is not affected by the bus-bay.
SERVICE ROADS
Service roads or frontage roads give access to access controlled highways like freeways and
expressways. They run parallel to the highway and will be usually isolated by a separator and
access to the highway will be provided only at selected points. These roads are provided to avoid
congestion in the expressways and also the speed of the traffic in those lanes is not reduced.

CYCLE TRACK
Cycle tracks are provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle traffic is high Minimum width
of 2 meter is required, which may be increased by 1 meter for every additional track.

FOOTPATH
Footpaths are exclusive right of way to pedestrians, especially in urban areas. They are provided
for the safety of the pedestrians when both the pedestrian traffic and vehicular traffic is high.
Minimum width is 1.5 meter and may be increased based on the traffic. The footpath should be
either as smooth as the pavement or smoother than that to induce the pedestrian to use the
footpath.

GUARD RAILS
They are provided at the edge of the shoulder usually when the road is on an embankment. They
serve to prevent the vehicles from running off the embankment, especially when the height of the
fill exceeds 3 m. Various designs of guard rails are there. Guard stones painted in alternate black
and white are usually used. They also give better visibility of curves at night under headlights of
vehicles.

5. WIDTH OF FORMATION
Width of formation or roadway width is the sum of the widths of pavements or carriage way
including separators and shoulders. This does not include the extra land in formation/cutting. The
values suggested by IRC are given in Table 3.

Table 3: Width of formation for various classed of roads

Road Roadway width in m

classification Plain and Mountainous and

rolling terrain steep terrain

NH/SH 12 6.25-8.8

MDR 9 4.75
ODR 7.5-9.0 4.75

VR 7.5 4.0

6. RIGHT OF WAY (ROW)

Right of way (ROW) or land width is the width of land acquired for the road, along its alignment. It
should be adequate to accommodate all the cross-sectional elements of the highway and may
reasonably provide for future development. To prevent ribbon development along highways,
control lines and building lines may be provided. Control line is a line which represents the
nearest limits of future uncontrolled building activity in relation to a road. Building line represents
a line on either side of the road, between which and the road no building activity is permitted at
all. The right of way width is governed by:

Width of formation: It depends on the category of the highway and width of roadway and
road margins.
Height of embankment or depth of cutting: It is governed by the topography and the
vertical alignment.
Side slopes of embankment or cutting: It depends on the height of the slope, soil type
etc.
Drainage system and their size which depends on rainfall, topography etc.
Sight distance considerations: On curves etc. there is restriction to the visibility on the
inner side of the curve due to the presence of some obstructions like building structures etc.
Reserve land for future widening: Some land has to be acquired in advance anticipating
future developments like widening of the road.

The importance of reserved land is emphasized by the following. Extra width of land is available
for the construction of roadside facilities. Land acquisition is not possible later, because the land
may be occupied for various other purposes (buildings, business etc.)

The normal ROW requirements for built up and open areas as specified by IRC is given in Table
Table 4: Normal right of way for open areas

Road Roadway width in m

classification Plain and Mountainous and

rolling terrain steep terrain

Open areas

NH/SH 45 24

MDR 25 18

ODR 15 15

VR 12 9

Built-up areas

NH/SH 30 20

MDR 20 15

ODR 15 12

VR 10 9