Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A.

Salama

Lecture 5
Sub-Transmission Lines and Non-Technical
Distribution Substations Design Factors

Objectives
This lecture deals with Sub-transmission lines and non-technical distribution substations design
factors. The objectives of this lecture are:
1- Identifying sub-transmission lines configuration.
2- Examining the relationship between sub-transmission line configuration and substations
operation and cost.
3- Investigating the impact of the sub-transmission line operating voltage level on its cost.
4- Discussing the non-technical distribution substation related aspects and their impact on its
design.
5- Studying the factors affecting the choice of substation physical location.
6- Evaluating the practical substation facilities costs.

1. Introduction
Distribution system is a part of the electric utility system that connect the bulk power source
(transmission system) to the customers service entrances (service drop ends) as shown in Fig. 1.
Distribution system components are critical parameters in the power delivery system because of the
proximity of distribution system to the customers. Distribution system is an expensive element of the
power network and it is characterized by higher power losses compared to other power system
components. A typical distribution system consists of several components (Fig.1):
Sub-transmission system
Primary system
Secondary system
Consumer serves facilities

Fig. 2 shows a double three-phase transmission circuits on the left of the figure, while there is a sub-
transmission circuit mounted on a wooden pole on the right of the Figure.

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G e n e ra tin g s ta tio n

S te p -u p tra n s fo rm e r

T ra n s m is s io n s y s te m

B u lk p o w e r s u b s ta tio n

S u b tra n s m is s io n
s y s te m DS P rim a ry fe e d e rs

3 P rim a ry m a in

1 L a te ra ls

DT

S e c o n d a ry m a in s

C o n s u m e rs s e rv ic e s

Fig. 1 Single-line diagram of a typical electric power utility.

Fig. 2 A typical electric power utility transmission and sub-transmission circuits.

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In the following each component of the distribution system will be discussed briefly.

1.1. Sub-Transmission System

The sub-transmission system connects the bulk power sources to the distribution substations. Its
function is to deliver power from the transmission system to the entrance of distribution substations.
The typical voltage level at this stage is from 12.47 to 245 kV (in large metropolitan areas) and
nominally rated at 69 kV. It can serve large industrial customers through their substation and protective
equipment [1].

1.2. Distribution Substations (DS)

Distribution substations are considered as a junction points between the sub-transmission and primary
distribution circuits. DS contains power transformers, voltage regulators, buses monitoring equipment
and switchgear. It steps down the sub-transmission voltage at the incoming buses to a range of 4.16 to
34.5 kV at the outgoing buses for the primary distribution circuits.

1.3. Primary System or Primary Feeders

Primary system distributes the electric power from DS to the load centers. These feeders are either
three phase feeders and sub-feeders or single phase laterals. These feeders either installed as overhead
systems (bare feeders mounted on wood poles) or insulated under ground cables especially in
congested large cities.

1.4. Distribution Transformers (DT)

Distribution transformers represent another set of junctions in the distribution system. These
transformers are further step down the voltage of the primary feeder to the customers utilization
voltage level. The voltage rating of these transformers depends on the voltage levels of the primary
(input voltage) and the secondary (output voltage) circuits. It has a rating of 10 to 500 kVA and in
some cases up to 1MVA.

1.5. Secondary Circuits and Service Drops

Secondary circuits connect the output voltage of the distribution transformers (DT) to customers
through service drops with a rated voltage of 120/240 V (for residential services) and up to 480 V for
both commercial and small industrial applications.

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In this course each part of the distribution system will be discussed in details. In this lecture the sub-
transmission circuits and the distribution substation configuration and design will be discussed.

2. Sub-Transmission Circuits

2.1. Sub-Transmission Circuits Configurations

Sub-transmission circuits are mainly constructed as one of the three following configurations: radial,
loop or grid as shown in Fig. 3. The sub-transmission configuration design is based on the available
cost and the reliability requirements (service continuity) [2].

DS DS DS DS

B u lk p o w e r B u lk p o w e r
DS
so u rce b u s so u rce b u s

DS DS DS DS

R a d ia l s u b - tr a n s m is s io n L o o p s u b - tr a n s m is s io n

DS DS DS

B u lk p o w e r B u lk p o w e r
so u rce b u s 1 so u rce b u s 2

DS DS DS

G r id s u b - tr a n s m is s io n

Fig. 3 Sub-transmission configurations.

2.1.1 Radial Sub-Transmission Circuit

Fig. 4 shows a single line diagram of a radial type. This is a simple configuration and its main
advantages are the low capital cost and the ease of operating and maintaining this system. However
this configuration suffers from the law system reliability and low service continuity.

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B u lk p o w e r s o u r c e b u s

To DS To DS

DS DS

S u b tr a n s m is s io n
c ir c u its

DS DS

Fig. 4 Radial sub-transmission configuration.

2.1.2 Modified Radial Sub-Transmission Configuration

To improve the reliability of the radial system a modified system is introduced. Fig. 5 shows the
modified configuration where there are feeders connections between pairs of DS with a normally
open circuit breaker. The modified configuration allows a supply restoration in case of one of the
sub-transmission circuits failure. This configuration increases the capital cost due to the following
reasons: the additional sub-transmission circuits and the increased in number of circuit breakers
(CB) used in the new configuration. Also the size of the feeders and the rating of the circuit
breakers have to be increased to supply the whole load in case of one sub-transmission circuit
failure [1].

2.1.3 Loop Sub-Transmission Circuit

Fig. 6 shows a loop sub-transmission configuration, where one sub-transmission circuit connects
several DS in a loop form which is served from the bulk power source bus. This loop normally
feeds 2-5 substations in its path and each substation can be supplied from either ends of sub-
transmission line [3]. The advantage of this configuration is it provides high service reliability but
it requires a considerable increase in the sub-transmission line capacity to carry all loads from
either one of the line ends. However, in the case of the sub-transmission circuit fault, the equivalent
short circuit impedance is low, and the short circuit current is high. Therefore, the CB short circuit
capacity has to be high to withstand this level which increases its capital cost [1].

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B u lk p o w e r s o u r c e b u s

S u b tr a n s m is s io n
c ir c u its
To DS To DS

N .O .

DS DS

N .O .

DS DS

Fig. 5 Modified sub-transmission configuration.

B u lk p o w e r s o u r c e b u s

T o lo o p c ir c u it

DS
S u b tr a n s m is s io n
c ir c u its

DS DS

Fig. 6 Loop sub-transmission configurations.

2.1.4 Grid Sub-Transmission Circuit

Fig. 7 shows a grid sub-transmission configuration with multiple circuits. In this configuration
distribution transformers are interconnected and can be served from several bulk power source
buses. In order to increase the reliability of this configuration each loop is supplied from two
different bulk source buses, as shown in Fig. 7. As a result of this arrangement this configuration
yields the highest service reliability. This configuration also provides the highest level of service

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continuity among all other configurations. However, it requires costly power flow control and
complicated protective coordination strategies [1].

B u lk p o w e r s o u r c e b u s e s

S u b tr a n s m is s io n
c ir c u its

DS DS DS

DS DS DS

Fig. 7 Grid sub-transmission configuration.

2.2. The Interconnection of Sub-Transmission with Substation

Depending on the sub-transmission configuration, the substation high voltage side will have the
following possible configurations [3]:

1. For radial sub-transmission configuration the high voltage side of the substation has only one
incoming line for the two possible configurations as shown in Fig. 8. For Fig. 8.a there is no
transmission breaker. Therefore, the line and the substation high side are protected from a
breaker on the other end of the line. However in Fig. 8.b there is a breaker that can protect the
line and the high side of the substation.

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I n c o m in g L in e I n c o m in g L in e

T ra n s m is s io n b re a k e r

DS DS

D is trib u tio n b re a k e rs D is trib u tio n b re a k e rs

O u tg o in g f e e d e r s O u tg o in g f e e d e r s

Figure 8.a Figure 8.b

Radial sub-transmission configuration at the substation high side

2. For loop sub-transmission configuration the high voltage side of the substation has two
incoming lines as shown in Fig. 9. In Fig. 9.a there is no isolating transmission breaker.
Therefore, any fault will cause an interruption of the whole supply. However in Fig. 9.b, there
is a breaker for each incoming line that can isolate each line separately while maintaining the
supply from the other one. The system configuration in Fig. 9.b provides more reliable
operation than that of Fig. 9.a.

I n c o m in g L o o p L in e I n c o m in g L o o p L in e

T r a n s m is s io n b r e a k e r s

DS DS

D is tr ib u tio n b r e a k e r s D is tr ib u tio n b r e a k e r s

O u tg o in g f e e d e r s O u tg o in g f e e d e r s

Figure 9.a Figure 9.b

Loop sub-transmission configuration at the substation high side

Loop circuits provide different service reliability based on the incoming line segmentation inside the
substation as shown in Table 1.

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Table 1 High Side Substation Segmentations

- In case of substation high side or In c o m in g L in e s

transformer failure for any of these

configurations:
a- The substation low side switching is DS N .C . N .C .
responsible for the protection and service N .O .

reliability. D is trib u tio n

b reak ers

b- The whole substation loading will be

O u tg o in g fe e d e rs
feed from one transformer and one line.
In c o m in g L in e s

N .C . N .C .

N .C . N .C .
N .O .

O u tg o in g fe e d e rs

In c o m in g L in e s

N .C .

N .C . N .C .
N .O .

O u tg o in g fe e d e rs

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- In case of substation high side or In c o m in g L in e s

transformer failure for any of these N .C . N .C .

configurations:
a- The substation low side has no effect on N .C . N .C .
N .O .
the protection and service reliability. D is trib u tio n
b reak ers
b- The whole substation loading will be
feed from one transformer and one line. O u tg o in g fe e d e rs

In c o m in g L in e s

N .C .
- In case of one line failure, the two N .C .

N .O .
transformers are still in service.
N .C . N .C .
N .O .

- In case of one transformer failure, the two

lines are still in service.
O u tg o in g fe e d e rs

In c o m in g L in e s

N .C . N .C .

N .C .

N .C . N .C .
N .O .

O u tg o in g fe e d e rs

I n c o m in g L in e s

N .C . N .C . N .C . N .C .

This configuration is valid for three

transformers in a substation. N .C . N .C . N .C .
N .O . N .O .

O u tg o in g f e e d e r s

A relative capital cost comparison between radial and loop sub-transmission/transmission

configurations (69 kV) with their substation high side features is shown in Table 2.

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Table 2 Relative capital cost of 40MVA substation for different lines configurations

Line/substation high side configuration Relative Capital Cost

Radial with no breaker, (Figure 8.a) 1
Radial with one breaker, (Figure 8.b) 1.1
Loop with one breaker, (Figure 9.a) 1.22
Loop with three breakers, (Figure 9.b) 1.35
Three incoming lines, (each can feed the substation load) 1.66
Three incoming lines, (any two can feed the substation load) 1.5

2.3 Investigating the Impact of the Sub-Transmission Line Operating Voltage Level on Its
Cost [3]
The most common sub-transmission configuration used in practice is the loop type shown in Fig. 6.
The cost of sub-transmission lines and their termination requirement at the substation high voltage side
are related to the high voltage level used as shown in Table 3.

Table 3 Relative cost of the line and its associate terminating facilities as function of its voltage [3]

Sub- Substation Line Substation Line Substation

transmission cost/mi high side cost/MW high-side
(kV) (MVA) # (peak MW cost cost/MW
each)
34 40 2-3 5-15 0.12 0.2 2.8 1.5
69 90 2-4 10-30 0.3 0.47 2 1.33
138 225 2-4 22-45 1 1 1 1
345 800 1-2 200-400 5.92 5.05 0.55 0.6

In Table 3, as the line voltage increase:

1. The line and its feeding substations capacity increase.

2. The number of substations in its loop circuit increases due to the lines capacity increase. Then
it decreases at the very high voltages, as at this voltage the line serves a particular substation for
certain application.

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3. The line and substation high voltage side requirements costs increases, as the insulation
requirement increases. However, the cost/MW decreases as the power transmitted increases.

3. Distribution Substations
In General, a substation in an electric utility identity interconnects components (generators,
transmission lines, distribution lines and other utility system) of that utilitys system. For example,
distribution substation receives power from high voltage transmission or sub-transmission and
distributes this power at low voltage among several primary distribution circuits. Also, substation
connects the system between different voltage levels in the same sector, for example 13.8 kV and 34.5
kV in the distribution system. Substations are considered to be the least expensive facility in the
electric system with respect to other system component such as transmission and distribution feeders
costs. However, their proficient design and operation will reduce the overall cost of the system due to
the increased reliability the substation offers to the transmission and distribution (T&D) systems.
Normally, substation construction requires a large piece of land to contain the large amount of
equipment the substation has to house.

A substation as an electric facility can be:

1. Normal Substation: It has all the three parts of the substation which are installed over- or
under-ground. It can be in the open air or enclosed in a building.

2. Substation Unit: It has all parts of a normal substation cased in one single package. It is metal
weatherproof housing including the three substation parts separately. It has its own protection.
It is considered as modules.

3. Mobile Substations: It is similar to the substation unit but can be moved on large tractor and
placed at certain locations near transmission and distribution circuits. These mobile substations
provide maximum reliability and energy continuity following major outages of existing
substations [2, 4]. Its capacity is up to 40 MVA due to size and weight constraints. It takes from
3-6 hours to be interconnected and energized [3].

A substation is used for one or more of the following purposes:

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1. Step the voltage level down to a lower voltage levels between two parts of a distribution system
(distribution substation).
2. Isolate a faulty utility component or disconnect a component from the rest of the electric utility
system for a scheduled maintenance or repair.
3. Switch utilitys components in and out the system to control power flow (i.e. switching for
contingency situations).
4. Monitor the equipment and circuits operation. It provides voltage, current and power data for
the system operation center. It also houses the protective devices.
5. Offer site for communications and additional devices storage.
6. Provide electric power sources for reactive power (capacitor banks, synchronous condensers) to
improve power factor and voltage control.

A substation may be one of the following kinds:

1. Generating Station Substation: This substation steps up the generation voltage (15-23 kV) to
the transmission system voltage (69-500 kV).

2. Transmission Step Down Substation: This substation interconnects different parts of the
transmission system operating at different voltage levels

3. Transmission Switching Substation: This substation interconnects different parts of

transmission system without changing the voltage levels.

4. Distribution Step Down Substation (Bulk Power Substation): This substation interconnects
transmission system with the distribution system. Transmission system and distribution system
operate at different voltages.

5. Distribution Substation (DS): This substation interconnects different parts of the distribution
system and it may include transformation of different distribution voltage levels.

A typical substation system is a set of equipment electrically connected together to perform the
substation function. A single line diagram of a distribution substation is shown in Fig. 10. The sub-

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transmission line entered the substation and terminated at dead-end structure. This terminated line is
connected to a disconnected switch mounted on the same structure which can be used to disconnect the
substation from the incoming line. The disconnecting switch is connected to a high-side buswork
where a voltage and current transformers are used to measure the incoming electric quantities and
provide relevant values for meters and relays. This high-side bus is connected to the CB that protects
the substation power transformer. The power transformer low voltage side is connected to a secondary
breaker that is connected to the substation low-side bus. This bus is connected to primary distribution
feeders with breakers. These feeders exit in the substation in the underground ducts (feeders getaway).

A m m e te r
Pow er
D is c o n n e c tin g tra n s fo rm e r
B us D ra w o u t
s w itc h
S u b tra n s m is s io n CB b re a k e r
c irc u its
C u rre n t
V o lta g e tra n s fo rm e r
tra n s fo rm e r D is trib u tio n

V o ltm e te r fe e d e r b re a k e r

M e ta l-C la d S w itc h g e a r

Fig. 10 Single-line diagram of a distribution substation [5]

The substation layout and its associated facilities can be classified into four fundamental parts shown
by one of Figs. 11.a, and b.

These equipments and arrangements will be discussed in the following section according to the
classification given in Fig. 11.a [6]:

3.1. Substation Systems Site Requirements

The substation site requirements include several items: fence, site access, grading and landscaping. The
security fence or wall system provides electric clearance for the substation energized equipment and
for public safety. The site access system includes the way from the public road to inside the substation.
The substation site grading system for accessing the equipment, draining system for rain water,
crushed rock surface system for safety and landscaping system for aesthetic reasons.

Fig. 12 shows substation aesthetic and site requirements.

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In c o m in g tra n s m is s io n o r s u b -tra n s m is s io n lin e s In c o m in g tra n s m is s io n o r s u b -tra n s m is s io n lin e s

H ig h s id e
T h e s ite
(b u s w o rk & p ro te c tio n )
(F e n c e /w a ll)

S w itc h y a rd
T h e s ite
(F e n c e /w a ll)

Pow er
T ra n s fo rm e rs

C o n tro l b u ild in g
L o w s id e
(b u s w o rk & p ro te c tio n )

O u tg o in g fe e d e rs O u tg o in g fe e d e rs

Figure 11.a Figure 11.b

Substation fundamental parts

Fig. 12 Substation aesthetic and site requirements

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3.2 Substation Switchyard Systems

It houses the high and low voltage sides and power transformers as well of the substation. It can be
outdoor (open air insulated) or building enclosed for environmental aspects (air insulated). Gas (SF6)
insulated switchyard in metal compartment with smaller physical footprint can be installed indoor or
outdoor. It has the transmission and sub-transmission termination with their buswork, breakers,
protection relays, switching, meters and monitoring and control equipments. Switchyard systems
include:

3.2.1 Switching Equipment System

They are used to connect or disconnect components of substation or utility system from the rest of
the system. They include:

3.2.1.1 High voltage fuses

Definition:
A fuse is an overcurrent protection device with a circuit opening fusible element which is
directly heated by the passage of current and destroyed when current exceeds predetermined
value. A suitably selected fuse should open the circuit, eliminate the arc established during
the destruction of the element and then maintain circuit condition open with nominal voltage
applied to its terminal, i.e no arcing across the fuse element.

Classification of High Voltage Fuses

Fuses designed to be used above 600V are categorized as distribution cut-outs or power fuses.
There are number of standards to classify fuses according to the rated voltage, rated currents,
time/current characteristics, manufacturing and other considerations. ANSI / IEEE Standards
C37-40, 41, 42, 46, 47, and 48 classify medium and high voltage fuses within the range 2.3-
138 KV.

The time current characteristics of a fuse are represented by two Curves

1. The minimum melting Curve
2. The total clearing Curve

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The majority of fuses in distribution systems operate on the expulsion principle. The
expulsion type distribution Cutouts are a common protection for overhead primary
distribution systems and are classified as enclosed fuse cutouts, open fuse cutouts.

The fuse Cutouts are selected based on the following data:

1. Voltage and insulation level

2. Type of system, e.g., overhead or underground
3. Maximum short circuit level
4. Load current

The Nominal current of the fuse should be greater than the maximum continuous load
current, an overload percentage should be allowed. In case of power transformers, fuse
should be selected above inrush curve and below thermal limit.

Power fuses are identified by the letter E and are employed where system voltage is 34.5KV
or higher. The symmetrical short circuit of the fuse should be equal to or greater than the
symmetrical fault current calculated for the point of installation of the fuse. When two or
more fuses are used the one nearest to the load is called the main protection and that upstream
towards the source is called back up.

3.2.1.2 Automatic Circuit Recloser

A recloser is an overcurrent protective device which interrupts and automatically recloses for
preset number of operations to clear transient fault or to isolate permanent faults. In overhead
distribution system between 80 and 95% of the faults are temporary nature and last only for
few cycles so the recloser with its opening / closing characteristic prevents power outage for
temporary faults.

Typical reclosers are designed to have up to three open-close operations. One fast & two
delayed and after these a final open operation to lock out the sequence as per the following
curves. One further closing operation by manual means is usually allowed. The new reclosers
with microprocessor- based controls may have keyboard selectable time/current curves which

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enable an engineer to produce any curve to suit the co-ordination requirements for phase and
earth faults.

A typical sequence of a recloser operation for permanent faults is as per drawings. The first
shot is carried out in instantaneous mode in order to clear temporary faults before they cause
any damage. The three later shots operate in timed manner.

Reclosers can be classified based on the following: Single phase and three phase mechanisms
with hydraulic or electronic operation, Oil, Vacuum or SF6
Reclosers are used at the following points on a distribution network. In substations, in main
feeder circuit, to permit sectioning of long lines and in branches to prevent the opening of the
main circuit due to fault on the branch.

When installing reclosers , it is necessary to take into account the following factors: 1.
System voltage, 2. Short circuit level, 3. Maximum load current, 4. Minimum short circuit
within the zone protected by a recloser, 5. Coordination with protective devices, 6.
Sensitivity of operation for earth fault.

3.2.1.3 Automatic Line Sectionalizer

A sectionalizer is a device which automatically isolates faulted sections of a distribution
circuit after preset number of tripping, once an upstream breaker or recloser has interrupted
the fault. Sectionalizers have no capacity to break fault current and they must be used with
a back-up device that has fault current breaking capacity.

Sectionalizers count the number of operations of the recloser during fault conditions then
open and isolate the faulty section while the recloser is open. If fault is temporary the
sectionalizer counter will reset to its normal position after the circuit is reclosed. If fault
is permanent the counter will count the next opening of the recloser. If recloser is set for four
operations and will go to lock out, the sectionalizer will be set to trip during open operation
following the third tripping of recloser.

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Sectionalizers are constructed in single or three phase arrangements with hydraulic or

electronic operating mechanisms. A Sectionalizer does not have current/time operating
characteristic.

The following factors should be considered when selecting a Sectionalizer:

1. System load Voltage.
2. Maximum load Current.
3. Maximum Short-Circuit level.
4.Co-Ordination with protection devices installed upstream and downstream.

The nominal voltage and current of a sectionalizer should be equal to or greater than the
maximum values of voltage or load at the point of installation. The short circuit capacity
(momentary rating) should be equal or greater than the fault level at the point of installation.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Line Sectionalizer

Advantages:
1. They may be used for interrupting or switching loads within their
range.
2. When used instead of reclosers they have a lower initial cost and demand less
maintenance.
3. When used instead of fuse cutouts they do not show the possible co-ordination
difficulties due to the use of improper fuse.

Disadvantages:
1. More costly than fuse cutouts and demand more maintenance.
2. Their failure rate could be greater than that of fuse cutouts.

3.2.1.4 Circuit breakers:

The circuit breakers are automatic switches which can interrupt fault currents.
The arc produced by the separation of current carrying contacts is interrupted by a suitable
medium and by adopting suitable techniques for arc extinction.

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The circuit breaker can be classified on the basis of the arc extinction e.g. by air as in air circuit
breaker ACB, Oil as in oil circuit breaker OCB, and Sulfur Hexa fluoride SF6 in SF6 breaker and
also Vacuum circuit breaker.

The circuit breakers used at distribution systems are air circuit breakers and oil circuit
breakers for high voltage and molded case circuit breaker for low voltage. Overcurrent and
other fault sensing generally opens the circuit breaker [5].

Technical particulars of a circuit breaker are:

1. Type of medium for arc extinction

2. Rated voltage. This corresponds to highest power frequency voltage between phase to
phase (3.6KV, 7.2KV, 12KV, 36KV.)
3. Rated breaking current
4. Other rated characteristics
5. Type of construction (Indoor metal clad type, outdoor metal clad type SF6).
6. Type of operating mechanism
7. Total break time e.g 2 cycle, 3 cycle, 5 cycle

3.2.1.5 Switching components

They are operated mechanically to alter a circuit connection or isolate a circuit or equipment
from the main source of power at normal load current levels. Others operate only at little or
no current flow in them. Some switches are electrically operated from remote control
buildings others are only manually on site operated. They include circuit switchers and
reclosers, disconnecting switches and power fuses.

3.2.1.6 Disconnecting Switches

They are classified either no-load break or load break switches. No-load break operates
(open or close) only when no current flow in the switch (or the circuit). While, the load break
switch can operate with the normal current flow in the switch (or the circuit). In general
disconnecting switches can not interrupt fault current level [5].

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3.2.2. Power Transformers System

They are transformers located anywhere in the electric utility system between generators and
electric primary distribution systems. Their function is to transfer electric power between different
voltage levels circuits. They are three-phase transformers which have less capital, maintenance and
power loss costs than three single-phase transformers. However, in rural applications single-phase
transformers are used. Distribution substation normally has from 1 to 6 power transformers and
usually has a delta (at high voltage side) and delta or star at the lower voltage side [3]. Fig. 13
shows a typical power transformer with its cooling system shown.

Fig. 13 A substation power transformer with its cooling system

The substation capacity is calculated based on the transformers capacity housed in this substation.
Therefore for a substation having three transformers (two 25 MVA and one 35 MVA), the two
ways to identify the substation capacity are as follow [3]:

1- Some electric utilities consider the sum of all transformers capacity to represent the
substation capacity. Therefore, the substation capacity is 2 x 25 + 1 x 35 = 85 MVA.

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2- Others electric utilities take the contingency calculations point of view to determine the
substation capacity. Therefore, the substation capacity is 2 x 150% x 25 = 75 MVA. This is
calculated based on a worst-case contingency, which assumes the loss of power supplied by
the 35 MVA transformers. This analysis assumes that the two 25 MVA transformers are
overloaded by 50% for 4 hours.

Power transformers can be considered as a way for substation planning by introducing the
transformer unit concept. A unit is a transformer with its associated equipment (site preparation,
grounding, buswork, racks, switches, breakers, monitoring and control equipment, cooling, oil and
fire protection equipment). However, this unit is not cased in one assembly as in the substation unit
case. For example:

1- A 24 MVA, 138/12.47 kV device costs 166 K$.

2- The same device as a unit with all previously mentioned equipment costs 380 k$.
3- If it also includes the low-side equipment for its feeder, its cost will be 640 k$.

Power transforms can be autotransformers; however, due to its low impedance it has high fault
current. Autotransformers are cheaper than the normal power transformer [5].

3.2.3 Bus System

Station buses are a group of conductors or solid bars (aluminium or copper) used as a common
connection for more than one circuit connected to them. They interconnect switchyard high voltage
equipment terminals to produce the required substation bus scheme. It also includes the bus grid
and connecting facilities between the bus conductor and the switchyard equipment. Station
insulators used to support and insulate the energized components.

Some utilities employ low-side voltage switcher. The low side voltage switcher includes switches,
breakers and buswork. Voltage switcher can be installed in air or enclosed in a cabinet (metal-clad
switchgear). In this structure the breaker is mounted on wheels and can be draw out [5].

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3.2.4 Measuring and Relaying Communications Equipment System

These measured data present low voltage and low current inputs to the protective equipment. These
inputs are proportional to the substation voltage and current. Communication signals are
transmitted on transmission line to operate the protective equipment. This equipment system
includes: potential transformers (PT) for voltage measurement, current transformers (CT) for
current measurement, coupling capacitor voltage transformers, bushing current transformers and
line traps.

3.2.5 Voltage Regulators

Substations require voltage regulator equipment on their primary feeders. These equipment can be
a transformer equipped with a LTC or separate voltage regulator depending on the substation
outgoing feeders number and design as follow [2]:

1- A three-phase operated voltage regulator is installed to provide the required voltage on

the low voltage side of small substation size. This is suitable for a substation with one
feeder or couple of small capacity feeders.
2- A three-phase transformer with a LTC is mounted on the substation bus (called bus
regulator) for a multi-feeder substation.
3- However, for large substations with several feeders with different lengths or loading
both bus regulator and individual pole-mounted regulators are install on certain required
feeders. This configuration is more economic than employing individual voltage
regulators on each primary feeder at the substation.

LTC equipped transformer provides a variation of plus or minus 10% of the low-side winding
voltage. Equipment is installed to sense the voltage level at the low side and automatically vary the
tap setting to obtain the desired voltage value. The LTC transformer can adjust the voltage level in
two cases as follow [3]:

1- High-side substation voltage variations:

The transmission incoming voltage to the high-side substation can vary up to 10% of its
value at normal operation due to switching and loading activities. However, the voltage
can drop due to transmission contingency.

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2- Low-side substation voltage variation (primary feeders voltage drop):

For full primary feeder loading, the voltage drop increases. Therefore a line drop
compensator circuit is installed to the LTC transformer control equipment to set a
constant voltage at certain predetermined feeder point. As the load increase the voltage
drop increase and the transformer turns are increased to compensate for that voltage
drop.

3.2.6 Reactive Power Compensation Equipment System

Reactive power compensation equipment system provides reactive power to improve the system
power factor and control voltage, limit fault current in distribution feeders and on buses, and direct
harmonic voltages to ground. The compensation component system includes:

Capacitor banks and reactors each installed individually or together. Capacitor banks are
installed at substation to supply capacitive power by switching them on and off.
Current limiting reactor installed on distribution feeders to limit the fault current by adding
impedance to the feeder source impedance.

3.2.7 Surge and Direct Stroke Protection System

Surge and direct stroke protection system protects the switchyard and substation control building
from lightning, and the insulation from transient voltages waves to enter the substation either from
transmission or distribution systems. It includes shielding wires and surge arrestors in the
switchyard.

3.2.8 Switchyard Support Structure System

It includes stands for all equipments in the switchyard.

3.2.9 Grounding Systems

It is used for personal protection, providing low impedance path to earth for protective relaying
operation, and drive away the high fault or lightning current to earth. Grounding system includes
the buried ground grids rods (copper or aluminum) and the equipments connected conductor to
ground.

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3.2.10 Raceway System

It protects the control and power cable in the switchyard from the physical damage. It includes
cable trench, conduit, duct banks, manholes, and both junction and pull boxes.

3.2.11 Lightning and Communication System

It produces lighting of the switchyard and its equipment, and telephone and paging devices.

3.3 Substation Control Building Systems

Fig. 14 shows a control building for a small distribution substation at the right of the Figure. The
control building system contains the protection, control and monitors equipment of switchyard. It may
also include the metering equipment and distribution switchgear system. They include:

1. Building architectural, structural and space conditioning system: It includes walls, roof,
painting, structural steel frames, supports and providing clean uniform temperature and
humidity by using heating and air conditioning and ventilating devices. It is included in a
building shape; in this case it is called a cottage substation.

2. Building grounding, raceway, and lightning and communication systems: It is similar and
connected to the switchyard grounding, raceway, and lightning and communication systems.

Fig. 14 A small distribution substation control building

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3.4 Substation Protection, Control, Monitoring, Measuring And Metering Systems

These systems are essential for the substation to carry out its function. These systems include:

3.4.1 Protective relaying system

Protective relaying systems are devices that used to detect defective lines or equipment, or
abnormal system condition and to initiate an appropriate control action. These devices monitor the
system voltage, current, frequency or combinations. The action taken can be: a switching device;
opening or closing. The substation is divided into several relaying schemes to monitor a
predetermined zone of the substation or the utility system. It includes different relays and their
associated communications equipment.

Old relays are mechanically operated with a spinning of a disc however the new relays are
electronically operated [5]. There are several relay types such as [5]:

3.4.1.1 Overcurrent relay:

It operates (send a signal) when there is a high amount of current caused by a fault. This relay
has two types:

Instantaneous overcurrent relay: it sends signals instantaneously as soon as an

overcurrent is sensed.
Time overcurrent relay: it sends a signal after a time delay in case of a lower
overcurrent amount is sensed. It waits for series CBs to be coordinated.

3.4.1.2 Differential relay:

It sends a signal if the incoming and outgoing currents for a zone are not equal. It is used for
transformer and bus differential protection.

3.4.1.3 Reclosing relay:

It sends a signal for CB to close after fault clearance. Reclosing occur multiple times with an
increasing delay periods. However, if the fault is almost cleared after the last closer, the CB is
locked out.

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3.4.2 Control System

It provides manual operation of electrically operated equipments (CB, circuit switchers, motor-
operated disconnect switches, capacitor banks and power transformer load tap changers, either
from the substation building (on site) or from remote place (dispatch) under normal circumstances.
The control system equipment consists of control panel switches in the control building and the
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) equipment used for remote substation
operation. The SCADA equipment located at the substation provides the substation automation
process which [5]:

1- Monitoring transformers and feeders

2- Remotely operating CB
3- Communicating with the automated equipment located on far feeders.

3.4.3 Metering System

It provides the system parameter measured values for displaying and saving records. It consists of
meters and transducers which convert the measured values into the SCADA input terminals.

3.4.4 Indication System

It gives an indication of the switchyard equipment status. It gives a flash light or horn in case of
malfunction situation.

3.5 Substation Auxiliary Systems

Substation auxiliary systems are the auxiliary power facilities, which include connection cables and
fire protection equipment. The auxiliary system includes the following:

3.5.1 AC Service System

It supplies the substation lightning, air-conditioning and powering auxiliary equipment such as
power transformer: cooling pumps, fans, load tap changers and CB compressor motor. The
components for this system are transformer and transfer switches.

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3.5.2 DC Service System

It supplies the substation protection and control systems in case of emergency and AC supply
outages. The DC system is charged from the AC supply. The components of this system are
substation battery and its charger, and transfer switch.

3.5.3 Power and Control Cable System

It is low voltage power and control cables (<600 V) that connect the control equipment in the
switchyard and the control building to implement the protection, control and substation services.

3.5.4 Fire Protection System

It the fire alarm and extinguishing system in the control building and important parts of the
switchyard such as power transformers locations.

4. Substation Location
The substation location is selected to contain the high- and low-side equipments, transformers and their
associated equipment, outgoing feeders and all other auxiliary service equipment. This location is
related to the substation area to be electrically served. The most optimal substation location for the
least overall cost is not the optimal one for the most optimal electrical performance, or optimal
substation capacity, or that of optimal substation service area. The selection of substation location is a
screening process. All possible locations in the required service area are selected first. This process is
followed by rejecting the unsuitable locations and providing the candidate substation areas. These
locations can be further classified as candidate sites and sites left for future evaluations. The candidate
sites are evaluated to obtain the most optimal substation locations (sites). Therefore, the optimal
substation location is determined by each system needs as it is affected by the several following
factors:

1. The system voltage level: Taking the voltage level into consideration affect the piece of land
required to have a proper access for the incoming sub-transmission lines and outgoing primary
distribution feeders (physical size, insulation and number). System voltage level also affects the
size of the equipment required in the substation switchyard area such as power transformers and
their associated measurement and protective devices and as a result the substation control building.

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2. The voltage regulation: The location has to be chosen so that minimum voltage regulation is
required and therefore less voltage regulation devices are needed (capacitor banks and tap
changers).

3. Sub-transmission lines and primary distribution feeders costs: The substation location has to
be located at/or near to the load center of the substations service area to minimize the sub-
transmission and feeders initial costs and therefore their running cost such as power losses.

4. Cost of land: This cost includes the cost of land purchasing and preparing depending on the
chosen location. The land size is from 100s feet2 (for one-transformer substation) to 10s acres
(for combined transmission-distribution substation) [3]. Possible land availability for substation
expansion in the future to cover the forecasted load growth must also be determined. This
location must not face any human, regulations, governmental and natural obstacles. The chosen
site has to have enough space for feeders getaway. A comparison between substation
applications and costs varies widely depending on the substation size and type as discussed in
Table 4.

Table 4 Substation applications and their costs [3]

Substation Substation Substation Site Cost
application (transformers) voltage (kV) area (k$)
Capacity
Rural with wooden pole 12 MVA 46 kV/22 kV 8 k ft2 11
Suburban 2 x 60 MVA 161 kV/25 kV 1.3 acres 490
Suburban with steep 2 x 60 MVA 161 kV/25 kV 1.3 acres 1,290
hillside and rock
subsurface
Urban with brick wall 4 x 25 MVA 138 kV/ 34.5kV 1.6 acres 2,000
Urban with 5 x 50 MVA 230 kV/25 kV 1 acre 3,500
underground
Suburban 340 MVA 345 kV/230 kV/115 8 acres 4,200
kV/23 kV/13.8 kV

For dense urban areas where the cost of land is very expensive, substation utilizes
undergrounds both transmission and distribution feeders can be installed in a basement of a

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large building. Therefore, special requirements for the space and clearance and GIS equipment
are required.

5. Site preparation and feeder getaway: The site slope, rock and draining affects the cost of land
required for substation and its infrastructure. Feeders getaways require clearance and the
underground soil may affect the cost of underground structure for feeders getaways.

6. Load growth rates and load forecasting: The load density affects the substation location
choice and its possible interconnection with other substation to satisfy the reliability and supply
continuity requirements.

7. Weather exposure: Sites located on hilltops are more likely exposed to lightning and weather
conditions which will raise the substation O&M costs and protection requirements.

5. Rules of Thump [3]:

There are practical rules of thump for substation costs, capacity and furthermore a reliability issues.
These rules can be summarized as follow:

1. Minimum site: The minimum substation economical capacity is 0.25 of the substation high
side voltage level. For example, a substation with high side voltage level of 69 kV can serve
minimum capacity of 17 MVA.

2. Site cost: The site cost increases as the high- or low-side voltage level increases.

3. Capacity cost: The four part of a substation has a linear cost proportional to the capacity if the
substation serves more than the minimum economical capacity.

4. High-side cost: The cost of high-side substation depends on the voltage level as follows:
i- Above 138 kV:
Increasing the voltage level increases the high-side cost by 1.25 power of the voltage
level. For example, 230 kV high-side cost is approximately 2.35 more cost of the 115
kV cost ((230/115)1.25 = 2.37).

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ii- Below 87 kV and above 33 kV:

The cost of increasing the voltage is approximately linear to the voltage level. For
example, 87 kV high-side cost is twice the cost of 46 kV.

5. Low-side cost: The cost of low-side substation increases as the square root of the primary
voltage level. For example, 34.5 kV low-side cost is three times of 4 kV cost ((34.5/4)0.5 =
(8.625)0.5 = 3).

6. Transformer cost: The cost varies approximately halfway between low- and high-side cost
variations.

The substation cost percentage can vary widely for each substation part and its location according to
Table 5 [3]. Table 6 provides practical costs for different distribution substations applications and sizes
[3].

Table 5 Substation facilities cost percentage

Electric Facilities p.u. cost of substation cost

Substation land 0.1-0.66
Substation high-side 0.25-0.33
Substation transformers 0.5-0.66
Substation low-side 0.06-0.2

Table 6 Substation facilities cost (k$)

Substation Substation feeding configuration Substation Capital O&M

location voltage (kV) cost cost
Rural - One incoming radial circuit 69 /25 61 3
- High-side fuses
- 7.5 MVA transformer without LTC
- One feeder fuse with voltage regulator
- 4.4 MVA peak loading
- All feeders are overhead
Urban - One complete package of 15 MVA 33 /11 100 3
- High-side fuses
- 3 low-side feeders connections with fuses
- No voltage regulators

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- 12 MVA loading
- All underground

Urban - 2 incoming circuits with breakers 69 /13 3,200 135

- High-side fuses
- 2 x 33 MVA transformer with LTC
- 2 low-side buses
- Each bus feeds 3 x 12 MVA feeders
- Each feeder has breaker & voltage regulator
- 45 MVA peak loading
- All feeders are underground
- Cottage structure
Suburban -2 incoming overhead circuits with breakers 161 / 24 4,100 135
- 2 x 60 MVA transformer with LTC
- 2 low-side buses
- Each bus feeds 3 x 22 MVA feeders
-Each feeder has breaker, voltage regulator &
underground getaway
- All steal construction
- Enclosed control building
- 96 MVA peak loading
Suburban - 5 incoming overhead circuits with ring bus 230 /25 to 12.47 11,200 320
- 3 x 75 MVA 230/25 kV & 2 x 50 MVA
230/12.47 kV transformer with LTC
- Low-side bus breakers
- 12 x 25 kV & 8 x 12.47 kV overhead feeders
with breakers
- Voltage regulators on 12.47 kV
- 200 yard underground getaways
- Outdoor steel construction
- Control building
- 288 MVA peak loading
Urban Core - 3 incoming underground circuits with ring bus 230 /25 19,200 350
- 5 (4 operating + 1 energized as standby) x 75
MVA 230/25 kV & 2 x 50 MVA 230/12.47 kV
transformer with LTC and breakers
- 15 x 25 kV underground feeders with breakers
- Basement installation
- 225 MVA peak loading

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References:

[1] T. Gnen, Electric Power Distribution System Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1986.

[2] Westinghouse Electric Corporation: Electric Utility Engineering Reference Book- Distribution
Systems, vol. 3, East Pittsburgh, Pa., 1965.

[3] H. L. Willis, "Power Distribution Planning Reference Book," Marcel Dekker, New York, vol. 1,
1997.

[4] Beaty, H. Wayne, Electric power distribution systems: a non-technical guide, Tulsa, Okla.:
PennWell, 1998.

[5] R. E. Brown, "Electric Power Distribution Reliability," Marcel Dekker, New York, 2002.

[6] J.R. Lusby, Fundamental concepts in substation design, Rural Electric Power Conference, 1993.
Papers Presented at the 37th. Annual Conference, 25-27 April 1993, pp. D2/1 - D225.

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