Professional Documents
Culture Documents
BY
DECEMBER 2011
2
i
TITLE PAGE
BY
(Communication Option)
------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------
Mojekwu Okwuchukwu Emmanuel Date
PG/M.ENG/07/43630
(Student)
------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------
Engr. Prof. A. N. Nzeako Date
(Supervisor)
------------------------------------------------------ ----------------------------------
Engr. Prof. O. U. Oparaku, Date
(Head of Department)
------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------
Engr. Prof J.C. Agunwamba Date
(Dean Faculty of Engineering)
------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------
(External Examiner) Date
iii
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my parents late Mr. Mojekwu Ngoka Emmanuel and late
Mrs. Mojekwu Afubene Patricia, for sowing the seed of excellence in my life.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I sincerely thank God Almighty, my ultimate source of hope and strength for guiding
Ahaneku, Engr. Fred Eze, Engr. Okonor Obinna, Mr. Uwakwe and other staff of the
My profound appreciation to Engr. C.C. Nzekwe and Engr. Shola Joseph Omoyode of
I thank Mr. Obiora Okoye, MD of Vast Ltd, Engr. Silas Obinwa and John Mathew ;
(JDA BLOCK 4) and the Petroleum Technology Development Fund (PTDF) for
Rhema, Dubem, Ify and Joy for the great moments we shared together.
Outside the classroom, I thank Chief and Mrs. Uche Mojekwu (Ijeneme I), Engr. D.
C. Mojekwu of the Federal College of Education (Technical) Umunze, Bldr (Sir) and
Okonkwo Mojekwu, Pharm. Ezeuchu Onyiye and Ngozi Ilebo for help rendered.
v
served as the image maker including Mbachu Vitalis-the President, Okeke Ogo, Izu
Ndukaihe, Uzoma Osualla, Eboh Frank, Ekwem Oge Hannah, Desmond Nnamani,
Nseh Obong Utoh and Chukwuma Azuka for their constant prayers.
I remember the help I got from Bede Ugwu, Oje Obinna, Ufondu Nwankwo, Nwaka,
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Cover page i
Approval/Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgement iv
Table of Contents vi
List of Figures xi
List of Abbreviations xv
Abstract xvii
5.1 Conclusion 42
5.2 Suggestions 42
References 44
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.501 (a) Extrinsic loss from microbending (b) extrinsic loss from
macrobending
Figure 2.502 (a) Insertion loss from misaligned core diameters (b) insertion loss
from angular misalignment (c) insertion loss from air gap (d) insertion
optical fiber
Figure 3.300 Nanjing DVP-730 arc fusion splicer machine (courtesy of Astera
Nigeria Ltd)
Figure 3.301 Nanjing DVP-105 cleaving machine (courtesy of Astera Nigeria Ltd)
Figure 3.302 Nanjing KL-6200 OTDR machine (courtesy of Astera Nigeria Ltd)
misalignment measurement
Figure 4.700 Signal scope at 0.01dB (a) before and (b) after splice joint
Figure 4.701 Signal scope at 0.019dB (a) before and (b) after splice joint
Figure 4.702 Signal scope at 0.05dB (a) before and (b) after splice joint
Figure 4.720 Eye diagram (BER) before filtration (a) without load (b) with 100%
traffic
Figure 4.721 Eye diagram (BER) after filtration (a) without load (b) with 100%
traffic
Figure 4.722 Eye diagram (BER) at the receiver (a) without load (b) with 100%
traffic
xi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.400 Summary of OTDR readings and measured splice loss readings
Table 4.401 Summary of attenuation readings recorded by the OTDR and qouted
Table 4.402 Summary of splice loss contribution to overall optical links loss
xii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Amp Amplifier
BER Bit Error Rate
dB Decibel
dBm Power level in dB
DCF Dispersion Compensation Fiber
Demux Demultiplxer
DWDM Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing
EM Electromagnetic
EMI Electromagnetic Interference
EMP Electromagnetic Pulses
FFT Fast Fourier Transform
Gbps Giga bits per second
GHz Giga Hertz
GSM General System for Mobile Telecommunications
HF Holey Fiber
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
IFFT Inverse Fast Fourier Transform
ITU International Telecommunications Union
ITU-T ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector
Kbps Kilo bits per second
km Kilometer
LAN Local Area Networks
LED Ligth Emiting Diode
MAN Metropolitan Area Networks
Mbps Mega bits per second
MFD Mode Field Diameter
MHz Mega Hertz
Mux Multiplexer
mW Milliwatt
MZDI Mach Zehnder Delay Interferometer
MZIM Mach Zehnder Interferometric Modulator
NA Numerical Aperture
xiii
ABSTRACT
This study analyses the characteristics of signal loss at optical splice joints. This
includes the investigation of splicing loss contribution to the links overall loss.
Splicing losses from four different points spread along an optical link were measured.
The lateral and angular misalignment loss equations for single mode fiber were
employed to determine the lateral separation distances and angular deviations of each
splice joint from the measured losses at the spliced joints. A one way ANOVA test
performed on the splice losses at p-value of <0.05, firstly on the tube and fiber
colours, indicated that the differences in the mean values among the treatment groups
are not great enough to exclude the possibilty that the difference is due to random
However there is a significant difference among the colours. The statistical minimum,
maximum and average of the values splicing losses obtained were used to run a
transmission system. The developed simulation model was monitored with several
scopes which were tapped in the link and the effects of splicing losses on the link
were viewed and analysed. The simulation results indicate that a high splicing loss
will increase the level of signal distortion. The attenuation level observed for the fiber
length shows a slight difference from the factory quoted values. Thus at a sufficient
traffic volume, the distortions will have a significant effect on the overall integrity of
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
To handle the ever increasing demand for high-bandwidth services by
engineering in the country have opened an appetite for new services and more
bandwidth requirment that the traditional communication network has ran short of
bandwidth capacity [2]. In addition to high bandwidth demand, many new services
demand high quality of service (QoS) indices, reliability, availability and real-time
the conventional method of signal propagation using microwave has some negative
impacts on the environment. This comes from pollution coming from exhaust of
generators mounted at base stations and radioactive emmissions from the base station
masts.
Optical fibers are dielectric wave guiding devices used to confine and guide light. A
simple optical network includes a laser diode as an optical source and fiber optic as a
network cables are joined at strategic intervals to have a closed communication link.
Joints are inevitable in optical fiber links as it is not economical and viable to have a
single continuous long haul of optical cable for signal propagation that will link the
The introduction of optical fiber transmission system for GSM and other
environmental impact assessment issues, cost implications for the new technology and
To install the optical cables either for long haul transmission (backbone) or short
spans of few kilometers, the cable must be joined to have complete communication
link. Fiber joining techniques are subject to certain conditions that cause varying
degrees of optical power loss at the joints. These losses depend on parameters such as
the input power distribution to the joint, the length of the fiber between the optical
source and the joint, the geometrical and wave guide characteristics of the two fiber
ends at the joint and the fiber end qualities [1]. The optical power that can be coupled
from one fiber to another one is limited to the number of modes that can propagate in
each fiber. For example, if a fiber which has a greater number of modes is coupled
(connected) to another fiber with less number of modes, a percentage loss in optical
power is inherent from the first fiber to the second assuming all the modes were
loss at the joints have not been exhausted as the mathematical equations developed
are merely pessimistic or addressed only a part of the multiple of the causes
responsible for the loss at the joints [1]. This is because it is difficult to predict the
exact loss at the joints as the signals propagate down the link owing to the
mode fibers [1]. Asides these, practical field working conditions where these
3
installations are carried out do not give room for complicated and complex methods
for the calculation and determination of signal losses emanating from fiber joints [3].
Attenuation and signal degradation as light signals propagate along a fiber wave guide
Since amplifiers and repeaters are expensive to manufacture, install and maintain, the
degree of attenuation and signal degradation from fiber joints has a large influence on
overall system performance. These distortion mechanisms in a fiber cause the optical
signal pulses to broaden as they travel along a fiber [1]. If these pulses travel
sufficiently far, they will eventually overlap with neighboring pulses, thereby creating
errors in the receiver output thus reducing the integrity of the optical fiber network.
The project aims at determining the signal loss at optical spliced joints. The splicing
loss equations for lateral and angular misalignments proposed by Marcuse D. [4] was
used to determine the lateral distances and angular separations of the spliced fiber
ends with a view of establishing the level of influence of spliced losses on a selected
optical link. The influence of splicing joints on the optical communication link was
fiber cable, the study therefore will help in policy formulations for optical fiber
Predictions of joint losses in fiber are very difficult. For instance analytical models
can predict instanteneous result but fail to give accurate results because of the nature
and behaviors of light waves as it propagate along a fiber after a considerable distance
[10]. Again considering the fact that in practical optical fiber transmission system, the
optical components have to interact with a number of digital and electronic circuits
that have a different characteristic behavior with the fiber cable, mathematical
analysis of the joint losses invoke a lot of assumptions that may be too pessimistic and
therefore introduce errors that mar the accuracy of the results [4]. Providing a hands-
The scope and limitations of this work therefore involve measurement of splicing
losses at optical joints and the applications of lateral and angular misalignment
models [4] to determine the separation lateral distance and angular misalignments.
carried out. In chapter three, the methodology and development of simulation models
for the analysis of losses of spliced joints are considered. Measurement, simulation
and results analysis are considered in chapter four. Chapter five treats the conclusion
and suggestions made for further studies. Lastly, the work concludes with references
and appendices.
5
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Splice loss theory for single mode fiber is well established with detailed studies by
various reseachers. Marcuse D. [4] determined the splice loss for step index fiber. The
analysis is based on the principle that the mode field of the single mode fiber is nearly
Gaussian in shape hence the splice losess are related to the corresponding losses of the
Gaussian beams [4]. The gaussian beam shape of the mode field of a single mode
fiber theory was colloborated by Miller C.M. [5] but emphasised that the use of
Gaussian power distribution model for splice analysis is difficult since joints are
located at least 1km or less apart in most trunks as power distribution would exist
after several kilometers of fibers.(each segment of the fiber has a slightly different
steady state power distribution.) He went further to suggest that the best way for
splice loss characterisation should be by measuring a typical source power loss and
The mode field radius of a Gaussian beam is defined as the radial distance at which
the amplitudes are at 1/e of their peak. Given mode radii of w1 and w2 in the
respective fibers, the splice loss for lateral misalignment (offset) for a perfect splice
2.100
For a Gaussian shaped beam, the loss between an identical fibers having lateral
2.101
6
where LLS = splice loss due to lateral misalignment; at d=0 or , W = spot size =
2.102
For angular misalignment (fiber with tilt), the splice loss is given by [4] to be
2.103
2.104
where LAS is the splice loss due to angular misalignment for single mode fiber, is the
angular misalignment in radians, w is the Gaussian spot size =MFD [6], n2 is the
Young M, [53] assumed multi fibers to be illuminated uniformly across the core and
within the acceptance half angle , with joint index matching fluid. Since the
2.106
where b is the width of the core (the diameter in real fibers), is the lateral
light in the misaligned fiber which can be approximated to be the splice loss.
For a multimode fiber, the lateral misalignment splicing loss is given by [6] as
2.105
7
where LLM is the splice loss due to lateral misalignment for multimode fiber, d is the
And for multimode fiber applications,the splice loss between identical fibers due to
2.106
For the angular misalignment, [53] assumed that the acceptance half angle of the fiber
core. If the second fiber is inclined at angle to the first, then some of the rays
emitted from the first fiber will fall on the second with angle of incidence greater
than . Given the assumption of uniform illumination with a full angle of 2, this
implies that:
2.107
where is the is the transmission connection in the direction of the light in the
Nemota S. and Makinto T. [43] derived the connector (coupling) loss between single
mode fibers that have unequal mode field diameters, lateral, longitudinal and angular
2.108
where = (kW1)2
q = G2+( +1 )2
F=
8
G=
k=
d = lateral offset
s = longitudinal offset
= angular misalignment
The derived equation for the single mode coupling loss gave a good correlation with
Kihara M. et al [45] derived the connector return loss equation for index matching
2.109
This approximation can be extended to determine the return loss for a mechanically
spliced fiber joint provided the index matching gel provided to reduce return (
reflectance loss) do not shrink during usage and thermal expansivity of the gel is of
Varoius researchers such as Lin T.Y. [6] have applied the fiber splice loss equation as
derived by [4] in the design and modeling of fiber connectors. This indicates that the
splice loss equations can be used as good approximation for the fiber connector loss
9
equation. The assumption for the splice loss approximation for the splice connector
are that
1. The numerical appertures (NA) of the connecting fibers are the same.
Lizier J. [7] used the splice loss equation in the determination of splicing loss, spot-
size conversion and coupling factor of Holey fiber material. The splice loss formulae
Ieda Koji et al [10] applied splice loss equation of [4] in the determination of splicing
and bending loss characterizations of hole assisted fiber. The splice loss of the hole
assisted fiber (HAF) was investigated taking into consideration the mode field
diameter (MFD) mismatch and the refractive index of the matching material of the
fiber material.
Nakajima Kazuhide et al [47] also applied the splice loss in the design of the mode
insensitive to bending loss. The splice loss equation of [4] was used because the
As noted by [6], the practical measurement of connector or splice loss can be divided
into two namely insertion loss and return loss. These two terms are defined as
2.110
Insertion Loss = (Signal Power)in
(Signal Power)out
These two equations are useful in the experimental measurements since these can
quantify input and output power however these can not be used in theoritical analysis
The choice of the splice loss models in equations 2.101 and 2.103 developed by [4]
were adopted based on the type of the optical fiber deployed in the transmission link
being considered. Certain assumptions in the developed model are applicable only to
single mode fibers and may be extended in the analysis of connector type of joints
provided that certain conditions clearly spelt out for instance in [6] are met.
The splice loss model for gap is not considered since the fusion splicing machine will
ensure that the fiber ends contact properly. The splice loss models for angular (offset)
and lateral (longitudinal) separation are thus employed to analyze the separations in
the fiber.
Losses in optical fibers are classified into two namely intrinsic and extrinsic.
Loss due to inherent traits within the fiber; for example, absorption and
scattering.
Scattering loss is the removal of light due to light being "scattered" after
Insertion loss is the total power loss caused by the insertion of a component
such as a splice or connector in an optical fiber system. Intrinsic loss can also be
11
caused by impure molecules from processing issues, pure, but rare molecules, or
external source introduces loss to an optical fiber medium, then the following classes
few millimeters. One frequent cause is longitudinal shrinking of the fiber buffer [9].
But it also can result from poor drawing or cable manufacturing methods and
installation.
relatively large-radius bend in an optical fiber may be found in a splice organizer tray
or a fiber-optic cable that has been bent. A macrobend will result in no significant
radiation loss if it is of sufficiently large radius. This depends on the type of fiber.
Single-mode fibers have a low numerical aperture, typically less than 0.15 [9], and are
Figure 2.501 (a) Extrinsic loss from Microbending (b) Extrinsic loss from macrobending [9]
(b)
(c)
Dirts,scratches or chips
Fiber core
Figure 2.502 (a) (d) Different optical insertion (splicing) loss mechanisms [4,20]
13
1. Absorption
Intrinsic - UV Electronic transitions
- IR molecular vibrations
Defects - Vacancies
- Radiation induced
- Thermally induced
- H2 induced
2. Scattering
Rayleigh - Minute density and concentration fluctuations
Bulk imperfections - Bubbles, inhomogeneities, cracks
Waveguide imperfections - Core, clad interfacial irregularities
Brillouin, Raman - Spontaneous
3. Waveguide
Macrobending - Curvature induced
Microbending - Perturbation induced
Design - Radiative
Stimulated Raman, - Depends on power density
Brillouin
Table 2.500 Sources of transmission loss in optical fibers (lightguides) [21].
The advent of high capacity fiber transmission lines necessitated the establishment of
standard signal format for service providers. The signal formats are called
hierarchy (SDH) in other parts of the world. These standards define a synchronous
frame structure for sending multiplexed digital traffic over optical fiber trunk lines.
The first level of SONET signal hierarchy is called the synchronous transport signal-
level 1 (STS-1) with bit level of 51.84 Mbps. Higher rate SONET signals are obtained
14
converted to an optical carrier- level (OC-N) signal. Thus the OC-N signal will have a
line rate exactly N times that of an OC-1 signal. For SDH systems the fundamental
N different STM-1 signals to form the STM-N signal. The test optical link where the
SONET level Electrical level SDH level Line rate, Mbps Common rate name
Table 2.600 Some commonly used Optical SONET and SDH information
A general optical link may contain all or part of the components mentioned above.
The choice of component depends on the nature of the signals to be handled and
technology that couples many wavelength carrier light waves transmitting over the
same single mode fiber. This increases the aggregate bandwidth per single fiber to
integrate the bit-rate of all wavelength channels. The Dense Wavelength Division
coupled into a fiber compared to WDM with closer spacing between carries of the
channels [17].
Figure 2.700 shows the DWDM architecture adopted in the implementation of the
MATLAB simulation.
Tx Rx
Regen amp
Tx Rx
Opt ADM Regen
demux mux
WDM mux WDM demux
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLGY
include:
measure the attenuation of the fiber cable against the quoted attenuation
along the test fiber link were measured and used to calculate the lateral
event environment was used to model and view graphically, the influence of
equations 2.101 and 2.103 developed by Marcuse D [4] were used to obtain
the lateral separation distances and angular deviations of the measured spliced
Fusion splices are made by thermally bonding prepared fiber ends, where the fiber
ends are first aligned and then butted together. This is done either in a grooved fiber
holder or under a microscope with a micromanipulator [40]. The butt joint then is
heated with an electric arc or a laser pulse so that the fiber ends are melted
The following steps are taken when splicing joints at fiber ends:
Step 1: Preparing the fiber - Strip the protective coatings, jackets, tubes, strength
members, etc. leaving only the bare fiber showing. The matching gel is
wiped with spirit or any other appropriate cleaning solvent. The main
Step 2: Cleave the fiber - the cleave precision is critical. Fiber tip is also kept free
from contamination to help couple the light from one fiber end to the other.
Step 3: Mechanically join the fibers - Simply position the fiber ends together inside
the splice unit and allow the splicing machine to weld the two fibers
together.
Step 4: Protect the fiber - the completed splice is provided with protection by ferrule
which houses the joint and then heated for the proper bonding. The spliced
Step 5: The encapsulation is then placed firmly using fasteners at the pole or buried
underground in a trench.
18
Start
Fiber cutting/
removal of
protective
coating, jacket
Check if
fiber is
Yes damaged?
No
Fiber cleaning
with solvents
and removal of Fiber tip preparationn
matching index
oil
Cleaving
Fusion splicing
Is the
splice loss
No
0.05dB
Yes
Ferrule alignment and setting
End
The optical time domain reflectometer is used to make single ended measurements in
optical link characteristics and faults tracing. Such characteristics include fiber
attenuation, connector and splice losses reflectance levels from link components and
chromatic dispersion [2]. The OTDR fuctions by injecting a series of optical pulses
into the fiber under test. It also extracts, from the same end of the fiber, light that is
scattered (Rayleigh backscatter) or reflected back from points along the fiber. The
strength of the return pulses is measured and integrated as a function of time, and is
To get the attenuation level of the optical power in the link,the OTDR was connected
by a patch cord to the joined fiber end, the optical power of the OTDR was lauched.
The process is repeated at the end of fiber length to see if there is any significant
differences in the reading. It may be possible to have different readings due to the fact
that adjacent fibers may have different backscatter coefficients, so the second fiber
reflects more light than the first fiber, with the same amount of light travelling
through it. If the OTDR is placed at the other end of this same fiber pair, it will
measure an abnormally high loss at that joint. However if the two signals are then
For this reason, it is common OTDR practice to measure and combine the loss from
both ends of a link, so that the loss of cable joints, and end to end loss, can be more
accurately measured.
The readings obtained were recorded and taken to the PC-based software to perform
easy data collection and sophisticated data analysis. The screen shots of the values
Figure 3.300 Nanjing DVP-730 arc fusion splicer machine (courtesy of Astera Nigeria Ltd)
Figure 3.301 Nanjing DVP-105 cleaving machine (courtesy of Astera Nigeria Ltd)
21
Figure 3.302 Nanjing Model KL-6200 OTDR machine (courtesy of Astera Nigeria Ltd)
The bit error rate (BER) is used as a performance index for error rate analysis in
analysed using Q-factor from the eye diagram which is expressed as [16] contained in
[12]
3.400
where is the magnitude of the eye opening shown in figure 3.30. are
fractions of and . The former are defined for Gaussian pulse shape as [16]
contained in [12] by
3.401
1- 0 Noise
Signal with margin
noise
Good
sampling
period
Jitter
The simulation blocks that will be employed in viewing the optical link will be
limited to the transmitter (source and the modulator), splice joint, fiber cable, and the
receiver.
The ideal laser source model in the Simulink block is achieved by selecting the sine
The block models the desired sinosoidal optical carrier obtained from an ideal laser
3.500
where and are the frequency and phase of the optical carrier respectively,A is
operating wavelength of the laser source. The amplitude is set for unity for simplicity.
Due to the discrete nature in which MATLAB stores and processes data; one needs to
sample this waveform and other signals to ensure synchronization at certain intervals,
T, in order to process the data through the system correctly [12]. The sample time
fields of some blocks are required, the Nyquist sampling time is inserted here. This
technique maintains the integrity of the signals. According to the Nyquist theorem,
this sampling interval is at least twice the highest frequency in the system. Thus:
3.501
3.502
24
The optical laser source is now injected with a modulated MZIM (Mach Zehnder
equation [12]
3.503
When multiplied by gives a value between 0 and . This value is used to implement
the required phase shifting of the optical carrier. The laser source and MZIM
dispersion effects using time-domain digital signal processing and filtering technique
that has been proven to be efficient in its computational resources. The split step
model has been implemented in [13] and as contained in [12].This fiber propagation
model considers the effects of fiber attenuation and dispersion compensation on the
3.504
where
3.505
L is the fiber length, the operating wavelength, v the optical frequency and c the
speed of light. From these equations it can be shown that the equivalent model for the
3.506
25
Since equ 3.506 is in the form of a frequency domain transfer function, it is more
the time domain. Determining the output of the fiber (f) given an input
modulated signal (f) (where the ^ symbol refers to the Fast Fourier Transform
3.507
Thus by taking the FFT of the input modulated signal in Simulink then multiplying by
H(f) and finally taking the IFFT (inverse FFT) one can accurately represent fiber
propagation with any additional chromatic dispersion, thus making the model linear.
For the standard single mode fiber (SSMF) fiber model one uses D() SSMF =
for the dispersion compensation fiber (DCF) model, smaller length is assume where,
D() DCF = -85 ps/nm.km, L = 17 km. This value of dispersion for the DCF cancels
optical power after 90km. This results in power attenuation (Simulink gain block) of
0.012 approximately. This value is taken into account in the simulations of the SMF
Simulink model via the Gain block at the top of the model.
26
The other fiber models are identically the same with modifications to the parameter
This model of the receiver attempts to simulate, to within Simulink capabilities, some
of the key principles allowing for the successful receipt of signal. The optical carrier
model (block: Post Tx tap) is also place before fiber propagation to allow for
comparisons between pre and post fiber effects in eye diagram form. Phase offset and
photodiode/ amplifier noise models are incorporated into the receiver component to
photodiode [13].
3.508
where
In most instances, the received optical signal is quite weak and thus electronic
power signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is achieved [12]. This power signal to noise ratio is
calculated as follows
3.509
where Isig denote the photocurrent and as the mean squared noise
contributions from the photodetector. Three sources of optical receiver noise include
shot noise ish, the PD dark current noise idk and the thermal (Johnson noise) ith. The
27
total current generated by the photodiode when optical power falls on it is expressed
by [12]
3.510
where
It has been demonstrated that both the shot noise and dark current noise contributions
from the bulk material of the photodiode follow a Poisson process, and is thus random
3.511
Exact signal recovery is not the major concern of the simulation, hence observed
disparity between the input wave form at the scope of the source and the receiver.
The model for the splice joint was developed using constant block in Simulink. The
value of the constant block represents distance of the optical link. The gain block
which represents the measured splice loss value was used to multiply the constant
block thus allowing the value of the measured splice loss with respect to optical link
distance value to be represented. For instance, if the link distance is 90km; a constant
block with the value 90 was used and at splice loss value of 0.05dB, a gain block with
value 0.05 was also used to develop the splice joint model.
28
2. The diameters of the connecting fibers are identical since the fibers ends
3. The fibers did not expand in any form as no environmental factor affected
the fiber. This is however too pessimistic as fibers both those buried
Simulations
1. Exact signal recovery was not the major concern of the simulation.
has error margin of 0.05%. Positioning accuracy and precision were achieved
during cleaving operation by placing well cleaned fiber ends appropriately at the
cutting edge (position) of the cleaver. The fiber ends were inspected for proper
cleaves and bad ones re-cleaved again. The cleaver was wiped intermittently to
remove fiber ends as this may contaminate new fiber lengths being cleaved.
A Nanjing DVP-730 fusion splicer with splice time of 1800mS was used for the
optical fiber fusion splicing. The output of the completed fusion splicing process was
indicated by the LCD panel of the splicing machine. A threshold value of splice loss
of 0.05dB was implemented. This was adopted to reduce the splice loss contribution
to the links loss. Several values exceeded this value and were discarded. The splicing
process was repeated again using the flow chart shown in figure 3.201 until the
The splicing machine was switched off and the splicing programme initialised. This
was done when the machine was recording exceedingly high splicing loss values. The
end power setting of the arc of the splicing machine was steadly maintained as this
ensured that heated fibers melted and bonded homogeneously. This ensured that
splices with un-optimised splicing paramters (errors) such as fuse current too hot, fuse
time being too long, low and high auto fed were avoided. By inspection the lateral and
angular misaligned fiber spliced joints were separated. The splicing loss values
obtained at the cut sections of the fiber cable are shown in table 4.200.
30
Recall that:
The results of splice loss measurements (figure 4.400) and calculated lateral and
angular misalignment(figure 4.401) values are shown in accordance with [6,10,11].
The total measurement samples was 240 which corresponds to the total number of
splice joints. The splice loss recorded 0.02dB as the highest occuring value indicating
a good splicing workmanship. However splicing should be geared towards achieving
no loss. The maximum and minimum value of 0.05dB and 0.01dB were recorded
respectively. The calculated average for the splice loss inspection was 0.019dB.
80
nm
240 Samples
max = 0.05dB
avg = 0.019dB
min = 0.01dB
60
Frequency (number of occurence)
40
20
0
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Loss (dB)
Figure 4.400 Bar chart of splice loss measurement
33
160
140
120
Frequency (number of occurence)
100
80
60
40
20
0
Angular misalignment Lateral misalignment
misalignment measurement.
From the bar chart in figure 4.401 for the splice loss inspection, it can be seen that
Possible reasons for this are the level of positioning accuracy achieved by the
cleaving machine which is used in cutting the fiber and fusion efficiency of the
splicing machine.
Achieving lower splicing loss may be hard due to time factor and avoidance of
repairs operation in the network to reduce loss of revenue due to service down time.
34
The return (reflectance) loss measurement test was carried out using the optical time
domain reflectometer (OTDR) machine on tube A of the fiber. The colour of the fiber
is blue. This is only the link currently in use as the others are redundant or awaiting
leasing.
It is observed that the splice loss recorded is 0 dB while the measured splice value
was 0.01dB. The discrepancy in the loss is the error introduced by the patchcord. The
slope with high spike indicates splice joint(s) with dirts (contaminations).
The screen shot at point AB shows that the splice loss is 0.085 dB at reference
As with the observed trend, the measured average at point AB is 0.02 dB. The return
loss is 0.149 dB at a reference distance of about 12km. At 40km, the return loss is
0.077dB. The induced error can be attributed to marginal errors introduced by the
OTDR machine, chromatic dispersion losses from the fiber cable, micro and macro
36
bending losses emanating from the fiber. Table 4.500 shows the difference between
S/No Location OTDR reading (dB) Measured splice loss (dB) Difference (%)
1 AA - 0.01 -
4 AD - 0.02 -
Table 4.500 Summary of OTDR readings and measured splice loss readings
Similarly, table 4.501 shows the the summary of the attenuation readings recorded by
S/No Location OTDR attenuation (dB) Quoted attenuation value (dB) Difference (%)
Table 4.501 Summary of Attenuation readings recorded by the OTDR and qouted
S/No Location Links loss (dB) Splice Loss (dB) Contribution (%)
1 AA 1.821 0 -
Table 4.502 Summary of Splice loss contribution to overall optical links loss
37
The optical link power buget is determined by establishing the minimum power to fall
on the photodiode in order to ensure a certain bit error rate (BER). The light coupling
efficiency of the transmitter, the loss of the fiber and the sequntial loss contributions
of each element in the link determine the power received at the detector. Power
where Ptr is the average transmitted power, Prec is the average received power, Ploss is
the system lost power and Msys is the system margin or safety factor. Ptr is also
referred to as minimum transmit power and Prec minimum receive sensitivity [55].
where f L is the attenuation of the fiber in dB/km (given in appendix A), L is the
fiber length , con is the connector losses and splice is the splice losses.
This value will help to determine the transmission power threshold and replacement
The statistical averages obtained in the field measurement were used to model the
magnitude of signals of the splice loss at the splice points in the absence of optical
spectrometer. The mininum, average and maximum values obtained from readings at
38
the different splice points were simulteneously changed in the simulation model.
Signal scopes were attached before and after the splice joints to observe the signal
4.700(a) 4.700(b)
Figure 4.700 Signal scope at 0.01dB before and after spliced joints
Figure 4.601 Signal scope at 0.019dB before and after spliced joints
The magnitude (strength) of the signal at the scope was the major distinguishing
factor for the various splice points. As shown in figures 4.700 (a) and (b) through
4.702 (a) and (b), the signal distortion magnitude increases as the value of splice loss
39
increases. This is because an increased splice loss value will increase the distortion
level of the optical link. When there is traffic in the link, the scopes can be
discriminated and viewed by increasing the signal amplitude in the source lest there
Figure 4.702 Signal scope at 0.05 dB before and after spliced joint.
Figure 4.720 Eye diagram (BER) before filtration (a) without load and (b) with 100%
Traffic
40
Figure 4.721 Eye diagram (BER) after filtration (a) without load and (b) with 100%
traffic
Figure 4.722 Eye diagram (BER) at the receiver (a) without load and (b) with 100%
traffic
From equations 3.400 and 3.401 in section 3.4 the bit error rate of optical signal in the
link were determined. The BER for figures 4.720 and 4.721 respectively are 10-8 and
10-8. The values were obtained after the increment in the amplitude and gain blocks in
41
the Simulink Matlab library. This is also the process through which a proper view of
eye diagram scopes can be seen for better discrimination. The BER for the receiver
can not be readily determined owing to distortions introduced in the link by the fiber
A one way ANOVA statistical analysis test was performed on the splice losses at p-
value of <0.05, firstly on the tube and fiber colours, using SPSS version 17 as shown
in appendix E. The loss values obtained at cut section A A of the transmission link was
arbitrarly chosen as the control group while the values obtained in the other cut
sections were chosen as treatment groups. The results indicated that the differences in
the mean values among the treatment groups are not great enough to exclude the
possibilty that the difference is due to random sampling variability; there is not a
difference among the colours. This is understandable due to the large numbers of the
fiber colours which are forty eight in direct contrast of the numbers of the tube which
are four.
This is to say that the errors obtained in the splicing process at the cut section of the
optical link were marginal and could have reduced significantly the overal splicing
loss contributions to the links total loss if the same approach were adopted in splicing
loss caused by splicing loss as the cable is damaged or cut if optimal replacement
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Conclusion
[26,36,41]. Installed fiber systems have good reliabilty as most fiber failures are due
to complete cable cut. Owing to the emergence of fibers with multi core
can be repaired with minimal downtime rate. Avoidable errors due to improper fiber
splice installation can be reduced in an optical link by proper training and following
parameters, the factors affecting the design of fiber splices are mechanical and
environmental. All forces whether axial or radial, acting on an optical fiber cable or
splice will cause the transmission characteristics to deviate [37]. To prevent this, the
design of the fiber strength and splice tray encaspulation must substantially isolate
the fiber spilce joints so that the forces are not converted into serious deformations
system in a complex system like the optical link. However such environment is not
obtainable in the field of operation, hence network modelling tools in conjuction with
analytical methods are applied to view the performance of such a complicated system
[38,42]. In practice, the mismatch between the two fiber ends having different angular
achieved, the existence of air gaps in the fiber joint result in multiple beam interfernce
that can cause fluctuations in the joint loss of more 1dB [42]. Thus at a sufficient
43
distance the cummulative effects of these individual splice losses can mar the
In this project, the influence of signal loss at optical splice joints of damaged sections
of an optical cable in a link were measured with the loss parameters determined
analytically. The values obtained were used to view propagating signals of the optical
5.2 Suggestions
tools tailored to the analysis of optical communication greatly limited the scope of
this work. Again the data classification protocol at Astera Nigeria Ltd, on the volume
of traffics carried by the link means that the quality of service parameters of the link
can not be determined, analysed and compared with the simulated result. The
challenges faced in this research work were enormous and the following can be
can be recovered at the receiver of the optical link and hence lost signals can
be determined.
effects of the splice loss in a network can also be noted when auxillary
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Publishers, New York, USA.
[2] Kartalopoulos S. V. (2008) Next Generation Intelligent Optical Networks: From
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[3] Koontz Warren L. G. and Mandloi Divya. (2000) Application of Optical System
Simulation Software in a Fiber Optic Telecommunications Program.
Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, New York, USA. Pp. 1-2.
[4] Marcuse D. Loss Analysis of Single-Mode Fiber Splices. American Telephone and
Telegraph Company; The Bell System Technical Journal Vol. 56, May
June 1977, Pp. 703-718.
[5] Calvin M. Miller. Optical Fiber Cables and Splices. IEEE Journal on Selected
Areas in Communication, Vol. SAC-1, No. 3, April 1983, Pp. 533-540.
[6] Lin T. Y. Design Considerations for Multi Fiber Ferrule Manufacturing. Elsevier
Science Direct, Optical Fiber Technology Vol.12 (2006), Pp. 255-261.
[7] Joseph Lizier. (2000) Applications of Holey Fibre: Splicing, Spot-size Conversion
and Coupling, Unpublished Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical -
Information Systems) Degree Thesis, School of Electrical and Information
Engineering, the University of Sydney.
[8] Senior John. (1985) Optical Fiber Communication, Prentice-Hall International
Inc; London, United Kingdom.
[9] Gerd Keiser. (2004) Optical Communications Essentials. The McGraw-Hill
Companies. Downloaded from McGraw-Hill Digital Engineering Library,
Available online at www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com
[10] Koji Ieda, Kazuhide Nakajima, Takashi Matsui, et al. Characteristics of Bending
Loss Optimized Hole Assisted Fiber, Elsevier Science Direct, Optical Fiber
Technology Vol.14 (2008), Pp. 1-9.
[11] Koichi Inada, Basic Components and Fiber Optic Passive Components: Status
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Vol. SAC-4, No 4, July 1986, Pp. 472-479.
[12] Binh L. N. and Laville B. (2005) Simulink Models for Advanced Optical
Communications: Part IV- DQPSK Modulation Format,Technical
45
[25] Moller K.D. (2007) Optics: Learning by Computing with Examples Using
Mathcad , Matlab , Mathematica , and Maple , Springer
Science+Business Media, LLC, New York, 2 nd ed.
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Transmission Systems. I. J. Communications, Network and System
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[27] Claudio F. de Melo Jr., Ceasar A. Lima, Licinius D. S. de Alcantara et al. A
Simulink Toolbox for Simulation and Analysis of Optical Fiber Links. In
sixth International Conference on Education and Training in Optics and
Photonics, edited by J. Javier Sanchez- Mondragon. SPIE, Vol. 3831
(2000), Pp. 240-251.
[28] Nihal Shastry, Uday Madireddy and Nitin Ravi. Simulation of an Fiber Point to
Point Communication Link using Simulink.
[29] Hisashi Tanji. Optical Fiber Cabling Technologies for Flexible Access Network.
Elsevier Science Direct, Optical Fiber Technology Vol.14 (2008), Pp.177-
184.
[30] Pieter Matthijsse and Willem Griffioen. Matching Optical Fiber Lifetime and
Bend Loss Limits for Optimized Local Loop Fiber Storage. Elsevier
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[31] Mohammad Ilyas and Hussein T. Mouftah. (2003) The Handbook of Optical
Communication Networks. CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton; Florida- U. S.
[32] Mike Gilmore. (2008) An Overview OF Singlemode Optical Fibre
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[33] Hirofumi Takai and Osamu Yamauchi. Optical Fiber Cable and Wiring
Techniques for Fiber to the Home (FTTH), Elsevier Science Direct, Optical
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[34] Kyozo Tsujikawa, Katsusuke Tajima and Jian Zhou. Intrinsic Loss of Optical
Fibers. Elsevier Science Direct, Optical Fiber Technology Vol.11, (2005),
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[35] MATLAB Simulink , (1984-2007) The Mathworks Inc., US.
[36] Ghezal H. Ahmed and Ouchar Ali, Design and Conception of Optical Links
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Environment, 5 th WSEAS Conference on Applied Electromagnetics,
47
[50] Guanhai Jin. Advanced Fiber Optic Connectors for Condition Based
Maintenance. Agiltron Inc. Woburn MA. Available online at
www.agiltron.com
[51] The Fiber Optic Association- Tech Topics Guidelines on what Loss to Expect
when Testing Fiber Optic Cables for Insertion Loss. Available online at
www.theFOA.org
[52] Gloge D. Offset and tilt loss in optical fiber spilces, Bell System Technical
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49
APPENDIX A
OPTICAL FIBER CABLE DRUM DATA SHEET [Courtesy of Astera Nigeria Ltd]
50
APPENDIX B
APPENDIX C
APPENDIX D
APPENDIX E
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA) FOR FIBER TUBES
Total .004 47
Total .004 47
Total .004 47
Total .002 47
Total .004 47
Total .004 47
Total .004 47
Total .002 47
54
APPENDIX F
Splice Loss Equations for Single Mode Fibers
The incident electric field E at the input end of the fiber can be expressed in terms of
6.001
v
where the summation symbol indicates symbollically summation over guided modes
Ev is the electric field vectors of the modes (guided and radiation modes) of the fiber
and integration over radiation modes. The symbol v labels the mode (if v = 0 as the
6.002
H0 is the magnetic field vector of the guided mode, ez is a unit vector in the direction
of the fiber axis , and r and are cylindrical coordinates in the plane at right angles to
The power transmission coefficient finally is obtained from equ. (6.002) by the
relation
T = c02 6.003
The electric field vector of the input field consists of one dorminant transverse
6.004
The refractive index n2 equals the cladding index of the fiber, P is the power carried
by the field and is identical to the P parameter in equ. (6.002), w is the width
55
parameter of the gaussian field, is its propagation constant, 0 and 0 are the
We wish to compare the gaussian field to the mode of the step index fiber,then
6.005
The P parameter is identical to those in equations (6.002) and (6.004), W and U are
U2 + W2 = V2 = ( )k22 6.006
The free space propagation constant of plane waves is k = and is the core
radius of the fiber. J0 and J1 the Bassel functions and K0 is the modified Hankel
U=( . 6.007
of w. At V = 2.4, T = 0.9965, this value of V is close to the largest value where the
fiber supports only one mode. The next larger value ot T comes at V = 2.405, the best
It can be shown that the optimum value of w divided by the core radius is only a
formula in equ 6.008. The accepatable range of values are 1.2 V 2.405
6.008
56
For large values of V the emprical approximation w divide by the core radius can be
expressed as
6.009
mode fiber with refractive index distribution n(r) for r < and n(r) = n2 for r > , and
6.010
and obtain
6.011
6.012
6.013
And
6.014
6.015
This expression is also a good approximation of (6.006), if we use
6.016
57
Equations (6.013) and (6.014) are not correct for actual parabolic index fibers whose
refractive index distributions are given by (6.012) (with g = 2) only for r < , but
assume the form n(r) = n2 for r > . Such profiles are referred to as truncated index
distributions.
For the different fiber defects shown in figures 2.501 (a) and 2.501 (b), [4] the
relevant formulae can be obtained by using equations (6.002) and (6.003) with the
field of both fibers represented by gaussian field distributions of the form in (6.004).
For analysis each fiber is represented by the width parameter of the optimum gaussian
field distribution, w1 which belongs to the fiber with radius 1 and w2 belongs to the
For splice loss with lateral misalignment, the power transmission coefficient can be
expressed as
6.017
6.018
At d = 0,
6.019
6.020
58
6.021
6.022
6.023
where TLM is the power transmission coefficient which reperesent the spilce loss for
lateral misalignment, d is the lateral misalignment and W is the gaussian spot size.
For a fiber with tilt (angular misalignment), the power transmission coefficient is
obtained by
6.024
When the tilt angle becomes large enough to make the exponent of the exponential
value.
6.025
For identical fibers, w1 = w2 = W and noting that the terms in bracket dimishes faster
6.026
6.027
6.028
6.029
where TAM is the power transmission coefficient which reperesent the spilce loss for
APPENDIX G
Initialize opticalmojexsimulation.m
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