Contents

Foreword viii
Chapter authors X
Editorial panel xi
Protection symbols used in circuit diagrams xii

1 Digital technology Dr P.J. Moore

Introduction 1
1.1 Logic devices 1
1.2 Microprocessors 5
1.2.1 Historical development 5
1.2.2 Basic operation 6
1.2.3 Memory devices 8
1.2.4 Binary number representation 10
1.2.5 Programming 12
1.3 Analogue to digital conversion 12
1.3.1 Introduction 12
1.3.2 Digital to analogue converters 13
1.3.3 Analogue to digital converters: ramp converters 14
1.3.4 Analogue to digital converters: successive
approximation converters 15
1.3.5 Sample and hold amplifiers 16
1.3.6 Multiplexers 17
1.3.7 Analogue to digital conversion in protection relays 18
1.4 Specialised microprocessors 19
1.5 Reference 20

Digital signal processing Dr P. J. Moore

Introduction 21
2.1 Continuous versus discrete waveforms 21
2.2 Sampling 22
2.3 Digital filtering 24
2.3.1 Time domains and frequency domains 24
2.3.2 Filter descriptions 26
2.3.3 Types of digital filter 31
Power system protection

2.4 Spectral analysis 32

2.4.1 Discrete Fourier transform 32
2.4.2 Fast Fourier transform 34
2.5 Digital filtering in protection relays 36
2.5.1 Design constraints 36
2.5.2 Real-time considerations 38
2.6 Further reading 39

Digital communications and fibre optics C. Ohlg,n and Dr ILK. Aggarwal

Introduction 40
3.1 Digital data transmission 40
3.1.1 Introduction 40
3.1.2 Simplex, half duplex and full duplex transmission 41
3.1.3 Asynchronous and synchronous transmission 42
3.1.4 Error handling 42
3.1.5 Protocols and standards 43
3.1.6 Control system communication media and configurations 44
3.2 Fibre optic communications 46
3.2.1 Introduction 46
3.2.2 Fibre optics basics 47
3.2.3 Communications applications in power systems 53
3.3 Further reading 57

Numeric protection Dr P J. Moore

Introduction 58
4.1 Numeric relay hardware 58
4.1.1 Typical relay hardware structure 58
4.1.2 Relay interfaces 60
4.1.3 Relay operating environment 61
4.2 Numeric relay algorithms 61
4 . 2 . 1 0 v e r c u r r e n t relays 61
4.2.2 Distance relays 62
4.2.3 Directional comparison relays 70
4.2.4 Differential relays 74
4.3 Fault location 79
4.3.1 Introduction 79
4.3.2 Fault location using apparent reactance 79
4.3.3 Compensation for remote end infeed 81
4.3.4 Accurate compensation for shunt capacitance 82
4.3.5 Hardware for fault locators - fault recorders 82
4.3.6 Phasor extraction 83
4.4 Software considerations 83
4.5 Numeric relay testing 86
4.5.1 Introduction 86
4.5.2 Relay test hardware 86
4.5.3 Digital power system fault simulation 87
4.6 References 88
4.7 Further reading 89
4.8 Appendix: Typical numeric relay specifications 9O
4.8.1 Electrical environment 9O
4.8.2 Insulation 9O
4.8.3 Electromagnetic compatibility 9O
 Contents

Coordinated control C. 9h/~

Introduction 92
5.1 Conventional control systems 93
5.1.1 Functions and design 93
5.1.2 Disadvantages of using traditional technology 94
5.2 Concepts of modern coordinated control systems 98
5.2.1 System architecture (distributed processing) 98
5.2.2 Numeric technology 101
5.3 System functionality 102
5.3.1 Bay level 102
5.3.2 Substation level 102
5.4 Man-machine interfaces (MMIs) 103
5.4.1 Bay level 103
5.4.2 Substation level 103
5.4.3 Off-line applications 107
5.5 Advantages of coordinated control systems 109

Glossary 111
Index 121