Mike Damzen, Experiments in Optics 27 September 2012

Experiments in Optics
Introduction
Welcome to Experiments in Optics. For the next 2 weeks, you will do a variety of
experiments that illustrate the ray and wave nature of light. Recent years have seen a
revolution in optical technology (e.g. lasers in CD- and DVD-players, telecommunications
and medicine), and optics also remains one of the main diagnostic measurement
techniques in a wide range of industrial and research fields. However, the aims of this part
of the lab go beyond learning some optics - in particular, we want you to appreciate that
measurements are never exact and therefore that experiment and "theory" will never agree
precisely. The best we can hope for is that experiment and theory are consistent, bearing in
mind the errors of the experiment and the approximations of the theory.
Everyone knows that measurements have errors but it is easy to forget that theories have
their "error" - i.e. approximations - and this is illustrated in the present topic. In optics, we
consider light to be described by rays or waves or photons, and sometimes by all three in
the same experiment!

Physical Model of Light Name given to model

Rays Geometrical Optics

Waves Physical Optics

Photons Quantum Optics

One important thing to learn in any branch of science is what level of approximation is
required to solve a particular problem. For example, quantum optics is meant to provide a
complete description of light but if you tried to use it to design a simple lens you would
(probably) never get an answer. It turns out that an extremely high quality lens can be
designed using the concept of rays (geometrical optics) and some knowledge of the wave
model (physical optics). On the other hand, the basic principle of operation of a laser
requires the quantum model - no amount of clever playing with rays or waves can fully
explain the light emission in a laser. In Experiments in Optics, we shall do experiments that
use the models of light that are called Geometrical (Ray) Optics and Physical (Wave)
Optics. Ray and wave pictures of light are fairly straightforward, and sufficiently
comprehensive, to account for most optical phenomena and devices
In Experiments in Optics you will work with a partner. There are 4 sessions (2 per week)
and the following table summarises the schedule of experiments:

Lab Experiment
Session

1 Single Slit Diffraction

2 Two-slit Interference and Gratings

3 Lenses

4 Polarisation

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Working Practices
Safety
Laser Safety: During the course of this series of experiments, you will use a compact diode
laser of wavelength 670nm (red). The power of this laser is approximately 1 mW. Lasers
produce a highly collimated (parallel) beam of light: the eye could focus this to a very small
spot as small as 10 mm in diameter, giving a power density of 1 kW per square cm (but of
course only over a tiny area). Retinal damage may occur before the "blink reflex" closes the
eye. Therefore,
NEVER LOOK DIRECTLY INTO THE LASER
NEVER POINT THE LASER AT ANY OTHER PERSON
DO NOT USE MIRRORS TO REFLECT LASER BEAMS AROUND THE LAB
Electrical Safety: In this experiment you will also use various items of mains-powered
electrical equipment: this should not be tampered with in any way. If you are in any doubt
regarding the safety of any piece of equipment or any experimental procedure, you should
consult a demonstrator before proceeding.
Trip Hazards: You are often working in darkened conditions, so it is especially important
that bags and coats are stowed thoughtfully and passageways around benches are kept
clear.

Your Laboratory Notebook

Start by writing the day and time, and title of the experiment. As you do each part of the lab,
it is essential to keep a clear written record in your lab notebook. However, do not spend a
long time engrossed in your lab book - never more than 10 minutes at a time - remember
this is a practical laboratory, not an exercise in writing. Every 10 or 15 minutes, record what
you have done in your book. Write clearly, draw lots of clearly labelled sketches, write down
any conclusions you have drawn or decisions you have made. It is vital that you describe or
draw what you actually see. If a trace on a screen has lots of bumps, wiggles and spots
then draw them. Don't draw what you think you might get from a perfect experiment: you
might be throwing away important details.
Working Practice
We expect you to work hard in the laboratory. Concentrate on the experiments and work
methodically. If you get stuck, first talk the problem through with your partner; if you cannot
resolve the issue after 5 minutes, ask a demonstrator.
Keep Optical Components Clean!
Do not touch the surface of an optical component with your bare hands. If lenses, gratings,
polarisers etc get covered with fingerprints and dirt, they will scatter light and, when
quantitative measurements are being made, may produce quite spurious effects.

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INTERFERENCE and DIFFRACTION

When two or more waves are superimposed, the resultant amplitude (and hence intensity)
depends on the amplitudes and phases of the component waves. This process is known
either as interference or diffraction, depending upon the geometry of the particular
experiment. When there are a finite number of waves (e.g. light from two very narrow slits
or two distinct optical paths) we talk of interference but if there is a continuum of waves (e.g.
from light passing through a single slit of non-negligible width) then we talk of diffraction.
The aim of this set of experiments is to observe the interference and diffraction patterns
obtained when a laser illuminates various apertures and to compare them with those
predicted according to the wave theory of light. Analysis of diffraction close to the diffracting
aperture, known as near-field diffraction, can become quite mathematically complex. A
much simpler case is the so-called far-field diffraction regime in which the plane of
observation is very far from the aperture (ideally at infinity) as seen in Figure 1a. Due to
the physical size of optical bench this is not always practical and an equivalent effect is
achieved by making all observations at the focal plane of a lens as seen in Figure 1b.
From Figure 1b it is noted that rays diffracted at angle q are observed on the viewing screen
at a distance x from the lens axis where = x/f (for small angles).
diffracted rays at angle parallel rays meet at a
a) b)
meet at infinity point in focal plane
input x x
light
~

f
L very distant Lens, f observing
diffracting object observing screen
screen =x/f (small angles)

Figure 1: Input light beam (e.g. from laser) is diffracted into rays at new angles. The far-field
diffraction pattern can be observed a) on a very distant screen (ideally at infinity) or b) in the focal
plane of a lens.

Experiment 1: Diffraction by a Single Slit & by a Strand of Hair

There are basically two parts to this 3 hour session. First, you will investigate the diffraction
pattern of a single slit. Secondly you will examine the diffraction pattern of a strand of hair
and based on single slit diffraction and Babinets principle determine its diameter.
List of Equipment
 1.5 m triangular profile optical bench, with 5 saddles
 Diode laser, post-mounted, with stabilised 5 V power supply
 bi-convex lens f =500 mm, bi-convex lens f=1000 mm
 holder for slides
 set of slides (diffracting slits and gratings)
 holder for observing screen, post-mounted, with white card
 precision translation stage with photodiode (+power supply and portable voltmeter)
 metre rule
Single Slit Diffraction Theory: The theoretical derivation of the intensity of light in the far-
field diffraction pattern of a single slit is found by summing the amplitudes of light from
each elementary point on the slit. This procedure follows from Huygens' Principle and the
amplitude in this case is the electric field of light and has both magnitude and phase. The
intensity pattern is found by squaring the amplitude pattern. For a slit of width a, the

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intensity I(x) of the diffraction pattern as a function of distance x in the observation plane is
given, for small angles = x/f, by

sin ( ax )
2

I( x ) = I 0 axf (1)
( f )
where I0 is the intensity at the centre, is the
wavelength and f is the focal length of the 1.0

focussing lens. Note that the quantities a, x, and

0.8
f in Eq. (1) all have dimensions of length and
should all be expressed in the same units, e.g.

Intensity
0.6
mm. Figure 2 shows the single slit diffraction
pattern. 0.4

Figure 2: The single slit diffraction pattern of Eq.(1),

0.2
with the scaling constant I0=1. The horizontal axis is in
( )
units of the quantity axf . 0.0
-10 -5 0 5 10

Distance
From equation (1), the zeros of intensity occur at x-coordinates xm given by
ax m
= m m= 1, 2, 3,...
f
f
which can be re-arranged as xm = m m = 1, 2, 3 .... (2)
a
EXPERIMENT 1a: SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION.
Figure 3 shows the basic set-up for the experiments on interference and diffraction. In these
experiments, the light source is a red diode laser emitting at a mean wavelength of = 670
1 nm. This laser is powered by a special stable 5 volt power supply. [This is the type of
laser device used in bar-code readers at Supermarket check-out counters and within DVD
players. The basic diode laser inside the housing is an ultra-compact device and it is easy
to forget that it may cause permanent damage if pointed at the eye. Therefore - NEVER
LOOK DIRECTLY INTO THE LASER - NEVER POINT THE LASER AT ANY OTHER
PERSON.]
lens, Photodiode/slit on
focal length f translation stage

LASER

f
diffracting object voltmeter
Figure 3: Basic arrangement for measurement of the intensity of interference and diffraction
patterns. The object is placed close to the laser output. Use the f = 0.5 m lens for
measurements on the photodiode assembly. Use the f=1m lens for visual observations on a
white screen.
For this experiment, use the slide marked "Single Slit". The exact width of this slit is not
known but it is about 60 m. To measure the intensity a photodiode is used together with a
narrow slit (=100 m) in front of it. The photodiode output is a voltage that is linearly
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proportional to the light intensity. The slit/photodiode are provided as a single unit that
attaches to a precision translation slide (the slit/photodiode can be rotated by loosening the
screw on the mounting bracket of the translation slide). The translation slide has a total
range of 25 mm. Make sure that the photodiode slit is vertical (loosen the screw and rotate
the slit/photodiode if necessary). Use the bi-convex lens with f=500mm and ensure the
distance between the centre of the lens and the photodiode slit is accurately located at the
focal length of the lens to observe the far-field diffraction pattern. Looking by eye, check
that the centre of the diffraction pattern is approximately coincident with the photodiode slit
when the translation stage is set at its mid-point (about 12.5 mm) (make minor adjustments
by tilting the laser and re-centring the single slit in its holder, if necessary). You should
then measure the intensity over the full range of the micrometer movement.
 First, find the approximate centre of the diffraction pattern (the largest intensity) and
choose the scale on the voltmeter (either 2 V FSD or 200 mV FSD).
 Second, get a feel for how often you will have to sample the diffraction pattern to get a
good representation of it: every 1 mm, every 0.5 mm, every 0.25mm...? A little
preliminary work here will save you a lot of effort later. [Make sure you know how to
read the micrometer: ask a demonstrator if you have any doubt].
 Finally, make your set of measurements. You will have probably already noticed that
background illumination affects your measurements so try to ensure that this remains
constant and/or is very much reduced during the complete run. You may notice that the
meter reading fluctuates more-or-less randomly. This is called "noise": what are the
causes of this noise? How might you reduce the effects of noise physically or
mathematically in your results?
Plot your measured intensity profile (by hand, on graph paper) as a function of x for x = 0 to
25 mm. Find the position of the first zeroes (m = 1) and hence estimate the slit width.

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Experiment 1b: DETERMINING THE DIAMETER OF A HAIR

Babinet's Principle. Suppose that the amplitude (electric field) of the light wave at a certain
point x in a diffraction pattern of a certain object is A1(x). Now, replace the object by its
complementary form: the complementary form can be pictured as the (photographic)
"negative", i.e., the complementary object is transmitting where the origina1 is opaque, and
is opaque where the original is transmitting. For example, the complementary object
corresponding to a slit is a thin opaque strip or wire. (i.e. a slit has transmission function
T1(x)=1 for |x|<a/2 and T1=0 otherwise, the complementary wire has T2(x)=0 for |x|<a/2
and T2=1 otherwise). Let the complementary screen produce an amplitude A2(x) at point x
in the diffraction pattern. Babinet's principle states that
A1(x) + A2(x) = A(x) (3)
where A(x) is the amplitude of the wave at point x in the diffraction pattern when there is no
diffraction screen present at all. This theorem results from the reasoning that no screen at
all (T=1 everywhere) = sum of screen (T1(x))+ complement of screen(T2(x)) and hence the
sum of the two complementary screens diffraction patterns = the diffraction pattern with no
screen. Hence, according to Babinet, in regions where A(x) = 0, A1(x) = -A2(x). Since
intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude (i.e. I(x)=|A(x)|2), the intensity
diffraction pattern of the object is (surprisingly!?) the same as the complementary object in
these regions.
In the case of the set-up shown in Fig.3, observe the distribution of light at the observing
screen when there is no diffracting object (i.e. I(x)=|A(x)|2) with the 1m focal length lens in
place and record this in your labbook. Now tape a hair over one of the blank slides
provided and observe its diffraction pattern. Use Eqs.(1-3) to explain the form of the pattern
you see and also to find the diameter of the hair. Quote an error value on the diameter. Try
using a micrometer to measure the diameter of the hair and compare the answer with your
diffraction-based estimates. Have you made any assumptions to produce your estimate of
the diameter of the hair using the diffraction method? If so, make sure these are stated
clearly in your lab book.

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Experiment 2: YOUNGS DOUBLE SLIT INTERFERENCE &

DIFFRACTION GRATINGS
In this 3-hour laboratory session, you will explore more complex features of interference
and diffraction. In the first part you will investigate a two-slit diffraction pattern. In the later
part you will explore how gratings, made from multiple slits, diffract light.
Use the double slit slide, labelled "Slit 2" as the object and place it immediately after the
laser output as in Figure 3. The two slits are each supposedly of the same width (nominally
that of the single slit in Expt.l), separated by roughly 4 times the width. Observe the pattern
on the screen using the 1.0m focal length lens and observing on the screen placed 1m from
the lens. Draw a labelled sketch (with a scale marked) of this diffraction pattern. Using the
scale on a ruler, or otherwise, make a crude estimate of the spacing between successive
minima of intensity.
P

r1
S1 x
r2
d
I
S2 dsin
L
Figure 4: Geometry for Youngs double slit interference phenomenon: for large L, the
path difference to point P is approximately d sin , where d is the slit separation.
(ii) Figure 4 shows the geometry used to derive the form of the interference pattern
produced by two infinitely narrow (i.e. idealised) slits. If the slits are infinitely narrow, then
the difference between the paths S2P and S1P is (for a distant screen) given by
= r2 - r1 d sin
Since the total light pattern at point P is found by summing the contributions from the two
slits (with due account of the phases) the positions of the bright and dark-fringes are given
by constructive or destructive interference conditions:
MAXIMA: sin = m
1
MINIMA: d sin = m +
2
where m= 0, 1, 2, 3,....
In the experiment, we observe in the focal plane of the focussing lens f, and for small
angles, sin = x/f , so we can write the position of the bright and dark fringes as:
f
MAXIMA: x m = m (4a)
d
1 f
MINIMA: x m = m + (4b)
2 d

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where m= 0, 1, 2, 3,....
The spacing between fringes (between successive maxima or successive minima) is
therefore f/d.
For slits of negligible width, the form of the intensity distribution of the interference pattern
is, for small angles:
dx
I( x ) = 4I 0 cos 2 (5)
f
where I0 is the intensity due to a single source and is assumed to be uniform across the
screen.
 Does equation (5) give a good description of the pattern you observed in part (i)?
Describe any differences in your lab book.
In fact, when the slits have a finite width a, the intensity is equal to the product of the
distribution of the single-slit equation (1) with equation (5) and may be written as:

sin (axf )
2
dx
I( x ) = 4I0 ax cos2 (6)
( f ) f
where a is the slit width and d is the separation of the slits. The pattern is sketched in Figure
5 for the case where d = 4a.

(iii) In this section you are asked to

verify equation (4b) for the positions
of the minima. You should use the
slit/photodiode assembly to locate
the minima of intensity. Use the
arrangement of Figure 3 with the
double slit as the diffracting object
and the f = 0.5 m focussing lens.
Make sure that the distance from the
lens to the measuring slit on the
photodiode stage is as close as
possible to 500 mm, to within a
tolerance of 2mm. Start near the Figure 5: Youngs double slit fringes for the case where
centre of the pattern and work your the separation of the slits equals 4 times their widths
way out, searching for each (assumed to be equal).
minimum: note the micrometer
reading x for as many orders as you can (at least 5). You will therefore end up with a table
with the following headings:

Order m Value of xm

Use the computer program Origin to draw a graph of the values of xm against order m. The
graph should be a straight line whose slope is the separation between orders and according
to the theory it should equal f/d. Compute the slope and standard error of the slope of the
least squares best-fit straight line through the experimental data.
Using = 670 1nm, d =230 20m and f = 500 1 mm, calculate the theoretical value of
the gradient and its standard error. Compare the experimentally determined and calculated
values and their standard errors. Have you verified the theory to within the limits of random
experimental error?
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Experiment 2(b): N-slit diffraction and diffraction gratings

You are provided with slides marked multiple slits 3, multiple slits 4, etc up to 6 slits.
Take the 3-slit slide and observe the diffraction pattern formed by it carefully. You will
probably find it a lot easier to see the pattern if you use the eyepiece provided to magnify
the patterns as shown in Fig. 6. Make a clear record in your lab book. Do the same for the
slide marked 4-slits.
bi-convex lens observing
f=1000mm eyepiece screen

LASER

f
diffracting object
Figure 6: Arrangement for observation of magnified interference and diffraction patterns
using an eyepiece: observations are made on the screen.

Figure 7 shows the interference patterns for 2, 3 and 4 infinitely narrow slits, all on the same
scale. Is this what you see (be honest!)?

18

16

14
N=4
12
Intensity (I /I0 )

10 N=3
8

4
N=2
2

0
-4 -2 0 2 4
Distance

Figure 7: The intensity interference patterns for 2, 3 and 4 infinitely narrow slits of equal
separation.
Now quickly look at the interference patterns for 5-slits and then 6-slits. Can you guess
what the pattern will look like as the number of slits N ?
A diffraction grating consists of a very large number of slits. You are provided with three
coarse gratings, labelled 1, 2 and 3. Observe the diffraction pattern from each one
carefully. You might find it useful to compare the patterns with that from the two slit object.
For each grating find
1. The width a of each slit (they are nominally all the same).
2. The centre-to-centre separation d of adjacent slits.

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Experiment 3. IMAGING WITH LENSES

The vast majority of instruments that incorporate some optics have simple items such as
lenses and mirrors. The function of these elements is usually to provide even, or controlled,
illumination of an area (the reflector behind a torch bulb must be one of the "simplest"
examples of this) or to relay an image of an object to a specified plane or surface (e.g. a
camera lens). In this series of experiments, you will study the imaging properties of lenses
using the concepts of geometrical optics. First we start by imaging with a single lens and
test the lens formulae that predict perfect images, free of any kind of defect or aberration.
Finally we will examine the quality of images using a resolution test chart.
Simple Theory of Thin Lens Imaging. Figure 8 is a ray diagram illustrating the imaging
action of a lens. The object distance s, the image distance s are all measured from the
centre of a thin converging lens. (A similar diagram can be made for a diverging lens but we
will not be using one in this experiment so will not consider it here). The diagram is an
oversimplification and we will later consider some of the features of real lenses, including

F I
O F

s s
f

the quality of the image formation.

Figure 8: A lens forms an image (I) of an object (O) where s is the object distance and s
is the image distance.
For small angles, the "thin lens formula" can be derived from this diagram:
1 1 1
+ = , (7)
s s f
with the following sign convention:
 Light travels from left to right: s is positive (real) on the left, negative (virtual) on the right:
s is positive on the right, negative on the left: f is positive for a converging lens, negative
for a diverging lens. (You should be aware that there are other sign conventions).
The linear magnification m is defined, in this sign convention, as
s
m= ,
s
(8)
where the negative sign simply indicates that when a real image is formed it is inverted.
List of Equipment
 Lathe-type optical bench with 4 standard saddles and 1 adjustable saddle
 Incandescent light source, post-mounted, with power supply. Maximum voltage is 5 V!
 Plano-convex lens, nominal focal length 100 mm
 Plano-convex lens, nominal focal length 160 mm

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 Achromatic doublet lens, nominal focal length 160 mm

 Ground glass viewing screen, 40 mm diameter
 Set of object slides including a resolution test chart slide and green filter slide
 CCD camera
 Plane mirror, 40 mm diameter
Experiment 3a: Testing the lens Formula
The lens formula, Eq.(7), can be tested and used to find the focal length, by plotting the
reciprocal of the image distance, 1/s, against the reciprocal of the object distance, 1/s. The
intercept of this graph on the 1/s axis is the reciprocal of the focal length (1/f).

f image, observed on
object ground-glass screen

Light
source

s s

Figure 8: Experimental system for imaging with a positive lens.

Figure 8 shows a simple set-up for imaging with a positive focal length lens. Switch on the
light source the voltage on the supply should be at voltage 5V (max.) - and use the slide
with a pin-hole as an object placed in the slot-holder in front of the light source. Use the
plano-convex lens of nominal focal length 100mm. Observe the image of the object slide
on the ground-glass screen by looking at the back of the screen and adjusting its position
for sharpest image. It may be difficult to see the image until you are close to the image
plane and you may need to centre the image on the screen by adjusting the height of the
lens.
Use your ruler to measure the s and s values over as wide a range as the length of the
bench allows. Start with the smallest possible separation (s+s) between the object and
image planes (how is this distance related to f?) and then use 5 or 6 more object-to-image
distances, using the whole length of the optical bench. For each object-to-image distance,
there will be two positions of the lens that yield a sharp image, so your graph will consist of
10-12 points.
Now use computer program Origin to plot a graph of 1/s versus 1/s and also to determine
the focal length and its standard error. Instructions on how to use this program are given in
Appendix l. Print out a plot of the graph and paste it in your lab-book.

Experiment 3b: Image Quality and Resolution of Lenses

Previously, we considered imaging with thin lenses and within a small-angle geometrical
optics (ray) approximation. For real lenses a fuller treatment needs to consider also the
physical optics (wave) picture. There are two key reasons for loss of quality by imaging
with a real lens: i) the finite diameter D of the lens and ii) lens aberrations due to details of a
real (thick) lens. Consider light from a point object (e.g. point object A in Figure 9) that
expands as a spherical wave (only the centre ray is illustrated in Figure 9). Only the part of
this wave, that is within the lens diameter, is imaged. The lens, therefore, acts as a limiting
(circular) aperture that will diffract light as well as imaging it. The result is that the point
object A is not imaged to a point but to an image spread function A. For a lens with no
aberrations the characteristic angular size of this image is:
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Mike Damzen, Experiments in Optics 27 September 2012

= 1.22 D (9)
for light of wavelength . (The 1.22 is a geometrical factor due to the circular shape of the
diffracting object). As a consequence, if two point objects (e.g. A and B) subtend an angle
of a< the two images will be merged and will not be resolved as two separate objects.
They are said to be unresolved. (Resolution is commonly defined as the Rayleigh criterion
and you may find it helpful to read about this in a physics textbook). The objects may be
said to be just resolved when =. The minimum resolvable object size (x) can be found by
using the (small-angle) relationship = x/L. Equation 9 is the diffraction-limited resolution
of a lens, but lens aberrations further degrade and spread out the image, and hence lead to
poorer resolution. A full discussion of lens aberration is outside the scope of this experiment
but some details of types of aberrations are made at the end of the experimental section.
A B

A
B L L

Fig.9 Resolution limit of a lens due to its finite diameter D (and aberrations)

The purpose of this experiment is to give you some idea of the imaging quality and
resolving power of lenses. In this experiment, we measure imaging quality using a
resolution test based on the three bar chart. This expresses resolution in line pairs per
millimetre. For a line in a three-bar element to be just resolved gives the relationship:
smallest resolvable detail (in mm) = (0.5).(line pairs per mm)-1.
One of the slides provided is the three-bar chart. Examine it visually. It consists of 8
groups numbered 0 - 7, with 6 elements per group. An element consists of two target
patterns of three lines at 90 degrees to each other, the line-to-space ratio being
equal. A line pair is (1 black line + 1 white line). Only the largest groups are visible
on the illustration shown here (limitation of the printer). Groups 0,2,4 and 6 have
element 1 separated from the other elements, in the lower right hand corner. The
number of line pairs per mm equals 1.00 for the largest element in group 0 and
increases by 1.12 per element. The table gives the line pairs per mm for all
elements in groups 1 to 7 in the chart. Look at the chart and try to identify the
positions of the largest groups.

Element Number Group Group Group Group Group Group Group 6 Group 7
0 1 2 3 4 5

1 1.00 2.00 4.00 8.00 16.0 32.0 64.0 128.

2 1.12 2.24 4.49 8.98 17.95 36.0 71.8 144.

3 1.26 2.52 5.04 10.1 20.16 40.3 80.6 161.

4 1.41 2.83 5.68 11.3 22.62 45.3 90.5 181.

5 1.59 3.17 6.35 12.7 25.39 50.8 102. 203.

6 1.78 3.56 7.13 14.3 28.51 57.0 114. 228.

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The following two experiments illustrate the use of this resolution chart for assessing the
quality of imaging systems.
(i) Resolution of the eye.
Put the resolution chart slide into the slide holder on the light source and sit in front of the
source with the slide at approximately 250mm, the near distance of the eye. Decide which
is the finest group you can resolve (i.e. just see the bars on the target). You might wish to
do two measurements, one for the vertical bars and a second for the horizontal bars. Your
partner should also do this experiment. Take 3 or 4 independent readings each and find the
average resolution, expressed in line pairs per millimetre.
(If you wear glasses or contact lenses, you might want to try doing the experiment with and
without these).
Is your result consistent with equation 9? (Take eyes pupil diameter D=2mm and
wavelength =550nm).
(ii) Resolution of simple lenses.
Using the three-bar resolution chart as an object, form an image of the chart directly onto
the CCD1 camera with the doublet lens provided (f = 160mm), making sure its flatter surface
is towards the object. The CCD camera should be mounted on the adjustable saddle so that
it can be moved easily in both the vertical and horizontal directions. The magnification
required is about 4 (or more), giving an image of the central groups (2 and higher) that fills
the TV screen. [You will need to use eqns 7 and 8]. It can be quite tricky to align and focus
the system: in particular, make sure that the doublet is not twisted and that it is exactly
perpendicular to the optical axis. It is also important to make sure there is no stray light from
desk lamps, etc. When everything is aligned properly, you should be able to see targets in
Group 6. Make careful observations of the appearance of the image, both its resolution and
contrast, for the following lenses, keeping the overall object-to-image distance
approximately constant and making sure the lens is perpendicular to the optical axis, i.e. it
is imaging the object on axis.
(a) Doublet, f 160mm, flatter side towards object.
(b) Doublet, f 160mm, more curved side towards object.
(c) Plano-convex singlet, f 160mm, flat side towards object.
(d) Plano-convex singlet, f 160mm, curved side towards object.
Rank the four cases in order of image quality.

An aside about lens aberrations - You will have noted that all lenses have the same
diameter so that the difference in each lens imaging quality must be due to additional
aberrations, over and above the finite diameter of the lens. Full discuss of lens aberration is
beyond the scope of this script, however it is noted that two key types of aberration,
spherical and chromatic, will be important in these cases. The lens formula of eqn 7
assumes thin lenses and small angles. Spherical aberration arises from errors due to
rays far from axis (and hence larger angles) not imaging to the same point as rays close to
the axis (small angle, or paraxial, rays). Since refraction occurs at both lens surfaces, the
strength of this aberration is more severe when a plano-convex lens is placed one way
around compared to the other.

1
CCD stands for Charge Coupled Device and refers to the readout mechanism in the detector chip. The CCD camera has a total image
area of 6.4 by 4.4mm (H x V), within which there are 542 by 582 pixels (i.e. the pixels on the chip are approximately 12.2 by 7.6 m).
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Image point is spread

Larger spread

Chromatic aberration arises from the wavelength dependence of the refractive index
(e.g. this produces the rainbow-like dispersion by a prism). Since the focal length of the
lens depends on the refractive index it is clear that different wavelengths will image at
slightly different positions and this can be quite severe for a white light source. For
example, if n(blue)>n(red) then f(blue)<f(red)

Red White-light image is spread

Blue

The doublet lens is made of two glass materials with refractive index properties that partially
compensate for this aberration.

Red
Blue

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Mike Damzen, Experiments in Optics 27 September 2012

Experiment 4. POLARISATION OF LIGHT

The purpose of this session is to give you an introduction to the concept of the polarisation
of light.
Light from a normal incandescent or fluorescent lamp is usually "unpolarised" whereas laser
light is usually linearly polarised - to understand what these terms mean, we have to
consider in some detail the nature of light waves. Light is a transverse electro-magnetic
vector wave. For light travelling in the +z direction (say) there is a time- and space-varying
electric field E(x,t) = E 0 cos(t kz) and magnetic field B(x,t) = B0 cos(t kz) , where E and B
are vector quantities, transverse to the propagation direction (i.e. they lie in the x-y plane).
In free space, there is a simple relation between E and B, so that specifying one of them -
usually we choose E - is still a complete description of the field.
We can think of E as a two-dimensional vector, with components- Ex(z, t) and Ey(z, t) along
mutually perpendicular x and y directions at each point in space (z) and time t. These
components oscillate sinusoidally in space and time, with amplitudes E0,x and E0,y and, in
the general case with a phase difference d. Different states of polarisation are the result
of different values of E0,x, E0,y and particularly d, the phase difference. A simple
mathematical representation of the field (at z=0, say) is:
E0, x
E = cos(t ) (10)
E
0, y
Since the field components oscillate sinusoidally, the resultant field is simply the sum of two
simple harmonic motions of the same frequency applied in perpendicular directions.
Consider the case when Ex and Ey oscillate in phase (d=0) and we get linearly polarised
light. Figure 10 shows the case of light linearly polarised (a) along the x-axis, and (b) when
it is polarised at angle q to the x-axis. Figure 10 also shows the case in which E0,x = E0,y
and (c) d = 45 deg (elliptically-polarised light), and (d) d = 90 deg (circularly-polarised light).
[In the last case, the circle can be seen to be circumscribed by summing the perpendicular
components Ex=E0cos(wt) and Ey=E0cos(wt-900)=E0sin(wt)].

a b c d

1
E = E0 cos(t ) cos( ) E0 cos(t ) E0 cos(t )
E = E0 cos(t ) E= E=
2 sin(t )
0 2 cos(t / 4)
sin( )

Figure 10. Representation of polarised light states. (a) linearly-polarised along x-axis, (b)
linearly-polarised angle q to x-axis (c) elliptical polarisation, d = 450, (d) circular polarisation, d
= 900.
In natural light (e.g. light from a blackbody), the amplitudes E0,x and E0,y and the phase
difference d all vary randomly in time and therefore no fixed state of polarisation is
observed: we say it is "unpolarised". Laser light is produced in a cavity whose geometry
usually forces a single polarisation state, typically linear polarisation. Light that is initially
unpolarised can be made linearly polarised by a variety of means. In the laboratory
experiment, we use sheet "Polaroid" in which long-chain molecules are aligned in such a
way as to transmit only the component of the electric field along one direction. We refer to
this device as a polariser.

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Law of Malus. If linearly polarised light of unit amplitude (and hence unit intensity) is
incident on a polariser whose transmission axis is the same as that of the incident light,
then the amplitude and intensity of the transmitted wave is also unity. In practice, there are
bound to be losses from true absorption or from surface reflections and the transmitted
intensity will be less than unity. A polariser used to study already polarised light is usually
called an analyser (obviously, the same device can be viewed as a polariser or analyser
depending on its use). On the other hand, if the linearly polarised light has its electric field
component perpendicular to the transmission axis of the analyser, then in principle the
amplitude and intensity of the transmitted light is zero. Again, in practice, it will have some
small, non-zero value because of imperfections in the analyser.
If the angle between the direction of the electric field of the linearly polarised light and the
transmission axis of the analyser is , then the transmitted amplitude (for a unit amplitude
incident wave) is cos (consider for example the input field has polarisation as shown in
Figure 10b and that the analyser polariser is aligned to x-axis). The transmitted intensity is
cos2 (since intensity is proportional to square of electric field). This is usually written in the
form,
I=I0 cos2 (20)
where I0 is the incident intensity of the linearly polarised incident beam. Eq. (20) is known as
the Law of Malus.
List of Equipment
 Lathe-type optical bench and fittings used for lenses section
 Red LED light source, with power supply
 1 linear polariser ("Polaroid') 40 x 40 mm
 1 analyser (i.e. another linear polariser) in rotation post mount
 Photodiode (as used in diffraction experiments with slit removed) on translation stage
and power supply.
Experiment 7. Verification of Malus' Law

Figure 11: Set up for verification of Malus' Law.

Check that the power supply to the photodiode is switched on before taking any
measurements. [This is essential as the photodiode will give a reading even without power
supply on but it will not be linear with intensity]. Before placing the polariser and analyser in
position, use the f = +160mm focal length singlet lens to focus the central bright spot of the
red LED light source onto the photodiode at a magnification of approximately -0.25 (i.e. use
eqn 7 and 8). Place the 40 x 40mm linear polariser and the analyser in its rotation mount
immediately in front of the detector, as shown in Figure 11. Be careful with the alignment:
make sure that the light from the LED is passing centrally through both the polariser and
analyser.
If you rotate the analyser, you will find that the signal on the photodiode varies, and in
principle should be varying as cos2. In order to reduce any background illumination you
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can make sensible use of black card and switch off your "reading" light if this is practical
(but do not keep switching it on and off as this is going to affect your neighbours' results).
Once you have minimised the background illumination, record the intensity I as a function of
the angle n marked on the rotation mount, for increments of n of say 10deg between 0 and
360deg. The angle = + , where is an unknown offset which depends on angle of the
transmission axis of the linear polariser (this depends on how you mounted the polariser).
Plot a graph of I versus . Your graph should be cos2 in form (but not necessarily equal to a
maximum at = 0 deg) on top of a background level. Determine the offset angle and the
mean background level Iback.
Plot a second graph of I Iback versus cos2 ( -) using the computer and determine the
least squares straight line fit. Have you verified Malus law?

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