Chemicals in food processing

INTRO
Food processing is the set of methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients
into food or to transform food into other forms for consumption by humans or animals
either in the home or by the food processing industry. Food processing typically takes
clean, harvested crops or butchered animal products and uses these to produce
attractive, marketable and often long shelf-life food products. Similar processes are used
to produce animal feed.

Extreme examples of food processing include the delicate preparation of deadly fugu fish
or preparing space food for consumption under zero gravity.

Food processing dates back to the prehistoric ages when crude processing incorporated
slaughtering, fermenting, sun drying, preserving with salt, and various types of cooking
(such as roasting, smoking, steaming, and oven baking). Salt-preservation was especially
common for foods that constituted warrior and sailors' diets, up until the introduction of
canning methods. Evidence for the existence of these methods exists in the writings of the
ancient Greek , Chaldean, Egyptian and Roman civilizations as well as archaeological
evidence from Europe, North and South America and Asia. These tried and tested
processing techniques remained essentially the same until the advent of the industrial
revolution. Examples of ready-meals also exist from pre industrial revolution times such
as the Cornish pasty and the Haggis

Modern food processing technology in the 19th and 20th century was largely developed to
serve military needs. In 1809 Nicolas Appert invented a vacuum bottling technique that
would supply food for French troops, and this contributed to the development of tinning
and then canning by Peter Durand in 1810. Although initially expensive and somewhat
hazardous due to the lead used in cans, canned goods would later become a staple
around the world. Pasteurization, discovered by Louis Pasteur in 1862, was a significant
advance in ensuring the micro-biological safety of food.

In the 20th century, World War II, the space race and the rising consumer society in
developed countries (including the United States) contributed to the growth of food
processing with such advances as spray drying, juice concentrates, freeze drying and the
introduction of artificial sweeteners, colouring agents, and preservatives such as sodium
benzoate. In the late 20th century products such as dried instant soups, reconstituted
fruits and juices, and self cooking meals such as MRE food ration were developed.

In western Europe and North America, the second half of the 20th century witnessed a rise
in the pursuit of convenience, food processors especially marketed their products to
middle-class working wives and mothers. Frozen foods (often credited to Clarence
Birdseye) found their success in sales of juice concentrates and "TV dinners". [1]
Processors utilised the perceived value of time to appeal to the postwar population, and
this same appeal contributes to the success of convenience foods today.
Benefits
Mass production of food is much cheaper overall than individual production of meals from
raw ingredients. Therefore, a large profit potential exists for the manufacturers and
suppliers of processed food products. Individuals may see a benefit in convenience, but
rarely see any direct financial cost benefit in using processed food as compared to home
preparation. Poor quality ingredients and sometimes questionable processing and
preservation methods detract greatly from the overall benefit gained by individual
consumers.

More and more people live in the cities far away from where food is grown and produced.
In many families the adults are working away from home and therefore there is little time
for the preparation of food based on fresh ingredients. The food industry offers products
that fulfill many different needs: From peeled potatoes that only have to be boiled at home
to fully prepared ready meals that can be heated up in the microwave oven within a few
minutes.

Benefits of food processing include toxin removal, preservation, easing marketing and
distribution tasks, and increasing food consistency. In addition, it increases seasonal
availability of many foods, enables transportation of delicate perishable foods across long
distances, and makes many kinds of foods safe to eat by de-activating spoilage and
pathogenic micro-organisms. Modern supermarkets would not be feasible without modern
food processing techniques, long voyages would not be possible, and military campaigns
would be significantly more difficult and costly to execute.

Modern food processing also improves the quality of life for people with allergies,
diabetics, and other people who cannot consume some common food elements. Food
processing can also add extra nutrients such as vitamins.

Processed foods are often less susceptible to early spoilage than fresh foods, and are
better suited for long distance transportation from the source to the consumer. Fresh
materials, such as fresh produce and raw meats, are more likely to harbour pathogenic
micro-organisms (e.g. Salmonella) capable of causing serious illnesses.

Food additives
Many people enjoy making bread, cakes, wine, beer, and ice cream at home. However,
most of today's food is bought from shops and supermarkets.
Food made at home is always at its best when eaten straight away. Food produced on the
large scale that is needed to supply supermarkets and other food shops has to be
transported and stored before it is consumed. It has to stay in top condition over a much
longer period of time than home-cooked food.
Additives are used so that these foods still have a consistently high quality. In some
products, they are so essential that additives are used even in certain organic foods. In
some countries, lots of food is lost because it 'goes off' due to microbial growth before it
can be eaten. Food poisoning also shows the dangers of contaminated food and without
the use of preservatives, it would quite likely be more common.
Preservatives, colours and flavours are the best known additives but in fact there are
many categories of additives, each tailored to a specific purpose.

Antioxidants
Oxidation reactions happen when chemicals in the food are exposed to oxygen in the air.
In natural conditions, animal and plant tissues contain their own antioxidants but in foods,
these natural systems break down and oxidation is bound to follow.

Oxidation of food is a destructive process, causing loss of nutritional value and changes
in chemical composition. Oxidation of fats and oils leads to rancidity and, in fruits such as
apples, it can result in the formation of compounds which discolour the fruit.

Antioxidants are added to food to slow the rate of oxidation and, if used properly, they can
extend the shelf life of the food in which they have been used.

Food Colours - Origins and

Chemistry
Food colours are divided into 3 main types: natural, nature identical and synthetic.
Natural colours are obtained from natural sources such as grasses, leafy vegetables, fruit
skins, roots and seeds of plants.
Animals can also be a source of food colourings. Cochineal, or carminic acid, is a red
colour that is obtained from the bodies of certain scale insects. These feed off cactus
leaves and their bodies are commercially harvested in Africa, Spain and Central America.
Their bodies are dried and crushed to extract the red colouring.
Obtaining colours from natural sources can be costly and their quality can vary. To
overcome this, chemists have found ways to make identical colours in the laboratory. This
improves their purity and may also cost less.
Nature identical colours are exactly the same molecules found in natural sources but they
are made synthetically.
The main chemical classes are:
* flavonoids, found in many flowers, fruits and vegetables
* indigoid, found in beetroot
* carotenoids, found in carrots, tomatoes, oranges and most plants.
Carrots contain an orange molecule called beta-carotene which is part of this group.
Most natural and nature identical colours can dissolve in oil but do not dissolve in water.
This means it is difficult to add them directly to foods. They are usually processed to form
their sodium or potassium salt. This makes them soluble in water and suitable for use in
foods. They may also be dissolved in oil and incorporated into water-soluble beadlets.

Carrots contain orange-coloured molecules called carotenoids.

An example of a carotenoid is beta-carotene.

Synthetic Colours

These are colours that do not occur in nature and have been made in a factory. They have
been carefully tested to make sure that they are safe. The main examples of synthetic
colours are:
* azo dyes, such as amaranth (colour for blackurrant jams).
* 'other' dyes, such as, quinoline, (quinoline yellow), xanthene, (erythrosine),
triarylmethanes, indigoid, (indigo carmine).
Synthetic colours are usually water soluble and can be used in foods without any further
processing

Emulsifiers
Emulsions in food are mixtures of oil and water. These normally do not mix and will
separate if left without an emulsifier.

What are emulsions?

There are two types of emulsions. An oil-in-water emulsion contains small droplets of oil
that are dispersed in water. Alternatively, a water-in-oil emulsion has small droplets of
water that are dispersed in an oil. Usually the water and oil will not mix and the emulsifier,
or emulsifying agent, keeps the mixture stable and prevents the oil and water from
separating into two layers.
Emulsifiers in food

Emulsifiers are among the most frequently used types of food additives. They are used for
many reasons.

Emulsifiers can help to make a food appealing. The example of the mayonnaise without
the emulsifier shows how unappealing it would be if the oil and water separated before it
was used. Emulsifiers have a big effect on the structure and texture of many foods. They
are used to aid in the processing of foods and also to help maintain quality and freshness.
In low fat spreads, emulsifiers can help to prevent the growth of moulds which would
happen if the oil and fat separated. The table shows foods in which emulsifiers are most
commonly used.

Preservatives
Microbe Attack
Microbes are all around us, in the air, on our hands and in food from the farm.

Usually, they are in small enough numbers so that they do not cause any harm. However,
a single bacterium, given suitable conditions of warmth, air and moisture, can grow to
many millions in just a few hours.

Microbes will grow quickly when they are in the right conditions; warm, moist, correct pH
and a supply of food to grow on. Preservation tries to alter the conditions to slow or stop
the microbe growth. When this is not possible, or convenient, preservatives may be added
to stop the food from going 'off'.

Different microbes are sensitive to different types of preservatives and so a wide range of
preservatives are in use today.

Food Preservatives
Most preservatives today are actually fungistatic in their action. That means they prevent
the growth of fungi, moulds and yeasts. They have little effect on bacteria but using a
combination of preservatives, with antibacterial properties, can give good all round
protection. Food preservatives help to control the spread of bacteria which can cause life
threatening illnesses such as salmonellosis or botulism.

Preservatives are commonly used in these foods:

* low fat spreads

* cheeses, margarine, mayonnaise and dressings
* bakery products
* dried fruit preparations

Are Preservatives Safe?

Food preservatives have to be safe for human consumption. They can stop the food-decay
microbes from growing but must not not harm the cells of the human body. There are also
maximum levels of preservatives allowed, so that high concentrations of preservatives in
food are not permitted.

There is much concern about the increasing incidence of the phenomenon of resistance of
bacteria to antibiotics. Over the decades in which preservatives have been used, there has
been no need to increase the dosage to maintain their effectiveness. This suggests that
the use of these substances has not resulted in the development of bacteria that are
resistant to preservatives.

Sweeteners
The desire for sweet taste is inborn. The use of honey dates back to 2000 BC but it is
sugar which has been the sweetener of choice for centuries.

Sugar is a most important flavouring substance. It gives the sensation of sweetness and
provides a source of energy. However, excessive sugar intake is linked with a number of
health problems including tooth decay, obesity and diabetes.

Alternatives to sugar have therefore been developed which provide the sweetness without
the energy content. Saccharin was discovered in 1878 but it was not until the 1950's, when
consumers became interested in low calorie foods, that sweeteners came into significant
use.

Alternative sweeteners can be divided into two main categories:

-artificial or intense sweeteners

Many times sweeter than sugar and are therefore typically used at very low levels to
replace the sweetness normally provided by sugar
-bulk sweeteners
Provide both bulk and sweetness. Depending on the individual sweetener, they are 35%
to 100% as sweet as sugar and so have similar bulk to sugar

Sweeteners in food

Obviously sweeteners provide the sweet taste! However, sugar also has other functions in
food:

* provide texture in baked goods

* is a humectant in cakes (stops them from drying out)
* lowers the freezing point in ice creams it acts as a preservative in jams it strengthens
"mouthfeel" in soft drinks
 * adds bulk to baked goods.

Intense sweeteners cannot provide all of these properties. For example, they cannot
replace sugar in cakes because the sugar also adds bulk and stiffness. Possibly the main
use of intense sweeteners is in the production of low calorie, or low energy foods. These
are especially suitable to people suffering from diabetes. Bulk sweeteners, such as xylitol
and malitol, are less sweet but can be used to regulate the texture of the food

Acidulants
Acidulants are additives that give a sharp taste to foods. They also assist in the setting of
gels and to act as preservatives.

The pH of a food is a measure of its acidity, alkalinity or neutrality. Living tissues contain
solutions called buffers which help to keep a constant pH inside cells.

Many natural foods are acidic. For example, oranges, lemons, apples, tomatoes, cheese
and yoghurt contain natural acids, such as citric acid, that give them their
characteristically sharp taste.

Acids, alkalis and buffers have important roles in the food industry. Acids have been used
for centuries as important contributors to flavour and the acid environment they produce
prevents the growth of many microorganisms. Bicarbonates, particularly bicarbonate of
soda, are used as mild alkalis whilst phosphates are used for their buffering action as well
as for their characteristic taste.

As the food industry has developed, so has the growth in production of processed foods.
Many of these need the inclusion of an acidulant to give an acidic or sour taste.