1.

Read the following two articles about behavioral genetics: "Behavioral Genetics in the
21st Century" and "DNA". How do the fields of behavioral genetics and epigenetics
compare? Each field attempts to address the nature-nurture debate in a different way.
Which, if either approach, do you think is more valid, and why?

The fields of epigenetics and behavioral genetics compare

2. After taking this class, if someone were to ask you how traits develop, mostly because of
genetic factors or mostly because of environmental factors, how would you answer?

If someone asked me after taking this class if traits develop mostly because of

environmental factors or mostly because of genetics, I would probably say that genetics

play the biggest role in the development of traits, but I would say that both genetics and

environment play an essential role in the development of traits. Without genetics people

would not have the basis for the development of traits. People are born with genes and it

is basically an outline of who that person has the potential to be as they grow. So, the

traits are already there because people are born with their traits. However, that does not

mean that they will grow up to be just like their parents or others who share the same

genetic makeup. Environment is also a crucial factor in the development of traits because

without environment, genetic traits do not have the means to progress. Trait development

has the potential to be unique to every person because people face different

environments. Different environments shape which genes are activated and which genes

are not. Genes predispose certain behaviors, but if the environment does not support

those genes, then the traits have no need to be revealed. For example, Jennys mom and

aunt had to run to the store as children and teenagers because they had to get to the store

before the store closed. Jennys grandparents did not own a car, so if Jennys mom and

aunt did not get to the store in time they would go hungry. They kept running through

adulthood because it helped them stay healthy. Jennys mom passed a gene down to

Jenny that would help Jenny run fast for a long time. Jenny grew up in a world of fast

food, transportation, and convenient stores on every corner. So, Jennys running gene

never expressed itself because she was never put in a situation where she had to run fast

for a long time to get food. Her environment did not prompt the gene to be expressed
 because it was not needed. Some people may say that this explanation sounds more like

environmental factors play the biggest role, but I disagree because without genetic traits

the environment has nothing to feed into. There would be nothing to shape and there

would be nothing to express. There would be no basis or beginning and nothing for

environment to be shaped.

6. Discuss the impact of nutrition on development, including how nutritional factors affect the

developing system through the epigenome. How can an understanding of the impact of nutrition

on the developing human system inform public awareness campaigns and public policy in a way

that has a positive impact on society?

Nutrition is important to development and survival. Without the proper nourishment, a person

cannot develop adequately. The human body needs healthy foods that provide vitamins,

minerals, and healthy fats to help people develop. It helps the body grow, the brain function

normally, and decreases the chances of illnesses, disorders, and diseases caused by

malnourishment. Nourishment is not only important for the growing body or the developing

toddler. It is also important to the developing fetus. Many women who are familiar with

pregnancy have probably heard do not forget to take your prenatal vitamins. They have

probably been chewed out by their OB/GYN for not eating enough or eating unhealthy foods

while being pregnant. As annoying as the OBs lecture might seem when your hormones are on

the frits, trust me when I say they are lecturing you for the health and well -being of the fetus

who is growing in your uterus. The vitamins or the junk a person eats while pregnant is going to

the fetus too. The nourishment going through a persons body when they are pregnant is helping

the fetuss brain develop, the body develop, and the body processes and systems develop. If a

fetus does not get enough of nourishment or enough of the right kind of nourishment they could
suffer in the long run, even if it does not seem apparent at birth, but may manifest later in life.

Studies of mothers who were malnourished during the first trimester of pregnancy have

revealed an increased incidence in their offspring of gross central nervous system abnormalities,

including Spina Bifida and cerebral palsy (Moore, 2003). There is also an increased risk of

Schizophrenia development in the fetuses of malnourished mothers. Prenatal factors also have

the potential to affect abnormal traits that can manifest in the fetuss adult life. One of these traits

is obesity. A study by (Ravelli GP, Stein ZA, & Susser MW, 1976), discovered that adult men

born to women malnourished in their first two trimesters of their pregnancies were more likely

to be obese than were men in the general population. It was also found in the study by Ravelli

and colleagues that mothers who were malnourished and/or under fed during their entire

pregnancy had offspring who chronically underweight as adults. If a mother is not nourished

while pregnant, her offspring may suffer in adulthood. In another study by Jones, A. and

Friedman, M.I., 2003, pregnant rats were malnourished for the first two thirds of their

trimester, they were then allowed to eat freely during their last trimester, the rat pups were born

with normal body weights compared to rat pups whose mothers were fed normally. However, a

few weeks later it was noticed that the rat pups whose mothers were malnourished in their first

trimester, were gaining more weight and eating more, despite being on the same diet, than rat

pups whose mothers were not malnourished. It is believed that the rats were affected because of

their mothers insulin levels in the third trimester of pregnancy. These findings suggest that

prenatal exposure to metabolic hormones such as insulin might organize the fetal brain much as

steroid hormone testosterone does (Moore, 2003) So, in other words, a mothers nutritional

choices when she is pregnant can alter her fetuss brain in a way that may not be noticeable at

birth, but can cause permanent problems in adulthood. Insulin supports the formation and/ or
growth of synapses, neural tissues, neurons, dendrites and axons. This information implies that

fetal insulin levels might be able to influence the development of brain areas that are relevant to

body weight and food intake regulation (Moore, 2003). A mothers nutritional habits may

impact her insulin levels, in turn effecting her fetuss environment, which can adversely impact

her fetuss brain areas that control food intake regulation, causing problems in adulthood such as

overeating and obesity. How can an understanding of the impact of nutrition on the developing

human system inform public awareness campaigns and public policy in a way that has a positive

impact on society?

Understanding the impact of nutrition on the developing human system can help create more

awareness. Public awareness campaigns can, such as WIC, can help promote healthy nutritional

habits when a woman becomes pregnant. Public awareness campaigns can help women become

more aware of how nutrition can impact their fetus later in life. They can display the

consequences and ways to prevent these consequences. Classes on nutrition could be provided to

help people understand what is healthy and what is not. The classes may also be helpful in

learning how much a person should eat while pregnant and how much is enough. The

government should provide public awareness campaigns for free. It should be made readily

available to pregnant mothers who want or need to know more about nutrition. If a mother eats

healthier because she was provided with the right resources she will be more likely to have a

healthy baby, who turns into a healthy adult, who is in less need of specialized medical care, in

turn making less possible expenses on the government.

 4. Read "Genetic and Environmental Influences on Sex-Typed Behavior During Preschool
Years". Agree or disagree with the perspective presented here and discuss how the
epigenetics perspective might look at the nature-nurture debate surrounding this issue
differently.

5. Think about how maternal care affects the epigenetic factors that influence the development of

various traits. Explain how a high-nurturing mother rat shapes her pup's epigenome, and what

that pup's response to stress will be. The rat nurturing example shows us how parental behavior

can shape the behavior of their offspring on a biochemical level. Relate this to humans and think

about the personal and social implications.

Maternal care can influence the development of many various traits by causing the diverse levels

of gene expression. A mothers maternal care can affect the maternal behavior of their offspring.

Maternal care behaviors can be transmitted from mothers to daughters, to grand-mothers. It is

believed that the mechanisms that cause this transmission must do with alterations to steroid

receptor genes that produce long-term changes in gene expression and behavior. So, maternal care

behavior can be passed down through generations because it alters genes and that causes changes,

which can cause the gene to express itself in diverse ways, depending on the type of maternal care

offspring receive. An authoritative mother may very likely pass her authoritative gene down to her child

parenting or a passive parent may transfer their passive parenting down to their child. A high- nurturing

mother rat shapes her pups epigenome