Dictionary of The Bible - H To N - James Hastings

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HAAHASHTARI.AdescendantofJudah(1Ch4:6).
HABAIAH(Jhathhidden).TheheadofapriestlyfamilywhichreturnedwithZerubbabel,but,beingunabletotracetheirgenealogy,
werenotallowedtoserve(Ezr2:61)calledinNeh7:63Hobaiah,andin1Es5:38Obdia.
HABAKKUK.TheeighthoftheMinorProphets.Exceptforlegends,e.g.inBelandtheDragon(vv.3342),nothingisknownofhim
outsidethebookthatbearshisname.
1.TheBookofHabakkuk,readasitnowstands,mustbedatedshortlyaftertheappearanceoftheChaldansonthestageofworldhistory,
seeingthattheirdescentonthenationsisimminent.Itisprobablylaterthanthebattleof
Carchemish,whereNebuchadrezzardefeatedtheEgyptiansinb.c.605,andearlierthanthefirstJudancaptivityin597.Ifdatedaboutthe
year600,itfallsinthereignofJehoiakim,intheperiodofreactionthatfollowedthedefeatanddeathofJosiahatMegiddo(608).Thatevent,
apparentlyfalsifyingthepromisesoftherecentlydiscoveredlawbook,hadledtoageneralneglectofitsethicalclaims,andtoarecrudescence
ofthereligiousabusesofthetimeofManasseh(cf.2K23:37,Jer19:4ff.,25etc.).TheoneimmovablearticleoffaithheldbytheJudan
nationseemstohavebeentheinviolabilityofJerusalem(cf.Jer7:115etc.).Thebookappearstobetheworkofaprophetlivingin
Jerusalem.Itmaybedividedintosixsections,thefirstfourcontainingtwodialoguesbetweenJahwehandtheprophet,whilethelasttwo
containconfidentdeclarationsspringingfromandexpandingtheDivinereply.
(1)1:14.Habakkuk,compelledtoliveinthemidstofviolentwrongdoing,contemptofreligionmanifestingitselfintheoppressionofthe
righteousbythewicked,complainsstronglyofthesilenceandindifferenceofGod.
(2)1:511.HereceivesananswerthatanewandstartlingdisplayoftheDivinejusticeisabouttobemade.TheChaldans,swift,bitter,
andterrible,aretosweepdownandoverwhelmthewholeworld.Nofortresscanresisttheironslaught.Theincredibilityofthismustbe,notin
thefactthattheChaldansaretheaggressors,butratherthatJerusalem,sparedsolong,isnowtosharethefateofsomanyothercities.
(3)1:1217.Sometimemaynowbesupposedtoelapsebeforethenextprophecyisspoken.Duringthisperiodtheprophetwatchesthe
progressoftheChaldans,whohavenow(2:17)penetratedintoPalestine.Hisobservationraisesanewandinsolubleproblem.Thisreckless,
insolent,cruel,insatiableconquerorisworsethanthosehehasbeenappointedtochastise.HowcanaholyGod,soreadytopunishthe
wickedinIsrael,permitonewhodeservesfarmorethenameof
wickedtorageunchecked?Arewrongandviolencetopossesstheearthforever?
(4)2:14.Theprophet,retiringtohiswatchtower,whencehelooksoutovertheworld,toseeitinruins,receivesanoraclewhichheis
biddentowritedownontabletsforalltoread.HeistoldthatthepurposeofGodishasteningtoitsfulfilment,andisencouragedtowaitforit.
Thenfollowsthefamoussentence,Behold,hissoulispuffedup,itisnotuprightinhim:butthejustshallliveinhisfaithfulness.The
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meaningofthisisplain.Tyrannyisselfdestructive,andcarrieswithinitselftheseedsofdoom.Butwhiletheevildoerpassesaway,thejust
man,steadfastinthefaceofallcontradiction,shalllive,andlastoutthestormofjudgment.
(5)2:520.Contentwiththismessage,theprophetutters,triumphantly,afivefoldseriesofwoesagainstthepride,thegreed,thecruel
buildingenterprises,thesensuality,theidolatry,oftheheathenpower.
(6)Ch.3.Finally,inamagnificentlyric,which,asitsheadingandcloseprove,hasbeenadaptedforuseintheTempleworship,the
prophetsingsthegloriousredeemingactsofGodinthepasthistoryofthepeople,andinthecertaintyofHisimmediateappearance,bringing
hopelessruinontheenemy,declareshisunwaveringtrust.
Soread,thisshortbookisseentobeahumandocumentofuniquevalue.ItmarksthebeginningsofHebrewreflectivethoughtastothe
workingsofProvidenceinhistory,afterwardssopowerfullyexpressedinJobandinthelaterprophets.
2.Manymodernscholarsareunabletoacceptthisexplanationofthesethreechapters.Itisarguedthattheuseofthewordwickedin
differentsensesin1:4and1:13isunnatural,andawkward.Further,itisurgedthatthedescriptionsoftheconquerorinchs.1and2donotsuit
theChaldanswellatanytime,andarealmostimpossibleatsoearlyastageoftheirhistoryastheonenamed.Accordingly,somehave
treated1:511asafragmentofanolderprophecy,andplacethehulkofchs.1and2towardsthecloseoftheExile,neartheendofthe
Chaldanperiod.Othersplace1:511between2:4and2:5,consideringthatthewholesectionhasbeenmisplaced.Therestofthechaptersare
thenreferredtoanotheroppressor,eitherAssyriaorEgypt,whomtheChaldansareraiseduptopunishandch.3isascribedtoanother
author.OthersagainwouldalterthewordChaldans,andtreatitasanerrorforeitherPersiansorChittim.Inthesecondcasethe
referenceistotheGreeks,andthedestroyerisAlexandertheGreat.Withoutattemptingtodiscusstheseviews,itmaybesaidthatnoneof
themsuppliesanysatisfactoryexplanationof1:14,inreferringHabakkukscomplainttowrongscommittedbysomeheathenpower.The
mentionoflawandjudgment,1:4,seemstopointdecisivelytointernaldisordersamongtheprophetsowncountrymen.Thedoubleuseof
thewordwickedmaywellbeapowerfuldramaticcontrast.Thespeedwithwhichtheenemymoves,saidbysometobealtogether
inapplicabletotheChaldans,maybeillustratedbythemarvellouslyrapidrideofNebuchadrezzarhimself,fromPelusiumtoBabylon,to
takethekingdomonthedeathofhisfather.TroopsofScythiancavalry,attheserviceofthehighestbidderafterthedisbandingoftheirown
army,wereprobablyfoundwiththeChaldans.Thequestioncannotheregardedassettled,afullerknowledgeofChaldanhistoryatthe
openingofthe7thcent.beingmuchtobedesired.
Mostscholarsregardch.3asaseparatecomposition.ItisurgedthatthispoemcontainsnoallusionstothecircumstancesofHabakkuks
age,thattheenemyinv.14,rejoicingtodevourthepoorsecretly,cannotheagreatallconqueringarmy,thatthedisasterstoflocksandherds
(vv.1719)arequitedifferentfromanythinginchs.1and2.Itisconjecturedthatthepoem,underHabakkuksname,hadaplaceinasong
book,andwasafterwardstransferred,withthemarksofitsoriginnoteffaced,tothecloseofthispropheticbook.Theseconsiderationsareof
greatweight,thoughitmayberecalledthatthepoeticalpartoftheBookofJobendssomewhatsimilarly,withatheophanylittlerelatedtothe
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bulkofthebook.WhetherthechapterbelongstoHabakkukornot,itspictureoftheinterventionofGodHimself,inHisownallpowerful
strengthbringingtonoughtallthecounselsofHisenemies,isafittingclosetothebook.
WilfridJ.Moulton.
HABAZZINIAH.ThegrandfatherofJaazaniah,oneoftheRechabiteswhowereputtotheproofbytheprophetJeremiah(Jer35:3).
HABERGEON(Ex28:32,39:23AV).AnobsoletetermreplacedinRVbythemoderncoatofmail.Cf.Job41:26AV,RVpointed
shaft,andseeArmour,2(c).
A.R.S.Kennedy.
HABOR.AriverflowingthroughthedistrictofGozan,onthebanksofwhichIsraelitesweresettledwhendeportedfromSamaria(2K
17:6,18:11,1Ch5:26).ItisatributaryoftheEuphrates,theChaborasoftheGreeks,themodernKhbr.
L.W.King.
HACALIAH.ThefatherofNehemiah(Neh1:1,10:1).
HACHILAH(1S23:19,26:1,3).AhillinwhichDavidhid,andonwhich,duringhispursuit,Saulpitchedhiscamp,nearthe
wildernessofZiph.Ziphismod.TellezZf,totheS.ofHebron.CondersuggeststhatHachilahmaybethehillDahrelKl,butthisis
perhapsratherfartotheeast.
W.Ewing.
HACHMONI,HACHMONITE.BothrepresentoneandthesameHeb.
word,butin1Ch27:32thelatteristranslatedasaprop.name,JehielthesonofHachmoni,whereasin1Ch11:11Jashobeamiscalleda
Hachmonite.Weshouldprobablyrenderitinbothcasesasagentilicname.In2S23:8,whichisparallelto1Ch11:11,wehavethe
Tahchemonite,whichisprobablyatextualerror(seeAdino,Joshebbasshebeth).
HADAD.1.ThenameofaSemiticdivinity(alsowrittenAdad,andDaddaforAdda),theequivalentofRimmon(wh.see)amongthe
AramansofDamascusandapparentlyworshippedbyalltheAramanpeoples,aswellasamongbothSouthArabianandNorthArabian
tribes,andalsoamongtheAssyrians.InAssyriaandBabylonia,however,hiscult,combinedwiththatofRammn,wasapparentlynotnative,
butintroducedfromtheAramansofthewest.Hadad,likeRimmon(Rammn),wasthegodoftheairandofthunderandlightning.Theword
seemstobederivedfromArabichadda,tosmite,crush.ThenameofthisdeityisnotfoundaloneintheBible,butappearsinseveral
compounds,Benhadad,Bildad,andthosewhichfollowthisarticle.Itispossible,also,thatAdrammelechof2K19:37andIs37:38shouldbe
readAdadmelech,
Adadisking.
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2.TheeighthsonofIshmael,1Ch1:30,andalsoGn25:15accordingtoRVandthebestreadings.3.Thefourthoftheeightancientkings
ofEdom,Gn36:35cf.1Ch1:46.4.TheeighthofthekingsofEdominthesamelistasthelastnamed,1Ch1:50(inGn36:39miswritten
Hadar).5.ThesonofakingofEdominthe10thcent.b.c.(1K11:14ff.).HeescapedthemassacreofEdomitesperpetratedbyJoab,Davids
general,andfled(accordingtothereceivedreading)toEgypt,whosekingbefriendedhim,andgavehimhissisterinlawashiswife.Afterthe
deathofDavidhereturnedtoEdom,andhiseffortsseemtohaverescued
EdomfromtheyokeofkingSolomon.Itisprobablethatinv.17ff.insteadofMitsraim(Egypt)MitsrishouldbereadintheHebrewasthe
nameofaregionwestofEdom,whichintheoldMSSwasseveraltimesconfoundedwiththewordforEgypt.ThereferencetoPharaoh(v.
18ff.)wouldthenhavebeenalateraddition.
J.F.MCurdy.
HADADEZER.ThenameofakingofZobah(wh.see)inthetimeofDavid,2S8:3ff.,1K11:23.In1Ch18:3ff.thesamekingis
calledlesscorrectly
Hadarezer.HewasattheheadofthecombinationoftheAramansofNorthernPalestineagainstDavid,wasrepeatedlydefeated,andfinally
madetributary.ThewordmeansAdadis(my)helper(cf.Heb.Eliezer,Ebenezer,Azariah,etc.).ItisfoundontheBlackObeliskofthe
AssyrianShalmaneserii.underthemoreAramaicformAdadidri,astheequivalentofBenhadadofDamascus,wholedthegreatcombination,
includingAhabofIsrael,againsttheAssyriansinb.c.854.
J.F.MCurdy.
HADADRIMMON.ApropernameoccurringinZec12:11asthemourningofHadadrimmoninthevalleyofMegiddon.Ithasusually
beensupposedtobeaplacename.AccordingtoanoticebyJerome,itwouldbeequivalenttoMegiddoitself.Theword,however,isa
combinationofthetwonamesofadivinity(seeHadad).Anequallygoodtranslationwouldbeasthemourningfor
Hadadrimmon,andithasbeenplausiblyconjecturedthatitistheweepingforTammuzreferredtoinEzk8:14,thatisheremeant.Inthiscase
theoldSemiticdeityHadadRimmonwouldbythe2ndcent.b.c.havebecomeconfoundedwithTammuz.Thereisnogroundforsupposing
anallusiontothemourningforkingJosiah,which,ofcourse,tookplaceinJerusalem,notinthevalleyofMegiddo.
J.F.MCurdy.
HADAR(Gn36:39).SeeHadad,4.
HADAREZER.SeeHadadezer.
HADASHAH.AtownintheShephlahofJudah(Jos15:37)siteunknown.
HADASSAH(myrtle).TheJewishnameofEsther(Est2:7only).See
Esther.
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HADES.TheLat.termfortheHeb.Sheol,theabodeofdepartedspirits.Itwasconceivedofasagreatcavernorpitundertheearth,in
whichtheshadeslived.Justwhatdegreeofactivitytheshadespossessedseemstohavebeensomewhatdoubtful.AccordingtotheGreeks,
theywereengagedintheoccupationsinwhichtheyhadbeenemployedonearth.TheHebrews,however,seemrathertohavethoughtoftheir
conditionasoneofinactivity.(SeeSheolandGehenna.)RVhas
HadesforAVhellwhenthelatter=realmofthedead.
ShailerMathews.
HADID.NamedalongwithLodandOno(Ezr2:38=Neh7:37),peopledbyBenjamitesaftertheCaptivity(Neh11:34),probablytobe
identifiedalsowithAdidaof1Mac12:38,13:13.ItisthemodernHadithehinthelowhills,about31/4milesN.E.ofLydda.
HADLAI.AnEphraimite(2Ch28:12).
HADORAM.1.ThefifthsonofJoktan(Gn10:27,1Ch1:21).2.ThesonofTou,kingofHamath(1Ch18:10).Intheparallelpassage,
2S8:9f.,HadoramwronglyappearsasJoram.3.2Ch10:18.Theparallelpassage,1K12:18,haspreservedthemorecorrectformAdoram.
HADRACH.AplaceinSyriamentionedinZec9:1asbeing,atthetimeofthewritingofthatpassage,confederatewithDamascus.
HadrachisundoubtedlyidenticalwithHatarikkaoftheAssyrianinscriptions.ItwastheobjectofthreeexpeditionsbyAssurdaniii.,and
Tiglathpileseriii.referstoitintheaccountofhiswarwithAzariahtheJudan.
W.M.Nesbit.
HAFT.Haft,stillusedlocallyforhandle,occursinJg3:22thehaftalsowentinaftertheblade.
HAGAB(Ezr2:46).HisdescendantsreturnedwithZerubbabel.ThenameisabsentfromtheparallellistinNeh7itappearsin1Es5:30
asAccaba.
HAGABA(Neh7:48).TheheadofafamilyofNethinimwhoreturnedwithZerubbabel.Seenextarticle.
HAGABAH.TheslightlydifferentforminwhichthelastmentionednameappearsinEzr2:45in1Es5:29Aggaba.
HAGAR(prob.emigrantorfugitive)wasSarahsEgyptianmaid(Gn16:1,21:9).HerstoryshowsthatSarahrenouncedthehopeof
bearingchildrentoAbraham,andgavehimHagarasconcubine.HerexultationsoirritatedSarahthatthemaidhadtofleefromthe
encampment,andtookrefugeinthewildernessofShur(16:7,25:18),betweenPhilistiaandEgypt.Thenceshewassentbackbytheangelof
theLordandsoonafterherreturnshegavebirthtoIshmael.AftertheweaningofIsaac,thesightofIshmaelarousedSarahsjealousyand
fear(21:9)andAbrahamwasreluctantlypersuadedtosendawayHagarandherson.AgaintheangelofGodcheeredherandshefoundher
waysouthwardstothewildernessofParan(21:21),wherehersonsettled.
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Thisstoryiscompactedoftraditionsgatheredfromthethreegreatdocuments.JyieldsthegreaterpartofGn16:114andEof21:921,
whiletracesofPhavebeenfoundin16:3,15f.Thepresenceofthestoryinsourceswheresuchdifferentinterestsarerepresentedisinfavour
ofitshistoricityandinsteadoftheassumptionthatHagarisbuttheconjecturalmotherofthepersonifiedfounderofatribe,themoreobvious
explanationisthatshewastheactualancestressofthepeopleofIshmael.Whateveranthropologicalinterestattachestothepassages(see
Ishmael),theirpresencemaybedefendedonothergrounds,theforceofwhicha
Hebrewwouldbemorelikelytofeel.TheyservetoshowthepurityandprideofJewishdescent,othertribesintheneighbourhoodbeing
kindredtothem,butonlyoffshootsfromtheparentstock.TheDivineguidanceinJewishhistoryisemphasizedbythedoubleactionofthe
angelintheunfoldingofHagarscareer.
ThestoryisanimportantpartofthebiographyofAbraham,illustratingboththevarietyoftrialsbywhichhisfaithwasperfectedandthe
activeconcernofGodineventhedistractedconditionsofachosenhousehold.Furtherinterestattachestothenarrativeascontainingthe
earliestreferenceinScripturetotheangelofJehovah(Gn16:7),andasbeingthefirstofaseries(Tamar,Rahab,Ruth,
Naaman)inwhichtheregardofGodisrepresentedassinglingoutforblessingpersonsoutsideIsrael,andthusaspreparingfortheuniversal
missionofChrist.ThereisbutoneotherimportantallusiontoHagarintheOT.SheismentionedinGn25:12inasketchofthefamilyof
Ishmael(soinBar3:23theArabiansaresaidtobehersons)andshehasbeenassumedwithmuchimprobabilitytohavebeentheancestress
oftheHagritesorHagarenesof1Ch5:10andPs83:6(seeHagrites).InGal4:22ff.Paulappliesherstoryallegorically,withaviewtoshow
thesuperiorityofthenewcovenant.HecontrastsHagarthebondwomanwithSarah,andIshmaelbornafterthefleshwithIsaacborn
throughpromisethencefreedomandgraceappearasthecharacteristicqualitiesofChristianity.ThereisgoodMSauthorityfortheomission
ofHagarinv.25,asinRVminwhichcasethemeaningisthatSinaiisamountaininArabia,thelandofbondmenandthecountryof
Hagarsdescendants.Evenifthereadingofthetextstands,themeaningofthephrasewillnotbeverydifferent.ThisHagaroftheallegoryis
orrepresentsSinai,becauseSinaiisinArabia,whereHagarandherdescendantsdwelt.
R.W.Moss.
HAGARENES.SeeHagrites.
HAGGADAH.SeeTalmud.
HAGGAI.AprophetwhosewritingsoccupythetenthplaceinthecollectionoftheMinorProphets.
1.Themanandhiswork.Thesphereofhisactivitywasthepostexiliccommunity,hisministry(sofarasmaybegatheredfromhis
writings)beingconfinedtoafewmonthsofthesecondyearofDariusHystaspes(b.c.520).HisnameisperhapsashortformofHaggiah(1
Ch6:30),asMattenai(Ezr10:33)isofMattaniah(10:26),andmaymeanfeastofJ,thoughpossiblyitismerelyanadjectivesignifying
festal(fromhagcf.Barzillaifrombarzet).Accordingtolatetraditions,hewasborninBabylon,andwentupwithZerubbabeltoJerusalem,
wherehedied.InhispropheticworkhewasassociatedwithZechariah(Ezr5:1,6:14)andthenamesofthetwoareprefixedtocertain
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PsalmsinoneormoreoftheVersions(toPs137inLXXalone,toPs111(112)inVulg.alone,toPss125,126inPesh.alone,toPss146,
147,148inLXXandPesh.,toPs145inLXX,Vulg.,andPesh.).
HisprophecieswereevokedbythedelaythatattendedthereconstructionoftheTemple.TheJews,onreturningtoPalestineinthefirst
yearofCyrus(536),atoncesetupthealtaroftheLord(Ezr3:3),andinthefollowingyearlaidthefoundationoftheTemple(3:810).The
work,however,wasalmostimmediatelysuspendedthroughtheoppositionoftheSamaritans(i.e.thesemipagancolonistsofwhathadonce
beentheNorthernKingdom,2K17:2441),whosewishtocooperatehadbeenrefused(Ezr4:15)and,thisexternalobstructionbeing
reinforcedbyindifferenceonthepartoftheJewsthemselves(Hag1:4),thesiteoftheTempleremainedawasteforaperiodof15years.But
inthesecondyearofDarius(b.c.520),Haggai,aidedbyZechariah(whowasprobablyhisjunior),exhortedhiscountrymentoproceedwith
therebuildingandastheresultofhisexertions,inthesixthyearofDarius(b.c.516)theTemplewasfinished(Ezr6:15).
2.Thebook.ThepropheciesofHaggaiconsistoffoursections,deliveredatthreedifferenttimes.
(1)Ch.1,onthe1stdayofthe6thmonth(Aug.Sept.),istheprophetsexplanationoftheprevalentscarcity,which(likethefamines
mentionedin2S21and1K17,18)isaccountedforbyhumansin,thepeoplebeingmoreconcernedtobeautifytheirowndwellingsthanto
restorethehouseoftheLord.Theadmonition,coupledwithapromiseofDivineassistance,haditseffect,andtheworkofreconstructionwas
renewed.
(2)Ch.2:19,onthe21stdayofthe7thmonth(Sept.Oct.),hasinviewthediscouragementexperiencedwhentheoldmenwhohadseen
thegloryofthefirstTemplecontrastedwithitthemeannessofthesecond:theprophetdeclaresthatwithinashortwhilethewealthofthe
nationswillhegatheredintothelatter(cf.Is60),anditssplendourwilleventuallyexceedthatofitspredecessor.Haggaisanticipationswere
perhapsconnectedwiththedisturbancesamongthePersiansubjectStatesinthebeginningofDariusreign.ThedownfallofthePersianrule,
whichtheythreatened,mightbeexpected,likethepreviousoverthrowofBabylonbyCyrus,toredoundtotheadvantageofIsrael.
(3)Ch.2:1019,onthe24thofthe9thmonth(Nov.Dec.),isafurtherattempttoexplainthereasonofthecontinueddistress,andtoraise
hopesofitsremoval.Thepeoplessacrificesandexertionscannot(itiscontended)atoncecounteracttheeffectsoftheirpreviousneglect,for
theruinousstateoftheTempleisamorepenetratingsourceofpollutionthanholythingsandactsareofsanctificationbuthenceforththe
Lordsblessingwillattendthem(cf.Zec8:912).
(4)Ch.2:2023,onthesamedayasthepreceding,isanaddresstoZerubbabel,whointheimpendingcommotionwillbepreservedbythe
Lordasaprecioussignetring(cf.Ca8:6,andcontrastJer22:24).
TheBookofHaggaireflectstheconditionofitsage,andoffersacontrasttotheearlierprophetsintheabsenceofanydenunciationof
idolatry,thepracticeofwhichhadbeenlargelyeradicatedfromtheJewsoftheExilebytheirexperiences.Itresemblesthepropheciesof
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ZechariahandMalachi(bothpostexilic)inlayingmorestressupontheexternalsideofreligionthandothepreexilicwritings.But,unlikethe
booksofZechariahandMalachi,itdoesnotcontainanyrebukeofmoralandsocialoffences,butisdevotedtothesinglepurposeofpromoting
therebuildingoftheTemple,whichwasthenessentialtothemaintenanceofIsraelsreligiouspurity.ThestyleofHaggaiisplainand
unadorned,andisrenderedrathermonotonousbythereiterationofcertainphrases(especiallysaiththeLordofhosts).
G.W.Wade.
HAGGEDOLIM(RVandAVm:AVandRVmthegreatmen).Fatherof
Zabdiel(Neh11:14).
HAGGI(bornonafestival).SonofGad,Gn46:16,Nu26:16(P)patronymic,Haggites,Nu26:15.
HAGGIAH(feastofJ).ALevitedescendedfromMerari(1Ch6:30).
HAGGITES.SeeHaggi.
HAGGITH(festal).ThemotherofAdonijah(2S3:4,1K1:5,2:13).
HAGIOGRAPHA.SeeCanonofOT,8.
HAGRI.Father of Mibhar, one of Davids heroes (1 Ch 11:38). The parallel passage, 2 S 23:36, reads of Zobah, Bani the Gadite,
whichisprobablythecorrecttext.
HAGRITE.JaziztheHagritewasovertheflocksofkingDavid(1Ch27:31).Seenextarticle.
HAGRITES,HAGARITES,HAGARENES.AtribeofArabianor
AramanorigininhabitingterritorytotheeastofGilead.TwicetheyweretheobjectofcampaignsbythetransJordanicIsraelitetribes,by
whomtheywerecrushinglydefeatedandexpelledfromtheirland(1Ch5:6,19,20).Becausethenameappearsonlyinverylatepassages,
BertheauandothershaveconjecturedthatitwasalateappellationforBedouiningeneral.IthasbeensupposedtomeanDescendantsof
HagarhencetobesynonymouswithIshmaelites.Butthisisunlikely,sincetheHagritesarenamedalongwithothertribeswhich,
accordingtothistheory,theyincluded.TheHagritesarementionedamongagroupofAramantribesinaninscriptionofTiglathpileseriii.
W.M.Nesbit.
HAHIROTH.SeePihahiroth.
HAIL.SeePlaguesofEgypt.
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HAIR.TheusualwordinOTissr,inNTthrix.BlackhairwasgreatlyadmiredbytheHebrews(Ca4:1,5:11,7:5).Womenhave
alwayswornthehairlong,baldnessorshorthairbeingtothemadisgrace(Is3:24,Ezk16:7,1Co11:15,Rev9:8).Absalomshairwascut
onceayear(2S14:26cf.rulesforpriests,Ezk44:20),butmenseemtohavewornthehairlongerthanisseemlyamongus(Ca5:2,11).In
NTtimesitwasashameforamantohavelonghair(1Co11:6ff.).ThisprobablyneverappliedtotheArabs,whostillwearthehairinlong
plaits.ThelocksoftheNaziritewere,ofcourse,anexception(Jg16:13etc.).TheIsraeliteswereforbiddentocutthecornersoftheirhair(Lv
19:27,21:5).Inneighbouringnationsthelocksonthetemples,infrontoftheears,wereallowedtogrowinyouth,andtheirremovalwaspart
ofcertainidolatrousritesconnectedwithpubertyandinitiationtomanhood.Thesepeoplesarereferredtoasthosethathavethecorners
polled(Jer9:26RV).ThepracticewasprobablyfollowedbyIsraelinearlytimes,andtheprohibitionwasrequiredtodistinguishthemfrom
idolaters.OnecuriousresultofthepreceptisseenamongtheorthodoxJewsoftoday,whoreligiouslypreservethelovelockswhich,inthe
farpast,theirancestorsreligiouslycut.
TheAssyriansworethehairlong(Herod.i.195).InEgyptthewomenworelonghair.Themenshavedbothheadandbeard(Gn41:14),
buttheyworeimposingwigsandfalseheards,theshapeofthelatterindicatingtherankanddignityofthewearer(Herod.ii.36,iii.12Wilk.
Anc.Egyp.ii.324,etc.).JosephussaysthatyounggallantsamongthehorsemenofSolomonsprinkledgolddustontheirlonghair,sothat
theirheadssparkledwiththereflexionofthesunbeamsfromthegold(Ant.VIII.vii.3).Jezebeldressedherhair(2K9:30).Juditharranged
herhairandputonaheaddress(Jth10:3).St.Pauldeprecatestoomuchattentiontobraidedhair(1Ti2:9,cf.1P3:3).Artificialcurlsare
mentionedinIs3:24.ThefilletoftwistedsilkorothermaterialbywhichthehairwasheldinpositionstandsforthehairitselfinJer7:29.
CombsarenotmentionedinScripturebuttheywereusedinEgypt(Wilk.op.cit.ii.349),andweredoubtlesswellknowninPalestine.The
barberwithhisrazorappearsinEzk5:1(cf.Chagiga4b,Shab,6).HerodtheGreatdyedhishairblack,tomakehimselflookyounger(Jos.
Ant.XVI.viii.1).Wehearoffalsehaironlyonce,andthenitisusedasadisguise(ib.,Vit.11).Lightornamentsofmetalwerewornonthe
hair(Is3:18):Inmoderntimescoinsofsilverandgoldarecommonlywornoftenatinybellishungattheendofthetress.Itisagrievous
insulttocutorpluckthehairofheadorcheek(2S10:4ff.,Is7:20,50:6,Jer48:37).Lettinglooseawomanshairisamarkofabasement(Nu
5:18RV)oritmayindicateselfhumiliation(Lk7:38).Asatokenofgriefitwascustomarytocutthehairofbothheadandbeard(Is15:2,
Jer16:6,41:5,Am8:10),toleavethebearduntrimmed(2S19:24),andeventopluckoutthehair(Ezr9:3).Tearingthehairisstillacommon
Orientalexpressionofsorrow.Arabwomencutofftheirhairinmourning.
ThehairofthelifelongNaziritemightneverbecut(Jg13:5,1S1:11).TheNaziriteforaspecifiedtimecuthishaironlywhenthevow
wasperformed.If,aftertheperiodofseparationhadbegun,hecontracteddefilement,hisheadwasshavedandtheperiodbegananew(Nu
6:5ff.).AnArabwhoisundervowmustneithercut,comb,norcleansehishair,untilthevowisfulfilledandhisofferingmade.Thencutting
thehairmarkshisreturnfromtheconsecratedtothecommoncondition(Wellhausen,Skizzen,iii.167).Offeringsofhairwerecommonamong
ancientpeoples(W.R.Smith,RS2324ff.Wellhausen,op.cit.118f.).Itwasbelievedthatsomepartofamansliferesidedinthehair,and
thatpossessonofhairfromhisheadmaintainedacertainconnexionwithhim,evenafterhisdeath.Beforefreeingaprisoner,theArabscuta
portionofhishair,andretainedit,asevidencethathehadbeenintheirpower(Wellh.op.cit.118).Chalidb.alWalidwore,inhismilitary
headgear,hairfromtheheadofMohammed(ib.146).
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Thecolourofthehairwasobservedinthedetectionofleprosy(Lv13:30ff.etc.).Thoroughdisinfectioninvolvedremovalofthehair
(14:8,9).Theshavingoftheheadoftheslavegirltobemarriedbyhercaptormarkedthechangeinherconditionandprospects(Dt21:12W.
R.Smith,Kinship2,209).Swearingbythehair(Mt5:36)isnowgenerallyconfinedtotheheard.Thehoaryheadisheldinhonour(Pr16:31,
Wis2:10etc.),andwhitehairisassociatedwiththeappearanceofDivinemajesty(Dn7:9,Rev1:14).
W.Ewing.
HAJEHUDIJAHoccursinRVmof1Ch4:18inanobscuregenealogicallist.Itisprobablynotapropername,butmeanstheJewess(so
RVandAVm).AVreadsJehudijah.
HAKKATAN(thesmallest).Theheadofafamilyofreturningexiles(Ezr8:12)calledin1Es8:38Akatan.
HAKKOZ.1.AJudahite(1Ch4:8).2.Theeponymofapriestlyfamily(1Ch24:10,Ezr2:61,7:63,Neh3:4,21)calledin1Es5:38
Akkos.Theywereunabletoprovetheirpedigree.
HAKUPHA.EponymofafamilyofNethinim(Ezr2:51,Neh7:53)calledin1Es5:31Achipha.
HALAH.OneoftheplacestowhichIsraelitesweredeportedbythekingofAssyriaonthecaptureofSamaria(2K17:6,18:11,1Ch
5:26).ItwassituatedintheregionofGozan(wh.see),butithasnotyetbeensatisfactorilyidentified.
L.W.King.
HALAK,orthesmoothmountain,Jos11:17,12:7(only).Thiseminencehasnotbeenidentified,butitsapproximatelocalityis
indicatedbythewordsthatgoethuptoSeiranditformedthesouthernlimitofJoshuasconquests.
HALAKHAH.SeeTalmud.
HALHUL.AcityofJudah(Jos15:58).ItisthemodernHalhul,alargevillage4milesnorthofHebron.
HALI.AcitybelongingtothetribeofAsher(Jos19:25).Thesiteisdoubtful.ItmaybetheruinAliaonthehillsN.E.ofAchzib,about
13milesN.E.ofAcre.
HALICARNASSUSwasoneofthesixDoriancoloniesonthecoastofCaria.
ThoughexcludedfromtheDorianconfederacy(Hexapolis)onaccountofsomeancientdispute(Herod.i.144),itwasaveryimportantcityin
respectofpolitics,commerce,literature,andart.ItwasoneoftheStatestowhichtheRomanSenatesentlettersinfavouroftheJewsinb.c.
139(1Mac15:23).Itmustthereforehavebeenafreeandselfgoverningcityatthattime.Thedecreeofthecitypassedinthefirstcent.b.c.,
grantingtotheJewsreligiouslibertyandtherighttobuildtheirproseuchaibesidethesea(Jos.Ant.XIV.x.23),atteststheexistenceofan
earlyJewishcolonyinthecityandthiswasnatural,asHalicarnassuswasaconsiderablecentreoftradeowingtoitsfavourablepositionona
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bayoppositeCos,onthenorthwestsideoftheCeramicGulf.Thecityextendedroundthehayfrompromontorytopromontoryandcontained,
amongotherbuildings,afamoustempleofAphrodite.
ThesiteofHalicarnassusisnowcalledBodrum(i.e.fortress),fromtheCastleofSt.PeterwhichwasbuiltbytheKnightsofSt.John
(whoseheadquarterswereinRhodes),undertheirGrandMasterdeNaillac,a.d.1404.
HALL.SeePrtorium.
HALLEL.ThenamegiveninRabbinicalwritingstothePss113118calledtheEgyptianHallelindistinctionfromtheGreat
Hallel(Pss120136),andfromPss146148,whicharealsopsalmsofHallelcharacter.TheHallelproper(Pss113118)wasalways
regardedasformingonewhole.ThewordHallelmeansPraise,andthenamewasgivenonaccountoftheoftrecurringwordHallelujah
(PraiseyetheLord)inthesepsalms.TheHallelwassungatthegreatJewishfestivalsPassover,Tabernacles,Pentecost,andChanukkah
(DedicationoftheTemple).
W.O.E.Oesterley.
HALLELUJAH.AHebrewexpression,usedliturgicallyinHebrewworshipasashortdoxology,meaningpraiseyeJah.Withone
exception(Ps135:3)itoccursonlyatthebeginningortheendofpsalms,orboth:atthebeginningonlyinPss111,112atthebeginningand
endinPss106,113,135,146,147,148,149,and150attheendonlyinPss104,105,115,116,117.
IntheLXX,however,theGr.(transliterated)formoftheexpressionoccursonlyatthebeginningofpsalmsasaheading,andthiswould
seemtobethemorenaturalusage.ThedoubleoccurrenceintheHeb.textmayinsomecasesheexplainedasduetoaccidentaldisplacement
(theheadingofthefollowingpsalmbeingattachedtotheconclusionofthepreviousone).
Asaliturgicalheadingthetermservedtomarkoffcertainwelldefinedgroupsofpsalmswhichwereprobablyintendedinthefirstinstance
forsynagogueuse,andmayoncehaveexistedasanindependentcollection.WiththeexceptionofPs
135,thesegroups(intheHeb.text)arethreeinnumber,viz.104106111113,115117and146150.ButintheLXXalargernumberof
psalmsissodistinguished,andtheconsequentgroupingismorecoherent,viz.105107111119(135136)146150.Inthesynagogue
liturgythelastmentionedgroup(146150).togetherwith135136,hasawelldefinedplaceinthedailymorningservice,forminganintegral
partofthegreatBenedictionofSong(incertainpartsoftheearlyChurch,also,itwascustomarytorecitetheHallelujahpsalmsdaily).
TheHallel(Pss113118),whichformsaliturgicalunitinthesynagogueliturgy,isthemostcompleteexampleofHallelujahpsalmsin
collectedform.(IntheLXX,noticealltheindividualpsalmsofthisgroupareheadedAlleluia).
Allthepsalmsreferredtoexhibitunmistakablemarksoflatecomposition,whichwouldaccordwiththeirdistinctivelysynagogalcharacter.
LikeotherJewishliturgicalterms(e.g.Amen),HallelujahpassedfromtheOTtotheNT(cf.Rev19:17),fromtheJewishtotheChristian
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Church(cf.esp.theearlyliturgies),andsotomodernhymnody.ThroughtheVulgatetheformAlleluiahascomeintouse.TheAVandRV,
however,renderPraiseyetheLord.
G.H.Box.
HALLOHESH.Anindividualorafamilymentionedinconnexionwiththerepairingofthewall(Neh3:12)andthesealingofthe
covenant(10:24).
HALLOW.Tohallowiseithertomakeholyortoregardasholy.Bothmeaningsareveryold.ThusWycliftranslatesJn17:17
Halwethouhemintreuthe,andDt32:51YehalwidenotmeamongethesonesofYreal(1388.
Israel).IntheLordsPrayer(Mt6:9,Lk11:2,theonlyplaceswherehallowoccursintheNT)themeaningisregardassacred.Allthe
Eng.versionshavehallowedintheseversesexcepttheRhemish(Rom.Cath.),whichhas
sanctifiedbutinthemoderneditionsofthisversionthechangehasbeenmadetohallowed.
HALT.ThisEng.wordisused(1)literally,asaverbtobelame,tolimp,orasanadj.lame.Cf.Tindalestr.ofMt11:5Theblyndse,
thehaltgoo,thelepersareclensed.Or(2)figurativelytostumble,fail,asJer20:10Allmyfamiliarswatchedformyhalting.Fromthis
comesthemeaning(3)tobeundecided,waver,1K18:21Howlonghalt[lit.limp,asonunequallegs]yebetweentwoopinions?The
Revisershaveintroduced(4)themod.meaningtostop,Is10:32ThisverydayshallhehaltatNob.
HAM.Theoriginal(?)useofthenameas=EgyptappearsinPs78:51,105:23,27,106:22.IthasbeenderivedfromanEgyptianword
kem,black,inallusiontothedarksoilofEgyptascomparedwiththedesertsands(butseeHam[Landof]).Hmcametobeconsideredthe
eponymousancestorofanumberofotherpeoples,supposedtohavebeenconnectedwithEgypt(Gn10:620).Hissons(v.6)arethe
peoplesmostcloselyconnectedeithergeographicallyorpolitically.Greatdifficultyiscausedbythefusion(inJ)oftwoquitedistinct
traditionsinGn9,10.(i.)NoahandhisfamilybeingthesolesurvivorsoftheFlood,thewholeearthwaspopulatedbytheirdescendants
(9:18f.),andthethreesonspeoplethewholeoftheknownworldthemiddle,thesouthern,andthenorthernportionsrespectively(ch.10).
(ii.)Canaan,andnotHm,appearstobeNoahsson,foritishewhoiscursed(9:2027).Thepurposeofthestoryistoexplainthe
subjugationofthepeoplerepresentedunderthenameCanaantothepeoplerepresentedunderthenamesShemandJapheth.Tocombine
thetwotraditionsaredactorhasaddedthewords,andHmisthefatherofCanaaninv.18,andHmthefatherofinv.22.(1.)Thepeoples
connected,geographically,withHmincludeEgypt(Mizraim),andthecountryS.ofit(Cush),theLibyans(Put),andCanaan(see
Canaanites).Thedescendantsofthesefourrespectivelyaresodescribedinmostcasesfromtheirgeographicalposition,butatleastonenation,
theCaphtorim,fromitspoliticalconnexionwithEgypt(seeDriveron9:14).(ii.)InthesecondtraditionShem,Japheth,andCanaanstand
notforlargedivisionsoftheworld,butforcertainmuchsmallerdivisionswithinthelimitsofPalestine.Shemevidentlystandsforthe
Hebrews,orforsomeportionofthem(see10:21intheothertradition),andJaphethforsomeunknownportionofthepopulationofPalestine
whodweltinthetentsofShem(9:27),i.e.incloseconjunctionwiththeHebrews.Canaan(intheothertradition,10:19)inhabitedthecoast
landsontheW.,andtheArabahontheS.E.Butthereisnoevidencethatthepeoplesinthesedistrictswereeverincompletesubjectiontothe
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Hebrewssuchasisimpliedinaslaveofslaves(9:25).Somethinkthatthethreenamesrepresentthreegradesorcastes[cf.thethreegrades
inBabylonia,whoholddistinctlegalpositionsintheCodeofHammurabiamelu(gentleman),mushkenu(commoner,orpoorman),
andardu(slave)].
A.H.MNeile.
HAM.AccordingtoGn14:5,thedistrictinhabitedbytheZuzim(wh.see).Thelocalityisunknown.
J.F.MCurdy.
HAM,LANDOF.ApoeticaldesignationofEgyptusedinthePsalmsinreferencetothesojournthereoftheChildrenofIsrael(Ps
105:23,27,106:22).Soalsothetabernacles(RVtents)ofHam(Ps78:51)standsforthedwellingsoftheEgyptians.TheEgyptian
etymologiesthathavebeenproposedforHmareuntenable,andthenamemustbeconnectedwiththatofthesonofNoah.
F.Ll.Griffith.
HAMAN(Ad.Est12:6,16:10,17Aman),thesonofHammedatha,appearsintheBk.ofEst.astheenemyoftheJews,andthechief
ministerofAhasuerus.OnhisplotagainsttheJewsanditsfrustrationbyEstherseeart.Esther.
Inlatertimes,attheFeastofPurim,itseemstohavebeencustomarytohanganeffigyofHamanbutasthegibbetwassometimesmadein
theformofacross,
riotsbetweenJewsandChristiansweretheresult,andawarningagainstinsultstotheChristianfaithwasissuedbytheemperorTheodosiusii.
(Cod.Theod.xvi.viii.18cf.21).
HAMATH.AcityontheOrontes,thecapitalofthekingdomofHamath,totheterritoryofwhichtheborderofIsraelextendedinthe
reignofSolomon(1K8:65),whoisrelatedtohavebuiltstorecitiesthere(2Ch8:4).Jeroboamii.,thesonofJoash,restoredthekingdomto
thisnorthernlimit(2K14:25,28),anditwasregardedasthelegitimateborderofthelandofIsrael(Nu34:8,Jos13:5),andwasemployedas
ageographicalterm(Nu13:21,cf.Jg3:3).TheHamathiteismentionedlastofthesonsofCanaaninthetableofnations(Gn10:18,1Ch
1:16).DuringthetimeofDavid,ToiwaskingofHamath(2S8:9)thegreatnessofthecityisreferredtobytheprophetAmos(Am6:2),and
itisclassedbyZechariahwithDamascus,TyreandZidon(Zec9:1f.).ThecitywasconqueredbyTiglathpileseriii.andSargon,andpartofits
inhabitantsweredeportedandthelandwaslargelycolonizedbyAssyriansitscaptureandsubjugationarereferredtointheprophetic
literature(Is10:9,Jer49:23cf.also2K18:34,Is36:19,2K19:13).HamathismentionedasoneoftheplacestowhichIsraeliteswereexiled
(Is11:11),anditwasalsooneoftheplaceswhoseinhabitantsweredeportedtocolonizeIsraeliteterritoryonthecaptureofSamaria(2K
17:24,30).SeeAshima.
L.W.King.
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HAMATHZOBAH(orHamathofZobah).AcityintheneighbourhoodofTadmor,conqueredbySolomon(2Ch8:3).Somehave
conjecturedthatitisidenticalwithHamath(wh.see),andthatZobahisusedhereinabroadersensethanusual.Ontheotherhand,itmaybe
anotherHamathsituatedintheterritoryofZobahproper.
W.M.Nesbit.
HAMMATH(hotspring).1.FatherofthehouseofRechab(1Ch2:55).
2.OneofthefencedcitiesofNaphtali(Jos19:35),probablythesameas
Hammonof1Ch6:76andHammothdorofJos21:32.ItisdoubtlesstheHamataoftheTalmud,theEmmausorAmmathusofJos.(Ant.
XVIII.ii.3),andthemodernHammm,35minuteswalkS.ofTiberias,famousforitshotbaths.
HAMMEAH,THETOWEROF(Neh3:1,12:39).Atoweronthewallsof
Jerus.,nearthetowerofHananel(wh.see),betweentheSheepgateontheeastandtheFishgateonthewest.Thesetwotowerswere
probablysituatedneartheN.E.cornerofthecity(cf.Jer31:38,Zec14:10).TheoriginofthenametowerofHammeah,ortowerofthe
hundred(RVm),isobscure.Ithasbeensuggestedthatthetowerwas100cubitshigh,orthatitwasapproachedby100steps,orthatit
requiredagarrisonof100men.
HAMMEDATHA(Est3:1,10,8:5,9:10,24inAd.Est12:6,16:10,17Amadathus).ThefatherofHaman.Thenameisprobably
Persianpossiblytheetymologyismh=moondata=given.
HAMMELECHoccursasapropernameinAVandRVmofJer36:26,38:6,butthereislittledoubtthattherenderingoughttobethe
king,asinRVandAVm.
HAMMER.SeeArtsandCrafts,1,2,3.
HAMMIPHKAD(AVMiphkad),Neh3:31.SeeJerusalem,ii.4,andMiphkad.
HAMMOLECHETH(thequeen?).ThedaughterofMachirandsisterofGilead(1Ch7:17f.).
HAMMON(hotspring).1.AtowninNaphtali(1Ch6:76),prob.identicalwithHammath(wh.see).2.AtowninAsher(Jos19:28).
Itssiteisuncertain.
HAMMOTHDOR.ALeviticalcityinNaphtali(Jos21:32),probablyidenticalwithHammath(wh.see).
HAMMUEL.ASimeoniteofthefamilyofShaul(1Ch4:26).
HAMMURABI.SeeAssyriaandBabylonia,ii.1(b).
HAMONAH(multitude).Thenameofacitytobebuiltincommemorationofthedefeat(?)ofGog(Ezk39:16).
HAMONGOG(Gogsmultitude).Thenametobegiventothevalley(outsidetheHolyLand)whereGogandallhismultitude
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HAMONGOG(Gogsmultitude).Thenametobegiventothevalley(outsidetheHolyLand)whereGogandallhismultitude
aretobeburied(Ezk39:11,15).
HAMOR(heass).Somethinkthatthenamepointstoatotemclan,suchasthereisreasontobelieveexistedamongtheearly
Canaanite,andotherSemitic,peoples.HeisthefatherofShechem(Gn33:19,34,Jos24:32,Jg9:28)butinthefirstandlasttwoofthese
passages,theinhabitantsofShechemarecalledthesonsofHamorandthemenofHamor.Itwouldseem,therefore,thatHamorisnottobe
consideredanhistoricalindividual,buttheeponymousancestoroftheHamorites[cf.thesonsofHeth=theHittites,Gn23:3],whowerea
branchoftheHivites(34:2)andthefatherofShechemmeansthefounderoftheplaceShechem(cf.1Ch2:50f.).
Gn34containsacompositenarrative.Accordingtop(vv.1,2a,4,6,810,1318,2024,25(partly)2729),Hamornegotiateswith
JacobandhissonsforthemarriageofShechemandDinah,withtheobjectofamalgamatingthetwopeoplescircumcisionisimposedbythe
sonsofJacobuponthewholeHamoritetribe,andthentheyattackthecity,slayingallthemalesandcarryingoffthewholeofthespoil.Inthe
remainingversesofthechapter,theearliernarrative(J)picturesamuchsmallerpersonalaffair,inwhichShechemloves,andisreadyto
marry,Dinahheonlyiscircumcised,andheandHamoraloneareslainbySimeonand
LevianincidenttowhichGn49:57appearstorefer.ItisprobablethatnotonlyHamor,butalsoDinah,Simeon,andLevi,standfortribes
orcommunities.See,further,underthesenames.
ThereisacuriousfusionoftraditionsinAc7:10,whereJacobandourfathersaresaidtohavebeenlaidinthetombwhichAbraham
boughtforamoneypricefromthesonsofEmmorinSychem.AbrahamboughtatombinMachpelah,notinShechem(Gn23:17f.),and
Jacobwasburiedinit(50:13).Ofthelatterssons,JosephaloneisrelatedintheOTtohavebeenburiedinthetombboughtfromthesonsof
Hamor(Jos24:32).
A.H.MNeile.
HAMRAN(1Ch1:41).AnEdomite.InGn36:26thenameismorecorrectlygivenasHemdan.
HAMUL(spared).AsonofPerezandgrandsonofJudah(Gn46:12=1Ch2:5,Nu26:1).ThegentilicHamulitesoccursinNu26:11.
HAMUTAL(2K23:31and24:18,Jer52:1).MotherofthekingsJehoahazandZedekiah,sonsofJosiah.
HANAMEL.Jeremiahscousin,thesonofhisuncleShallum(Jer32:7,8,9,12,44).
HANAN.1.OneoftheLeviteswhoassistedEzrainreadingandexplainingtheLawtothepeople(Neh8:7in1Es9:48Ananias)
probablythesameasthesignatorytothecovenant(10:10).2.ThesonofZaccurthesonofMattaniah,oneofthefourtreasurersappointedby
Neh.overthestorehousesinwhichthetitheswerekept(Neh13:13).3.ABenjamitechief(1Ch8:23).4.TheyoungestsonofAzel,a
descendantofSaul(1Ch8:38=9:44).5.OneofDavidsmightymen(1
Ch11:43).6.ThesonofIgdaliah.HissonshadachamberintheTemple(Jer
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35:4).7.TheheadofafamilyofNethinimwhoreturnedwithZerub.(Ezr2:46,Neh7:49)calledAnanin1Es5:30.8.9.Twoofthechiefs
ofthepeoplewhosealedthecovenant(Neh10:22,26).
HANANEL(Elisgracious).ThenameofatoweronthewallofJerusalem.ItisfourtimesmentionedinOTinNeh3:1inconnexion
withtherepairing,andin12:39inconnexionwiththededication,ofthewallsinJer31:38andZec14:10asaboundaryoftherestoredand
glorifiedJerusalem.InboththepassagesinNeh.itiscoupledwiththetowerofHammeah(wh.see),andsomehavesupposedittobe
identicalwiththelatter.
HANANI.1.Abrother,ormoreprob.nearkinsman,ofNeh.,whobroughttidingstoSusaofthedistressedconditionoftheJewsinPal.
(Neh1:2).UnderNeh.hewasmadeoneofthegovernorsofJerus.(7:2).2.AsonofHeman(1Ch25:4).3.ThefatherofJehutheseer(1K
16:1).HananireprovedAsaforenteringintoalliancewithSyria,andtheangrykingcasthimintoprison(2Ch16:7).4.Apriestofthesonsof
Immerwhohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:20)calledAnaniasin1Es9:21.5.Achiefmusicianmentionedinconnexionwiththe
dedicationofthewallsofJerus.(Neh12:36).
HANANIAH(Jahwehhasbeengracious).1.OneofthesonsofShashak,ofthetribeofBenjamin(1Ch8:24,25).2.Oneofthesons
ofHeman,whocouldprophesywithharps,withpsalteries,andwithcymbals(1Ch25:6),thoughtheirspecialfunctionseemstohavebeen
theuseofthehorn(vv.1,4,6).3.Oneofking
Uzziahscaptains(2Ch26:11).4.Thelyingprophet,sonofAzzurtheprophet,aGibeonite,whowascondemnedbyJeremiah,inthereign
ofZedekiah,forprophesyingfalsely.TheprophecyofHananiahwastotheeffectthatkingJeconiahandthecaptivesinBabylonwouldall
returnintwoyearstime,bringingbackwiththemthevesselsoftheLordshousewhichNebuchadnezzarhadcarriedaway(cf.Dn1:1,2).
Heexpressedthisinsymbolicfashionbytakingthebar(cf.Jer27:2)fromJeremiahsneckandbreakingit,withthewords,Thussaiththe
Lord:EvensowillIbreaktheyokeofNebuchadnezzarkingofBabylonwithintwofullyearsfromofftheneckofallthenations(Jer28:11).
InreplyJeremiahdeclaresthisprophecytobefalse,andthatbecauseHananiahhasmadethepeopletotrustinalie,hewilldiewithinthe
year.ThewordsofJeremiahcometopass:Hananiahdiesintheseventhmonth(v.17).5.FatherofZedekiah,oneoftheprincesofJudah(Jer
36:12).6.GrandfatherofIrijah,whoassistedJeremiah(37:13).7.AsonofZerubbabel(1Ch3:19).8.Apriest,headofthehouseofJeremiah,
whoreturnedwithNehemiahfromBabylon(Neh12:12).9.Governorofthecastle,who,togetherwithHanani,wasappointedbyNehemiah
tothechargeoverJerusalem(Neh7:2).10.ThefriendofDaniel,whoreceivedthenameShadrachfromtheprinceoftheeunuchs(Dn1:7,
11).Severalothersalsobearthisname,buttheyarenotofimportance(seeEzr10:28,Neh3:8,30,10:23,12:41thesearenotnecessarilyall
differentpeople).
W.O.E.Oesterley.
HANDisEVtr.ofHeb.yd,theopenhand,kaph,theclosedhand,andGr.cheir,hand.Sometimesitisidiomatic,e.g.athand(Is
13:6etc.,Heb.qrb,Mt26:18etc.,Gr.engys,lit.near).IndeterminingthedirectionsintheOrient,thefaceisturnedtotheeast,nottothe
northaswithus.Soitcomesthatymn,righthand,andseml,lefthand,liketheArab.yamnandshiml,denoterespectively
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southandnorth.
Inprayerthehandswerestretchedup(Ex17:11,1K8:22,Ps28:2etc.).ToliftthehandtoGodsignifiedavow(Gn14:22).Toputthe
handunderthethighofonetowhomavowwasmade,constitutedabindingformofoath(Gn24:2,47:29).Blessingwasconveyedbylaying
handsuponthehead(Gn48:14).OutofthisprobablygrewthepracticeinordinationseeLayingonofHands.Tofillthehand(Ex28:41
etc.)wastosetaparttothepriesthood.Sinwassupposedtobeconveyedtotheheadofthevictimforsacrifice(Ex29:10etc.),especiallyto
thatofthescapegoat(Lv16:21etc.),bylayingonofthepriestshands.Washingthehandswasadeclarationofinnocence(Dt21:6,Ps26:6,
Mt27:24etc.).Cleanhandswereasymbolofarighteouslife(Job22:30,Ps18:20,24:4etc.).Tosmitethehandstogetherwasasignofanger
(Nu24:10).Topourwateronanothershandswastobehisservant(2K3:11).Tojoinhandinhandwastoconspiretogether(Pr11:21etc.).
Tostrikehandssealedacompact(Pr6:1etc.).Foldedhandshetokenslumber(Pr24:33).Lefthandednessseemstohavebeencommon
amongtheBenjamites(Jg20:16),andonceitwasofsignalservice(Jg3:15,21).
ThehandoftheLord,andamightyhand(Dt2:15,4:34etc.),standfortheresistlesspowerofGod.ThehandoftheLorduponthe
prophetsignifiestheDivineinspiration(Ezk8:1,37:1etc.).ThegoodhandoftheLord(Ezr7:6etc.),myhandandmyFathershand(Jn
10:28,29),denotetheprovidential,preservingcareofGod.
Itappearsthatcertainmarksorcuttingsinthehandwereevidenceofwhatdeityoneserved(Is44:5RVm,cf.Gal6:17).Themarkofthe
beastupontheirhand(Rev20:4)isprobablyanallusiontothiscustom.SeeCuttingsintheFlesh,andMarks.
Incourttheaccuserstandsontherighthand(Ps109:6,Zec3:1).Thelefthandbearstheshield,leavingtherightsideexposedinbattle.The
protector,therefore,standsontherighthand(Ps109:31etc.).Perhapsonthisaccounthonourattachestotherighthand,theplacegiventothe
mostfavouredguest.TheseatoftheRedeemersgloryisattherighthandofGod(Ps110:1,Lk22:69,Ro8:34etc.).
Thrice(1S15:12,2S18:18,Is56:5)ydclearlymeansmonumentor
memorial,probablyastoneblockorpillarahandmayhavebeencarveduponit,butthisisuncertain.
W.Ewing.
HANDBREADTH.SeeWeightsandMeasures.
HANDKERCHIEFS,onlyAc19:12,soudaria,aloanwordfromtheLatin,elsewhererenderednapkin,forwhichseeDress,5(a).
HANDSTAVES.OnlyEzk39:9,eitherclubsortheequallyprimitivethrowsticksseeArmourArms,1.
HANESisassociatedwithZoaninadifficultcontext,Is30:4.SomewouldplaceitinLowerEgypt,withAnysisinHerodotus,and
KhininshiintheannalsofAshurbanipalbuttherecanbelittledoubtthatitistheEgyptianHns
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(HeracleopolisMagna)onthewestsideoftheNile,justsouthoftheFayyum.
Hnswasapparentlythehomeofthefamilyfromwhichthe22ndDyn.arose,andthescantydocumentsofsucceedingdynastiesshowitto
havebeenofgreatimportance:inthe25thand26thDyns.(c.b.c.715600)thestandardsilverofEgyptwasspecificallythatofthetreasuryof
Harshafe,theramheadedgodofHns,andduringthelongreignofPsammetichusi.(c.660610)Hnswasthecentreofgovernmentforthe
wholeofUpperEgypt.TheLXXdoesnotrecognizethenameofthecity,andshowsawidedivergenceofreading:forthereareinTanis
princes,wickedmessengers.
F.Ll.Griffith.
HANGING.SeeCrimesandPunishments,10Gallows.
HANGING,HANGINGS.1.TheformerisAVstermfortheportireclosingtheentrancetothecourtoftheTentofMeeting(Ex35:17
etc.),forthesimilarcurtainattheentrancetotheTentitself(26:36f.etc.),andoncefortheveilorhangingseparatingtheHolyofHolies
fromtherestoftheTabernacle.Inthelastpassage,Nu3:31,weshouldprobablyread,asin4:5,theveilofthescreen,screenbeingRVs
substituteforhangingthroughout.
RV,however,retainshangingsasthetr.ofadifferentoriginaldenotingthecurtainsoffinetwinedlinenwhichsurroundedthecourt(Ex
27:9etc.).See,forthesevarioushangings,therelativesectionsoftheart.Tabernacle.
2.Inacorruptpassage,2K23:7,wereadofhangingsforthegrove,orrather,asRV,ofhangingsfortheAsherah(cf.RVm),wovenby
thewomenof
Jerusalem.ThetruetextisprobablyLucians,whichhastunics,thereferencebeingtorobesforanimageofthegoddessAsherah(wh.see).
InthereligiousliteratureofBabyloniathereisfrequentreferencetogiftsofsheepskins,wool,etc.,asclothingforthegod(analubushtiili).
A.R.S.Kennedy.
HANNAH(grace).ThewifeofElkanah,andmotherofSamuel.ShecameyearbyyeartothesanctuaryatShilohprayingthatshe
mightbecomeamotherononeoccasionshemadeavowthatifGodwouldhearherprayerandgrantheramanchild,shewoulddedicate
himtotheLordallthedaysofhislife.Eli,thehighpriest,mistakesthesilentmovementofherlipsassheprays,andaccusesherof
drunkennessbutwhenhefindsoutthemistakehehasmade,hegivesherhisblessing,andpraysthatherpetitionmaybegranted.Hannah
returnshomeinpeace,andinfaith.InduetimeshegivesbirthtoSamuelwhenshehasweanedhimshebringshimtoShilohanddedicates
himtoGod.Itisonthisoccasionthatthesongcontainedin1S2:110isputintohermouth.Afterwardsshecomestovisithimonceayear,
bringinghimeachtimealittlerobe.HannahboreherhusbandthreesonsandtwodaughtersafterthebirthofSamuel(seeElkanah,Samuel).
W.O.E.Oesterley.
HANNATHON.AplaceontheN.borderofZebulun,Jos19:14.Thesiteisuncertain.
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HANNIEL(graceofGod).1.SonofEphod,andManassehsrepresentativefordividingtheland(Nu34:23).2.Aheroofthetribeof
Asher(1Ch7:39).
HANOCH.1.AgrandsonofAbrahambyKeturah,andthirdofthesonsofMidian(Gn25:4).2.TheeldestsonofReuben,andheadof
thefamilyoftheHanochites(Gn46:9,Ex6:14,Nu26:5,1Ch5:8).
HANUN(favoured).1.ThesonofNahash,kingoftheAmmonites.Uponthedeathofthelatter,Davidsentamessageofcondolenceto
Hanun,who,however,resentedthisaction,andgrosslyinsultedthemessengers.Theconsequencewasawar,whichprovedmostdisastrousto
theAmmonites(2S10:1ff.,1Ch19:1ff.).2,3.ThenameoccurstwiceinthelistofthosewhorepairedthewallandthegatesofJerus.(Neh
3:13,30).
HAP,HAPLY.Theoldwordhap,whichmeanschance,isfoundinRu2:3herhapwastolightonapartofthefieldbelongingto
Boaz.TheHeb.isliterallyherchancechanced(AVmherhaphappened).Haplyisbyhap.Happilyisthesamewordunderadifferent
spelling,andhadformerlythesamemeaning,thoughitnowmeansbygoodluck.InAVthespellingisnowalwayshaply,butinthefirst
editionitwashappilyin2Co9:4LesthappilyiftheyofMacedoniacomewithmee,andfindyouunprepared,wee(thatweesaynot,you)
shouldbeeashamedinthissameconfidentboasting.
HAPHARAIM.AtowninIssachar(Jos19:19).TheOnomasticonplacesit6RomanmilesN.ofLegio.ItisprobablyKhirbetel
Farryeh,anancientsitewithnoteworthytombs,totheN.W.ofelLejjn.
W.Ewing.
HAPPIZZEZ.Theheadofthe18thcourseofpriests(1Ch24:15).
HARA.Mentionedin1Ch5:26asoneoftheplacestowhichIsraelitesweredeportedbythekingofAssyriaonthecaptureofSamaria.
Butinthecorrespondingaccounts(2K17:6,18:11)Haraisnotmentioned,andmostprobablythenameHarain1Ch5:26isduetoa
corruptionofthetext.ThereismuchtobesaidforthesuggestionthattheoriginaltextreadhrMdai,
mountainsofMedia,correspondingtothecitiesofMediaoftheparallelpassages(LXXtheMedianmountains)andthatMdaidropped
outofthetext,andhr,mountainsof,waschangedtothepropernameHara.
L.W.King.
HARADAH.AstationinthejourneyingsoftheIsraelites.mentionedonlyinNu33:24,25.Ithasnotbeenidentified.
HARAN.1.SonofTerah,youngerbrotherofAbram,andfatherofLot,Gn11:26(P),alsofatherofMilcahandIscah,v.29(J).2.A
GershoniteLevite(1Ch23:9).
HARAN.AcityintheN.W.ofMesopotamia,markedbythemodernvillageofHarran,situatedontheBlikh,atributaryofthe
Euphrates,andaboutninehoursrideS.E.ofEdessa(Urfa).TerahandhissonAbramandhisfamilydweltthereontheirwayfromUrofthe
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ChaldeestoCanaan(Gn11:31,12:4,5cf.Ac7:2),andTerahdiedthere(Gn11:32cf.Ac7:4).Nahor,Abramsbrother,settledtherehenceit
iscalledthecityofNahorinthestoryofIsaacandJacob(cf.Gn24:10,27:43).Itspositionononeofthemaintraderoutesbetween
BabyloniaandtheMediterraneancoastrendereditcommerciallyofgreatimportance(cf.Ezk27:23).Itwasthechiefseatoftheworshipof
Sin,themoongod,andthefrequentreferencestothecityintheAssyrianinscriptionshavetodomainlywiththeworshipofthisdeityandthe
restorationofhistemple.ItisprobablethatHaranrebelledalongwiththecityofAshurinb.c.763,andareferencetoitssubsequentcapture
andthesuppressionoftherevoltmaybeseenin2K19:12Sargonlateronrestoredtheancientreligiousprivilegesofwhichthecityhadbeen
thendeprived.TheworshipofthemoongodatHaranappearstohavelongsurvivedtheintroductionofChristianity.
L.W.King.
HARARITE.Anepithetofdoubtfulmeaning(possiblymountaindweller,butmoreprobablynativeof[anunknown]Harar)applied
totwoofDavidsheroes.1.ShammahthesonofAgee(2S23:11,33,1Ch11:34[whereShageeshouldprobablybeShammah]).2.Ahiam
thesonofSharar(2S23:33[RVArarite],1Ch11:35).
HARBONA(Est1:10)orHARBONAH(7:9).ThethirdoftheseveneunuchsorchamberlainsofkingAhasuerus.Itwasonhis
suggestionthatHamanwashangeduponthegallowswhichhehadpreparedforMordecai.
HARD.Besidesothermeaningswhicharestillinuse,hardsometimesmeansclose:Jg9:52AndAbimelechwentharduntothe
doorofthetowertoburnitwithfirePs63:8MysoulfollowethhardaftertheeAc18:7Justuswhosehousejoinedhardtothe
synagogue.Cf.Job17:1inCoverdale,Iamhardeatdeathesdore.
HardinessisusedinJth16:10forcourage:theMedesweredauntedatherhardiness(RVboldness).
Hardlymeanseitherharshly,asGn16:5Saraidealthardlywithher,or
withdifficulty,asEx13:15PharaohwouldhardlyletusgoMt19:23arichmanshallhardlyenterintothekingdomofheavenLk9:39
bruisinghim,hardlydepartethfromhimAc27:8And,hardlypassingit,cameuntoaplacewhichiscalledThefairhavens.SoAdams(2
Peter1:4)Hethathathdoneevilonce,shallmorehardlyresistitatthenextassault.
Hardnessformodernhardshipoccursin2Ti2:3endurehardnessasagoodsoldier.Cf.Shakespeare,Cymb.iii.vi.21
Hardnessever
Ofhardinessismother.
HARDENING.BothintheOT(1S6:6)andintheNT(Ro9:17f.)Pharaohshardeningisregardedastypical.InExodus,two
explanationsaregivenofhisstubbornness:(1)Pharaohhardenedhisheart(8:15,32)(2)theLordhardenedtheheartofPharaoh(9:12).
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Theformerstatementrecognizesmansmoralresponsibility,andisinaccordwiththeexhortation,Hardennotyourhearts(Ps95:8,He3:8).
TothelatterstatementSt.PaulconfineshisthoughtwhenheinsistsonthesovereigntyofGodasmanifestedintheelectionofgrace(Ro9:18)
buthavingvindicatedtheabsolutefreedomoftheDivineaction,theApostleproceedstoshowthattheDivinechoiceisneitherarbitrarynor
unjust.Thedifficultyinvolvedincombiningthetwostatementsisphilosophicalratherthantheological.Theattempttounderstandthe
relationbetweenthehumanwillandtheDivineseemstoleadofnecessitytoanantinomywhichthoughthasnotasyetsucceededin
transcending(Denney,EGTii.663).ThesameDivineactionsoftenstheheartofhimwhorepentsandfindsmercy,buthardenstheheartof
himwhoobstinatelyrefusestogiveheedtotheDivinecall.ThesweetpersuasionofHisvoicerespectsthysanctityofwill.TheRVrightly
rendersMk3:5beinggrievedatthehardeningoftheirheartgriefisthepermanentattitudeoftheSaviourtowardsallinwhomthereisany
signofthisprocessofmoralossificationwhichrendersmeninsensibletospiritualtruth(Swete,Com,inloc.).
J.G.Tasker
HARE(Lv11:6,Dt14:7).FourspeciesofhareareknowninPalestine,ofwhichthecommonestistheLepussyriacus.Theharedoesnot
reallychewthecud,though,liketheconey,itappearstodosoitwas,however,uncleanbecauseitdidnotdividethehoof.Haresareto
dayeatenbytheArabs.
E.W.G.Masterman.HAREPH.AJudahitechief(1Ch2:51).
HARHAIAH.FatherofUzziah,agoldsmithwhorepairedaportionofthewallofJerusalem(Neh3:8).
HARHAS.AncestorofShallum,thehusbandofHuldahtheprophetess(2K22:14)calledHasrahin2Ch34:22.
HARHUR.EponymofafamilyofNethinim(Ezr2:51,Neh7:53)calledin1Es5:31Asur.
HARIM.1.Alayfamilywhichappearsinthelistofthereturningexiles(Ezr2:32=Neh7:35)ofthosewhohadmarriedforeignwives
(Ezr10:31)andofthosewhosignedthecovenant(Neh10:27).2.Apriestlyfamilyinthesamelists(Ezr2:39=Neh7:42=1Es5:25
HarimEzr10:21,Neh10:5).ThenameisfoundalsoamongthepriestsandLevitesthatwentupwithZerubbabel(Neh12:3,whereitis
miswrittenRehum)amongtheheadsofpriestlyfamiliesinthedaysofJoiakim(Neh12:15)andasthethirdofthe24courses(1Ch24:8).
TowhichfamilyMalchijahthesonofHarim,oneofthebuildersofthewall(Neh3:11),belongedcannotbedetermined.
HARIPH.AfamilywhichreturnedwithZerubbabel(Neh7:24)andsignedthecovenant(Neh10:19)=Ezr2:18Jorah,1Es5:16
ArsiphurithoneofDavidscompanionsin1Ch12:5istermedaHaruphite(Kethibh),orHariphite(Qer).Thelatterreading,ifcorrect,
perhapspointstoaconnexionwithHariph.
HARLOT(Heb.znh,ishshhnokryyh[lit.strangewoman],qedshh,Gr.porn)inEVdenotesunchastewomen,especiallythose
devotedtoimmoralserviceinidolsanctuaries,orgiventoadissolutelifeforgain.Wefindevidenceoftheirexistenceinveryearlytimes(Gn
38).FromthenamestrangewomaninPr6:24,23:27etc.(cf.1K11:1,Ezr10:2etc.),wemayperhapsinferthatinlatertimestheywere
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chieflyforeigners.Bysongs(Is23:16)andinsinuatingarts(Pr6:24etc.)theycaptivatedtheunwary.Theyactedalsoasdecoystothedensof
robberyandmurder(Pr7:22,27etc.).Wealthwaslavisheduponthem(Ezk16:33,39,23:26etc.cf.Lk15:30).Apartfrombreachesofthe
marriagevows,immoralrelationsbetweenthesexesweredeemedvenial(Dt22:28ff.).Amanmightnotcompelhisdaughtertosin(Lv
19:29),butapparentlyshewasfreeherselftotakethatway.Childrenofharlotswerepracticaloutlaws(Dt23:2,Jg11:1ff.,Jn8:41),andin
NTtimestheharlotlivedundersocialban(Mt21:32etc.).
ThepicturetakesadarkerhuewhenwerememberthatinancientSyriathereproductiveforcesofnatureweredeified,andworshippedin
grosslyimmoralrites.Bothmenandwomenprostitutedthemselvesintheserviceofthegods.TheCanaanitesanctuarieswerepractically
giganticbrothels,legalizedbythesanctionsofreligion.TheappealmadetothebaserpassionsoftheIsraeliteswasalltoosuccessful(Am2:7,
Hos4:13ff.etc.),anditisgrimlysignificantthattheprophetsdesignateapostasyanddeclensionbywhoredom.Therewerethereforespecial
reasonsfortheexceptionallawregardingthepriestsdaughter(Lv21:9).ReligiousprostitutionwasprohibitedinIsrael(Dt23:17),andall
gainfromtheunholycallingasTemplerevenuewasspurned(seeDriver,Deut.,inloc.).ThepurereligionofJwasdeliveredfromthisperil
onlybythesterndisciplineoftheExile.
AsimilardangerbesettheearlyChurch,e.g.inGreeceandAsiaMinor:hencesuchpassagesasRo1:24ff.,1Co6:9ff.,Gal5:19etc.,andthe
decreeoftheApostolicCouncil(Ac15:20,29).
W.Ewing.
HARMAGEDON.Thenameoftheplaceinwhich,accordingtoRev16:16
(AVArmageddon),thekingsofthelowerworldaretobegatheredtogetherbytheDragon,theBeast,andthefalseprophet,tomakewar
uponGod.ThemostgenerallyacceptedlocationmakesthistobethemountainsofMegiddo,thatistosay,thosesurroundingtheplainof
Megiddo,inwhichsomanygreatbattlesofthepastwerefought.Thedifficultywiththisexplanationisthatonewouldexpecttheplainrather
thanthemountainstobechosenasabattlefield.Anotherexplanationfindsinthewordasurvivalofthenameoftheplaceinwhichthegods
ofBabyloniawerebelievedtohavedefeatedthedragonTimatandtheotherevilspirits.Suchaview,however,compelsaseriesofhighly
speculativecorrectionsofthetext,aswellasvariouscriticalsuppositionsregardingthestructureoftheBookofRevelation.Whilethe
referenceisapocalyptic,itseemsprobableonthewholethatthewordperpetuatesMegiddoasthesynonymofthebattlefieldwhetherabove
theearthorintheunderworldonwhichthefinalvictoryoverevilwastobewon.
ShailerMathews.
HARMON.Am4:3(RVAVthepalace).NoplaceofthenameofHarmonisknown.Thetextappearstobehopelesslycorrupt.
HARMONIESOFTHEGOSPELS.Thebeginningsofworksofthisclassgobacktoveryearlydays.TatiansDiatessaron(2ndcent.)
isofthenatureofaGospelHarmony.TheSectionsofAmmonius(3rdcent.)arrangetheGospelsinfourparallelcolumns.TheSectionsand
CanonsofEusebius(4thcent.)developstillfurthertheplanofAmmonius,enablingthereadertodiscoverataglancetheparallelpassagesin
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theGospels.Inthe5thcent.Euthalius,adeaconofAlexandria,besidesadoptingthedivisionintosections,appliedthemethodofnumbered
linestotheActsandEpistles.
ThefollowingaretheprincipalmodernHarmonies:A.Wright,Synopsisofthe
GospelsinGreek,withVariousReadingsandCriticalNotes(Macmillan,1903)
Huck,SynopsisderdreierstenEvangelien3(Tbingen,1906)Tischendorf,Synopsisevangelica,exiv.Evangeliisordinechronologico
concinnataetbrevicommentarioillustrata(Leipzig,1891)C.C.James,HarmonyoftheGospelsinthewordsoftheRV2(Cambridge,1901).
J.S.Banks.
HARNEPHER.AnAsherite(1Ch7:35).
HARNESS.See,generally,Armour,whichRVsubstitutesinmostplacesforAVharness.Similarlyharnessed(Ex13:18)becomes
armed,andthewellharnessedcampof1Mac4:7becomesfortified.Forthejointsoftheharnessof1K22:34RVmsubstitutesthe
lowerarmourandthebreastplate,theformerbeingprobablythetassetsorjointedappendagesofthecuirass,coveringtheabdomen
(Skinner,Cent.Bible,inloc.).TheonlypassagewhereharnessasaverbhasitsmodernsignificationisJer46:4harnessthehorses,theverb
intheoriginalbeingthatusedinGn46:29,Ex14:6etc.foryokingthehorsestothechariot.
A.R.S.Kennedy.
HAROD.Aspring,notawellasinAV,nearthemountainsofGilboa(wh.see),whereGideontestedhismen(Jg7:1),andwhichwas
probablythesiteofSaulscampbeforehisfatalbattlewiththePhilistines(1S29:1).Ithasbeenverygenerallyidentifiedwiththecopious
AinJaludintheValeofJezreel,E.ofZerin.Thewaterrisesinanaturalcavernandspreadsitselfoutintoaconsiderablepool,partially
artificial,beforedescendingthevalley.ItisoneofthemostplentifulandbeautifulfountainsinPalestine,andonethatmustalwayshavebeen
takenintoaccountinmilitarymovementsintheneighbourhood.ThefountaininJezreel(1S29:1)mayhavebeentheAinelMeyitehjust
belowZerin(Jezreel)butthisandanotherneighbouringspringareofinsignificantsizecomparedwithAinJalud.
E.W.G.Masterman.
HARODITE.Adesignationappliedin2S23:25totwoofDavidsheroes,
ShammahandElika.ThesecondiswantinginLXXandintheparallellistin1Ch11:27.Inthelatterpassage,byacommonscribalerrorthe
HaroditehasbeentransformedintotheHarorite.TheHaroditewasprobablyanativeofAinharod(Jalud),Jg7:1.Seeprecedingarticle.
HAROEH(theseer).AJudahite(1Ch2:52).PerhapsthenameshouldbecorrectedtoReaiah(cf.1Ch4:2).
HARORITE.SeeHarodite.
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HAROSHETH.AplacementionedonlyintheaccountofthefightwithSisera(Jg4:2,13,16).FromitSiseraadvanced,andthitherhe
fled.IthasbeenidentifiedwiththemodernTellelHarathiyeh,whichis16milesN.N.W.fromMegiddo.Butthisisuncertainnordowe
knowwhythedescriptiveepithetoftheGentilesisadded.
W.F.Cobb.HARP.SeeMusicandMusicalInstruments.
HARROW.In2S12:31apassagewhichhadbecomecorruptbeforethedateof1Ch20:3asrenderedinEV,Davidisrepresentedas
torturingtheAmmonitesunderharrowsofiron.Thetruetextandrendering,however,havereferencetovariousformsofforcedlabour(see
RVm),andtheharrowsbecomepicksofironorsomesimilarinstrument.
TheHeb.verbtr.harrowinJob39:10iselsewherecorrectlyrenderedbreaktheclods(Hos10:11alsoIs28:24,butAmer.RVhashere
harrow).InHastingsDBii.306severalreasonsweregivenforrejectingtheuniversalmodernrenderingoftheoriginalbyharrow.This
conclusionhassincebeenconfirmedbythediscoveryoftheoriginalHebrewofSir38:26wherewhosettethhismindtoharrowinthe
furrowswouldbeanabsurdrendering.ThereisnoevidencethattheHebrewsatanytimemadeuseofanimplementcorrespondingtoour
harrow.Stiffsoilwasbrokenupbytheploughorthemattock.Cf.Agriculture,1.
A.R.S.Kennedy.
HARSHA.EponymofafamilyofNethinim(Ezr2:52,Neh7:54)calledin1Es5:32Charea.
HARSITH.ThenameofagateinJerusalem(Jer19:2RV).RVmhasthegateofpotsherds,i.e.wheretheywerethrownout.AV,
derivingthewordfromheressun,hastheeastgate,AVmthesungate.ThisgateledintotheValleyofHinnom.
HART,HIND(ayyl,ayylh,andayyeleth).Thisisthefallowdeer,theiyyloftheArabs,Cervusdama.ItisnotcommoninW.
Palestinetoday,butevidentlywassoonce(1K4:23):itismentionedasacleananimalinDt12:15,22etc.Itshabitswhenpursuedare
referredtoinPs42:1andLa1:6.ThefallowdeerofDt14:5and1K4:23referstotheroe(wh.see).ThehindismentionedinGn49:21,Job
39:1,Ps29:9etc.Itscareofitsyoung(Jer14:5),thesecrecyofitshidingplacewhencalving(Job39:1),anditstimidityatsuchtimes(Ps
29:9)areallnoticed.InGn49:21Naphtaliiscomparedtoahindletloose,althoughmanyprefertorenderaslenderterebinth.
E.W.G.Masterman.
HARUM.AJudahite(1Ch4:8).
HARUMAPH.FatherofJedaiah,whoassistedinrepairingthewallsofJerusalem(Neh3:10).
HARUPHITE.SeeHariph.
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HARUZ.FatherofMeshullemeth,motherofAmonkingofJudah(2K
21:19).
HARVEST.SeeAgriculture.
HASADIAH(Jiskind).AsonofZerubbabel(1Ch3:20).
HASHABIAH.1.2.TwoLevitesofthesonsofMerari(1Ch6:45,9:14,Neh11:15).3.OneofthesonsofJeduthun(1Ch25:3).4.A
Hebronite(1Ch26:30).5.
TheruleroftheLevites(1Ch27:17).6.AchiefoftheLevitesinthetimeofJosiah(2Ch35:9)calledin1Es1:9Sabias.7.Oneofthe
LeviteswhowereinducedtoreturnunderEzra(Ezr8:19)calledin1Es8:48Asebias.8.Oneofthetwelvepriestsentrustedwiththeholy
vessels(Ezr8:24)calledin1Es8:54Assamias.9.TherulerofhalfthedistrictofKeilah,whohelpedtorepairthewall(Neh3:17),and
sealedthecovenant(Neh10:11,12:24,26).10.ALevite(Neh11:22).11.Apriest(Neh12:21).Inallprobabilitytheseelevenarenotall
distinct,butwehavenotsufficientdatatoenableustoeffectthenecessaryreductionofthelist.
HASHABNAH.Oneofthosewhosealedthecovenant(Neh10:25).
HASHABNEIAH.1.Fatherofabuilderofthewall(Neh3:10).2.ALevite(Neh9:5).ItispossiblethatweoughttoIdentifythisname
withHashabiahofEzr8:19,24,Neh10:11,11:22,12:24.
HASHBADDANAH.OneofthemenwhostoodonthelefthandofEzraatthereadingoftheLaw(Neh8:4):calledin1Es9:44
Nabarias.
HASHEM.SeeGizonite,Jashen.
HASHMONAH.AstationinthejourneyingsoftheIsraelites,mentionedonlyinNu33:29,30.
HASHUBAH.AsonofZerubbabel(1Ch3:20).
HASHUM.1.Theeponymofafamilyofreturningexiles(Ezr2:19,10:33,Neh7:22,10:18)calledin1Es9:33Asom.2.Oneofthose
whostoodonEzraslefthandatthereadingoftheLaw(Neh8:4)calledin1Es9:44Lothasubus.
HASIDANS(AVAssideansHeb.chasdm,thePious).AgroupofreligionistsinJuda(1Mac2:42)tobedistinguishedfromthe
priestlypartywhohadcomeundertheinfluenceofHellenism.TheHasidansweredevotedtotheLaw,andrefusedtocompromiseinany
waywiththeHellenizingpolicyenforcedbyAntiochusiv.Theyfurnishedthemartyrsofthepersecutionunderthatmonarch.Strictly
speaking,theywerenotapoliticalparty,andprobablylivedinthesmallerJewishtowns,aswellasinJerusalem.TheyjoinedwithMattathias
inhisrevoltagainsttheSyrians,butwerenotinterestedinthepoliticaloutcomeofthestruggle,exceptasitgavethemtherighttoworship
JehovahaccordingtotheTorah.AfterJudashadcleansedtheTemple,theyseparatedthemselvesfromtheHasmonanorMaccabanparty,
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andunitedwiththemonlytemporarily,whentheyfoundthatunderAlcimustheTempleworshipwasagainthreatened.Theirdefectionfrom
Judaswaslargelythecauseofhisdownfall.
AlthoughtheirpreciserelationtotheScribalmovementcannotbestated,becauseoflackofdata,itisclearthattheHasidansmusthave
includedalltheorthodoxscribesandweredevoteestothegrowingOralLaw.TheywerethustheforerunnersofthePhariseesandprobablyof
theEssenes,whichlatterparty,althoughdifferingfromtheminrejectinganimalsacrifice,probablypreservedtheirname.BoththePharisees
andtheEssenesrepresentedafurtherdevelopmentofviewsandpracticeswhichtheHasidansembodiedingerm.
ShailerMathews.
HASMONANS.SeeMaccabees.
HASRAH.SeeHarhas.
HASSENAAH.HissonsbuilttheFishgate(Neh3:6).Theirname,whichisprob.thesameasHassenuah,seemstobederivedfrom
someplaceSenaah(cf.Ezr2:35,Neh7:38).SeeSenaah.
HASSENUAH.AfamilynamefoundintwodifferentconnexionsinthetwolistsofBenjamiteinhabitantsofJerusalem(1Ch9:7,Neh
11:9).Cf.preced.article.
HASSHUB.1.2.Twobuildersofthewall(Neh3:11,23).3.Oneofthosewhosignedthecovenant(Neh10:23).4.ALeviteofthesons
ofMerari(1Ch9:14,Neh11:15).
HASSOPHERETH.SeeSophereth.
HASUPHA.TheheadofafamilyofNethinimwhoreturnedwithZerub.(Ezr2:43,Neh7:46)calledin1Es5:28Asipha.
HAT.SeeDress,5(a).
HATCHET(Ps74:6RV).SeeArtsandCrafts,1.
HATHACH.A eunuch appointed by the king to attend on queen Esther. By his means Esther learned from Mordecai the details of
HamansplotagainsttheJews(Est4:5,6,9,10).
HATHATH.AsonofOthniel(1Ch4:13).
HATIPHA.EponymofafamilyofNethinim(Ezr2:54,Neh7:56)calledin1Es5:32Atipha.
HATITA.Eponymofaguildofporters(Ezr2:42,Neh7:45)calledin1Es5:29Ateta.
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HATRED.PersonalhatredispermittedintheOT,butforbiddenintheNT(Mt5:4345).LoveistocharacterizetheChristianlife(Mt
22:3740).Theonlyhatreditcanexpressishatredofevil(He1:9,Jude23,Rev2:6,17:15).InLk
14:26andJn12:25theuseoftheverbhatebyJesusisusuallyexplainedas
OrientalhyperboleandwearegravelyassuredthatHedidnotmeanhate,butonlylovelessthansomeotherthing.Itwouldseemfairerto
supposethatHemeantwhatHesaidandsaidwhatHemeantbutthatthehatredHeenjoinedappliedtotheobjectsmentionedonlysofaras
theybecameidentifiedwiththespiritofevilandsoantagonistictothecauseofChrist.
D.A.Hayes.
HATTIL.EponymofafamilyofthechildrenofSolomonsservants(Ezr2:57,Neh7:58)calledin1Es5:34Agia.
HATTUSH.1.ApriestlyfamilythatwentupwithZerubbabel(Neh12:2)andsignedthecovenant(Neh10:4).2.Adescendantof
David,whoreturnedwithEzrafromBabylon(Ezr8:2[readwith1Es8:29ofthesonsofDavid,HattushthesonofShecaniah])seealso1
Ch3:22(butifweaccepttheLXXreadinghere,ayoungerHattushmustbemeant).In1Es.thenameisAttus.3.Abuilderatthewallof
Jerusalem(Neh3:10).
HAUNT.InolderEnglishhauntconveyednoreproach,butmeantsimplytospendtimeinorfrequentaplace.ThusTindaletranslates
Jn3:22AfterthesethingescamJesusandhisdisciplesintotheJeweslonde,andtherhehauntedwiththemandbaptized.So1S30:31,Ezk
26:17,andthesubst.in1S23:22knowandseehisplacewherehishauntis.
HAURAN.Amanfargoneinyearsandnolessalsoinmadness,whoendeavouredtosuppressatumultinJerusalemprovokedbythe
sacrilegesofLysimachus,brotheroftheapostatehighpriestMenelaus(2Mac4:40).
HAURAN(hollowland).ThedistrictS.E.fromMt.Hermoninparticularthefertilebasin,about50milessquareand2000feetabove
sealevel,betweentheJaulnandLej.OnlyinEzk47:16,18isthenamementioned,andthereastheidealborderofCanaanontheeast.The
modernArabscallessentiallythesamedistrictelHauran.ThenameoccursalsointheancientinscriptionsofAssyria.InGrcoRomantimes
thesamegeneralregionwasknownasAuranitisitwasboundedontheN.byTrachonitis,andontheN.W.byGaulanitisandBatana.All
thesedistrictsbelongedtoHerodtheGreat.UponhisdeaththeyfelltoPhilip(Lk3:1).TroglodytesdoubtlessonceoccupiedtheE.portionit
isnowinhabitedbyDruzes.Theentireterritoryistodaypracticallytreeless.
GeorgeL.Robinson.
HAVILAH.AsonofCushaccordingtoGn10:7,1Ch1:9,ofJoktanaccordingtoGn10:29,1Ch1:23.TheriverPison(seeEden
[Gardenof])issaidtocompassthelandofHavilah(Gn2:11,12),anditformedoneofthelimitsoftheregionoccupiedbythesonsof
Ishmael(Gn25:18)inwhichalsoSaulsmotetheAmalekites(1S15:8).IthasbeensuggestedthatitformedtheN.E.partoftheSyriandesert,
butitmaywithgreaterprobabilitybeidentifiedwithcentralandN.E.Arabia.
L.W.King.
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HAVVOTHJAIR.TheprecisemeaningofHavvothisuncertain,butitistakenusuallytomeantentvillages.InNu32:41these
villagesareassignedtoGilead,butinDt3:14andJos13:30toBashan.Thedifficultyiscausedbytheattemptoftheeditorsinthelasttwo
passagestoharmonizethereferenceinNumberswiththetraditionaboutthesixtyfortressesof1K4:18.ThereisnodoubtthattheJairof
NumbersandtheJairofJudgesareidentical.
W.F.Cobb.
HAWK.SomeeighteenspeciesofhawkareknowntoexistinPalestine.Thecommonkestrel(Falcotinnunculus)andthesparrowhawk
(Accipiternisus)arethecommonest.Thetravellerthroughthelandseesthemeverywhere.Hawkswereuncleanbirds(Lv11:16,Dt14:16).
ThemigratoryhabitsofmanyspeciesofPalestinehawksarereferredtoinJob39:26.
E.W.G.Masterman.
HAY.SeeGrass.
HAZAELusurpedthethroneofSyria(c.844b.c.)bymurderingBenhadadii.(HazaelssuccessorwasprobablyBenhadadiii.,theMari
oftheinscriptions.)TheformandfragmentarycharacteroftheOTreferencestoHazaeldemandcautionindrawingconclusionsfromthem.
Accordingto1K19:15,ElijahissenttoanointHazaelkingofSyriaheisregardedasJahwebsinstrumentwhoistopunishtheBaal
worshippersinIsrael(v.18).ThenextmentionofhimdescribeshowBenhadad,Hazaelspredecessor,whoisill,sendsHazaeltoElisha,to
inquirewhetherhewillrecover(2K8:7ff.)attheinterviewwhichHazaelhaswiththeIsraeliteprophet,themurderoftheSyriankingis
arranged,andElishadesignatesHazaelashissuccessoronthethrone.BoththesepassagesintroduceHazaelsomewhatabruptlyineachcase
theIsraeliteprophetgoestoDamascusandeachpassagehasforitscentralpointthequestionofHazaelssucceedingtothethroneofSyria
theseconsiderations(nottomentionothers)suggestthatthepassagescomefromdifferentsources,andaredealingwithtwoaccountsofthe
sameevent.
ThenextmentionofHazaelshowshimfightingatRamothgileadagainstthealliedarmiesofJoram,kingofIsrael,andAhaziah,kingof
Judah(2K8:28,29,9:14,16)thenarrativeherebreaksofftodealwithothermatters,anddoesnotsaywhattheresultofthefightingwas,
butfrom2K10:32ff.itisclearnotonlythatHazaelwasvictoriousthen,butthathecontinuedtobesoforanumberofyears(see,further,2K
12:17ff.,cf.Am.1:35)indeed,itwasnotuntilhisdeaththattheIsraeliteswereoncemoreabletoassertthemselves.
W.O.E.Oesterley.
HAZAIAH.AdescendantofJudah(Neh11:5).
HAZARADDAR.AplaceonthesouthernborderofCanaan,westofKadeshbarnea(Nu34:4).ItappearstobethesameasHezronof
Jos15:3,whichinthelatterpassageisconnectedwithbutseparatedfromAddar.
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HAZARENAN(onceEzk47:17Hazarenon).AplacementionedinNu34:9,10asthenorthernboundaryofIsrael,andinEzk47:17,
48:1asoneoftheidealboundaries.ItwasperhapsatthesourcesoftheOrontes.SeealsoHazerhatticon.
HAZARGADDAH.AnunknowntownintheextremesouthofJudah(Jos
15:27).
HAZARMAVETH.TheeponymofaJoktaniteclan(Gn10:26=1Ch1:20),describedasasonofJoktan,fifthinorderfromShem.
ItsidentitywiththemodernHadramautiscertain.Itwascelebratedforitstrafficinfrankincense.
HAZARSHUAL.AplaceinS.Judah(Jos15:28=1Ch4:28)orSimeon(Jos19:3),repeopledbyJewsaftertheCaptivity(Neh11:27).
ItmaybetheruinSawehonahillE.ofBeersheba.
HAZARSUSAH(in1Ch4:31Hazarsusim).AcityinSimeon(Jos19:5=1Ch4:31).Thesiteisunknown.ThereisaruinSusin,W.
ofBeersheba.
HAZARSUSIM.SeeHazarsusah.
HAZAZONTAMAR(?pruningofthepalm,Gn14:7).ItisidentifiedwithEngedi(2Ch20:2).ThenameispreservedinWdy
Hasaseh,N.ofAinJidy.Gn14:7,however,seemstoplaceittotheS.W.oftheDeadSea.
W.Ewing.
HAZEL(Gn30:37).SeeAlmond.
HAZERHATTICON(themiddleHazer).Aplacenamedamongtheboundariesof(ideal)Israel(Ezk47:16).Itisdescribedasbythe
borderofHauran.IftheMTbecorrect,Hazerhatticonisquiteunknownbuttherecanbenoreasonabledoubtthatweoughttoemendto
Hazarenonasinvv.17,18and
48:1.
HAZERIM.InAVaplacename,butrightlyreplacedbyvillagesinRV(Dt2:23).
J.F.MCurdy.
HAZEROTH.AcampinggroundofIsrael,thesecondstationnorthwardinthejourneyfromSinai(Nu11:35,12:16,33:17f.,and
probablyDt1:1).ItisusuallyidentifiedwiththebeautifulwadyofAinelKhadrah,about30mliesnortheastofJebelMusa.
J.F.MCurdy.HAZIEL.AGershoniteLevite(1Ch23:9).
HAZO.TheeponymofaNahoriteclan(Gn22:22).ItisnodoubtidenticalwithHaz,whichalongwithBazismentionedinan
inscriptionofEsarhaddon.
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HAZOR.1.ThecityofJabin(Jos11:1etc.),inNaphtali(Jos19:36),S.ofKedesh(1Mac11:63,67etc.calledinTo1:2Asher),
overlookingLakeSemechonitis=clHleh(Jos.Ant.V.v.1).ThenameprobablylingersinJebelandMerjelHadreh,about7milesN.of
Safed.ItwastakenanddestroyedbyJoshua.Solomonfortifiedit(1K9:15).ItwastakenbyTiglathpileseriii.(2K15:29).2.Atowninthe
NegebofJudah(Jos15:23),unidentified.3.AtownalsointheNegeh(Jos15:25),identicalwithKeriothhezron.4.AplaceinBenjamin,N.
ofJerusalem(Neh11:33),probablyKhirbetHazzr,betweenBeitHaninahandNebySamwl.5.ThekingdomsofHazor,namedwithKedar
(Jer49:28etc.),anArabiandistrict,possiblyontheborderofthedesert.
W.Ewing.
HAZORHADATTAH.Thetext(Jos15:25)isnotbeyondsuspicion.Ifitiscorrect,thenamemaymeannewHazor.Theplacewasin
theNegebofJudah,butthesiteisunknown.
HAZZELELPONI.AfemalenameinthegenealogyofJudah(1Ch4:3)HE.ThefifthletteroftheHebrewalphabet,andassuchusedin
the119thPsalmtodesignatethe5thpart,eachverseofwhichbeginswiththisletter.
HEAD.Nottheheadbuttheheartwasregardedastheseatofintellectitwas,however,theseatoflife,andwasnaturallyheldinhonour.
Hencephrasessuchaskeeperofmyhead(1S28:2cf.Ps140:7),swearingbythehead(Mt5:36),andthemetaphoricaluse,commonto
alllanguages,asequivalenttochief.InDt28:13,Is9:14,wefindheadandtailasaproverbialexpression.ChrististheheadoftheChurch
(Eph4:15,Col1:18,2:19),asmanisofthewoman(Eph5:23).Toliftuptheheadistograntsuccess(Ps27:6,110:7,Gn41:13,wherethereis
anobviousironicalparallelinv.19).Thehandontheheadwasasignofmourning(2S13:19,Jer2:37)sodustorashes(2S1:2,La2:10)
orcoveringthehead(2S15:30,Jer14:3).Ontheotherhand,touncoverthehead,i.e.toloosetheturbanandleavethehairindisorder,was
alsoasignofmourning(seeAVandRVm,Lv10:6,13:45,Ezk24:17).Similarlyshavingthehead,acommonpracticeintheEast
(Job1:20,Is15:2,22:12,Ezk7:18,Am8:10)itwasforbiddentopriests(Lv21:5),and,inspecialforms,toallIsraelites(19:27,Dt14:1).It
mightalsomarkthecloseofaperiodofmourning(Dt21:12),orofaNaziritesvow(Nu6:9,Ac18:18),orofaLevitespurification(Nu8:7).
InDt32:42thereisareferencetothewarriorslonghair,RVm.Layinghandsontheheadwas(a)partofthesymbolismofsacrifice(Lv
16:21),(b)asignofblessing(Gn48:14),(c)asignofconsecrationorordination(Nu27:23,Ac6:6).In2K2:3thereferenceseemstobeto
thepupilsittingatthefeetofhismaster.Headisalsoused,likeface,asasynonymforself(Ps7:16andprobablyPr25:22,Ro12:20).
C.W.Emmet.
HEADBAND.In1K20:38,41RVthisisthecorrectrenderingofthewordtr.ashesinAV.Beyondthefactthatitcoveredthewearers
foreheaditsformisunknown.Adifferentword,tr.headbands,Is3:20AV,moreprobablyrepresentssashes,asinRVitisusedagaininJer
2:32forthesashorgirdle(EVattire)withwhichabridegirdsherself(Is49:18RV,thecognateverb).
A.R.S.Kennedy.
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HEADSTONE,morecorrectlyheadstone,Zec4:7etc.SeeCorner,CornerStone.
HEADTIRE,TIRE.TheformerisfoundinAV,asoneword,only1Es3:6,forthekidaris,thestiffuprightheaddressofthePersian
kings.InRVheadtiresupplantsAVsbonnet(wh.see).ThetireofthineheadofEzk24:17AVbecomesinRVthyheadtire,buttiresis
retainedinv.23.FortheroundtireslikethemoonofIs3:18AV,thecrescentsofRV,seeOrnaments,andfortheHebrewheadgear
generally,seeDress,5.
HEADY.ThisformoftheEnglishwordhasbeendisplacedbyheadstrong.
Itoccursin2Ti3:1,wherethesameGr.wordisusedasistranslatedrashly(RVrash)inAc19:36.Bp.Hall(Works,ii.109)says,We
mayoffendaswellinourheddyeacceleration,asinourdelay.
HEALTH.Thewordformerlycovered(a)healing,(b)spiritualsoundness,(c)generalwellbeing.For(a)cf.Pr12:18,13:17,Jer8:15,
whereitrepresentsthewordusuallytranslatedhealing.(b)InPs42:11,43:5,67:2,andfrequentlyinPr.Bk.Version,itstandsfortheword
otherwisetr.salvationorhelp.Intheseusagesitisactive.(c)Thewiderpassiveuse,includinggeneralwellbeingofbodyandsoul,not
merelytheabsenceofdisease,isillustratedbyAc27:34,3Jn2.Cf.GeneralConfession,Thereisnohealthinus.SeeMedicine.
C.W.Emmet.
HEART.1.InstancesarenotwantingintheOToftheemploymentofthiswordinaphysiologicalsense,thoughtheyarenotnumerous.
Jacob,forexample,seemstohavesufferedinhisoldagefromweaknessoftheheartasuddenfailureofitsactionoccurredonreceiptofthe
unexpectedbutjoyfulnewsofJosephsgreatprosperity(Gn45:26).AsimilarfailureprovedfatalinthecaseofEli,alsoinextremeoldage(1
S4:1318cf.thecaseoftheexhaustedking,28:20).TheeffectoftherendingofthepericardiumisreferredtobyHoseaaswellknown
(13:8)andalthoughtheproverbasound(RVmtranquil)heartisthelifeoftheflesh(Pr14:30)isprimarilyintendedasapsychological
truth,thesimileisevidentlyborrowedfromauniversallyrecognizedphysiologicalfact(cf.4:23).TheaphorismattributedtothePreacher
(Ec10:2)maybeinterpretedinthesamewaytherighthandisthesymbolofstrengthandfirmness,andtheleftofweaknessandindecision
(cf.2:14).NordoesitappearthatOTwriterswereignorantofthevitalfunctionswhichtheheartiscalledontodischarge.Thiswillbeseenby
theirhabitofusingthewordmetaphoricallyasalmostasynonymfortheentirelife(cf.Ps22:26,69:32,Is1:5,whereheadandheartcover
manswholebeing).
2.Thepreponderatinguseofthewordis,however,psychologicalanditisinthiswaymadetocoveralargevarietyofthought.Thusitis
employedtodenotethecentreofmanspersonalactivities,thesourcewhencetheprinciplesofhisactionderivetheirorigin(seeGn6:5,8:21,
wheremensevildeedsareattributedtocorruptionoftheheart).Weare,therefore,abletounderstandthesignificanceofthePsalmists
penitentialprayer,Createinmeacleanheart(Ps51:10),andthemeaningoftheprophetsdeclaration,anewheartalsowillIgiveyou(Ezk
36:26cf.11:19).Theheart,moreover,wasconsideredtobetheseatoftheemotionsandpassions(Dt19:6,1K8:38,Is30:29cf.Ps104:15,
wheretheheartissaidtobemovedtogladnessbytheuseofwine).Itwasacharacteristic,too,ofHebraisticthoughtwhichmadethisorgan
theseatofthevariousactivitiesoftheintellect,suchasunderstanding(Job34:10,34,1K4:29),purposeordetermination(Ex14:5,1S7:3,
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1K8:48,Is10:7),consciousness(Pr14:10,where,ifEVbeanaccuratetr.oftheoriginaltext,theheartissaidtobeconsciousbothofsorrow
andofjoycf.1S2:1),imagination(cf.Lk1:51,Gn8:21),memory(Ps31:12,1S21:12cf.Lk2:19,51,1:66).Themonitionsofthe
consciencearesaidtoproceedfromtheheart(Job27:6),andthecounterpartoftheNTexpressionbrandedintheirownconscienceaswitha
hotiron(1Ti4:2RV)isfoundintheOTwordsIwillhardenhisheart(Ex4:21cf.Dt2:30,Jos11:20etc.).Closelyconnectedwiththeidea
ofconscienceisthatofmoralcharacter,andsowefindanewheartasthegreatdesideratumofapeopleneedingrestorationtofulland
intimaterelationshipwithGod(Ezk18:31cf.Dt9:5,1K11:4).Itis,therefore,inthosemovementswhichcharacterizerepentance,placedin
antithesistooutwardmanifestationsofsorrowforsin,Rendyourheartandnotyourgarments(Jl2:13).
3.Movingalonginthedirectionthusoutlined,andnotforgettingtheinfluenceoftheApocryphalwritingsonlaterthought(cf.e.g.Wis
8:19,17:11,Sir42:18etc.),weshallbeenabledtograspthereligiousideasenshrinedintheteachingoftheNT.Intherecordedutterancesof
Jesus,soprofoundlyinfluencedbytheancientwritingsoftheJewishChurch,theheartoccupiesaverycentralplace.Thebeatificvisionis
reservedforthosewhoseheartsarepure(Mt5:8cf.2Ti2:22,1P1:22RVm).Theheartiscomparedtothesoilonwhichseedissownit
containsmoralpotentialitieswhichspringintoobjectiveexistenceintheoutwardlifeofthereceiver(Lk8:15cf.,however,Mk4:1520,
wherenomentionismadeofthisorganseealsoMt13:18,inwhichtheheartisreferredto,asinIs6:10,astheseatofthespiritual
understanding).Hiddenwithintheremoterecessesoftheheartarethoseprinciplesandthoughtswhichwillinevitablyspringintoactivelife,
revealingitspurityoritsnativecorruption(Lk6:45cf.Mt12:34f.,15:18f.).Itisthusthatmenscharactersrevealthemselvesinnakedreality
(1P3:4).Itistheinfallibleindexofhumancharacter,butcanbereadonlybyHimwhosearcheththehearts(Ro8:27cf.1S16:7,Pr21:2,
Lk16:15).Humanjudgmentcanproceedonlyaccordingtotheunerringevidencetenderedbythisresultantofinnerforces,forbytheirfruits
yeshallknowthem(Mt7:20).ThemorestrictlyJewishoftheNTwritersshowtheinfluenceofOTthoughtintheirteaching.Wherewe
shouldemploythewordconscienceSt.Johnusesheart,whosejudgmentsinthemoralspherearefinal(1Jn3:20f.).NorisSt.Paulfree
fromtheinfluenceofthisnomenclature.Heseems,infact,toregardconscienceasafunctionoftheheartratherthanasanindependentmoral
andspiritualorgan(Ro2:15,wherebothwordsoccurcf.thequotationHe10:16).InspiteofthefactthatthelastnamedApostlefrequently
employsthetermsmind,understanding,reason,thinkings,etc.,toexpresstheelementsofintellectualactivityinman,wefindhim
constantlyrevertingtotheheartasdischargingfunctionscloselyalliedtothese(cf.theeyesofyourheart,Eph1:18seealso2Co4:6).With
St.Paul,too,theheartistheseatofthedeterminationorwill(cf.1Co7:37,wheresteadfastinheartisequivalenttowillpower).Inallthese
andsimilarcases,however,itwillbenoticedthatitismansmoralnaturethathehasinviewandthemoralandspirituallife,havingitsroots
struckdeepinhisbeing,isappropriatelyconceivedofasspringingultimatelyfromthemostessentiallyvitalorganofhispersonallife.
J.R.Willis.
HEARTH.SeeHouse,7.
HEATH.SeeTamarisk.
HEATHEN.SeeIdolatry,Nations.
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HEAVEN.Inthecosmictheoryoftheancientworld,andoftheHebrewsinparticular,theearthwasflat,lyingbetweenagreatpitinto
whichtheshadesofthedeaddeparted,andtheheavensaboveinwhichGodandtheangelsdwelt,andtowhichitcametobethoughtthe
righteouswent,afterhavingbeenraisedfromthedeadtoliveforever.Itwasnaturaltothinkoftheheavensasconcaveabovetheearth,and
restingonsomefoundation,possiblyofpillars,setattheextremehorizon(2S22:9,Pr8:2729).
TheHebrews,likeotherancientpeoples,believedinapluralityofheavens(Dt10:14),andtheliteratureofJudaismspeaksofseven.Inthe
highest,orAravoth,wasthethroneofGod.Althoughthedescriptionsoftheseheavensvaried,itwouldseemthatitwasnotunusualtoregard
thethirdheavenasParadise.ItwastothisthatSt.Paulsaidhebadbeencaughtup(2Co12:2).
Thisseriesofsuperimposedheavenswasregardedasfilledbydifferentsortsofsuperhumanbeings.ThesecondheaveninlaterJewish
thoughtwasregardedastheabodeofevilspiritsandangelsawaitingpunishment.TheNT,however,doesnotcommititselftotheseprecise
speculations,althoughinEph6:12itspeaksofspiritualhostsofwickednesswhodwellinheavenlyplaces(cf.Eph2:2).Thisconceptionof
heavenasbeingaboveaflatearthunderliesmanyreligiousexpressionswhicharestillcurrent.Therehavebeenvariousattemptstolocate
heaven,as,forexample,inSiriusasthecentralsunofoursystem.Similarly,therehavebeeninnumerablespeculationsendeavouringtoset
forthinsensuousformthesortoflifewhichistobelivedinheaven.Allsuchspeculations,however,lieoutsideoftheregionofpositive
knowledge,andrestultimatelyonthecosmogonyofprescientifictimes.Theymaybeofvalueincultivatingreligiousemotion,butthey
belongtotheregionofspeculation.TheBiblicaldescriptionsofheavenarenotscientific,butsymbolical.Practicallyallthesearetobefound
intheJohannineApocalypse.ItwasundoubtedlyconceivedofeschatologicallybytheNTwriters,buttheymaintainedagreatreserveinall
theirdescriptionsofthelifeoftheredeemed.Itis,however,possibletostatedefinitelythat,whiletheyconceivedoftheheavenlyconditionas
involvingsocialrelations,theydidnotregarditasoneinwhichthephysicalorganismsurvived.Thesensuousdescriptionsofheaventobe
foundintheJewishapocalypsesandinMohammedanismarealtogetherexcludedbythesayingsofJesusrelativetomarriageinthenewage
(Mk12:25||),andthoseofSt.Paulrelativetothespiritualbody.Theprevailingtendencyatthepresenttimeamongtheologians,toregard
heavenasastateofthesoulratherthanaplace,belongslikewisetotheregionofopinion.Thedegreeofitsprobabilitywillbedeterminedby
onesgeneralviewastothenatureofimmortality.
ShailerMathews.
HEAVEOFFERING.SeeSacrificeandOffering.
HEAVINESS.TheEng.wordheavinessisusedinAVinthesenseofgrief,andinnoothersense.ThusPr10:1Awisesonmaketha
gladfather:butafoolishsonistheheavinessofhismother.CompareCoverdalestr.ofPs30:5hevynessemayewellendureforanight,but
joyecommethinthemornynge,whencethePrayerBk.versionheavinessmayendureforanight.
HEBER.1.AmanofAsher(Gn46:17,Nu26:45,1Ch7:31,32).ThegentilicnameHeberitesoccursinNu26:45.2.TheKenite,
accordingtoJg4:17,5:24,husbandofJael.Heseparatedhimself(Jg4:11)fromhisBedouincasteof
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Kenitesornomadsmiths,whosewanderingswereconfinedchieflytothesouthofJudah,andsettledforatimenearKedeshontheplaintothe
westoftheSeaofGalilee.3.AmanofJudah(1Ch4:18).4.ABenjamite(1Ch8:17).
HEBREW.SeeEberTextVersionsandLanguagesofOT.
HEBREWS,EPISTLETO.Introductory.AtfirstsightitisnoteasytounderstandwhythistreatisehasbeendesignatedanEpistle.
Theonlydirectreferencesbythewritertothecharacterofhisworkarefoundin13:22,wherehestylesitawordofexhortation(cf.Ac
13:15,4Mac1:1),andspeaksofhavingwritten(aletter)untoyouinfewwords(thisverbseemstobemorejustlytreatedinAVthaninRV).
Thegeneralsalutationof13:24issimilartowhatisfoundinmostoftheNTEpistles(cf.Ro16:3ff.,1Co16:19ff.,2Co13:12f.,Ph4:21f.,
Col4:10ff.etc.).Atthesametime,therearenumerouspersonalreferencesscatteredthroughoutthewriting(13:7,5:11,4:1,10:19,6:9etc.),
andinmostcasestheauthorplaceshimselfonthesamelevelwiththosetowhomheiswriting(3:19,8:13ff.,11:40,10:10etc.).Inspiteof
theformalitywhichmightcharacterizethiswritingasatheologicalessay,itisevidentthattheearlyinstinctoftheChurchinregardingitas
essentiallyanEpistleissubstantiallysoundandcorrect(cf.Deissmann,BibleStudies,p.49f.).Ofcourse,thetitleTheEpistleofPaulthe
ApostletotheHebrews(EV)iswithoutearlytextualauthority.TheoldestMSShavemerelythesuperscriptiontoHebrews,justasthey
haveinthecaseofotherNTepistles(toRomans,etc.).Theonlyotherearlydescriptiontowhichitisnecessarytoreferinthisplaceisthat
giventoitbyTertullian,whoexpresslyquotesitbythetitleofBarnabastotheHebrews(dePud.20).Itseemstohavebeenunanimously
acceptedfromtheveryearliestperiodthattheobjectiveoftheEpistlewascorrectlydescribedbythistitle.Whether,however,thisconclusion
wasbasedonsoundtraditionalevidenceorwasmerelyarrivedatfromtheinternalcharacterofthewritingitself,mustbelefttoresearchor
conjectureforwemustnotsupposethatthewordstoHebrewsformanypartoftheoriginaldocument.
1.Authorship.NotwithstandingthefactthatthiswritingwasknownbythemostancientChristianwriters,atalleventsbythose
belongingtotheChurchinRome,itisnoteworthythatalltracesastoitsauthorshipseemtohavebeenlostverysoon.Theonlyinformation,
withregardtothisquestion,tobegleanedfromtheRomanChurchisofthenegativecharacterthatitwasnotwrittenbySt.Paul.Indeed,the
WesternChurchasawholeseemstohavealloweditspresenceintheCanononlyafteraperiodofuncertainty,andeventhentohaveregarded
itasofsecondaryimportancebecauseofitslackofApostolicauthority.
TheMuratorianFragmentdoesnotincludeitinitscatalogue,andimplicitlydeniesitsPaulineauthorship(TheblessedApostlePaul
himself,followingtheexampleofhispredecessorJohn,wroteonlytosevenChurchesbyname,etc.,seeWestcott,CanonoftheNT,App.C.),
asdoesalsoCaius.OfmoredirectvaluearethetestimoniesofHippolytusandIrenus,bothofwhomwereacquaintedwiththeEpistle,but
deniedthatSt.Paulwroteit(cf.Eusebius,HEv.26,vi.20seeSalmonsIntrod.toNT5,p.47).TheChurchesofNorthAfricaandAlexandria,
onthecontrary,havetheirrespectivepositivetraditionsonthisquestion.Theformer,ashasbeennotedalready,attributedthewritingto
BarnabasatheorypreservedbyTertullianalone,anddestinedtofallintocompleteoblivionuntilquiterecenttimes(cf.e.g.Zahn,
Einleitung,ii.p.116f.).
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TheAlexandrianbeliefintheauthorshipofSt.Paul,indirectlyatleast,datesasfarbackastheclosingyearsofthe2ndcentury.Clem.
Alex.goessofarastosuggestthatSt.PaulwroteitoriginallyinHebrew,suppressinghisnamefrommotivesofexpediency,andthatSt.Luke
translateditfortheuseofthosewhounderstoodonlyGreek.Origen,whohadhisowndoubtsastothereliabilityofthelocaltradition,
neverthelessupheldSt.PaulastheultimateauthorandhisinfluenceundoubtedlyhadpowerfulweightinovercomingtheWesternhesitation.
Atallevents,bythe5thcent.itwasalmostuniversallyheldtobetheproductofSt.Paulsliteraryactivityandthisbeliefwasnotdisturbed
untiltherevivaloflearninginthe16thcent.,whenagainawidedivergenceofopiniondisplayeditself.
Erasmus,thefirsttoexpressthelatentfeelingsofuncertainty,conjecturedinacharacteristicallymodestfashionthatClementofRomewas
possiblytheauthor.Luther,withhisusualboldnessandindependence,hazardedtheunsupportedguessthatitsauthorwasApollos(cf.Farrar,
TheEarlyDaysofChristianity,ch.xvii.andBleek,Introd.toNTii.pp.91ff.).CalvinwaveredbetweenSt.LukeandClement,following,no
doubt,someofthestatementsofOrigenastotraditionscurrentinhisday(seeEusebius,HEvi.25).
Inthemidstofsuchconflictingevidenceitisimpossibletofeelcertainonthequestionofauthorshipnorneedweexperienceuneasiness
onthishead.Theauthenticityandinspirationofabookarenotdependentuponourknowingwhowroteit.InthecaseofourEpistle,itisthe
subjectmatterwhichprimarilyarreststheattention.ThewriterisholdingbeforethemindsofhisreaderstheSonofGod,who,asman,has
spokenattheendofthesedays(1:2).Itseemstobesuitabletohisthemethatheshouldretirebehindtheveilofanonymityforhespeaksof
OnewhoistheeffulgenceoftheDivineGlory,andtheveryimageofhissubstance(v.3).
Wehavethusnoresourcebuttoappealtothewritingitselfinordertoarriveatadecisionastothekindofpersonlikelytohavepenned
suchadocument(cf.art.HebrewsinHastingsDB,vol.ii.338a).Theauthorseemstohaveapersonalandanintimateknowledgeofthe
characterandhistoryofthosewhomheaddresses(cf.6:9f.,10:34,13:7,19).Itisquitepossible,ofcourse,thatthismayhavebeengained
throughthemediumofothers,andthatheisspeakingofareputationestablishedandwellknown.Whenweconsider,however,thenumerous
instancesinwhichclosetiesofrelationshipbetraythemselves,weareforcedtotheconclusionthatthewriterandhisreaderswerepersonally
knowntoeachother.Timothywasamutualfriend(13:23),althoughitisconfessedthatboththeauthorandthoseaddressedbelongtothe
secondgenerationofChristians(2:3).Thereis,moreover,aconstantuseofthefirstpersonalpronoun(1:2,2:1ff.,9,3:6,14,4:3,14,6:18ff.,
8:1,9:24,10:10,1925,30,11:3,13:10),eveninplaceswhereweshouldhaveexpectedthatofthesecondperson(e.g.12:1f.,28,13:13ff.).
TothepresentwriterthewordstranslatedthatImayberestoredspeedilyuntoyou(13:19)seemtoconveythemeaningthathehadbeen
amongstthemonce,althoughWestcottisinclinedtoseeherebutasuggestionoftheideaofservicewhichhehadrenderedandcouldrender
tohisreaders(Ep.totheHebrews,inloc.,seealsoIntrod.pp.lxxvviandCremer,Bibl.Theol.Lex.ofNTGreek,p.312).Ifthushewerea
closepersonalacquaintance,thesereminiscencesoftheirformerendurance,andofthefaithfulnessofthosethroughwhoseinstrumentality
theyhadembracedtheChristianfaith,gainforceandpoint(cf.10:32,13:7).Thereis,moreover,atoneofauthoritythroughout,asifthewriter
hadnofearthathiswordswouldberesentedormisinterpreted(12:4f.,13:9,10:25,35,5:11ff.,3:12etc.).
TothesenotesofauthorshipmustbeaddedtheevidenceofwideliterarycultureobservablethroughouttheEpistle.Thischaracteristichas
been,andis,universallyacknowledged.TheauthordidnotusetheHebrewOT,andinthesinglequotationwherehevariesfromtheLXXwe
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gather,eitherthathewasacquaintedwiththeEpistletotheRomans,orthathegivesavariantreadingpreservedandpopularizedbytheTarg.
Onk.(cf.10:30andRo12:19).ThereisnootherNTwriterwhodisplaysthesamerhetoricalskillinpresentingthefinaltruthsoftheChristian
religionintheirworldwiderelations(cf.1:14,2:1418,6:1720,11:140etc.).Hisvocabularyisrichandvaried,andinthisrespectstands
closertothewritingsofSt.LukethantoanyotheroftheNTbooks.ThenumberofwordsfoundintheEpistlewhichhaveapeculiarBiblical
senseiscomparativelysmall(Westcott,ib.
Introd.xlvi.).FortheseandsimilarreasonsitisgenerallybelievedthatourauthorwasascholarofHellenistictraining,andmostprobablyan
AlexandrianJewofphilosophictemperamentandeducation(seeBacon,Introd.toNT,p.141).
2.Destination,circumstancesofreaders,date.Whenweaskourselvesthequestion,WhowerethepeopleaddressedinthisEpistle?,
weareagainmetwithaconfusingvarietyofopinion.Thechiefrivalclaimantstothishonourarethree:Palestine,whichhasthemostancient
traditioninitsfavour,andwhichiscountenancedbythesuperscriptionAlexandriaandRome,wheretheEpistlefirstseemstohavebeen
knownandrecognized.Oneconclusionmay,atanyrate,beacceptedascertain:theaddresseesformedadefinitehomogeneousbodyof
Christians.ThewriterhasalocalChurchinview,foundedataspecificperiod,andsufferingpersecutionatadefinitedate(notethetenseof
theverbs,yewereenlightened,yeendured,10:32).HeaddressesthisChurchindependentlyofitsrecognizedleaders(13:24).Inhis
exhortationtopatienceandenduranceheremindshisreadersofthespeedyreturnofJesus,asiftheyhadalreadybeguntodespairofthe
fulfilmentofthatpromise(10:36ff.cf.2P3:8ff.,Rev3:3,2Th2:1ff.).Hehadbeenwiththematsomeperiodpriortohiswriting,andhe
hopedonceagaintovisitthemwithTimothyashiscompanion(13:19,23).Theirspiritualgrowthwasarrestedjustatthepointwherehehad
lookedforvigourandforce(5:11ff.,6:1ff.),andthisresultedinmoraldegeneracy(5:11,12:5,3:12),andinneglectofthatordinancewhich
promotessocialintercourseandChristianfellowship(10:25).AsaChurch,too,theywereinapositiontohelptheirpoorerbrethren(6:10),
andheexpectedthemtocontinuethathelpinthefuture(6:11)afeatureofearlyChristianactivitywhichremindsusofthepovertyofthe
ChurchinJuda(cf.Ac11:29,24:17,Ro15:26,1Co16:1ff.etc.).Tothepresentwriterthisallusionofitselfpresentsaformidable,ifnota
fatal,objectiontothetheorythatPalestinewasthedestinationofourEpistle.ThisconclusionisstrengthenedbytheelegantGreekinwhich
theEpistleiswritten,andbythewritersuseoftheLXXinsteadoftheHebrewOT.Ontheotherhand,theonlydirectinternalevidence
pointingtothereadersrelationswithRomeisfoundinthesalutation,TheyofItalysaluteyou(13:24).Itistruethatthisissufficientto
establishaconnexionbutitwouldbefutiletodenythatitiscapableofadoubleexplanationthattheEpistlewaswritteneitherfromorto
Italy.Theformerseemsatfirstsightthemorenaturalinterpretationofthewords(cf.Col4:16)andwearenotsurprisedtofindsuchscholars
asTheodoretandPrimasiusexpressingtheirbeliefthatourauthorheredisclosestheplacefromwhichhewrites.Indeed,onthesupposition
thattheyofItalywerethewriterscompanionswhowereabsentwithhimfromRome,thewordsdonotseemthemostfelicitousmethodof
expressingtheirregards.Itwouldbenaturaltomentionsomeatleastoftheirnamesinsendinggreetingsfromthemtotheirbrethren,with
whomtheymusthavebeenontermsofthemostintimatefellowship(cf.Ro16:21ff.,1Co16:19).Besides,ifhewrotefromRomewehavea
naturalexplanation,amountingtoaveracausa,ofthefactthatourEpistlewasknowntherefromtheveryfirstforitmustnotbesupposed
thatawritinglikethiswasallowedtogoforthwithoutcopieshavingbeenmadebeforehand(forasupposedinstanceofthiskindinthecaseof
St.Lukeswritings,seeBlass,Ev.sec.
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Lucam,andActaApostolorum,especiallythePrfatioandProlegomenarespectively,wherethatscholarcontendsthattheremarkabletextual
variationsinthesewritingscanbeexplainedonlybythetheoryofasecondeditionofeach).
NorcantheclaimofAlexandriatobethedestinationoftheEpistlebesaidtohavemuchforce.Theargumentonwhichthistheoryis
mainlybasedhastodowiththediscrepanciesbetweenthewritersdescriptionsofLeviticalworshipandthatwhichobtainedintheJewish
TempleinaccordancewiththeMosaiccode(cf.e.g.9:3f.,7:27etc.).IthasbeensupposedthathehadinhismindthetempleofOniasat
LeontopolisinEgypt.This,however,ispureconjecture(cf.Westcott,ib.Introd.p.xxxix.),andiscontradictedbythehistoricalevidenceof
thelatedateatwhichtheEpistleseemstohavebeenknowninAlexandria,andbythefactthatitsauthorshipwascompletelyhiddenfromthe
headsoftheChurchinthatplace.WearethusreducedtothebalancingofprobabilitiesinselectinganobjectiveforourEpistle,andinso
doingwehavetoaskourselvesthemuchcanvassedquestion,Whatweretheantecedentsofthereaders?WeretheyGentileorJewish
converts?UntilacomparativelyrecentdateitwasbelieveduniversallythatthewriterhadJewishChristiansbeforehismind.Aformidable
array,however,ofNTcritics,especiallyContinental,nowadvocatethetheorythat,inspiteofappearancestothecontrary,theoriginalreaders
ofourEpistlewereGentilesormainlyGentiles(e.g.vonSoden,Jlicher,Weizscker,Pfleiderer,MGiffert,Bacon,etc.).Certainlyamongthe
ChristiansofthefirsttwoorthreegenerationstheremusthavebeenalargenumberofproselyteswhowerewellacquaintedwiththeLevitical
ceremonial,andtowhomthedescriptionofthefurnitureoftheTabernaclewouldhavebeenperfectlyintelligible(9:2ff.cf.vv.13ff.,19ff.,
10:11ff.etc.).ThattheaddresseesincludedJewscannotbedenied(see6:6f.,13:916etc.).Atthesametime,itwouldbefutiletobasean
argumentforthepurelyJewishdestinationoftheEpistleuponsuchpassagesasspeakofOTpropheticrevelationshavingbeenmadetothe
fathers(1:1),oroftheseedofAbraham(2:16)asconstitutingthebasisofJesushumannature.AsimilaridentificationismadebySt.Paul
inwritingtothe
ChurchinRome(Ro4:125),whereundoubtedlytherewasalargeadmixtureofGentileChristians.Moreover,ClementofRomeagainand
againreferstoourfathers,thoughhetooiswritingtoaChurchlargelyGentile(seecc.4,31,62.etc.).Itisalsowelltorememberthatthe
organizedbodies,weredependent,toaverylargeextent,upontheOTScripturesfortheirspiritualnourishmentandguidance.Thesewereto
themthechief,ifnottheonly,authoritativerecordofGodsrevelationofHimselfandHispurposestotheworld.Itwasperfectlynatural,
therefore,thatSt.PaulshouldpresupposeawideknowledgeofOThistory,and,indeed,oftheJewishinterpretationsofthathistory(cf.Ro
5:12ff.,1Co15:22,2Co3:7ff.,6:16,Gal3:29),onthepartofhisGentilereaders,justasClementofRomedoes.
WhenweturntoourEpistle,wearestruckatoncebythefactthatthewriterisnotmovingin,orthinkingof,alivingpractical
Leviticalism.HeisdealingwithMosaisminitsidealconditions.Theritualismaboutwhichheaddresseshisreadersseemstobe,notthat
whichactuallyobtainedinthelaterTempleservices(cf.e.g.7:27,10:11,9:21),butthatsplendidtheoreticalceremonialeverydetailofwhich
wasbelievedtobeatypeandashadowofthegoodthingstocome(9:11cf.W.R.Smithsart.HebrewsinEBr).Indeed,thetypological
andallegorizingelementsintheEpistleclaimforitalmostperemptorilyanonEasternobjectiveandthoughthepresentwritercannotseehis
waytoacceptZahnsconclusionthattheaddresseesformedacompactbodyofJewishChristianswithinalargeGentilecommunityof
believers,heisreadytoyieldtohisexhaustivestudyoftheproblemwhenhepointstoRomeasofferingthefewestobjections,onthewhole,
tobethedestinationofthewriting(Einleit.indasNT,ii.p.146ff.).
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Acceptingthisconclusionasatleastaprovisional,anditmaybeatemporary,solutionofthedifficultquestionarisingoutoftheobjective
ofourEpistle,weshallfindseveralallusionstotheexistingconditionsoflifeintheChurchaddressed.Norshallwebeleftcompletelyinthe
darkastotheprobabledateofitscomposition.Lookingfirstforincidentalremarks,independentlyofthelocaleofthereaders,wefindseveral
hintspointingtoacomparativelylateperiodinthehistoryoftheearlyChurch.Bothwriterandreaderswereseparatedbyatleastageneration
fromthefirstcircleofbelievers(2:3).Thereaders,moreover,hadbeenlongenoughundertheinfluenceoftheChristianfaithtogiveour
authorgroundsforhopethattheycouldoccupythepositionofteachersandofperfect(fullgrown,RV)professorsoftheirreligion(5:11ff.
notetheverbtranslatedyearebecome,whichexpressestheendofalengthenedprocessofdegeneracy).Thishopewasbitterlydisappointed,
althoughheiscarefultorecallaperiodwhentheirlovewaswarmandtheirChristianprofessionanactiveforceintheirlives(6:9f.).Basing
hisappealonthismemory,hestrivestoencouragethemtoreverttotheirformerearnestness(diligence,EV6:11)and,inordertoprevent
thatdulnesstowhichtheyhadalreadygivenwayfromdevelopingfurther,heurgesthemtotakeforapatternthoseChristianteacherswhohad
alreadyspenttheirlivesintheserviceofthefaith(6:12).Itisprobablethattheirownrulersoftheprecedinggenerationhadsignalizedtheir
fidelitytoChristbyenduringmartyrdomforHissake(cf.Westcott,Ep.toHeb.,inloc.).Thefirstfreshnessoftheirenthusiasmforthegospel
waswearingoff,andsomeatleastamongstthemwereindangerofacompletelapsefromChurchmembership(10:25).Thecauseofthis
temptationisnotfartoseek.Inanearlierperiodoftheirhistorytheyhadenduredagreatconflictofsufferings(10:32ff.),andthewriterhints
atanotherandasimilarexperience,ofwhichthebeginningsweremakingthemselvesfelt(cf.12:3f.notethewarningtonein10:36exhorting
tothecultivationofpatience).Persecutiononthisoccasionhadnotasyetburstwithitsfullfuryuponthem(12:4).Thatheseesitfastcoming
isevidentfromthewriterscontinuallyappealingforanexhibitionoffortitudeandpatientendurance(12:1ff.,11f.etc.).Indeed,he
understandsthedangerstowhichaChurch,enjoyingaperiodoffreedomfromthestressofactiveopposition(inthiscasepeaceforthe
Churchhadlasted,intheopinionofthepresentwriter,forcloseonthirtyyears[seeRobertsonsHist.ofChrist.Church,vol.i.p.7f.]),is
exposedwhenbroughtfacetofacewithasuddenstormofpersecutionandrelentlesshatred(12:5,7f.).Heseemstofearapostasyastheresult
ofmoralrelaxation(12:12f.),andencourageshisreadersbytellingthemoftheliberationofTimothyfromhisimprisonmentforthefaith
(13:23).ItisnotimpossiblethatoneofhisreasonsforwritingdirectlytotheChurch,insteadofaddressingitthroughthemthathadtherule
overthem(13:24),wasthatbefearedasimilarfateforthelatter,orthat,likehimself,theywerecompulsorilyseparatedfromtheirbrethren
(13:19)bythepersecutingauthorities.Now,ifweacceptRomeasthedestinationofourEpistle,andseein13:7anallusiontothemartyrdom
ofSt.PeterandSt.Paul,andatthesametimerememberthatwehavetheEpistleofClementtotheCorinthianChurchasitsterminusad
quem,wehavereducedthelimitsofthedateofitscompositiontotheperiodbetweentheNeronicandDomitianicpersecutions.Ratherwe
shouldsay,followingsomeoftheallusionsreferredtoabove,thatitwaswrittenatthebeginningofthelattercrisisinotherwords,thedate
wouldbewithintheclosingyearsofthe8thandtheopeningyearsofthe9thdecadeofthe1stcent.a.d.ThefactthatTimothywasalivewhen
ourauthorwrotedoesnotmilitateagainstthisdate,asheseemstohavebeenayoungmanwhenconvertedthroughtheinstrumentalityofSt.
Paul(cf.1Co16:11,1Ti4:12,2Ti2:22).
Besidesthedangertothefaitharisingfromphysicalsufferingsandpersecutions,anotherandamoredeadlyenemyseemstohavebeen
threateningtounderminethefoundationsoftheChurchatthisperiod.AfterthedestructionoftheJerusalemTemple,JewishRabbinismseems
tohavebeenendowedwithanewandvigorouslife.HellenisticJudaism,withitssyncretisticteodenciesanditsbitterproselytizingspirit,must
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haveappealedverystronglytothatclassofChristiansforwhomaneclecticbeliefalwayshasasubtlecharm(cf.thewarningBenotcarried
awaybydiversandstrangeteachings,andthereferencetothedistinctionsregardingmeatsin13:9,whichforciblyremindusofSt.Pauls
languageinCol2:16foranexhaustivesurveyoftheextentandnumberofproselytestoJudaism,andtheeagernesswithwhichthisworkwas
pursued,seeSchrer,HJPii.ii.291327).
3.Purposeandcontents.Inordertocounteractthisdeadlyinfluence,thewritersetsaboutprovingthefinalanduniversalisticcharacter
oftheChristianrevelation.Itiswiththispracticalaimthathetakeshispeninhand,andhehimselfgivesitstruedesignationtohisliterary
effortwhenhestylesitawordofencouragement(13:22).Atthesametime,itisevidentthatourauthormovesonahighplanebothof
thoughtandoflanguage.NootherNTwriterseemstohavegraspedsofullythecosmologicalsignificanceattachingtotheearthlylifeand
experiencesofJesus(5:7f.,4:15,2:9ff.,17f.),ortohavesetforthsoclearlyHispresentactivityonbehalfofallthemthatobeyhim(5:9,
2:18,7:25,9:15,24,cf.Ro8:34).ForhimtheIncarnationhasbridgedonceandforallthehithertoimpassablegulfseparatingGodandman,
andhasmadeintelligibleformantheexhortationLetusdrawneartoGod,foranewandlivingwayhasbeendedicatedforusthrough
Hisflesh(10:20ff.,cf.7:19).Itmaybesaid,indeed,thattheauthorregardsChristianityasthefinalstageintheagelongprocessofreligious
evolution.TheLeviticalinstitutions,withtheirelaborateceremonialism,constitutedtheprecedingandpreparatorystepintheDivineplanof
worldsalvation.Thistoowasgoodinitsway,andnecessary,butofcourseimperfect.Itdiditsdutyasagoodservant,faithfullyandwell,but
hadtogivewaywhentheheirofallthings(1:2)cametoclaimHisinheritance(cf.3:6f.).
InordertoestablishemphaticallythepreeminenceofChristianityoverallthatwentbefore,theEpistleopenswithaseriesofcomparisons
betweenChristandthegreatrepresentativesoftheformerdispensation.(a)IntheoldtimethemessagesofGodweredeliveredbydivers
portionsandindiversmannersthroughtheprophets,butnowattheendofthesedaysHehasspokenHisfinalwordinaSon(1:1ff.).(b)
TheLawofMoseswasrevealedthroughthemediationofangelsandwassteadfast(2:2)butangelswereemployedinserviceonbehalfof
thosewhoaretoinheritsalvation(1:14),whereastherevelationthroughthemediumoftheSonwhowasmadealittlelowerthantheangels
wascorrespondinglyofahigherorderthanthatwhichhadthesebeingsasintermediaries(1:414,2:59).(c)ThegreatlawgiverMoses
occupiedbutthepositionofservant,andthereforeholdsasubordinateplacetothatoftheSonintheDivineschemeofredemption(3:26).(d)
Finally,asChristispersonallysuperiortoAaron,soHisofficeisessentiallymoreprofoundandefficaciousthanthatwhichtypifiedit.
Thislastcomparisoniselaboratedatmuchgreaterlengththantheothers(8:110:18),andindeedinitsargumentativetreatmentis
developedintoacontrast.Thediscussionhereissimplebuteffective.Allrecognizethatwithoutbloodsheddingthereisnoforgiveness
(9:22),butAaronandhissuccessorswentintotheholyplacewithbloodnottheirown(9:25),thebloodofbullsandofgoats,whichcannot
possiblytakeawaysins.(10:4).Moreover,thefirstrequisitetothehighpriestlyserviceofatonementisthatasinofferinghadtobemadefor
theofficiatingpriesthimselfbeforeheofferedforthepeople(9:7,5:3).Thetemporarymakeshiftcharacteroftheseordinanceswasshownand
acknowledgedbythefactthattheyhadtobeconstantlyrepeated(onceintheyear,9:7,cf.10:3).Theyhadinthemselvesnomoraluplifting
force,cleansingtheconsciencesof,andperfecting,themthatdrawnigh(10:1f.).Ontheotherhand,Christenteredintotheholyplaceonce
forallthroughhisownblood(9:12),and,thoughHeisabletosympathizewithourweaknesses,havingbeentemptedinallthingsaccording
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tothelikenessofourtemptations,yetHeremainedsinless(4:15).HeneedednottoofferonHisownbehalf,fortemptationandsuffering
provedtoHimbutstagesintheprocessofperfectingHisSonship(2:10,5:2f.,7:28).Indescribingthepersonalcharacterofthehighpriest
suitedtoourneeds,thewriterisatthesametimedescribingthecharacterofthesacrificewhichChristoffered,forheoffereduphimself
(7:26ff.).InordertoobviateanyobjectionlikelytobemadeagainsttheirregularityofapriesthoodoutsidetheLeviticalorder,hehasalready
pointedtoanOTcaseinpoint,andherehestrengthenshispleabyquotingfromaPsalmuniversallyrecognizedasMessianic.Melchizedek
wasapriestwhohadnogenealogicalaffinitywiththetribeofLevi,andyethewasgreaterthanAaron(7:410)anditwassaidbyGodofHis
ownSonthatHeshouldbeapriestforeveraftertheorderofMelchizedek(5:6,7:17).
WehavesaidabovethatthecentralthoughtofourEpistleisthediscoverybyChristianityofaway,hithertohiddenfromtheeyesofman,
ofaccesstoGod(cf.4:16,10:19,7:19,25).Oncethiswasaccomplished,nothingfurtherremainedtobedone(10:18)buttoenteronthatpath
whichleadstotheSabbathrestreservedforthepeopleofGod(4:9).Wemaynowaskthequestion.Whataretheauthorsconceptionswith
regardtotheBeingandPersonalityoftheHighPriestuponwhosefunctionshesetssuchvalue?Inotherwords,Whatarethechieffeaturesof
theChristologyoftheEpistle?WehavenottoproceedfarinthestudyofourEpistlebeforewearebroughtfacetofacewithathoughtwhich
dominateseachdiscussionoftherelativeclaimsofChristandtheOTministersofrevelationandredemption.ItisuponHisSonshipthatthe
superiorityofJesusisbased.Neithertheprophetsnortheministeringangels,neitherMosesnorAaron,couldlayclaimtothatrelationship
whichisinherentinthePersonofJesusChrist.InconsequenceoftheuniquepositionoccupiedbytheSonofGod(4:14cf.1:2,6,3:6,5:8,
7:28,10:29),itfollowsthatthedispensationusheredinbyHimisaboveallthatwentbeforeit.Thelatterwasbutthedimoutline(shadow),
noteventhefullrepresentation(theveryimage)ofthegoodthingswhichweretobe(10:1).RegardedasameansofrevealingGodtoman,
thissuperiorityisselfevident,astheSonisabovebothprophetsandangels.Lookedonasamediatorialschemeofredemptionandof
reconciliation,itstandsimmeasurablyabovethatwhoserepresentativeswereMosesthelawgiverandAaronthepriest.
ItisevidentfromwhathasbeensaidthatthisfeatureofthePersonalityofJesusistranscendentandunique.Itisalsoevidentthatsonship
inageneralsenseisnotunknowntotheauthor(cf.2:10,12:5,7f.).Asiftoprecludeallmisunderstandingofhismeaning,heattheoutset
defineshisbeliefwhenherepresentstheSonastheheirofallthingsandtheagentofGodscreativeactivity(3:3f.cf.Jn1:3),the
effulgenceofHisgloryandtheveryimageofHisPerson.NotonlydoweseeinthesewordsthedefinitionofafaithwhichconfessesJesusas
thegreatworldsustainingpower(1:3)thereisalsoimplied,sofarasanontechnicalterminologycandoso,beliefintheeternityofHis
Being.Itistruethatthetermfirstbegotten(1:6)doesnotnecessarilycarrytheideaofeternitywithit,oreventhestatementthatHeisthe
Makeroftheages(1:2).Ontheotherhand,wemustrememberthatthesearebutsupplementaltothegrandChristologicalconfessionofv.2,
whichexcludesthenotionofthenonexistenceoftheSonatanytimeintheagesofeternity.Theshiningoflightiscoevalwiththelightitself,
andtheimpressofthesealonwaxistheexactreproductionoftheoriginalengraving.Itistruethatwehaveherenosystematicdeclarationof
Christologicalbelief.Thetimehadnotyetcomefortheconstructivetheologian.Atthesametime,itisdifficulttoseehowtheauthorcould
haveframedamoreemphaticexpressionofhisbeliefthatJesustheSonofGodisaDivinePersonfrometernitytoeternity(cf.7:28).The
grandandfinalsceneintheDivineprocessofselfrevelationispaintedinwordsofmagnificentsolemnity,referredtoincidentally,and
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repeatedagainandagain.AstheSonofGod,JesushadaDivineinheritanceintowhichHeentered,afterHisworkofredemptionwas
completedonearth,bysittingdownontherighthandoftheMajestyonHigh(1:3cf.1:13,2:9f.,4:14,6:20,7:26,Lk22:69,Mk16:19).
InhisreferencetotheworkoftheSoninmakingpurificationforsins(1:3)theauthorimpliesatoncehisbeliefinthehumanityofthe
Son.AlthoughhegivesusnodirectcluetotheextentofhisknowledgeoftheconditionsunderwhichtheIncarnationwaseffected,heleaves
usinnodoubtnotonlythatthemanhoodoftheSonisareality,butthatfortheworkofredemptionitwasnecessarythatitshouldbeso.The
factthathisallusionstothisdoctrinearealwaysindirectpointtotheconclusionthatheexpectedhisreaderstobefamiliarwithitasan
indisputablearticleoftheChristianfaith.Besides,hereinforceshisargumentsbyarunningcommentaryuponthosePsalmswhereinhesees
propheticexpressionsofthehumiliationoftheChrist(cf.2:7,9,14,16,18,5:7).Incorporatedwiththemwehavenumerousreferencestothe
earthlyexperiencesofJesus.ThemannerofHisdeath(12:2,cf.2:9,14),Hisgeneraltemptations(2:18,4:15),and,inparticular,thatof
Gethsemane(5:7,wheretheauthorboldlyreferstoJesusprayertoHisFatherinthefaceofanawfulcalamity,andthecausewhich
occasionedthatprayer).Hisworkaspreacherofsalvation,andthedelegationbyHimoftheworkofproclamationtothosewhoheardHim
(1:2,2:3),Hisprotractedstrugglewithimplacablereligiousenemies(12:3)allpointtoourauthorsminuteacquaintancewiththehistorical
factsofJesuslife.
NoattemptismadebythewritertominimizetheextentandcharacterofJesusearthlysufferingsandthelimitationstowhichHewas
subjected.Itseemsasif,aboveallthings,heisanxioustoimpresshisreaderswiththeirsternreality,andasifthey,intheirturn,weretempted
todespisethesalvationwhichwaswroughtoutthroughsuchhumiliation(2:3).Forhimthishumiliationisfilledwithamoralandspiritual
significanceofthemostvitalimportance.InHisconstantenduranceandHisultimatetriumphJesushasleftanabidingexampletoallwho
suffertemptationandpersecution(12:2f.cf.theexpressionwebeholdhim,etc.,2:9).Thepowerofthisexampleisthegreaterbecauseof
theonenessofJesusandHispeople(cf.2:11),bywhichtheirenduranceandwitnessbecometheembodimentandextensionofHisworkin
thisrespect(cf.5:12,13:7,12:1).ThespiritualsignificanceoftheearthlylifeofJesusisnolessrealandsplendid.ItwasfittingthatJesus
shouldbeperfectedthroughsufferings(2:10,17),notonlybecauseHetherebyattainedtothecaptaincyofsalvation,becomingmercifuland
faithful(2:17)andsympathizing(4:15),butbecausetheabilitytohelphisbrethren(cf.2:11,17)springsfromthedoublefactthatHeisone
withtheminHisexperiences,andatthesametimevictoriousoversin(apartfromsin,4:15,cf.7:26,9:28)astheyarenot.Theprofound
synthesisofthehumiliationandthegloryofJesusthuseffectedbyourauthorisenhancedasitreachesitsclimaxintheboldassertionthat
developmentincharacterwasanecessaryelementinHisearthlylife(5:8cf.thewordsperfectedforevermore,7:28).
InorderthathisreadersmayfullyappreciatethecharacteroftheworkaccomplishedbythelifeanddeathofJesus,thewriterproceedsto
answerobjectionswhichmayberaisedagainsttheproprietyofHisdischargingthepriestlyfunctionsofmediationandatonement.Thishe
doesbyatwofoldprocessofreasoning.First,revertingtothelanguageofthegreatMessianicPsalm,hedemonstratesthesuperiorityinpoint
oforder,asinthatoftime,ofthepriesthoodofMelchizedektothatofAaron(5:6,10,7:4ff.,17etc.).Nextheshowshowtheidealsdimly
foreshadowedbythefunctionsoftheAaronicpriesthoodhavebecomefullyandfinallyrealizedinthepriesthoodofJesus(8:4ff.,9:8f.,14f.).
TherearecertaincharacteristicsintheMelchizedekianorderwhich,byanallegoricalmethodofinterpretation,areshowntobetypicalinthe
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sublimesenseofthepriesthoodofChrist.Itwas(a)royal,(b)righteous,(c)peaceful,(d)personal,(e)eternal(7:2f.).Ahighpriesthaving
theseidealattributesrealizedinhimselfanswerstomansfallencondition,andtheyallmeetinthePersonoftheSonperfectedforevermore
(cf.7:26).NomentionismadeofthesacrificialaspectofMelchizedekswork,butthisisimpliedinthesubsequentassertionthatourhigh
priestoffereduphimselfonceforall(7:27).Indeed,itmaybesaidthatthelattercharacteristicisinseparablefromtheabovementionedfive,
forthepriesthoodwhichrealizesinitselftheethicalidealshereoutlinedwillinevitablycrownitselfbytheactofselfsacrifice.Theargument
isthentransferredfromtheMelchizedekiantotheLeviticalorder,wherethelastnamedfunctionfounddetailedexpressionintheMosaic
ritualinstitutions.Hereananswerisgiventothequestion,Whathasthismantooffer?TheAaronicpriestsofferedsacrificescontinually,and
inhisdescriptionofthefunctionsincidentaltotheirpositionweseemtohearechoesofcontrastsoutoftheveryparallelismsinstituted.The
Leviticalpriestisnot(a)royalheisappointedtofulfilcertainobligations(8:3,cf.5:1)heisnot(b)essentiallyrighteoushehas,beforehe
fulfilshismediatorialfunctions,firsttoofferforhisownsins(8:7,cf.5:3)hisworkdoesnotconduceto(c)peace,forconscienceofsinsis
still,inspiteofpriestlyactivity,alive,andperfectionisnottherebyattained(10:1f.)hispriesthoodisnot(d)personalitisaninherited
authoritymadeafterthelawofacarnalcommandment(7:16),andthepersonalequationisshowntobeeliminatedbythefactthatitisthe
bloodofgoatsandcalvesthatheoffers(9:12)finally,itisnot(e)eternalitsordinancesweretemporary,imposeduntilatimeof
reformation(9:10).Ineveryinstancethemoreexcellentministry(8:6)ofJesusissubstantiated,whiletherepeatedassertionsofthe
sacrificialcharacterofHispriestlywork,bytheemphaticdeclarationsthatHeisnotonlythePriestbuttheSacrifice(7:27,9:12,26),showthe
difficultythewritermusthavefeltinsustainingacomparisonwhichissummedupinanantithesis(onceintheyear9:7,andeternal9:12).
ThewholediscussionmayberegardedasanafortioriargumentonbehalfofthesuperiorityofthepriesthoodofJesus.TheritualoftheDay
ofAtonementisselectedasthebasisofhiscontention,anditwasherethattheLeviticalceremonialwasatitsnoblest(9:17).Evenherethe
abovementionedantithesisisobservabletheLeviticalministrywasdischargedinaTabernaclewhichwasbutacopyandshadowofthe
heavenlythings(8:5),whilethatofChristfulfilsitselfinthetruetabernacle(8:2),wherealonearedisplayedtheeternalrealitiesofpriestly
sacrificeandmediation.TheofferingofHimselfisnotmerelythematerialsacrificeofHisbodyonthecross,thoughthatisanecessaryphase
inHisministerialpriesthood(cf.2:8,14)itisthetranscendentspiritualactofOnewhoissinless(throughtheeternalSpiritofferedHimself
withoutblemish,9:14,7:26,4:15).Thisgivestheofferingitseternalvalidity(onceforall,7:27,9:12,10:10),andalthoughthesacrificeof
Himselfwasconsummatedattheendoftheages,itsforceandvaluereachbacktothefoundationoftheworld(9:26,cf.9:15),and
continueforallthetimethatistocome(7:25,9:24).
Twootherinterdependentideasremaintobebrieflyconsidered.Ithasalreadybeensaidthatourauthormaybedescribedasatheological
evolutionist,andinnosphereofhisthoughtisthismoreevidentthaninhisideasofsalvationandoffaith.Salvationisnotsomuchthepresent
realizationoftheredemptivevalueofChristsatoningworkasamovementcommencinghereandnowtowardsthatrealizationinallits
fulness.Itistruethatfaithisforhimthepowertobringtheunseenrealitiesintotouchwiththepresentlife(11:1ff.).Atthesametime,the
dominantconceptionofsalvationinthewritersmindisthefruitionofhopesoriginatedandvitalizedbytheteachingandexperiencesofJesus.
Futuredominioninanewworldorderedandinhabitedinperfectmoralharmony(seeWestcott,Ep.toHeb.,on2:5)awaitsthosewhoneglect
notsogreatsalvation(2:3).ThebasisuponwhichthislordshiprestsistheactualizedcrownedKingshipoftheManJesus,whichisatonce
theguaranteeandtherationaleofthevision(2:9ff.).Immediatelyfollowingthisviewanotherconceptionarisesdealingwiththerealization,in
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thefuture,ofadominionbaseduponconquest.DeathandtheauthorofdeatharetheenemieswhichJesushasbroughttonoughtandnot
onlyhasHedonethis,butHedeliversthosewhoalltheirlifewereinbondagethroughfear.TheperfecthumanityofJesusisagainthe
avenuealongwhichthisgoalisreached.Nootherwayispossible,andinHimallmayfindtheirservitudetransmutedintofreedomand
dominion(cf.2:1418).Oncemore,arguingfromtheimperfectrealizationbytheIsraelites,underJoshua,oftheirhopes,theauthorpointsout
thatwhattheylookedforinvainisatypeofahigherthingwhichisnowactuallyawaitingthepeopleofGod.Salvationconsistsinentering
intothateternalSabbathrestwhereJesushasgonebefore,andwherethepresenceofGodis(cf.4:9ff.).Thepivotalconceptionroundwhich
theseideasrevolveistheunityofChristandman,thelikenessinallthings,sinaloneexcepted,whichwaseffectedbytheIncarnation.
Ourauthorshabitoflookingonfaithasanactiveforceinmenslivesdisplaysthesametendencytomakethefutureratherthanthe
presentthefieldofhisvision.Atthesametime,itwouldbeagreatmistaketoimaginethatthepresentisoutsidethescopeofhisthought.
Obedience,however,isthewordandthoughtpreferredbyhimwhenhespeaksofthepresentgroundsofsalvation(5:8f.,cf.11:8).Faithisfor
himaforceworkingtowardsethicalideals,apowerwhichenablesmenofeverynationandclasstolivelivesofnobleselfdenialfor
righteousnesssake,asseeinghimwhoisinvisible(cf.11:140,4:2,6:12,10:39).OfthisfaithJesusistheauthorandperfecter(12:2),and
here,too,wegetaglimpseofthatquickeningDivinehumanityuponwhichthewriterlayssuchconstantstress,andwhichisthesourceofthe
effortdemandedfromhisreaderswhenheasksthemtoimitatetheirformerrulersinafaithwhichissuedinagloriousmartyrdom.
J.R.Willis.
HEBRON(association).1.ThethirdsonofKohath,knowntousonlyfrom
P(Ex6:18,Nu3:19,27)andtheChronicler(1Ch6:2,18,15:9,23:12,19).TheHebronitesarementionedatthecensustakeninthe
wildernessofSinai(Nu3:27),andappearagainatthelatercensusintheplainsofMoab(26:53)cf.also1Ch15:9,23:19,26:23,30f.2.
AsonofMareshahandfatherofKorah,Tappuah,Rekem,andShema(1Ch2:4243).
HEBRON.AveryancientcityinPalestine,20milesS.S.W.fromJerusalem.ItisinabasinononeofthehighestpointsoftheJudan
ridge,beingabout3040ft.abovesealevel.AnoteofitsantiquityisgiveninNu13:22,whichstatesthatitwassevenyearsolderthanZoan
inEgypt.ItsoriginalnameseemstohavebeenKiriatharba(i.e.probablyTetrapolis,orFourCities),anditwasastrongholdofthe
Anakim.InthetimeofAbraham,however(whosehistoryismuchboundupwiththisplace),wereadofHittiteshere.FromEphrontheHittite
hepurchasedthecaveofMachpelahfortheburialofSarahhiswife(Gn23).Thisallusionhasgivenrisetomuchcontroversy.Atthetimeof
theentryoftheIsraelitesitwasheldbythreechieftainsofgreatstature,Sheshai,Ahiman,andTalmai(Nu13:22).Onthepartitionofthe
countryitwasallottedtothetribeofJudah,orrathertotheCalebites(Jos14:12,15:14),whocaptureditfortheIsraeliteimmigrants.Thecity
itselfwasallottedtotheKohathiteLevites,anditwassetapartasacityofrefuge(Jos20:7).HereDavidreignedsevenandahalfyearsover
Judah(2S5:5),tillhiscaptureofJerusalemfromtheJebusitesfixedtherethecapitalofthecountry.Itwasherealsothattherebellious
Absalomestablishedhimselfasking(2S15:7ff.).ItwasfortifiedbyRehoboam(2Ch11:10).AftertheCaptivityitwasforatimeinthe
handsoftheEdomites(thoughfromNeh11:25itwouldappeartohavebeentemporarilycolonizedbythereturnedJews),butwasrecaptured
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byJudasMaccabus(1Mac5:65).InthewarunderVespasianitwasburned.In1167itbecametheseeofaLatinbishopin1187itwas
capturedfortheMuslimsby
Saladin.
Themoderntowncontainsabout10,000inhabitants.Itschiefmanufacturesareglasswareandleatherwaterskins.Inthecentreisthe
Haramormosque,formerlyaCrusaderschurch,builtoverthereputedcaveofMachpelah.ThemodernnameisKhallerRahmn,thefriend
oftheMercifultheMuslimtitleofAbraham.Abrahamsoakisshownnearthecity,butthisisasapocryphalastheascriptionofacistern
calledSarahsbath.ThereisaremarkablestonebuiltenclosurenearbycalledRmatelKhallithasbeenattemptedtoshowthistobe
SamuelsRamahprobably,however,itisnothingmoreImportantthanaMuslimkhan,builtoutofearliermaterials.
R.A.S.Macalister.
HEDGE.(1)meskah,athornhedge(Is5:5).(2)gdrorgedrahprobablyastonewall(Ps89:40etc.).(3)phragmos(Gr.),Mt
21:33,Mk12:1,Lk14:23apartitionofanykind.
E.W.G.Masterman.
HEGAIorHEGE(Est2:8,15,2:3).AeunuchofAbasuerus,andkeeperofthewomen,towhomthemaidenswereentrustedbefore
theywerebroughtintotheking.
HEGEMONIDES(2Mac13:24).AnofficerleftincommandofthedistrictfromPtolemaistotheGerrenians,byLyslaswhenhewas
forcedtoreturntoSyriatoopposethechancellorPhilip(b.c.162).
HEIFER.Theheiferwasusedinagriculture(Jg14:18,Jer50:11,Hos10:11),andinreligiousritual(Gn15:9,1S16:2,Nu19:2f.etc.).
IsraeliscomparedtoaheiferinHos4:16,andsoisEgyptinJer46:20,andChaldainJer50:11.SeealsoOx,RedHeifer.
E.W.G.Masterman.
HEIR.SeeInheritance.
HELAH.OneofthewivesofAshburthefatherofTekoa(1Ch4:5,7).
HELAM.TheAramansfrombeyondtheriver,whomHadarezersummonedtohisaid,cametoHelam(2S10:16)andweretheremet
anddefeatedbyDavid(v.17f.).Sofarastheformofthewordisconcerned,hlminv.16mightmeantheirarmy.Therecan,however,be
littledoubtthattheLXX,Pesh.andTarg.arerightintakingitasapropername.UponthegroundoftheLXXsomeintroduceHelamalsoin
Ezk47:16.InthiscaseitmusthavelainontheborderbetweenDamascusandHamath.
HELBAH.AtownofAsher(Jg1:31).Itsidentityisquiteuncertain.
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HELBON.Aplacecelebratedinoldtimesfortheexcellenceofitswines(Ezk27:18).ItisidentifiedwithHalbn,about12milesN.of
Damascus.Grapesarestillgrownextensivelyonthesurroundingslopes.
W.Ewing.
HELDAI.1.ThecaptainofthemilitaryguardappointedforthetwelfthmonthlycourseoftheTempleservice(1Ch27:15).Heis
probablytobeidentifiedwithHelebthesonofBaanahtheNetophathite,oneofDavidsthirtyheroes(2S23:29).Intheparallellist(1Ch
11:30)thenameismorecorrectlygivenasHeled.TheformHeldaiissupportedbyZec6:10,andshouldprobablyberestoredintheothertwo
passages.2.AccordingtoZec6:10,oneofasmallbandwhobroughtgiftsofgoldandsilverfromBabylontothoseoftheexileswhohad
returnedunderZerubbabel.FromthesegiftsZechariahwastoldtomakeacrownforJoshuathehighpriest,whichwastobeplacedinthe
TempleasamemorialofHeldaiandhiscompanions.Inv.14HelemisclearlyanerrorforHeldai.
HELEB(2S23:22).SeeHeldai,1.
HELED(1Ch11:30).SeeHeldai,1.
HELEK.SonofGileadtheManassite,Nu26:30,Jos17:2(P).Patronymic,Helekites,Nu26:30.
HELEM.1.AmanofAsher(1Ch7:35).2.SeeHeldai,2.
HELEPH.AtownontheborderofNaphtali(Jos19:33).AlthoughmentionedintheTalmud(Megillah,l.1,Helephhasnotbeen
identified.
HELEZ.1.OneofDavidsthirtyheroes(2S23:26).HeisdescribedasthePaltite,i.e.anativeofBethpeletintheNegebofJudah
(cf.Jos15:27,Neh11:26).Butinthetwoparallellists(1Ch11:27and27:10)boththeHebrewtextandtheLXXreadthePelonite.The
formerreadingisfurtherinconsistentwith1Ch27:10,whereHelezisexpresslydesignatedasofthechildrenofEphraim.Hewasin
commandofthemilitaryguardappointedfortheseventhmonthlycourseoftheTempleservice.SeePelonite.2.AJudahite(1Ch2:39).
HELI.1.ThefatherofJoseph,inthegenealogyofJesus(Lk3:23).2.AnancestorofEzra(2Es1:2)omittedinparallelpassages,1Es
8:2,Ezr7:2,3.
HELIODORUS.ThechancellorofSeleucusiv.Philopator.AttheinstigationofApolloniushewassentbythekingtoplunderthe
privatetreasureskeptintheTempleofJerus.butwaspreventedfromcarryingouthisdesignbyanapparition(2Mac3:7ff.).Inb.c.175.
HeliodorusmurderedSeleucus,andattemptedtoseizetheSyriancrownbuthewasdrivenoutbyEumenesofPergamusandhisbrother
AttalusandAntiochusEpiphanes,brotherofSeleucus,ascendedthethrone.ThereiscommonlysupposedtobeareferencetoHeliodorusin
Dn11:20,buttheinterpretationofthepassageisdoubtful.Further,heisfrequentlyreckonedasoneofthetenorthethreekingsofDn7:7f.
HELKAI.Apriest(Neh12:15).
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HELKATH.ALeviticalcitybelongingtothetribeofAsher(Jos19:25,21:31).Thesiteisuncertain.Thesameplace,owingprobably
toatextualerror,appearsin1Ch6:75asHukok.
HELKATHHAZZURIM.ThenamegiventothespotatGibeonwherethefatalcombattookplacebetweenthetwelvechampions
chosenoneithersidefromthemenofAbnerandJoab(2S2:16).Thenamemeansthefieldofswordedges.
HELKIAS.1.ThehighpriestHilkiahinJosiahsreign.Heismentionedin1Es1:8=2Ch35:8asagovernoroftheTemple,
subscribinghandsomelytoJosiahsgreatPassoverin1Es8:1(cf.Ezr7:1)asthegreatgrandfatherofEzraandinBar1:7asfatherof
Joakim,whowasgovernoroftheTempleinthereignofZedekiah.2.AdistantancestorofBaruch(Bar1:1.)3.ThefatherofSusanna(Sus2
29).
HELL.SeeEschatology,Gehenna,Hades,Sheol.
HELLENISM.SeeEducation,Greece.
HELMET.SeeArmour,2(b).
HELON.FatherofEliab,theprinceofZebulunatthefirstcensus,Nu1:9,2:7,7:24,29,10:16(P).
HELPS.Ac27:17theyusedhelps,undergirdingtheships.Thereferenceistocablespassedroundthehulloftheship,andtightly
securedondeck,topreventthetimbersfromstarting,especiallyamidships,whereinancientvesselswithonelargemastthestrainwasvery
great.ThetechnicalEnglishwordisfrapping,buttheprocesshasonlybeenrarelyemployedsincetheearlypartofthecentury,owingto
improvementsinshipbuilding(PagesActsoftheApostlesseeSmithsVoyageandShipwreckofSt.Paul,p.105).
HELPS.In1Co12:28St.Paul,inordertoshowthediversityinunityfoundintheChurchasthebodyofChrist,givesalistofservices
performedbyvariousmembersofthechurchlybody.InthecourseofhisenumerationheusestwoGr.nouns(antilmpseisandkybernseis)
employednowhereelseintheNT,andrenderedinEVhelps,governments.Helpsmaysuggestalowlykindofservice,asofonewhoacts
asassistanttoasuperior.TheusageoftheGr.word,however,bothintheLXXandinthepapyri,pointstosuccourgiventotheneedybythose
whoarestrongerandthisisborneoutfortheNTwhenthesamewordinitsverbalformoccursinSt.Paulsexhortationtotheeldersofthe
EphesianChurchtohelptheweak(Ac20:35RV).Helpsinthislistofchurchlygiftsandservicesthusdenotessuchattentionstothepoor
andafflictedaswerespeciallyassignedatalatertimetotheofficeofthedeaconwhilegovernments(RVmwisecounsels)suggeststhat
ruleandguidancewhichafterwardsfelltopresbytersorbishops.
Wearenottothink,however,thatthereisanyreferenceinthispassagetodeaconsandbishopsasChurchofficials.Thefactthathelpsare
namedbeforegovernments,andespeciallythatabstracttermsareusedinsteadofconcreteandpersonalonesasintheearlierpartofthelist,
showsthatitisfunctions,notoffices,ofwhichtheApostleisthinkingthroughout.TheanalogyofAc20:35,moreover,whereitispresbyters
(v.17RVm)orbishops(v.28RV)thatareexhortedtohelptheweak,isagainstthesuppositionthatinanEp.soearlyas1Cor.helpsand
governmentscorrespondedtodeaconsandbishops.Helps,asHortsays(Chr.Ecclesia,p.159),areanythingthatcouldbedoneforpooror
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weakoroutcastbrethren,eitherbyrichorpowerfulorinfluentialbrethren,orbythedevotionofthosewhostoodonnosucheminence.
Governments,again,referstomenwhobywisecounselsdidforthecommunitywhatthesteersmanorpilotdoesforthe
ship.
J.C.Lambert.HELVE.Dt19:5:awordnearlyobsolete,equivalentto
handle.HEM.SeeFringes.
HEMAM.AHoriteclanofEdom(Gn36:22).1Ch1:39hasHomam,buttheLXXinbothplacesHeman.Manyscholarsfollowthe
LXX,othersidentifywithHumaimehsouthofPetra,orHammamnearMaon.
GeorgeA.Barton.
HEMAN.ThereappearatfirsttobethreedifferentmenofthisnameintheOT.1.AlegendarywisemanwhosewisdomSolomon
excelled(1K4:31).2.Ason(orclan)ofZerahofthetribeofJudah(1Ch2:6),probablyalsoalludedtointhetitleofPs88asHemanthe
Ezrahite,EzrahbeinganotherformofZerah.3.AKorahitesingerofthetimeofDavid,saidtobethesonofJoelthesonofSamuel(1Ch
6:33cf.also15:17,19,16:41,25:16).AsChroniclesinanumberofcasesconfusesthegenealogyofJudahwiththatofLevi(cf.,e.g.,1Ch
2:42,43with6:2),andasthewisemenof1K4:31arelegendary,itisprobablethatthethreeHemansarethesamelegendaryancestorofa
clancelebratedforitsmusicandwisdom.ThisviewfindssomesupportinthefactthatthetitleofPs88makesHemanbothanEzrahite
(Judahite)andaKorahite(Levite).
GeorgeA.Barton.
HEMDAN.SeeHamran.
HEMLOCK.SeeGall,Wormwood.
HEV.SeeCock.
HEN.InZec6:14HenthesonofZephaniahismentionedamongstthosewhosememorywastobeperpetuatedbythecrownslaidupin
theTemple(soAV,RV).SomewouldsubstituteforHenthenameJoshua[Josiah]foundinv.10.
HENA.AwordoccurringinconjunctionwithIvvah(2K18:34,19:13,Is37:13).Bothareprobablyplacenames.Bschinghas
identifiedHenawiththemodernAnaontheEuphratesandSachausupposesthatIvvahisImmbetweenAleppoandAntioch.TheTargum,
however,takesthewordsasverbforms,andreadshehasdrivenawayandoverturned.Hommelregardsthemasdivinestarnames(cf.Arab.
alhanaandalaww).Cheyneemendsthetext,strikingoutHena,andreadingIwwahasAzzah(=Gaza).
W.M.Nesbit.
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HENADAD.ALevite(Ezr3:9,Neh3:18,24,10:9).
HENNA.SeeCamphire.
HEPHER.1.SonofGileadtheManassite,andfatherofZelophehad,Nu26:32,27:1,Jos17:2f.(P).Patronymic,Hepherites(Nu
26:32).2.OneofthetribeofJudah(1Ch4:6).3.AMecherathite,oneofDavidsberoes(1Ch11:36).4.ACanaaniteroyalcity,named
immediatelybeforeAphek(Jos12:17).Thesiteisuncertain.ThelandofHepherismentionedin1K4:10alongwithSocoh.
HEPHZIBAH(sheinwhomismydelight).1.ThemotherofManasseh,kingofJudah(2K21:1).2.SymbolicnameoftheZionof
Messianictimes(Is
62:4).
HERALD.ThewordoccursonlyinDn3:4astr.ofAram.krz(probably=Gr.kryx).Theheraldisthemouthpieceofthekings
commands(cf.Gn41:43,
Est6:9).ItisfoundalsoinRVmof1Ti2:7,2Ti1:11,2P2:5,ofSt.PaulandNoahasheraldsofGod.ThecognateGr.verbandnounare
regularlyusedinNTofpreaching.CrieroccursinSir20:15.ThereisnoinstanceintheBibleoftheemploymentofheraldsinwar.
C.W.Emmet.
HERB.(1)yrq,yereq,twicetr.greenthing(Ex10:15,Is15:6)ganyrq,gardenofherbs,Dt11:10,1K21:2.(2)seb,herbage
ingeneral,Gn1:11(cf.Arab.ushb).SeeGrass.(3)desheissixtimestr.herb(Dt32:2,2K19:26,Job38:27,Ps37:2,Is37:27,66:14).(4)
rth,2K4:39herbs.Thisisexplainedtobetheplantcolewort,butmayhavebeenanyeatableherbsthatsurvivedthedrought.The
expressionsdewofherbs(Is26:19AV)anduponherbs(Is18:4AV)areobscure.IntheNTwehavetheGr.termsbotan(He6:7grass)
andlachanon=yereq(Mt13:32).
SeealsoBitterHerbs.
E.W.G.Masterman.
HERCULESismentionedbythisnameonlyin2Mac4:19,20,whereJason,theheadoftheHellenizingpartyinJerus.(b.c.174),sent
300silverdrachmas(about12,10s.)toTyreasanofferinginhonourofHercules,thetutelarydeityofthatcity.Herculeswasworshippedat
Tyrefromveryearlytimes,andhistempleinthatplacewas,accordingtoHerod,ii.44,asoldasthecityitself,2300years
beforehisowntime.AsapersonificationofthesunheaffordedanexampleofthenatureworshipsocommonamongthePhn.,Egyp.,and
othernationsofantiquity.
HERD.SeeCattle,Ox,Sheep.
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HEREAFTER.InMt26:64HereaftershallyeseetheSonofMansittingontherighthandofpower,andcominginthecloudsof
heaven,themeaningofhereafterisfromthistime(RVhenceforth).SoMk11:14,Lk22:69,Jn1:51,14:30.Elsewherethemeaningis
atsometimeinthefuture,asJn13:7WhatIdothouknowestnotnowbutthoushaltknowhereafter.
HEREDITY,whichmaybedefinedasthehereditarytransmissionofqualities,orevenacquirements,sofarasitisascientifictheory,is
notanticipatedinHolyScripture.Thatmenaremadeofone(Ac17:26RV)isafactofexperience,which,incommonwithallliterature,the
Bibleassumes.Theunsophisticatedarecontenttoarguefromliketolike,thatis,byanalogy.Butthemoderndoctrineofheredity,rootedasit
isinthescienceofbiology,involvestherecognitionofaprincipleorlawaccordingtowhichcharactersaretransmittedfromparentsto
offspring.OfthisthereisnotraceintheBible.TheologyisthereforenotdirectlyinterestedinthedifferencesbetweenWeismannandtheolder
exponentsofEvolution.
1.IntheOT,whichisthebasisofthedoctrineoftheNT,thereisnodogmaticpurpose,andthereforenoattempttoaccountforthefact
thatallfleshhascorruptedhiswayupontheearth(Gn6:12),andthatthereisnonethatdoethgood(Ps14:1).Aperfectlyconsistentpoint
ofviewisnottobeexpected.Notaphilosophicalpeople,theHebrewsstartfromtheobviousfactoftheunityoftheraceinthepossessionof
commonfleshandblood(Job14:1,15:14),thesonbeingbegottenaftertheimageofthefather(Gn5:3cf.He2:14).Thisismoreespecially
emphasizedintheunityoftheraceofAbraham,thatIsraelaftertheflesh(1Co10:18),whosewerethefathersandthepromises(Ro9:4,5).
ButtheBiblenevercommitsitselftoatheoryofthegenerationorprocreationofthespirit,whichisapparentlygivenbyGodtoeach
individual(Gn2:7,7:22,Job33:4)constitutesthepersonality(life2S1:9,soulNu5:6),andiswithdrawnatdeath(Ec12:7).Thisisthe
sourceofEzekielsemphasisonindividualresponsibility(18:4),acriticismoftheproverbconcerningsourgrapes(v.2),whichwasmadeto
restonanadmittedprincipleoftheMosaiccovenant,thevisitationuponthechildrenofthefatherssins(Ex20:5).Thisprincipleinvolves
corporateguiltwhich,thoughsometimesreducedtoapardonableweaknessinseparablefromflesh(Ps78:39,103:14,Job10:9),and
thereforesuggestiveofheredity,yet,asinvolvingDivinewrathandpunishment,cannotberegardedasapalliationoftransgression(Ex34:7,
Ps7:11,Ro1:18).SinintheOTisdisobedience,abreachofpersonalrelations,needingfromGodforgiveness(Ex34:6,7,Is43:25)and
cannotthereforebeexplainedontheprincipleofhereditarytransmission.Moreover,theunityofIsraelisasmuchoneofexternalstatusasof
physicalnature,oftheinheritanceofthefirstbornnolessthanofcommunityinfleshandblood(Ex4:22cf.Gn25:23,27:35).Similarly
Adamisrepresentedasdegradedtoalowerstatusbyhissin,ascastoutofthegardenandbegettingchildreninbanishmentfromGods
presence.
2.SucharethematerialsfromwhichNTtheologyworksoutitsdoctrineoforiginalsin,notatransmittedtendencyorbiastowardsevil,
butasubmissiontothepowerofthedevilwhichmaybepredicatedofthewholerace.[Seeart.Sin.]
J.G.Simpson.
HERES.1.AmountainfromwhichtheDanitesfailedtoexpeltheAmorites(Jg1:34f.).ItisprobablyconnectedwithBethshemesh(1
K4:9,2Ch28:18)or
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Irshemesh(Jos19:41),ontheboundarybetweenJudahandDan.2.InJg8:13(RV)theascentofHeresismentionedasthespotfrom
whichGideonreturnedafterthedefeatofZebahandZalmunna.Boththetopographyandthetextofthenarrativearedoubtful.SeealsoIrha
heres,Timnathheres,Timnathserah.
HERESH.ALevite(1Ch9:15).
HERESY.Thewordheresy(Gr.hairesis)isneverusedintheNTinthetechnicalsenseinwhichwefinditbythefirstquarterofthe
2ndcent.,asadoctrinaldeparturefromthetruefaithoftheChurch,implyingaseparationfromitscommunion.TheusualNTmeaningof
hairesisissimplyaparty,school,orsectandsectisthewordbywhichitismostfrequentlyrendered.InActsthisistheinvariableuse.Thus
itisappliedtothepartiesofthePhariseesandSadducees(5:17,15:5,26:5),preciselyasinJos.(Ant.XIII.v.9).Similarlyitisusedofthe
followersofChrist,thoughnotbythemselves(24:5,14,28:22).In24:14St.PaulsubstitutestheWayforhisaccuserstermasect.The
reasonmaypartlyhavebeenthatinhisownusagehairesis,whilestillbearingthegeneralsenseofparty,hadcometoconveyareproachas
appliedtoChristians.
TherewasnothingthatdistressedSt.Paulmorethanthepresenceofstrifeandpartyfeelingamonghisconverts.TheunityoftheChurch
asthebodyofChristwasoneofhisrulingideas(1Co12:12ff.,Ro12:5,Eph1:22f.,5:23ff.,Col1:18,24,2:19)andtheexistenceof
factions,asfataltothesenseofunity,wasstronglydeprecatedandcondemned(Gal5:20,1Co11:19cf.heretic,Tit3:10).Heresywas
divisionorschism(1Co11:18,19showsthatheresyanddivision[Gr.schisma]werepracticallysynonymous)andschismwasa
rendingorcleavingofthebodyofChrist(12:25,27).Itwasnotdoctrinalaberrationfromthetruth,however,butpracticalbreachesofthelaw
ofbrotherlylovethattheApostlecondemnedunderthenameofheresy(seeesp.,asillustratingthis,1Co11:19ff.).
OutsideofActsandthePaulineEpp.,hairesisisusedintheNTonlyin2P2:1.Inthis,probablythelatestoftheNTwritings,weseea
markedadvancetowardsthesubsequentecclesiasticalmeaningoftheword.Thedamnable(RVdestructive)heresiesherespokenofspring
notmerelyfromaselfishand
factiousspirit,butfromfalseteaching.Asyet,however,thereseemstobenothoughtoftheexistenceofhereticalbodiesoutsideofthegeneral
Christiancommunion.Theheresiesarefalseteachings(v.1)leadingtolicentiousdoings
(v.2),buttheyarebroughtin,saysthewriter,amongyou.
J.C.Lambert.
HERETH.AforestwhichwasoneofthehidingplacesofDavid(1S22:5).ThereferencemaybetothewoodedmountainE.of
Adullam,wherethevillageofKharasnowstands.
HERMAS.AChristianatRome,salutedinRo16:14.Thenameisacommonone,especiallyamongslaves.Origenidentifiesthis
HermaswiththecelebratedauthorofTheShepherd,abookconsideredbymanyinthe2ndcent.tobeonalevelwithScripture.Forthe
disputeddateofthebook,whichprofessestorecordvisionsseenintheepiscopateofClement(c.a.d.90100),butwhichissaidinthe
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MuratorianFragment(c.180200?)tohavebeenwrittenintheepiscopateofPius(notbeforea.d.139),seeSalmonsIntrod.totheNT,Lect.
xxvi.ButOrigensidentificationisveryimprobable,thedatesbeingscarcelycompatible,andthenamesocommon.
A.J.Maclean.
HERMES.OneofthosegreetedinRo16:14,possiblyaslaveinCaesarshousehold.Hermeswasaverycommonslavesname
(Lightfoot,Philipp,p.176).
A.J.Maclean.
HERMOGENES.AcompanionofSt.Paul,who,withPhygelusandallthatareinAsia,desertedhim(2Ti1:15).Thedefectionmay
probablyhaveoccurredatatimelongpastwhenSt.Paulwrote(noteRV).TheAVreferstoadefectionatRome,perhapsofnativesofthe
provinceAsiainthecitybuttheaoristisagainstthis.
A.J.Maclean.
HERMON.ThehighestmountaininSyria(9050ft.high),aspuroftheAntiLebanon.Itsnamemeansapartorsanctuary,andrefersto
itsancientsanctity(cf.Ps89:12andthenamemountBaalhermon,Jg3:3).Meagretracesofruinsremainonitssummit,probably
connected,atleastpartly,withaformerhighplace.AccordingtoDt3:9,itwascalledSirionbytheSidoniansandSenir(wh.see)bythe
Amorites.ItmayhavebeenthesceneoftheTransfiguration(Mk9:2).Thesummithasthreepeaks,thatontheS.E.beingthehighest.Snow
liesonthetopthroughouttheyear,exceptintheautumnofsomeyearsbutusuallythereisacertainamountintheravines.Thetopisbare
abovethesnowlinebelowitisrichlywoodedandcoveredwithvineyards.TheSyrianbearcansometimesbeseenhereseldom,ifever,
anywhereelse.ThemodernnameisJebeteshSheikh,theMountainoftheChief.
R.A.S.Macalister.
HERMONITES.Amistakentr.inPs42:6AV,correctedinRVtoHermons,andreferringtothethreepeaksofthesummitofHermon
(wh.see).
HEROD.ThemaininterestattachingtotheHerodsisnotconcernedwiththeircharacterasindividualrulers.Theyacquiredignitywhen
theyareviewedaspartsofasupremelydramaticsituationinuniversalhistory.Thefundamentalelementsinthesituationaretwo.First,the
courseofworldpowerinantiquity,andtherelationbetweenitandthepoliticalprincipleintheconstitutionoftheChosenPeople.Second,the
religiousgeniusofJudaism,anditsrelationtothepoliticalelementsintheexperienceoftheJews.
AglanceatthemapshowsthatPalestineisanorganicpartoftheMediterraneanworld.When,underthesuccessorsofAlexander,the
centreofpoliticalgravityshiftedfromPersiatotheshoresoftheGreatSea,thedoorwasfinallyclosedagainstthepossibilityofpolitical
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autonomyintheHolyLand.ThekingdomoftheSeleucidshadamuchlargerstakeintheinternalaffairsofthecountrythanthePersian
Empirethoughtofclaiming.Foronething,thepoliticalgeniusoftheGreeksdemandedamorecloselyknitStatethanthePersian.Foranother,
thefactthatPalestinewasthefrontiertowardsEgyptmadeitspoliticalassimilationtoNorthernSyriaamilitarynecessity.TheMaccaban
WargaverisetothesecondJewishState.Butitwasshortlived.OnlyduringthedisintegrationofthehouseofSeleucuscoulditbreathefreely.
ThemomentRomestretchedoutherhandstoSyriaitsknellwasrung.
TheHasmonasanhousewasobligedtofaceahopelessforeignsituation.Worldpoliticsmadeacareerimpossible.Inaddition,ithadtoface
anirreconcilableelementintheconstitutionofJudaism.TheriseofthePhariseesandthedevelopmentoftheEssenesplainlyshowedthatthe
fortuneoftheJewswasnottobemadeinthepoliticalfield.Intruth,Judaismwasvexedbyaninsolublecontradiction.Thesoulofthispeople
longedforuniversaldominion.Butefficientpoliticalmethodsfortheattainmentofdominionweredisabledbytheirreligion.TheHasmonan
housewascaughtbetweentheupperandthenethermillstone.
ThefoundationsoftheHerodianhousewerelaidbyAntipater,anIduman(Jos.Ant.XIV.i.3).ApparentlytheIdumans,convertedby
thesword,wereneverJewishtothecore.MorethanoncethePhariseesflungthereproachhalfJewintheteethofHerod.Antipaterwasa
manofundistinguishedfamily,andfoughthiswayupbystrengthandcunning.ThedecayoftheHasmonanhousefavouredhiscareer.
Palestineneededthestronghand.ThepowerofSyriaandthepowerofEgyptweregone.Romewaspassingthroughthedecayofthe
Senatorialrgime.TheEmpirehadnotappearedtogatherupthelooseendsofprovincialgovernment.PompeyscaptureofJerusalemhad
shatteredwhatlittlewasleftofHasmonanprestige.YetRomewasnotreadytoassumedirectcontrolofPalestine.
1.HerodtheGreat.Antipatersson,Herod,hadshownhimselfbeforehisfathersdeathbothmasterfulandmerciless.Hiscouragewas
high,hisunderstandingcapableoflargeconceptions,andhiswillabletoadherepersistentlytoadistantendofaction.Histemperamentwas
oneofheadlongpassionandwhen,inthelaterperiodofhislife,thepowerandsuspiciousnessofthetyranthadsappedtherealmagnanimity
ofhisnature,itconvertedhimintoabutcher,exercisinghistradeuponhisownhouseholdaswellasuponhisopponents.Hismarriagewith
Mariamme,theheiressoftheHasmonanhouse,andhisleaguewithRome,indicatethestoryofhislife.Hismarriagewasonebothoflove
andofpolicy.Hisleaguewasamatterofclearinsightintothesituation.HewasoncedrivenoutofPalestinebyanalliancebetweenthe
HasmonanhouseandtheParthians(Jos.Ant.XIV.xiii.9,10).But,backedbyRome,hereturnedwithirresistibleforce.Mutualinterest
madetheallianceclose.HerodservedtheEmpirewell.AndAugustusandhissuccessorsshowedtheirappreciation.TheystoodbyHerodand
hisdescendantsevenwhenthetaskwasnotwhollypleasing.
JosephuscallsHerodamanofextraordinaryfortune.Hewasratheramanofextraordinaryforceandpoliticaldiscernment.Heowedhis
goodfortunelargelytohimself,manifestingpowerswhichmighthavemadehim,inalessdifficultfield,fullydeservingofhistitlethe
Great.HeenjoyedthelifelongfavourofAugustusandhisministerAgrippa.HemadelifeandpropertyinPalestinesafefromeveryfoebut
hisowntyranny.AndthoughheshowedhimselfabrutalmurdererofMariammeandhisownchildren,nottospeakofthemassacreofthe
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Innocents(Mt2),itmustberememberedthatJerusalemwasahotbedofintrigue.Thisdoesnotjustifyhim,butitexplainshisapparently
insensatebloodlust.
HissympathywithHellenismwasamatterofhonestconviction.TheEmpirewasslowlyclosinginonPalestine.AnindependentJewish
powerwasimpossible.
ThemanwhoruledthecountrywasboundtoworkintheinterestofRome.HellenismintheHolyLandwasthepoliticalorderoftheday.So
Herodbuiltcitiesandgavethemimperialnames.Hebuiltamphitheatres,patronizedtheGreekgamesand,sofarashistemperamentand
opportunitiespermitted,Greekliterature.Atthesametime,whilehewasbuthalfJew,hesincerelydesiredtodolargethingsforJudaism.
HewasastoutdefenderoftherightsoftheJewsintheDiaspora.HerebuilttheTemplewithgreatsplendour.ButhissupremegifttotheJews,
agiftwhichtheywerenotcapableofappreciating,wasanativePalestinianpower,which,whateveritsmethods,wasbyprofessionJewish.
Whenhedied,afteralongreign(b.c.37toa.d.4),andtheJewspetitionedtheEmperorfordirectRomanrule(Jos.Ant.XVII.ii.2),they
showedtheirincompetencetoreadthesignsofthetimes.RomanrulewasaverydifferentthingfromPersianrule.Whenitcame,theiron
enteredintothesoulofJudaism.
2.Archelaus.AftersomedelayHerodswillwascarriedout.Hissonsweresetupinpower,ArchelausoverJudaandIduma,
AntipasoverGalileeandPera,PhilipoverBatana,Trachonitis,andAuranitis.ToArchelaushadfallenthegreatestprize,andatthesame
timethehardesttask.Havingmaintainedhimselftilltheyear6ofourera,hismisgovernmentandweakness,cooperatingwiththeimpossible
elementsinJudaism,causedhisdownfallandexile.TheJewsnowhadtheirownwish.JudacameunderdirectRomanrule.Ataxwas
levied.JudasofGamalaroseinrebellion.Hewaseasilyputdown.Butthesignificanceofhislittlerebellionwasimmense.Fornowwasborn
whatJosephuscallsthefourthphilosophicalsectamongsttheJews(Ant.XVII.i.6).TheZealotsdraggedintothelighttheselfcontradiction
ofJudaism.TheJewscouldnotbuildaStatethemselves.Theirprinciplesmadeitimpossibleforthemtokeepthepeacewiththeirheathen
overlord.Conflictwasinevitable.
3.HerodAntipas,calledthetetrarch(Mt14:1,LK3:19,9:7,Ac13:1),hadbetterfortune.OurLorddescribedhimasafox(Lk
13:32).Thenamegivesthecluetohisnature.Hewasamanofcraftratherthanstrength.Butcunningservedhimwell,andhekepthisseat
untiltheyear39.ThecorrodingimmoralityofhisraceshowsitselfinhismarriagewithHerodias,hisbrotherswife,andthewantonoffence
therebygiventoJewishsensibilities.(SeeJohntheBaptist.)Hislostprovedhisundoing.Herodias,anambitiouswoman,spurredhimoutof
hiscaution.InrivalrywithHerodAgrippa,heaskedofCaligulatheroyaltitle.Thisexcitingsuspicion,hisdoingswerelookedintoandhewas
banished.
4.Philip(Lk3:1)seemstohavebeenthebestamongthesonsofHerod.Anditwashisgoodfortunetoruleoveranoutlyingcountry
wherethequestionsalwaysrifeinJerusalemwerenotpressed.Hischaracterandhisgoodfortunetogethergavehimalongandpeacefulrule
(d.a.d.34).
5.AnotherPhilip(sonofHerodtheGreatandMariamme)ismentionedinMt14:3||Mk6:17asthefirsthusbandofHerodias.
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6.InHerodAgrippaI.theHerodianhouseseemedatonetimetohavereachedthehighwatermarkofpower.Hehadservedalong
apprenticeshipintheImperialCourt,whereimmorality,adaptability,andflatterywerethepriceofposition.Thathewasnotaltogether
unmannedisprovedbyhisdissuadingCaligulafromhisinsaneproposaltosetupastatueofhimselfintheTemplefor,insettinghimself
againstthetyrantswhim,hestakedlifeandfortune(Jos.Ant.XVII,viii.).InhighfavourwithCaligulassuccessor,hecametoJerusalemin
theyear39,andwaswelcomedbytheJewswithopenarms.HecontinuedtoholdtheImperialfavour,andhisterritorywasexpandeduntilhis
rulehadawiderrangethanthatofhisgrandfather.HisreignwastheIndiansummerofJudaism.EventhePhariseesthoughtwellofhim.
WhenhewasatRomehelivedasonewhoknewRomewell.ButinJerusalemheworehisJudaismasagarmentmadetoorder.Hewasquite
willingtogratifytheJewsbyputtingleadingChristianstodeath(Ac12).
InhighfavourbothatJerusalemandatRome,heseemedtobebeyondattack.Butthevetoputonhisproposaltorebuildthewallsofhis
capitalshowedclearlythathewasonverythinice.Andthepaganstreakinhimwassure,soonerorlater,tocometolight.Thestoryofhis
death,whereintheBookofActs(12:2023)andJosephus(Ant.XIX.viii.2)substantiallyagree,bringsthisout.AtCsareaheparaded
himselfbeforeaservilemultitudeasifhewerealittleCsar,agodonearth.Smittenbyaterribledisease,hediedingreatagony(a.d.42).
JewsandChristiansalikelookedonhisendasafittingpunishmentforhisheathenism.ThehouseofHerodwashalfJewtothelast.
genealogicaltableofthefamilyofherod
7.HerodAgrippaII.,sonofthelastnamed,beforewhomSt.PauldeliveredthediscoursecontainedinAc26.
[ThegenealogicaltablewillbearouttheopinionthatHerodandhisfamilybroughtintohistoryaveryconsiderableamountofvigourand
ability.]HERODIANS.ThenameofapoliticalpartyamongtheJews,whichderiveditsnamefromthesupportitgavetothedynastyof
Herod.PerhapstheyhopedfortherestorationofthenationalkingdomunderoneofthesonsofHerod.TheHerodiansappearintheGospels
ontwooccasions(Mk3:6,Mt22:16||Mk12:13)asmakingcommoncausewiththePhariseesagainstJesus.
HERODIAS.SeeHerod,No.3,andJohntheBaptist.
HERODIONAChristianmentionedinRo16:11,apparentlyaJew,andperhapsafreedmanoftheHerods.
HERON.TheHeb.wordanphhdesignatesanuncleanbird(Lv11:19,Dt14:18),nototherwisementionedintheBible,but
sufficientlywellknowntobetakenasatypeofaclass.Theoccurrenceofthisnameimmediatelyafterstork,andfollowedbytheexpression
afterherkind,makesitprobablethattheEVrenderingiscorrect.Theheronbelongstothesamegroupasthestork,andnofewerthansix
speciesofthegenusArdeaalonearefoundinPalestine.
HESHBONisthemodernHesbn,finelysituatedclosetotheedgeofthegreatplateauofEasternPalestine.Theextensiveruins,mainlyof
Romantimes,lieontwohillsconnectedbyasaddle.Thesitecommandsviews,E.andS.,ofrollingcountryN.,ofhills,includinge.g.thaton
whichelAt(Elealeh)liesandW.,inthedistance,ofthehillsofJudah,andnearer,throughagapinthenearhills,oftheJordanvalley,which
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liessome4000feetbelow,theriveritselfbeingbarely20milesdistant.AllottedtoReuben(Jos13:17),HeshbonappearsintheOTmost
frequentlyasbeing,orhavingbeen,thecapitalofSihon(wh.see),kingoftheAmorites(Dt2:26andoften),or,likemanyothertownsinthis
neighbourhood,intheactualpossessionoftheMoahites(Is15:4,16:8f.,Jer48:2,34f.),towhom,accordingtoNu21:26,ithadbelonged
beforeSihoncapturedit.Jer49:3,whichappearstomakeHeshbonanAmoritecity,isprobablycorrupt(cf.Driver,BookoftheProphet
Jeremiah).AccordingtoJosephus(Ant.XIII.xv.4),itwasinthehandsoftheJewsinthetimeofAlexanderJannus(b.c.10478).Thepools
inHeshbon,mentionedinCa7:4,wereperhapspoolsnearthespringwhichrises600feetbelowthecity,andintheneighbourhoodofwhich
aretracesofancientconduits.
G.B.Gray.
HESHMON.AnunknowntownintheextremesouthofJudah(Jos15:27).
HETH.AsonofCanaan,Gn10:15(J)=1Ch1:13.ThewivesofEsauarecalledinGn27:46(R)daughtersofHethandinGn
23:3ff.,25:10,49:32(allP)childrenofHeth,i.e.Hittites,arelocatedatMamre.See,further,Hittites.
HETHLON.AplacementionedbyEzekiel(47:15,48:1)assituatedontheidealnorthernboundaryofIsrael.Furreridentifiesitwiththe
presentHeiteta,N.E.ofTripoliandvonKasterenandothersfavourAdlun,northofthemouthoftheKasimiyyeh.
W.M.Nesbit.
HEXATEUCH.ThefirstfivebooksoftheOTwereknowninJewishcirclesasthefivefifthsoftheLaw.Christianscholarsasearlyas
TertullianandOrigenadoptedthenamePentateuch,correspondingtotheirJewishtitle,asaconvenientdesignationofthesebooks.TheLaw
wasregardedasauniqueandauthoritativeexpositionofallindividualandsocialconductwithinIsrael:awidegulfseemedtodivideitfrom
theBookofJoshua,whichinauguratedtheseriesofhistoricalbooksknownastheLatterProphets.Asamatteroffact,thisdivisioniswholly
artificial.ThefivebooksoftheLawareprimarilyintendedtopresentthereadernotwithacodificationofthelegalsystem,butwithsome
accountoftheantiquitiesandoriginsofIsrael,asregardstheirreligiousworship,theirpoliticalposition,andtheirsocialarrangements.From
thisstandpoint,nothingcouldbemorearbitrarythantotreattheBookofJoshuaasthebeginningofanentirelynewseries:itscontents,and,
stillmore,itsliterarystructure,showthatitisintimatelyconnectedwiththePentateuch,anddescribesthefinalstageinthehistoryofthe
OriginesoftheHebrewnation(Driver,LOT6103).CriticshaveaccordinglyinventedthenameHexateuchtoemphasizethisunityandthe
namehasnowbecomeuniversallyacceptedasanappropriatedescriptionofthefirstsixvolumesoftheOT.Inthisarticleweproposeto
consider(I.)thecomposition,(II.)thecriticism,and(III.)thecharacteristicsoftheHexateuch.
I.CompositionoftheHexateuch.1.TheMosaicauthorshipofthePentateuchwasforlongregardedasanunquestionedfact.Thebasisof
thisbeliefwastheJewishtraditionoftheiroriginwhichtheChurchtookoverwiththebooksthemselves.Butthiswidespreadandlong
prevailingtraditioncannotbesustainedafteranimpartialinvestigationofallthefacts.Indeed,thePentateuchitselfneverclaimssuchan
authorship.
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TheaccountofthedeathofMosesandJoshuamust,ofcourse,havebeenaddedbyalaterwriter.ThedescriptionofMosescharacterin
Nu12:3cannotbethecommentofthelegislatorhimselfwhiletheappreciationofhischaracterwhichclosesDeuteronomy(34:10)suggests
thatalonglineofprophetshadintervenedbetweenthewritersowntimeandMosesdeath.Similarly,Gn12:6isaremindertothereaders
thattheCanaanitesweretheoriginalinhabitantsofPalestineafactwhichitwouldhavebeenobviouslyneedlessforMosestorecord,but
whichsubsequentgenerationsmighthaveforgotten.Again,inGn36:31areferenceismadetothetimebeforetherereignedanykingoverthe
childrenofIsrael,whichisexplicableonlyasthecommentofanauthorwholivedunderthemonarchy.Thewordscontainnohintofany
predictivesuggestionsuchasmightbeheldtodisputethelegitimacyofthesameinferencebeingdrawnfromthelawofthekingdom(Dt
17:14),thougheventhenitwouldbedifficulttodenythat,ifMiosesprovidedforthecontingencyofamonarchicalconstitution,theformin
whichhisadviceisrecordedislargelycolouredbyreminiscencesofthehistoricalsituationinthereignofSolomon.
Certainpassagesdo,indeed,layclaimtoMosaicauthorshipe.g.thedefeatoftheAmalekites(Ex17:14)andtheBookoftheCovenant
(Ex24:4),thecentralpartoftheDeuteronomiclegislation,i.e.chs.1226(Dt31:24).(InthesamewayJos24:26referstothepreceding
section,nottothewholebook.)Infact,thecarewithwhichthewritersoreditorsfeltitnecessarytoemphasizeaMosaicoriginforcertain
sections,isthesurestindicationthatitneveroccurredtothemtoattributetheremainingportionsofthebookeithertoMosesortoJoshua,and
thattheywishedtheirreaderstoexerciseasmuchdiscriminationasthemselvesinsuchmatters.HowdidthebeliefintheMosaicauthorshipof
thePentateucharise?ProbablyitwasanaturalinferencefromthelanguageofDeuteronomy.Thereisabsolutelynothingtosuggesthisname
astheprobableauthorofthefourearlierbooksbutwhenonceDeuteronomywasaddedtothecollection,thenameofMoseswastransferred
fromthatbooktothewholeworkmuchas,atalaterperiod,thenameofDavidwasprefixedtothePsalter,thoughtherehaspracticallynever
beenanydoubtastotheinclusionofmanypostDavidicpsalmsinthatanthologyofreligiouspoems.
2.TheindirectevidenceoftheHexateuch,however,isofmoreimportanceandthemultitudinousrepetitions,divergences,andeven
contradictionsthusbroughttolightfurnishaconvincingproofthatthebooksoftheHexateucharetheresultofcomplicatedliteraryprocesses,
andcannotbyanypossibilitybeascribedtoasingleauthor.Itwillbewelltoconsiderthesephenomenaastheyconcernrespectivelythelegal
andthehistoricalsectionsoftheHexateuch.
(a)ThedemonstrationthatintheHexateuchwehaveatleastthreeindependentbodiesoflaw,correspondingtotherequirementsofas
manydistincthistoricalsituations,maybeconsideredoneofthemostbrilliant,asitisalsooneofthemostcertain,oftheachievementsof
Biblicalcriticism.
(i.)TheBookoftheCovenant(=C),Ex2023.IntheselawswecatchaglimpseofprimitiveIsrael.Theyaredirectedtothesimple
needsofanagriculturalcommunity.Inreligiousmatters,threefeastsarementionedwhenthesanctuarymustbevisitedandsacrificemaybe
donetoJehovahinanyplace,uponroughaltarsofearthorunhewnstone.
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(ii.)TheDeuteronomicCode(=D)givesunmistakableevidenceofanadvancedcivilization.Sevenfeastsarementionedandtheir
originalagriculturalcharacteriswhollysubordinatedtotheirreligioussignificancethepermissionastothenumerouslocalitieswhere
Jehovahmightbemetandworshippedisarbitrarilyandemphaticallyabrogated.
(iii.)TheLeviticallegislation,orPriestlyCode(=P),presupposesratherthananticipatesacompletelyalteredsituation.The
consciousnessofsin,andtheneedofforgiveness,hadtakentheplaceoftheearlierspiritofjoyousfestivitywhichcameatstatedtimestosee
Jehovah(anexpressionjudiciouslyalteredbyorthodoxscribesinlatertimesintotobeseenby,ortoappearbefore,Jehovah).Accordingly
PdescribeswiththeutmostfulnesstheritualoftheDayofAtonementthisculminatinginstitutionoftheLeviticalsystemisapparently
unknowntoallpreviouslegislation.P,moreover,isinopenconflictwithDonthesubjectofthepriesthood.InpreexilicdaystheLeviteswere
priests,evenifonefamily,thatofAaron,mayhaveenjoyedaspecialpreeminencebutPtakestheutmostpainstodistinguishthepriests,the
sonsofAaron,fromtheLevites,thesubordinateministersofthesanctuaryafactwhichpracticallyprovesthecompositionofthePriestly
CodetohavebeensubsequenttothereformsindicatedbyEzekiel.Furtherinnovationsmaybeobservedinthemeansadoptedforthe
provisionofthepriesthood.Thus,whileinDtheworshipperhimselfconsumesthefirstlings,thoughofcoursethepriestreceiveshisdue,inP
theworshipperhasnopartorlottherein,astheyareunreservedlyappropriatedforthesupportoftheofficiatingminister.Otherdifferences
havealsobeendetected.
Nowthesedivergencesmightconceivablybesusceptibleofbeingexplainedawaybyharmonisticingenuity,werenottheconclusionsthey
suggestborneoutbycorroborativetestimonydrawnfromtwoindependentquarters.
HistoricallyitcanheshownthatthesedifferentcodescorrespondtodifferentstagesofIsraelsdevelopment.ItcanbeshownthatDwas
unknownbeforeJosiah,andPbeforetheExile.Aminuteandpatientinvestigationofsuchcontemporaryevidenceaswepossessinthe
historicalbookshasprovedconclusivelythatmanyofthelawsofthePentateuchasawholewereforcenturieswhollyunknowntothe
religiousleadersorsocialreformersofthecountry.Ithasalsobeenshownthatontwooccasionsfarreachingchangesweretakeninhandon
thelines,andonthebasis,ofthosetwolatercodes,embodiedinDeuteronomyandLeviticus.
Linguisticallyithasbecomenolessevidentthateachcodehasitsownpeculiarterminology,itsownstylisticidiosyncrasies,itsown
characteristicmodeofpresentation.Thecontinualrecurrenceofremarkablewords,phrases,andevensentences,ineachofthethreecodes,
coupledwiththefactthatthisdistinctivephraseologyandvocabularyisstrictlyconfinedtothatparticularcode,anddoesnotreappearin
eitheroftheothers,practicallyexcludesthepossibilityoftheiremanatingfromthesameauthor.
ItmaythereforebeheldtobebeyondreasonabledisputethatthelegalportionsoftheHexateuchareincompatibleeitherwithunityof
authorshiporwithanevenapproximatelycontemporaneouspromulgation.Languageshowsthattheyarenottheworkofthesamelegislator
historyisequallydecisiveagainsttheirbeingtheproductofasingleage.
(b)PassingfromthelegaltothenarrativeportionoftheHexateuch,weareconfrontedwithaproblemevenmoreintricateandinvolved.
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(i.)Therearefrequentrepetitions.Continuallyweseetheclearesttracesofthesameeventbeingtwicerecorded.Wemayinstancethestory
ofCreation,theFlood,thehistoryofJoseph,thePlaguesofEgypt,thegivingofquailsandthesendingofmanna,thehistoryofthespies,the
rebellionofKorah,theappointmentofJoshua,theconquestofCanaan.Thenamesofvariouspersonagesandfamoussanctuariesare
explainedtwiceandeventhrice.Theseexamplesmustbynomeansbeconsideredexhaustive:theycouldbemultipliedalmostindefinitely.It
might,ofcourse,bearguedthattheauthordeliberatelyrepeatedhimself,but
(ii.)Theserepetitionsaremarkedbyacorrespondingchangeoflanguage,andadifferenceofrepresentationintheeventstheydescribe.We
shalltakethelatter,thematerialdifferences,first.
ThesecondstoryofCreation(Gn2:4b25)seemstoknownothingofthesixdays,andgivesanorderofthecreativeacts(man
vegetationanimalswoman)evidentlyopposedtothatgiveninthefirstchapter.
InthetwoaccountsoftheFlood(6:1822,7:125),theformerstatesthattwoofeverysortofbeastenteredtheark(6:19,7:15),whilethe
latterstateswithequalexplicitnessthatforonecoupleofuncleanbeasts,sevencouplesofcleananimalsweretobeadmitted(7:2,3).One
accountgivesthedurationoftheFloodas61daystheotherasayearand10days.
InJosephshistory,whileonewriterexplainsthatatReubenssuggestionhewasthrownintoapitfromwhichhewasstolenbythe
Midianites,theotherrecordshowJudahtooktheleadinsellinghimtotheIshmaelites(37:1520theexactdivisionisuncertain).
Thenarrativeoftheplagues(Ex7:1411:10)ismarkedbyaaeriesofsystematicdifferences,relatingtofourdistinctpoints(1)theterms
ofthecommandaddressedtoMoses(2)thedemandmadeofPharaoh(3)thedescriptionoftheplague(4)theformulaexpressiveof
Pharaohsobstinacy(Driver,l.c.p.25).
Intheatoryofthespies(Nu13,14),thetwoaccountsaresoclearandcompletethattheycanbeextricatedfromeachotherwithoutmuch
difficultyandpresentuswithtwowhollyindependentnarratives.Inone,thespiesexploreonlythesouthofJudah,andreturningpraisethe
fertilityoftheland,butdreadthestrengthoftheinhabitantsCalebalonedissentsfromtheircounselofdespair,andisaloneexemptedfrom
thepunishmentofexclusionfromtheHolyLand.Intheother,thespiespenetratetotheextremenorth,andontheirreturnexpatiateonthe
aterilityofthesoilJoshuaisassociatedwithCalebbothinthevaintaskofpacificationandintheensuingpromise.
WemaytakeasafinalinstancetherebellionofKorah(Nu16,17),whereitseemsthatthreenarrativeshavebeencombined.Inone,
DathanandAbiram,ofthetribeofReuben,headapoliticalrebellionagainstthecivildominationofMoses,andareswallowedupalivebythe
earthinthesecond,Korahandtwohundredandfiftyprincesofthecongregationprotestagainstthelimitationofpriestlyritestothetribeof
Levi,andareconsumedbyfireinthethird,KorahisthespokesmanofanecclesiasticalagitationfosteredbytheLevitesagainsttheexclusive
privilegesenjoyedbyAaronandtheAaronicpriesthood.
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Thesedifferencesofrepresentationareinvariablyaccompaniedbyachangeoflanguageandofcharacteristicexpressionsothatoutof
inextricableconfusiontherearegraduallyseentoemergethreeliteraryentitiescorrespondingtothethreegreatlegalstrata.
(1)Deuteronomy(=D)standsalmostalonebutthereareseveralDeuteronomicadditionsintheBookofJoshua,conceivedinthatspiritof
bitterhostilitytotheheathenwhichwasconsideredanindispensableaccompanimentofmeritoriouszeal.
(2)ThemainbodyoftheworkcorrespondstotheBookoftheCovenant,whichiscontainedinitspages.Laboriousinvestigationshave
establishedthefactthatthisisnotahomogeneousdocument,butacompositework.Twowritershavebeendistinguishedandfromthefact
thatoneusesJahweh,theotherElohimastheordinarytitleforGod,theyhavebeencalledrespectivelytheJahwistandtheElohist,
contractedintoJandEwhilethecombinationofthosehistorieswhichseemstohavebeeneffectedatacomparativelyearlydateisknownas
JE.
(3)TheframeworkoftheentirehistoryisduetotheauthorofthePriestlyCode,andthisdocument,whichsuppliestheschematicbasisfor
thearrangementofthewholework,isaccordinglyknownasP.
Inconclusion,weshouldmentionH,whichstandsfortheLawofHoliness(Lv1726),acollectionofmoralandceremonialprecepts
plainlyanteriortotheworkofPinwhichitisembodied.Thereisalsotheredactororeditor(=R),whofusedthedifferentnarrativestogether
intoonesmoothandconnectedwhole.
EventhisenumerationdoesnotexhaustthecapacityofcriticstodistinguishyetothersourcesusedinthecompositionoftheHexateuch.
Theexcessivesubtletyandarbitrarymethodsbywhichsomewritershavesucceededindetectingtheexistence,anddefiningthepreciselimits,
ofmultitudinousauthors,editors,andrevisers,oftenrestingtheirhypothesesonnosurerfoundationthantheextremelyprecariousbasisof
subjectivepreferences,mustbepronouncedratheracaricaturethanalegitimatedevelopmentofcriticalingenuity.
II.CriticismoftheHexateuch.Itisthetaskofcriticismtodiscovertherespectivedates,andtodeterminethemutualrelationsofthe
componentpartsoftheHexateuch.
1.Spasmodicattemptshavebeenmadethroughoutthe17thcent.towardsacriticalstudyoftheHexateuchbuttoJeanAstruc,physician
toLouisxiv.,belongsthehonourofbeingthefirsttodealwiththesubjectinascientificandsystematicform(1753).Heitwaswhofirstnoted
inGenesisthealternationofDivinenames,andattributedthisphenomenontothetwomainsourcesfromwhichheconcludedGenesiswas
compiled.ThisdiscoverywasdevelopedbyEichhorn,andbecameknownastheDocumentHypothesis.Eichhornobservedthatthevariation
ofDivinenameswasregularlyaccompaniedbyothercharacteristicdifferencesbothfromalinguisticandanhistoricalstandpoint.Further
investigationrevealedthepresenceoftwosources,bothemployingthetitleElohim.ThistheoryofaSecondElohist,fromwhichatfirst
manyerroneousinferencesweredrawn,hasestablisheditselfinthedomainofBiblicalcriticismasanolessunassailableconclusionthanthe
originaldiscoveryofAstruchimself.
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2.TheseunexpecteddiscoveriesinthetextofGenesisnaturallysuggestedthecriticalanalysisoftheremainingbooksoftheHexateuch.
ButtheabsenceofanysuchdistinctivecriterionastheuseofthetwoDivinenamesmadeprogressdifficult.Geddes,however,inScotland
(1800)andVaterinGermany(1802)essayedthetask.Thelatter,inparticular,developedaconsistenttheory,knownastheFragment
Hypothesis.Heheldthattheperpetualrepetitionsandvaryingphraseologycharacteristicofthedifferentsections,weresusceptibleofrational
explanationonlyasanagglomerationofunconnectedfragments,subsequentlycollectedandnotinharmoniouslypatchedtogetherbyan
industrioushistorianofIsraelsearlyliteratureandantiquities.HebelievedthatDeuteronomyoriginatedinthetimeofDavidandthatit
formedthekernelroundwhichtherestofthePentateuchwasgraduallyadded.
3.Thechiefweaknessofthissecondtheory(itselfanaturalexaggerationofthefirst)layinthefactthatitentirelyignoredthose
indicationsofaunifyingprincipleandofadeliberateplanwhicharerevealedbyanexaminationoftheHexateuchasawhole.Itwasthegreat
meritofdeWettetomakethisabundantlyclear.Buthealsoinauguratedaneraofhistoricalasopposedto,orratherascomplementaryto,
literarycriticism.HeledthewayininstitutingacarefulcomparisonbetweenthecontemporarynarrativesandthePentateuchallegislation.As
aresultofthisexamination,hebecameconvincedthatDeuteronomypresentedapictureofIsraelslifeandworshipunknowninIsraelbefore
thetimeofJosiahsreformation.OnlyashortstepseparatedthisconclusionfromtheidentificationofDwiththelawbookdiscoveredinthe
TempleinJosiahsreignandadoptedbythatmonarchasthebasisofhisreforms(2K22).TheeliminationofDconsiderablysimplified,but
didnotfinallysolve,themainproblem.AreactionagainstdeWettes(atfirst)exclusivelyhistoricalmethodsinfavourofliterary
investigationsresultedinestablishingtheconnexionthatsubsistedbetweentheElohistofGenesisandthelegislationofthemiddlebooks.
ThiswasconsideredtheGrundschriftorprimarydocument,whichtheJahwisticwritersupplementedandrevised.Hencethistheoryisknown
astheSupplementHypothesis,whichheldthefielduntilHupfeld(1853)pointedoutthatitascribedtotheJahwistmutuallyincompatible
narratives,andasupplementarypositionquiteforeigntohisrealcharacter.
4.WethuscometotheLaterDocumentTheory.Hupfeldslaboursborefruitinthreepermanentresults.(1)Therearetwodistinct
ElohisticdocumentsunderlyingGenesisthosechapterswhichhaveundergoneaJahwisticredaction(e.g.2022)beingduetoanentirely
differentauthorfromthewriterofGn1.(2)
TheJahwistmustberegardedasanindependentsourcenolessthantheElohist.(3)
TherepetitionsanddivergencesoftheJahwistentirelydisprovetheSupplementTheory,andshowthatheisprobablynotevenacquainted
withtheElohist,butfurnishesaselfcontained,complete,andindependentaccount.HupfeldfoundavaluableallyinNldeke,who,while
introducingsomeminormodifications,showedhowtheElohisticframeworkcouldbetracedthroughouttheentireHexateuch,andhowit
mighteasilyberecognizedbyobservingtherecurrenceofitslinguisticpeculiaritiesandthefixityofitsreligiousideas.
5.TheGrafWellhausenTheory.Itwillbeobservedthatalthoughcriticismhadbeguntodisentanglethecomponentpartsofthe
Hexateuch,noeffortwasmadetoinaugurateaninquiryintothemutualrelationsofthedifferentdocuments.Stilllessdoesitseemtohave
occurredtoanyonetoregardthesethreeliterarystratificationsasembodiments,asitwere,ofvarioushistoricalprocessesthroughwhichthe
nationpassedatwidelydifferentperiods.Aprovisionalsolutionhadbeenreachedastotheuseandextentofthedifferentsources.Graf(1866)
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institutedacomparisonbetweenthesesourcesthemselvesand,assumingtheidentityofDwithJosiahslawbookasafixedpointfromwhich
tocommenceinvestigations,concluded,afteranexhaustiveinquiry,thatwhileDpresupposestheJahwisticlawsinEx2023,34,thebulkof
theLeviticallegislation(i.e.PortheElohisticGrundschrift)musthavebeenunknowntothewriter.Testingthisresultbyexternalevidence,
heconcludedthatPcouldnothavebeenproducedbeforetheExile,andthatinallprobabilityitwascompiledbyEzra.
SomedetailsofGrafstheoryrendereditespeciallyvulnerablebutitwasadoptedbyWellbausen,whoseProlegomenatotheHistoryof
Israel(1883)mayberegardedastheculminatingpointofBiblicalcriticism.Inhisopinionandingeneralwemayconsiderhisviewsonthe
mainquestionindisputableacomparisonofthelawswiththeevidencesuppliedbythepropheticalandhistoricalbooksshowsthatthethree
greatstrataoflawsembodiedinthesocalledbooksof
Mosesarenotallofoneage,butcorrespondtothreestagesinthedevelopmentofIsraelsinstitutions.Moreover,hejustlypointedoutthat
therewerenovalidgroundstodistinguishbetweenthelegalandthehistoricalsections:JE,whichismainlynarrative,yetembodiesthe
SinaiticlegislationDeuteronomygivesafullhistoricalpresentationthePriestlyCodesuppliestheframeworkofthewhole.The
chronologicalorderofthesecodesmaynowbeconsideredbeyonddisputeJahwistic,Deuteronomy,PriestlyCode.Whenthecodesareset
intheirrightplacesthemainsourceofconfusioninthestudyoftheOldTestamentisremoved,thecentralproblemofcriticismissolved,and
thecontroversybetweenmoderncriticismandconservativetraditionisreallydecided(W.R.Smith,OTJC2388).
III.CharacteristicsoftheHexateuch.Itnowremainstonotethecharacteristicsofthedifferentdocuments,distinguishingnotmerelytheir
literarydifferencesbutalsotheirreligiousstandpoint.PerhapsitwillhesimplesttobeginwithDeuteronomy,which,beingmoreself
contained,alsoexhibitsmoreunmistakablytheclearestevidenceofindependentthoughtandlanguage,andwhoseapproximateage,moreover,
canbedeterminedwithaprecisionlittleshortofabsolutecertainty.
(1)D.From2K22,23welearnthatabookoftheLawdiscoveredintheTemplecreatedanimmensesensation,andprovidedthebasis
forthenationalreformationundertakenbykingJosiahintheyearb.c.621attheinstanceofthepropheticparty.Theoldtheorywasthatthis
BookoftheCovenantwasreallythePentateuch,composedagesbefore,longfallenintocompleteoblivion,atlengthaccidentallyre
discovered,andfinallyadoptedastheruleofnationalrighteousness.Butthisviewiswhollyuntenable.
(i.)ItisincrediblethatthewholePentateuchshouldhavedisappearedsoutterly,orbeensowhollyforgotten.Thebookdiscoveredinthe
Templemadesogreatanimpressionbecausetoeveryoneconcerneditbroughtanentirelynewmessage.
(ii.)HistoryhasshownclearlythataverylargepartofthePentateuchtheLeviticallegislationdidnotcomeintobeing,oratanyrate
intoforce,tillverymanyyearslater:andthat,therefore,theselawscouldnotbyanypossibilityhavebeenincludedinthisnewlydiscovered
work.
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(iii.)Wemayaddthattheaccountmentionsthatallthewordsofthebookwerereadoutloudtwiceononeday.Themanifest
impossibilityofsuchafeatwithreferencetotheentirePentateuchhasdrivenconservativecriticstosuggestatheoryofappropriateselections
butthisarbitrarysuppositionislittlebetterthanadishonestevasion.
(iv.)Finally,theBookoftheCovenantisatitlenevergiventotheentirePentateuch,butonlytocertainofitsconstituentelements.
IfnegativeevidenceprovesthatthelawbookthusdiscoveredwasonlyapartofthePentateuch,positivereasonsleavepracticallynoroom
fordoubtthatthispartoftheLawwasidenticalwithDeuteronomy.
(i.)ThenameBookoftheCovenantcanreferonlytoEx24:7orto
Deuteronomy.TheothertitleBookoftheLawisrepeatedlyusedinDitselfasitsownappropriateandfamiliardesignation.
(ii.)ButwecanbestjudgeofthecontentsandcharacterofJosiahslawbookbyobservingitseffect.Thediscoveryofthebookledtotwo
importantconsequences,(a)AnentirereformofthewholesystemofIsraelitereligion,theabolitionoflocalsanctuaries,andthecentralization
ofallsacrificialworshipintheTempleatJerusalem,(b)ThecelebrationofagreatPassoverstrictlyinaccordancewiththeceremonies
prescribedinthenewhook,bytheentirepeople.
Stylisticallyandlinguistically,thedistinguishingcharacteristicsofDareverymarked.Invocabulary,indeed,itpresentscomparatively
fewexceptionalwordsbutparticularwordsandphrases,consistingsometimesofentireclauses,recurwithextraordinaryfrequency,givinga
distinctivecolouringtoeverypartofthework(Driver,op.cit.99).Somuchso,indeed,thatitispossibletorecognizeimmediatelyapassage
ofDeuteronomicauthorship,orwrittenunder
Deuteronomicinfluence.(Foraconvenientconspectusofsuchwordsandphrasesthereaderisreferredtothecarefulsynopsis,ib.99102.)
Thestyleisfreeandflowinglongandstatelyperiodsaboundbutthereisnoaffectationormonotonyinthepersuasiveeloquencewithwhich
thewriterurgestheclaimsofJahwehupon
Israel.
Theologically,thedistinctivefeatureofDisthelawoftheonesanctuary,whichisperpetuallyenforcedwithsolemnwarningsbutitis,
afterall,onlyanexternalmethodofrealizingtheinmostthoughtofthebookthegreatnessofGodsloveintheelectionandredemptionof
Israel,andtheresponseforwhichHelooksintheentiredevotionofthehumanheart.Thistrulypropheticalthemeishandledwithsuch
warmthandtendernessastojustifyitshappilychosendesignationastheGospeloftheOT.
(2)P.IfDrepresentsthepropheticformulationofMosaiclegislation,viewedinthelightofthesubsequenthistoryandreligious
experiencesoffourcenturies,sodoesPshowushow,ahundredyearslater,whenthetheocracyfoundpracticalembodimentintherealization
ofpriestlyideals,theearlyhistoryofIsraelwasinterpretedinaccordancewiththerequirementsofalaterage.Justasthelawoftheone
sanctuaryinDeut.isthepracticalapplicationofIsaiahsdoctrineconcerningthesanctityandinviolabilityofZion,sotheseparationofthe
Levitesfromthepriests,whichisperpetuallyemphasizedthroughoutLeviticus,isreallytheoutcomeofEzekielssuggestionastothebest
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solutionofthedifficultywhicharosewhen,inconsequenceofJosiahsreformation,thehighplacesweresuppressed,andthepriestswho
servedthemwereconsequentlydispossessedofallmeansofsubsistence.ItwasEzekielsideathattheLevites,thoughpreviouslyenjoying
fullpriestlyrights,shouldforfeittheirprivilegesinconsequenceoftheirparticipationintheidolatrouspracticeswhichhadcharacterizedthe
worshipatthehighplaces,andshouldbedegradedtotheperformanceofmenialdutiesconnectedwiththecultusestablishedatJerusalem.A
comparisonofthetheologyandofthehistoricalcircumstancespresupposedbyPpracticallydemonstratesitsorigintobelaterthanEzekiel.
Ofcoursethisrefersonlytoitsliteraryproduction,nottoallitscontents,someofwhich(e.g.theLawofHoliness)areplainlyderivedfrom
amuchmoreancientsource.Itis,however,amistaketoviewPassimplyacodedealingwithritualregulations,orasthereligiouslawbook
oftherestoredcommunity.Theauthor,writingfromapriestlystandpoint,aimsatgivingacompleteandsystematicaccountoftheorigins,
bothpoliticalandreligious,ofhisnation.Accordinglychronologicallists,enumerationofnames,andothersimilarstatisticsconstitutea
prominentfeatureofhisnarrativeandbythosesignsthroughouttheentireHexateuchitbecomeseasytodistinguishthewriter.Asarule,he
iscontenttogiveamereoutlineofthehistory,unlessitbecomesnecessarytoexplaintheoriginofsomeceremonialinstitution.In
representingGodsconversewithmen,heshrinksfromusingtheforcible,familiarlanguagewhichearlierwritersemployedwithoutscruple.
Anthropomorphismsarerare,angelsanddreamsarenotmentioned.Ontheotherhand,Pnowheredealswiththosedeeperspiritualproblems
theoriginofevil,thepurposeofelection,theideaofauniversalmission,theMessianichopewhichweresomarkedafeatureinIsraels
religiousconsciousness,andwhichbothclaimedandreceivedsympathetic,ifnotsystematic,treatmentfromtheotherauthorsofthe
Hexateuch.
ThestyleofPisscarcelylessdistinctivethanthatofD.Itisstereotyped,measured,andprosaic.Thereisamarkdabsenceofthepoetical
elementandanolessmarkedrepetitionofstatedformul.Eventhehistoricalsectionsaremarkedbyaquasilegalphraseology,whilethe
methodicalcompletenesswithwhichdetailsaredescribed,anddirectionsgiven,tendsattimestodegenerateintomonotonousprolixity.
TherecanbenodoubtthatPwithitssystematicchronologyfurnishesthehistoricalandliteraryframeworkoftheHexateuchbutthe
obviousdeductionthatitwasthereforetheearliestdocument,towhichtheotherswereinprocessoftimeattached,hasbeenprovederroneous
byacomparisonandcombinationofhistorical,literary,andtheologicalconsiderations.Wemust,however,rememberthatalthoughthereare
reasonsandreasonswhichcannotseriouslybecontrovertedforsupposingthatthePriestsCodeassumedfinallytheshapeinwhichwe
haveit,intheagesubsequenttoEzekiel,itrestsultimatelyuponanancienttraditionalbasis.ThelawsofP,evenwhentheyincludedlater
elements,werestillreferredtoMosesnodoubtbecauseinitsbasisandoriginHebrewlegislationwasactuallyderivedfromhim,andwas
onlymodifiedgradually(Driver,op.cit.154).
(3)JE.WenowcometotheremainingportionsoftheHexateuchwhichforconveniencesakeareknownastheworkofJE.Oneis
naturallysuspiciousofanyneedlessmultiplicationofwritersordocumentsbutthecriticalanalysisofJEforcesustotheconclusionthatitis
reallyacompositework,embodyingtwodistincttraditionscombinedwithnolittleskillbyasubsequenteditor.Fromaliterarynolessthan
fromalinguisticstandpoint,diversitiesandevendivergencesappearwhichconvertdoubtintocertainty.Yetthecompilationhasacharacterof
itsown,andprinciplesofitsown,whichmaybetermedpropheticalindistinctionfromthosewhichfindexpressioninthePriestlyCode.Both
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thedocumentsfromwhichJEwascompiledtraverseprettymuchthesameground,andwereprobablycomposedataboutthesametime.This
wouldlargelyaccountfortheirfrequentsimilaritiesandofcourseitwouldhavebeentheeditorsaimtoremoveanyglaringdiscrepancies.
Wethusfindthewholenarrativecharacterizedbyakindofsuperficialhomogeneity,andalsobythesamegeneralreligiousbeliefsandhopes.
Butnotwithstandingtheseconsiderations,theoriginalindependenceofthetwodocumentsissomanifestinthegreaterpartofthenarrative
thatithasbecomeanalmostunanimouslyacceptedconclusionofHexateuchalcriticism.Thetwosourcesaredistinguishedinthreeways.
Theyoftentelladifferenttaletheyemploydifferentlanguagetheyproclaimadifferentmessage.
Itisinthehistoryofthepatriarchsthatwefirstbecomeawareofdifferentaccountsofthesametransaction(neitherofwhichcanbe
referredtoP)standingsidebyside,althoughtheindependenceissomarkedthatitpassesintoirreconcilabledivergences.Similarphenomena
aboundthroughouttheHexateuch.Whenoncethepossibilityoftwodocumentswassuspected,stylisticdistinctions,themselveshitherto
unsuspected,begantoconfirmthisconclusion.TheuseofJahwehbytheonewriter,ofElohimbytheother,furnishedasimplecriterion,
whichwasnot,however,uniformlyavailable,especiallyafterGenesis.Butotherdifferences,notsufficientinthemselvestoprovediversityof
authorship,wereyetcollectedinsufficientnumberstolendstrongsupporttothehypothesiswhichhadbeenarrivedatonquitedifferent
grounds.Butthedistinctionsarebynomeansmerelyliteraryartifices.WhileEaroseinNorthernIsrael,asisevidencedbytheinterestthe
authormanifestsintheNorthernsanctuaries,JappearstohaveoriginatedinthekingdomofJudah(cf.theprominentpartthatdistinctively
Southernstoriesoccupyinthecourseofthepatriarchalhistory,andthepreeminenceofJudah,ratherthanReuben,amongthesonsofJacob).J
isapatriot,andtakesalovingprideinIsraelsearlyhistorybutheisnotcontentwiththemerefacts,heseeksaphilosophyofhistory.He
embodiesinhisnarrativehisreflexionsontheoriginofsin,andonthecharacterofIsraelsGod.Henotmerelyrecountstheelectionofthe
patriarchs,butrealizesthattheelectionisaccordingtopurpose,andthatGodspurposeembraceshumanity.Thewholepatriarchalstoryis
instinctwiththeconsciousnessofagreatfuture(Driver),whichtakestheformofamissionin,ifnotto,theworld.ThestyleofJisfreeand
flowing,vividandpicturesque.Hisdelineationofcharacter,hisintroductionofdialogue,hispowerfuldescriptionofscenesfromcommon
life,ifsomewhatidealistic,areyetsonaturalandgracefulastogivetheimpressionofunsurpassablecharm.SpeakingofJahweh,heis
untrammelledbytheologicalscruples,andusesanthropomorphicandevenanthropopathicexpressionswithfrequencyandwithoutreserve.
EtheElohistorEphraimitesourceismorerestrainedinhislanguage,moredidacticinhishistory,moretheologicalinhisreligious
beliefs.Thepropheticalelementisstronglybroughtout.Abrahamisexpresslycalledaprophet,Miriamaprophetess.ThefunctionofMoses
ispropheticinallbutinnametheseventyeldersreceivepropheticinspirationJosephreceivesthespiritofElohimandBalaamsprophetic
officeisrecognized.E,moreover,bothinhishistoricalandinhislegalsections,emphasizestheimportanceofahighethicalstandard.God
speaksthroughangelsandhumanagents,revealsHimselfindreams.BythismeanstheboldbutforcefullanguageofJistoneddownin
conformitywiththedemandsorfearsofamoretimorousorthodoxy.ItisacuriousfactthatEignoresIsraelsmissiontotheworldindeed,the
authortakeslittleornointerestintheaffairsofothernations,orintheuniversalsignificanceofIsraelshistoryorIsraelshope.Itisthe
theocracyinIsraelthatengagesallhisattention,andhisworkmaybeconsideredasdrawingfromtheearlyhistoryofthenationalancestorsa
muchneededlessonfortheageinwhichhewrotealessonoftheimportanceofhighethicalstandards,andofthereverenceandworshipdue
totheexaltedBeingwhowasIsraelsGod.
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Whichofthosetwohistorieswasthefirsttobecommittedtowritingisasubjectuponwhichcriticsarenotagreedbutthereisageneral
consensusofopinionthatbothauthorswroteaftertheestablishmentofthemonarchy.Theusualdatefixedisthecenturybeforeb.c.750.It
mustnot,however,foramomentbeimaginedthatthedateofaneventbeingrecordedinaregularhistoricalworkiscontemporaneouswithits
actualoccurrence,andthereisnovalidreasonforthrowingdiscredituponthenarrativesorrepresentationsofJEbecauseitwasnottillmany
yearslaterthatoraltraditionconcerningthembecamecrystallizedinawrittenrecord.
ItmaylegitimatelybeaskedtowhatextentthecriticismoftheHexateuchaffectsourbeliefintheinspirationofthesacredbooks.Our
answeristhatwehavegainedimmeasurably.(1)AssumingthewholeHexateuchtohavebeencomposedbyMoses,thedivergencesand
alterationsthroughouttheentirelegislationaresonumerousandmanifoldastolaytheworkofthegreatlawgiveropentothechargeof
endlessinconsistencyandarbitraryexperimentalizing.(2)Thehistoryofthechosennationwas,onthetraditionalview,perfectly
unintelligible.FormanycenturiesthemajorityofthelawsgivenexhypothesiatSinaiwerenotonlyimpracticablebutevenunknown.Nowwe
seehowateachstageofthenationsreligiousdevelopmentGodraisedupmeninspiredbyHisSpirittointerpretthepastinthelightofpresent
requirements,andthepresentbytheaidofpastexperiencemenwhowerecommissionedtodeveloppastlegislationintoalivingmessage,to
showhowtheMosaiclegislationcontainedwithinitselfgermsproductiveofaninextinguishablelife,everreadytorenewitselfinsuchlaws
orformsaswererequiredtosecurethepreservationofthenationandthereligiousidealsforwhichitstood.ItistruethattheHexateuchhas
beenanalyzedintomanycomponentpartsyetitwasnotbyonemansmouth,butinmanyfragmentsandinmanymanners,thatGodspoke
ofoldtothefathers(He1:1)anditistherealizationofthisprogressiverevelationinoldendayswhich,morethananythingelse.enables
ChristianstograspthemajestyofthatsupremeandfinaldispensationwhereinthesameGodhasspokenonceforalltousinHisSon.
ErnestA.Enghill.
HEZEKIAH.1.OneofthemostprominentkingsofJudah.HecametothethroneafterhisfatherAhaz,aboutb.c.714.Theassertions
thatSamariawasdestroyedinhissixthyearandthatSennacheribsinvasioncameinhisfourteenthyearareinconsistent(2K18:10,13).The
latterhasprobabilityonitsside,andasweknowthatSennacheribinvadedPalestinein701thecalculationiseasilymade.
PoliticallyHezekiahhadadifficulttask.HisfatherhadsubmittedtoAssyria,butthevassalagewasfelttobesevere.Thepettykingdomsof
Palestinewererestiveundertheyoke,andtheywereencouragedbytheEgyptianstomakeaneffortforindependence.Therewasalwaysan
EgyptianpartyatthecourtofJerusalem,thoughatthistimeEgyptwassufferingfrominternaldissensions.IntheEastthekingdomof
BabylonunderMerodachbaladanwasalsomakingtroublefortheAssyrians.Hezekiahseemstohaveremainedfaithfultothesuzerainfor
someyearsafterhisaccession,butwhen,aboutthetimeofSennacheribsaccession(705),acoalitionwasformedagainsttheoppressorhe
joinedit.WemayventuretosupposethataboutthistimehereceivedtheembassyfromMerodachbaladan(2K20:12ff.,Is39:1ff.),which
wasintendedtosecurethecooperationoftheWesternStateswithBabylonintheeffortthenbeingmade.Isaiah,asweknowfromhisown
discourses,wasopposedtotheEgyptianalliance,andapparentlytothewholemovement.ThePhilistineswereforrevoltonlyPadi,kingof
Ekron,heldoutforhismasterthekingofAssyria.ForthisreasonHezekiahinvadedhisterritoryandtookhimprisoner.If,astheBiblical
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accountseemstointimate(2K18:8),heincorporatedtheconqueredlandinhisownkingdom,thegainwasnotforalongtime.In701
Sennacheribappearedonthescene,andtherewasnopossibilityofseriousresistance.Theinscriptionstellusthattheinvaderscapturedforty
sixwalledtowns,andcarried200,000Judahitesintoslavery.TheEgyptian(somesupposeittobeanArabian)armymadeashowofcoming
tothehelpofitsallies,butwasmetontheborderanddefeated.HezekiahwascompelledtoreleasethecaptivePadi,whoreturnedtohis
throneintriumph.SennacheribwasdetainedatLachishbythestubbornresistanceofthatfortress,andcouldsendonlyadetachmentofhis
troopstoJerusalem.Withitwentanembassy,theaccountofwhichmaybereadin2K18,19andIs36,37.Thelaconicsentence:Hezekiah
senttothekingofAssyriaatLachish,saying:IhaveoffendedthatwhichthouputtestonmewillIbear(2K18:14)showsthatabject
submissionwasmade.Thepriceofpeacewasaheavyonethreehundredtalentsofsilverandthirtytalentsofgold.Topayit,allthegoldand
silverthatcouldbefoundwasgatheredtogether,eventheTempledoors(v.16)beingstrippedoftheirpreciousmetal.
InouraccountswereadofagreatdestructionwhichcameupontheAssyrianarmy(2K19:35,Is37:36).WhetherSennacheribwasnot
satisfiedwiththesubmissionofHezekiah,orwhetherasecondcampaignwasmadewhichthehistorianhasconfusedwiththisone,isnotyet
certainlyknown.TherewasasecondexpeditionofSennacheribstothewestsomeyearslaterthantheonewehavebeenconsidering.Atthat
time,itmaybe,thepestilencebrokeoutandmadethearmytooweakforfurtheroperations.ItisclearthatthepeopleofJerusalemfeltthat
theyhadhadaremarkabledeliverance.HezekiahssicknessisdatedbytheBiblicalwriterinthetimeofthisinvasion,whichcanhardlybe
correctifthekinglivedfifteenyearsafterthatexperience.
TheaccountofHezekiahsreligiousreformsismoresweepingthanseemsprobableforthatdate.Thereseemsnoreasontodoubt,however,
thathedestroyedthebrazenserpent,whichhadbeenanobjectofworshipintheTemple(2K18:4).
Thecleansingofthecountrysanctuariesfromidolatry,undertheinfluenceofIsaiah,mayhavebeenaccomplishedatthesametime.The
expansionsoftheChronicler(2Ch29ff.)mustbereceivedwithreserve.
2.AnancestoroftheprophetZephaniah(Zeph1:1),possiblytobeidentifiedwiththekingofthesamename.3.Headofafamilyofexiles
whoreturned,Ezr2:16=Neh7:21(cf.10:17).
H.P.Smith.
HEZION.FatherofTabrimmon,andgrandfatherofBenhadad,theSyrianking(1K15:18).IthasbeenplausiblysuggestedthatHezion
isidenticalwithRezonof1K11:23,thefounderofthekingdomofDamascus,andanadversarytoSolomon.
HEZIR.1.The17thofthepriestlycourses(1Ch24:15).2.Alayfamily,whichsignedthecovenant(Neh10:22).
HEZROorHEZRAI.OneofDavidsthirtyheroes(2S23:35,1Ch11:37).
HEZRON.1.TheeponymousheadofaReubenitefamily(Gn46:9,Ex6:14,Nu26:6=1Ch5:3).2.TheeponymousheadofaJudahite
family(Gn46:12,Nu26:21=Ru4:18,19,1Ch2:5,9,18,21,24,25,4:1).ThisHezronappearsalsointheNTinthegenealogyofourLord
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(Mt1:3,Lk3:33).ThegentilicnameHezronitesoccursinNu26:6referringtothedescendantsofNo.1,andinv.21referringtothoseofNo.
2above.3.AtowninthesouthofJudah(Jos15:3)=HazaraddarofNu34:4.
HIDDAI.OneofDavidsthirtyheroes(2S23:30).HeiscalledHuraiintheparallellist1Ch11:32.
HIDDEKEL.TheriverTigris,mentionedasthethirdriverofParadise(Gn
2:14),andasthegreatriverbythesideofwhichDanielhadhisvision(Dn10:4).
TheHeb.HiddeqelwastakenfromtheBab.namefortheTigris,IdiglatorDiglat,whichwasinturnderivedfromitsSumerianname,Idigna.
L.W.King.
HIEL.ThenameofacertainBethelitewhointhedaysofAhabfortifiedJericho,andpossiblysacrificedhistwosonstoappeasethe
godsofthedisturbedearth(1K16:34).SomeobscureeventishereappliedasacommentonthecurseonJerichopronouncedbyJoshua.
W.F.Cobb.
HIERAPOLIS(holycity)ismentionedintheBibleonlyinCol4:13,inassociationwiththeneighbouringtownsLaodiceaandColoss.
AllthreeweresituatedinthevalleyoftheLycus,atributaryoftheMander,inPhrygia,Hierapolisonthenorthsidebeingabout6milesfrom
theformerand12milesfromthelatter.(Thebestmapofthisdistrictisatp.472ofRamsaysChurchintheRomanEmpire.)Itprobably
belongedoriginallytothetribeHydrelit,andderiveditstitlefromthemedicinalhotspringsthere,whichrevealedplainlytotheancientmind
thepresenceofadivinity.Thewaterisstronglyimpregnatedwithalum,andthecalcareousdepositwhichitformsexplainsthemodernname
PambukKalessi(CottonCastle).Anothersacredattributeofthecitywasahole,aboutthecircumferenceofamansbody,fromwhichnoxious
vapoursissued:Strabo(inthetimeofAugustus)hadseensparrowsstifledbythem.ThecityowedallitsimportanceinNTtimestoits
religiouscharacter.IthadnotbeenvisitedbySt.
Paul,butderiveditsChristianityfromhisinfluence(cf.Ac19:10andCol.).LegenddeclaresthattheApostlesPhilipandJohnpreachedthere,
andthisappearstrustworthy.ThefightbetweennativesuperstitionandtheenlightenmentbroughtbyChristianitymusthavebeenverybitter.
ThecityremainedimportantthroughouttheEmpire,andwasthebirthplaceofEpictetus,theStoic.
A.Souter.
HIEREEL(1Es9:21)=JehielofEzr10:21.
HIEREMOTH.1.1Es9:27=Ezr10:26Jeremoth.21Es9:30=Ezr10:29Jeremoth(RVmandRamoth).
HIERMAS(1Es9:26)=Ezr10:25Ramiah.
HIERONYMUS.ASyrianofficerincommandofadistrictofPal.underAntiochusv.Eupator,whoharassedtheJewsafterthe
withdrawalofLysiasinb.c.165(2Mac12:2).
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HIGGAION.SeePsalms(Titles).
HIGHPLACE,SANCTUARY.ThetermsanctuaryisusedbymodernstudentsofSemiticreligionintwosenses,awideranda
narrower.Ontheonehand,itmaydenote,astheetymologysuggests,anyholyplace,thesacrednessofwhichisderivedfromitsassociation
withthepresenceofadeity.Inthenarrowersensesanctuaryisusedofeveryrecognizedplaceofworship,providedwithanaltarandother
apparatusofthecult,thespecialdesignationofwhichinOTisbmh,EVhighplace.Inthislattersensesanctuaryandhighplaceare
usedsynonymouslyintheolderpropheticliterature,asinAm7:9thehighplacesofIsaacshallbedesolate,andthesanctuariesofIsraelshall
belaidwaste.
1.Inthewidersenseofsanctuary,asabovedefined,anyarbitrarilychosenspotmaybecomeaholyplace,iftraditionassociatesitwitha
theophany,orvisiblemanifestationofaDivinebeing.Such,indeed,wastheoriginofthemostfamousoftheworldssanctuaries(see2S
24:16ff.).Ontheotherhand,certainobjectsofnaturespringsandrivers,trees,rocksand,inparticular,mountainshavebeenregardedwith
specialreverencebymanyprimitivepeoplesasthehomesorhauntsofthegods.Thusthebeliefinthepeculiarsacrednessofspringsand
wellsoflivingwaterisonethathassurvivedtoourownday,evenamongadvancedraces.Itwastothisbeliefthattheancientsanctuaryof
Beersheba(whichsee)oweditsorigin.Asimilarbeliefinsacredtreesastheabodeofsuperhumanspiritsornuminahasbeenscarcelyless
tenacious.Theholyplaceswhichfiguresoconspicuouslyinthestoriesofthepatriarchsareinmanycasestreesanctuariesofimmemorial
antiquity,suchastheterebinthofMoreh,atShechem,underwhichAbramissaidtohavebuilthisfirstaltarinCanaan(Gn12:6f.cf.
13:18).
Moresympathetictothemodernmindisthechoiceofmountainsandhillsasholyplaces.Onmountaintops,men,fromremoteages,have
feltthemselvesnearertotheDivinebeingswithwhomtheysoughttoholdconverse(cf.Ps121:1).FromOTthenamesofHoreb(orSinai),
themountainofGod(Ex3:1),ofEbalandGerizim,ofCarmelandTabor(Hos5:1),atoncesuggestthemselvesassanctuarieswherethe
HebrewsworshippedtheirGod.
2.Fromthesenaturalsanctuaries,whicharebynomeanspeculiartotheHebrewsoreventotheSemiticfamily,wemaynowpasstoa
fullerdiscussionofthelocalsanctuariesorhighplaces,whichweretherecognizedplacesofworshipinIsraeluntilnearthecloseofthe
seventhcenturyb.c.Whatevermaybethepreciseetymologicalsignificanceofthetermbmh(plur.bmth),therecanbenodoubtthat
highplaceisasufficientlyaccuraterendering.RepeatedlyinOTtheworshippersaresaidtogoupto,andtocomedownfrom,thehigh
places.Thenormalsituationofahighplacerelativetothecitywhosesanctuaryitwasisveryclearlybroughtoutintheaccountofthe
meetingofSamuelandSaulatRamah(1S9:1325).Itisimportant,however,tonotethatalocalsanctuary,evenwhenitborethename
bmh,mightbe,andpresumablyoftenwas,withinthecity,andwasnotnecessarilysituatedonaheight.ThusJeremiahspeaksofhigh
places(bmth)inthevalleyofTophethatJerusalem(7:31,19:5RVcf.Ezk6:3),andthehighplace,aswemustcallit,ofthecityofGezer,
presentlytobedescribed,layinthedepressionbetweenthetwohillsonwhichthecitywasbuilt.
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WithfewexceptionsthehighplacesofOTaremucholder,asplacesofworship,thantheHebrewconquest.OfthistheHebrewsinlater
timeswerewellaware,asisshownbytheendeavouronthepartofthepopulartraditiontoclaimtheirownpatriarchsasthefoundersofthe
morefamoussanctuaries.Prominentamongthesewasthekingssanctuary(Am7:13RV)atBethel,withitscompanionsanctuaryatDan
scarcelylessimportantwerethoseofGilgalandBeersheba,andthegreathighplaceatGibeon(1K3:4).IntheperiodoftheJudgesthe
chiefsanctuaryinEphraimwasthatconsecratedbythepresenceofthearkatShiloh(Jg21:19,1S1:3etc.),whichwassucceededbythe
sanctuaryatNob(1S21:1).Butwhiletheseandothersattractedworshippersfromnearandfaratthetimeofthegreatfestivals,itmaysafely
beassumedthateveryvillagethroughoutthelandhad,likeRamah,itslocalbmh.
3.IntakingoverfromtheCanaanitesthehighplacesatwhichtheyworshippedBaalandAstarte,theHebrewsmadelittleornochangein
theirappearanceandappointments.OurknowledgeofthelattergleanedfromOThasoflateyearsbeenconsiderablyextendedbyexcavations
anddiscoveriesinPalestine.Bythese,indeed,thehistoryofsomeoftheholyplacesofCanaanhasbeencarriedbacktothelaterStoneAge.
ThustheexcavationsatGezer,Taanach,andelsewherehavelaidhareaseriesofrocksurfacesfittedwithcupmarks,whichsurelycanhave
beenintendedonlyforthereceptionofsacrificialblood.ThesanctuaryoftheGezercavedwellersmeasures90by80feet,andthewhole
surfaceiscoveredwithcupmarksandhollowsrangingfromafewinchesto5or6feetindiameter.Fromonepartofthisprimitivealtara
similararrangementwasfoundatTaanachashootorchannelhadbeenconstructedintherockforthepurposeofconveyingpartoftheblood
toacavebeneaththerock,inwhichwasfoundalargequantityofthebonesofpigs(PEFSt,1903,317ff.1904,112f.Vincent,Canaan
daprslexplorationrcente,1907,92ff.).Thiscavewasevidentlyregardedastheabodeofchthonicorearthdeities.
TheexcavationsatGezerhavealsofurnisheduswithbyfarthemostcompleteexampleofahighplaceoftheSemiticinvaderswhotook
possessionofthecountryaboutthemiddleofthethirdmillenniumb.c.,andwhosedescendants,variouslynamedCanaanitesandAmorites,
wereinturnpartlydisplacedby,partlyincorporatedwith,theHebrews.ThehighplaceofGezerconsistsofalevelplatformabout33yardsin
length,lyingnorthandsouthacrossthemiddleofthetell.Itsmostcharacteristicfeatureisarowofstandingstones,thepillarsormazzbhs
ofOT,ofwhicheightarestillinsitu.Theyrangeinheightfrom5ft.5in.to10ft.6in.,andareallunhewnblocks,simplysetonend,
supportedatthebasebysmallerstones.ThesecondandsmallestoftheseriesisregardedbyMr.Macalisterastheoldestandmostsacred,
inasmuchasitstophasbecomesmoothandpolishedbyrepeatedanointingswithbloodoroil,perhapsevenbythekissesoftheworshippers
(cf.1K19:18,Hos13:2).
Itisimpossiblewithinpresentlimitstodescribefullythisimportantdiscovery,ortodiscussthemanyproblemswhichitraises(see,for
details,PEFSt,1903,23ff.Macalister,BibleSidelightsfromtheMoundofGezer,54ff.Vincent,op.cit.109ff.,allwithplansand
illustrations).Itmust,however,beaddedthatallroundthefeetofthecolumnsandoverthewholeareaofthehighplacetheearthwas
discoveredtobearegularcemetery,inwhichtheskeletonsofyounginfants,nevermorethanaweekold,weredepositedinjarsevidenceof
thesacrificeofthefirstborn(Macalister,op.cit.73f.).Similarancienthighplaces,butonasmallerscale,havebeenfoundatTellesSafi
(perhapstheancientGath),andinthenorthofPalestine,bytheAustrianandGermanexplorers,ofwhosediscoveriesanexcellentsummaryis
givenbyFatherVincentinhisrecentlypublishedworkabovecited.
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SeveralexamplesofanothertypeofhighplacehavebeendiscoveredonarockysummitoverlookingPetrathemostcompleteisthat
describedinHastingsDBiv.396.StillanothertypeofSemiticsanctuarywithtemple,presentingmanyfeaturesofinterest,isminutely
describedandillustratedbyFlindersPetrieinhisResearchesinSinai,1906,chs.vi.vii.x.
4.CombiningthematerialsfurnishedbytheserecentdiscoverieswiththeOTdata,wefindthatthefirstessentialofaHebrewhighplace
wasthealtar.Thismightconsistmerelyofaheapofearthorunhewnstones,ascommandedbyEx20:25or,asshownbysurvivingexamples
(seeAltar,2),itmightbehewnoutofthesolidrockandapproachedbysteps.AgainstthismoreelaboratetypethelegislationofEx20:25f.
wasintendedasaprotest.Equallyindispensabletotheproperequipmentofahighplace(cf.Dt12:3,Hos10:1RVetc.)werethestonepillars
ormazzbhs,thesymbolsofthedeity(seePillar),andthewoodentreestumpsorpoles,knownasashrhs(whichsee).Tothesemustbe
addedalaverorotherapparatusfortheceremonialablutionsoftheworshippers.Ifthesanctuarypossessedanimageofthedeity,suchasthe
goldenbullsatDanandBethel,orothersacredobjectanark,anephod,orthelikeabuildingofsomesortwasrequiredtoshelterand
protectit.SuchwasMicahshouseofgods(Jg17:5),andthehousesofhighplacesof1K12:31RV.ThearkwashousedatShilohina
temple(1S1:9,3:3),andasimilarbuildingispresupposedatNob(21:5,9).Everysanctuaryofimportancepresumablyhadadininghall
(9:22RVguestchamber),wheretheworshippersjoinedinthesacrificialfeast(cf.1:4ff.).
5.Attheselocalsanctuaries,andatthesealone,theearlyHebrewsworshippedJtheirGod.ThenewsanctuaryestablishedbyDavidat
thethreshingfloorofAraunah,whereafterwardstheTempleofSolomonwaserected,wasatfirstbutanotheraddedtothelistofHebrewhigh
places.Atthese,fromDantoBeersheba,sacrificeswereofferedbyindividuals,bythefamily(1S1:3),andbytheclan(20:6)theremenate
anddrankbeforetheLordatthejoyfulsacrificialmeal.ThitherwerebroughtthetithesandotherthankofferingsforthegoodgiftsofGod
thithermenresortedtoconsultthepriestlyoracle,toinquireoftheLordincasesofdifficultyandtherejusticewasadministeredinthe
nameofJ.Atthelocalsanctuary,whenacampaignwasimpending,thesoldierswereconsecratedforthewarsofJ(seeWar).There,too,
themanslayerandcertainothersenjoyedtherightofasylum.Buttherewasadarkersidetothepicture.Thefeastswerenotseldom
accompaniedbyexcess(Am2:8,Is28:7cf.1S1:13)prostitutionevenwaspractisedwithreligioussanction(Dt23:13,1K14:24).
6.ThehistoryofthehighplacesisthehistoryoftheoldreligionofIsrael(Moore).AstheHebrewsgraduallybecamemastersof
Canaan,thehighplacesatwhichthelocalBaalsandAstarteshadbeenworshippedbecame,aswehaveseen,thelegitimatesanctuariesofJ,
inharmonywiththeuniversalexperienceofhistoryastothepermanenceofsacredsitesthroughallthechangesofraceandreligion.Atthese
themostzealouschampionsofthereligionofJwerecontenttoworship.Itwasinevitable,however,thatinthecircumstancesheathen
elementsshouldminglewiththepurerritualofJahwehworship.Itisthiscontaminationandcorruptionofthecultusatthelocalsanctuaries
thattheeighthcenturyprophetsattackwithsuchvehemence,notthehighplacesthemselves.InHoseasdaythehigheraspectsofthereligion
ofJweresocompletelylostsightofbythemassofthepeople,thatthisprophetcoulddescribethereligionofhiscontemporariesas
unadulteratedheathenism,andtheirworshipasidolatry.
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WhilethiswasthestateofmattersintheNorthernKingdom,theuniquepositionwhichthesanctuaryatJerusalemhadacquiredinthe
south,andthecomparativepurityofthecultusastherepractised,graduallyled,undertheDivineguidance,tothegreatthoughtthat,asJ
Himselfwasone,theplaceofHisworshipshouldalsobeone,andthisplaceJerusalem.TheBookofDeuteronomyisthedepositofthis
epochmakingteaching(seeesp.12:4ff.).WhatevermayhavebeentheextentofHezekiahseffortsinthisdirection,itwasnotuntilthe
eighteenthyearofthereignofJosiah(622621b.c.)thateffectivemeasuresweretaken,undertheimmediateimpulseofDeuteronomy,forthe
destructionofthehighplacesandthesuppressionoftheworshipwhichforsomanycenturieshadbeenofferedatthelocalshrines(2K
23:5ff.).Butthebreakwiththeideasandcustomsofthepastwastooviolent.WiththeearlydeathofJosiahthelocalcultsrevived,andit
neededthedisciplineoftheExiletosecurethevictoryoftheDeuteronomicdemandforthecentralizationofthecultus.
7.TomeninspiredbytheidealsofDt.weowethecompilationoftheBooksofKings.Forthem,accordingly,theworshipatthelocal
sanctuariesbecameillegalfromthedateoftheerectionofSolomonsTempleonlythepeoplesacrificedinthehighplaces,becausethere
wasnohousebuiltforthenameoftheLorduntilthosedays(1K3:2RV).FromthisstandpointtheeditorsofKingspassjudgmentonthe
successivesovereigns,bywhomthehighplaceswerenottakenaway(1K15:14RVandoft.).Thisadversejudgmentisnowseentobe
unhistoricalandundeserved.
A.R.S.Kennedy.
HIGHPRIEST.SeePriestsandLevites.
HILEN(1Ch6:58).SeeHolon,No.1.
HILKIAH(Jah[is]myportion,orportionofJah).Afavouritepriestlyname.1.FatherofEliakim,Hezekiahschiefofthehousehold
(2K18:18etc.=Is36:3etc.,Is22:2025).2.ApriestofAnathoth,probablyofthelineofEli(see1K2:26,27),fatherofJeremiah(Jer1:1)
heisnottobeidentifiedwiththenext.3.Thehighpriestinb.c.621,whofoundduringtherepairsoftheTempleandbroughttoJosiahs
notice,throughShaphan,thebookofthelaw(2K22:311=2Ch34:819),whichoccasionedthereformationofreligionthereaftereffected
(2K23:124=2Ch34:2935:19).HilkiahheadedthedeputationsenttoconsultHuldahonthisdiscovery(2K22:1220=2Ch34:2028)and
presidedoverthesubsequentpurificationoftheTemple(2K23:4ff.).Hewasachiefactorinthewholemovement.Thereisnoreasonto
doubtthathisfindwasthegenuinediscoveryofalostlawbookthisbookwasunmistakablythecodeof
Deuteronomy(wh.see).4.FatheroftheGemariahofJer29:3.5,6.LevitesoftheclanofMerari(1Ch6:45,26:11).7.Achiefofthepriests
returningfromtheExileinb.c.536(Neh12:7,21).8.AcompanionofEzraatthepublicreadingoftheLaw(Neh8:4)heappearsasEzekias
in1Es9:43.
G.G.Findlay.
HILL,HILLCOUNTRY.ThesetermsinRVrepresentHeb.(gibah,har)andGreeknamesforeitheranisolatedeminence,oratable
land,oramountainrange,oramountainousdistrict.Gibahdenotesproperlythelargeroundedhills,mostlybareornearlyso,soconspicuous
inpartsofPalestine,especiallyinJudah.Cf.GibeahofSaul,ofPhinehas,oftheforeskins,ofMoreh,ofHachilah,ofAmmah,of
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Gareb,andofElohim.haristogibahasthegenusistothespecies,andincludesnotmerelyasinglemound,butalsoarangeoradistrict.It
isusuallyappliedtoZion.ItisespeciallythedescriptionofthecentralmountainoustractofPalestinereachingfromtheplainofJezreelonthe
N.totheNegebordrycountryintheS.theShephlahorlowlandsoftheS.W.themidbarormoorland,andthearabahorsteppesoftheS.
E.ThebestknownharorhillcountryinPalestineisthehillcountryofEphraim,butbesidesthiswehearofthehillcountryofJudah
(e.g.inJos11:21),thehillcountryofNaphtali(20:7),thehillcountryofAmmon(Dt2:37),andofGilead(3:12).Amongtheeminencesof
PalestineasdistinctfromhilldistrictsareZion,thehillofSamaria,thetriplepeakedHermon,Tabor,andCarmel.
W.F.Cobb.
HILLEL.FatherofAbdon(Jg12:13,15).
HIN.SeeWeightsandMeasures.
HIND.SeeHart.
HINGE.SeeHouse,6.
HINNOM,VALLEYOF(calledalsovalleyoftheson[Jer7:32]orchildren[2K23:10]ofHinnom,andthevalley[2Ch26:9,Neh
2:13,15,3:13andperhapsJer2:23]).ItwasclosetothewallsofJerusalembytheentryofthegateHarsith(Jer19:2RV),possiblythe
Dunggate.EvidentlytheValleygateopenedintoit(Neh2:13,3:13).ItformedpartoftheboundarybetweenJudahandBenjamin(Jos15:8,
18:18).Theplaceacquiredanevilreputeonaccountoftheidolatrouspracticescarriedonthere(2K23:10,2Ch28:3,33:6),andonthis
accountJeremiah(7:32,19:6)announcedthatitwastoreceivethenamevalleyofSlaughter.Hereperpetualfiresaresaidtohavebeenkept
burningtoconsumetherubbishofthecity.SuchassociationswiththeValleyledafterwardstoGehinnom(NTGehenna)becomingthetype
ofhell.
ThesituationoftheValleyofHinnomhasbeenmuchdisputed.OfthethreevalleysofJerusalemtheKidronontheE.,theTyroponin
thecentre,andtheWadyerRabbiontheW.eachhasinturnbeenidentifiedwithit.InfavouroftheKidronisthefactthatthetheological
GehinnomorArab.JahannumofJewish,Christian,andearlyMoslemwritersislocatedherebutthiswasprobablyatransferenceofname
aftertheoldgeographicalsitewaslost,fortherearestrongreasons(seebelow)againstit.AstheTyroponwasincorporatedwithinthecity
wallsbeforethedaysofManasseh,itispracticallyimpossiblethatitcouldhavebeenthesceneofthesacrificeofchildren,whichmusthave
beenoutsidethecitybounds(2K23:10etc.).ThechiefdataarefoundinJos15:8,18:16,wheretheboundaryofJudahandBenjaminis
described.IfBirEyybisEnrogel,ascertainlyismostprobable,thentheWadyerRabbi,knowntraditionallyasHinnom,iscorrectlyso
designated.ThenthisValleyofHinnomisagaiorgorge,buttheValleyofKidronisalwaysdescribedasanachal(wady).Itis,ofcourse,
possiblethattheValleyofHinnommayhaveincludedpartoftheopenlandformedbythejunctionofthethreevalleysbelowSiloamand
Tophethmayhavelainthere,asissuggestedbysomeauthorities,butthereisnonecessitytoextendthenamebeyondthelimitsoftheactual
gorge.TheWadyerRabbicommencesasashallowopenvalleydueW.oftheJaffagatenearthisgateitturnsdueSouthforabout1/3ofa
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mile,andthengraduallycurvestotheEast.Itisthislowerpart,withitsbarerockyscarps,thatpresentsthecharactersofagaiorgorge.Near
wherethevalleyjoinsthewideKidronisthetraditionalsiteofAkeldama.
E.W.G.Masterman.
HIPPOPOTAMUS.SeeBehemoth.
HIRAH.TheAdullamitewithwhomJudah,accordingtothestoryofGn38
(J),appearstohaveenteredintoakindofpartnershipinthematterofflocks.AfterTamarhadsuccessfullycarriedoutherstratagem,itwasby
thehandofhisfriendHirahthatJudahsentthepromisedkidtothesupposedqedshh(Gn38:20ff.).
HIRAM.1.KingofTyre,sonandsuccessorofAbihaal.WhenDavidwasfirmlyestablishedonhisthrone,Hiram,wearetold,sent
messengerstohim,and,inordertoshowhisgoodwill,gaveDavidmaterialsforbuildinghispalace,sendingatthesametimeworkmento
assistinthebuilding(2S5:11,1Ch14:1.ThisfirstmentionofHiramissomewhatabrupt,andleadstothesuppositionthattheremusthave
beensomeearlierintercoursebetweenhimandDavid,thedetailsofwhichhavenotcomedowntous.Arealfriendship,however,
undoubtedlyexistedbetweenthetwo(1K5:1),andthiswasextendedtoSolomonafterthedeathofDavid.Aregularalliancewasmadewhen
Solomoncametothethrone,HiramsupplyingmenandmaterialsforthebuildingofthehouseoftheLord,whileSolomon,inreturn,sentcorn
andoiltoHiram.AnothersignoffriendlinesswastheirjointenterpriseinsendingshipstoOphirtoprocuregold(1K9:2628,10:11,2Ch
8:17,18,9:10,21).Acuriousepisodeisrecountedin1K9:10,14,accordingtowhichSolomongaveHiramtwentycitiesinthelandof
Galilee.Hiramwasdissatisfiedwiththegift,thoughhegaveSolomonsixscoretalentsofgold.Intheparallelaccount(2Ch8:1,2)itis
Hiramwhogivescities(thenumberisnotspecified)toSolomon.
ThereisaltogetherconsiderableconfusionintheBiblicalreferencestoHiram,asastudyofthepassagesinquestionshows.Whenthese
arecomparedwithextraBiblicalinformationwhichwepossessinthewritingsofearlyhistorians,discrepanciesareemphasized.While,
therefore,thefriendlyintercoursebetweenHiramandSolomon(aswellaswithDavid)isunquestionablyhistorical,itisnotalwayspossible
tosaythesameofthedetails.
2.ThenameofanartificerfromTyrefilledwithwisdomandunderstandingandcunning,toworkallworksinbrass(see1K7:1847)
heisalsospokenofasskilfultoworkingold,andinsilver,inbrass,iniron,instone,andintimber,inpurple,inblue,andinfinelinen,and
incrimson(2Ch2:14).Thereisadiscrepancyregardinghisparentage:in1K7:14heissaidtohavebeenthesonofawidowofthetribe
ofNaphtali,andhisfatheramanofTyre:accordingto2Ch2:14hismotherbelongedtothetribeofDan,thoughhere,too,hisfatherwasa
Tyrian.
TheformofthenameisusuallyHiramintheBooksofSamuelandKings,buttheChronicleradheresuniformlytotheformHuram,while
wefindalsoHiromin1K5:10,18,7:40.
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W.O.E.Oesterley.
HIRE,HIRELING.TheformerisusedinAValongsideofitssynonymwages,bywhichithasbeensupplantedinmod.Englishasin
Gn31:8RV(cf.
30:18,32f.with29:15,30:28etc.).Ahirelingisapersonhiredtoworkforastipulatedwage,suchasafieldlabourer(Mal3:5),shepherd
(Jn10:12f.),ormercenarysoldier(Is16:14,cf.Jer46:21).Noimputationofunfaithfulnessordishonestyisnecessarilyconveyedbytheterm,
althoughtheseideashavenowbecomeassociatedwithitowingtoourLordsapplicationofthewordtoanunfaithfulshepherdinJn10:12,
13.
A.R.S.Kennedy.
HITTITES.ApeoplesaidintheJdocument(Ex3:8,17)tohavebeenoneofthepreIsraelitishoccupantsofPalestine.TheEdocument
saystheylivedinthemountains(Nu13:29).TheyareoftenincludedbyDandhisfollowersamongtheearlyinhabitantsoftheland,whileP
tellsus(Gn23)thatAbrahamboughtfromaHittitethecaveofMachpelahatHebron.TheyareprobablythepeopleknowninEgyptian
inscriptionsasKheta,inAssyrianannalsasKhatti,andinHomer(Od.xi.521)asKteioi.
ItissupposedthatthecarvedfiguresfoundinmanypartsofAsiaMinor,havingapeculiartypeofhighhatandshoeswhichturnupatthe
toe,andcontaininghieroglyphsofadistincttypewhichareasyetundeciphered,areHittitemonuments.Assumingthatthisiscorrect,the
principalhabitatoftheHittiteswas
AsiaMinor,forthesemonumentsarefoundfromKarabel,apassnearSmyrna,to
Erzerum,andfromthesocalledNiobe(originallyaHittitegoddess),nearMagnesia,toJerabis,theancientCarchemish,ontheEuphrates.
TheyhavealsobeenfoundatZenjirliandHamathinnorthernSyria(cf.MesserschmidtsCorp.Inscript.Hett.inMitteilungenderVorderas.
Gesell.vol.v.andSayce,PSBAvol.xxviii.9195).ItappearsfromthesemonumentsthatatBoghazkuieastoftheHalys,atMarash,andat
variouspointsinancientGalatia,Lycaonia,Isauria,andCiliciatheHittiteswereespeciallystrong.Itisprobablethattheircivilizationwas
developedinAsiaMinor,andthattheyafterwardspushedsouthwardintonorthernSyria,invadingaregionasfareastwardastheEuphrates.
Thisisconfirmedbywhatweknowofthemfromtheinscriptionsofothernations.Ourearliestmentionofthemoccursintheannalsof
Thothmesiii.ofEgypt(aboutb.c.1500),towhomtheypaidtribute(cf.BreastedsAncientRecordsofEgypt,ii.213).
InthereignofAmenophisiii.(aboutb.c.1400)theyattemptedunsuccessfullytoinvadethelandofMittaniontheEuphrates,and
successfullyplantedthemselvesontheOrontesvalleyinSyria(cf.KIBv.33,and255,257).InthereignofAmenophisiv.theymademuch
greateradvances,astheelAmarnalettersshow.InthenextdynastySetii.foughtabattlewiththeHittitesbetweentherangesoftheLehanon
(Breasted,opcit.iii.71).InthereignofRamesesii.KadeshontheOronteswasintheirhands.Ramesesfoughtagreatbattlewiththemthere,
andafterwardsmadeatreatyofpeacewiththem(Breasted,op.cit.iii.125ff.,165ff.).
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MerenPtahandRamesesiii.hadskirmisheswiththem,thelatteraslateasb.c.1200.FromthesimilarityofhisnametothenamesofHittite
kings,Moorehasconjectured(JAOSxix.159,160)thatSisera(Jg5)wasaHittite.Ifso,inthetimeofDeborah(aboutb.c.1150)aHittite
dynastyinvadednorthernPalestine.
Aboutb.c.1100Tiglathpileseri.ofAssyriafoughtwithHittites(KIBi.23).InDavidsreignindividualHittitessuchasAhimelechand
UriahwereinIsrael(1S
26:6,2S11:3etc.).KingsoftheHittitesaresaidtohavebeencontemporarywith
Solomon(1K10:29,11:1),alsoacenturylatercontemporarywithJoramofIsrael(2K7:6).Inthe9thcent.theAssyriankingsAshurnazirpal
(KIBi.105)andShalmaneserii.(ib.p.139)foughtwithHittites,asdidTiglathpileseriii.(ib.ii.29),inthenextcentury,whileSargonii.in
717(ib.ii.43Is10:9)destroyedthekingdomofCarchemish,thelastoftheHittitekingdomsofwhichwehavedefiniterecord.The
researchesofrecentyears,especiallythoseofJensenandBreasted,makeitprobablethattheCilicianswereaHittitepeople,andthat
Syennesis,kingofCilicia,mentionedinXenopbonsAnabasisasavassalkingofPersiaaboutb.c.400,wasaHittite.Possiblythepeopleof
Lycaonia,whoselanguagePaulandBarnabasdidnotunderstand(Ac14:11),spokeadialectofHittite.
TheHittitesaccordinglyplayedanimportantpartinhistoryfromb.c.1500to
b.c.700,andlingeredoninmanyquartersmuchlonger.ItisprobablethataHittitekingdominSardisprecededtheLydiankingdomthere(cf.
Herod,i.7).TheLydianCyheleandArtemisofEphesuswereprobablyoriginallyHittitedivinities.
Jensen,whohasmadealittleprogressindecipheringtheHittiteinscriptions,believesthemtobeanAryanpeople,theancestorsofthe
Armenians(cf.hisHittiterundArmenier),butthisisverydoubtful.
PoliticallytheHittiteswerenot,sofarasweknow,united.Theyseemtohaveformedsmallcitykingdoms.
ThereligionoftheHittitesseemstohavehadsomefeaturesincommonwithSemiticreligion(cf.Barton,SemiticOrigins,pp.311316).
GeorgeA.Barton.
HIVITES.OneofthetribesofPalestinewhichtheIsraelitesdisplaced(Ex3:8,17[J]).Ouroldestsource(J)saysthattheywerethe
peoplewho,fearingtomeettheIsraelitesinbattle,byarusemadeacovenantwiththem(Jos9:7).ADeuteronomiceditorstatesthattheir
villageswereGibeon,Chephira,Kiriathjearim,andBeeroth(Jos9:17).GibeonwassixmilesN.W.ofJerusalem,andBeerothtenmilesN.of
it.Probably,therefore,theyinhabitedaregionnorthofJerusalem.Gn34:2(P)makestheShechemitesHivites,butthisisofdoubtfulauthority.
Themainpartofthechapterissilentonthispoint.InJos11:3andJg3:3theyseemtobelocatednearHermonintheLebanon,butHiviteis
probablyhereacorruptionofHittite(cf.Moore,Judges,p.79).DeuteronomiceditorsintroduceHivitesoftenintheirlistofCanaanitish
peoples,usuallyplacingthembeforeJebusites.PerhapsthisindicatesthattheylivednearJerusalem.2S24:7,thoughvague,isnot
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inconsistentwiththis.SomehavesupposedHivitetomeanvillager,buttheetymologyismostuncertain.Reallynothingisknownoftheir
racialaffinities.
GeorgeA.Barton.
HIZKI.ABenjamite(1Ch8:17).
HIZKIAH(AVHezekiah).AsonofNeariah,adescendantofDavid(1Ch
3:23).
HOBAB.InE(Ex3:1,4:18,18:1,2ff.)thefatherinlawofMosesisuniformlynamedJethro.ButNu10:29(J)speaksofHobabthe
sonofReueltheMidianiteMosesfatherinlaw(hthn).Itisuncertainhowthisshouldbepunctuated,andwhetherHobaborReuelwas
Mosesfatherinlaw.TheformerviewisfoundinJg4:11(cf.1:16),thelatterinEx2:18.TheRVinJg1:16,4:11attemptstoharmonizethe
twobyrenderinghthnbrotherinlaw.Butthisharmonizationisdoubtful,for(1)thoughitistruethatinAram.andArab.thecognateword
canbeusedratherlooselytodescribeawifesrelations,thereisnoevidencethatitiseversousedinHeb.anditwouldbestrangetofindthe
fatherandthebrotherofthesamemanswifedescribedbythesameterm(2)Ex2:16appearstoimplythatthepriestofMidianhadnosons.
ItisprobablethatthenameRenelwasaddedinv.18byonewhomisunderstoodNu10:29.ThesuggestionthatHobabthesonofhas
accidentallydroppedoutbeforeRenelisveryimprobable.ThusJethro(E)andHobab(J)arethenamesofMosesfatherinlaw,andReuelis
Hobabsfather.AMohammedantraditionidentifiesShoaib(perhapsacorruptionofHobab),aprophetsenttotheMidianites,withMoses
fatherinlaw.Onhisnationality,andtheeventsconnectedwithhim,seeKenites,Midian,Jethro.
A.H.MNeile.
HOBAH.Theplacetowhich,acc.toGn14:16,AbrahampursuedthedefeatedarmyofChedorlaomer.Itisdescribedasonthelefthand
(i.e.tothenorth)ofDamascus.Itisidentified,withconsiderableprobability,withthemodernHoba,20hoursN.ofDamascus.
HOBAIAHSeeHabaiah.
HOD(majesty).AnAsherite(1Ch7:37).
HODAVIAH.1.AManassiteclan(1Ch5:24).2.ThenameofaBenjamitefamily(1Ch9:7).3.ALeviticalfamilyname(Ezr2:40)
calledinNeh7:43Hodevah.4.AdescendantofDavid(1Ch3:24).
HODESH(newmoon).OneofthewivesofShaharaim,aBenjamite(1Ch
8:9).
HODEVAH.SeeHodaviah,No.3.
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HODIAH.1.AmanofJudah(1Ch4:19).AVwronglytakesitasawomansname.2.ALevite(Neh8:7,9:5,10:10).3.AnotherLevite
(Neh10:13).4.Oneofthosewhosealedthecovenant(Neh10:18).
HOGLAH(partridge).DaughterofZelophehad,Nu26:33,27:1,36:11,Jos17:3(P).
HOHAM,kingofHebron,formedanalliancewithotherfourkingsagainstGibeon,butwasdefeatedbyJoshuaatBethhoron,andputto
deathalongwithhisalliesatMakkedah(Jos10:3ff.).
HOLINESS
I.INOT
TheHeb.wordsconnectedwiththeSemiticrootqdsh(thoseconnectedwiththerootchrmmaybeleftoutoftheinquiry:cf.art.Ban),
namely,qdeshholiness,qdshholy,qiddash,etc.sanctify,thederivednounmiqdshsanctuary,qdshqedshhwhore,harlot
occurinabout830passagesinOT,about350ofwhichareinthePentateuch.TheAram.qaddshholyismetwith13timesintheBookof
Daniel,qdshandqedshhhavealmostexclusivelyheathenassociations,qaddshisusedinafewpassagesofthegods,butotherwisethe
BiblicalwordsfromthisrootreferexclusivelytoJehovah,andpersonsorthingsconnectedwithHim.Theprimarymeaningseemsatpresent
indiscoverable,somemakingittobethatofseparationorcuttingoff,othersconnectingwithchdshnew,andtheAssyr.quddushu
pure,brightbutneitherbringsconclusiveevidence.Inactualusethewordisalwaysareligiousterm,being,whenappliedtodeity,almost
equivalenttodivine,andmeaning,whenusedofpersonsorthings,setapartfromcommonusefordivineuse.
1.HolinessofGod.ForalltheAncientEast,PhniciansandBabyloniansaswellasHebrews,agodwasaholybeing,andanything
speciallyappropriatedtoone,forexampleanearringornoseringregardedasanamulet,wasalsoholy.Theconceptionofholinesswas
consequentlydeterminedbythecurrentconceptionofGod.Ifthelatterforanypeopleatanytimewaslow,theformerwaslowalso,andvice
versa.IntheheathenworldoftheAncientEasttheDivineholinesshadnonecessaryconnexionwithcharacter.Theethicalelementwas
largelyoraltogetherabsent.Soaholyman,amanspeciallyintimatewithagod,neednotheamoralman,asinPalestineatthepresentday,
whereholymenareanythingbutsaintsintheWesternsenseoftheterm(Curtiss,PrimitiveSemiticReligionToday,p.149f.).Inancient
IsraeltheholinessofJehovahmayinthefirstinstancehavebeenceremonialratherthanethical,butthiscannotbeproved.Inthesocalled
LawofHoliness(H,containedchieflyinLv1726)adocumentwhich,thoughcompiledaboutthetimeofEzekiel,probablycontainsvery
ancientelementstheceremonialandtheethicalareinextricablyblended.TheholinesswhichJehovahrequires,andwhichisevidentlytobe
thoughtofastosomeextentofthesamenatureasHisown:Yeshallbeholy,forItheLordyourGodamholy(Lv19:2),includesnotonly
honesty(19:11,36),truthfulness(v.11),respectforparents(v.3,20:9),fairdealingwithservants(19:13),kindnesstostrangers(v.34),the
weakandhelpless(vv.14,32),andthepoor(v.9f.),socialpurity(20:11ff.,18ff.),andloveofneighbours(19:18),butalsoabstinencefrom
bloodasanarticleoffood(17:10ff.,19:26),frommixturesofanimals,seeds,andstuffs(19:19),andfromthefruitofnewlyplantedtreesfor
thefirstfouryears(v.23ff.)and,forpriests,compliancewithspecialrulesaboutmourningandmarriage(21:115).Inotherwords,this
holinesswaspartlyceremonial,partlymoral,withoutanyapparentdistinctionbetweenthetwo,andthisdoubleaspectofholinessis
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characteristicofP(inwhichHwasincorporated)asawhole,stressbeingnaturallylaidbythepriestlycompilerorcompilersonexternals.In
theprophets,ontheotherhand,theethicalelementgreatlypreponderates.ThevisionoftheHolyJehovahinIsaiah,whichwrungfromthe
seerthecryWoeisme,forIamamanofuncleanlips(Is6:5),leavestheceremonialaspectalmostcompletelyoutofsight.Theholinessof
JehovahthereisHisabsoluteseparationfrommoralevil,Hisperfectmoralpurity.
ButthereisanotherelementclearlybroughtoutinthisvisionthemajestyoftheDivineholiness:Holy,holy,holyistheLordofhoststhe
wholeearthisfullofhisglory(v.3).ThisaspectalsocomesoutverydistinctlyinthegreatpsalmoftheDivineholiness,perhapsfromthe
earlyGreekperiod,wheretheholyJehovahisdeclaredtohaveagreatandterriblename(Ps99:3)andtobehighaboveallpeoples(v.2),
andinoneofthelaterportionsoftheBookofIsaiah,whereHeisdescribedasthehighandloftyOnethatinhabitetheternity,whosenameis
Holy(Is57:15).TheholinessofGodinOTischaracterizedbystainlesspurityandawfulmajesty.
2.Holypersonsandthings.InancientIsraelallconnectedwithGodwasholy,eitherpermanentlyorduringthetimeofconnexion.He
dweltinaholyheaven(Ps20:6),satonaholythrone(Ps47:8),andwassurroundedbyholyattendants(Ps89:7).HisSpiritwasholy(Ps
51:11,Is63:10f.),Hisnamewasholy(Lv20:3etc.),Hisarmwasholy(Ps98:1),andHiswaywasholy(Is35:8).HischosenpeopleIsrael
washoly(Lv19:2,Dt7:6etc.),theirlandwasholy(Zec2:12),theTemplewasholy(Ps11:4etc.),andthecityoftheTemple(Is52:1,Neh
11:1).EverypartoftheTemple(orTabernacle)washoly,andallitsutensilsandappurtenances(1K8:4)thealtarsofincenseandburnt
offering(Ex30:27f.),thefleshofasacrifice(Hag2:12),theincense(Ex30:36),thetable(Ex30:27),theshewbread(1S21:6),the
candlestick(Ex30:27),theark(v.26,2Ch35:3),andtheanointingoil(Ex30:25).ThoseattachedmorecloselytotheserviceofJehovah
priests(Lv21:6,H),Levites(Nu8:17f.),andperhapstosomeextentprophets(2K4:9),wereholy(withceremonialholiness)inahigher
degreethanothers.ThecombinationofmerelyexternalandethicalholinessastherequirementofJehovahlasteduntiltheadventof
Christianity,theproportionoftheelementsvaryingwiththevaryingconceptionofGod.
II.INNT
ThewordholinessinEVstandsforhosiots(Lk1:75,Eph4:24),hagiots(2
Co1:12RV,AVhavinganotherreadingHe12:10),hagisyn(Ro1:4,2Co7:1,1Th3:13),hagiasmos(inAV,Ro6:19,22,1Th4:7,1Ti
2:15,He12:14,butintheother5passagesinwhichthewordoccurswefindsanctificationRVhassanctificationthroughout),andforpart
ofhieropreps(Tit2:3),asbecomethholiness,RVreverentindemeanour.Theideaofholiness,however,isconveyedmainlybythe
adjectivehagiosholy(about230times)andtheverbhagiaz(27times,in24ofwhichitisrenderedinEVsanctify),alsobyhosios(Ac
2:27,13:34f.,1Ti2:8,Tit1:8,He7:26,Rev15:4,16:5,notinthetextofAV)andhieros(1Co9:13,2Ti3:15RVhasinbothpassages
sacred).Ofthesewordsbyfarthemostimportantisthegroupwhichhashagiosforitscentre,andwhichistherealequivalentofqdesh,
qdsh,etc.,hierosreferringrathertoexternalholinessandhosiostoreverence,piety,hagios,whichisfreelyusedinLXX,butisveryrarein
classicalGreekandnotfrequentincommonGreek,neveroccurring(outsideofChristiantexts)inthesevenvolumesofpapyriissuedbythe
EgyptExploration
Society,isscarcelyeverusedinNTintheceremonialsense(cf.1Co7:14,2P
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1:18)exceptinquotationsfromOTorreferencestoJewishritual(He9:2,3,8,24,10:19etc.),andincurrentJewishexpressions,e.g.the
holycity,Mt4:5etc.Otherwiseitispurelyethicalandspiritual.
Threeusesdemandspecialnotice.1.ThetermholyisseldomapplieddirectlytoGod(Lk1:49,Jn17:11,1P1:15f.,Rev4:8),butitis
veryoftenusedoftheSpiritofGod(theHolySpirit94times,56ofwhichareinthewritingsofLuke:cf.art.HolySpirit).2.Theepithetis
usedin10passagesofChrist(theHolyOneofGod,Mk1:24,Lk4:34,Jn6:69alsoLk1:35,Ac3:14,4:27,30,He7:26,1Jn2:20,Rev
3:7).3.ItisveryoftenusedofChristians.Theyarecalledsaintsorholyones(hagioi)60times,39inthePaulineEpistles.Theexpression
isnodoubtofOTorigin,andmeansconsecratedtoGod,withthethoughtthatthisconsecrationinvolveseffortaftermoralpurity(cf.
LightfootonPh1:1).Inthisusetheethicalelementisalwaysintheforeground.Sowefindhagiosassociatedwithammoswithouthlemish,
RVEph1:4,5:27,Col1:22andwithdikaiosrighteous,RVMk6:20,Ac3:14.Thethreewordshagiots,hagisyn,andhagiasmos
designaterespectivelythequalityofholiness,thestateofholiness,andtheprocessorresult.Forthesphereandsourceofholiness,cf.
Sanctification.
W.TaylorSmith.
HOLMTREE.SeeCypress.
HOLOFERNES.AccordingtotheBookofJudith,HoloferneswasthegeneralentrustedbyNehuchadnezzar,kingofNineveh,with
thetaskofwreakingvengeanceonalltheearth(2:1,4).Beforehisvastarmynationafternationsubmittedandacknowledged
Nehuchadnezzarasagod.TheJewsalonewouldnotyieldandHolofernesaccordinglyblockadedtheircityofBethulia.Forthesubsequent
storyandthedeathofHolofernesatthehandsofJudith,seeart.Judith.
HoloferneshasbeenvariouslyidentifiedwithAshurbanipal,Cambyses,
OrophernesofCappadocia(afriendofDemetriusSoter,theenemyoftheJews),Nicanor(theSyriangeneralconqueredbyJudasMaccahus),
Scaurus(PompeyslieutenantinSyria),andSeverus(Hadriansgeneral).
W.M.Nesbit.
HOLON.1.AcityofJudahintheHebronhills,giventotheLevites(Jos
15:51,21:15).Intheparallelpassage1Ch6:58itiscalledHilen.TheruinBeilAla,inthelowerhillswestofHebron,wouldbeasuitable
site.2.AcityofMoabnearHeshbon(Jer48:21).Itssitehasnotbeenrecovered.
HOLYOFHOLIES,HOLYPLACE.SeeTabernacle,andTemple.
HOLYONEOFISRAEL.AtitleofGodusedwithespecialfrequencybyIsaiahtoexpressHistranscendenceandmajesty.Theideaof
Godsholinessis,ofcourse,mucholderthanIsaiah,buttohim,astonoonebefore,itwasthecentralandmostessentialattributeofGod,far
moresothanHispowerormajesty.WecantracethisideafromtheverymomentofhiscallintheTemple.Ashefelthimselfonthatday
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standinginGodspresence,hisfirstthoughtwasofhisownuncleanness,andthiswrungfromhimacryofanguish(Is6:5cf.St.Peterscry
inLk5:8).Whenthispassedaway,heheardtheangelicchoirchantingtherefrain,Holy,holy,holyistheLordofhosts.Fromhenceforthhe
thoughtofGodmostoftenasapure,unique,spiritualBeingremovedfromalltheimperfectionsofearthanideafoundalsoinsomeofthe
Psalms(e.g.71:22,78:41,89:18).ItwasinaspecialsenseagainsttheAssyrianinvadersthatGodvindicatedHisclaimtothistitle(2K
19:22),byshowingthatthemightofmanwaspowerlessagainstHisownpeoplewhenprotectedbyHim.Inthissensetheholinessandthe
omnipotenceofGodarenearlyallied,thoughneversynonymous.
H.C.O.Lanchester.HOLYSEPULCHRE.SeeJerusalem,7.
HOLYSPIRIT.TheChristiandoctrineoftheHolySpiritarisesoutoftheexperienceoftheChurch,asitInterprets,andisitself
interpretedby,thepromiseoftheComfortergivenbyJesustoHisdisciples(Jn1416).Thisappealtoexperiencefollowsthemethodadopted
bySt.PeterinhisPentecostalsermon(Ac2:33).Theteachingmaybrieflybestatedasfollows:TheHolySpiritisGodaPersonwithinthe
GodheadtheThirdPerson,theknowledgeofwhomdependsontherevelationoftheFatherandtheSon,frombothofwhomHeproceeds.He
wasintheworld,andspokebytheprophetsbeforetheWordbecameflesh,andwasHimselftheagentinthatcreativeact.ThroughHimthe
atonementwasconsummated.HeisthelifegivingpresencewithintheuniversalChurch,theDivineagentinitssacramentalandauthoritative
actscommunicatingHimselfasapresenceandpowertotheindividualChristianmediatingtohimforgivenessandnewbirthnourishing,
increasing,andpurifyinghiswholepersonalityknittinghimintothefellowshipofsaintsandfinally,throughtheresurrectionofthebody,
bringinghimtothefulnessofeternallife.ThepurposeofthisarticleistojustifythisteachingfromScripture.
1.ThepromiseofChrist.ItisunnecessarytodiscussthehistoricalcharacteroftheLastDiscoursesaspresentedinJohn,
becausethefactofthepromiseoftheSpiritissufficientlyattestedbySt.Luke(Lk24:49,Ac1:4,5,8,2:33),anditssignificance
corroboratedbythewholetenoroftheNT.ThespecificpromiseoftheParaclete(Jn14:16,17,26,15:26,16:715)mustbereadinviewof
thewiderpromiseoftheAbidingPresence,whichisitsbackground(14:2,3,1823,15:411).Thefirsttruthtobegraspedbythe
ChristiandiscipleisthattoseeJesusistoseetheFather(14:9,cf.12:45),becausetheSonabidesintheFather(v.10f.,17:21,23).Nexthe
mustrealizethetruemeaningofthecomfortandpeacehehasfoundinChristasthewaythroughwhichheattainshisowntrueend,which
istocometotheFatherandabideinHim(14:69,17:21cf.He7:25,10:19,20).Sothepromisetakes,first,theformofadisclosure.If
JesusisnotonlytoembodyGodbuttobethechannelthroughwhichthefaithfulhavecommunionwithHim,HemustHimselfdepartto
prepareabidingplacesintheFathershouse(14:2),thatHemayliftmentothesphereofHisowneternallife,andthatwhereHeisthey
toomaybe(v.5,cf.12:26).Itisnecessary,therefore,notonlythatthediscipleshouldbeholdJesus(16:16,17,19)astheApostlesdidwith
theireyes(1Jn1:1,Jn19:35)andaslaterbelieversdothroughtheApostolicword(17:20,Lk1:2),butthatheshouldabideinHim(Jn
15:4).ThusthepurposeoftheIncarnationisfulfilledinthelinkingupofthechaintheFatherintheSontheSonintheFatherthe
believerintheSonmankindinGod.
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ThemethodbywhichJesusistoconsummatethisreconcilingworkisdeclaredinthepromiseoftheParaclete.(Forthequestionwhether
thewordParakltosistobetranslatedComforter,orAdvocate,seeart.Advocate.)HavingpromisedanotherComforter,theLord
proceedstoidentifyHimwiththeSpirit(Jn14:17),whichenablesHimtogivetothePerson,ofwhomHespeaks,thenameoftheHoly
Spirit(v.26,theGreekhavingthedefinitearticlebeforebothSpiritandHoly).OnlyonceinHispreviousteachingisHereportedtohave
employedthistitle(Mk3:29||).Mk12:36and13:11appeartosupplyotherinstances,butcomparisonshouldbemadewiththeparallel
passagesineithercase(Mt22:43,Mt10:20,Lk21:15).Andthereissomethingabnormalinthewarningconcerningtheunpardonablesin,
beingoneofthehardsayingsfullyinterpretedonlyinthelightofsubsequentevents)cf.Mk8:34,Jn6:58).ButSpiritandHolySpirit
occurasusedbyChristintheSynoptics(Mt12:28,Lk11:13Gr.nodefinitearticle)andinJohn(3:8).Toomuchcannotbemadeofthis
argument,asweareatbestdealingwithaGreektr.ofthewordsactuallyusedbyourLord.Butitremainstruethatinthesecasesanewand
unexpecteddevelopmentisgiventooldideas,aswhenNicodemusfailstounderstandthespiritualbirth(Jn3:10),ordisciplesarescandalized
bythespiritualfood(6:60),yetboththetermsusedandthethoughtsrepresentedarefamiliar,andpostulateaprevioushistoryofdoctrine,the
resultsofwhichamasterinIsraeloughtatleasttohaveapprehended.ThepassagereadbyJesusinthesynagogueatNazareth(Lk4:18,19,
Is61:1,2)formsalinkbetweentheGospelandtheOTinrespecttotheSpirit.
2.TheSpiritinOT
(1)General.TheOTneverusesthephrasetheHolySpirit.IntwopassagestheepithetholyisappliedtotheSpirit,butineachitisstill
furtherqualifiedbyapossessivepronoun(Ps51:11thy,Is63:10his).ButtheconceptionoftheSpiritofGodischaracteristic,being
closelyrelatedtotheWord(Schultz,OTTheol.il.184).Thedistinctionbetweenthemisthatbetweenthebreathandthevoice,thelatterbeing
thearticulateexpressionofthought,theformertheforcebywhichthewordismadeliving.TheSpiritisthelifeofGod,and,assuch,is
lifegiving.TheaccountofcreationinGenesisputsusinpossessionoftherootidea(1:2,3).Itwasnoblindforceinherentinnaturewhich
producedthisbeautifulworld,butadivineThinker(Cheyne,OP,p.322).TheSpiritisthelifeofGodcommunicatedbyaword(cf.Ps
33:6,51:11,104:30,139:7).Thiscreativeprinciple,whichanimatestheuniverse,findsaspecialsphereofactivityinman(Gn2:7,Job27:3,
33:4),whobyitsoperationbecomesnotonlyalivingsoul,butarationalbeingcreatedintheimageofGodandreproducingtheDivinelife(
Gn1:27).ThustheSpiritisthesourceofthehigherqualitieswhichmanhooddevelopsadministrativecapacityinJoseph(Gn41:38),
militarygeniusinJoshua(Nu27:18),judicialpowersintheseventyelders(Nu11:17),thecraftsmansartinBezalelandOholiab(Ex31:2,6).
Sofarthereisnothingdirectlymoralinitsinfluence.ButaboveallitistheSpiritthatreproducesinmanthemoralcharacterofGod(Ps51:11,
143:10,Is30:1,Neh9:20),thoughthisaspectisbynomeanssoclearlypresentedasmighthavebeenexpected.WickednessgrievesHisSpirit
(Is63:10),whichstriveswiththerebellious(Gn6:3,Neh9:30).Thiscomprehensivedealing,affectingalikeintellect,affections,andwill,
arisesoutofthecentralconception,statedintheBookofWisdom,thatGodmademananimageofhisownproperbeing(2:23).
(2)TheChosenRace.TheepithetholyasappliedintheOTtotheSpirit,thoughitmayincludepositiverighteousnessandpurity,arises
inthefirstinstanceoutofthenegativemeaningprimarilyattachingtoholinessinScripturenamely,separationtoHimwhosebeingisnot
compassedbyhumaninfirmityandmortallimitations.TheSpirit,therefore,initsmoregeneralbearing,istheindwellinginfluencewhich
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consecratesallthingstothefulfilmentoftheuniversalpurpose.ButIsraelbelievedthatGodhadaparticularpurpose,whichwouldbe
accomplishedthroughHispresenceintheChosenNation.AspecialconsecrationresteduponJacob,inviewofwhichtheGentilesmightbe
regardedasaliens,sinners,whowereoutsidethepurpose(Gal2:15,Eph2:12,4:18).ThusthepresenceofGodsgoodorholySpiritisthe
peculiarendowmentoftheHebrewpeople(Neh9:20,Is63:11),whichbecomestheorganoftheDivineselfmanifestation,theprophetic
nation(Ps105:15,cf.Is44:1etc.).ThetermprophetisalsoappliedtothosewhowererepresentativeleaderstoAbraham(Gn20:7),
Moses(Dt18:15),Miriam(Ex15:20),Deborah(Jg4:4),andSamuel.TheSpirit
cameuponDavidnotonlyasthepsalmist(2S23:2)butastheidealking(1S16:13).TheinstrumentsofGodspreferentialactionIsrael,
andthosewhoguideditsdestinybecamethechannelofrevelation,themouth(Ex4:16)throughwhichthemessagewasdelivered.More
directlystill,Godspakebythemouthofhisholyprophets(Lk1:70cf.Is51:16,Jer1:9),whohearthewordatHismouth(Ezk3:17,1S
3:11).
(3)Prophecy.ThisbringsustotheyetmoredefinitesphereoftheSpiritsactionintheOT.Itappearstotheearlieragesmainlyasthe
spiritofprophecy(Schultz).AmongthelaterJewsalsotheHolySpiritwasequivalenttothespiritofprophecy(Cheyne).FromSamuel
onwardsprophecytakesitsplacealongsidethemonarchyasanorganizedfunctionofthenationallife.Fromthevisionsofseers(1S9:9,2S
24:11,2Ch9:29)andtheecstaticutteranceoftheearliernebiim(1S
10:610,19:23,24,2K3:15cf.Nu11:25)tothefinishedliteratureofIsaiahandJeremiah,revelationisessentiallyadirectandliving
communicationoftheSpirittotheindividualprophet(Dt34:10,Am3:8,Mic3:8).ThoughtheSpiritisstillaninfluenceratherthana
personality,yetaswerisetothehigherplaneofprophecy,wheretheessentialthoughtisthatofGodworking,speaking,manifestingHimself
personally,weapproachtheNTrevelation.TheLordGodhathsentme,andhisspirit(Is48:16,cf.Mt10:20).
(4)TheSpiritandMessiah.ThepointofcontactbetweentheOTandNTistheexpectationofaspecialoutpouringoftheSpiritin
connexionwiththe
establishmentofMessiahsKingdom(Ezk39:29,Jl2:28,29,Zec12:10cf.Is35,Jer31:79).Thiswastodistributeitselfoverthewhole
nation,whichwasnolongertobebyrepresentationfromamongitsmembersthepropheticmediumofJehovahsmessages,butuniversally
theorganoftheSpirit.ThediffusionofthegifttoallfleshcorrespondswiththatextensionoftheKingdomtoincludeallnationsinthe
peopleofGodwhichischaracteristicoflaterHebrewprophecy(Is56:7etc.,Ps87,Lk2:32).ButitisonMessiahHimselfthattheSpiritisto
restinitsfulness(Is11:15).ItspresenceisHisanointing(Is61:1).ThisistheconnexioninwhichtherelationoftheSpirittothe
manifestationofrighteousnessismostclearlyshown(Is11:5,Ps45:47).SowhenJesusofNazarethbeginsHisworkastheAnointedOneof
Hebrewexpectation,therelightsuponHimwhattotheoutwardeyeappearsasadove(Mk1:10||),emblemofthatbroodingpresence(cf.Gn
1:2)whichwastofinditshomeintheMessiah(Jn1:33abiding)inthepowerofwhichHewastofulfilallrighteousness(Mt3:15)tobe
drivenintothewildernessforHisfightwithtemptation(4:1)toreturntoHisministryinGalilee(Lk4:14)toworkasbythefingerofGod
(Lk11:20,cf.||)andtoaccomplishHisdestinyinmakingtheAtonement(He9:14).
3.TheologyoftheHolySpirit.Thesetwo
elements,namely,thepromiseofaParacletetothedisciples,basedontheirexperienceofHimself,andtheidentificationofthatParacletewith
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theSpiritofGod,basedontheolderrevelation,combinetoproducethatlanguageinwhichJesusexpressedtheDivinePersonalityoftheHoly
Spirit,anduponwhichtheChristiantheologyofthesubjectisfounded.WhenfirsttheHolySpiritismentioned,JesussayswhomtheFather
willsendinmyname(Jn14:26).AtthenextstageoftherevelationoftheComforter,itiswhomIwillsenduntoyoufromtheFather
(15:26).ThenitistheSpiritHimselfcoming(16:7,13),guiding(v.18),declaringtruth(v.13),andglorifyingtheSon(v.14).
(1)HeisfromtheFather.TherevelationofJesusChristisprimarilyashowingoftheFather(14:8,9).TheprincipleofJehovahslifethus
becomesintheNTtheHolySpiritwhoproceedsfromtheFather(15:26).ThisrelationisconsistentlypreservedevenwhentheSpiritis
representedasChristsowngift(16:15).JustastheSonisspokenofasGodonlyinrelationtotheFather,andassubordinateto,inthesense
ofderivingHisbeingfrom,Him,sothereisnoindependentexistenceorevenrevelationoftheSpirit.Thetechnicaltermproceeding,as
adoptedinthecreeds,istakenfrom15:26,which,whileitrefersimmediatelytothecomingoftheSpiritintotheworld,isseen,whenthe
proportionsofScriptureareconsidered,tofollowanaturalorderinherentintheDivineBeing(cf.Rev22:1).AlreadyinHisteachingtheLord
hadspokenoftheSpiritofyourFather(Mt10:20).AndthespecialrelationoftheSpirittotheFatherisprominentinSt.Paul.BytheSpirit
GodraisedupJesusandwillquickenmensmortalbodies(Ro8:11).intheSpiritthediscipleisjustified(1Co6:11)andenabledtorealizehis
redeemedsonshipandaddressGodasFather(Ro8:1416,Eph2:18).HisrelationtoGod(i.e.theFather)isfurtherassertedinmanyplaces
(e.g.1Co2:1012,2Co1:22,5:5,Eph4:30).
(2)Thisis,however,notinconsistentwith,butratherresultsin,adependenceupontheSon(Jn15:26,16:15,cf.15:15)whichenablesthe
Spirittobecometheorgan,wherebyisappliedtomankindtheredemptiveefficacyoftheIncarnateLife(14:17,18,21,23,26,16:13,14).
JesusspeaksoftheSpiritasHisowngift(15:26).AsChristcameintheFathersname,sowilltheSpiritcomeinChristsname(14:26,cf.
5:43).HisofficeistobethewitnessandinterpreterofChrist(15:26,16:14).Thetestimonyofthedisciplesistoreflectthiswitness(15:27).
ThedependenceoftheSpiritontheSon,bothinHiseternalbeingandinHisincarnatelife,isfullyhorneoutbythelanguageoftheNT
generally.HeistheSpiritofGodsSon(Gal4:6),oftheLord[Jesus](2Co3:17),ofJesus(Ac16:7RV),ofJesusChrist(Ph1:19),ofChrist
(Ro8:9,1P1:11).Itistodisciplesonlythatthepromiseismade(Jn14:17,17:9,20,21),andtheexperienceofPentecostcorrespondswithit
(Ac2:14),theextensionofthegiftbeingofferedtothoseonlywhobybaptismarejoinedtothecommunity(Ac2:38).
(3)TheoperationsoftheSpiritthusbestowedareallpersonalincharacter.Heteaches(Jn14:26),witnesses(15:26),guidesandforetells
(16:13),andglorifiestheSon(v.14).SointheActsHeforbids(16:7),appoints(13:2),decides(15:28).To
HimthelieofAnaniasistold(5:3).AndthetestimonyoftheEpistlescoincides(1Co2:10,3:16,6:19,Ro8passim,etc.).Thefellowshipof
theHolySpiritisparallelwiththegraceofChristandtheloveofGodin2Co13:14.TotheworldHispresenceisnotpower,but
condemnation.Heistoconvicttheworld(Jn16:8)bycarryingoninthelifeandworkoftheChurchthetestimonyofJesus(Jn15:26,27,1
Co12:3,1Jn5:7,Rev19:10),inwhomtheprinceofthisworldisjudged(Jn12:31,14:30).Thewitness,thepower,andthevictoryofChrist
aretransferredtothesocietyofHisdisciplesthroughtheSpirit.
4.WorkoftheSpiritintheChurch
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(1)WhileanticipatedbyHisworkintheworld(Ps139:7,Wis1:7)andforeshadowedbyHisspecialrelationswithIsrael,thepresenceof
theSpiritisyetsofaranewexperienceforChristiansthatSt.John,speakingoftheagebeforePentecost,cansaythattheSpiritwasnotyet
[given](Jn7:39RV).AsfromthepointofviewoftheChosenRace,thosewithoutweresinnersoftheGentiles(Gal2:15),withoutGodin
theworld(Eph2:12),sotheworldoutsideChristisastrangertotheSpirit.ThisismadeclearbythefactsofPentecost.Theexperienceofthe
descent,attested,tothosewhowerethesubjectsofDivinefavour,bythewindandfierytongues(Ac2:2),wasgrantedonlytotheApostles
andtheircompanionsintheupperchamber(2:1,cf.1:13,14).Thephenomenawhichfollowed(2:6)wereinterpretedbythoseoutside,who
hadheardwithoutunderstandingtherushingsound,eitherasamysteriousgiftofpower(v.12)orastheeffectofwine(v.13).
Whetherthetongueswereforeignlanguages,asthenarrativeofActstakenbyitselfwouldsuggest(v.6),must,inthelightof1Co14:1
19,wherethegiftissomeformofecstaticspeechneedingthecorrelativegiftofinterpretation,heregardedasatleastdoubtfulseealsoAc
10:46,11:15.ButthatitenabledthosewhowerenotPalestinianJews(vv.811)torealizethemightyworksofGod(v.11)iscertain.The
importanceattachedtoitintheApostolicChurchwasdue,perhaps,tothepeculiarnoveltyofthesignasunderstoodtohavebeenforetoldby
ChristHimself(Mk16:17),morecertainlytothefactthatitwasamanifestationcharacteristicoftheChristiancommunity.See,further,
Tongues,Giftof.
Though,bythetimethatSt.PaulwrotetotheCorinthians,prophecywasalreadyattaininghigherimportanceasamoreusefuland
thereforegreatergift(1Co12:2831,14:1),thememoryoftheImpressioncreatedatPentecost,asofthearrivalintheworldofanewand
unparalleledpower,unitedtothespiritualexaltationfeltbythepossessorofthegift,wasstilllivingintheChurch.NorcanthePentecostal
preachingofSt.Peter,withitsofferoftheHolySpirittothosethatrepentedandwerebaptized(Ac2:38),beregardedotherwisethanas
evidence,alikeintheApostlesandinthosewhowereaddedtothem(v.47),thattheyweredealingwithanewexperience.Thatthiswasa
transferoftheSpiritwhichdweltinChristfromHisbaptism(Mk1:10||),carryingwithitthefulnessoftheIncarnateLife(Jn1:16,Eph3:14
19,4:13),wasattestedbythemiracleswroughtinHisname(Ac3:6,7,4:30etc.),theworkswhichHehaddoneandwhichHisdiscipleswere
alsotodo(Jn14:12),bearingwitnesstoaunityofpower.
(2)TheIncarnation.ThatthepresenceoftheHolySpiritwasnotonlyanewexperienceforthemselves,butalso,asdwellinginthe
IncarnateSon,anewfactorintheworldshistory,wasrecognizedbytheprimitiveChristiansinproportionastheyapprehendedtheApostolic
conceptionofthePersonofChrist.OneoftheearliestfactsinChristianhistorythatdemandsexplanationistheseparationfromtheApostolic
bodyoftheJewishpartyintheChurch,which,afterthefallofJerusalem,hardenedintotheEbionitesects.Thedifferenceliesinthe
perceptionbytheformerofthatnewelementinthehumanityofJesuswhichisprominentintheChristologyofthePaulineEpistles(Ro1:4,
5:1221,1Co15:2028,2Co8:9,Gal4:4,Ph2:511,Col2:9).
ItisallbutcertainthatthislanguagedependsupontheacceptanceoftheVirginBirth,whichthesectsabovementioned,becausetheyhad
nouseforit,tendedtodeny.TheApostleswereenabledthroughaknowledgeofthismysterytorecognizeJesusasthesecondAdam,the
quickeningspirit,thebeginningofthenewcreationofGod(Rev3:14,cf.21:5,6).IfthenarrativeoftheAnnunciationinLuke(1:35)be
comparedwiththePrologueofJohn(1:118)andwiththeaccountofCreationinGn1,thefullimportofthisstatementbecomesapparent.
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TheSpiritovershadowsMaryasHebroodeduponthefaceofthewaters.ThemanifestationoftheMessiahwas,therefore,nomereoutpouring
ofthespiritofprophecyeveninmeasurehithertounequalled,butGodvisitingandredeemingHispeoplethroughtheincarnationofHisimage
(He1:13,Col1:15).
St.Paulsprotest,therefore,againstJudaicChristianity,which,inspiteoftemporarymisgivingsonthepartofSt.PeterandSt.James(Gal
2:11,12),receivedtheassentoftheApostolicwitnesses,resultedfromatrueinterpretationofhisexperienceofthatHolySpiritintowhichhe
hadbeenbaptized(Ac9:17,18).TheGentiles,apartfromcircumcision(Gal5:2,cf.Ac15),werecapableoftheHolySpiritaswellasthe
Jews,bytheenlargementofhumannaturethroughunionwithGodinChrist,andbythatalone(Gal4:5,6,6:15,2Co3:17,18cf.Ro.8:29,1
Co15:49).Thus,thoughtheApostolicpreachingwasthewitnesstoJesusandtheResurrection,beginningfromthebaptismofJohn(Ac1:21,
22),theApostolicrecordisnecessarilycarriedbacktothenarrativesoftheInfancy.Theministryofreconciliation,thoughfulfilledinthe
powerofthebaptismalSpirit(Lk4:14),dependedforitsrangeonthecapacityofthevesselalreadyfashionedbythesameSpirit(1:35)for
HishabitationGodwasinChrist(2Co5:19).
(3)UnionwithChrist.What,therefore,theApostoliccommunityclaimedtopossesswasnotmerelytheaptitudeforinspiration,aswhen
theSpiritspokeinoldtimesbythemouthoftheprophets,butunionwiththelifeandpersonalityoftheirMaster(Jn17:23),throughthe
fellowshipofaSpirit(2Co13:14,Ph2:1)whichwasHis(Ph1:19).TheActsistherecordoftheSpiritsexpandingactivityintheorganicand
growinglifeoftheChristianChurch.Thethingsconcerningthekingdom(1:3),ofwhichChristspokebeforeHisAscension,aresummedup
inthewitnesstobegivenuntotheuttermostpartoftheearth(v.8)andinthepromiseofpower(v.8).Theeventssubsequentlyrecordedare
aseriesofdiscoveriesastothepotentialitiesofthisnewlife.TheEpistlessetbeforeus,notsystematically,butasoccasionserves,the
principlesoftheSpiritsactioninthisprogressiveexperience,corporateandindividual.
(4)Spiritualgifts.TheNTteachingwithregardtospiritualgifts(wh.see)springsoutoftheconceptionoftheChurchasthemysticalbody
ofChrist(Eph1:22,2:1620,4:16,1Co12:12).TheHolySpiritisthelivingprincipledistributedthroughoutthebody(1Co12:13,Eph
2:18,4:4).ThepointofsupremeimportancetotheChristianistohavetheinwardresponseoftheSpirittotheLordshipofChrist(1Co12:3).
Thislifeisuniversallymanifestedinlove(ch.13),tostriveafterwhichiseverthemoreexcellentway(12:31).But,thoughbestowedonall
Christiansalike,itisdistributedtoeachaccordingtothemeasureofthegiftof
Christ(Eph4:7).TheprincipleofproportionisobservedbyHimwhohas
temperedthebodytogether(1Co12:24).Thesamegiftsormanifestationsofthe
Spiritarenot,therefore,tobeexpectedinallbelieversorinallages.Theyare
giventhatthewholebodymayprofit(12:7).Theyarecorrelativetothepartwhicheachhastofulfilintheorganicstructureofthewhole
(12:1420,Eph4:16).Thedesireforthem,thoughnotdiscouraged(1Co12:31,14:1),mustberegulatedbyconsiderationoftheneedsofthe
Church(14:12)andtheopportunitiesofservice(Ro12:16,cf.1P5:5).Eachgiftedindividualbecomeshimselfagift(Gore).
Nowheredowefindanyattempttomakeacompleteenumerationofspiritualgifts.InEph4:11,wherethecompletionofthestructureof
Christsbodyisthemainthought(v.12),fourclassesofministerialfunctionarenamed.InRo12:68,whereajustestimateofthe
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individualscapacityforserviceisprominent,thelistispromiscuous,exceptionalgiftslikeprophecy,ministerialfunctionsliketeaching,and
ordinarygraceslikeliberality,beingmentionedindifferently.Localcircumstancesconfinethelistsof1Co12:810,28tothegreatergifts(v.
31),thosegrantedformoreconspicuousservice,mostofwhicharetokensofGodsexceptionalactivity.TheobjectoftheApostleinthis
catalogueistoshowthattonguesarebynomeansfirstinimportance.Faithinv.9isnottobeconfusedwiththeprimaryvirtueof13:13,but
isinterpretedby13:2(cf.Mt17:20).
(5)Inspiration.ItisinthisconnexionthatinspirationasappliedtotheBiblemustbebroughtintorelationwiththedoctrineoftheHoly
Spirit.Notheory,asapplyingtothewholeCanon,isinthenatureofthecasetobeexpectedintheNTitself.Butprophecyisoneofthegifts
oftheSpirit(1Co12:10,28),anditisclearthattheprophetswererecognizedasadistinctorderintheApostolicChurch(Ac11:27,13:1,
21:10cf.1Ti1:18,4:14),thoughtherewasnothingprofessionalinthisministry(Ac19:6,21:9).ThetypewasundoubtedlythatoftheOT
prophets(seeabove),andadistinctlinkwiththeancientlineisfoundinSt.PetersreferencetothewordsofJoelasfulfilledatPentecost(Ac
2:16,17,18).AgabusprophesiesbytheSpirit(11:28).Headoptsthemethodofsigns(21:11)andthephraseThussaiththeHolySpirit(cf.
OTThussaiththeLord).Here,then,wehaveagiftthatwasconceivedasperpetuatingthemouthpiecewherebythewillofGodwas
revealedtothefathers(H1:1).TheinspirationoftheOTScripturesasunderstoodinthe1stcent.oftheChristianerawasundoubtedly
regardedasanextensionofthepropheticgift.TheyweretheoraclesofGod(Ac7:38,Ro3:2,He5:12),andassuchthesacredwritings(2
Ti3:15),profitablebecauseinbreathedbyGodforspiritualends(v.16).Theconnexionwithprophecyisexplicitlydrawnoutin2P1:20,21,
thesameEpistleshowingtheprocessbywhichthewritingsofApostleswerealreadybeginningtotakesimilarrank(3:15,16,cf.Eph3:5).
ThattheBibleiseitherverballyaccurateorinerrantisnomorealegitimatedeductionfromthisprinciplethanisecclesiasticalinfallibility
fromthatoftheAbidingPresenceintheChurch.IneithercasethemethodoftheSpiritsactivitymustbejudgedbyexperience.Nor,inface
oftheexpressdeclarationofSt.Paul,thatthespiritsoftheprophetsaresubjecttotheprophets(1Co14:32),maywetolerateanytheory
whichimpairsthefreedomofhumanpersonality.
(6)ThelayingonofhandsintheministrationoftheSpiritseemstohavebeenadoptedbyaspontaneousimpulseintheprimitive
community,andtohavebecomeimmediatelyanestablishedordinance.TheplaceaccordedtothepracticeinHe6:2,asbelongingtothe
alphabetofgospelknowledge,atteststheimportanceattachedtoit.Likebaptism,itsrootsareintheOT,whereitisfoundasanactof
dedication(Nu8:9,10,12,27:1823seeSchultz,OTTheol.i.391)orbenediction(Gn48:14,15).Christusesitinblessingthechildren(Mk
10:16).TheApostlesadoptitasthesign,joinedwithprayer,fortheanointingoftheHolySpirit,bywhichtheyeffectedconsecrationtoan
officeorfunction(Ac6:6cf.1Ti4:14,5:22(?seebelow),2Ti1:6),orconferredblessingonthebaptized(Ac8:1424,19:5,6).Theoffer
ofmoneytoPeteratSamaria(8:18)showsthattheritemightbe,andinthiscasewas,followedbyexceptionalmanifestations,likethose
whichappearedatPentecostandthatthefallacywhichawakenedSimonscovetousnesswastheidentificationofthegiftwiththeseeffects.
ThoughassociatedwiththebestowaloftheSpirit,thelayingonofhandshasnotyetbeenreducedtoatechnicalriteinacrystallized
ecclesiasticalsystem.AnaniasusesitintherecoveryofSaulssight(Ac9:12,17)theAntiocheneChurch,notprobablyinordainingBarnabas
andSaul,butinsendingthemforthtoaparticularmission(Ac13:3).InMk16:18andAc28:8itisasymbolofhealing(cf.Mk1:41,5:23,
6:5,8:23,Rev
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1:17,alsoJa5:14,15)in1Ti5:22notimprobablyofabsolution(seeHort,Ecclesia,p.214).Accordingto2Ti1:6,itwasusedbySt.Paulin
conveyingspiritualauthoritytohisrepresentativeatEphesusor,ifthereferencebethesameasin1Ti4:14,intheordinationofTimothytoa
ministerialfunction.Thesymbolismisnaturalandexpressive,anditsemploymentbytheChristianChurchwasimmediatelyjustifiedin
experience(e.g.Ac.19:6).Itsconnexionwiththebestowalofspecificgifts,likehealing,orofofficialauthority,likethatoftheSeven(Ac
6:6),iseasilyrecognized.
Amoredifficultquestiontodetermineisitspreciserelationtobaptism,wherethepurposeoftheministrationisgeneral.TheHolySpiritis
offeredbySt.Petertosuchasrepentandarebaptized(Ac2:38,cf.1Co12:13)whileofthosewhomPhiliphadbaptizedatSamaria(Ac
8:12)itisexpresslyassertedthatHehadfallenuponnoneofthem(v.16).ItmayhavebeenthattheexperienceoftheApostles,as
empoweredfirstbytherisenChrist(Jn20:22),andthenbythePentecostaldescent(Ac2:4),ledthemtodistinguishstagesinthereceptionof
theSpirit,andthattheapparentdiscrepancywouldberemovedbyafullerknowledgeofthefacts.Butthisuncertaintydoesnotinvalidatethe
positiveevidencewhichconnectstheministrationoftheSpiritwitheitherordinance.SeealsoLayingonofHands.
J.G.SimpsonHOMAM.SeeHemam.
HOMER.SeeWeightsandMeasures.
HOMICIDE.SeeCrimes,7,Refuge[Citiesof].
HONEST,HONESTY.In2Es16:49honesthasthemeaningofchaste.Elsewhereitmeanseitherhonourableorbecoming.For
themeaninghonourablecompareRu1:22Cov.TherewasakinsmanalsowhosenamewasBoos,whichwasanhonestmanand,for
becoming,Is52:1Cov.Putonthinehonestrayment,OJerusalem,thoucitleoftheholyone.
Honestyin1Ti2:2,itsonlyoccurrence,meansseemliness(RVgravity).
HONEY.TheappreciationofhoneybytheHebrewsfromtheearliesttimes,anditsabundanceinCanaan,areevidentfromtheoft
recurringdescriptionofthatcountryasalandflowingwithmilkandhoney(Ex3:8,17onwards).Intheabsenceofanymentionofbee
keepinginOT,itisalmostcertainthatthisproverbialexpressionhasreferencetothehoneyofthewildbee(seeBee).Thelatterhaditsnestin
thecleftsofrocks,hencethehoneyoutoftherockofDt32:13,inhollowtreetrunks(1S14:26,buttheHeb.textishereindisorder),and
even,onoccasion,intheskeletonofananimal(Jg14:8ff.).Inlatertimes,asisevidentfromtheMishna,beekeepingwaswidelypractisedby
theJews.Thehiveswereofstraworwickerwork.Beforeremovingthecombsthebeekeepersstupefiedthebeeswiththefumesofcharcoal
andcowdung,burntinfrontofthehives.
InBibletimeshoneywasnotonlyrelishedbyitself(cf.Sir11:3thebeeislittle,butherfruitisthechiefofsweetthings),andasan
accompanimenttootherfood(Mt3:4,Mk1:6locustsandwildhoney,Lk24:42,AVwithfish),butwasalsolargelyusedinthemakingof
bakemeatsandallsortsofsweetcakes(Ex16:31),sugarbeingthen,ofcourse,unknown.Althoughitformedpartofthefirstfruitspresented
atthesanctuary,honeywasexcludedfromthealtar,owingtoitsliabilitytofermentation.
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Honeyfordomesticusewaskeptinearthenjars(1K14:3EVcruse),inwhich,doubtless,itwasalsoputfortransport(Gn43:11)and
export(Ezk27:17).Manyscholars,however,wouldidentifythehoneyofthetwopassageslastcitedwiththegrapesyrup(theArab.dibs,
equivalentoftheHeb.debash,honey)ofHoneyinEBicol.2105).Indisputableevidenceofthemanufactureofdibsinearlytimes,
however,isstilllacking.
Inadditiontotheproverbialexpressionoffertilityabovequoted,honey,invirtueofitssweetness,isfrequentlyemployedinsimileand
metaphorinHeb.literatureseePs19:10,119:103,Pr16:24,24:13f.,Ca4:11,5:1,Sir24:20,49:1etc.
A.R.S.Kennedy.
HOODS.OnlyIs3:23AV,forwhichRVhasrightlyturbans.SeeDress,
5.
HOOK.1.vav,abookorringwithaspikedrivenintowood(Ex26:32etc.).2.Is19:8,Job41:1,Am4:2,Mt17:27.Thehookusedin
fishingwasofcourseattachedtoaline,butwhetherthelatterwassimplyheldinthehandorwasattachedtoarodcannotbedecided.
HOOPOE(Lv11:19,Dt14:18RVAVlapwing).Thehoopoe(Upupa
epops)isacommonspringvisitorinPalestine,whereitsstrikingplumage,itstallcrestandoddmovements,makeitconspicuous.Various
folkloretalesexistintheTalmudandamongthefellahnregardingit.Itwasanuncleanbird(Lv11:19),possiblybecauseofitshabitof
hauntingdunghills,butitiseatentodaybythefellahn.
E.W.G.Masterman.
HOPE.1.Hopeandfaith(thesoulsforwardandupwardlooktowardsGod)areimperfectlydifferentiatedintheOT,aswithmenwho
greetedthepromisesfromafar(He11:1316)hopehastherethegreatervogue.
AmongsttheseveralHeb.wordsthusrendered,(1)signifyingrestfulhope
(leaningonJ,&c.),oftenerappearsastrustandsometimesasconfidencehopeinJob6:20,Ps16:9,Pr14:32,Ec9:4,Jer17:7.(2)A
subjectivesynonym(radically,theloins)isvariouslytranslatedhope,confidence,andfolly(cf.
AVandRVinJob8:14,31:24alsoJob4:6,Ps49:13,78:7,85:8,Pr3:26,Ec7:25).(3)RVcorrectsthehope(AV)ofJer17:17,Jl3:16,into
refuge.(4)Asynonymhardlydistinguishablefrom(5)and(6),andrenderedhopeorwaitupon,occurs8times(Ps104:27,146:5etc.).
ThetwomostdistinctiveOTwordsforhopearefrequentlyrenderedwait(fororupon).Ofthese(5)bearsarelativelypassivesignificance
(e.g.inJob6:11,14:14,Ps33:1822,42:5,La3:24).(6)Thetermoftenestrecurring,denotingpractical,evenstrenuous,anticipation(
renderedexpectationinPs9:18,62:5),hasarootmeaningnotfarremovedfromthatoftheHeb.verbforbelieveGn49:18,Ru1:12,Job
14:7,Ps25:5,21,Ezk37:11,Hos2:16affordgoodexamples.
ItistotheOTratherthantheNTthatonemustlookfordefiniterepresentationsoftheearthlyhopesbelongingtoGodsKingdom,the
socialregenerationandnationalwellbeingthatcomeinitstrain(see,e.g.,Is9:6f.,11:19,55,60f.,Pss72,9698,etc.)broadlyinterpreted,
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thesepromisesareofpermanentvalidity(seeMt6:10,33,13:33,1Ti4:8etc.).HopeplaysanincreasingpartinthelaterOTbooksit
advancesindistinctness,grandeur,andspiritualitywiththecourseofrevelation.TheHolyOneofIsraelmadeHimselftheGodofhopefor
mankind(Ro15:13cf.Jer14:8and17:13withIs42:4,51:4ff.,60).Whenthenationalhopesfoundered,OTfaithanchoreditselftotwo
objects:(a)theMessianicKingdom(seeKingdomofGod)and(b),esp.inthelatesttimes,theresurrectionofthedead(Is25:8,26:19,Dn
12:2probablyJob19:25ff.,Ps16:811,17:15)thelatterconceivedasnecessarytotheformer,sinceotherwisethosewhohadsufferedmost
forGodsKingdomwouldmissit(cf.He11:35,1Th4:15ff.).TheOTheritageisdevelopedinextravagantformsbyJewishApocalyptic
literature,whichwastheproductofapowerfulfermentintheJudaismofNewTest,times.PhiloJudus,whorepresentsphilosophicJudaism
atthefarthestremovefrompopularMessianicenthusiasm,neverthelessmakeshope(followedbyrepentanceandrighteousness)theleaderin
histriadoftheelementaryreligiousvirtues(cf.1Co13:13),whilefaithleadsthesecondandhighesttriad.
2.TobothfactorsofthehopeofIsrael,separatelyortogether,St.Paulappealedinaddressinghiscompatriots(Ac13:32,23:6ff.,26:6ff.,
22ff.,28:20).Itwasalampshininginadarkplace(2P1:19):hopeattheChristianerawasflickeringlowintheGentileworld(seeEph
2:12,1Th4:13,1Co15:32ff.amplyconfirmedbyclassicalliterature).BytheresurrectionofJesusChristfromthedeadhumanitywas
begottenagainuntoalivinghope(1P1:3cf.Ac2:2236,1Co15:1226,Rev1:17f.):theIsraelitehopewasverified,andtheChristian
hopefounded,bythereturnofJesusfromthegrave.TheGreekwordforhope(elpis,nounelpiz,verb)primarilymeantexpectationof
goodorevilcommonly,ineffect,theformerbutinlaterGreek,atthetimewhenhopemadeitspresencesopowerfullyfeltintheChristian
sphere,elpiselsewherecametobeincreasinglyusedwiththesenseofanxietyorfear,ofwhichthereisnotasingleexampleintheLXXor
NT(Cremer)evilhopesintheGr.ofIs28:11isironical,similarlyinWis13:10.TheRVrightlysubstituteshopefortrustinthe18
placeswhereAVrenderedelpizbythelatterfortheNTclearlydifferentiatesfaithandhope,referringthelattertothefuturegoodof
ChristsKingdomlonginglyexpected,whiletheformerisdirectedtoGodspastdeedsofsalvationandHispresentgraceinChrist.Hopeis
usedbymetonymyforthematterofhope,thethinghopedfor,inGal5:5,Col1:5,Tit2:13,He6:18.Itissometimesreplacedbypatience(
orendurance),itsexpressioninoutwardbearing(cf.1Th1:3and2Th1:3f.)and
(asintheOT)theverbshopeandwaitorlookfororexpectareinterchangeable(seeRo8:1925,1Co1:7,Gal5:5,He10:13).St.Paul
usesagraphicandintensesynonymforhope.lit.watchingwithoutstretchedhead,inRo8:19,Ph1:20.
elpisappearsfirstwithitsfullChristianmeaningintheNTEpp.foritdates
fromourLordsresurrectionandthegiftoftheHolySpirit(Ro15:13).Itsobjectis,ingeneral,thegloryofGod(Ro5:2,1Th2:12),i.e.the
gloriousmanifestationofHiscompletedredemptionandthecomingofHiskingdominpower,whichistoberealized,particularly,inthe
acknowledgedlordshipofJesus(1Co15:2428,Ph2:9ff.,Rev17:14etc.),bringingabouttheglorificationofHissaints,sharedbymaterial
nature(Ro8:17,25,2Th1:10f.,1Co15:35ff.).Thiswillbeginwiththeresurrectionofthedead(1Th4:16,1Co15:1223,Jn5:28f.)andthe
transformationoftheearthlybody(1Co15:50ff.,2Co5:1ff.,Ph3:21),usheringinforthosewhoareChriststhestateofincorruption
whichconstitutestheireternallifeenjoyedinthevisionofGodandthefullcommunionoftheLordJesus(Lk20:35f.,1Co15:54ff.,Mt5:8,
Jn14:2f.,17:24,1Jn3:2,Rev7:1417etc.).ItsgoalisinheavenandalltheproximateandearthlyaimsofChristianity,whetherinthewayof
personalattainmentorofsocialbetterment,arestepsintheprogresstowardsthefinaldeliverancefromthebondageofcorruptionandthe
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revealingofthesonsofGodthegreatdayoftheLord.Itsgroundliesinthepromise(s)ofGod(Tit1:2,He6:1318,2P3:13,1Jn2:25),
esp.thedefinitepromiseofthetriumphantreturnofJesusensuringtheconsummationoftheMessianicKingdom(Mt24:30f.,Ac1:11,3:18
21,1Co15:2428,Rev11:1518etc.)anditsguaranteeistwofold,beinggivenobjectivelyintheresurrectionandascensionofourLord(Ac
17:31,Ro1:4,Eph1:1823,Col1:18,He6:20,1P1:21etc.),andsubjectivelyintheearnestoftheSpiritwithinChristianhearts(2Co
1:20ff.,Ro8:16f.,Eph1:13f.).Itssubjectsarethemenoffaith(Ro5:15,15:13etc.):itisthehopeofourcalling(Eph4:4,1Th2:12,Rev
19:9),thehopeofthegospel(Col1:23)thatwhichthegospelconveys,andthehopeofrighteousness(Gal5:5)thatwhichthe
righteousnessoffaithentertainsitbelongsonlytotheChristianlypure,andispurifyingineffect(1Jn3:2f.cf.Ps24:36,Mt5:8,Rev
22:14f.).Finally,itisacollectivehope,theheritageofthebodyofChrist,deartoChristianbrethrenbecauseoftheiraffectionforeachother
(1Th4:1318,2Th2:1,Eph5:27,Rev19:8f.,21:17etc.)andischerishedesp.byministersofChristforthoseintheircharge(2Co1:710,
1Th2:19f.,Col1:28,3:4,Ph2:16etc.),asitanimatedtheChiefShepherd(Jn10:27ff.,12:26,14:2ff.,17:2etc.).InChristJesushopeis
boundupasintimatelywithloveaswithfaiththesearethetriadofessentialgraces(1Co13:13,1Th1:3,2Th1:3f.,Eph4:14,He10:22ff.
).
ThewholefutureoftheChristianlife,formanandsociety,islodgedwith
ChristJesusourhope(1Ti1:1,Col1:27)NTexpectationfocusseditselfonHisParousiatheblessedhope(Tit2:13).Maranatha(our
LordcomethwasawatchwordofthePaulineChurches(1Co16:22cf.1:7f.).Thehopelaidupforthemintheheavensformedthe
treasureofthefirstbelievers(Col1:5,3:14etc.)towaitfortherisenJesus,comingasGodssonfromheaven(1Th1:9f.),washalftheir
religion.Bythishopeweretheysaved,beingenabledinitsstrengthtobearjoyfullytheillsoflifeandtheuniversalcontemptand
persecutionoftheworldaroundthem,whichstimulatedinsteadofquenchingtheircourage(Ro5:25,8:1825,2Co4:13,5:8,Ph1:20f.,He
10:3236,Rev7:1317).AccordingtothefinefigureofHe6:18ff.,hopewastheiranchorofthesoul,grappledtothethroneoftheliving,
glorifiedJesuswithintheveil.
G.G.Findlay.
HOPHNIANDPHINEHAS.ThetwosonsofElitheywerepriestsinthe
sanctuaryatShiloh,where,inspiteofthepresenceoftheirfather,theycarriedontheirevilpractices.Inconsequenceoftheirdeedsacurseis
twicepronounceduponthehouseofEli,firstbyamanofGod(1S2:27)whoisnotnamed,andagainbythemouthofSamuel(ch.3).The
cursewasaccomplishedwhenHophniandPhinehaswereslainatthebattleofAphek,andthearkofGodwaslostanincidentwhichwasthe
causeofthedeathofEli(ch.4).Themalpracticesofthesetwoconsistedintheirclaimingandappropriatingmorethantheirdueofthe
sacrifices(2:1317),andintheirimmoralactionsintheTabernacle(v.22cf.Am2:7,8).
W.O.E.Oesterley
HOPHRA.Jer44:30theEgyptianWahebr,ApriesofHerodotus,fourthkingofthe26thDyn.(c.b.c.588569andgrandsonofNecho.
He,orpossiblyhispredecessorPsammetichusii.,isalsoreferredtoasPharaohinJer37:8,7,11,Ezk29:3etc.Littleiscertainlyknownof
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hisreign.HophramusthavebeendefeatedbyNebuchadnezzarinSyriainattemptingtoresisttheprogressoftheBabylonianarmy,andhe
receivedthefugitivesfromPalestineafterthedestructionofJerusaleminb.c.586.ThereisnoevidencethatNebuchadnezzarplundered
Egypt,aswasanticipatedbyEzekiel,thoughheseemstohaveattackedHophrassuccessorAmasisinb.c.568withsomesuccess,andmay
haveoverrunsomepartofLowerEgypt.TheSyrianandothermercenarysoldiersstationedatElephantinerevoltedinthereignofHophra,
butwerebroughtagaintosubmission.AnothermutinyoftheEgyptiansoldiery,recordedbyHerodotus,resultedinAmasisbeingputupon
thethroneaschampionofthenatives.HophrareliedontheGreekmercenaries,andmaintainedhimself,perhapsinaforcedcoregency,in
LowerEgyptuntilthethirdyearofAmasis,whenhewasdefeatedandslain.
F.Ll.Griffith.
HOR.1.AmountainintheedgeofthelandofEdom(Nu33:37),where
Aarondied.Constanttradition,atleastsinceJosephus,seesMountHorinJebelHarn,theMountainofAaron,abovePetra.Thisis
regardedbytheArabsasthemountainsacredtothegreathighpriest,andhistombisshownandreverencedunderasmalldomeonits
summit.Somemodernwriters,especiallyH.C.
Trumbull,havedoubtedthetraditionandendeavouredtofixothersites,suchasJebelMadra,N.W.ofAinKadis.JebelHarnrises4780ft.
abovethesealevel.
ItswesternsideisanunscalableprecipiceitisascendedfromthepassleadingintoPetra.AverywideviewovertheArabiandesert,downto
theRedSeaanduptotheGhr,iscommandedfromthesummit.2.AmountainmentionedinNu34:7,8,asinthenorthernboundaryofthe
PromisedLand.InallprobabilitythisismeantforHermon.
R.A.S.Macalister.
HORAM.AkingofGezerdefeatedandslainbyJoshua(Jos10:33).
HOREB.SeeSinai.
HOREM.AcityofNaphtaliinthemountains(Jos19:38)prob.themodernHrahwestofKedeshnaphtali.
HORESH.Thewordhreshmeanswoodedheightinis17:9,Ezk31:3,2Ch27:4,andthisisprobablyitsmeaningin1S23:15(cf.vv.
16,18),althoughsomewouldmakeHoreshapropername,asinRVm.
HORHAGGIDGAD.AstationinthejourneyingsoftheIsraelites(Nu33:32,33).ThenamesuggeststhelandoftheHorites,orits
neighbourhood.
HORI.1.AsonofSeir(Gn36:22=1Ch1:39).2.ThefatherofShaphattheSimeonitespy(Nu13:5).
HORITES.ThepreEdomiticinhabitantsofSeirorEdomaccordingtoGn
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14:6(alatepassage)andDt2:12,22(D2).ApparentlytheycommingledwiththeEdomiteinvaders,forGn36:20,21,29(P3)countsthem
amongthedescendantsofEsau.Thenameisusuallytakentomeancavedwellers,andthisisprobablycorrect.Therearemanytombsinthe
rocksatPetra(cf.Robinson,BRP2ii.129,134),andsomeofthese,likesomeatBeitJibrinandsomerecentlydiscoveredatGezer(cf.PEFSt,
1902,pp.345ff.,and1903,pp.912)mayhavebeenusedasdwellingsoriginally.Sayce(HCM203ff.)derivesthenamefromarootmeaning
whiteascontrastedwiththeredskinnedEdomites,whileHommei(AHT261ff.)takesitasaformofGaru(orKharu)ofoneofthe
Amarnatablets.Kharuwas,however,inEgyptiananameforalltheinhabitantsofSyria(cf.W.M.Mller,
AsienundEuropa,148ff.),andcanhardlybeconnectedwithHorites.Driver
(Deut.p.38)favourstheexplanationasequivalenttocavedwellersortroglodytes.
GeorgeA.Barton.
HORMAH(devotedoraccursed)wasacity,apparentlynotfarfromKadesh,wheretheIsraeliteswereoverthrown,when,afterthe
deathofthetenspies,theyinsistedongoingforward(Nu14:45,Dt1:44).AtalatertimeitwastakenanddestroyedbyIsrael(Nu21:3,Jos
12:19),thisfeatbeingattributedinJg1:17toJudahandSimeon.TherewelearnthattheformernamewasZephath.
Possiblythememoryofthepreviousdisasterhereledtoitsbeingcalled
Accursed.ItwasoneoftheuttermostcitiesofJudah,towardsthebordersofEdominthesouth,andisnamedbetweenChesllandZiklag
(Jos15:30),alsobetweenBethul(orBethuel)andZiklag(Jos19:4,1Ch4:30),intheterritoryoccupiedbySimeon.Itwasoneofthetownsto
whichDavidsentashareofthebootytakenfromtheAmalekiteswhohadraidedZiklaginhisabsence(1S30:30).Thereisnoneedto
assumewithGuthe(Bibelwrterbuch,s.v.)thattwocitiesaresonamed.Probably,asinsomanyothercases,theoldnamepersisted,andmay
berepresentedbythemodernesSebait,23milesnorthofAinKads,and26milessouthofBeersheba.TheprobabilityisincreasedifZiklag
iscorrectlyidentifiedwithAslj,14milesnorthofesSebait.Ontheotherhand,NaqbesSafagreesbetterwiththepositionofAradbutit
seemstoofarfromKadesh,beingmorethan40milestothenortheast(Robinson,BRP9ii.181).
W.Ewing.
HORN(Heb.qeren,Gr.keras).Sometimeshornswerewroughtintovesselsinwhichoilwasstored(1K1:39)orcarried(1S16:1).
Probablywithsomedaintyornamentation,theywereusedtoholdeyepaint(Job42:14,Kerenhappuch).Oframshornsakindoftrumpet
wasmadeJos6:4)seeMusic,4(2)(e).Hornsinpoetrysymbolizedstrength(Dt33:17etc.).HorninPs18:2=2S22:3standsfor
offensiveweapons,asshieldfordefensive(Perowne).Toexaltonesborn,orcauseittobad(grow),istostrengthenandprosperhim(1S
2:1,Ezk29:21etc.).
Foronetolifthishornistobearrogant(Ps75:4,5).Tocrushorweakenoneistobreakorcutoffhisborn(Jer48:25,La2:3).Inprophetic
symbolismbornsstandforkingsandmilitarypowers(Dn7:8,8:21etc.).Thealtarborns(Ex27:2),towhichfugitivesseekingasylumclung
(1K1:50etc.),wereprojectionsatthefourcorners,andapparentlypeculiarlysacred(Ex30:10etc.)buttheirsignificanceandusearenow
unknown.
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W.Ewing.
HORNEDSNAKE.SeeSerpent.
HORNET(Ex23:28,Dt7:20,Jos24:12).InallthreereferencesthehornetismentionedasaninstrumentoftheLordtodriveoutthe
Canaanites.Bymostinterpretersaliteralinterpretationisaccepted,butametaphoricaluseofthewordiscontendedforbysome.Saycehas
suggestedthatthereferencemaybetothearmiesofRamesesiii.,asthestandardbearersworetwodeviceslikeflies.Themostplentiful
hornetinPalestineistheVespaorientalis.Hornetsattackonlywheninterferedwith.
E.W.G.Masterman.
HORONAIM(perh.thetwobollows).AcityofMoab,whosesitehasnotbeenrecoveredwithcertainty.ItismentionedinIs15:5,Jer
48:3,5,34,andalsoontheMoabiteStone(11.31,32).ItmayhavelaintothesouthoftheArnon,intheneighbourhoodoftheWadyed
Dera.
HORONITE(Neh2:10,19,13:28).AtitlegiventoSanballat(wh.see),theopponentofNehemiah.Thenameprobablydenotesan
inhabitantofBethboron(wh.see).
HORSE.TheIsraelitesmusthavebeenacquaintedwithhorsesinEgypt(Gn47:17),anditisevident,too,fromtheTellelAmarna
correspondencethathorseswerefamiliaranimalsinPalestineatanearlyperiodbutitwouldappearthatthechildrenofIsraelwereslowin
adoptingthem.ThroughouttheOTuptotheExiletheyappearonlyaswarhorsestheass,themule,andthecamelwerethebeastsforriding
andburdenbearing.Evenforwarlikepurposeshorseswereonlyslowlyadopted,themountainousregionsheldbytheIsraelitesbeing
unsuitableforchariotwarfare.Davidcommencedacquiringchariots(2S8:4),andSolomongreatlyaddedtotheirnumbers,obtaininghorses
forthemfromMusri[notMizraim,Egypt]inN.SyriaandKue,inCilicia(1K10:28,2Ch1:16[amendingthetext]).Horseswereobtained
alsofromEgypt(Is31:1,3,Ezk17:15).Someofthereferencesmaybetohiredhorsemen.ThekingsofIsraelwerewarnedagainst
multiplyinghorses(Dt17:16).TrustinhorsesisputinantithesistotrustintheLord(Is30:16,Ps20:7,33:17).BeforethereformsofJosiah,
horsessacredtothesunwerekeptintheTemple(2K23:11cf.11:16).Theappearanceofthewarhorseseemstohavemadeadeep
impression(Job39:1925,Jer47:3,Nah3:2etc.).AftertheExilehorsesweremuchmorecommon:thereturningJewsbrought736horses
withthem(Neh7:68).Horseswerefedonbarleyandtibn(choppedstraw)inSolomonstimeasinPalestinetoday(1K4:28).Althoughthe
breedingofhorseshasbecomesointimatelyassociatedwithourideasoftheArabs,itwouldseemthatduringthewholeOTperiodhorses
wereunknown,oratleastscarce,inArabia.TheequipmentofhorsesismentionedintheBiblethebitandbridle(Ps32:9,Pr26:3),bellsof
thehorses(Zec14:20),andpreciousclothesforchariots(Ezk27:20).InOTtimestheywereapparentlyunshod(Is5:28).
E.W.G.Masterman.HORSEGATE.SeeJerusalem,p.439b.
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HORSELEECH(aluqah,cf.Arab.alaqeh).Thehorseleech(Hmopissanguisuga)andthemedicinalleech(Hirudomedicinalis)are
verycommoninPalestineandarethecauseofmuchtrouble,evensicknessanddeath,tomanandbeast.Theyaboundinmanysprings,
streams,andpools,andlodgethemselves,whilestillsmall,inthemouthsofthosedrinking.Thencetheynotinfrequentlyfindtheirwaytothe
pharynx,andevenlarynx,wheretheyliveandgrowformanymonths.Theycausefrequenthmorrhages,and,ifnotremoved,leadto
progressiveanmiaanddeath.Theirvoraciousappetiteforblood,possiblyreferredtoinPr30:15,iswellillustratedbytheirhabitsasinternal
parasites.Itisprobable,however,thatthereferencehereisnottotheleechofcommonlife,buttothemythologicalvampire,theghulofthe
Arabs.
E.W.G.Masterman.
HOSAH(refuge).1.ALeviticaldoorkeeperoftheTemple(1Ch16:38,26:10,11,16).2.AcityofAsher,apparentlysouthofTyre
(Jos19:29).Thesiteisdoubtful.
HOSANNA(=Osave!).AnacclamationusedbythepeopleonPalmSundayingreetingJesusonHislastentryintoJerusalem,and
afterwardsbythechildrenintheTemple(Mt21:9,15).ItoccurssixtimesintheGospels(allintheconnexionabovenoted).
Theexpression,whichhaspreserveditsHebrewform(likeAmenand
Hallelujah),wasoriginally(inHebrew)acryaddressedtoGodSavenow!usedasaninvocationofblessing.Whenthewordpassedover
(transliteratedintoGreek)intotheearlyChurchitwasmisunderstoodasashoutofhomageorgreeting=
HailorGloryto.
ThesimplestformofthePalmSundaygreetingoccursinMk11:9andJn12:13Hosanna!Blessedishethatcomethinthenameofthe
Lord,whichreallywasthecryofthepeople.Theadditionsthatoccurintheotherpassages(HosannatothesonofDavid,Mt21:9,15,and
Hosannainthehighest,Mt21:9,Mk11:10)seemreallytobelateramplificationsduetomisunderstandingoftherealmeaningofHosanna.
TheHosannacry(cf.Ps118:25f.)andthepalmbranchesnaturallysuggesttheFeastofTabernacles,whenthepeopleusedtoraisethecryof
Hosanna,whilemarchinginprocessionandwavingbranchesofpalm,myrtle,andwillow.Thegreatoccasionforthiswasespeciallythe7th
dayoftheFeast,whentheHosannaprocessionsweremostfrequent.HencethisdaywasearlydesignatedDayofHoshana[Hosanna],and
thelulabbranchesthenusedalsoreceivedthesamename.Itwasthegreatestofpopularholidays,probablythelinealdescendantofanold
Canaanitishfestival,andstillretainsitsjoyouscharacterintheJewishFestivalcalendar(HoshanaRabba).
Itisnotnecessary,however,tosuppose,withWnsche(Erluterungender
EvangelienausTalmudundMidrash,p.241),thataconfusionhasarisenintheGospelaccountsofPalmSundaybetweenTabernaclesand
Passover.SuchprocessionswerenotpeculiartoTabernacles.Theymightbeextemporizedforotheroccasionsofajoyouscharacter(cf.1Mac
13:51,2Mac10:7),andthiswasthecaseinthescenedescribedintheGospels.
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InitstransliteratedformthewordHosannapassedoverintoearlyliturgical(esp.doxological)use(cf.e.g.Didache10:6Hosannatothe
GodofDavid),asaninterjectionofpraiseandjoy,andwasdevelopedontheselines.Theearlymisunderstandingofitsrealmeaningwas
perpetuated.ButthehistoryofthisdevelopmentliesoutsidetherangeofpurelyBiblicalarchaeology.
G.H.Box.
HOSEA.ThenameoftheprophetHosea,thoughdistinguishedbytheEnglishtranslators,isidenticalwiththatofthelastkingofIsrael
andwiththeoriginalnameofJoshuainthesecasesitappearsintheEVasHoshea.Hosea,thesonofBeeri,istheonlyprophet,amongthose
whosewritingshavesurvived,whowashimselfanativeoftheNorthernKingdom.ThemainsubjectoftheprophecyofAmosistheNorthern
Kingdom,butAmoshimselfwasanativeoftheSouthsoalsowereIsaiahandMicah,andthesetwoprophets,thoughtheyincludedthe
NorthernKingdomintheirdenunciations,devotedthemselvesmainlytoJudah.
HoseaspropheticcareerextendedfromshortlybeforethefallofthehouseofJerohoamii.(c.b.c.746)toshortlybeforetheoutbreakof
theSyroEphraimitishwarinb.c.735aperiodofrapidlyadvancingdecayfollowingonthesuccessandprosperityofthereignofJeroboam
ii.Hebegantoprophesywithinsome10or15yearsofthepropheticactivityofAmosatBethel,andcontinuedtodosotillsomeyearsafter
IsaiahhadmadehisvoiceheardandhisinfluencefeltintheSouthernKingdom.InfluencedhimselfprobablybyAmos,heseemstohave
exercisedsomeinfluenceoverIsaiahbuttheseconclusionsmustrestonacomparisonofthewritingsofthethreeprophets.Ourdirect
knowledgeofHoseaisderivedentirelyfromthebookwhichbearshisnamebeismentionednowhereelseintheOT.
Iftheaccountgiveninthe1stand3rdchaptersofHoseawereallegory,asmanyancientandsomemoderninterpretershaveheld,our
knowledgeofHoseawouldbeslightindeed.Butsincethesechaptersareclearlynotallegorical,therearefewprophetswhosespiritual
experienceisbetterknowntous.InfavourofanallegoricalinterpretationtheclearlysymbolicalcharacterofthenamesofHoseaschildren
hasbeenurgedbutthenamesofIsaiahschildrenShearjashubandMahershalalhashbazarealsosymbolical(cf.Is8:18).Moreover,if
thenarrativewereallegorical,therewouldbejustasmuchreasonforthenamesofHoseaswifeandherfatherasforthenamesofthechildren
beingsymbolicalontheotherhand,inreallifeitwaswithinthepoweroftheprophettogivesymbolicalnamestothechildren,butnottohis
wifeorherfather.ThenamesofHoseaswife,Gomer,andherfather,Diblaimarenotsymbolical.Further,thereferencetotheweaningofLo
ruhamahin1:8ispurposelessinallegory,butnaturalenoughinreallife,sinceitservestofixtheintervalbetweenthebirthofthetwo
children.
Thecommandin1:2hasseemedtosome,andmaywellseem,ifpropheticmethodsofexpressionareforgotten,impossibleexceptin
allegory.Itisaswell,therefore,toapproachtheimportantnarrativeofHoseawitharecollectionofsuchamethodofdescribingexperienceas
isillustratedbyJer18:14.Thisdescribesaperfectlyfamiliarscene.Theincident,translatedoutofpropheticlanguage,isasfollows.Onan
impulseJeremiahonedaywentdowntowatch,ashemustoftenhavewatchedbefore,apotterathisworkbutonthisparticulardaythe
pottersworktaughthimanewlesson.Thenherecognized(1)thattheimpulsethathadledhimthatdaywasfromJahweh,and(2)thatthe
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newsuggestionofthepotterswheelwasawordfromJahweh.Soagain,Jer32:6f.describeswhatweshouldtermapresentimentafteritwas
realized,itwasrecognizedtohavebeenawordfromJahweh(Jer32:8).Interpretedinthelightoftheseillustrationsofpropheticmethodsof
speech,thenarrativeofHosea1givesusanaccountoftheexperienceofHosea,asfollows.Drivenbytrueloveinwhich,probablyenough,
Hoseaatthetimefelttheapproval,nottosaythedirectimpulseofJahweh,HoseamarriedGomer,thedaughterofDiblaim.Aftermarriage
sheprovedunfaithful,andHoseaheardthatthewomanwhomhehadbeenledbyJahwehtomarryhadhadwithinherallalongthetendency
tounfaithfulness.Shewasnotatthetimeofmarriageanactualharlot,but,hadHoseaonlyfullyunderstood,hewouldhaveknownwhenhe
marriedher,astheseyearsafterwardshehascometoknow,thatwhenJahwehsaid,Go,marryGomer,HewasreallysayingGo,marrya
womanwhowillbestowherloveonothers.Hisnew,sadknowledgedoesnotmakehimfeellessbutmorethathismarriagehadbeenordered
ofGod.Notonlythroughtheloveofyouth,butevenmorethroughtheconflictandthetreacheryandtheillreturnwhichhislovehas
received,Jahwehisspeaking.HadHoseaspokenjustlikeJeremiah,hemighthavecontinued:ThenIdiscoveredthatmywifehadplayedthe
harlot,andthatmychildrenwerenotmine.ThenIknewthatthiswasthewordofJahweh,andJahwehsaiduntome:Evenasthebrideofthy
youthhasplayedtheharlot,evensohasMybride,Israel,playedtheharlot:evenasthychildrenarechildrenofharlotry,evensoarethe
childrenofIsraelchildrenofharlotry,sonsoftheBaalswhomtheyworship.
ApparentlyHoseareachedtheconclusionthatnoneofthechildrenwerehishecallsthemwithoutexceptionchildrenofharlotry(1:2).
ButthenameJezreel(1:4)certainlydoesnotsuggestthatatthebirthofhisfirstbornhewasalreadyawareofhiswifesunfaithfulness,the
nameofthesecond,Loruhamah(Notpitied,1:6),doesnotproveit,andeventhatofthethirdchild,Loammi(Notmykinsman,1:9),
maymerelycarryfurtherthejudgmentonthenationexpressedunquestionablyinthefirstandprobablyinthesecond.Inanycasewemay
somewhatsafelyinferthatHoseabecameaprophetbeforehehadlearnedhiswifesunfaithfulness,andthatinhisearnestpreachinghe,like
Amos,denouncedinhumanityasoffensivetoGodforthisisthepurposeofthenameJezreelthehouseofJehu,establishedbymeansof
bloodshedandinhumanity(1:4),isabouttobepunished.Kindnessnotsacrifice(6:6)musthavebeentheidealofreligionwhichfromthe
firstHoseaheldupbeforehispeople.
IthasgenerallybeeninferredthatHoseaswifesubsequentlylefthim(orthatheputheraway),butthatatlastinhisloveforher,which
couldnotbequenched,herescuedherfromthelifeofshameintowhichshehadsunk(ch3).Andthisperhapsremainsmostprobable,though
Martihaslatelyarguedwithmuchability(1)thatch.3doesnotrefertoGomer,(2)that,unlikech.1,ch.3isallegorical,and(3)thatch.3
formednopartoftheoriginalBookofHosea.Bethisasitmay,itisclearthatalthoughthecircumstancesofHoseasmarriedlifewerenotthe
causeofhisbecomingaprophet,theydoexplaincertainpeculiarcharacteristicsofhismessageandpersonality:hisinsistenceontheloveof
GodforIsrael,andonIsraelssinasconsistinginthewantofloveandofloyaltytowardsGodandthegreateremotionalelementthatmarks
himascomparedwithAmos.Atthesametime,itisimportantnottoexaggeratethedifferencebetweenAmosandHosea,oftolosesightof
thefactthatHoseanotlessthanAmosorIsaiahorMicahinsistedontheworthlessnessofreligionorofdevotiontoJahwehwhichwasnot
ethical(Jezreel,1:46:6).InconsideringthegreatersympathyofHoseawiththepeoplewhomhehastocondemn,itmustherememberedthat
hewasofthem,whereasAmos,anativeoftheSouth,wasnot.
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G.B.Gray.
HOSEA,BOOKOF.TheBookofHoseaformedthefirstsectionofacollectionofpropheticwritingswhichwasformedaftertheExile,
probablytowardsthecloseofthe3rdcenturyb.c.,andentitledTheTwelveProphets(seeMicah[Bookof]).ThegreaterpartoftheBookof
HoseaclearlyconsistsofthewritingsofHosea,thesonofBeeri,whoprophesiedinthe8thcent.b.c.(seepreced.art.),butitalsocontainsthe
annotationsoradditionsofeditorswholivedbetweenthe8thandthe3rdcenturies.Itisnotalwayspossibletodeterminewithcertaintythese
editorialportionsofthebook.
Thoughwehavenopositiveevidencetothiseffect,thereisnoreasontodoubtthatHoseahimselfcommittedtowritingtheprophetic
poemsbywhichhegaveexpressiontohismessageandofwhichthegreaterpartoftheBookofHoseaconsists(chs.2:414),andthathe
prefixedtothesetheprosenarrativeofhislife(chs.1,3,seeHosea)withwhichthehooknowopens.Itispossible,ofcourse,thatHoseafirst
circulatedinwritingsinglepoemsoracollectionoftwoorthreebutthecompletecollection,thoughscarcelymadelaterthan735,sincethe
propheciesmakenoallusiontotheSyroEphraimitishwarwhichbrokeoutinthatyear,cannotbemuchearlierthan735,sincetheprophecies
makeallusionstothecircumstancesoftheperiodthatfollowedthedeath,inaboutb.c.746,ofJerohoamii.(anarchy,7:37,8:4cf.2K15:8
26factionsfavouringappealtoEgyptandAssyriarespectively,5:13,7:11,8:9,12:1),andprobablyinparticulartothepaymentoftributeby
MenahemtoTiglathpileser[=Pul,2K15:19],whichtookplaceinb.c.738(5:13,10:5,6).Again,theopeningnarrative(ch.1),thoughit
describesHoseaslifeandteachingbeforethedeathofJeroboamii.(1:4,seeHosea),wasnotwrittenuntilsomeyearslater,foritalsorecords
thebirthofLoammi(1:9),whichwasseparatedbyhardlylessandpossiblymorethan5yearsfromthedateofHoseasmarriage.
Initsearliestform,then,theBookofHoseawaspublishedbytheprophetabouttheyear736intheNorthernKingdom.Now,incommon
withallliteratureoftheNorthernKingdom,HoseaowesitspreservationtothecareoftheSouthernKingdomofJudah.Itistolerablycertain
thattheJewswhopreservedthebookadapteditforJewishuseinotherwords,thattheBookofHoseaaswehaveitisa
JewisheditionofthewritingsofanIsraeliteprophet.ThehandofaJewisheditor
(andinthiscaseasomewhatlateone)isperhapsclearestinthetitle(1:1),forHosea,acitizenoftheNorthernKingdomandaddressing
himselftotheNorth,wouldscarcelydatehisprophecybykingsoftheSouthernKingdomofJudah,norwouldacontemporarybelikelyto
equatethedaysofUzziahandhissuccessorswiththedaysofJeroboam,sinceUzziahhimselfoutlivedJeroboam.Withmoreorlessreason,
additionstoormodificationsofHoseasworkbyJewisheditorshavebeensuspectedin1:7,1:102:1,3:5(andDavidtheirking)4:15a,5:5(
lastclause)6:11,8:14,10:11,11:12b.Inseveralothercases(5:10,12,13,14,6:4,12:2)itispossiblethattheeditorhaspointedtheoriginal
propheciesathisownpeopleoftheSouthbysubstitutingJudahwhereHoseahadwrittenIsraelthus,althoughatpresentJacobJudahare
mentionedin12:2,thetermsJacobandIsrael,synonymsforthepeopleoftheNorthernKingdom,werecertainlyinthemindofthewriter
of12:2,3,forin12:3hepunsonthesenames:Inthewombhe
Jacobedhisbrother,andinhismanhoodIsraeledwithGod.
AnotherwholegroupofpassageshasbeensuspectedofconsistingofadditionstoHoseasprophecies.Thesearethepassagesofpromise
(1:102:1,2:1423,3:15[regardedasanallegoryofrestoration]5:15,6:3,11:10,11,14).Thereislittledoubtthatsuchpassageswereadded
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toancientprophecies,butitisnotyetbyanymeansgenerallyadmittedthattheearlyprophetsmadenopromisesofabrighterfuturebeyond
judgment.
ApartfromtheintentionalmodificationsoftheoriginalwordsofHoseabylatereditors,thetexthassufferedveryseriouslyfromaccidents
oftransmission.TosomeextenttheGreekversionallowsustoseeanearlierHebrewtextthanthatperpetuatedbytheJewsfromwhichthe
EVismade.TheEnglishreaderwillfindthetranslationfromacriticallyemendedtextbyDr.G.A.Smith(BookoftheTwelveProphets,vol.
i.)ofgreatassistance.ThebestEnglishcommentaryisthatbyW.R.HarperintheInternationalCriticalCommentary.
G.B.Gray.
HOSEN.Thepluralofhose(cf.ox,oxen),onlyDn3:21AV,andnowobsoleteinthesense,hereintended,ofbreechesortrousers.
Thearticleofdressdenotedbytheoriginalisuncertain.Accordingtoanearlytradition(LXXtiara),someformofheaddressisintended(cf.
RVmturbans),butmodernopinionfavourscoatsortunicsasinRV.
A.R.S.Kennedy.
HOSHAIAH(Jahhassaved).1.AmanwholedhalftheprincesofJudahintheprocessionatthededicationofthewallsofJerusalem
(Neh12:32).2.ThefatherofJezaniah(Jer42:1),orAzariah(43:2).
HOSHAMA.AdescendantofDavid(1Ch3:18)
HOSHEA.1.SeeJoshua.2.AnEphraimite(1Ch27:20).3.Oneofthosewhosealedthecovenant(Neh10:23).4.Thelastkingof
Israel.Thechronologicaldataofourtextarenotentirelyaccordant(2K15:30,17:1),butweknowthathecametothethronenotfarfromb.c.
732.TakingintoviewtheAssyrianannalsalongwiththeBiblicalaccounts,wegatherthatthereweretwopartiesinSamaria,oneadvocating
submissiontoAssyria,theotherhopingforindependence.PekahwasplacedonthethronebythelatterHosheawasthecandidateofthe
Assyrians,andwasperhapsactivelysupportedbytheminhisrevoltagainstPekah,whomhesupplanted.ThiswaswhenTiglathpileser
punishedPekahandRezinforinterferingintheaffairsofJudah(seeAhaz).AtthedeathofTiglathpileser,however,Hosheawasenticedby
theEgyptiankingorsubking,andwentovertothepartywhichwasreadyforrevolt.Itisprobablethathehadconvincedhimselfthattheland
couldnotlongerpaytheheavytributelaiduponit.ThenewkingofAssyria(Shalmaneseriv.)movedpromptly,capturedandimprisonedthe
king,andlaidsiegetothecapital.ItspeakswellforthestrengthofSamariaandforthecourageofitspeoplethattheplaceheldoutformore
thantwoyearsbuttheresultcanhardlyhavebeendoubtfulfromthefirst.Thesurrenderwasfollowedbythedeportationofaconsiderable
partofthepeople,andtheplantingofforeigncoloniesinthecountry(2K17:6,24).Sargon,whocametothethronejustbeforethesurrender,
hadnodesiretoexperimentwithmorevassalkings,andsetanAssyriangovernoroverthewastedprovince.ThusendedthekingdomofIsrael.
H.P.Smith.
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HOSPITALITY.InthelifeoftheEasttherearenomoreattractivefeaturesthanthosethatcentreinthepracticeofhospitality.The
virtueofhospitalityrankedhighintheancientOrient,andthelawsregulatingitsobservanceholdundisputedswayinthedesertstill.The
pleasingpictureofthemagnanimoussheik,biddingstrangerswelcometohistentandtothebestheowns(Gn18),isoftenrepeatedtothis
hourintheArabianwilderness.ItwastoLotscreditandadvantagethathehadpreservedthisvirtueamidthecorruptionsofSodom(Gn
19:2ff.).Toshirkanopportunityforitsexercisewasshameful(Jg19:15,18).Amansworthwasillustratedbyhisprincelyhospitality(Job
31:31f.).JesussentforththeTwelve(Mt10:9f.),andtheSeventy(Lk10:4ff.),relyingonthehospitalityofthepeople.Itsexercisesecured
Hisblessingwoethreatenedsuchasrefusedit.TheSamaritanschurlishdenialofhospitalitytoJesusexcitedthewrathofHisdisciples(Lk
9:53).Theguesthadarighttoexpectcertainattentions(Lk7:44ff.).Thepracticeofhospitalitydistinguishedthoseontherightfromthoseon
thelefthand(Mt25:35cf.10:40,Jn13:20).Itiscommendedbyprecept(Ro12:13,20,1Ti3:2etc.),andalsobyexample(He13:2).
Hospitalitywashighlyesteemedamongstotherancientpeoples.InEgyptitspracticewasthoughttofavourthesoulinthefuturelife.By
kindnesstostrangerstheGreekssecuredtheapprovalofZeusXenios,theirprotector.FortheRomanshospitalitywasasacredobligation.
Initssimplestaspect,hospitalityisthereceptionofthewayfarerasanhonouredguest,providingshelterandfood.Intheancient,asindeed
forthemostpartinthemodern,Orient,menjourneyonlyundernecessity.Travelforpurposesofpleasureandeducationispractically
unknown.Saveincities,therefore,andintradingcentresalongthegreathighways,therewaslittlecallforplacesofpublicentertainment.
Villagesprobablyalwayscontainedwhatiscalledthemedfehproperlymadyafahachamberreservedforguests,whoseentertainmentis
achargeuponthewholecommunity.Frompersonalexperiencethepresentwriterknowshowsolicitousthehumblestvillagersareforthe
comfortandwellbeingoftheirguests.Ifthechiefmaninavillagebewelloff,hegreatlyaddstohisprestigebyaliberaldisplayof
hospitality.
Inthedesert,everytent,howeverpooritsowner,offerswelcometothetraveller.Inthemastersabsencethewomenreceivetheguests,and
accordingtotheirmeansdothehonoursofthehouseofhair.Itisthemasterspridetobeknownasagenerousmananylackofcivilityorof
kindnesstoaguestmeetsseverereprobation.Intheguestspresencehecallsneitherhistent,noranythingitcontains,hisown.Duringhis
sojournthevisitorisowner.Thewomenbakebreadthemasterslaysasacrifice,usuallyalamb,kid,orsheep,whichisforthwithdressed,
cooked,andservedwiththebread.Theproudsonofthewildshashighideasofhisowndignityandhonourbuthehimselfwaitsuponhis
guest,seekingtogratifywithalacrityhiseverywish.Ifhisvisitorsareofsuperiorrankhestandsbythem(Gn18:8),andinanycasesitsdown
onlyiftheyinvitehim.Thesafetyandcomfortoftheguestsarethefirstconsiderationmanyplacethembeforeeventhehonourofwifeand
daughter(Gn19:8,Jg19:24cf.Lane,Mod.Egyp.297).Ifaguestarrivesaftersunsetheisentitledonlytoshelter,asthehostmightthenbe
unabletoprepareamealcreditabletohimself.Iffoodisoffered,itisofthehostsgoodwill(Lk11:5ff.).Theguest,carefulofthehosts
honour,willindicatethatmorethanherequireshasbeenprovidedbyleavingaportioninthedish.
Theopenhand,asthetokenofaliberalheart,winstherespectandesteemoftheArabs.Leadershipdoesnotofnecessitydescendfrom
fathertoson.Righttothepositionmustbevindicatedbywisdom,courage,dignity,andnotleastbygeneroushospitality.Fortheniggardin
thisregardthereisnothingbutcontempt.Itisacoveteddistinctiontobeknownasacoffeesheik,onewhowithoutstintsupplieshisvisitors
withthefragrantbeverage.
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TheArabsaresometimeschargedwithwantofgratitudejustly,asitseemsfromourpointofview.Butwhatseemsingratitudetousmay
beduesimplytotheinfluenceofimmemorialcustom,inalandwherethenecessitiesoflifeareneversold,butheldascommongood,of
whichthetravellermayofrightclaimashare.Therightofaguestmaybetaken,ifnotfreelyoffered.Themanwhorefusescovershimself
withperpetualshame.Theguestenjoysonlyhisrightthereforenothanksminglewithhisfarewell.
Theright,however,islimited.Whoever,saystheProphet,believesinGodandthedayofresurrectionmustrespecthisguestandthe
timeofbeingkindtohimisonedayandonenightandtheperiodofentertaininghimisthreedaysandifafterthathedoesitlonger,he
benefitshimmore:butitisnotrightfortheguesttostayinthehouseofhishostsolongastoincommodehim(Lane,ArabianSocietyinthe
MiddleAges,143).Afterthreedays,or,somesay,threedaysandfourhours,thehostmayaskifheproposestohonourhimbyalongerstay.
Theguestmaywishtoreachsomepointunderprotectionofthetribe.Ifso,heiswelcometostayonly,thehostmaygivehimworktodo.To
remainwhilerefusingtodothisishighlydishonourable.Buttheguestmaygotoanothertentattheexpiryofeverythirdday,thusrenewing
hisright,andsojournwiththetribeaslongasisnecessary.
Hospitalityinvolvesprotectionaswellasmaintenance.ItisaprinciplealikeinoldandnewArabiathattheguestisinviolable(W.R.
Smith,Kinship2,48).Thatthisprovisionappliestoenemiesaswellastofriendsshowsthemagnanimityofthedesertlaw.Everystrangermet
intheopenisassumedtobeanenemy:hewillowehissafetyeithertohisownprowessortofearthathistribewillexactvengeanceifheis
injured.ButthestrangerwhoentersthetentisdaifUllah,theguestwhomGodhassent,tobewellentreatedforHissake.Inanenemys
countryonesperilsareoverwhenhereachesatent,andtouchesevenatentpeg.Afathersmurderermayfindsureasylumeveninthetentof
hisvictimsson.Whenhehaseatenofthehostsbread,thetwoareatonceboundasbrothersformutualhelpandprotection.Itissaidthat
thereissaltbetweenthem.Notthatliteralsaltisrequired.Thisisatermcoveringmilk,andindeedfoodofanykind.Adraughtofwater
takenbystealth,orevenagainsthiswill,fromamansdish,servesthepurpose.Whenprotectionissecuredfromone,thewholetribeisbound
byit(W.R.Smith,RS276).
Tounderstandthiswemustremember(1)thatinArabiaallrecognitionofmutualrightsanddutiesrestsuponkinship.Thoseoutsidethe
kinmaybedealtwithaccordingtoeachmansinclinationandability.(2)Kinshipisnotexclusivelyamatterofbirth.Itmaybeacquired.
Whenmeneatanddrinktogether,theyrenewtheirbloodfromtheonesource,andtothatextentarepartakersinthesameblood.Thestranger
eatingwithaclansmanbecomeskinsmantoallthemembersoftheclan,asregardsthefundamentalrightsanddutiesthatturnonthe
sanctityofkindredblood(Wellhausen,ResteArab.Heid.119f.W.R.Smith,RS2273n.).Thissanctitymaybetracedtotheancientbelief
thattheclangodshareditslife,andwhenananimalwasslainforfoodtookpartinthecommonmeal.Theclansfriendswerethereforethe
godsfriends,whomtoinjurewastooutragethedeity.Thattheslaughterofthevictimwasareligionsactinvolvingthewholekinisborneout
(a)bythefactthatwhenananimalisslainallhaveanundisputedrighttocometothefeast(b)bythenamedhabhah,sacrifice,stillapplied
toit.Thepresentwriterwasonceentertainedinthecampofaratherwildandunkempttribe.Hisattendantssuppedwiththecrowd.Fearing
thismightnotbeagreeabletoaEuropean,thechiefsson,whopresidedinhisfathersabsence,withinnateArabcourtesy,askedhimtocup
withhiminthesheikstent.Bringinginaportionoftheflesh,theyouthrepeatedlyremarked,asifforthestrangersreassurance,
edhdhabhahwhideh,theslaughteringsacrificeisonei.e.thetribesmenandheatefromthesamevictim.
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Thebondthusformedwastemporary,holdinggoodfor36hoursafterparting.Byfrequentrenewal,however,itmightbecomepermanent.
TherewasaswornalliancebetweentheLihynandtheMostalic:theywerewonttoeatanddrinktogether(RS2270f.).Amanmaydeclare
himselfthedakhlfromdakhala,toenter,i.e.toclaimprotectionofapowerfulman,andthuspassundershelterofhisnameevenbefore
histentisreached.Whoevershouldinjurehimthenwouldhavetoreckonwiththemanwhosenamehehadinvoked.Therightsofsanctuary
associatedwithtemples,anduntilrecentlywithcertainchurches,originatedinanappealtothehospitalityofthelocaldeity.Therefugees
safetydependedontherespectpaidtothegod.Joabwouldhavebeensafehadhenotoutlawedhimselfinthisregard(1K2:31ff.).Jaels
dastarddeedcouldbeapprovedonlyintheheatofpatrioticfanaticism(Jg4:17,5:24).
InOTtimesitcanhardlybesaidthatinnsinthelatersenseexisted.Theordinarytravellerwasprovidedforbythelawsofhospitality.The
mtnofGn42:27etc.wasprobablynothingmorethanaplacewherecaravanswereaccustomedtohaltandpassthenight.Abuildingof
somekindmaybeintendedbythelodgeofwayfaringmeninthewilderness(Jer9:2).Forgrth(Jer41:17)weshouldprobablyread
gidrth,folds(cf.Jos.Ant.X.ix.5).GreatchangeswerewroughtbyGreekandRomaninfluence,andtherecanbenodoubtthatinNT
times,especiallyinthelargercentresofpopulation,innswerenumerousandwellappointed.Thenamepandocheion=Arab.funduq,shows
thattheinnwasaforeignimportation.Thoseonthehighwayswouldinsomerespectsresemblethekhnsofmoderntimes,andthebuildings
thatstoodforcenturiesonthegreatlinesofcaravantraffic,beforetheseabecamethehighwayofcommerce.Thesewereplacesofstrength,as
wellasofentertainmentformanandbeast.SuchwasprobablytheinnoftheGoodSamaritan(Lk10:34),identifiedwithKhnHadrr,onthe
roadtoJericho.Theinnswouldbefrequentedbymenofallnationalitiesandofallcharacters.Rabbinicalreferencesshowthattheirreputation
wasnothigh.ItwasnaturalthatChristiansshould,fortheirownsafety,avoidtheinn,andpractisehospitalityamongthemselves(1P4:9etc.).
InLk2:7inn(katatuma)probablymeans,asitdoesinMk14:14andLk22:11,theguestchamberinaprivatehouse.Suchguest
chamberswereopenfreelytoJewsvisitingJerusalematthegreatfeasts(AbothR.Nathan,cap.34).Itisreasonabletosupposethatthey
wouldbeequallyopenonanoccasionliketheregistration,requiringthepresenceofsuchnumbers.IfJosephandMary,arrivinglate,found
thehopedforguestchamberalreadyoccupied,theymighthavenoresortbutthekhn,where,intheanimalsquarters,Jesuswasborn.
InmodernPalestinehotelsarefoundonlyatimportantplacesonthemostpopularroutesoftravel.
W.Ewing.
HOST.Seenextart.andArmy.
HOSTOFHEAVEN.Thephrasehost(orarmy)ofheavenoccursinOTintwoapparentlydifferentsensesreferring(1)tostars,(2)
toangels.
1.Thehostofheavenismentionedastheobjectofidolatrousworshipitisfrequentlycoupledwithsunandmoon,thestarsbeing
obviouslymeantwhere
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sunandmoonarenotspecificallymentioned,thephrasemaybeusedas
includingthemaswell.Dt4:19speaksofthisworshipasaspecialtemptationtoIsraelithasbeenappointedorallottedtoallthepeoples,i.e.
theheathen,andisabsolutelyinconsistentwiththeworshipofJthepenaltyisstoning(17:3).Thereferencestoitsuggestthatitbecame
prominentinIsraelinthe7thcent.b.c.,whenManassehintroduceditintotheTemple(2K21:5)itsabolitionwaspartofJosiahsreform
(23:4,5,12).Themention,inthelastverse,ofthealtarswhichwereontheroofoftheupperchamberofAhazsuggeststhattheworship
was,infact,olderthanthereignofManasseh,andhadbeenpractisedbyAhazitwascarriedonupontheroofsofhouses(Jer19:13,Zeph
1:5),sothat2K23:12maywellrefertoit.Is17:8mentionssunpillarsascharacteristicoftheidolatryofthereignofAhaz(unlessthe
wordsarealateraddition),andtherearepossibletracesofnatureworshipinearlierperiodsinAm5:26,andinthenamesBethshemesh,
Jericho,whichsuggestsunandmoonworship.2K17:16,whichspeaksoftheworshipofthehostofheavenasprevalentintheNorthern
Kingdom,isaDeuteronomicpassage,whichcanhardlybepressedhistorically.Whilst,then,thereareearlytracesofnatureworship,the
systematizedidolatryofthehostofheavenbelongstotheperiodofspecialAssyrianandBabylonianinfluenceastrologyandkindredbeliefs
werecharacteristicofthereligionsofthesecountries.
ThephraseisusedinothercontextsofthestarsasthearmiesofJ,innumerable,ordered,andobedient(Gn2:1,Ps33:6,Is34:4,45:12,Jer
33:22).Is40:26(bringethouttheirhostbynumberhecalleththemallbyname)comesveryneartoapersonification.InDn8:10wereadof
theassaultofthelittlehornonthehostofheavenandtheirprince.Thismaybeonlyahyperbolicalexpressionforblasphemouspride,but
itstronglysuggeststheinfluenceoftheBabyloniandragonmyth,Inwhichheavenitselfwasstormedcf.Rev12:4,13:6,wheretheBeast
blasphemesGod,Histabernacles,andthemthatdwellinheaveni.e.theangelichost(soBousset),atleastintheideaunderlyingthe
conception.HenceinDn8:10weareprobablyrightinseeingareferencetothestarsregardedasanimatewarriorsofJ,theircaptaincf.the
poeticalpassagesJg5:20(thestarsintheircoursesfightingagainstSisera)andJob38:7(themorningstars,coupledwiththesonsofGod,
singingforjoy)inthesepassagesitremainsaquestionhowfarthepersonificationismerelyapoeticfigure,itisatleastpossiblethatamore
literallyconceivedidealiesbehindthem.inis24:21wereadofthehostoftheheight(highonesonhigh),whomJshallpunishintheDay
ofJudgment,togetherwiththekingsoftheearth.Thepassage,thedateofwhichisverydoubtful,isstronglyeschatological,andthephrase
mustrefertosupramundanefoesofJ,whetherstarsorangelsagain,areferencetothedragonmythisverypossible.
2.Passagessuchastheseleadtotheconsiderationofotherswherehostofheaven=angels.Thechiefis1K22:19(Micaiahsvision)
cf.Ps103:21,Lk2:13.Thoughthisactualphraseisnotoftenused,theattendantministersofJareoftenspokenofasanorganizedarmy(Gn
32:2,Jos5:14,2K6:17,Job25:3).Cf.inthisconnexionthetitleLordofhosts(Sabaoth),which,thoughitmayhavebeenusedoriginallyof
JastheleaderofthearmiesofIsrael,admittedlycametobeusedofHimasrulerofthecelestialhosts(seeLordofHosts).Thereare
passageswherethephrasehostofheavenisambiguous,andmayrefereithertostarsortoangels(Dn4:35,Neh9:6,Ps148:2[whereit
connectsangelsandsun,moon,andstars]).
3.Itremainstoconsidertheconnexionbetweenthetwousesofthephrase.Ithasbeensupposedbysometobepurelyverbal,starsand
angelsbeingindependentlycomparedtoanarmyorithasbeensuggestedthatthestarswerethevisibleimageofthehostofangels.Buta
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studyofthepassagesquotedabovewillprobablyleadtotheconclusionthattheconnexioniscloser.Theidolatersevidentlyregardedthestars
asanimateprophetsandpoetsseemtodosotoo.Whenthisisdone,itliesverynearathandtoidentifythemwith,oratleastassimilatethem
to,theangels.Intheancientmythsandfolklore,thetracesofwhichintheBibleareincreasinglyrecognized,starsandangelsplayalargepart,
andtheconceptionofthetwoisnotkeptdistinct.Laterthoughttendedtoidentifythem(Enoch18:12,21:1etc.,Rev9:1,11cf.Is14:12,Lk
10:18).Hencetheoneuseofthephrasehostofheavenrannaturallyintotheother,anditseemsimpossibletodrawasharplineofdistinction
betweenthetwo.Aswehaveseen,therearepassageswhereitisambiguous,orwhereitseemstoimplythepersonificationofthestars,i.e.
theirpracticalidentificationwithangels.WhilethereisnoreasonwhythespiritualteachersofIsraelshouldnothavecountenancedthisbelief
atacertainstageandtoacertainpoint,andshouldnothaveadoptedinamodifiedformtheeschatologyinwhichitfigured,itisofcourse
clearthattheconceptionwaskeptfreefromitsgrosserandsuperstitiousfeatures.Whateveritmayhavebeeninthepopularmind,tothemitis
littlemorethanametaphor,andnothingeitherdistantlyresemblingthefearortheworshipofthestarsreceivesanycountenanceintheir
teaching.Itis,however,worthwhileinsistingonthefullforceoftheirlanguageasaffordingakeytothereconstructionofthepopularbeliefs
whichseemtoliebehindit.ItshouldbenotedthatWis13:2protestsagainstanyideathattheheavenlybodiesareanimate,andithasbeen
suggestedthatEzekielsavoidanceofthephraseLordofhostsmaybeduetoafearofseemingtolendanycountenancetostarworship.
C.W.Emmet.
HOTHAM.1.AnAsherite(1Ch7:32).2.FatheroftwoofDavidsheroes(1Ch11:44).
HOTHIR.AsonofHeman(1Ch25:4).
HOUGH.Thehough(modernspellinghock)ofaquadrupedisthejointbetweenthekneeandthefetlockinthehindleginmanthe
backofthekneejoint,calledtheham.Tohoughistocutthetendonofthehough,tohamstring.Thesubst.occursin2Es15:36thecamels
hough(AVmpasternorlitter).TheverbisfoundinJos11:6,9,2S8:4,1Ch18:4alwaysofhoughinghorses.TindaletranslatesGn49:6
Intheirselfewilltheyhoughedanoxe,whichisretainedin
AVm,andinsertedintothetextofRVinplaceoftheydiggeddownawall.HOUR.SeeTime.
HOUSE.ThehistoryofhumanhabitationinPalestinegoesbacktotheundatedspacesofthepalolithicorearlystoneage(see
especiallytheimportantchapteronPrehistoricArchologyinVincent,Canaandaprslexplorationrcente,1907,pp.373ff.).The
excavationsanddiscoveries,ofthelastfewyearsinparticular,haveintroducedustotheprehistoricinhabitantswhomtheSemiticinvaders,
looselytermedCanaanitesorAmorites,foundinoccupationofthecountrysomewhereinthethirdmillenniumbeforeourera(circab.c.
2500).Themenofthisearlyracewerestillintheneolithicstageofcivilization,theironlyimplementsbeingofpolishedflint,bone,andwood.
TheylivedforthemostpartinthenaturallimestonecavesinwhichPalestineabounds.Inthehistoricalperiodsuchundergroundcaves(for
descriptionsanddiagramsofsomeofthemorecelebrated,seeSchumacher,AcrosstheJordan,135146BlissandMacalister,Excavationsin
Palestine,204270)wereusedbytheHebrewsasplacesofrefugeintimesofnationaldanger(Jg6:2,1S13:6)andreligiouspersecution(2
Mac6:11,He11:38).Butitisnotwiththese,orwiththetentsinwhichthepatriarchsandtheirdescendantslivedbeforetheconquestof
Canaan,thatthisarticlehastodeal,butwiththehousesofclayandstonewhichwerebuiltandoccupiedafterthatepoch.
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1.Materials.Themostprimitiveofallthehousesforwhichmanhasbeenindebtedtohisowninventivenessisthatformedofafew
leafyboughsfromtheprimevalforest,representedinHebrewhistorytothisdaybytheboothsofOT(seeBooth).Ofmorepermanent
habitations,theearliestofwhichtraceshavebeendiscoveredareprobablythemudhuts,whosefoundationswerefoundbyMr.Macalisterin
theloweststratumatGezer,andwhichareregardedbyhimastheworkofthecavedwellersofthelaterstoneage(PEFSt,1904,110).Clayin
theformofbricks,eithersundriedor,lessfrequently,bakedinakiln(seeBrick),andstone(Lv14:40ff.,Is9:10etc.),havebeeninallages
thebuildingmaterialsofthesuccessiveinhabitantsofPalestine.Evenindistrictswherestonewasavailablethemoretractablematerialwas
oftenpreferred.Housesbuiltofcrudebrickarethehousesofclay,theunsubstantialnatureofwhichisemphasizedinJob4:19f.,andwhose
wallsathieforanothercouldeasilydigthrough(Ezk12:5,Mt6:19f.).
Theexcavationshaveshownthatthereisnouniformity,evenatagivenepoch,inthesizeofbricks,whicharebothrectangularandsquare
inshape.Thelargest,apparently,havebeenfoundatTaanach,roughly21inchesby153/4,and43/4inchesinthickness.AtGezeracommon
sizeisasquarebrick15inchesinthesideand7inchesthick(PEFSt,1902,319).IntheMishnathestandardsizeisasquarebrick9inches
eachway(Erubin,i.3).
Thestoneusedforhousebuildingvariedfromcommonfieldstonesandlarger,roughlyshaped,quarrystonestothecarefullydressed
wroughtstone(gzith,1K5:17RV)orhewnstone,accordingtomeasure,sawedwithsaws(7:9),suchaswasusedbySolomoninhis
buildingoperations.Similarlyrubble,wroughtstone,andbrickarenamedintheMishnaasthebuildingmaterialsofthetime(Bababathra,i.
1).Formortarclaywastheusualmaterial,althoughtheuseofbitumen[wh.see](Gn11:3RVm,EVslime)wasnotunknown.Woodasa
buildingmaterialwasemployedmainlyforroofing,andtoalessextentforinternaldecoration(seebelow).
2.GeneralplanofHebrewhouses.TherecentexcavationsatGezerandelsewherehaveshownthatthesimplesttypeofhousein
Palestinehasscarcelyalteredinanyrespectforfourthousandyears.Indeed,itsconstructionissosimplethatthepossibilityofchangeis
reducedtoaminimum.InaSyrianvillageoftodaythetypicalabodeofthefellahconsistsofawalledenclosure,withinwhichisasmallcourt
closedatthefartherendbyahouseofasingleroom.Thisisfrequentlydividedintotwoparts,onelevelwiththeentrance,assignedatnightto
thedomesticanimals,cows,ass,etc.theother,about18in.higher,occupiedbythepeasantandhisfamily.Asomewhatbetterclassofhouse
consistsoftwoorthreerooms,ofwhichthelargestisthefamilylivingandsleepingroom,asecondisassignedtothecattle,whileathird
servesasgeneralstoreroom(AVcloset).
TheCanaanitehouses,whichtheHebrewsinherited(Dt6:10)andcopied,arenowknowntohavebeenarrangedonsimilarlines(seethe
diagramofatypicalCanaanitehouseinGezer,restoredbyMr.MacalisterinhisBibleSidelightsfromGezer[1906],fig.25).AsinallEastern
domesticarchitecture,theroomswerebuiltononeormoresidesofanopencourt(2S17:18,Jer32:2etc.).Theseroomswereofsmall
dimensions,12to15feetsquareasarule,withwhichmaybecomparedthelegaldefinitionoflargeandsmallroomsinthelateperiodof
theMishna.Theformerwasheldtomeasure15ft.by12,withaheight,followingthemodeloftheTemple(1K6:2ff.),equaltohalfthesum
ofthelengthandbreadth,namely,131/2ft.asmallroommeasured12ft.by9,withaheightof101/2ft.(Bababathra,vi.4).
Shouldoccasionarise,throughthemarriageofasonorotherwise,toenlargethehouse,thiswasdonebybuildingoneormoreadditional 104/117
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/h.htm
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Shouldoccasionarise,throughthemarriageofasonorotherwise,toenlargethehouse,thiswasdonebybuildingoneormoreadditional
roomsonanothersideofthecourt.Inthecaseofamanofwealth(1S9:1RVm),thehousewouldconsistoftwoorevenmorecourts,in
whichcasetheroomsabouttheinnercourt(Est4:11)wereappropriatedtothewomenofthefamily.Thecourt,further,oftencontaineda
cisterntocatchandretaintheprecioussupplyofwaterthatfellintherainyseason(2S17:18).Forthequestionofanupperstoreysee4.
3.Foundationanddedicationrites.Inbuildingahouse,thefirststepwastodigoutthespacerequiredforthefoundation(cf.Mt
7:24ff.),afterwhichcametheceremonyofthelayingofthefoundationstone,thecornerstoneofsurefoundationofIs28:16(see,further,
CornerStone).Thedayofthefoundation(2Ch8:16),aswelearnfromthepoeticfigureofJob38:6ff.,was,asitisatthepresentday,oneof
greatrejoicing(cf.Ezr3:11).
Withtheexceptionofapassagetobecitedpresently,theOTissilentregardingafoundationriteonwhichaluridlighthasbeencastbythe
latestexcavationsinPalestine.ItisnowcertainthattheCanaanites,andtheHebrewsafterthem,werewonttoconsecratethefoundationofa
newbuildingbyahumansacrifice.Theprecisedetailsoftheritearestilluncertain,butthereisalreadyampleevidencetoshowthat,down
eventothelatterhalfoftheHebrewmonarchy(PEFSt,1903,224),itwasafrequentpracticetoburyinfants,whetheraliveorafterprevious
sacrificeisstilldoubtful,inlargejarsgenerallyundertheendsofwalls,thatis,atthecornersofhousesorchambersorjustunderthedoor
jambs(ibid.306).AtMegiddowasfoundtheskeletonofagirlofaboutfifteenyears,whohadclearlybeenbuiltaliveintothefoundationofa
fortressatTaanachwasfoundoneoftenyearsofageandskeletonsofadultshavealsobeendiscovered.
Aninterestingdevelopmentofthisriteoffoundationsacrificecanbetracedfromthefifteenthcenturyb.c.onwards.Withthejar
containingthebodyofthevictimtherewereatfirstdepositedotherjarscontainingjugs,howls,andalamp,perhapsalsofood,asinordinary
burials.Gradually,itwouldseem,lampsandbowlscametobeburiedalone,assubstitutesandsymbolsofthehumanvictim,mostfrequentlya
lampwithinabowl,withanotherbowlascovering.Fulldetailsofthiscuriousritecannotbegivenhere,butnoothertheorysoplausiblehas
yetbeensuggestedtoexplaintheselampandbowldeposits(seeMacalistersreportsinPEFSt,from1903esp.p.306ff.withillustrations
onwards,alsohisBibleSidelights,165ff.Vincent,Canaan,50f.,192,198ff.).TheonlyreferencetofoundationsacrificeinOTisthecaseof
HieltheBethelite,whosacrificedhistwosonsforthatsuchisthetrueinterpretationcannowscarcelybedoubtedhisfirstbornatthere
foundingofJericho,andhisyoungestatthecompletionanddedicationofthewallsandgates(1K16:34RV).
Herebyanticipationmaybetakentheriteoftheformaldedicationofaprivatehouse,whichisattestedbyDt20:5,althoughthereferences
inHebrewliteraturetotheactualceremonyareconfinedtosacredandpublicbuildings(Lv8:10ff.,1K8:1ff.,10ff.,Ezr6:16f.,Neh3:1,
12:27,1Mac4:52ff.).Itisnotimprobablethatsomeofthehumanvictimsabovealludedtomayhavebeenofferedinconnexionwiththe
dedicationorrestorationofimportantbuildings(cf.1K16:34above).
Onthewholesubjectitmaybesaid,inconclusion,that,judgingfromtheideasandpracticeoftheBedouinwhenanewtentorhouseof
hairissetup,weoughttoseektheexplanationoftheriteoffoundationsacrificeapracticewhichobtainsamongmanyraceswidely
separatedinspaceandtimeinthedesiretopropitiatethespiritwhoseabodeissupposedtobedisturbedbythenewfoundation(cf.
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Trumbull,ThresholdCovenant,46ff.),ratherthaninthewishtosecurethespiritofthevictimasthetutelarygeniusofthenewbuilding.This
ancientcustomstillsurvivesinthesacrificeofasheeporotheranimal,whichisindispensabletothesafeoccupationofanewhousein
Moslemlands,andeventothesuccessfulinaugurationofapublicwork,suchasarailway,orastheotherdayinDamascusofanelectric
lightinginstallation.InthewordsofanArabsheik:Everyhousemusthaveitsdeathman,woman,child,oranimal(Curitiss,Primitive
SemiticReligionToday).
4.Detailsofconstruction,wallsandfloor.ThewallsofCanaaniteand
Hebrewhouseswereforthemostpart,aswehaveseen,ofcrudebrickorstone.AtTellelHesy(Lachish),forexample,wefindatoneperiod
housewallsofdarkbrownclaywithlittlestrawatanother,wallsofreddishyellowclay,fullofstraw(Bliss,AMoundofManyCities,44).
AtGezerMr.Macalisterfoundawallthatwasremarkableforbeingbuiltinalternatecoursesofredandwhitebricks,theredcoursebeing
fourinchesinheight,thewhitefiveinches(PEFSt,1903,216).Asarule,however,theGezerhousewallsconsistedofcommonfieldstones,
amongwhichdressedstonesevenatcornersanddoorpostsareoftherarestpossibleoccurrence.Thejointsarewideandirregular,and
filledwithmudpackedinthewidestplaceswithsmallerstones(ibid.215).Theexplanationofthissimplearchitectureisthatinearlytimes
eachmanbuilthisownhouse,expertbuilders(Ps118:22)ormasons(seeArtsandCrafts,3)beingemployedonlyonroyalresidences,city
walls,andotherbuildingsofimportance.HencesquaredanddressedstonesarementionedinOTonlyinconnexionwithsuchworks(1K5:17
,7:9)andthehousesofthewealthy(Am5:11,Is9:10).IntheGezerhousesofthepostexilicperiod,however,thestonesarewelldressedand
squared,oftenaswellshapedasamodernbrick(PEFSt,1904,124,withphotograph,125).Betweenthesetwoextremesarefoundwallsof
rubble,andquarrystonesofvarioussizes,roughlytrimmedwithahammer.Mudwasuniversallyusedasmortar.
Inordinarycasesthethicknessoftheoutsidewallsvariedfrom18to24inchesthatofpartitionwalls,ontheotherhand,didnotexceed9
to12inches(ib.118).InNTtimesthethicknessvariedsomewhatwiththematerialsemployed(seeBababathra,i.1).Itisdoubtfulifthe
commonviewiscorrect,whichfindsincertainpassages,especiallyPs118:22anditsNTcitations,areferencetoacornerstoneonthe
topmostcourseofmasonry(seeCorner).Inmostcasesthereferenceistothefoundationstoneatthecorneroftwowalls,asexplainedabove.
Theinsidewallsofstonehousesreceivedaplaister(EV)ofclay(Lv14:41ff.,AVdust,RVmortar),or,inthebetterhouses,oflime
orgypsum(Dn5:5).TheuntemperedmortarofEzk13:11,22:28wassomesortofwhitewashappliedtotheoutsidewalls,asisattestedfor
NTtimes(Mt23:27,Ac23:3thouwhitedwall).Inthehousesofthewealthy,asintheTemple,itwascustomarytolinethewallswith
cypress(2Ch3:5,EVfir),cedar,andothervaluablewoods(1K6:15,18,7:7).ThecieledhousesofEV(Jer22:14,Hag1:4etc.)are
housespanelledwithwoodinthisway(Cieled).Theacmeofelegancewasrepresentedbycedarpanelsinlaidwithivory,suchasearnedfor
Ahabspleasurekioskthenameoftheivoryhouse(1K22:39)andincurredthedenunciationofAmos(Am3:15).Wealsohearofthe
panelledcielingsofthesuccessiveTemples(1K6:15,2Mac1:16RV).
Thefloorsofthehouseswereinallperiodsmadeofhardbeatenclay,thepermanenceofwhichtothisdayhasprovedtotheexcavatorsa
preciousindicationofthesuccessiveoccupationsoftheburiedcitiesofPalestine.Publicbuildingshavebeenfoundpavedwithslabsofstone.
Thebettersortofprivatehouseswerenodoubt,liketheTemple(1K6:15),flooredwithcypressandotherwoods.
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Thepresenceofvaultsorcellars,inthelargerhousesatleast,isshownbyLk11:33RV.Theexcavationsalsoshowthatwhenawhollyor
partlyruinedtownwasrebuilt,thehousesoftheolderstratumwerefrequentlyretainedas
undergroundstoreroomsofthenewhousesonthehigherlevel.Thereferencein1Ch27:27,28towineandoilcellars(EV)istostoresof
thesecommodities,ratherthantotheplaceswherethelatterwerekept.
5.Theroof.TheancienthousesofCanaan,liketheirmodernrepresentatives,hadflatroofs,supportedbystoutwoodenbeamslaidfrom
walltowall.Acrossthesewerelaidsmallerrafters(Ca1:17),thenbrushwood,reeds,andthelike,abovewhichwasalayerofearthseveral
inchesthick,whileonthetopofallcameathickplasterofclayorofclayandlime.Itwassucharoofing(AVtiling,RVtiles,Lk5:19)that
thefriendsoftheparalyticbrokeupinordertolowerhimintotheroombelow(Mk2:4).Thewoodfortheroofbeamswasfurnishedmostly
bythecommonsycamore,cypress(Ca1:17)andcedar(1K6:9)beingreservedforthehomesofthewealthy.HencethepointofIsaiahs
contrastbetweenthehumblehousesofcrudebrick,roofedwithsycamore,andthestatelyedificesofhewnstoneroofedwithcedar(Is9:10).
Itwas,andis,difficulttokeepsucharoofwatertightintherainyseason,asPr27:15shows.InseveralhousesatGezeraprimitivedrainof
jarswasfoundforcarryingthewaterfromtheleakingroof(Ec10:18RV)throughthefloortothefoundationsbeneath(PEFSt,1904,14,with
illust.).IntheMishnathereismentionofatleasttwokindsofspoutorgutter(2S5:8AV,butthesensehereisdoubtful)forconveyingthe
rainwaterfromtherooftothecistern.Evidencehasaccumulatedinrecentyearsshowingthateveninthesmallesthousesitwasusualtohave
thebeamsoftheroofsupportedbyarowofwoodenposts,generallythreeinnumber,restingonstonebases,from1foot6inchesto2feetin
diameter(PEFSt,1904,115,withphoto.).Thesamemethodwasadoptedfortheroofsoflargepublicbuildings(seeBliss,MoundofMany
Cities,91f.,withplan),andMr.MacalisterhasingeniouslyexplainedSamsonsfeatatthetempleofDagon,bysupposingthatheslidtwoof
themassivewoodenpillars(Jg16:29f.)supportingtheporticofromtheirstonesupports,thuscausingitscollapse(BibleSidelights,136ff.
withillust.).
Theroofwasrequiredbylawtobesurroundedbyabattlement,orratheraparapet,asaprotectionagainstaccident(Dt22:8).Accessto
theroofwasapparentlyobtained,asatthepresentday,byanoutsidestairleadingfromthecourt.OurEVfindswindingstairsintheTemple
(1K6:8),andsomesortofinnerstairorladderisrequiredbythereferencetothesecrettrapdoorin2Mac1:16.Therooforhousetopwasput
tomanyuses,domestic(Jos2:6)andother.Itwasused,inparticular,forrecreation(2S11:2)andforsleeping(1S9:25f.),alsoforprayer
andmeditation(Ac10:9),lamentation(Is15:3,Jer48:38),andevenforidolatrousworship(Jer19:13,Zeph1:5).Fortheseandotherpurposes
atent(2S16:22)orabooth(Neh8:16)mightbeprovided,orapermanentroofchambermightbeerected.Suchwerethechamberwith
walls(2K4:10RVm)erectedforElisha,thesummerparlour(Jg3:20,lit.asRVmupperchamberofcooling)ofEglon,andtheloft
(RVchamber)of1K17:19.
OtherwisethehousesofPalestinewere,asarule,ofonestorey.Exceptionswereconfinedtothehousesofthegreat,andtocrowdedcities
likeJerusalemandSamaria.Ahaziahsupperchamberinthelattercity(2K1:2)maywellhavebeenaroominthesecondstoreyoftheroyal
palace,wherewasevidentlythewindowfromwhichJezebelwasthrown(9:33).ThesamemaybesaidoftheupperroominwhichtheLast
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Supperwasheld(Mk14:15||cf.Ac1:13).ItwasaGreekcity,however,inwhichEutychusfellfromawindowinthethirdstory(Ac20:9
RV).
6.Thedooranditsparts.Thedoorconsistedoffourdistinctparts:thedoorproper,thethreshold,thelintel(Ex12:7RV),andthetwo
doorposts.Thefirstofthesewasofwood,andwashunguponprojectingpivotsofwood,thehingesofPr
26:14,whichturnedincorrespondingsocketsinthethresholdandlintelrespectively.LiketheEgyptiansandBabylonians,theHebrews
probablycasedthepivotsandsocketsofheavydoorswithbronzethoseoftheTempledoorsweresheathedingold(1K7:50).IntheHauran,
doorsofasingleslabofstonewithstonepivotsarestillfoundinsitu.FoldingdoorsarementionedonlyinconnexionwiththeTemple(1K
6:34).
Thethreshold(Jg19:27,1K14:17etc.)orsillmusthavebeeninvariablyofstone.AmongtheHebrews,asamongsomanyotherpeoples
ofantiquity,aspecialsanctityattachedtothethreshold(seeTrumbull,TheThresholdCovenant,passim).Thedoorpostsorjambsweresquare
postsofwood(1K7:5,Ezk41:21)orofstone.ThecommandofDt6:9,11:20gaverisetothepractice,stillobservedinallJewishhouses,of
enclosingapieceofparchmentcontainingthewordsofDt6:49,11:1321inasmallcaseofmetalorwood,whichisnailedtothedoorpost,
henceitsmodernnamemezuzah(doorpost).
Doorswerelocked(Jg3:23f.)byanarrangementsimilartothatstillinuseinSyria(seetheillust.inHastingsDBli.836).Thisconsistsof
ashortuprightpieceofwood,fastenedontheinsideofthedoor,throughwhichasquarewoodenbolt(Ca5:5,Neh3:3RV,forAVlock)
passesatrightanglesintoasocketinthejambofthedoor.Whentheboltisshotbythehand,threetosixsmallironpinsdropfromtheupright
intoholesinthebolt,whichishollowatthispart.Thelattercannotnowbedrawnbackwithouttheproperkey.Thisisaflatpieceofwood
straightorbentasthecasemaybeintotheuppersurfaceofwhichpinshavebeenfixedcorrespondingexactlyinnumberandpositiontothe
holesinthebolt.Thepersonwishingtoenterthehouseputsinhishandbytheholeofthedoor(Ca5:4),andinsertsthekeyintothehollow
partoftheboltinsuchawaythatthepinsofthekeywilldisplacethoseintheholesofthebolt,whichistheneasilywithdrawnfromthe
socketandthedoorisopen.
Inthelargerhousesitwascustomarytohaveaman(Mk13:34)orawoman(2S4:6RVm,Jn18:17)toactasadoorkeeperorporter.In
thepalacesofroyaltythiswasamilitaryduty(1K14:27)andanofficeofdistinction(Est2:21,6:2).
7.Lightingandheating.TheancientHebrewhousesmusthavebeenveryimperfectlylighted.Indeed,itisalmostcertainthat,inthe
poorerhousesatleast,theonlylightavailablewasadmittedthroughthedoorway(cf.Sir42:11[Heb.text],Lettherebenocasementwhere
thydaughterdwells),inanycase,suchwindowsasdidexistwereplacedhighupinthewalls,atleastsixfeetfromtheground,accordingto
theMishna.WehavenocertainmonumentalevidenceastothesizeandconstructionofthewindowsofHebrewhouses(butseefora
probablestonewindowframe,20incheshigh,BlissandMacalister,Excavs.inPalest.143andpl.73).Theymay,however,safelybeassumed
tohavebeenmuchsmallerthanthosetowhichweareaccustomed,althoughthecommonestvariety,thechalln,waslargeenoughtoallowa
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mantopassout(Jos2:15,1S19:12)orin(Jl2:9).Anothervariety(arubbah)wasevidentlysmaller,sinceitisusedalsotodesignatethe
holesofadovecot(Is60:8EVwindows).Theseandothertermsarerenderedinourversionsbywindow,lattice,andcasement(Pr7:6AV
andRVlattice).Noneofthese,ofcourse,wasfilledwithglass.LikethewindowsofEgyptianhouses,theyweredoubtlessclosedwithwood
orlatticework,whichcouldbeopenedwhennecessary(2K13:17).Anobscureexpressionin1K6:4isrenderedbyRV,windowsoffixed
latticework.Duringthehoursofdarkness,lightwassuppliedbythesmalloillampwhichwaskeptcontinuallyburning(seeLamp).
Mostofthehousesexcavatedshowadepressionofvaryingdimensionsinthefloor,eitherinthecentreorinacorner,which,fromthe
obvioustracesoffire,wasclearlythefamilyhearth(Is30:14).Woodwasthechieffuel(seeCoal),supplementedbywitheredvegetationof
allsorts(Mt6:30),andprobably,asatthepresentday,bydriedcowandcameldung(Ezk4:15).Thepungentsmoke,whichwastryingtothe
eyes(Pr10:26),escapedbythedoororbythewindow,forthechimneyofHos13:3isproperlywindoworcasement(arubbah,see
above).Inthecoldseasontheupperclasseswarmedtheirroomsbymeansofabrasier(Jer36:22f.RV),orfirepan(Zec12:6RV).
8.Furnitureofthehouse.Thisinearlytimeswasofthesimplestdescription.Evenatthepresentdaythefellahinsitandsleepmostlyon
matsandmattressesspreaduponthefloor.SotheHebrewwilloncehaveslept,wrappedinhissimlahorcloakashisonlycovering(Ex
22:27),whilehishouseholdgearwillhaveconsistedmainlyofthenecessaryutensilsforthepreparationoffood,towhichthefollowing
sectionisdevoted.Underthemonarchy,however,whenacertaingreatwomanofShunemproposedtofurnishalittlechamberoverthe
wallforElisha,shenamedabedandatableandastoolandacandlestick(2K4:10),andweknowotherwisethatwhilethepoormanslept
onasimplematofstraworrushesinthesingleroomthatservedaslivingandsleepingroom,thewelltodohadnotonlybedsbut
bedchambers(2S4:7,2K11:2,Jth16:19etc.).Theformerconsistedofaframeworkofwood,onwhichwerelaidcushions(Am3:12RV),
carpetsandstripedcloths(Pr7:16RV).Webearalsoofthebedshead(Gn47:31)orcurvedend,asfiguredbyWilkinson,Anc.Egyp.i.
416,fig.191(wherenotethestepsforgoinguptothebedcf.1K1:4).BolstershaverightlydisappearedfromRV,whichrenders
otherwise(see1S19:13,26:7etc.)thepillowalsofromGn28:11,18andMk4:38(RVhere,cushion),andwhereitisretained,as1S
19:13,thesenseisdoubtful.ReferencemaybemadetotherichlyappointedbedofHolofernes,withitsgorgeousmosquitocurtain(Jth10:21
,13:9).
Thebedoftenservedasacouchbyday(Ezk23:41,Am3:12RVseealso
Meals,3),anditissometimesuncertainwhichisthemoresuitablerendering.InEst1:6,forexample,RVrightlysubstitutescouchesfor
bedsinthedescriptionofthemagnificentdivansofgoldandsilverinthepalaceofAhasuerus(cf.7:8).Thewealthyandluxurious
contemporariesofAmoshadtheirbedsandcouchesinlaidwithivory(Am6:4),andfurnished,accordingtoRV,withsilkencushions(3:12
RV).
Asregardsthestoolabovereferredto,andtheseatsoftheHebrewsgenerally,itmustsufficetostatethattheseatsofthecontemporary
Egyptians(forillustt.seeWilkinson,op.cit.i.408ff.)andAssyrianswereoftwomainvarieties,namely,stoolsandchairs.Theformerwere
constructedeitherwithasquareframeoraftertheshapeofourcampstoolsthelatterwithastraightorroundedbackonly,orwithabackand
arms.TheHebrewwordforElishasstoolisalwaysappliedelsewheretotheseatsofpersonsofdistinctionandthethronesofkingsitmust
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thereforehavebeenachairratherthanastool,althoughthelatterisitsusualmeaningintheMishna(Krengel,DasHausgertinderMishnah,
10f.amineofinformationregardingthefurniture,nativeandforeign,tobefoundinJewishhousesinlatertimes).Footstoolswerealsoin
use(2Ch9:18andoft.,especiallyinmetaphors).
The tables were chiefly of wood, and, like those of the Egyptians ( Wilkinson, op. cit. i. 417 f. with illustt.), were round, square, or
oblong,astheMishnaattests.Theywererelativelymuchsmallerandlowerthanours(see,further,Meals,4).
ThefourtharticleinElishasroomwasacandlestick,reallyalampstand,forwhichseeLamp.Itwouldextendthisarticlebeyonddue
limitstodiscussevenaselectionfromthemanyotherarticlesoffurniture,apartfromthosereservedfortheclosingsection,whicharenamed
inBiblicalandpostBiblicalliterature,orwhichhavebeenbroughttolightinsurprisingabundancebytherecentexcavations.Mentioncanhe
madeonlyofarticlesoftoilet,suchasthemoltenmirrorofJob37:18(AVlookingglass),thepaintpot(2K9:30),pinsandneedles,of
whichmanyspecimensinbone,bronze,andsilverhavebeenfoundofthedistaff,spindle,andloom(seeSpinningandWeaving),forthe
manufactureofthefamilygarments,andthechestforholdingthemandfinally,ofthechildrenscradle(Krengel,op.cit.26),andtheirtoysof
clayandbone.
9.Utensilsconnectedwithfood.Conspicuousamongtheearthenvessels(2
S17:28)ofeveryhouseholdwasthewaterjarorpitcher(kad)thebarrelof1K
18:33,Amer.RVjarinwhichwaterwasfetchedfromthevillagewell(Gn24:15,Mk14:13,andoft.).Fromthissmallerjar,carriedon
headorshoulder,thewaterwasemptiedintothelargerwaterpotsofJn2:6.Largejarswerealsorequiredforthehouseholdprovisionsof
wheatandbarleyonevarietyinNTtimeswaslargeenoughtoholdaman.Othersheldthestoreofolivesandotherfruits.Thecrusewasa
smallerjarwithoneortwohandles,usedforcarryingwateronajourney(1S26:11f.,1K19:6),alsoforholdingoil(1K17:12).(See,further,
art.Pottery,andtheelaboratestudies,withillustrations,ofthethousandsofpottersvesselswhichtheexcavationshavebroughttolight,in
thegreatworkofBlissandMacalisterentitledExcavationsinPalestine,18981900,pp.71141,withplates2055alsoVincentsCanaan
daprslexplorationrcente,1907,pp.296360,withtheillustrationsthereandthroughoutthebook).
ThebucketofNu24:7,Is40:15wasawaterskin,probablyadapted,asatthepresentday,fordrawingwaterbyhavingtwopiecesofwood
insertedcrosswiseatthemouth.ThemainuseofskinsamongtheHebrews,however,wastoholdthewineandotherfermentedliquors.The
misleadingrenderingbottlesisretainedinRVexceptwherethecontextrequiresthetruerenderingskinsorwineskins
(Jos9:4,13,Mt9:17).ForanotheruseofskinsseeMilk.Afterthewaterskins,saysDoughty,apairofmillstonesisthemostnecessary
husbandryinanArabianhousehold,andsoitwasamongtheHebrews,asmaybeseeninthearticleMill.
Nohousewascompletewithoutasupplyofbasketsofvarioussizesandshapesforthebread(Ex29:23)andthefruit(Dt26:2),andeven
inearlytimesfortheservingofmeat(Jg6:19).AmongthevesselsofwoodofLv15:12wastheindispensablewoodenhowl,whichserved
asakneadingtrough(Ex12:34),andvariousotherbowls,suchasthelordlydishofthenomadJael(Jg5:25)andthebowlofGideon
(6:38),althoughthehowlsweremostlyofearthenware(seeBowl).
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Asregardstheactualpreparationoffood,apartfromtheoven(forwhichseeBread),ourattentionisdrawnchieflytothevariousmembers
ofthepotfamily,sotosay.Fourofthesearenamedtogetherin1S2:14,thekiyyr,thedd,theqallachath,andtheprr,rendered
respectivelythepan,thekettle,thecaldron,andthepot.Elsewherethesetermsarerenderedwithsmallattemptatconsistencywhileafifth,
themostfrequentlynamedofall,thesr,isthefleshpotofEx3:16,thegreatpotof2K4:38,andthecaldronofJer1:13.Inwhatrespect
thesediffereditisimpossibletosay.Thesrwasevidentlyoflargesizeandmadeofbronze(1K7:45),whiletheprrwassmallandof
earthenware,hencebenSirasquestion:Whatfellowshiphaththe[earthen]potwiththe[bronze]caldron?(Sir13:2,Heb.text).Thekiyyr,
again,waswideandshallow,ratherthannarrowanddeep.NumerousillustrationsofcookingpotsfromOTtimesmaybeseenintherecent
worksabovereferredto.Theonlycookingutensilsknowntobeofironarethebakingpan(Lv2:5RV),probablyashallowironplate(see
Ezk4:3),andthefryingpan(Lv2:7).Aknife,originallyofflint(Jos5:2)andlaterofbronze,wasrequiredforcuttingupthemeattobe
cooked(Gn22:6,10,Jg19:29),andaforkforliftingitfromthepot(1S2:13EVfleshhook[wh.see]).
InthecollectionofpotteryfiguredinBlissandMacalistersworkonemustseekthecounterpartsofthevariousdishes,mostlywide,deep
howls,inwhichwereadoffoodbeingserved,suchasthedishfromwhichthesluggardistoolazytowithdrawhishand(Pr19:24RV),and
thechargersofNu7:13,thoughheretheyareofsilver(see,further,Meals,5).Inthesameworkthestudentwillfindanalmostendless
varietyofcups,somefordrawingthecupofcoldwaterfromthelargewaterjars,othersforwineflagons,jugs,andjuglets.Thematerial
ofallofthesewillhaveascendedfromthecoarsestearthenwaretobronze(Lv6:28),andfrombronzetosilver(Nu7:13,Jth12:1)andgold(1
K10:21,Est1:7),accordingtotherankandwealthoftheirownersandthepurposesforwhichtheyweredesigned.
A.R.S.Kennedy.
HOZAIisgivenasaprop.nameinRVof2Ch33:19,whereAVandRVmgivetheseers.AVmhasHosai.IfweretaintheMT,thetr.of
RVseemstheonlydefensibleone,butperhapstheoriginalreadingwashisseers.
HUKKOK.AplacenearTaboronthewestofNaphtali(Jos19:34).ItmaybethepresentvillageYkkneartheedgeoftheplateauto
theN.W.oftheSeaof
Galilee.
HUKOK.SeeHelkath.
HUL.TheeponymofanAramantribe(Gn10:23)whoselocationisquiteuncertain.
HULDAH(weaselanoldtotemclannamesoW.R.Smith).Theprophetess,wifeofShallum,keeperofthewardrobe,livingina
partofJerusalemcalledtheMishneh(secondquarter),whoseadviceJosiahsought,byadeputationofhischiefministers,onthealarming
discoveryofthebookofthelawintheTemple,in621b.c.(2K22:320=2Ch34:828).Herresponsewasthreateningforthenation,inthe
strainofJeremiah,whilepromisingexemptiontothepiousking.HuldahrankswithDeborahandHannahamongtherarewomenprophetsof
theOT.
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G.G.Findlay.
HUMILITY.Trenchdefineshumilityastheesteemingofourselvessmall,inasmuchaswearesothethinkingtruly,andbecausetruly,
thereforelowlily,ofourselves.Alford,Ellicott,Salmond,Vincent,andmanyothersagree.Itisaninadequateandfaultydefinition.Amanmay
besmallandmayrealizehissmallness,andyetbefarfrombeinghumble.Hisspiritmaybefullofenvyinsteadofhumility.Hemaybe
depressedinspiritbecauseheseeshisownmeannessandgeneralworthlessness,andyethemaybeasrebelliousagainsthislotorhis
constitutionalproclivitiesasheisclearlycognizantofthem.Lowmindednessisnotlowlymindedness.TheexhortationofPh2:3doesnot
meanthateverymanoughttothinkthateverybodyelseisbetterthanhimselfinmoralcharacter,orinoutwardconduct,orinnaturalor
inheritedpowers.Thatwouldbeimpossibleinsomecasesanduntruthfulinmanyothers.Itisnotanexhortationtoeitheranimpossibilityor
anuntruthfulness.AbetterdefinitionoftheChristiangraceofhumilityisfoundintheunionofhighestselfrespectwithuttermostabandonof
sacrificeinservice.AmanwhoknowshisownsuperiorworthandyetiswillingtoservehisinferiorsinChristianloveisahumbleman.The
classicexampleintheNTisJn13:315.TheLord,knowingthattheFatherhadgivenallthingsintoHishands,andthatHecameforthfrom
GodandwouldgoagainuntoGod,knowingHisincomparablesuperioritytoeveryoneinthatcompany,wasyetsomeekandlowlyinheart,
sohumbleinspiritandreadyforservice,thatHegirdedHimselfwithatowelandwashedthedisciplesfeet.TheconsciousnessofHisown
transcendentworthwasinnorespectinconsistentwithHishumility.Genuinehumilityleadsthestrongtoservetheweak.Itnever
underestimatesitsownworth,butinutterunselfishnessitisreadytosacrificeitsownclaimsatanymomentforthegeneralgood.Genuine
humilitylosesallitsselfconceitbutneverlosesitsselfrespect.Itisconsistentwiththehighestdignityofcharacterandlife.Hencewemay
rightlycalltheIncarnationtheHumiliationofChrist.Hestoodattheheadoftheheavenlyhierarchies.HewasequalwithGod.Therewasno
dignityintheuniverselikeuntoHis.YetHehumbledHimselftobecomeaman.HemadeHimselfofnoreputation.Hecamenottobe
ministeredunto,buttominister.Hewastheservantofall.TherewasnohumilityintheuniverselikeuntoHis.HeneverforgotHisdignity.
WhenPilateaskedHimifHewereaking,HeansweredthatHewas.Hestoodinkinglymajestybeforethemob,inkinglyserenitybeforethe
magistratesHehungasKinguponthecross.YetHeneverforgotHishumility.Beingfoundinfashionasaman,HehumbledHimself,and
becameobedientuntodeath,eventhedeathofthecross.St.Paulexhorts,LetthismindbeinyouwhichwasalsoinChristJesus(Ph2:5
11).Godgivethgracetoallwhoarethushumble(Ja4:6).
WhenAugustinewasasked,WhatisthefirstarticleintheChristianreligion?heanswered,Humility.Andtheysaid,Whatisthe
second?andhesaid,
Humility.Andtheysaid,Whatisthethird?andhesaidthethirdtime,
Humility.Pascalsaid:Vanityhastakensofirmaholdontheheartofman,thataporter,ahodman,aturnspit,cantalkgreatlyofhimself,
andisforhavinghisadmirers.Philosopherswhowriteofthecontemptofglorydoyetdesirethegloryofwritingwell,andthosewhoread
theircompositionswouldnotlosethegloryofhavingreadthem.Wearesopresumptuousasthatwedesiretobeknowntoalltheworldand
eventothosewhoarenottocomeintotheworldtillwehaveleftit.Andatthesametimewearesolittleandvainasthattheesteemoffiveor
sixpersonsaboutusisenoughtocontentandamuseus.
D.A.Hayes.
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HUMTAH.AcityofJudah(Jos15:54).Thesiteisdoubtful.
HUNTINGisnotconspicuousintheliteratureoftheHebrewsthatremainstous.Wemayprobablyinferthatitdidnotbulklargelyin
theirlife.Asanamusement,itseemstobelongtoamoreadvancedstageofcivilizationthantheyhadreached.Thetypicalhunterwasfound
outsidetheirborders(Gn10:9).Esau,skilfulinthechase,isdepictedassomewhatuncouthandsimple(Gn25:27etc.).Nottillthetimeof
Heroddowehearofakingachievingexcellenceinthisformofsport(Jos.BJI.xxi.13).Wildanimalsandbirdswere,however,appreciated
asfood(Lv17:13,1S26:20etc.)andinacountrylikePalestine,aboundinginbeastsandbirdsofprey,someproficiencyinthehuntsmans
artwasnecessaryinordertosecurethesafetyofthecommunity,andtheprotectionoftheflocks.Amongtheseevilbeastslionsandbears
werethemostdangerous(Gn37:33,1K13:24,2K2:24,Pr28:15etc.).DeedsofprowessintheslaughterofsuchanimalsbySamsonin
selfdefence(Jg14:6),Davidtheshepherdtorescuehischarges(1S17:34),andBenaiah(2S23:20)gainedforthesemenabidingfame.H.
P.Smith(Samuel,inloc.)wouldreadofBenaiah:Heusedtogodownandsmitethelionsinthepitonsnowydays,whenhecouldtrack
themeasily.Thedifficultyisthatsnowydayswouldberatherfewtopermitofhismakingareputationinthisway.
Amongtheanimalshuntedforfoodwerethegazelle,thehart,theroebuck,andthewildgoat(Dt12:15,22,14:5etc.).Thefirstthreeare
mentionedspeciallyasfurnishingthetableofSolomon(1K4:23).Thepartridgewasperhapsthebirdchieflyhuntedinancienttimes,asitis
atthepresentday(1S26:20).Neitherbeastnorbirdmightbeeatenunlessthebloodhadbeenpouredout(Lv17:13,Dt12:16etc.)alaw
stillobservedbytheMoslems.
LittleinformationisgiveninScriptureastothemethodsfollowedbythehuntsmen.Thehuntingdogisnotmentionedbutitisfamiliarto
Josephus(Ant.VI.viii.9).Thefollowingimplementswereinuse,viz.:thebowandarrow(Gn27:3etc.),theclub(Job41:29),nets(Job
19:6,Ps9:16,Is51:20etc.),pits,inwhichtheremightbeanet,dugandconcealedtoentrapthelargeranimals(Ps9:15,Ezk19:8etc.),the
sling(1S17:40),thesnareofthefowler(Ps64:5,91:3,
124:7).Thetamepartridgeinacagewasusedasadecoy(Sir11:30).ThemodernSyrianisnotgreatlyaddictedtohunting.Occasionalraids
aremadeuponthebearsonMt.Hermon.TothescandalofJewandMoslem,ChristianssometimeshuntthewildboarintheHulehmarshes,
andinthethicketsbeyondJordan.SeealsoNets,Snares,etc.
W.Ewing.
HUPHAM.SeeHuppim.
HUPPAH.Apriestofthe13thcourse(1Ch24:13).
HUPPIM.TheheadofaBenjamitefamily(Gn46:21P,1Ch7:12,15,Nu26:39[Hupham]).
HUR.ThenameispossiblyofEgyptianorigin.1.WithAaronheheldupMoseshands,inorderthatbythecontinualupliftingofthe
sacredstaffIsraelmightprevailoverAmalek(Ex17:10,12E).WithAaronhewasleftinchargeofthepeoplewhenMosesascendedthe
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mountain(24:14E).2.AJudahite,thegrandfatherofBezalel(Ex31:2,35:30,38:22P).AccordingtotheChronicler,hewasdescendedfrom
Perez,throughHezronandCaleb(1Ch2:19f,50,4:14,2Ch1:5)andinJos.Ant.III.ii.4,vi.1,heisthehusbandofMiriam,andidentical
with
1.3.OneofthekingsofMidianslainafterthesinatPeor(Nu31:8)describedaschiefsofMidian,andprincesofSihon(Jos13:21).4.
ThefatherofoneofthetwelveofficerswhosuppliedSolomonandhiscourtwithfood(1K4:8RVBenhur)5.ThefatherofRephaiah,who
wasarulerofhalfofJerusalem,andwhohelpedtorepairthewalls(Neh3:9).LXXomitsthenameHur.
A.H.MNeile.
HURAI.SeeHiddai.
HURAM.1.ABenjamite(1Ch8:5).2.3.SeeHiram,1and2.
HURI.AGadite(1Ch5:14).
HUSBAND.SeeFamily.
HUSBANDMAN,HUSBANDRY.InEVtheformeris,inmostcases,synonymouswithatilleroftheground,whichRVhas
substitutedforitinZec13:5inmodernEnglish,afarmer.ThefirstfarmermentionedinOT,therefore,isnotNoahthehusbandman(Gn
9:20),butCainthetilleroftheground(4:2).InJn15:1,however,theformerhasthemorelimitedsenseofvinedresser:Iamthetruevine
andmyFatheristhevinedresser(AVandRVhusbandman).So,too,intheparableoftheVineyard(Mt21:33ff.).
Husbandry,inthesameway,istillage,farming.ThusofkingUzziahitissaidthathelovedhusbandry(lit.thelandinthemodern
sense,2Ch26:10),thatis,asthecontextshows,helovedandfosteredagriculture,includingviticulture.In1Co3:9husbandryisusedby
metonymyofthelandtilled(cf.RVm):yeareGodsfield(Weymouth,TheNTinModernSpeech).
A.R.S.Kennedy.
HUSHAH.SonofEzer,thesonofHur(seeHur,2),andthereforeofthetribeofJudah(1Ch4:4).
HUSHAI.AnArchite(2S15:32,17:5,14),i.e.anativeoftheborderoftheArchites(Jos16:2)totheW.ofBethel.Heisfurther
describedasthefriendof
David(15:37),whileat2S16:16thetwotitlesareunited.AttherebellionofAbsalomhewasinducedbyDavidtoactasifhefavouredthe
causeofthekingsson.BysodoinghewasenabledbothtodefeattheplansofAhithophelandtokeepDavidinformed(bymeansofAhimaaz
andJonathan,thesonsofZadokandAbiatharthepriests)oftheprogressofeventsinJerusalem(2S16:1617:23).Heisprobablytobe
identifiedwiththefatherofBaana,oneofSolomonstwelvecommissariatofficers(1K4:16).
HUSHAM.AkingofEdom(Gn36:34,35=1Ch1:45,46).
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HUSHATHITE(prob.=aninhabitantofHushah).ThisdescriptionisappliedtoSibbecai,oneofDavidsthirtyheroes(2S21:18=1
Ch20:4,2S23:27=1Ch11:29,27:11).
HUSHIM.1.TheeponymofaDanitefamily(Gn46:23)calledinNu26:42
Shuham.In1Ch7:12HushimseemstobeaBenjamite,butitispossiblethatforsonsofAherweshouldreadsonsofanother,i.e.Dan.2.
ThewifeofShaharaimtheBenjamite(1Ch8:8,11).
HUSKS(keratia,Lk15:16)arealmostcertainlythepodsofthecarobtree
(Ceratoniasiliqua),commonlycalledthelocusttree.ThiscommonPalestinetreeisdistinguishedbyitsbeautifuldarkglossyfoliage.The
longpods,whichripenfromMaytoAugustaccordingtothealtitude,areeventodayusedasfoodbythepooraconfectionismadefrom
them.Buttheyareusedchieflyforcattle.ThenameSt.Johnsbreadisgiventothesepods,fromatraditionthatthese,andnotlocusts,
composedthefoodofSt.JohntheBaptist,butseeFood,18.
E.W.G.Masterman.
HUZZAB.AwordoccurringinNah2:7.Geseniusderiveditfromaverbtsbhabh,andreadthepalaceisdissolvedandmadetoflow
down.Manyrecentauthoritiesregarditasfromntsabh,andtr.itisdecreed.ButWellhausenandothershaveconsidereditapropername
referringtotheAssyrianqueen,ortothecityofNinevehpersonified.
W.M.Nesbit.
HYACINTH.Rev9:17RVAVjacinth.SeeJewelsandPreciousStones.
HYNA(zbu,Jer12:9[butseeart.SpeckledBird].Zeboim[1S13:18]probablymeans[Valleyof]Hynas).Thehyna(Arab.
daba)isaverycommonPalestineanimal,concerningwhichthefellahnhavecountlesstales.Itisbothhatedanddreadeditconsumesdead
bodies,andwillevendigupcorpsesinthecemeteriesthewriterhasknownsuchriflingofgravestooccurontheMountofOlives.Itis
nocturnalinitshabitsinthedaytimeithidesinsolitarycaves,towhichthefellahnoftenfollowitandattackitbyvariouscuriousdevices.In
thegatheringduskandatnightthehungryhynafrequentlybecomesverybold,andwillfollowwithrelentlesspersistenceasolitary
pedestrian,who,ifhecannotreachsafety,willsurelybekilled.InspiteofitshabitsitiseatenattimesbytheBedouin.
E.W.G.Masterman.
HYDASPES.ArivermentionedinJth1:6asontheMedoBabylonianfrontier.Thenameisprobablytheresultofaconfusionwiththe
wellknownHydaspesinIndia(nowtheJatam).InviewofthemythicalcharacteroftheBookofJudith,speculationastotheidentityofthis
riverislikelytoremainfruitless.However,theremaybeasuggestioninthefactthattheSyr.versionreadsUlai(wh.see).
W.M.Nesbit.
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HYMENUS.AhereticalChristianassociatedwithAlexanderin1Ti1:19f.,andwithPhiletusin2Ti2:17f.,thoughsomehave
consideredthattwodifferentpersonsaremeant.Thesefalseteachersmadeshipwreckconcerningthefaiththeirheresyconsistedindenying
thebodilyresurrection,sayingthattheresurrectionwasalreadypastapparentlyanearlyformofGnosticismwhich,startingwiththeideaof
matterbeingevil,madethebodyanunessentialpartofournature,tobediscardedassoonaspossible.IntheformerpassageSt.Paulsaysthat
hedeliveredtheoffendersuntoSatan,thattheymightbetaughtnottoblasphemeheusesasimilarphraseoftheincestuousCorinthian(1
Co5:5),therealsoexpressingthepurposeofthepunishment,thesalvationofthemansspirit.Thephrasemaymeansimple
excommunicationwithrenunciationofallfellowship,ormayincludeamiraculousinflictionofdisease,orevenofdeath.Ramsaysuggests
thatitisaChristianadaptationofapaganidea,whenapersonwrongedbyanother,butunabletoretaliate,consignedtheoffendertothegods
andleftpunishmenttobeinflictedbyDivinepower.
A.J.Maclean.
HYMN(inNTforOT,seeMusic,Poetry,Psalms).TheGreekwordsignifiedspecificallyapoeminpraiseofagodorhero,butitis
used,lessexactly,alsoforareligiouspoem,evenoneofpetition.TheuseofhymnsintheearlyChristianChurchwastobeanticipatedfrom
theverynatureofworship,andfromthecloseconnexionbetweentheworshipofthedisciplesandthatoftheJewsofthatandearlier
centuries.ItisprovedbythenumerousincidentalreferencesintheNT(cf.Ac16:25,1Co14:26,Eph5:19,Ja5:13,andthepassagescited
below),andbythefamousletterofPlinytoTrajandescribingthecustomsoftheChristians.Welack,however,anycollectionofhymns
comparabletothePsalmsoftheOT.DoubtlessthePsalmswerelargelyused,asatthePassoverfeastwhentheLordsSupperwasinstituted
(Mt26:30)butinadditionnewsongswouldbewrittentoexpresstheIntenseemotionsofthedisciples,andeventheirspontaneousutterances
inthegatheringsofearlyChristianswouldalmostinevitablytakearhythmicalform,modelledmoreorlesscloselyuponthePsalms.Insome
localities,perhaps,Greekhymnsservedasthemodels.St.Paulinsists(1Co14:15,Col3:16)thatthesingingbewiththespiritandthe
understanding,anintelligentexpressionofrealreligiousfeeling.Thesepassagesspecifypsalms,hymns,andspiritualsongs.Whileatfirstit
seemsasifthreeclassesofcompositionareheredistinguished,eitherastosourceorcharacter,itisprobablynotthecase,especiallyasinMt
26:30,Mk14:26theverbtohymnisusedofsingingapsalm.LukesGospelcontainsseveralhymns,butdoesnotmentiontheirusebythe
disciples.TheyaretheMagnificat(Lk1:4655),theBenedictus(1:6876),theGloriain
Excelsis(2:14),andtheNuncDimittis(2:2932).WhetherthesewereJewishorJewishChristianinoriginisdisputed.Thefreeintroductionof
hymnsofpraiseintheApocalypse,indescriptionoftheworshipofthenewJerusalem,pointstotheirusebytheearlyChurch.Thepoetical
andliturgicalcharacterofsomeotherNTpassagesisassertedwithmoreorlessreasonbydifferentscholars(e.g.Eph5:14,1
Ti1:17,3:16,6:16,2Ti4:18).SeeHastingsDCG,art.Hymn.
OwenH.Gates.
HYPOCRITE.ThiswordoccursintheNTonlyintheSynopticGospelsbuthypocrisyisusedintheEpistles(Gal2:13,1Ti4:2,1P
2:1),andtheverbtoplaythehypocriteinLk20:20(tr.feigned).ThehypocrisyoftheGospelsisthe
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appearingbeforemenwhatoneoughttobe,butisnot,beforeGod.Attimesitisadeliberatelyplayedpart(e.g.Mt6:2,5,16,22:18etc.),at
othersitisadeceptionofwhichtheactorhimselfisunconscious(e.g.Mk7:6,Lk6:42,12:56etc.).Thus,accordingtoChrist,allwhoplaythe
partofreligion,whetherconsciouslyorunconsciously,withoutbeingreligious,arehypocritesandsofallunderHissternestdenunciation(Mt
23).Thismeaningofthewordhasledsometogiveitthewiderinterpretationofgodlessnessinsomepassages(e.g.Mt24:51cf.Lk12:46)
butastheremayalwaysbeseeninthewordtheideaofareligiouscloakoverthegodlessness,theordinarysenseshouldstand.
IntheAVofOT(e.g.Job8:13,Is9:17)hypocriteisamistranslationofthe
Heb.wordchnph.ItpassedintotheAVfromtheLatin,whichfollowedthe
GreekVersions.InRVitisrenderedgodless,profane.
CharlesT.P.Grierson.
HYROANUS.1.ThesonofTobias,whohadmoneydepositedatJerus.,intheTempletreasury,atthetimeofthevisitofHeliodrus(2
Mac3:11).Thenameseemstobealocalappellative.ItsuseamongtheJewsisperhapstobeexplainedfromthefactthatArtaxerxesOchus
transportedanumberofJewstoHyrcania.2.SeeMaccabees,5.
HYSSOPismentionedseveraltimesintheBible.Itwasusedforsprinklingblood(Ex12:22),andintheritualofthecleansingoflepers
(Lv14:4,Nu19:6)itwasaninsignificantplantgrowingoutofthewall(1K4:33)itcouldaffordabranchstrongenoughtosupportawet
sponge(Jn19:29).Itispossiblethatallthesereferencesarenottoasinglespecies.Amongmanysuggestedplantsthemostprobableiseither
aspeciesofmarjoram,e.g.,Origanummaru,orthecommoncaperplant(Capparisspinosa),whichmaybeseengrowingoutofcrevicesin
wallsalloverPalestine.SeeCaperberry.
E.W.G.Masterman
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IADINUS(1Es9:48)=JaminofNeh8:7.
IBHAR.OneofDavidssons,bornatJerusalem(2S5:15,1Ch3:6,14:5).
IBLEAM.AtownbelongingtoWestManasseh(Jos17:11,Jg1:27).Itismentionedalsoin2K9:27inconnexionwiththedeathofkingAhaziah,who
fledbythewayofBethhagganandtheascentofGur,whichisbyIbleam.TheBiblicaldataseemtobewellsatisfiedbythemodernruinBelame,some13
milesE.ofN.ofSamaria,morethanhalfwaytoJezreel.
In2K15:10(AVandRV)beforethepeopleshouldcertainlybeemendedtoinIbleam.GathrimmonofJos21:25isascribalerrorforIbleam.Itisthe
sameplacethatiscalledBileamin1Ch6:70.
IBNEIAH.ABenjamite(1Ch9:8).
IBNIJAH.ABenjamite(1Ch9:8).
IBRI.AMerariteLevite(1Ch24:27).
IBSAM.AdescendantofIssachar(1Ch7:2).
IBZAN.Oneoftheminorjudges,followingJephthah(Jg12:810).Hecamefrom
Bethlehem,probablytheBethleheminZebulun(Jos19:15),7milesN.W.ofNazareth.Hehad30sonsand30daughtersanevidenceofhissocialimportance
andarrangedtheirmarriages.HejudgedIsrael7years,andwasburiedatBethlehem.AccordingtoJewishtradition,IbzanwasthesameasBoaz.
ICHABOD.SonofPhinehasandgrandsonofEli.Thenamemeansinglorious,butprobablyshouldbeJahwehisglory,fromanoriginalJochebed.If
thisguessbewellfounded,thentheturngiventothestoryin1S4:21isduetoadesiretomoulditonthestoryofthebirthofBenjamininGn35:18.
W.F.COBB.
ICONIUM,nowcalledKonia,isanancientcityofcontinuousimportancefromearlytimestothepresentday.Situatedatthewesternedgeofthevast
centralplainofAsiaMinor,andwellwatered,ithasalwaysbeenabusyplace.Itissurroundedbybeautifulorchards,whichcoverthemeannessofitsmodern
buildings.AboutthebeginningoftheChristianeraitwasontheborderofthetwoethnicdistricts,LycaoniaandPhrygia.Itwasinrealitytheeasternmostcityof
Phrygia,andtheinhabitantsconsideredthemselvesPhrygians,butancientwriterscommonlyspeakofitasacityofLycaonia(wh.see),thefateofwhichit
generallyshared.Inthe3rdcent.B.C.itwasruledbytheSeleucids,andaboutB.C.164,probably,itpassedunderthepoweroftheGalat(AsiaticCelts).Itwas
thepropertyofthePontickingsfromabout130,wassetfreeduringtheMithridaticwars,andinB.C.39wasgivenbyMarkAntonytoPolemon,kingofCilicia
Tracheia.InB.C.36AntonygaveittoAmyntas,whowasatthattimemadekingofGalatia(wh.see).OnhisdeathinB.C.25thewholeofhiskingdombecame
theRomanprovinceofGalatia.Iconiumcouldthusbespokenofas
Lycaonian,Phrygian,orGalatic,accordingtothespeakerspointofview.Inthetimeofthe
EmperorClaudius,it,alongwithDerbe,receivedthehonoraryprefixClaudio,becoming
Claudiconium(compareourRoyalBurghs),butitwasnottillHadrianstime(A.D.117138)thatitbecameaRomancolony(wh.see).Itsafterhistorymaybe
omitted.ItwaseighteenmilesdistantfromLystra,andadirectroutepassedbetweenthem.
ThegospelwasbroughttoIconiumbyPaulandBarnabas,whovisitedittwiceonthefirstmissionaryjourney(Ac13:51,14:21).ThepresenceofJewsthere
isconfirmedbytheevidenceofinscriptions.AccordingtotheviewnowgenerallyacceptedbyEnglishspeakingscholars,itiscomprehendedinthePhrygo
GalaticregionofAc16:6andtheGalaticregionandPhrygiaofAc18:23.ItwasthusvisitedfourtimesinallbySt.Paul,whoaddresseditamongothercities
inhisEpistletotheGalatians.DuringtheabsenceofPaulithadbeenvisitedbyJudaizers,whopretendedthatPaulwasameremessengeroftheearlier
Apostles,andcontendedthattheJewishceremoniallawwasbindingontheChristianconverts.PaulsEpistleappearstohavebeensuccessful,andtheGalatians
afterwardscontributedtothecollectionforthepoorChristiansofJerusalem.ThealternativeviewisthatIconiumisnotreallyincludedintheActsnarrative
after16:2ff.,asthewordsquotedabovefromAc16:6and18:23refertoadifferentdistricttothefarnorthofIconium,andthattheEpistletotheGalatians,
beingaddressedtothatnortherndistrict,hadnoconnexionwithIconium.Inanycase,Iconiumisoneoftheplacesincludedinthe(province)Galatiawhichis
addressedinFirstPeter(aboutA.D.80probably),andthelargenumberofChristianinscriptionswhichhavebeenfoundthererevealtheexistenceofavigorous
Christianlifeinthethirdandfollowingcenturies.
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A.SOUTER.
IDALAH.AtownofZebulun(Jos19:15).
IDBASH.OneofthesonsofthefatherofEtam(1Ch4:3).
IDDO.1.Ezr8:17(1Es8:45f.Loddeus)thechiefatCasiphia,whoprovidedEzrawith
LevitesandNethinim.2.1Ch27:21sonofZechariah,captainofthehalftribeofManassehinGilead,perh.=No.4.3.Ezr10:43(1Es9:35Edos)oneofthose
whohadtakenstrangewives.4.1K4:14fatherofAbinadab,whowasSolomonscommissariatofficerinMahanaiminGilead(see
No.2).5.1Ch6:21aGershoniteLevitecalledAdaiahinv.41.6.Aseerandprophetcitedbythe
ChroniclerasanauthorityforthereignsofSolomon(2Ch9:29),Rehoboam(2Ch12:15),Abijah(2Ch13:22).7.Zec1:1,7,Ezr5:1,6:14(1Es6:1Addo)
grandfather(fatheracc.toEzr.)oftheprophetZechariahpossiblyofthesamefamilyasNo.2.8.Neh12:4,16oneofthepriestlyclansthatwentupwith
Zerubbabel.
IDOLATRY.HebrewreligionisrepresentedasbeginningwithAbraham,whoforsooktheidolatry,aswellasthehome,ofhisancestors(Gn12:1,Jos
24:2)butitwasspeciallythroughtheinfluenceofMosesthatJehovahwasrecognizedasIsraelsGod.ThewholesubsequenthistoryuptotheExileismarked
byfrequentlapsesintoidolatry.Weshouldthereforeconsider(1)thecausesofHebrewidolatry,(2)itsnature,(3)theoppositionitevoked,and(4)theteaching
ofNT.Thesubjectisnotfreefromdifficulty,butinthelightofmodernBiblicalstudy,themainoutlinesareclear.
1.CausesofHebrewidolatry.(1)When,aftertheExodus,theIsraelitessettledinCanaanamongidolatrouspeoples,theywerefarfromhavingapure
monotheism(cf.Jg11:24).Theirfaithwascrude.(a)Thustheideathattheirneighboursgodshadrealexistence,withrightsofproprietorshipintheinvaded
land,wouldexposethemtoriskofcontamination.Thiswouldbethemorelikelybecauseasyettheywerenotaunitedpeople.Thetribeshadatfirsttoact
independently,andinsomecaseswereunabletodislodgetheCanaanites(Jg1).(b)Theirenvironmentwasthusperilous,andthedangerwasintensifiedby
intermarriagewithidolaters.Particularlyafterthemonarchywasestablisheddidthisbecomeasnare.SolomonandAhabbytheirmarriagealliancesintroduced
andpromotedidolcults.Itissignificantthatpostexiliclegislationhadthisdangerinview,andsecuredthatexclusivenesssocharacteristicofmatureJudaism
(Ezr10:2f.).(c)Thepoliticalrelationswiththegreatworldpowers,EgyptandAssyria,wouldalsotendtoinfluencereligiousthought.Thismightaccountfor
thegreatheathenreactionunderManasseh.
(2)But,specially,certainideascharacteristicofSemiticreligiongenerallyhadastronginfluence.(a)Thus,onIsraelssettlinginCanaan,theexisting
shrines,whethernatural(hills,trees,wellseachunderstoodtohaveitsowntutelarybaalorlord)orartificial(altars,stonepillars,woodenpoles),wouldbe
quiteinnocentlyusedfortheworshipofJ.(b)Idols,too,wereusedindomesticworship(Jg17:5cf.Gn31:19,1S19:13).(c)Adarkerfeature,inimicalto
Jehovism,wasthesanctionofsexualimpurity,crueltyandlustforblood(seebelow,2(1)).
HerethenwasalltheapparatusforeithertheinappropriateworshipofthetrueGod,ortheappropriateworshipoffalsegods.Thatwaswhy,lateroninthe
eighthandseventhcenturiesB.C.,whentheearlierJehovismwaschangingintotypicalJudaism,allsuchapparatuswasfelttobewrong,andwasattackedwith
increasingviolencebyprophetsandreformers,astheirconceptionofGodbecamemoreclearandspiritual.
2.Itsnature.(1)CommontoallCanaanitereligions,apparently,wastheworshipofBaalasrepresentingthemaleprincipleinnature.Eachnation,
however,haditsownprovincialBaalwithaspecificnameortitleChemoshofMoab,MolechofAmmon,DagonofPhilistia,HadadRimmonofSyria.
AssociatedwithBaalismwastheworshipofAshtoreth(Astarte),representingthefemaleprincipleinnature.Twofeaturesofthesereligionswereprostitution
[ofbothsexes](cf.Nu25:1f.,Dt23:17f.,1K14:24,Hos4:13,Am2:7,Bar6:43)andhumansacrifice(cf.2K17:17,Jer7:31,andart.TOPHETH).Baalismwas
thechiefIsraeliteidolatry,andsometimes,e.g.underJezebel,itquitedisplacedJehovismastheestablishedreligion.
(2)Theunderlyingprincipleofallsuchreligionwasnatureworship.Thishelpstoexplainthecalfworship,representedasfirstintroducedbyAaron,andat
alaterperiodestablishedbyJeroboamI.InEgyptwhichalsoexercisedasinisterinfluenceontheHebrewsreligionwaslargelyofthistypebutliving
animals,andnotmerelyimagesofthem,weretherevenerated.Connectedwiththisidolatryistotemism,sowidelytracedeventoday.Somefindasurvivalof
earlySemitictotemisminEzk8:10.
(3)AnotherformofHebrewnatureworship,astrolatry,wasapparentlyofforeignextraction,andnotearlierthantheseventhcent.B.C.Thereisastriking
allusiontothisidolatryinJob31:2628.Thereweresunimages(2Ch34:4),horsesandchariotsdedicatedtothesun(2K23:11)aneastwardpositionwas
adoptedinsunworship(Ezk8:16).TheexpressionqueenofheaveninJer7:18,44:19isobscurebutitprobablypointstothisclassofidolatry.Intheheathen
reactionunderManassehtheworshipofthehostofheavenisprominent(2K17:16).GadandMeni(Is65:11)werepossiblystargods.Relatedtosuchnature
worshipperhapswasthemourningforTammuz[Adonis](Ezk8:14,Is17:10RVm).Natureworshipofallkindsisbyimplicationrebukedwithamazingforce
anddignityinGn1,wherethewordG
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anddignityinGn1,wherethewordGODasCreatoriswritteninbiglettersoverthefaceofcreation.Starsandanimalsandallthings,itisinsisted,arecreated
things,notcreators,andnotselfexistent.
(4)TherearenocleartracesofancestorworshipinOT,butsomefindthemintheteraphim(householdgods)andinthereverencefortombs(e.g.
Machpelah)inIs65:4thecontextsuggestsidolatry.
(5)AcuriousmixtureofidolatryandJehovismexistedinSamariaafterthedestructionoftheNorthernKingdom.Theforeigncolonistsbroughtwiththem
theworshipofvariousdeities,andaddedthatofJ(2K17:2441).Thesegodscannotbeidentifiedwithcertainty.BythismixedraceandreligiontheJewsof
theReturnwereseriouslyhindered,andthereresultedtheSamaritanschismwhich,inanattenuatedform,stillexists.
3.Oppositiontoidolatry.Whilefullyallowingforthefactsalludedtoin1,itisimpossibletoaccountnotformeretemporarylapses,butforthe
markedpersistenceofidolatryamongtheHebrews,unlesswerecognizethegrowthwhichcharacterizestheirlawsandpolityfromthesimplebeginningupto
thefinishedproduct.LawsdobutexpressthehighestsenseofthecommunityhoweverdeeplythatsensemaybequickenedbyDivinerevelationwhether
thoselawsareviewedfromtheethicalorfromtheutilitarianstandpoint.IfthelegislationembodiedinthePentateuchhadallalongbeenanacknowledged,even
thoughaneglected,code,suchacompleteneglectofitduringlongperiods,takenwiththetotalsilenceaboutitsdistinctivefeaturesinthesayingsandwritings
ofthemostenlightenedanddevotedmen,wouldpresentphenomenaquiteinexplicable.Itisneedful,therefore,toobservethatthetruedevelopmentfrom
originalMosaism,thoughperhapsneverquiteneglectedbytheleadersofthenation,doesnotappeardistinctlyinanylegislationuntiltheclosingdecadesofthe
7thcent.B.C.ThisdevelopmentcontinuedthroughandbeyondtheExile.UntiltheDeuteronomicepochbegan,theenactmentsofMosaisminregardtoidolatry
wereclearlyoftheslenderestproportions.ThereisgoodreasonforthinkingthattheSecondoftheTen
CommandmentsisnotinitsearliestformanditisprobablethatEx34:1028(fromthedocument
J,i.e.c.B.C.850)containsanearlierDecalogue,embodyingsuchtraditionalMosaiclegislationasactuallypermittedtheuseofsimpleimages(distinctfrom
moltencultusidols,Ex34:17).SuchdevelopmentaccountsforthephenomenapresentedbythehistoryofidolatryinIsrael.Forexample,Samuelsacrificesin
oneofthosehighplaces(1S9:12ff.)whichHezekiahremovedasidolatrous(2K18:4).Elijah,thesternfoeofBaalism,doesnotdenouncethecalfworship
attackedlateronbyHosea.EvenIsaiahcananticipatetheerectioninEgyptofapillar(Is19:19)likethosewhichJosiahinthenextcenturydestroyed(2K
23:14).Aswithreformingprophets,sowithreformingkings.JehuinIsraelextirpatesBaalism,butleavesthecalfworshipalone(2K10:28f.).InJudah,where
heathenismwenttogreaterlengths,butwherewholesomereactionwasequallystrong,Asa,aniconoclasticreformer,tolerateshighplaces(1K15:1214cf.
Jehoshaphatsattitude,1K22:43).Itwastheworkofthe8thcent.prophetsthatpreparedthewayfortheremarkablereformationunderJosiah(2K22,23).
JosiahsreignwasepochmakingineverythingconnectedwithHebrewreligiousthoughtandpractice.Tothisperiodmustbeassignedthat
Deuteronomiclegislationwhichcompletedtheearlierattemptsatreformation.Thislegislationaimsatthecompletedestructionofeverythingsuggestiveof
idolatry.Acode,otherwisehumane,isonthispointextremelysevere:idolatrywaspunishablebydeath(Dt17:27cf.6:15,8:19,13:610etc.).Suchaviewof
idolatryexhibitsinitscorrectperspectivetheteachingofJeremiahandEzekiel,theelaborateLeviticalenactments,theexilicandpostexilicliterature.
DistinctiveJudaismhassucceededtoJehovism,monotheismhasreplacedhenotheism,racialandreligiousexclusivenesshassupplantedtheearliereclecticism.
TheExilemarkspracticallytheendofHebrewidolatry.Thelessonhasbeenlearnedbyheart.
AstrikingproofofthegreatchangeisgivenbytheMaccabanwar,causedbytheattemptofAntiochusEpiphanestoforceidolatryontheverynation
whichinanearlierperiodhadbeenonlytoopronetoacceptit.RelationswithRomeinthe1stand2ndcenturiesA.D.illustratethesametemper.Hadnot
CaligulasdeathsosoonfollowedhisinsaneproposaltoerecthisstatueintheTemple,theJewswouldassuredlyhaveofferedthemostdeterminedresistancea
centurylatertheydidactivelyresistRomewhenHadriandesecratedthesiteoftheruinedTemple.
4.TeachingoftheNT.AsidolatrywasthusnonexistentinJudaisminthetimeofChrist,itisnotsurprisingthatHedoesnotalludetoit.St.Paul,
however,cameintodirectconflictwithit.Theworditself(eidlolatreia)occursfirstinhiswritingswehavehisilluminatingteachingonthesubjectinRo
1:1832,Ac17:2231,1Co8etc.ButidolatryinChristiandoctrinehasawidersignificancethantheserviceofmaterialidols.Anythingthatinterferesbetween
thesoulanditsGodisidolatrous,andistobeshunned(cf.Eph5:5,Ph3:19,1Jn5:20f.,andthecontextofGal5:20etc.).Seealsoart.IMAGES.
H.F.B.COMPSTON.
IDUEL(1Es8:43)=Ezr8:16Ariel.TheformisduetoconfusionofHeb.landr.
IDUMA.TheGreekequivalent(inRVonlyinMk3:8)ofthenameEdom,originallytheterritoryeastoftheJordanArabahvalleyandsouthofthe
landofMoab.Thiscountrywasinhabited,whenwefirstcatchaglimpseofit,byaprimitiveraceknownasHorites,ofwhomlittlebutthenameisknown.The
apparentmeaningofthename(cavedwellers)andcomparisonwiththeremainsofwhatseemstohavebeenananalogousracediscoveredintheexcavations
atGezer,shewthatthisracewasatalowstageofcivilization.Theywerepartlydestroyed,partlyabsorbed,bytheBedouintribeswhoclaimeddescentthrough
EsaufromAbraham,andwhowereacknowledgedbytheIsraelitesaslateasthedateoftheDeuteronomiccodesasbrethren(Dt23:7).Theyweregovernedby
sheiks(EVdukes,alit.tr.oftheLat.dux),andbyanonhereditarymonarchywhoserecordsbelongedtoaperiodanteriortothetimeofSaul(Gn36:3139,13/62
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sheiks(EVdukes,alit.tr.oftheLat.dux),andbyanonhereditarymonarchywhoserecordsbelongedtoaperiodanteriortothetimeofSaul(Gn36:3139,1
Ch
1:4354).SeeEDOM.
AfterthefallofBabylonthepressureofthedesertArabsforcedtheEdomitesacrosstheJordanArabahvalley,andthepeopleandnamewereextended
westward.In1Mac5:65wefindHebronincludedinIduma.Josephus,withwhomJeromeagrees,makesIdumaextendfromBeitJihrintoPetraJerome
assignsthegreatcavesattheformerplacetothetroglodyteHorites.TheHerodfamilywasbyoriginIdumaninthisextendedsense.Inthe2ndcent.A.D.the
geographerPtolemyrestrictsIdumatothecisJordanicarea,andincludestheoriginaltransJordanicEdominArabia.R.A.S.MACALISTER.
IEDDIAS(1Es9:26).Oneofthosewhoagreedtoputawaytheirstrangewives,calledIzziahinEzr10:25.
IEZER,IEZERITES(Nu26:30).ContractedfromAbiezer,Abiezerites.SeeABIEZER.
IGAL.1.ThespyrepresentingthetribeofIssachar(Nu13:7).2.OneofDavidsheroes,thesonofNathanofZohah(2S23:36).Intheparallellist(1Ch
11:38)thenameisgivenasJoel,thebrotherofNathan.3.SonofShemaiahoftheroyalhouseofDavid(1Ch3:22).
IGDALIAH.AmanofGod,fatherofHanan,whosenameismentionedinconnexionwithJeremiahsinterviewwiththeRechabites(Jer35:4).
IGNORANCE.Itappearstobeinaccordancewithnaturaljusticethatignoranceshouldberegardedasmodifyingmoralresponsibility,andthisisfully
recognizedintheScriptures.IntheOT,indeed,theknowledgeofGodisoftenspokenofasequivalenttotruereligion(seeKNOWLEDGE),andtherefore
ignoranceisregardedasitsopposite(1S2:12,Hos4:1,6:6).ButtheLeviticallawrecognizessinsofignoranceasneedingsomeexpiation,butwithaminor
degreeofguilt(Lv4,Nu15:2232).Soignorancesarespokenofin1Es8:75(RVerrors),To3:3,Sir23:2f.aspartlyinvoluntary(cf.He5:2,9:7).The
wholeoftheOT,however,isthehistoryofaprocessofgradualmoralandspiritualenlightenment,sothatactionswhichareregardedaspardonable,oreven
praiseworthy,atoneperiod,becomeinexcusableinamoreadvancedstateofknowledge.IntheNTthedifferencebetweenthetimesofignoranceandthelight
ofChristianityisrecognizedinAc17:30(cf.1Ti1:13,1P1:14),andignoranceisspokenofasmodifyingresponsibilityinAc3:17,1Co2:8,Lk23:34.This
lastpassage,especially,suggeststhatsinispardonablebecauseitcontainsanelementofignorance,whileMk3:29appearstocontemplatethepossibilityofan
absolutelywilfulchoiceofevilwithfullknowledgeofwhatitis,whichwillbeunpardonable(cf.1Jn5:16).Immoralandguiltyignoranceisalsospokenofin
Ro1:18ff.,Eph4:18.ForthequestionwhetherChristinHishumannaturecouldbeignorant,seeKENOSIS,KNOWLEDGE.
J.H.MAUDE.IIM.AcityofJudah(Jos15:29)siteunknown.SeeIYIM,2.
IJON.AtowninthenorthpartofthemountainsofNaphtali,noticedin1K15:20(=2Ch16:4)astakenbyBenhadad.Itwasalsocapturedand
depopulatedbyTiglathpileser(2K15:29).ThenamesurvivesinMerjAyn,aplateauN.W.ofDan.ThemostimportantsiteinthisplateauisTellDibbn,
whichmaybethesiteofIjon.
IKKESH.ThefatherofIra,oneofDavidsheroes(2S23:26,1Ch11:28,27:9).
ILAI.OneofDavidsheroes(1Ch11:29).Intheparallellist(2S23:28)thenameappearsasZalmon,whichisprobablythemorecorrecttext.
ILIADUN(1Es5:58).PerhapstobeidentifiedwithHenadadofEzr3:9.
ILLYRICUM.TheonlyScripturementionisRo15:19,whereSt.PaulpointstothefactthathehadfullypreachedthegoodnewsoftheMessiahfrom
JerusalemandroundaboutasfarasIllyricum.NeithergeographicaltermisincludedinthesenseoftheGreek,whichisthathehaddonesofromtheouteredge
ofJerusalem,sotospeak,roundabout(throughvariouscountries)asfarastheborderofIllyricum.TheseprovincesinorderareSyria,Cilicia,Galatia,Asia,
andMacedonia,andajourneythroughtheminsuccessiondescribesasegmentofaroughcircle.TheprovincesMacedoniaandIllyricumareconterminous,and
thenearestcityinMacedoniainwhichweknowSt.PaultohavepreachedisBera(Ac17:10ff.).IllyricumisaLatinword,anddenotestheRomanprovince
whichextendedalongtheAdriaticfromItalyandPannoniaonthenorthtotheprovinceMacedoniaonthesouth.AprovinceIllyriahadbeenformedin B.C.167,
andduringthesucceedingtwocenturiesallaccessionsofterritoryinthatquarterwereincorporatedinthatprovince.InA.D.10AugustusseparatedPannonia
fromIllyricum,andgavethelatterasettledconstitution.Thegovernmentofthisimportantprovincewasdifficult,andwasentrustedtoanexconsulwiththe
stylelegatusAugustiproprtore.ThenorthernhalfwascalledLiburniaandthesouthernDalmatia(wh.see).Thelattertermgraduallycametoindicatethe
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stylelegatusAugustiproprtore.ThenorthernhalfwascalledLiburniaandthesouthernDalmatia(wh.see).Thelattertermgraduallycametoindicatethe
wholeprovinceofIllyricum.
A.SOUTER.
IMAGE.Intheologicalusagethetermimageoccursintwoconnexions:(1)asdefiningthenatureofman(Godcreatedmaninhisownimage,Gn
1:27)and(2)asdescribingtherelationofChristasSontotheFather(whoistheimageoftheinvisibleGod,Col1:15).Thesesenses,again,arenotwithout
connexionfor,asmanisrecreatedintheimageofGodlost,oratleastdefaced,throughsin(Col3:10cf.Eph4:24)so,asrenewed,hebearstheimageof
Christ(2Co3:18).
TheseScripturalsensesofthetermimageclaimfurtherelucidation.
1.Asregardsman,thefundamentaltextisthatalreadyquoted,Gn1:26,27.Here,inthestoryofCreation,manisrepresentedascalledintobeing,not,like
theothercreatures,byasimpleflat,butastheresultofasolemnanddeliberateactofcounseloftheCreator:Letusmakemaninourimage,afterourlikeness.
AndGodcreatedmaninhisownimage,intheimageofGodcreatedhehimmaleandfemalecreatedhethem.Distinctions,referredtobelow,havebeen
sought,sincePatristictimes,betweenimageandlikeness,butitisnowgenerallyconcededthatnodifferenceofmeaningisintended.Thetwowordsimage
(tselem)andlikeness(demth)combine,withoutdistinctionofsense,toemphasizetheideaofresemblancetoGod.Thisisshownbythefactthatinv.27the
wordimagealoneisemployedtoexpressthetotalidea,andin5:1thewordlikeness.ManwasmadelikeGod,andsobearsHisimage.Theexpressionrecurs
inGn9:6,andagainrepeatedlyintheNT(1Co11:7,Col3:10cf.Ja3:9likeness).TheusageinGenesisisindeedpeculiartothesocalledPriestlywriter
buttheideaunderliestheviewofmanintheJahwisticsectionsaswell,foronlyasmadeinGodsimageismancapableofknowledgeofGod,fellowshipwith
Him,covenantrelationtoHim,andcharacterconformabletoGodsown.TobeasGodwastheserpentsallurementtoEve(Gn3:5).Ps8echoesthestoryof
manscreationinGn1.
InwhatdidthisDivineimage,orlikenesstoGod,consist?Notinbodilyform,forGodisSpiritnoryetsimply,astheSocinianswouldhaveit,indominion
overthecreaturesbutinthosefeaturesofmansrationalandmoralconstitutioninwhichthepeculiardignityofman,asdistinguishedfromtheanimalworld
belowhim,isrecognized.Man,asaspiritualnature,isselfconscious,personal,rational,free,capableofrisingtotheapprehensionofgeneraltruthsandlaws,
ofsettingendsofconductbeforehim,ofapprehendingrightandwrong,goodandevil,offramingideasofGod,infinity,eternity,immortality,andofshaping
hislifeinthelightofsuchconceptions.InthisheshowshimselfakintoGodisabletoknow,love,serve,andobeyGod.Thegermofsonshipliesintheideaof
theimage.Tothismustbeadded,inthelightofsuchpassagesasEph4:24andCol3:10,theideaofactualmoralconformityofactualknowledge,
righteousness,andholinessaspertainingtotheperfectionoftheimage.SinhasnotdestroyedtheessentialelementsofGodsimageinman,butithas
shatteredtheimageinamoralrespectandgrace,astheabovepassagesteach,renewsitinChrist.
Ifthisexplanationiscorrect,theolderattemptsatadistinctionbetweenimageandlikeness,
e.g.thatimagereferredtothebody,likenesstotheintellectualnatureorimagetotheintellectual,likenesstothemoral,facultiesor,asinRoman
Catholictheology,imagetothenaturalattributesofintelligenceandfreedom,likenesstoasuperaddedendowmentofsupernaturalrighteousnessmust,as
alreadyhinted,bepronounceduntenable.
2.TheideaofChrist,theSon,astheimage(eikn)oftheinvisibleGod(Col1:15cf.2Co4:4)connectsitselfwiththedoctrineoftheTrinity,andfinds
expressioninvariousformsintheNT,notablyinHe1:3whobeingtheeffulgenceofhisgloryandtheveryimageofhissubstance.JesusHimselfcould
declareofHimselfthathewhohadseenHimhadseentheFather(Jn14:9).
ButthepassagesquotedrefertoasupratemporalandessentialrelationbetweentheSonandtheFather.God,inHiseternalbeing,reflectsHimself,andbeholds
Hisowninfiniteperfectionandglorymirrored,intheSon(cf.Jn1:1,17:5).ItisthiseternalWord,orperfectselfrevelationofGod,thathasbecomeincarnate
inJesusChrist(Jn1:14).Theconsequenceisobvious.BearingChristsimage,webearGods.BeingrenewedinGodsimage,weareconformedtotheimageof
HisSon(Ro8:29).
JAMESORR.
IMAGES.1.Themakingofanimageimpliesadefiniteconceptionandtheapplicationofarttoreligion.TheearliestSemiticreligion(likethatofGreece,
Rome,etc.)wasaccordinglyimageless.Thefirstimageswerethestonepillarandthewoodenpoleorasherah(atreefetishpossiblyofphallicsignificance).
Thencamerealidols,atfirstfordomesticuse(asprobablytheteraphim,portablehouseholdgods),andsubsequentlythoseofgreatersizeforpublicworship.
2.About15wordsinOTareusedspecificallyforimages.Theearliestpointtotheprocessofmanufacturegraven,sculptured,moltenimages.Theword
properlymeaningimage,i.e.likeness,isnotearlierthantheendof7thcent.B.C.Fromthattimeonwardsmetaphorisfrequent:imagesarevanity,lies,and
objectsinspiringdisgustorhorror[cf.thenameBeelzebul,whichsomeinterpretas=lordofdung].Sometimessuchtermswouldreplacethoseusedwithout
offenceinearlierdaysthus,inapropernamecompoundedwithbaal(lord),theobjectionablewordwouldbereplacedbybosheth(shame),inobediencetoEx5/62
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offenceinearlierdaysthus,inapropernamecompoundedwithbaal(lord),theobjectionablewordwouldbereplacedbybosheth(shame),inobediencetoEx
23:13etc.
3.Imagesrepresentedanimals(e.g.thegoldencalvesandtheserpentNehushtan)andhumanforms(cf.Ezk16:17f.,Is44:13,Ps115:48,Wis14:15,16,
20).Theephodappearstohavebeensomesortofimage,butwasperhapsoriginallytherobewornbytheimage.
4.Thematerialsusedinidolmanufacturewereclay(Wis15:13,Bel7),wood(Is44:15,Wis
13:13),silverandgold(Hos8:4,Dn3:1).Theymightbepainted(Wis13:14,15:4),dressedup(Jer10:9,Ezk16:18),crownedandarmed(Bar6:9,15).They
werekeptinshrines(Jg17:5,Wis13:15etc.),andsecuredfromtumblingdown(Is41:7,Jer10:4).Refreshments(Is65:11,Jer7:18)andkisses(Hos13:2,1K
19:18)wereofferedtothem,aswellassacrificeandincense.Theyfiguredinprocessions(cf.ancientsculptures,andIs46:7,Jer10:5).Seealsoart.IDOLATRY.
H.F.B.COMPSTON.
IMAGINATION.IntheAVimaginealwaysmeanscontriveandimaginationcontrivance.
Inthecaseofimaginationabadintentionisalwayspresent(exceptIs26:4AVm),asinRo1:21theybecamevainintheirimaginations(RVreasonings)
2Co10:5castingdownimaginationsandeveryhighthingthatexaltethitself(RVmreasonings).TheGreekwordshaveinthesepassagesthesameevil
intentastheAVword,sothattheRVrenderingsarenotsogood.CoverdaletranslatesIs55:7Lettheungodlymanforsakehiswayes,andtheunrightuoushis
ymaginacions,andturneagayneuntotheLORDE.
IMALCUE(1Mac11:39).AnArabprincetowhomAlexanderBalasentrustedhisyouthfulsonAntiochus.AfterthedeathofAlexander,inB.C.145,
ImalcuereluctantlygaveuptheboytoTryphon,whoplacedhimonthethroneofSyriaasAntiochusVI.inoppositiontoDemetriusII.
IMLA(2Ch18:7,8)orIMLAH(1K22:8,9).ThefatherofMicaiah,aprophetofJinthedaysofAhab.
IMMANUEL.ThenameoccursinIs7:14,8:8,Mt1:23,andisaHeb.wordmeaningGodiswithusthespellingEmmanuelcomesfromtheLXX(see
Mt1:23AV,RVm).ItsinterpretationinvolvesadiscussionofIs7,esp.vv.1017.
1.Grammaticaldifficulties.TheRVshouldbeconsultedthroughout.Theexactimplicationofthewordvirginormaiden(RVm)isdoubtful(seeart.
VIRGIN)itissufficientheretosaythatitisnotthewordwhichwouldbenaturallyusedforvirgin,ifthatwasthepointwhichitwasdesiredtoemphasize
(Kirkpatrick,DoctrineoftheProphets,p.187).Thedefinitearticlemayeitherindicatethattheprophethassomeparticularmotherinmind,orbegeneric,
referringtotheclass.Inv.16therenderingsofRVandRVmarebothadmissible,buttheformerismoreprobableinv.16RVshouldbefollowed,AVbeing
quitemisleading.In8:8theremaybenoreferencetoImmanuelatallaveryslightalterationofthevowelpointswouldgivethereadingofthelandfor
Godiswithustherefrainoccursinv.10.
2.Historicalsituation.InB.C.735thekingsofSyriaandEphraimformedanallianceagainstJudah,withtheobjectofsettingTabeel,anomineeoftheir
own,onthethroneofDavid,andforcingtheSouthernKingdomtojoininaconfederacyagainstAssyria.Ahazhadonlylatelycometothethrone,andthe
kingdomwasweakanddemoralized(2K16:6).ThepurposeofIsaiahwastocalmtheterrorofthepeople(Is7:2),andtorestorefaithinJehovah(v.9).Butthe
policyofAhazwastotakethefatalstepofInvokingtheaidofAssyriaitself.Hence,whentheprophetofferedhimasignfromGod,herefusedtoacceptit,for
fearofcommittinghimselftotheprophetspolicyoffaithandindependence.Hecloakedhisrefusalinwordsofapparentpiety.Asignis,however,giventhe
birthofachild,whoshalleatbutterandhoney(i.e.poorpastoralfarecf.v.22)till(?)hecomestoyearsofdiscretion.Beforethattime,i.e.beforeheisfouror
fiveyearsold,SyriaandEphraimshallberuined(v.16).ButAhazandhisownkingdomshallbecomethepreyofAssyria(v.17)therestofthechapter
consistsofpicturesofdesolation.Theinterpretationofthesignisbynomeansclear.Whoisthechildandwhatdoeshisnameimply?Isthesignapromiseora
threat?Itshouldbenoticed,asprobablyanessentialelementintheproblem,thatitisthehouseordynastyofDavidwhichisbeingattacked,andwhichis
referredtothroughoutthechapter(vv.2,13,17).
3.Whoisthechild?(seeDriver,Isaiah,p.40ff.).(a)ThetraditionalinterpretationseesinthepassageadirectprophecyoftheVirginbirthofChrist,and
nothingelse.Inwhatsense,then,wasitasigntoAhaz?Theviewrunscountertothemodernconceptionofprophecy,whichrightlydemandsthatitsprimary
interpretationshallbebroughtintorelationtotheideasandcircumstancesofitsage.TherestofthechapterdoesnotrefertoChrist,buttothetroublesofthe
reignofAhazisitlegitimatetotearhalfadozenwordsfromtheircontext,andapplythemarbitrarilytoaneventhappeninggenerationsafter?(b)Itis
suggestedthatthemaidenisthewifeofAhazandthathersonisHezekiah,thekingofwhomIsaiahrightlyhadsuchhighhopesor(c)thatsheisthe
prophetess,thewifeofIsaiahhimself.Inbothcasesweaskwhythelanguageissoneedlesslyambiguous.Thechronologicaldifficultywouldseemtobefatal
to(b),Hezekiahbeingalmostcertainlyseveralyearsoldin735and(c)makesthesignmerelyaduplicationofthatgivenin8:3.Itbecomesamerenoteoftime
(beforethechildgrowsup,certainthingsshallhavehappened)itleavesunexplainedthesolemnwayinwhichthebirthisannounced,thechoiceofthename,
anditsrepetitionin8:8(iftheusualreadingberetained).Italsoseparatesthispassagefrom9:17,11:19,whichalmostcertainlystandinconnexionwithit.
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anditsrepetitionin8:8(iftheusualreadingberetained).Italsoseparatesthispassagefrom9:17,11:19,whichalmostcertainlystandinconnexionwithit.
Similarobjectionsmaybeurgedagainsttheview(d),whichseesinthemaidenanyJewishmotherofmarriageableage,whoinspiteofallappearancestothe
contrarymaycallherchild,thenabouttobeborn,byanameindicatingtheDivinefavour,intokenofthecomingdeliverance.Thepointofthesignisthenthe
mothersfaithandtheperiodoftimewithinwhichthedeliveranceshallbeaccomplished.(e)Amoreallegoricalversionofthisinterpretationexplainsthe
maidenasZionpersonified,andhersonasthecominggeneration.ButtheinvariablewordforZionandcountriesinsuchpersonificationsisbethulah,not
almah(seeart.VIRGIN).(f)ThereremainstheviewwhichseesinthepassageareferencetoaMessiahinthewideruseoftheterm,asunderstoodbyIsaiahand
hiscontemporaries.ThereprobablyalreadyexistedinJudahtheexpectationofanidealkinganddeliverer,connectedwiththehouseofDavid(2S7:1216).
Nowatthemomentwhenthathouseisattackedanditsrepresentativeproveshimselfunworthy,Isaiahannouncesinoracularlanguagetheimmediatecomingof
thatking.Thereferencein8:8,andthepassagesinchs.9,11,willthenfallintotheirplacesidebysidewiththis.Theyshowthattheprophetsthoughtswereat
thisperioddwellingmuchonthefateandtheworkofthewondrouschild,whowill,infact,beascionofthehouseofDavid(9:7,11:1).Strongsupportis
giventothisviewbyMic5:3(untilthetimewhenshethatbearethhathbroughtforth)whetherthepassagebelongtoMicahhimself,acontemporaryof
Isaiah,orbeoflaterdate,itisclearlyareferencetoIs7,andisofgreatimportanceasanindicationoftheideascurrentatthetime.Withregardtothebeliefsof
thetime,evidencehasbeenlatelybroughtforward(esp.byJeremiasandGressmann)showingthatoutsideIsrael(particularlyinEgyptandBabylonia)there
existedtraditionsandexpectationsofasemidivinesaviourking,tobebornofadivine,perhapsavirgin,mother,andtobewonderfullyreared.Thatistosay,
therewasanalreadyexistingtraditiontowhichtheprophetcouldappeal,andwhichispresupposedbyhiswordsnoteesp.thevirgin.Howmuchthetradition
included,wecannotsaye.g.diditincludethenameImmanuel?Thebutterandhoneyseemstobeapreexistingfeature,representingoriginallytheDivine
nourishmentonwhichthechildisrearedso,accordingtotheGreeklegend,theinfantZeusisfedonmilkandhoneyinthecaveonIda.Butintheprophecy,as
itstands,itseemstobeusedofthehardfarewhichaloneislefttotheinhabitantsofaninvadedland.Wemustindeeddistinguishthroughoutbetweenthe
conceptionsoftheprimitivemyth,andthesenseinwhichtheprophetappliestheseconceptions.Thevalueofthesuppositionthathewasworkingonthelines
ofpopularbeliefsreadytohishand,isthatitexplainshowhishearerswouldbepreparedtounderstandhisoracularlanguage,andsuggeststhatmuchthatis
obscuretousmayhavebeencleartothem.ItconfirmstheviewthattheprophecywasintendedtobeMessianic,i.e.topredictthebirthofamysterioussaviour.
4.Wasthesignfavourableornot?Thetext,asitstands,leavesitveryobscurewhetherIsaiahgaveAhazapromiseorathreat.Thefactthatthekinghad
hardenedhisheartmayhaveturnedthesignwhichshouldhavebeenofgoodomenintosomethingdifferent.Thenameofthechildandv.16speakof
deliverancevv.1517andtherestofthechapter,ofjudgment.ItisperfectlytruethatIsaiahsviewofthefuturewasthatEphraimandSyriashouldbe
destroyed,thatJudahshouldalsosufferfromAssyrianinvasion,butthatsalvationshouldcomethroughthefaithfulremnant.Thedifficultyistoextractthis
sensefromthepassage.Thesimplestmethodistofollowthecriticswhoomitv.16,oratleastthewordswhosetwokingsthouabhorrestthelandwillthen
refernaturallytoJudahifreferring,asitisusuallyunderstood,toSyriaandEphraim,thesingularisverystrange.Theprophecyisthenaconsistent
announcementofjudgment.Immanuelshallbeborn,butowingtotheunbeliefofAhaz,hisfutureismortgagedandheisbornonlytoaruinedkingdom(cf.
8:8)itisnotstatedinthispassagewhetherthehopeimpliedinhisnamewilleverherealized.
Otherswouldomitv.17,andevenv.15,makingthesignapromiseofthefailureofthecoalition.Whateverviewbeadopted,theinconsistenciesofthetext
makeitatleastpossiblethatithassufferedfrominterpolation,andthatwehavenotgottheprophecyinitsoriginalform.Therealproblemisnottoaccountfor
thenameImmanuel,orforthepromiseofasaviourking,buttounderstandwhatpartheplaysintherestofthechapter.Connectedwiththisisthefurther
difficultyofexplainingwhythefigureoftheMessianickingdisappearsalmostentirelyfromIsaiahslaterprophecies.
5.ItsapplicationtotheVirginbirth.ThefulldiscussionofthequotationinMt1:23ispartofthelargersubjectsofMessianicprophecy,theVirginbirth,
andtheIncarnation.Thefollowingpointsmaybenoticedhere.(a)ThoughtheLXX(whichhasparthenosvirgin)andtheAlexandrianJewsapparently
interpretedthepassageinaMessianicsenseandofavirginbirth,thereisnoevidencetoshowthatthisinterpretationwassufficientlyprominentanddefiniteto
explaintheriseofthebeliefinthemiraculousconception.Thetextwasappliedtoillustratethefactorthebeliefinthefactthefactwasnotimaginedtomeet
therequirementsofthetext.TheformulausedinthequotationsuggeststhatitbelongstoaseriesofOTpassagesdrawnupintheprimitiveChurchtoillustrate
thelifeofChrist(seeAllen,St.Matthew,p.lxii.).(b)ThetextwouldnotnowbeusedasaproofoftheIncarnation.Immanueldoesnotinitselfimplythatthe
childwasregardedasGod,butonlythathewastobethepledgeoftheDivinepresence,andendowedinaspecialsensewiththespiritofJehovah(cf.Is11:2).
TheIncarnationfulfilssuchaprophecy,becauseChrististhetruerealizationofthevagueandhalfunderstoodlongingsoftheworld,bothheathenandJewish.
C.W.EMMET.
IMMER.1.Eponymofapriestlyfamily(1Ch9:12,24:14,Ezr2:37,10:20,Neh3:29,7:40,11:18).2.Apriestcontemp.withJeremiah(Jer20:1).3.The
nameofaplace(?)(Ezr2:59=Neh7:61).Thetextisuncertain(cf.1Es5:36).
IMMORTALITY.SeeESCRATOLOGY.
IMNA.AnAsheritechief(1Ch7:35).
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IMNA.AnAsheritechief(1Ch7:35).
IMNAH.1.TheeldestsonofAsher(Nu26:44,1Ch7:30).2.ALeviteinthetimeofHezekiah(2Ch31:14).
IMNITES.PatronymicfromImnah(No.1),Nu26:44.
IMPORTUNITY.TheGreekwordsotranslatedinLk11:8isliterallyshamelessness.ItistranslatedimpudenceinSir25:22.Theseareitsonly
occurrencesintheBible.Itisprobable,however,thatithadlostsomeofitsoriginalforce,andthatimportunityisafairrendering.TheEng.wordsignified
originallydifficultyofaccess(inportus),hencepersistence.Itisnowpracticallyobsolete,andpersistencemighthavebeenintroducedintotheRV.
IMPOTENT.Thisword,nowobsolescentincommonspeech,meansliterallywithoutstrength.Itisusedasthetr.ofGr.wordswhichmeanwithout
power(Bar6:28,Ac14:8)orwithoutstrength(Jn5:3,7,Ac4:9).Whenreligionisatthestake,saysFuller(HolyState,ii.19,p.124),theremustbeno
lookerson(exceptimpotentpeople,whoalsohelpbytheirprayers),andeveryoneisboundtolayhisshoulderstothework.
IMPRISONMENT.SeeCRIMESANDPUNISHMENTS,9.
IMRAH.AnAsheritechief(1Ch7:36).
IMRI.1.AJudahite(1Ch9:4).2.FatherofZaccur,whohelpedtobuildthewall(Neh3:2).
INCANTATIONS.SeeMAGICDIVINATIONANDSORCERY.
INCARNATION.ItisadistinguishingfeatureofChristianitythatitconsistsinfaithinaperson,JesusChrist,andinfaithorselfcommittalofsucha
characterthatfaithinHimisunderstoodtobefaithinGod.ThefactonwhichthewholeoftheChristianreligiondependsisthereforethefactthatJesusChrist
isbothGodandman.Assumingprovisionallythisfacttobetrue,oratleastcredible,thisarticlewillbrieflyexaminethewitnessbornetoitinthehooksofthe
OTandNT.
1.TheIncarnationforeshadowedintheOT.Earlyreligionshaveattemptedtoexplaintwothingstheexistenceandorderoftheuniverse,and
theprinciplesofconductormorality.TheHebrewsattainedatanearlyperiodtoabeliefinGodasthecreatorandsustaineroftheuniverse,buttheirinterest
inmetaphysicdidnotgobeyondthis.ItisintheirmoralideaofGodthatweshallfindanticipationsoftheIncarnation.(a)TheOTconceptionofman.Man
ismadeintheimageofGod(Gn1:26,9:6).Whatevermaybetheexactmeaningofthisexpression,itappearstoimplythatmanhasafreeandrational
personality,andisdestinedforunionwithGod.(b)GodrevealsHimselftoman.AbeliefintheselfmanifestationofGod,throughvisions,dreams,the
ministryofangels,thespiritofprophecy,andinthepossibilityofpersonalconversebetweenGodandman,isapparentuponeverypageoftheOT.The
theophaniesfurthersuggestthepossibilityoftheappearanceofGodinahumanform.Itisalsoremarkablethat,althoughthesenseoftheholinessand
transcendencyofGodgrewwithtime,theJewsinthelaterperiodsdidnotshrinkfromstronglyanthropomorphicexpressions.(c)Intimationsof
relationshipsintheDeity.WithoutundulypressingsuchparticularpointsasthepluralformofElohim(God),orthetriplerepetitionoftheDivinename(Is
6:3,Nu6:23),itmayatleastbesaidthattheideaofGodinJewishmonotheismisnotabareunit,andcanonlybeapprehendedasthatwhichinvolves
diversityaswellasunity.Moreover,thedoctrineoftheDivineWisdomassetforthintheBooksofProverbsandWisdom(Pr8:22,Wis7:2325,8:1etc.)
personifiesWisdomalmosttothepointofascribingtoitseparateexistence.ThedoctrinewascarriedfurtherbyPhilo,withassistancefromGreekthought,
andpreparedthewayforSt.JohnsconceptionoftheLogos,theWordofGod.(d)TheMessianichope.Thiswasatitsrootananticipationoftheunionof
Divineandhumanattributesinasinglepersonality(seeMESSIAH).Itdevelopedalongseveraldistinctlinesofthoughtandexpectation,anditwillbenoted
thatthesearenotcombinedintheOTbutChristianityclaimstosupplytheexplanationandfulfilmentofthemall.
2.ThefactoftheIncarnationintheNT
(a)ThehumanityofChrist.ItisbeyonddisputethatChristisrepresentedintheNTasaman.Hewasborn,indeed,undermiraculousconditions,butofa
humanmother.Hegrewupwithgraduallydevelopingpowers(Lk2:52).ThepeopleamongwhomHelivedforthirtyyearsdonotappeartohaverecognized
anythingextraordinaryinHim(Mt13:55).DuringtheperiodofHislifeaboutwhichdetailedinformationhasbeenrecorded,wereadofordinaryphysicaland
moralcharacteristics.Hesufferedweariness(Mk4:38,Jn4:6),hunger(Mt4:2),thirst(Jn19:28)hediedandwasburied.Hefeltevenstrongemotions:wonder
(Mk6:6,Lk7:9),compassion(Mk8:2,Lk7:13),joy(Lk10:21),anger(Mk8:12,10:14)Hewasdeeplymoved(Jn11:33,Mk14:33).Heacquiredinformation
intheordinaryway(Mk6:38,9:21,Jn11:34).Hewastempted(Mt4:111,Lk22:28).Anditmaybefurtherassertedwiththeutmostconfidence,thatneitherin
theGospelsnorinanyotherpartoftheNTistherethesmallestsupportforaDoceticexplanationofthesefacts(thatis,forthetheorythatHeonlyseemedto
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theGospelsnorinanyotherpartoftheNTistherethesmallestsupportforaDoceticexplanationofthesefacts(thatis,forthetheorythatHeonlyseemedto
undergotheexperiencesnarrated).(b)TheDivinityofChrist.SidebysidewiththispictureofperfecthumanitythereisaneverpresentbeliefthroughalltheNT
writingsthatChristwasmorethanaman.FromtheevidentialpointofviewthemostimportantandunquestionabletestimonytotheearlybeliefofHisdisciples
iscontainedinSt.PaulsEpistles,especiallythosetotheRomans,Galatians,andCorinthians,whichareamongtheearliestbooksoftheNT,andofthemost
undisputedgenuineness.IntheseEpistleswefindJesusChristcoordinatedwithGodinthenecessarilyDivinefunctions,inamannerimpossibletothemind
ofaJewishmonotheistlikeSt.Paul,unlessthecoordinatedpersonisreallybelievedtobelongtotheproperlyDivinebeing.IntheGospelswehavean
accountofhowthisbeliefarose.TheSynopticGospelssupplyasimplenarrativeoffactinwhichwecanmarkthegrowingbeliefofthedisciplesandthe
FourthGospeldefinitelymarksstagesoffaithonthepartofChristsadherents,andofhatredonthepartofHisenemies.Thefollowingpointsmaybespecially
notedintheGospels:
(1)ExtraordinarycharacteristicsareconstantlyascribedtoChrist,notinthemselvesnecessarilyDivine,butcertainlysuchastodistinguishChristina
markeddegreefromothermen.Thereisapersonalinfluenceofaveryremarkablekind.Thisisnaturallynotdescribedordweltupon,buteverypageofthe
Gospelstestifiestoitsexistence.TheearliestrecordofChristslifeispreeminentlymiraculous.Inspiteofeconomyandrestraintofpower,mightyworksare
representedashavingbeenthenatural,sometimesthealmostinvoluntary,accompanimentsofHisministrations.Twospecialmiracles,theResurrectionandthe
Virginbirth,arenoticedseparatelybelow.Hespokewithauthority(Mk7:29).HeclaimedtofulfiltheLawalawrecognizedasDivinetobeLordofthe
Sabbath,andtogiveanewlawtoHisdisciples.InallHisteachingthereisanimplicitclaimtoinfallibility.InspiteofHisbeingsubjecttotemptation,the
possibilityofmoralfailureisneverentertained.ThereisnothingthatmarksChristofffromothermenmorethanthis.Inallothergoodmenthesenseofsin
becomesmoreacutewithincreasingholiness.InChristitdidnotexist.ThetitleofSonofManwhichHehabituallyusedmayhavemoremeaningsthanone.
Butcomparingthedifferentconnexionsinwhichitisused,wecanhardlyescapetheconclusionthatChristidentifiesHimselfwiththeconsummationand
perfectionofhumanity.
(2)HeclaimedtobetheMessiah,summingupandunitingthedifferentlinesofexpectationalludedtoabove.Ashasbeenpointedout,theMessianichope
includedfeaturesbothhumanandDivineandalthoughthiswasnotrecognizedbeforehand,itappearstous,lookingback,thattheseexpectationscouldnot
havebeenadequatelysatisfiedexceptbytheIncarnation.
(3)Ofsomeofthethingsmentionedaboveitmightbeasufficientexplanationtosay,thatChristwasamanendowedwithexceptionalpowersandgraces
byGod,andapprovedbymightywondersandsigns.ButevenintheSynopticGospels,whichareforthemostpartpurenarrative,thereismorethanthis.Inthe
claimtoforgivesins(Mt9:26),tojudgetheworld(Mk14:62,63),torevealthewilloftheFather(Mt11:27),inHiscommissiontotheChurch(Mt28:1820,
Mk16:1518,Lk24:4448),andaboveall,perhaps,intheclaimofpersonaladhesionwhichHeevermadeonHisdisciples,HeassumesarelationshiptoGod
whichwouldnotbepossibletoonewhowasnotconsciousofbeingmorethanman.
(4)InthediscoursesintheFourthGospel,ChristplainlyassertsHisownpreexistenceandHisownessentialrelationtotheFather.Ifthesediscourses
representeventhesubstanceofasideofChriststeaching(apointwhichmustbeassumedandnotarguedhere),HeexplicitlyborewitnesstoHiseternal
relationtotheFather.
(5)WhatcrownedthefaithofthediscipleswasthefactoftheResurrection.Theirabsolutebeliefintherealityofthisfactsweptawayalldoubtsand
misgivings.Atfirst,nodoubt,theyweresomuchabsorbedinthefactitselfthattheydidnotatoncereasonoutallthatitmeanttotheirbeliefsandinteaching
theyhadtoadapttheirmessagetothecapacitiesoftheirhearersbuttherecanbenoquestionabouttheplacewhichthebeliefintheResurrectiontookin
determiningtheircreed(seeJESUSCHRIST,p.458a ).
(6)OnemiraclerecordedintheGospels,theVirginbirth,naturallydidnotformpartofthefirstcycleofApostolicteaching.TheApostlesborewitnessto
theirownexperienceandtothegrowthoftheirownfaith,andtheyknewJesusChristfirstasaman.Apartfromtheevidenceforthefact,ithasseemedtomost
ChristiansinallagesthattheideaofanewcreativeactisnaturallyassociatedwiththeoccurrenceoftheIncarnation.
3.PurposeandresultsoftheIncarnation
(a)Consummationoftheuniverseandofhumanity.St.Paul(Eph1:10)speaksofthepurposeofGodtosumupallthingsinChrist,thethingsinthe
heavensandthethingsupontheearth(cf.He2:10).ThisisaviewwhichisnotoftenexplicitlydweltuponintheScriptures,buttheideaappearstopervadethe
NT,anditisconspicuousinEph.,Col.,andHebrews.Christisrepresentedasfulfillingthepurposeofhumanityandthereforeoftheuniverse,asbeingitsfirst
andfinalcause,forwhomareallthings,andthroughwhomareallthings.Itishardlynecessarytopointoutthatthemodernteachingofevolution,ifnot
anticipatedbyChristianity,atleastadaptsitselfsingularlywelltotheexpressionofthisaspectofit.
(b)SupremerevelationofGod.ChristianshavealwaysbelievedthateventhematerialuniversewasdestinedultimatelytorevealGod,andSt.Paulappeals
totheprocessesofnatureasbeinganindicationnotonlyofthecreativepower,butalsoofthebenevolenceofGod(Ac14:17,cf.Ro1:20).TheOTisthe
historyofaprogressiverevelationwhichisalwayslookingforwardtomoreperfectillumination,andthewholehistoryofmanis,accordingtotheNT,the
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historyofaprogressiverevelationwhichisalwayslookingforwardtomoreperfectillumination,andthewholehistoryofmanis,accordingtotheNT,the
historyofgradualenlightenmentculminatingintheIncarnation(He1:2,Jn14:9,Col1:14).
(c)Restorationofman.IthasbeenacommonsubjectofspeculationintheChurchwhethertheIncarnationwouldhavetakenplaceifmanhadnotsinned,
anditmustberecognizedthattosuchaquestionnodecisiveanswercanbegiven.AsafacttheIncarnationwasconditionedbytheexistenceofmanssin,and
therestorationofmanisconstantlyputforwardasitspurpose.Threespecialaspectsofthisworkofrestorationmaybenoticed.(1)Christoffersanexampleof
perfectandsinlesshumanity:HeistheuniqueexampleofmanasGodintendedhimtobe.TheidealofthehumanracebecomesactualinHim.Hislifewasone
ofperfectobediencetothewillofGod(Mt17:5,Lk3:22,Jn8:29).(2)HeremovedthebarrierswhichsinhadplacedbetweenmanandhisCreator.Thisworkis
invariablyassociatedintheNTwithHisdeathandresurrection.Itisdescribedasanoffering,asacrifice,ofHimself(He9:26),whichtakesawaythesinofthe
world(Jn1:29).ManymetaphorsareusedintheNTtodescribetheeffectofHisdeathandresurrection,suchasredemption,whichconveystheideaofa
deliveranceatagreatcostfromslaverypropitiation,oranactorprocessbywhichsinisneutralizedsalvation,orbringingintoaconditionofhealthorsafety
reconciliationwithGod,andremissionofsin(seeATONEMENT).(3)ThesetwopartsofChristsworkformanwereaccomplishedbyHisearthlylife,death,and
resurrection.ButtheydonotcompriseallthattheIncarnationhasdonefortherestorationofman.ThecompletionofHisworkChristlefttoHisChurch,the
societywhichHefounded,andinwhichHepromisedthatHewoulddwellthroughtheHolySpirit.TheChurch,St.Paulsays,isHisbody,livingbyHislifeand
theinstrumentofHiswork.ThustheKingdomofGodwhichChristbroughttotheearth,andwhichHeconstantlyspeaksofbothasbeingalreadycomeandas
stilltocome,isvisiblyrepresentedinHisChurch,whichistheKingdomofheaveninsofarasithasalreadycome,andpreparesfortheKingdomasitisto
comeinglory.
4.RelationoftheNTdoctrinetothatoftheCouncils.IthasbeenseenabovethatthedisciplesknewourLordfirstasaman,andthattheyadvancedby
degreestoabeliefinHisDivinity.MeneducatedinJewishhabitsofthoughtwouldnotreadilyapprehendinallitsbearingstheChristianideaofaPersonwho
couldbebothGodandman.ItisthereforenotsurprisingthatthereshouldbeintheNTadiversityoftreatmentwithregardtothequestionofthePersonof
Christ,andthatitshouldhepossibletorecognizewhatmaybecalleddifferentlevelsofChristologicalbelief.BeforeourLordsdeaththediscipleshad
recognizedHimastheMessiah,thoughwithstillveryinadequateideasastothenatureoftheMessianicKingdomwhichHewastosetup.TheResurrection
transformedthisfaith,anditnaturallybecamethecentralpointoftheirearlyteaching.TheconceptionofChristprominentintheearliestApostolicage,and
emphasizedinthefirstpartoftheActsandintheEpistlesof1Peter,James,andJude,regardsHimprimarilyastheMessiah,thegloryofwhosePersonand
missionhasbeenprovedbytheResurrection,whohasbeenexaltedtoGodsrighthand,andwhowillbejudgeofquickanddead.St.PaulinhisearlierEpistles
regardsChristsPersonmorefromthepointofviewofpersonalreligion,asOnewhohasbridgedoverthegulfwhichsinhascausedbetweenGodandman,and
inwhommansdesireforreconciliationwithGodfindssatisfaction.St.PaulslaterEpistles,aswellastheEp.totheHebrewsandSt.JohnsGospel,dealwith
thecosmologicalandmysticalaspectsoftheIncarnation,andcontainthemostdefinitestatementsoftheDivinityofChrist.
IthasbeenfurthermaintainedthatthedefinitionsofthedoctrinemadebythegreatCouncilsandembodiedintheCreedsshowanadvanceuponthedoctrinecontainedin
theNT.Thiswasnot,however,theviewofthosewhodrewupthedefinitions,fortheyinvariablyappealedtotheNTwritingsasconclusive,andbelievedthemselvestobe
onlyformulatingbeliefswhichhadalwaysbeenheldbytheChurch.Thelanguageofthedefinitionswasundoubtedlytosomeextentnew,butithasneverbeenshownthat
thesubstanceofthedoctrineexpressedbytheminanyrespectgoesbeyondwhathasbeenrepresentedaboveastheteachingoftheNT.IftheNTwritersreallybelieved,as
hasbeenmaintainedabove,thatChristwasaPersonwhowasperfectlyhumanandwhowasalsoDivine,thereisnothinginthedogmaticdecreesofthe4thand5th
centurieswhichassertsmorethanthis.Whatthesedefinitionsdoistonegativeexplanationswhichareinconsistentwiththesefundamentalbeliefs.Itisnotsurprisingthat
menfounditdifficulttograsptheperfectDivinityaswellastheperfecthumanityofChrist,andthatattemptsshouldhavebeenmadetoexplainawayonesideorotherof
thedoctrineoftheIncarnation.Theattemptwhichmetwiththewidestsuccess,andmostthreatenedthedoctrineoftheChurch,wasthatofArius,whotaughtthattheSonof
Godwasacreatedbeing,asortofdemigod.Thisteachingfoundreadysupportandsympathyamongmenwhohadnotshakenoffpaganhabitsofthought,andinopposingit
theChurchwascontendingforatrueTheism,whichcannotendurethemultiplicationofobjectsofworship,nolessthanforChristianity.Butalthoughawordwasusedinthe
definitionfinallyaccepted,thecelebratedhomoousionofonesubstancewiththeFatherwhichwasnotusedbyanyNTwriter,itwasusedunwillingly,andonly
becauseotherattemptstoassertbeyondthepossibilityofcavilthetrueDivinityofChristhadfailed.Again,whentheDivinityofChristwasfullyaccepted,thedifficultyof
believingthesamePersontobebothGodandmanledtoattemptstoexplainawaytheperfecthumanity.ApollinaristaughtthattheWordofGodtooktheplaceofthehuman
mindorspiritinChrist,asatalaterperiodtheMonothelitesheldthatHehadnohumanwillNestoriuspracticallydeniedanIncarnation,byholdingthattheSonofGodand
JesusChristweretwoseparatepersons,thoughunitedinasingulardegreeEutychestaughtthatthemanhoodinChristwasmergedintheGodheadsoastoloseitsproper
anddistinctnature.TheseexplanationscontradictedinvariouswaystheplainteachingoftheGospelsthatChristwasatrulyhumanPerson,andtheywerealldecisively
negativedbytheChurchinlanguagewhichnodoubtshowsadistinctadvanceintheologicalthought,butwithoutaddinganythingtothesubstanceoftheApostolicdoctrine.
J.H.MAUDE.
INCENSE.(1)lebnh,whichshouldalwaysbetr.frankincense(wh.see).Itwasburntwiththemeatoffering(Lv2:1,2,15,16,6:15etc.),andoffered10/62
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INCENSE.(1)lebnh,whichshouldalwaysbetr.frankincense(wh.see).Itwasburntwiththemeatoffering(Lv2:1,2,15,16,6:15etc.),andoffered
withtheshewbread(Lv24:79).(2)qetreth,lit.smoke,andsousedinIs1:13,Ps66:15,141:2usedforadefinitesubstance,Lv10:1,Ezk8:11etc.(3)
thumiama(Gr.),Lk1:10,Rev5:8,8:3,18:13.Theholyincense(Ex30:34)wasmadeofstacte,onycha,galbanum,andfrankincense,buttheincenseoflater
times,whichwasoffereddaily(Jth9:1,Lk1:810),wasmorecomplicated.AccordingtoJosephus,ithadthirteenconstituents(BJV.v.5).Incensewas
originallyburnedincensers,butthesewerelatterlyusedonlytocarrycoalsfromthegreataltartothealtarofincense.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.INCENSE,ALTAROF.SEETABERNACLE,6(C),AND
TEMPLE,4.
INCEST.SeeCRIMESANDPUNISHMENTS,3.
INDIA(Heb.Hdd)isnamedastheE.boundaryoftheempireofAhasuerus(Est1:1,8:9).TheHeb.iscontractedfromHondu,thenameoftheriver
Indus.Itindicatedthecountrythroughwhichthatriverflows:notthegreatpeninsulaofHindustan.Soalsoin1Mac8:8,Ad.Est13:1,14:1,1Es3:2.Possibly
thedriversoftheelephants(1Mac6:37)weretrueIndians.IfIndiaproperisnotnamed,thereislittledoubtthatfromancienttimesIsraelhadrelationswiththe
country,bymeansofthecaravantradethroughArabia.ManyofthearticlesofcommerceintheaccountgivenofthistradeareofIndianorigin:e.g.ivoryand
ebony,cassiaandcalamus,broideredwork,andrichapparel(Ezk27:15,19,24).
W.EWING.
INDITE.ThisEng.verbisnowsomewhatoldfashioned.Whenitisused,itmeanstowrite.Butformerly,andasfoundinAV,itmeanttoinspireor
dictatetothewriter.ThusSt.PaulinditedandTertiuswrote(Ro16:22).ThewordoccursinthePrefacetotheAVandinPs45:1Myheartisinditingagood
matter.IntheDouaiversion(thoughthiswordisnotused)thereisanote:Ihavereceivedbydivineinspirationinmyhartandcogitationamosthigh
Mysterie.
INFIDEL.Thiswordhasmoreforcenowthanformerly.InAVitsignifiesnomorethanunbeliever.Itoccursin2Co6:15,1Ti5:8(RVunbelieverin
both).Soinfidelityin2Es7:44issimplyunbelief(Lat.incredulitas).
INGATHERING.SeeTABERNACLES[FEASTOF].
INHERITANCE.ItisaremarkablefactthattheHebrewlanguagefailstodiscriminatebetweentheinheritanceofpropertyanditspossessionor
acquisitioninanyothermanner.Thetwowordsmostconstantlyusedinthisconnexiondenotetheideaofsettledpossession,butarequiteindeterminateasto
themannerinwhichthatpossessionhasbeenacquired.Asmighteasilybeinferred,fromthehistoricalcircumstancesofIsraelsevolution,thewordsbecame
largelyrestrictedtotheholdingofland,obviouslythemostimportantofallkindsofpropertyamongapastoraloragriculturalpeople.
i.INHERITANCEINLAWANDCUSTOM
1.Property.Whilelandwasthemostimportantpartofaninheritance,therulesforsuccessionshowthatitwasregardedasbelongingproperlytothe
familyorelan,andtotheindividualheironlyasrepresentingfamilyortribalrights.Cattle,householdgoods,andslaveswouldbemorepersonalpossessions,
whichamancoulddivideamonghissons(Dt21:16).Originallywives,too,aspartofthepropertyofthedeceased,wouldfalltothepossessionoftheheirin
chief(cf.2S16:2023,1K2:13ff.).
2.Heirs.(a)Thefirstbornson,asthenewheadofthefamily,responsibleforprovidingfortherest,inheritedthelandandhadalsohisclaimtoadouble
portionofotherkindsofwealth(Dt21:17).Tobethesonofaconcubineorinferiorwifewasnotabartoheirship(Gn21:10,1Ch5:1)thoughajealouswife
mightprevailonherhusbandtodeprivesuchasonoftherightofsuccession(Gn21:10).Thatafatherhadpowertotransferthebirthrightfromthefirstbornto
anotherisimpliedinthecasesofIshmaelandIsaac(Gn21:10),EsauandJacob(27:37),ReubenandJoseph(1Ch5:1),AdonijahandSolomon(1K1:11ff.).
Butthiswascontrarytosocialusage,andisprohibitedinDt21:1517.Moreover,theexceptionstotherulearepresentedasexamplesofaDivineelection
ratherthanahumanpreference(Isaac,Gn21:12Jacob,Mal1:23,Ro9:13Joseph,Gn49:24ff.Solomon,1Ch22:9,10),andcanhardlybeadducedas
survivalsoftheancientcustomofJuniorRight.(b)Atfirstadaughtercouldnotsucceed(theinheritanceofthedaughtersofJob[Job42:15]isnotedas
exceptional)anarrangementthathasbeenreferredeithertotheinfluenceofancestorworship,inwhichamaleheirwasnecessaryaspriestofthefamilycult,
ortotheconnexionbetweeninheritanceandthedutyofbloodrevenge.Forunmarrieddaughters,however,husbandswouldalmostinvariablybefound.Inthe
caseofthedaughtersofZelophehad(Nu27:111)weseetheintroductionofachangebutitistobenotedthatthisverycaseisassociatedwiththeprovision
(Nu36:112)thatheiressesshouldmarryonlywithintheirfatherstribe,sothattheinheritancemightnotbealienatedfromit.(c)Forthewidownoimmediate
placewasfoundinthesuccession.Sofarfrombeingeligibleasanheir,shewasstrictlyapartofthepropertybelongingtotheinheritance.Accordingtothe 11/62
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placewasfoundinthesuccession.Sofarfrombeingeligibleasanheir,shewasstrictlyapartofthepropertybelongingtotheinheritance.Accordingtothe
leviratelaw,however,whenamandiedleavingnoson,hisbrotherorothernextofkin(gol)mustmarrythewidow,andherfirstbornsonbythismarriage
becametheheirofherprevioushusband(Dt25:6).(d)FortheorderofsuccessiontheruleislaiddowninNu27:811thatifamandiewithoutmaleissuethe
rightofinheritanceshallfallsuccessivelytohisdaughter,hisbrothers,hisfathersbrothers,hisnextkinsmanthereafter.Theprovisionforthedaughterwasan
innovation,asthecontextshows,buttherestoftheruleisinharmonywiththeancientlawsofkinship.
ii.NATIONALANDRELIGIOUSINHERITANCE.1.ThepossessionofthelandofCanaanwas
commonlyregardedastheinheritanceofthewholepeople.Inthisparticularcasetheinheritancewaswononlyastheresultofconflictandeffortmoreover,
theoreticallyatanyrate,itinvolvedtheannihilationofthepreviousinhabitants.ConsequentlytheinheritanceofCanaanwasnotentirelydevoidoftheideaof
succession.ButtheexterminationoftheCanaaniteswasnevereffectedandalthoughtheconquestwasachievedonlybythemoststrenuouseffort,yetthe
IsraelitesweresostronglyimpressedwithavividsenseofJehovahsinterventionontheirbehalf,thattosubsequentgenerationsitseemedasiftheyhadentered
intothelaboursofothers,notinanysensewhateverbytheirownpower,butsolelybyJehovahsgrace.TheinheritanceofCanaansignifiedthesecure
possessionoftheland,asthegiftofGodtoHispeople.ThedominantBiblicalsenseofinheritanceistheenjoymentbyarightfultitleofthatwhichisnotthe
fruitofpersonalexertion(Westcott,Heb.
168).
2.Itisnotsurprisingthattheideaofinheritancesoonacquiredreligiousassociations.TheHebrewmindinvestedallsocialandpoliticalinstitutionswitha
religioussignificance.AsIsraelbecameincreasinglyconsciousofitsmissionin,andbegandimlytoapprehenditsmissionto,theworld,thepeacefuland
securepossessionofCanaanseemedanindispensableconditionofthatselfdevelopmentwhichwasitselfthenecessarypreludetoamoreuniversalmission.The
threateningattitudeofthegreatworldpowersintheeighthandsubsequentcenturiesB.C.broughtthequestionprominentlytothefront.Overandoveragainit
seemedasifJerusalemmustsuccumbtothehordesofbarbarianinvaders,andasifthelastremnantofCanaanmustbeirretrievablylostbuttheprophets
persistentlydeclaredthatthelandshouldnotbelosttheyrealizedtheimpossibilityofIsraelseverrealizinghertruevocation,unless,atanyrateforsome
centuries,shepreservedhernationalindependenceandthelatterwould,ofcourse,bewhollyunthinkablewithoutterritorialsecurity.ThecareerofIsrael,asa
nation,theinfluence,eventheexistence,ofitsreligion,wouldheendangeredbythedispossessionofCanaanmoreover,itwasrecognizedthataslongasthe
peopleremainedtruetoJehovah,HeonHispartwouldremaintruetothem,andwouldnotsufferthemtobedispossessed,butwouldmakethemdwellsecurely
intheirownland,inorderthattheymightestablishontheirsidethoseconditionsofrighteousnessandjusticewhichrepresentedthenationalobligations,if
Jehovahscovenantwiththemwastobemaintained.
3.Thepossessionoftheland,theinheritanceofCanaan,symbolizedthepeopleslivingincovenantwiththeirGod,andallthosespiritualblessingswhich
flowedfromsuchacovenant.AndinasmuchasthevalidityofthecovenantimpliedthecontinuanceofDivinefavour,theinheritanceoftheHolyLandwas
viewedastheoutwardandvisiblesignofGodspresenceandpoweramongHisown.Weknowhowtheremorselesslogicofhistoryseemedtopointtoan
oppositeconclusion.TheExilespeltdisinheritanceanddisinheritancemeantagreatdealmorethanthelossofalittlestripofterritoryitmeanttheforfeitureof
spiritualblessingsasaconsequenceofnationalsin.Themoreardentspiritsofthenationrefused,however,tobelievethatthesehighprivilegeswere
permanentlyabrogatedtheywereonlytemporarilywithdrawnandtheylookedforwardtoanewcovenantwhosespiritualefficacyshouldbeguaranteedby
nationalrestoration.Inthereconstitutedtheocracy,theMessiahfiguredasthemediatorbothoftemporalandofspiritualblessings.Theideaofarestored
inheritancesuggestedatoncethegloriousanticipationsoftheMessianicage,whenthepeople,notbyworkswhichtheyhaddone,butbyJehovahsgrace,
shouldrecoverthatwhichtheyhadlostandrenewthecovenantthathadbeenbroken.
4.InthissensetheinheritancebecamealmostequivalenttotheMessianicsalvationandparticipationinthissalvationisnotafutureprivilege,buta
presentpossession.IntheOTthesecureinheritanceoftheHolyLandwastheoutwardsymbolofthesespiritualblessingsundertheNewDispensationtheyare
assuredbymembershipintheChristianbody.
5.AseveryJewregardedhimselfasaninheritorofthelandofCanaan,soalsoiseachChristiananinheritoroftheKingdomofheaven.Heisnottheheir,
inthesenseofenjoyinganhonorarydistinction,orofanticipatingfutureprivilegesbutasonewhoisalreadyinapositionofassuredprivilege,conferredupon
himwithabsolutevalidity.AsLightfootremarks,OurFatherneverdiestheinheritanceneverpassesawayfromHimyetneverthelesswesucceedtothefull
possessionofit(Galatians8165).
6.Threeparticularusagesremaintobenoticed.(a)TheJewsneverlosttheconvictionthat
Jehovahwasthesupremeoverlordoftheland,andofthepeoplethatdweltinit.AccordinglyCanaanistheHolyLand,andJehovahsowninheritanceand
MessiahwhenincarnatecametoHisowncountry,andHisownpeoplereceivedHimnot.(b)TheJewsalsorecognizedthatthepossessionofCanaanhad
valueonlyinsofarasitassuredthemofthefreeexerciseoftheirreligion,andallotherspiritualblessings.Thistheystrovetoexpressbyboldlydeclaringthat
JehovahwasHimselftheinheritanceofHispeople.(c)TheMessiah,throughwhomthedisinheritanceshouldbebroughttoaclose,andthecovenantshouldbe
renewed,wasnaturallyregardedasthesupremeinheritororheirofallthepromisesandprivilegesimpliedinthecovenant.As,moreover,theMessiahs
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renewed,wasnaturallyregardedasthesupremeinheritororheirofallthepromisesandprivilegesimpliedinthecovenant.As,moreover,theMessiahs
uniquerelationtotheFatherbecamemoreclearlydefined,theideaofHisinheritance,connotingHisuniqueprimogenitureanduniversalsupremacy,became
enlargedandexpanded.Itwas,moreover,throughthehumanitywhichHerestoredthattheSonprovedandrealizedHisheirshipofallthingsandthusHis
actualpositionisthepotentialexaltationofredeemedmankind.
J.C.LAMBERTandERNESTA.EDGHILL.
INIQUITY.SeeSIN.
INJURIOUS.InthelanguageoftheAVinjuriousismorethanhurtfulitisalsoinsulting.Itaddsinsulttoinjury.ItoccursSir8:11,1Ti1:13andthe
Gr.wordusedintheseplacesisinRo1:30translateddespiteful(RVinsolent).
INKismentionedonceinOT(Jer36:18).Ex32:33andNu5:23areadducedasevidencethattheoldHebrewink(derivedfromlampblack[?])couldhe
washedoff.Fromthebrightcoloursthatstillsurviveinsomepapyri,itisevidentthattheinkusedbytheEgyptiansmusthavebeenofasuperiorkind.TheNT
termforink,occurringthreetimes(2Co3:3,2Jn12,3Jn13),ismelan(lit.black).See,further,underWRITING.
INKHORN.InoneofEzekielsvisions(Ezk9:2,3,11)amanappearswithascribesinkhornbyhisside(lit.uponhisloins).Theinkhornconsistedof
acaseforthereedpens,withacuporbulbforholdingtheink,neartheupperendofthecase.Itwascarriedinthegirdle(hencetheaboveexpression).
INN.SeeHOSPITALITY.
INNERMAN.TheimpliedcontrastinvolvedinthisexpressionmayberegardedasexclusivelyPauline.Theantithesisbetweentheadorningofthe
visiblebody,andtheincorruptible(ornament)ofameekandquietspirit,thehiddenmanoftheheart(1P3:3f.)isanexampleofthePaulinismwhich
pervadesthisencyclicalletter(seeMoffatt,HistoricalNT2,p.250).Thecontrast,sovividlyportrayedinRo7:22f.,isessentiallyethicalinitscharacter.Itis
betweenthelawwhichpassionblindlyfollows,andthattowhichthemindortheinformedconscienceyieldsadelightedbecauseareasonedobedience(cf.
SandayHeadlam,Romans,inloc.).Differentfromthisisthecontrastin2Co4:16,whereouroutwardman,decayinganddying,standsoveragainstour
inwardman,whichisinaconstantstateofrenewal.Herewehavetheantithesisofthetemporalandtheeternalelementsinmanscomplexpersonality(v.
18).ThisphraseisfoundinanabsolutesenseinEph3:16,whereitdenotestheentirebasisofmanshigherlife,onwhichGodsSpiritworks,andinwhich
Christdwells.TheintellectualandmoralapprehensionofthefruitsoftheIncarnationdepend,firstandlast,uponwhethertheinwardmanhasitsrootsstruck
deepinthatDivinelovewhichisthefirstcauseofmansredemption(v.17ff.cf.Jn3:16).
J.R.WILLIS.
INSPIRATION.ThesubjectcomprisesthedoctrineofinspirationintheBible,andthedoctrineoftheinspirationoftheBible,togetherwithwhatforms
thetransitionfromtheonetotheother,theaccountgivenofthepropheticconsciousness,andtheteachingoftheNTabouttheOT.1.Theagentofinspirationis
theHolySpirit(seep.360)orSpiritofGod,whoisactiveinCreation(Gn1:2,Ps104:30),isimpartedtomanthatthedustmaybecomelivingsoul(Gn2:7),is
thesourceofexceptionalpowersofbody(Jg6:34,14:6,19)orskill(Ex35:31)butispreeminentlymanifestinprophecy(wh.see).TheNTdoctrineofthe
presenceandpoweroftheSpiritofGodintherenewedlifeofthebelieverisanticipatedintheOT,inasmuchastotheSpiritsoperationsareattributedwisdom
(Job32:8,1K3:28,Dt34:9),courage(Jg13:25,14:6),penitence,moralstrength,andpurity(Neh9:20,Ps51:11,Is63:10,Ezk36:26,Zec12:10).Thepromise
oftheSpiritbyChristtoHisdiscipleswasfulfilledwhenHeHimselfaftertheResurrectionbreathedonthem,andsaid,ReceiveyetheHolyGhost(Jn20:22),
andafterHisAscensiontheSpiritdescendedontheChurchwiththeoutwardsignsofthewindandfire(Ac2:2,3).TheChristianlifeassuchisaninspiredlife,
buttheoperationoftheSpiritisrepresentedintheNTintwoformstherearetheextraordinarygifts(charisms)speakingwithtongues,interpretingtongues,
prophecy,miracles(1Co12),allofwhichSt.Paulsubordinatestofaith,hope,love(ch.13)andtherearethefruitsoftheSpiritinmoralcharacterand
religiousdisposition(Gal5:22,23).IntermediatemayberegardedthegiftsforspecialfunctionsintheChurch,asteaching,governing,exhorting(Ro12:7,8).
Thepropheticinspirationiscontinued(Ro12:6)butsuperioristheApostolic(1Co12:28)
(seeAPOSTLES).
2.ThedoctrineoftheinspirationoftheNTattachesitselftothepromiseofChristtoHisdisciplesthattheHolySpiritwhomtheFatherwouldsendinHis
nameshouldteachthemallthings,andbringtotheirremembranceallthingsthatHehadsaidtothem(Jn14:26)andthat,whentheSpiritoftruthhadcome,
Heshouldguidethemintoallthetruth,andshoulddeclaretothemthethingsthatweretocome(16:13).ThesepromisescoverthecontentsofGospels,Epistles,
andtheApocalypse.TheinspirationofChristsownwordsisaffirmedinHisclaimtobealoneinknowingandrevealingtheFather(Mt11:27),andHis
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andtheApocalypse.TheinspirationofChristsownwordsisaffirmedinHisclaimtobealoneinknowingandrevealingtheFather(Mt11:27),andHis
repeateddeclarationofHisdependenceinHisdoctrineontheFather.
3.ChristrecognizestheinspirationoftheOT(Mt22:43),andtheauthorityoftheprophets(Lk24:25).ThewordinspireisusedonlyinWis15:11
Becausehewasignorantofhimthatmouldedhim,andofhimthatinspiredintohimanactivesoul,andbreathedintohimavitalspirit.Thewordinspiration
isusedinthisgeneralsenseinJob32:8AVButthereisaspiritinmanandtheinspiration(RVbreath)oftheAlmightygiveththemunderstanding.In
specialreferencetotheOTwefindin2Ti3:16(RV)everyscriptureinspiredofGodisalsoprofitableforteaching,etc.Whilethetermisnotused,thefactis
recognizedin2P1:21FornoprophecyevercamebythewillofmanbutmenspakefromGod,beingmovedbytheHolyGhost.Itmustbeadded,however,
thatboththesepassagesareinwritingstheApostolicauthorshipofwhichisquestionedbymanyscholars.ButtheNTviewoftheauthorityoftheOTisfully
attestedintheusemadeoftheOTastrustworthyhistory,truedoctrine,andsureprophecyandyettheinaccuracyofmanyofthequotations,aswellastheuse
oftheGreektranslation,showsthatthewriters,whethertheyheldatheoryofverbalinspirationornot,werenotboundbyit.
4.AlthoughthedoctrineoftheinspirationoftheBibledoesnotproperlyfallwithinthescopeofaBibleDictionary,abriefsummaryofviewsheldinthe
ChristianChurchmaybeadded:(a)TheTheoryofverbalinspirationaffirmsthateachhumanauthorwasbutthemouthpieceofGod,andthatineveryword,
therefore,Godspeaks.ButtheactualfeaturesoftheBible,asstudiedbyreverentandbelievingscholarship,contradictthetheory.(b)Thetheoryofdegreesof
inspirationrecognizessuggestion,direction,elevation,andsuperintendencyofthehumanbytheDivineSpiritbutitisquestionablewhetherwecansoformally
definetheprocess.(c)Thedynamicaltheoryrecognizestheexerciseofhumanfacultiesintheauthor,butmaintainstheirillumination,stimulation,and
purificationbytheSpiritofGod,inorderthatindoctrineandethicstheDivinemindandwillmaybecorrectlyandsufficientlyexpressedbutthisdivorces
literaturefromlife.(d)Wemaycalltheviewnowgenerallyheldpersonalinspiration:bytheSpiritofGodmenareinvariousdegreesenlightened,filledwith
zealanddevotion,cleansedandstrengthenedmorally,broughtintomoreimmediateandintimatecommunionwithGodandthisnewlife,expressedintheir
writings,isthechannelofGodsrevelationofHimselftomen.InplaceofstressonthewordsandtheideasofScripture,emphasisisnowlaidonthemoral
characterandreligiousdispositionoftheagentsofrevelation.
ALFREDE.GARVIE.
INSTANT.Instantandinstantlyarenowusedonlyoftime.InAVtheyhavetheirearliermeaningofurgent,urgently,asinLk23:23theywere
instantwithloudvoices,requiringthathe
mightbecrucifiedLk7:4theybesoughthiminstantly(RVearnestly).Cf.Erasmus,
Paraphrase,i.31,whosoknockethatthedooreinstantly,tohimitshalbeopened.
INSTRUMENT.FormusicalinstrumentsseeMUSIC.ThewordisalsofrequentlyusedinAV(thoughonlytwiceinNT,bothtimesinRo6:13)forany
utensil,implement,orweapon,andinTo7:14,1Mac13:42foralegaldocumentordeed.
INTERCESSION.SeePRAYER.
INTEREST.SeeUSURY.
INTERMEDIATESTATE.SeeESCHATOLOGY,3(d),andPARADISE,3.
INTERPRETATION.ThiswordanditscognatesarefoundthroughouttheBiblewithawidevarietyintheiruse.1.Intheearlierstagesofthehistoryof
mankinddreamswerelookeduponasmanifestationsofDivineinterventioninhumanaffairs,anditwasregardedasofthefirstimportancethattheirmysterious
revelationsshouldbeexplainedforthosetowhomtheywerevouchsafed.FromthestoryofJosephwelearnthataspecialclassatthecourtofthePharaohs
dischargedthefunctionofinterpretersofdreams(cf.magicians[RVmsacredscribes]andwisemen,Gn41:8),Asimilarbodyofwiseorlearnedmenis
mentionedintheBookofDaniel,forthesameobjectatthecourtofBabylon(Dn2:2ff.,4:6f.).Theideathatdreamswereameansofcommunicationbetween
theDeityandmenwasalsocurrentamongsttheHebrewsfromaveryearlydate.IntheNTwefindthatdreamsoccupytheplaceofdirectvisionsorrevelations
fromGod,andnodifficultyseemstohavebeenexperiencedbytherecipientsastotheirprecisemeaning(Mt1:20,2:12,13,19,22).
2.TurningagaintothehistoryofJoseph,wefindthereanincidentalremarkwhichleadsustobelievethattherewasanofficialinterpreter,orabodyof
interpreters,whoseworkitwastotranslateforeignlanguagesintothelanguageofthecourt(cf.theinterpreter,Gn42:23).Thequalificationtoactas
interpreterseemstohavebeenrequiredofthosewhoactedasambassadorsatforeigncourts(cf.2Ch32:31).Thatprominentpoliticiansandstatesmenhadthis
meansofinternationalcommunicationattheirdisposalisseeninthetranslationbythePersiannoblesoftheirletterfromtheirownlanguageintoAramaic(Ezr
4:7).AstheHebrewtongueceasedtobethatofthecommonpeople,interpreterswererequiredatthesacredservicestotranslateorexplaintheLawandthe
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4:7).AstheHebrewtongueceasedtobethatofthecommonpeople,interpreterswererequiredatthesacredservicestotranslateorexplaintheLawandthe
Prophetsafterthereadingoftheoriginal(seeW.R.Smith,OTJC236,64n,154).IntheNT,examplesarefrequentoftheinterpretationinGreekofaHebrewor
Aramaicphrase(Mt1:23,27:46,Mk5:41,15:22,34,Jn1:38,41f.,Ac4:36,9:36,13:8)andinthisconnexionitisInterestingtorecalltheextractfromthe
writingsofPapiaspreservedbyEusebius,inwhichMarkiscalledtheinterpreterofPeter(seeHEiii.39)atraditionacceptedbyJeromeandAthanasius.
ThemostnaturalexplanationisthatwhichmakesSt.MarksGospeltheoutcomeinGreekofSt.Petersteachinginhisnativetongue.
3.ThefunctionoftheprophetsisdescribedasthatofinterpretersorambassadorsexplainingtoIsraelJehovahsmessagesintermssuitedtotheircapacity
(Is43:27,cf.ElihusreferencetotheintercessoryorambassadorialworkofangelsininterpretingtomanwhatGodrequiresofhiminthewayofconduct,as
wellasexplainingthemysteryofHisdealingswithmen[Job33:23]).
4.FrequentreferenceismadebySt.PaultoapeculiarphaseinthelifeoftheearlyCorinthian
Churchspeakingwithtongues.WhatevermaybetheprecisemeaningattachingtothisfeatureofChristianactivity,anditisplainthatinindividualcasesthe
practicegavetheApostleconsiderablecauseforanxiety,oneofthespecialspiritualgiftstobelieverswasthepowerofinterpretingthesestrangeutterances.
Thespeakerhimselfmightpossessthegiftofinterpretationanduseitforthebenefitofthecongregation(see1Co14:5,13),or,ontheotherhand,hemightnot.
Inthelattereventhisdutywastokeepsilence,unlessaninterpreterwereathandtomakehismessageintelligibletotheotherassembledworshippers(cf.1Co
14:26ff.,12:10,30).
5.Asomewhatambiguoususeofthewordinterpretationoccursin2P1:20,wherethewriterreferstotheexpoundingofancientpropheciesno
prophecyofscriptureisofprivate(RVm
special)interpretation.Twoexplanationsofthispassagearecurrent:(1)theinterpretationisthatoftheprophethimself,who,becauseofhispeculiar
relationtotheSpiritofGod,utteredwordsthefullmeaningofwhichhedidnotcomprehendor(2)thewordhasareferencetotheexegesisofthepassagein
questionbyindividualreaders.Thepresentwriterisofopinionthatneitherexplanationdoesfulljusticetotheauthorsidea.Ifthewordtranslatedprivatebe
confinedsolelyinitsmeaningtothenounwhichitqualifies,wemayunderstandbythephrasethatnosingleeventorresultcanbelookedonasacomplete
fulfilmentoftheprophetsmessage.Ithasawiderrangeorscopethanthehappeningofanyspecialoccurrence,thoughthatoccurrencemayberegardedasa
fulfilmentoftheprophetsannouncement.
J.R.WILLIS.
INTREAT.Besidesthemod.senseofbeseech,intreat(spelledalsoentreat)meansdealwith,handle,mod.treat,alwayswithanadverbwell,
ill,shamefully,etc.CoverdaletranslatesIs40:11Heshalgatherthelambestogetherwithhisarme,andcarietheminhisbosome,andshalkindlyintreate
thosethatbeareyonge.
Itisevenmoreimportanttonoticethatwhenthemeaningseemstobeasnow,viz.beseech,thewordisofteninrealitymuchstronger,prevailonby
entreaty.ThusGn25:21AndIsaacintreatedtheLORDforhiswife,andtheLORDwasintreatedofhim,i.e.yieldedtotheentreaty,astheHeb.means.Cf.
Grafton,Chron.ii.768,Howbeitshecouldinnowisebeintreatedwithhergoodwylltodelyverhim.
InJer15:11anditsmarginthetwomeaningsofthewordandthetwospellingsareusedasalternativerenderings,Iwillcausetheenemytoentreatthee
well,marg.Iwillintreattheenemyforthee(RVIwillcausetheenemytomakesupplicationuntothee).
INWARDS,INWARDPARTS.1.TheformeroftheseexpressionsisfrequentlyfoundinEV
(Ex.andLv.),meaningtheentrailsorbowelsoftheanimalstobesacrificedaccordingtotheLeviticalinstitutions(Ex29:13,22,Lv3:3,9,14,4:8,11,7:3,
8:18,21etc.).ThesameideaisfoundinGn41:21,whereEVhashadeatenthemup,andLXXrenderscameintotheirbelly(seeAVmwhichgivesthe
alternativehadcometotheinwardpartsofthemcf.also1K17:21AVm).Forthemostpart,however,theexpressioninwardpartsisusedinametaphorical
sense,todenotethecontrastbetweentheinwardrealityandtheoutwardclothingofhumancharacter.Situated
withintheinwardpartsisthecapacityforwisdom(Job38:36,seeneverthelessEVm),truth(Ps51:6),ethicalknowledge,andmoralrenovation(Jer31:33,
whereinwardpartsisalmostsynonymouswithheart,cf.Pr.20:30).Here,too,liehiddenthespringsofactivewickedness(Ps5:9),anddeceitfullanguage
(Ps62:4AVm).Thepowerofdeceivingastocharacterandmotivescomesfrommansinherentabilitytosecrete,withintheprofounddepthsoftheinnermost
parts,hisdailythoughts(Pr18:8cf.Ps64:6).Atthesametime,thesehiddendesignsareasanopenbook,beneaththebrightlightofalamp,totheLord(Pr
20:27cf.,forasimilarthought,Ps26:2,7:9,Jer11:20,Rev2:23etc.).
2.IntheNTtheexpressionisusedonlytodenotethepowerofthehypocritestodeceivetheirfellowmen(Lk11:39cf.Mt7:15,23:28).Thecuriousphrase
giveforalmsthosethingswhicharewithin(Lk11:41)maybetakenasanincidentalreferencebyJesustothenecessityandthepossibilityofmansinmost
lifebeingrenewedandrestoredtoarightrelationshipwithGodandmen(cf.Is58:10).Atleastitispermissibletotakethewordrenderedthethingswhichare
withinasequivalenttotheinwardman,ortheinwardparts(seePlummer,ICC,inloc.cf.Mk7:18f.,Lk16:9).Itisnotenoughtogivealmsmechanically15/62
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withinasequivalenttotheinwardman,ortheinwardparts(seePlummer,ICC,inloc.cf.Mk7:18f.,Lk16:9).Itisnotenoughtogivealmsmechanically
thegiftmustbeaccompaniedbythespontaneousbestowalofthegiversself,asitwere,tothereceiver.
J.R.WILLIS.
IOB.SeeJASHUB,No.1.
IPHDEIAH.ABenjamitechief(1Ch8:25).
IPHTAH.AtownintheShephlahofJudah,Jos15:43siteunknown.
IPHTAHEL.AravineN.W.ofHannathon,onthenorthborderofZebulun(Jos19:14,27).ItisidentifiedbysomewiththeJotapata(mod.Jeft)of
Josephus.
IR(1Ch7:12).ABenjamite(calledinv.7Iri).
IRA.1.TheJairitewhowaskhenorpriesttoDavid(2S20:26).Hisnameisomittedfromtheoriginal(?)passagein2S8:18,andfromthepassagein1
Ch18:17.TheJairitedenotesthathewasoftheGileaditeclanoftheJairites.Thenameprobablymeansthewatchful.2.Thelthrite,oneofDavidsheroes(2
S23:38,whereperhapsIthriteshouldbeJattirite).3.ThesonofIkkeshtheTekoite(2S23:26),anotherofDavidsheroes.
W.F.COBB.
IRAD.SonofEnochandgrandsonofCain(Gn4:18).
IRAM.AdukeofEdom(Gn36:43=1Ch1:54).
IRHAHERES.InIs19:18thenametobegivenintheidealfuturetooneofthefivecitiesinthelandofEgyptthatspeakthelanguageofCanaan,and
sweartoJehovahofhostsAVandRVoneshallbecalled,Thecityofdestruction.Theusuallyacceptedexplanationofthepassageisthatthenamecityof
heres,ordestruction,or,moreexactly,oftearingdown(theverbhrasbeingusedofpullingortearingdowncities,altars,walls,etc.,Jg6:25,Is14:17,Ezk
13:14),ischosenforthesakeofapunningallusiontocheres,inHeb.ararewordforsun(Job9:7),thecityofcheres,orthesun,beingadesignation
whichmighthavebeengiveninHeb.toOn,theHeliopolisoftheGreeks,acityafewmilesN.E.ofthemodernCairo,inancienttimesthechiefcentreofthe
sunworshipinEgypt,andfullofobelisksdedicatedtothesungodRa(Cleopatrasneedle,nowontheThamesEmbankment,wasoriginallyoneofthese
obelisks,erectedbyThothmesIII.infrontofthetempleofthesungodatOn)andthemeaningofthepassagebeingthattheplacewhichhashithertobeena
cityofthesunwillinthefuturebecalledthecityofdestroying,i.e.acitydevotedtodestroyingthetemplesandemblemsofthesun(cf.Jer43:13).[The
LXXhavepolishasedek,i.e.cityofrighteousness,areadingwhichisopentothesuspicionofbeinganalterationbasedon1:26.]
Tosomescholars,however,thisexplanationappearsartificialandthequestionisfurthercomplicatedbyhistoricalconsiderations.ThehighpriestOniasIII.,
afterhisdepositionby
AntiochusEpiphanesinB.C.175(2Mac4:79),despairingofbettertimesinJudah,soughtrefugeinEgyptwithPtolemyPhilometorandconceivedtheideaof
buildingthereatemplededicatedtoJ,inwhichtheancientritesofhispeoplemightbecarriedonwithoutmolestation,andwhichmightformareligions
centrefortheJewssettledinEgypt.PtolemygrantedhimasiteatLeontopolis,inthenome,ordistrict,ofHeliopolisandthereOniaserectedhistemple(Jos.
BJ.I.i.1,Ant.XIII.iii.13,andelsewhereEwald,Hist.v.355f.),notimprobablyatTellelYahudiyeh,about10m.N.ofHeliopolis,nearwhichthereare
remainsofaJewishnecropolis(Naville,TheMoundoftheJewandtheCityofOnias,pp.1820).Insupportofhisplan,OniashadpointedtoIs19:18andits
contextasapredictionthatatempletoJwastobebuiltinEgypt(Jos.Ant.XIII.iii.1end).ThesefactshaveindeednobearingonIs19:18,supposingthe
passagetobereallyIsaiahsbutmanymodernscholarsareofopinionthatIs19:16(18)25arenotIsaiahs,andeventhosewhodonotgosofarasthiswould
bereadytograntthat19:18b(fromoneshallbecalled)mightbealateradditiontotheoriginaltextofIsaiah.
Thefollowingarethechiefviewstakenbythosewhoholdthatthisclause(withorwithoutitscontext)isnotIsaiahs.(1)DuhmandMartirenderboldlyshallbecalled
Lioncity(orLeontopolis),explainingheresfromtheArab,haris,properlythebruiser,crusher,apoeticalnameforalion.Butthataveryspecialandfig.applicationofan
Arab.root,notoccurringinHeb.eveninitsusualArabicsense,shouldbefoundinHeb.isnotprobable.(2)Dillmann,whileacceptingtheprophecyasawholeasIsaiahs,
threwoutthesuggestionthatv.18bwasaddedafterthetempleofOniaswasbuilt,cheres,sun(soSymm.,Vulg.,andsomeHeb.MSS),beingtheoriginalreading,which
wasalteredafterwardsbytheJewsofPalestineintoheres,destruction,inordertoobtainacondemnationoftheEgyptiantemple,andbytheJewsofEgyptintotsedek,
righteousness(LXX),inordertomaketheprophecymorediatioctlyfavourabletoit.(3)Cheyne(Introd.toIs.pp.102110)andSkinner,understandingv.18(thereshall 16/62
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righteousness(LXX),inordertomaketheprophecymorediatioctlyfavourabletoit.(3)Cheyne(Introd.toIs.pp.102110)andSkinner,understandingv.18(thereshall
befivecities,etc.),not(asisdooeupontheordinaryview)oftheconversionofEgyp.citiestotheworshipofJ,butofJewishcoloniesinEgyp.maintainingtheirnational
languageandreligion,supposevv.1625tohavebeenwritteninthelatteryearsofthefirstPtolemy(Lagi),c.B.C.290,whentherewereundoubtedlymanyJewish
settlementsinEgypt:theoriginalreading,thesescholarssupposewithDillmann,wascityofthesun,themeaningbeingthatoneofthesecolonies,preservingloyallythe
faithoftheirfathers,shouldflourisheveninHeliopolis,thecityofthesungodthereadingwasalteredafterwards,whentheJewsofPalestinebegantoshowhostility
towardstheEgyptiantemple,bytheJewsofEgyptintocityofrighteousness(LXX),andthenfurther,bytheJewsofPalestine,asacounterblow,intocityofdestruction
(Heb.text).
Itmaybedoubtedwhethertherearesufficientreasonsfordepartingfromtheordinaryexplanationofthepassage.
S.R.DRIVER.
IRI.SeeIR.
IRIJAH.AcaptainwhoarrestedJeremiahonthechargeofintendingtodeserttotheChaldans(Jer37:13,14).
IRNAHASH.AcityofJudah(1Ch4:12).Thesiteisuncertain.
IRON.1.AcityofNaphtali,inthemountains,Jos19:38.ItisprobablythemodernYrn.2.SeeMININGANDMETALS.
IRPEEL.AcityofBenjamin(Jos18:27)possiblytheruinRaft,N.ofelJib(Gibeon).
IRRIGATION.Owingtothelackofasufficientrainfall,BabyloniaandEgypthavetobesuppliedwithwaterfromtheirrespectiverivers.Thisis
conveyedoverthecountrybycanals.Thewaterisconductedalongthesecanalsbyvariousmechanicaldevices,andatacostofgreatlabour.InPalestinethe
needforartificialirrigationisnotsogreat,asisindicatedbythecontrastwithEgyptinDt11:10.Asarulethewinterrainfallissufficientfortheordinarycereal
crops,andnospecialirrigationisnecessary.Thecaseisdifferent,however,invegetableandfruitgardens,whichwouldbedestroyedbythelongsummer
droughts.Theyarealwaysestablishednearnaturalsuppliesofwater,whichismadetoflowfromthesource(eitherdirectly,orraised,whennecessary,bya
sakiyehorendlesschainofbucketsworkedbyahorse,ox,ordonkey)intolittlechannelsramifyingthroughthegarden.Whenthechannelsare,asoften,simply
dugintheearth,theycanbestoppedordivertedwiththefoot,asinthepassagequoted.ArtificialwaterpoolsforgardensarereferredtoinEc2:6.Astorage
poolisanalmostuniversalfeatureinsuchgardens.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
IRSHEMESH.SeeBETHSHEMESH,No.1.
IRU.TheeldestsonofCaleb(1Ch4:15).ThecorrectnameisprobablyIr,theubeingsimplytheconjunctionandcouplingitwiththefollowingname
Elah.
ISAAC.SonofAbrahamandSarah.Themeaningofthenameishelaugheth,andseveralreasonsforbestowingitaresuggested(Gn17:17,18:12,
21:6).ThenarrativeasitoccursinScripturewasderivedfromthreeprincipalsources.JsuppliedGn18:915,21:17,24,25:5,11,26andthebulkof27toE
maybeattributed22:114with27:11f.,17f.,2022whilePwas
responsiblefor25:19f.,26,27:4628:9,35:2729.Apparentdiscrepanciesinthestory,suchasthatIsaac,onhisdeathbed(27:1,41),blessedJacob,andyetdid
notdieuntilmanyyearsafterwards(35:27),areevidentlyduetooriginaldifferencesoftradition,whichlatereditorswerenotcarefultoremove.Viewedas
comingfromindependentwitnesses,theypresentnoseriousdifficulty,anddonotdestroytheverisimilitudeofthestory.InoutlinethenarrativedescribesIsaac
ascircumcisedwheneightdaysold(21:4),andasspendinghisearlyyouthwithhisfatheratBeersheba.ThencehewastakentothelandofMoriah,tobe
offeredupasaburntofferingatthebiddingofGodandifAbrahamsunquestioningfaithistheprimarylessontaught(22:12,26:5,He11:17ff.),Isaacs
childlikeconfidenceinhisfatherisyetconspicuous,withtheassociatedsenseofsecurity.HismotherdiedwhenhewasthirtysixyearsofageandAbraham
sentaservanttofetchawifeforIsaacfromamongsthiskindredinMesopotamia,accordingtoGn24,wherethereligiousspiritisasnoticeableastheidyllic
tone.FormanyyearsthecouplewerechildlessbutatlengthIsaacsprayerswereheard,andRebekahgavebirthtothetwins,EsauandJacob.Famineand
droughtmadeitnecessaryforIsaactoshifthisencampmenttoGerar(26:1),whereastorysimilartothatofAbrahamsrepudiationofSarahistoldofhim(ch.
20cf.12:1020).Thetraditionwasevidentlyapopularone,andmayhavefoundcurrencyinseveralversions,thoughthereisnoactualimpossibilityinthe
imitationbythesonofthefathersdevice.IsaacsprosperityarousedtheenvyofthePhilistineherdsmen(26:20f.)amongstwhomhedwelt,andeventuallyhe 17/62
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imitationbythesonofthefathersdevice.IsaacsprosperityarousedtheenvyofthePhilistineherdsmen(26:20f.)amongstwhomhedwelt,andeventuallyhe
withdrewagaintoBeersheba(26:23).Heappearsnextasadecrepitanddyingman(27:1,41),whoseblessing,intendedforEsau(25:28,27:4),wasdivertedby
RebekahuponJacob.Whentheoldmandiscoveredthemistake,hewasagitatedatthedeceptionpractiseduponhim,butwasunabletodomorethanpredictfor
Esauawildandindependentcareer.ToprotectJacobfromhisbrothersresentmentIsaacsenthimawaytoobtainawifefromhismotherskindredinPaddan
aram(28:2),andrepeatedthebenediction.Thenextrecordbelongstoaperiodtwentyoneyearslater,unlesstheparagraph(35:2729)relatestoavisitJacob
madetohishomeintheinterval.ItstatesthatIsaacdiedatHebronattheageof180.HewasburiedbyhissonsinthecaveofMachpelah(49:31).
Isaacisalessstrikingpersonalitythanhisfather.Deficientintheheroicqualities,hesufferedindispositionfromanexcessofmildnessandtheloveof
quiet.Hispassionforsavourymeat(25:28,27:4)wasprobablyatribalfailing.HewasrathershiftyandtimidinhisrelationswithAbimelech(26:122),too
easilyimposedupon,andnotagoodrulerofhishousehold,agraciousandkindlybutnotastrongman.In26:5heissubordinatedtoAbraham,andblessed
forhissakebutthetwoaremorefrequentlyclassedtogether(Ex2:24,3:6,Mt8:11,22:32,Ac3:13elal.),andinAm7:9,16Isaacisusedasasynonymfor
Israel.IfthereforethegloryofIsaacwaspartlyderivedfromthememoryofhisgreaterfather,theimpressionmadeuponposteritybyhisalmostInstinctivetrust
inGod(Gn22:7,8)andbytheprevailingstrengthofhisdevotion(25:21)wasdeepandabiding.
Jacobconsideredpietyandreverentaweasspeciallycharacteristicofhisfather(31:42,53,wheretheFearofIsaacmeanstheGodtremblinglyadoredby
him).ThesubmissionofIsaacplaysapart,althoughalessimportantonethanthefaithofAbraham,intheNTreferences(He11:17f.,Ja2:21).R.W.MOSS.
ISAIAH.Ofthefourprophetsofthe8thcent.B.C.,someofwhosepropheciesarepreservedintheOT,Isaiahappearedthirdintheorderoftimesome
twentyyearsafterAmospreachedatBethel,andafewyearsafterHoseahadbegun,butbeforehehadceased,toprophesy.Isaiahspropheticcareerapparently
beganbefore,butclosedafter,thatofMicah.HoseawasanativeoftheNorthernKingdom,andaddressedhimselfmainly,ifnotexclusively,tohisownpeople.
AmoswasanativeofJudah,butprophesiedinandtoIsraelandthusIsaiahistheearliestofthesefourprophetswhoaddressedhimselfprimarilytoJudah,and
evenheinhisearlieryears,likehisfellowcountrymanAmos,prophesiedalsoagainstIsrael(seeIs9:710:4,5:2630,17:111).
OurknowledgeofthelifeandteachingofIsaiahrestsonthebookthatbearshisname,which,however,isnotabookcompiledbyhim,butonecontaining,
togetherwithothermatter,suchofhispropheciesashavebeenpreserved,andnarrativesrelatingtohimsee,indetail,nextarticle.
IsaiahreceivedthecalltobeaprophetintheyearthatkingUzziah(orAzariah)died(Is6:1).Theyearisnotquitecertain.IfAzariahkingofJudahandthe
AzriaukingofJaudimentionedinTiglathpilesersannalsoftheyear738beidentical,Isaiahscallcannotbeplacedearlierthan738.Butiftheidentificationbe
notadmitted,anditisbynomeanscertain,hiscallmaywithmoreprobabilitybeplacedafewyearsearlier.Hisactivityextendedatleastdowntotheinvasion
ofSennacheribin701,andsomeyearslater,ifthetheorybecorrectthatchs.3639refertotwoinvasionsofSennacherib,ofwhichthatin701wasthefirst.In
anycaseIsaiahspubliccareercoveredattheleastcloseonfortyyears,whencewemayinferthat,likeJeremiah(Jer1:6),hebecameaprophetinearlylife.
UnlikehiscontemporaryMicah,hislife,sofaraswecantraceit,wasspentinJerusalem.Notimprobablyhewasamanofrank,atleasthehadeasyaccessto
theking(Is7:1ff.),andwasontermsofintimacywithpersonsofhighposition(8:2).Hisfathersname,Amoz,hasinHebrewnoresemblancetothatofthe
prophetAmos.Isaiahwasmarried,andhiswifeistermedtheprophetess(8:3).LikeHosea,hegavetohischildren,Shearjashub(7:3)andMahershalaihash
baz(8:3),nameswhichbrieflystatedcharacteristicelementsinhisteachinghisownname,thoughofanormalandfrequentHebrewtype,alsohappenedto
haveasignificance(helpofJahwehorJahwehhelps)ofwhichhecouldhavemadeusethatheactuallydidsowemayperhapsinferfrom8:18,ifwedonot
ratherinterpretthatstatement,sofarasIsaiahhimselfisconcerned,ofsuchsymbolicconductasthatwhichhepursuedwhenhewenthalfcladandbarefoot
(ch.20).
Itisimpossibleeithertoconstructacompletebiographyoftheprophetortotracewithanyelaborationdevelopmentsinhisthoughtandteaching.His
prophecieshaveobviouslynotcomedowntousinchronologicalorder,andmanyarewithoutanyclearindicationofthedatewhentheyweredeliveredany
attempttodateaccuratelymuchofthematerialmustthereforebeexceedinglyuncertain,andthenumerousattemptsthathavebeenmadenaturallydifferwidely
intheirresults.
Buttherearefourperiodsatwhichwecanclearlytracetheprophetandhisthoughtorteaching:thesearethetimeofhiscall,aboutB.C.740(ch.6)oftheSyro
EphraimitishWar(B.C.735734:
7:18:18)ofthesiegeofAshdodinB.C.711(ch.20)andoftheinvasionofSennacheribinB.C.701(chs.3639).Thelastmentionednarrativesare,however,
ofalateragethanthatofIsaiah,andrequiretobecarefullyused.
AtthetimeofhiscallIsaiahbecameconsciousthathewastobeateacherwhoseprimarytaskwastowarnhispeopleofjudgmenttocome,ofjudgment
whichwastoissueintheexterminationofhisnation(6:1013thelastclauseisabsentfromtheLXX,andprobablynotoriginal).ThisjudgmentofJahwehon
HispeoplewastobeexecutedbymeansofAssyria,which,sincetheaccessionofTiglathpileserin745,hadenteredonacourseofconquest,and,asearlyas
740,hadachievedmarkedsuccessinNorthernSyria.Thecausesofthiscomingjudgment,Isaiah,likeAmosbeforehim,andnotimprobablyinpartowingto
theinfluenceonhimoftheteachingofAmos,foundintheprevalentsocialandmoraldisorder(seee.g.2:64:1,5:824forthekindofoffenceswhichhe
denounced),intheingratitude(e.g.1:8,5:17)ofthepeopletoJahweh,andintheirfailuretotrustHimortounderstandthatwhatHerequiredwasnot
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denounced),intheingratitude(e.g.1:8,5:17)ofthepeopletoJahweh,andintheirfailuretotrustHimortounderstandthatwhatHerequiredwasnot
sacrifice,whichwasofferedbythepeopleinwearisomeabundance,butjusticeandhumanity(cf.e.g.1:231).Inthisteaching,asinhisloftyconceptionof
God,IsaiahdidnotfundamentallyadvancebeyondthealreadyloftymoralandreligiousstandpointofAmosandHosea,thoughtherearenaturallyenough
differencesinthedetailsofthepresentation.But,sofaraswecansee,heexercisedamoredirect,immediate,anddecisiveinfluence,owingtothefactthatover
alongperiodofyearshewasabletoapplythisteachingtothechangingpoliticalconditions,insisting,forexample,attheseveralpoliticalcrisesmentioned
above,thatthedutyofJahwehspeoplewastotrustinJahweh,andnotinpoliticalailiances,whetherwithAssyria,Egypt,orEthiopia(cf.e.g.7:49,20,and[in
B.C.701]30:16,15,31:13)andtothefactthatfromthefirsthesetaboutthecreationofasocietyofdiscipleswhoweretoperpetuatehisteaching(cf.8:16).
AlthoughjudgmenttocomewasthefundamentalnoteofIsaiahsteaching,therewasanothernotethatmarkeditfromtheoutset:IsraelJudahwastoperish,
butaremnantwastosurvive.ThisatleastseemstobethesignificanceofthenameofShearjashub,whomusthavebeenbornveryshortlyafterthecall,since
in735hewasoldenoughtoaccompanyhisfatheronhisvisittoAhaz(7:3).Beyondthejudgment,moreover,helookedforwardtoanewJerusalem,righteous
andfaithful(1:26).HowmuchfurtherwasIsaiahsdoctrineofthefuturedeveloped?Washethecreatorofthoseideasmoreparticularlysummedupintheterm
Messianic,whichexercisedsopowerfulaninfluenceinthelaterperiodsofJudaism,andwhicharedoubtlessamongthosemostintimatelyconnectedwiththe
prophetinthemindsofthemajorityofstudentsoftheBible?Inparticular,wasthevision(9:16)ofthePrinceofPeacewithworldwidedominionhis?Or,to
takeanotherdetail,didheholdthatZionitselfwasinvincible,eventhoughhostilehostsshouldapproachit?Thesearequestionsthathavebeenraisedandhave
notyetreceivedadecisiveanswer.Ontheonehand,itisexceedinglyprobablethatintheseveralcollectionsoftheancientprophecieslaterpassagesofpromise
haveinsomeinstancesbeenaddedtoearlierpropheciesofjudgmentthatlaterprophecyingeneralisfullerthantheearlierofpromisesandthatseveralofthe
Messianicpassages,inparticular,intheBookofIsaiah,standisolatedanddisconnectedfrompassageswhichbearunmistakablytheimpressofIsaiahorhis
age.Ontheotherhand,Isaiahsbeliefinaremnant,whichseemssecured(apartfromindividualandperhapsdoubtfulpassages)bythenameofhisson,formsa
certainandperhapsasufficientbasisforthemoreelaboratedetailsofthefuture.Further,fromtheveryfactthattheydealwiththefuture,thepassagesin
question,eveniftheywerebyIsaiah,mightnaturallybearlessunmistakableevidenceoftheiragethanthosewhichdealwiththesocialandpoliticalconditions
ofhisowntime.Andagain,hadIsaiahprophesiedexclusivelyofjudgmentanddestruction,wemighthaveexpectedtofindhisnamecoupledwithMicahsin
Jer26:18f.
G.B.GRAY.
ISAIAH,ASCENSIONOF.SeeAPOCALYPTICLITERATURE,No.6.
ISAIAH,BOOKOF.TheBookofIsaiahisoneofthefourgreatcollectionsofHebrewprophecies.LikethebookofTheTwelveProphetsanotherof
thesegreatcollections(seeMICAH[BOOKOF])itwasformedbyincorporatingwithoneanothersmallerandearliercollections,andcontainspropheciesof
manyprophetslivingatdifferentperiodswiththeexceptionofIsaiahs,thepropheciescontainedinthecollectionareanonymous,thetermDeuteroIsaiah,
appliedtotheauthorofchs.4066(or4055),beingofcoursenothingmorethanamodernsymbolforoneoftheseanonymouswriters.
1.Compositionandliteraryhistoryofthepresentbook.TheBookofIsaiah,substantiallyaswenowhaveit,probablydates,liketheBookofthe
TwelveProphets,fromtowardstheendofthe3rdcent.B.C.Buttheexternalevidenceisscantyandsomeofitambiguousandtheinternalevidenceofcertain
sectionsisdifferentlyinterpretedif,astheinterpretationofDuhmandMartiwouldrequireustoinfer,ch.33andch.34f.werenotwrittentilltowardsthe
middleofthe2ndcent.,andchs.2427notuntilafterB.C.128,itisobviousthatthecollectionwhichcontainsthesesectionsdidnotattainitspresentformand
sizetillsome(possiblyconsiderable)timelaterthanB.C.128.
ThemostimportantpieceofexternalevidenceiscontainedinSir48:2224.Inthispassagetheauthor,writingaboutB.C.180,referstoIsaiahasoneofthe
godlymenofIsrael,worthyofpraise,and,asafterwards(49:68)InthecaseofEzekielandofJeremiah,hecites,oralludesto,certainsectionswhichnow
standinthebookthatbearstheprophetsname.Thushesays:v.22ForHezekiahdidthatwhichwaspleasingtotheLord,andwasstronginthewaysofDavid
hisfather,whichIsaiahtheprophetcommanded,whowasgreatandfaithfulinhisvisionv.23Inhisdaysthesunwentbackwardandheaddedlifetothe
kingv.24Byaspiritofmightbesawtheend,andcomfortedthemournersinSionv.25Foreverhedeclaredthethingsthatshouldbe,andhiddenthings
beforetheycame.Possiblythelastclauseofv.22referstothetitleThevisionofIsaiah(Is1:1)certainlyv.23referstothenarrativeofIs38(=2K20),and
v.24f.showsfamiliaritywiththerecurrentargumentsfromprophecyinIs4448(seee.g.41:2124,43:9,46:9,48:4ff.),whilev.24bissomewhatclearly
reminiscentoftheactualphraseologyof40:1,61:2,3.Thoughitwouldbepossibletoinventsomewhatdifferentexplanationsofthesefacts,muchthemost
probableinferenceisthat,bythebeginningofthe2ndcent.B.C.,some(ifnotall)ofthepropheciesinchs.135hadalreadybeenbroughtintoabook,andto
thesehadbeenappended,notnecessarilyorevenprobablyatthesametime,(a)chs.3639,(b)chs.4066(orthemostpartthereof),andthatthewholebookat
thistimewasattributedtoIsaiah.ActualcitationsfromtheBookofIsaiahbyname,whichwouldhelptoprovetheextentofthebookatgivenperiods,arenot
numerousbeforethe1stcent.A.D.,whenwefindseveralintheNT:1:9iscitedinRo9:296:9f.inMt13:14f.,Jn12:40,Ac28:25f.9:1f.inMt4:14ff.10:22f.
inRo9:27f.11:10inRo15:1229:13inMk7:6f.40:35in(Mk1:3)Mt3:342:14inMt12:172153:1,4,7f.inRo10:16,Mt8:17,Ac8:30,32f.61:1f.in
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inRo9:27f.11:10inRo15:1229:13inMk7:6f.40:35in(Mk1:3)Mt3:342:14inMt12:172153:1,4,7f.inRo10:16,Mt8:17,Ac8:30,32f.61:1f.in
Lk4:171965:1f.inRo10:20f.TherearealsosometwentyfiveunnamedcitationsinNT(Swete,Introd.toOTinGreek,385f.),someofwhich,likethe
unnamedcitationsfromtheGreektextofIs3:10and44:20inWis2:12,15:10(aboutB.C.50),are,takeninconjunctionwiththenamedcitations,notwithout
significance.Still,rigorousproofthattheBookofIsaiahcontainedallthatitnowcontainsmuchbeforethefinalcloseoftheCanon(seeCANONOF
OT),iswanting.Thegeneralconsiderationswhich,takeninconjunctionwiththeproofaffordedbySir48:1725that(mostorallof)chs.4066rankedas
IsaiahsasearlyasB.C.180,makeitwisest,failingstrongevidencetothecontrary,toreckonwiththeprobabilitythatbyaboutthattimethebookwas
substantiallyofthesameextentasatpresent,are(a)thehistoryoftheformationoftheCanon(seeCANONOFOT),and(b)theprobability,createdbythe
allusionsintheprologue(about
B.C.132)toSirachtotranslationsofprophecies,thatourpresentGreekversiondatesfrombefore132.Thisversionappearstoproceedfromasingleageor
hand,andyetitis,apartfrombriefglosses,ofthesameextentasthepresentHebrewtextofthebook.
Ifwemayadoptthemostnaturalinferencefrom2Ch36:22f.=Ezr1:1f.,externalevidencewouldgofartoprovethatchs.4066werenotincludedinthe
BookofIsaiahmuchbeforethecloseofthe3rdcent.B.C.FortheChroniclerhereattributestheprophecyofCyrus,whichformssoconspicuousafeatureofIs
4048(see41:1f.,43:2445:7,andesp.compare2Ch36:23withIs43:28),nottoIsaiahbuttoJeremiah,whichhewouldscarcelyhavedoneifinhistime(not
earlierthanB.C.300)theseanonymouschapterswerealreadyincorporatedinabookentitledIsaiah.Ifwerejectthisinference,wearethrownbackentirelyon
theevidenceoftheBookofIsaiahitselfforthedeterminationoftheearliestdateatwhichitcanhavebeencompiled.
Turningthentotheinternalevidence,wenotefirstthestructureofthebook:(a)chs.135prophecies,someofwhichareattributedtoIsaiah(1:1,2:1
etc.),interspersedwithnarrativesbyoraboutIsaiah(chs.6,7,8,20)(b)chs.3639historicalnarrativesofthelifeandtimesofIsaiah,identicalinthemain
with2K1820(c)chs.4066anonymousprophecies.Comparisonwiththe
BookofJeremiah,whichconcludeswithachapter(52)aboutthetimesofJeremiahderivedfrom2K24:18ff.,suggeststhatourpresentbookhasresultedfrom
theunionofapropheticvolume,consisting(inthemain)ofpropheciesbyorattributedtoIsaiah,withanhistoricalappendixandabookofanonymous
prophecies.Thisunion,aswehaveseenabove,tookplacebeforeB.C.180:ifanypartsofchs.139arelaterthanthis,theirpresenceinthebookisdueto
subsequentinterpolation.
IfitwerepossibletowriteafullhistoryoftheliteraryprocesswhichculminatedintheBookofIsaiahaswenowhaveit,itwouldbenecessarytotracein
detailfirstthegrowthofchs.139,thenthatofchs.4066,andlastlythecauseswhichledtotheunionofthetwo.Butthisisnotpossibleinparticular,wedo
notknowwhetherchs.4066wereaddedtochs.139owingtothetriumphofanIsaianictheoryovertheJeremianictheoryortraditionoftheoriginofthese
chapters(2Ch36:22f.seeabove),orwhether,assomehavesupposed,theywereaddedtomaketheBookof
IsaiahmorenearlyequalinsizetotheotherpropheticcollectionsEzekiel,Jeremiah,andtheTwelvewiththeresultthatasearlyasB.C.180thesechapters
cametobeattributedtoIsaiahorwhethersomethingelse,whichwecannotconjecture,wastherealcauseofthisunion.But,apartfrominternalevidence
pointingtothedifferentperiodsinwhichdifferentsectionsoriginated,certainindicationsofthecomplexityoftheliteraryprocessdoexist,particularlyinthe
caseofchs.139thesewemayconsider.(1)Thematterisnotarrangedchronologically:thecall(cf.Ezk1,Jer1)ofIsaiah,whichnaturallyprecededanyof
hisprophecies,isrecordednotinch.1,butinch.6.Similarly,intheKorantherecordofMohammedscalldoesnotoccurtillSura96inthiscasethereasonis
thattheeditorsoftheKoranfollowedtherathermechanicalprincipleofarrangingthesurasaccordingtotheirsize.Thecauseoftheorderinthecaseofthe
BookofIsaiahmayinpartbefoundinthefactthat(2)theoccurrenceofseveraltitlesandindicationsofdifferentprinciplesofeditorialarrangementpointsto
thefactthatchs.135(39)isacollectionofmaterial,someofwhichhadpreviouslyacquiredafixedarrangementinotherwords,chs.135isabookformed
notentirely,orperhapsevenmainly,bythecollectionandfreerearrangementofpropheticpieces,butratherbytheincorporationwholeofearlierandsmaller
books.Followingtheseclues,wemayfirstdividethesechaptersthus:(1)ch.1withtitle(5:1),probablyintendedtocoverthelargercollection(2)chs.212
withtitle2:1(3)chs.1323withtitle13:1namingIsaiah,andcorrespondingsubtitlesnotmentioningIsaiah,in15:1,17:1,19:1,21:1,11,13,22:1,23:1(cf.
elsewhere30:6)(4)chs.2427,distinguishedfromtheprecedingsectionsbytheabsenceoftitles,andfromthefollowingbytheabsenceoftheopening
interjection(5)chs.2831(33)agroupofwoessee28:1,29:1(RVHorepresentsthesameHebrewwordthatistranslatedWoein28:1etc.)30:1,31:1,
33:1(6)chs.34,35,which,likechs.2427,arewithouttitle.Someevenofthesesectionsseemtohavearisenfromtheunionofstillsmallerandearlier
booklets.Thusitisreasonabletosupposethatch.6onceformedthecommencementofabookletagain,chs.24arepropheciesofjudgmentenclosedbetween
Messianicprophecies2:27and4:26ch.5containsabriefgroupofWoes(vv.8,11,18,20,21,22).
Itisimpossibletoenterintodetailshereastothedateswhentheseseveralbookletsfirstappeared,orastothevariousprocessesofunionorrearrangement
orinterpolationorothermodifications.Merelytostatetheorieswhichhavebeenputforward,withoutadducingprooforofferingcriticism,wouldrequiremore
spacethanisavailable.Andfromthenatureofthecaseitwouldbeimpossibletoofferanycompletetheorythatwouldnotbeinmanyrespectsuncertain.Itis
moreimportanttoappreciatethegeneralfact,whichisclear,thattheBookofIsaiahistheresultofalongandcomplexliteraryhistory,thantobereadyto
subscribetoanyparticulartheoryofthishistory.Buttwopointsmaybebrieflytouchedon.(1)MuchoftheliteraryprocessjustreferredtoliesaftertheExile.
Aswillheshownbelow,chs.4055werenotwrittentillthelastyearsoftheExilechs.5666arecertainlyofnoearlier,andprobablyoflater,origin.The
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Aswillheshownbelow,chs.4055werenotwrittentillthelastyearsoftheExilechs.5666arecertainlyofnoearlier,andprobablyoflater,origin.The
unionofchs.139and4066cannotthereforefallbeforethecloseoftheExile,and,asshownabove,itneednot,sofarastheexternalevidenceisconcerned,
fallmuchbeforeB.C.180.Buteven139wasnotavolumeofpreexilicoriginfortheappendix3639isderivedfromKings,whichwasnotcompletedtill,at
theearliest,B.C.561(cf.2K25:27),oreveninwhatmayberegardedasitsfirstedition(cf.Driver,LOT6,189)beforeaboutB.C.600.Onthisgroundalone,
then,thecompletionofchs.139,bytheinclusionoftheappendix3639,cannotbeplacedearlierthantheExile,andshouldprobablybeplacedlater.Itmust
indeedbeplacedlater,unlessweregardallthesectionsinchs.135whichareofpostexilicorigin(seebelow)asinterpolationsratherthanaswhat,inmany
casesatleast,theyprobablyare,originalpartsofthebookletsincorporatedinchs.139.Thuschs.212and1323(apartfromsubsequentinterpolationsor
amplifications)astheylaybeforetheeditorwhounitedthem,probablyowedtheirformtopostexiliceditors.(2)Theearlieststageofthislongliteraryprocess
fallsinthelifetimeofIsaiah(c.B.C.740701).Buteveninitsearlieststagetheliteraryprocesswasnotuniform.Inchs.6and8:18wehavewhatthereisno
reasontoquestionarepiecesofIsaiahsautobiographyIsaiahherespeaksofhimselfinthefirstperson.Chs.7and20mayhavethesameorigin,thefactthat
Isaiahisherereferredtointhethirdpersonbeingperhapsinthatcaseduetoaneditororthesechaptersmaybedrawnfromearlybiographiesoftheprophetby
adisciple.Thuschs.1,212,1323and2833consistinlargepartofpropheticpoemsorsayingsofIsaiahmanyofthemwere(presumably)writtenaswellas
spokenbyIsaiahhimself,otherswenotimprobablyowetothememoryofhisdisciples.Thereisnoreasonforbelievingthatthepresentarrangementofthis
matter,evenwithintheseveralbooklets,goesbacktoIsaiahhimselfthedivisionintochaptersandversesisofcourseofverymuchlaterorigin,andinseveral
casesdoesviolencetotheoriginalconnexion,eitherbyuniting,asinch.5,originallyquitedistinctpieces,ordividing,asinthecaseof9:810:4,whatformed
anundividedwhole.Justicecanhedonetothepropheticliteratureonlywhenthebrevityoftheseveralpiecesisrecognized,insteadofbeingobscuredby
treatingseveraldistinctpiecesasasinglediscourse.Unfortunately,wehavenotfortheteachingofIsaiah,asforthatofJesus,atripletradition.Buttheanalogy
ofthediversetreatmentofthesamesayingsinthedifferentGospelsmaywellwarnusthatsayingswhichliesidebyside(ase.g.in5:824)intheBookof
Isaiahwerenotnecessarilyspokeninimmediatesuccession.
Buthowfar,ifnotintheorderinwhichhespokeorwrotethem,havethewordsofIsaiahreachedussubstantiallyashespokethem.Thequestionisnot
altogethereasytoanswer,particularlyinonerespect.Isaiahwaspreeminentlyaprophetofjudgmentbutintermingledwithhiswarningsaremanypassagesof
promise:seee.g.2:24and4:26,enclosing2:74:1,9:16concludingthewarningsofch.8,andtheconstantinterchangeofwarningandpromiseinchs.28
31.ArethesepassagesofpromiseIsaiahs,ortheworkofsomelaterwriterswithwhichlatereditorssoughttocomfortaswellastoexhorttheirreaders?These
questionsingeneral,andindetailwithreferencetoeachparticularpassage,arestillfarfromsettled.Thegeneralquestionof
MessianicprophecyinIsaiahisbrieflyreferredtoinprecedingart.fordetailsseeCheynesIntrod.totheBookofIsaiah,orcommentariessuchasthoseof
DuhmandMarti,or,onasmallerscaleandinEnglish,ofWhitehouse.Herethisalonecanbesaid:theperiodoverwhichanddowntowhichthehistoryofthe
growthoftheBookofIsaiahextends,andthecomplexityofthatgrowth,wouldeasilyallowofthesepassagesbeingincorporatedassuggestedbythetheory
andwehavethepresumptioncreated,forexample,bytheabsenceofthelastclauseofch.6fromtheGreektext,thatshortconsolatoryannotationswerestill
beingmadeaslateasthe2ndcent.B.C.OncethesignificanceofthecomplexityoftheBookofIsaiahisgrasped,thisatleastshouldbecomeclear,thatthe
question,issuchandsuchapassageauthentic?meaning,WasitwrittenbyIsaiah?proceedsfromawrongpointofview.Theproperquestionisthis:Towhat
perioddoessuchandsuchapassageinthiscollectionofprophecies,madecertainlyaftertheExileandprobablynotmuchbeforethecloseofthe3rdcent.B.C.,
belong?
Thepresenceofexplanatoryannotationsisnowgenerallyrecognized.Forexample,in7:20IsaiahspeaksfigurativelyofJahwehusingarazoraneditor
addedanote,whichhasintrudedintothetext,thatbyrazorwearetounderstandthekingofAssyria.Astothenumberofsuchannotationsscholarsdiffer.
2.Summary.ThefollowingsummaryoftheBookofIsaiahandoftheperiodsatwhichitsseveralpartsappear,orhavebeensupposed,tohavebeen
written,mustbeusedinthelightoftheforegoingaccountoftheoriginofthebook.Intheclearercasestheevidenceofdateisbrieflyindicatedinothersoneor
twotheoriesarementioned.Butfortheevidence,suchasitis,thereadermustturntolargerworksitwouldrequiremorespacethanthescopeofthearticle
allows,eventosummarizeithere.Again,inthemajorityofcasesnoattemptismadetoindicatethesmallerannotationsofwhichanexampleisgiveninthe
preced.paragraph.Forasynthesis(inpart)ofthosesectionsofthebookwhichconsistofIsaiahsprophecies,seeISAIAHandinconnexionwithchs.4055,
consultart.SERVANTOFTHELORD.
1:1.Title.ProbablyprefixedbyaneditorwhobroughttogetheraconsiderablecollectionofIsaiahsprophecies.ThedaysofUzziah,Jotham,Ahaz,andHezekiah
describetheentireperiodofIsaiahsactivity.1:231.Tillcomparativelyrecentlythiswasgenerallyregardedasasinglediscourse,constituting,asEwaldtermsit,thegreat
arraignment.ButtherewasnoagreementastotheperiodofIsaiahslifetimetowhichitbelonged,somescholarsreferringittotheperiodoftheSyroEphraimitishWar
(cf.ch.7),almostatthebeginning,otherstothetimeofSennacheribsinvasionattheclose,ofIsaiahscareer.If,asisreallyprobable,thisisnotasinglediscourse,these
differencesareinpartaccountedfor.Thechapterfallsintothesesections(a)vv.217,whichmayperhapsitselfconsistoftwodistinctpieces,vv.29andvv.1017(b)
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vv.1820,perhapsconsistingofdistinctsayings,namely,v.18andvv.1920(c)vv.2126(d)vv.2731,whichagain,assomethink,aretwofragmentsv.27f.andvv.
2931.Ofthesesections(a)and(c)aredistinctpropheticpoemsofIsaiahcompleteinthemselves,(a)datingprobablyfrom701,sincethetermsofvv.6,7arebetter
accountedforbytheAssyrianinvasionofthatyearthanbythatoftheSyroEphraimitisharmyin735(c)perhapsfromabout705.Theshortsayingsof(b)andthefragment
(d)aremoredifficulttodate(d)hasbeenregardedbysomeasadenunciationoftheNorthernKingdom,andthereforedeliveredbeforeB.C.722byothersasapostexilic
passageofpromise(v.27).
2:1.TitleofacollectionofIsaianicprophecies.
2:24:6.Themainbodyofthissection,consistingofapoemannouncingthenearadventofthedayofJahwehagainsteverythingproudandliftedup(2:621),another
(3:1,15)describingtheimminentsocialdisintegrationofJudah,andtracingitscausetothemoralconditionofthenation,andathirddenouncingthelightandluxuriousladies
ofJerusalem3:164:1,thecatalogueinproseof3:1823beingperhapsaninterpolation),appearstopreservetheearlierteachingofIsaiah.Ithasbeenthoughtthatin2:621
Isaiahwriteswiththeexperienceofthegreatearthquake(Zec14:5)ofUzziahstimefreshinmind,andthat3:12containsanallusiontoAhaz(died?728)asthereigning
king.Thesection,liketheBookofAmos(Am9:8f15),wasprovidedbyaneditor(cf.4:4and3:16),asmanythink,ratherthanbyIsaiahhimself,withaconsolatory
conclusion.Theopeningpoem(2:24),ifnot,assomestillconsider,Isaiahs,wasincorporatedbyaneditor.ItisalsoincludedintheBookoftheTwelve(Mic4:14see
MICAH).
Ch.5.Ofindependentoriginarevv.17,824,2530.
Vv.17.TheparabolicsongofthevineyardpointingtothecomingrejectionbyJahwehofunworthyandungratefulJudah.ThesongisIsaiahs,butwhethercomposed
earlyorlateinhiscareerisdisputed.Vv.824:six,perhapsoriginallyseven,Woessomeofthemfragments.Thesecannoteasilybedated,noraretheynecessarilyallof
thesamedatetheymayowetheirpresentarrangementtoaneditorratherthantoIsaiah.Vv.2530:therefrainofv.25bconnectsthiswith9:810:4,ofwhichpoemit
probablyformedthelaststrophe.
Ch.6.IsaiahsownrecordofhiscallintheyearofUzziahsdeath(B.C.740),writtenperhapssomeyearslater.
7:18:15.Narratives(inpart,andoriginallyperhapswholly,autobiographical)relatingtopropheciesdeliveredduringtheSyroEphraimitishWarinB.C.734.Indetail:
7:116,IsaiahsinterviewwithAhazthesignofImmanuel(7:14)v.15,perhapsinterpolated7:1725,somewhatfragmentary,andprobablynottheimmediatecontinuation
of7:1168:14,twosignsindicatingthatSyriaandEphraimwillperishbeforeAssyriavv.68,Judah,nothavingtrustedinJahweh,willalsosuffer,and(vv.9,10)sowill
thenationsthatopposeJudahvv.1115,Jahwehtheonlyrealandtrueobjectoffearvv.1618,theconclusionhisdisciplesaretopreserveandwitnesstowhathehas
said.
8:199:7.Inspiteofthelinkbetween8:20and8:16,itisverydoubtfulwhetherthissectionwasoriginallyattachedtothepreceding,whichseemedtoreachavery
definiteconclusionin8:1618.Ifnot,itsdateisveryuncertain.Itconsistsofanobscurefragmentorfragments(8:1922)describingaperiodofgreatdistress,astatementin
proseofanimminentchangeoffortune(9:1),andaMessianicpoem(9:27)celebratingtherestoration,triumph,andprosperityofthepeopleundertheirmightyPrince.
ThosewhodenyintototheexistenceofMessianicpassagesinIsaiahspropheciesnaturallytreatthispoemasalaterproduct,someassigningittoaboutB.C.500.The
positivedefenceofIsaianicauthorshipisrendereddifficultbyitsisolationandbytheabsence(notunnaturalinapoemdealingentirelywiththeidealfuture)ofdirect
allusionsofIsaiahsage.
9:810:4with5:25(26)30.Acarefullyconstructedpoemoffivestrophesofnearly(andperhapsinitsoriginalformofexactly)equallength,markedofffromoneanother
bytherefrainin9:12,17,21,10:4(5:25).ItbelongstoIsaiahsearlyperiod(aboutB.C.735),anddealswiththecollapseoftheNorthernKingdom,Ephraim,beforethe
Assyrians,who,withoutbeingnamed,arevigorouslydescribedin5:2630.
10:527.AssyriawillbepunishedforitsprideandmisunderstandingofthepurposeforwhichJahwehusedit.Datemuchdisputedprobablyonlyinparttheworkof
Isaiah.
10:2832.Adramaticidyllportrayingan(imaginary)AssyriandescentonJerusalem.Theperiodin
Isaiahslifetimetowhichitcouldbesthereferredis701.
10:33,34.Appendedtotheprecedingpoem,andpointingoutthatAssyriawillperishjustoutsidethecityonwhichithasdescended.
Ch.11.Messianicprophecies:(a)vv.19,descriptionofthenewprinceofthehouseofJesse(David),andoftheidealconditionsthatwillexistunderhisreign(b)v.9
(c)vv.1116,therestorationofJewishexiles.ThelastsectionclearlyseemstobepostexilicforitpresupposestheexileonanextensivescalenotonlyofIsraelites,which
mightbeexplainedbytheeventsofB.C.722,butalsoofJews,whichcanbesatisfactorilyexplainedonlybythecaptivityof597and586.Thefirstsectionmustalsodate
fromafter586,ifthefigureofthefelledtreeinv.1impliesthattheDavidicmonarchyhasceased.
Ch.12.Apsalmofthanksgiving.IfmostofthepsalmsinthePsalter(seePSALMS)arelaterinoriginthantheageofIsaiah,thispsalmprobablyissolikewise.
1323.TheBookofOracles(AVBurdens).Theuntitledsections,14:2426,(14:2832),17:1214,18,20,whichdealwithJudah,ascontrastedwithmostofthe
Oracles,whichareagainsttheforeignnations,perhapsformednopartoftheoriginalbook.
13:114:23.ThefallofBabylon(13:19,14:3,22).Thesectioncontainstwopoems(13:222and14:4b21)inthesamerhythmasisusedintheelegiesoftheBookof
Lamentationsbetweenthepoems,andatthecloseofthesecond,areshortprosepassages(14:14a,22f.).Thesectionthroughoutpresupposesconditionsresemblingthose
presupposedinchs.4055,andis,ascertainlyasthatsection,tobereferrednottoIsaiah,buttoawriterlivingafter586,whenJerusalemwasdestroyedbytheChaldans
(cf.13:19),whosekingwaskingofBabylon(cf.14:4).TotheAssyrians,whoplaysoconspicuousapartinIsaiahsprophecies,thereisnaturallynoallusionforwiththe
fallofNinevehabout . .606theAssyriansceasedtocount,andBabylon,whichinIsaiahstimewassubjecttoAssyria,herefiguresaspossessedofworldwidedominion.
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fallofNinevehaboutB.C.606theAssyriansceasedtocount,andBabylon,whichinIsaiahstimewassubjecttoAssyria,herefiguresaspossessedofworldwidedominion.
Again,thepointoftheprophecyin14:1f.istobeobserved:itisrestorationfromexiletheExileitselfis,forthiswriter,anexistingfact,whichofcourseitwasnotfor
Isaiah.FromtheallusiontotheMedes(13:17)only,andnottothePersiansortoCyrus,ithascommonlybeeninferredthatthissectionissomewhatearlierthan4055,and
waswrittenaboutB.C.549.
14:2427.Ashortprophecy,perhapsoftheyear701,predictingtheoverthrowoftheAssyrianinvadersofJudah.14:2832,Philistiawarned:accordingtothetitle,
deliveredintheyearthatAhazdied(?B.C.
728).NeitherthisdatenoreventheIsaianicauthorshipofthepassageisuniversallyadmitted.
Chs.15,16.ThefateofMoab.Theprophecyisprovidedwithanepilogue,16:13f.,writtenatalaterdate(andnotclaimingtobebytheauthoroftheprophecy),
explainingthatwhatwaspredictedlongagowillbefulfilledwithinthreeyears.Instyletheprophecyisverygenerallyadmittedtobesingularlyunlikethatofthebetter
attestedpropheciesofIsaiahitisthereforeeitherattributedtoananonymousprophetwhowasearlierthanIsaiah,and,assomethink,livedinthereignofJeroboamII .,the
epilogueinthiscasebeingregardedasIsaiahs(thoughitcontainsnothingverycharacteristicofIsaiah),ortheprophecyaswellastheepilogueisassignedtoawriterlater
thanIsaiah.Muchofthematerialof15:116:12appearstobeworkedupfromoldermaterial,andsomeofitisinturnusedagaininJer48:5,2938.
17:111.TheimpendingfallofDamascus,Syria,andEphraim(cf.78:12):aprophecyofIsaiahsbeforethefallofDamascusinB.C.732.
17:1214.Theroarofhostilenations(presumablyintheAssyrianarmy)advancing,whicharetobesuddenlydispersed.Dateuncertain.
Ch.18.AdifficultpropheticpoemcontainingmuchthatisexceedinglyobscureitiscommonlyunderstoodtoembodyIsaiahsdisapprovalofacceptingproffered
Ethiopianassistanceifthisbecorrect,itmaybeassignedtosometimebetween704701.
19:115.JahwehsjudgmentonEgypt,whichwilltaketheformofcivildiscord(v.2),foreigndominion(v.4),andsocialdistress.Vv.1625,theconversionofEgypt,
which,togetherwithAssyria,willworship
Jahweh.DateofbothsectionsmuchdisputedassignedbysometoIsaiahandtothetimeofthedefeatofthe
EgyptiansbySargon(?v.2)atRaphiain720.ManyquestiontheIsaianicauthorship,especiallyofvv.16
(18)25,andsomeseeinv.18anallusiontothetempleofOniasinHeliopolis,builtaboutB.C.170
(Josephus,BJ,VII.x.24).SeeIRHAHERES.
Ch.20.AnarrativeandprophecyshowinghowIsaiahinsistedthatitwasfollytotrustintheMizritesandCushites(Arabians,accordingtosome,butascommonly
interpreted,EgyptiansandEthiopians).Thedateinv.1correspondstoB.C.711.
21:110. A vision of the fall of Babylon (v. 9) before Elamites (i.e. Persians) and Medes (v. 2). Like 40 55, this prophecy was written between 549, when Cyrus of
PersiaconqueredMedia,and538,whenBabylonfellbeforehim.
21:11f.and21:1317.Briefandobscureoracleson(a)Edom(b)somenomadtribesofArabia.
22:114.IsaiahdeclarestoJerusalem,once(or,asothersinterpretit,now)givenuptotumultuousrevels(v.2),thatithascommittedunpardonablesin(v.14).Assigned
bysometoB.C.711,whenSargonstroopswereatAshdod(ch.20)byotherstothetimeofrevelrythatfollowedSennacheribsretreatin701.
22:1625.SingularamongIsaiahspropheciesinthatitisaddressedtoanindividual,namelyShebnathegovernorofthepalace,whoisthreatenedwithdisgrace,which
in701hadbefallenhiminsofarthathethenoccupiesthelowerofficeofsecretary(36:2,37:2).
23:114.Anelegiacpoem,closing(v.14)asitbegins(v.1).ontheapproachingfallofPhnicia:theoccasion,accordingtosome,beingthesiegeofTyre(vv.5,8)by
Shalmaneser,betweenB.C.727and723:accordingtoothers,thedestructionofSidon(vv.2,4,12),inB.C.348.AfteritsfallTyrewillriseagainandserveJahweh(vv.15
18)cf.19.
Chs.2427.Anapocalypticvision,inwhichweseeuniversalcatastrophe(24:123),whichextendstothesupernaturalrulersorpatronangelsofthenations(24:21cf.
27:1),followedbythereignofJahweh,whotoHiscoronationfeastinvitesallnationsdeathisabolishedandsorrowbanished(25:68).TheJews,hiddenduringthetimeof
judgment(26:2027:1),returnfromtheirdispersiononeandalltoJerusalem(27:12f.).Interspersedaresongsorhymns(25:15,912,26:119,27:25).Difficultof
interpretationasapocalypsesarewonttobe,andinpartsobscuredbyveryserioustextualcorruption,itisyetclearthatthisisapostexilicwork(cf.e.g.27:12f.)andthe
occurrenceofstrikingideas,suchasthoseofresurrection(26:19),immortality(25:8),andpatronangels,whichoccurelsewhereintheOTonlyinitslatestparts,suggestsa
relativelylatepointeveninthisperiod.
Chs.2833.AgroupofpropheciesbroughttogetherprobablybyaneditoronaccountofthesimilaropeningofthesectionswithWoe(seeabove).Inthissectionthere
isaconstantandremarkablealternationbetweenmenaceanddenunciationofJudah,andconsolationofher,whichattimestakestheformormenacetoherfoes.Lookedat
fromthisstandpoint,thisbookletfallsintothefollowingsections,ofwhichthereferencestothesectionsofpromiseareheregiveninbrackets,28:14,(28:5,6),28:722,
(28:2329),29:16(7),(29:8,andpossiblypartsof29:17,accordingtointerpretation),29:916,(29:1724),30:117,(30:1833),31:14,(31:59),32:18,(32:914,32:15
20),(33).Insomecasesitwillbeseenthatthepromisefollowsabruptlyonthethreat,andconsiderablylessenstheforceofthelatter.Themenacesanddenunciationsseem
clearlytobetheworkofIsaiah,thoughsomequestionhisauthorshipof32:914(aparallelto3:164:1)butoflateseveralscholarshaveattributedtheentiregroupof
promisestolaterwriterse,andalargernumberdonotconsiderch.33tobetheworkofIsaiah.Inanycase,thesectionhasmerelyaneditorialunity,andisnotallofone
period:28:14wouldappeartohavebeencomposedbeforethefallofSamariain722themajorityoftheremainingmenaces,particularlythosewhichdenouncetheresortto
Egyptforhelp,maybestbereferredtotheperiodimmediatelybeforeSennacheribsinvasioninB.C.
701.
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701.
Chs.34,35.ThefutureofEdom,onwhomvengeanceistobetaken(34:8)foritstreatmentofZion(?in586),andthefutureoftheJewscontrasted.Notearlierthanthe
Exile,whichispresupposed(35:10),andprobablydependedon,andthereforelaterthan,chs.4055.
Chs.3639.Cf.art.KINGS[BOOKSOF].ItisnowgenerallyagreedthattheeditoroftheBookofIsaiahderivedthissectionfrom2Kings.Theonlysectionofthese
chaptersnotfoundinKingsis38:920,whichtheeditorapparentlyderivedfromacollectionofliturgicalpoems(cf.38:20).TheascriptionofthispsalmtoHezekiah(38:9)
ismuchquestioned.
Chs.4066.Once,perhaps,attributedtoJeremiah,butfromthebeginningofthe2ndcent.B.C.(seeabove)tothecloseofthe18thcent.A.D.,thesechapterswere
regardedastheworkofIsaiah.Sincethecloseofthe18thcent.theevidenceoftheirlaterorigin,whichisremarkablyclear,hasbeenincreasingly,tillitisnowgenerally,
admitted.Buttillwithinthelast15yearsthechapterswerecommonlyregardedasaunitynowitisbymanyadmittedthatchs.4055and5666belongtodifferentperiods,
theformertotheendoftheExile,thelatter(inthemain)totheageofEzra,whilesomecarrydisintegrationconsiderablyfurther.Itisimpossibletoenterfurtherintodetails
here.
(a)Chs.4055.ThesechapterspresupposethatthewriterandthosewhomheaddresseslivedduringtheperiodoftheBabylonianExiletheypredictasimminentthe
closeoftheExile,andreturnoftheJews.IndetailobservethatZionlieswasteandneedsrebuilding(44:28,49:1421,51:3,1723,52:712,54),whereasBabylonis
exalted,butisshortlytobebroughtlow(47,46:1f.).Cyrushimself,mentionedbynamein44:28,45:1,andquiteclearlyreferredtoin41:25ff.,isnotthesubjectof
predictionheisalreadywellknowntotheprophetandhisaudience(orreaders)hisfuturecareerispredicted.ByobservingwhatpartofCyruscareerwasalreadyover,
andwhatstillfuturetotheprophetashewrote,hisbookcanbedatedsomewhatprecisely.Cyrusappearedshortlybefore550inPersiatotheE.ofBabylonin549he
conquered
MediatotheN.ofBabylon,andin538hecapturedBabylon.Is41:25referstoCyrusasrulingbothtotheN.andE.theprophetthenwritesaftertheconquestofMediabut
hepredictsthefallofBabylon,andthereforewritesbeforethatevent.Between549and538,andprobablynearerthelatterdate,theprophecywaswritten.
Speakinggenerally,chs.4055aredominatedbyonerulingpurpose,namely,torousetheexilesoutoftheirdespondency,andtofirethemwithenthusiasmforwhatthe
writerregardsastheirfuturedestiny,theinstructionoftheworldinJahwehswaysandwill,inaword,intruereligion.Forthispurposeheemphasizesandillustratesthe
omnipotenceandomniscienceofJahweh,andthefutilityofthegodsofthenations.Again,thepassagesdealingwiththeServantoftheLord(wh.see)arebutoneformin
whichhedevelopshismainthemefortheServantisIsrael.Theonlysinsofthepeopleonwhichhispurposeallowshimtolaystressarethoseofdespondencyandunbelief
heisaware,indeed,thattherehavebeenothersinsinthepast,butastothesehismessageisthattheyarepardoned(40:2).Thesechapters,then,thoughtheprogressof
thoughtinthemmaybelessinastraightlinethancircular,arecloselyknittogether.Butwhenweturnto
(b)Chs.5666,thecontrastisgreat:thismaybeseenbyabriefsummary.Thus(1)56:18describesthetermsonwhichtheeunuchandtheforeignermaybeadmitted
totheJewishcommunity,andenforcestheobservanceoftheSabbath(2)56:957:21describesanddenouncesanexistingstateofsocietyinwhichthewatchmenofthe
peopleareneglectful,fromwhichtherighteousperish,andinwhichthepeoplegenerallyresorttovariousillegitimaterites:(3)denunciationofpeoplesedulousinfasting,
butgiventoinhumanityand(cf.56:18)profanationoftheSabbath(4)59,adenunciationsimilartothepreceding,followed(vv.15b21)byatheophanyinwhichJahweh
appearsasamanofwar(cf.63:16)(5)chs.6062,thefuturegloryofZion(6)63:16,JahwehsdayofvengeanceagainstEdom(cf.ch.34)(7)63:764,aliturgical
confession(8)thecontrastedcharactersanddestiniesoftheapostatesandtheloyaltheidolatrouscults(cf.
56:957:21)oftheformer.
Thedifferenceofoutlook,subject,andtreatmentbetweenchs.4055andchs.5666isobvious,andmustnotbedisregarded.Initselfsuchdifferenceneednot
necessarilyimplydifferenceofauthorship,thoughitcertainlysuggeststhatwehavetodowithdifferentworks,evenifofthesameauthor,writtenwithadifferentpurpose
andunderdifferentconditions.Andthereareotherfactswhichconfirmthissuggestion.Thusanumberofpassagesonthemostobviousandnatural,ifnottheonlypossible,
interpretationimplytheexistenceoftheTempleandthepresenceofthespeakerandhisaudienceinJerusalem,andconsequentlythattheExileisover(ornotyetbegun)
see56:6,7(cf.44:28)60:7[inchs.6062thewallsofJerusalemrequirerebuilding(60:10,cf.61:4),astheystilldidinthedaysofNehemiah(Neh13),buttheTempleis
apparentlyalreadythere]66:7,61:3.In57:57itisimpliedthatthepersonsaddressedarelivinginacountryoftorrentvalleysandloftyhillssuchasJudahwasandBabylon
wasnot.ThegeneralsocialconditionimpliedismoreeasilyandnaturallyexplainedoftheJewsinPalestinethaninBabylonforexample,thetribunalsareadministered,
thoughunjustly,byJews(59:69,14),andtherearewatchmen(prophets)andshepherds(rulers).
Thepresenceofsuchpassagesas57:57wasverynaturallyandrightlyusedbythosewhodefendedtheunityoftheBookofIsaiahasproofthatthepassagesinquestion
werenotwrittenintheExilebut,ofcourse,suchpassagescouldnotannultheevenclearerevidenceoftheexilicoriginofchs.4055.Foratimeotherscholarssawin
thosepartsofchs.5666whichimplyresidenceinPalestineproofoftheembodimentinchs.4066ofpreexilicliterature.ButaclearerviewofthehistoryoftheBookof
Isaiahshowsthatatheorythatsuchpassagesarepostexilicisequallylegitimate.Whetherpreexilicorpostexilicmustbedeterminedbyotherconsiderations.Thepresent
tendencyistoregardthewholeofchs.5666aspostexilic,andmostofit,ifnotthewhole,asbelongingtotheageofEzraandNehemiah,towhichsuchcharacteristicsas
thestresslaidontheobservanceoftheSabbathandtheinterestinthequestionoftheadmissionofstrangerstothecommunityverynaturallypoint.Ifthisviewiscorrect,we
have,forexamplein56:18,6062,theworkofbroadermindedandlessexclusivecontemporariesofEzraandNehemiah.
ItisexceedinglyunfortunatethattheRVdoesnotdistinguishthepoetical,whicharebyfarthelarger,partsoftheBookofIsaiahfromtheprose.Butthis
defectismadegoodinCheyneetranslation(PolychromeBible),whichmustoneverygroundberecommendedasoneofthemostvaluableaidstothestudyof
thebookofwhichtheEnglishstudentcanavailhimself.OfcommentariesinEnglish,Skinners(ontheAV)andWhitehouses(ontheRV)areconvenientand 24/62
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thebookofwhichtheEnglishstudentcanavailhimself.OfcommentariesinEnglish,Skinners(ontheAV)andWhitehouses(ontheRV)areconvenientand
good.ThelargercommentarybyCheynehasbeentosomeconsiderableextentantiquated,particularlybyhisowneditionofthebookinthePolychromeBible,
andhisinvaluable
IntroductiontotheBookofIsaiah.Intheseworks,andin,e.g.,DriversIsaiah,hisLifeandTimes,andhisLOT,andG.A.SmithsIsaiah(ExpositorsBible),
thestudentwillfindsufficientguidancetotheextensiveliteraturewhichhasgatheredroundtheBookofIsaiah.
G.B.GRAY.
ISCAH.ADAUGHTEROFHARANANDSISTEROFMILCAH,GN11:29(J).
ISCARIOT.SeeJUDASISCARIOT.
ISDAEL(1Es5:33)=Ezr2:56andNeh7:58Giddel.
ISHBAH.AJudahite(1Ch4:17).
ISHBAK.AsonofAbrahambyKeturah(Gn25:2=1Ch1:32).Thetribeofwhichheistheeponymissomewhatuncertain.
ISHBIBENOB.OneofthefourPhilistinesofthegiantstockwhowereslainbythemightymenofDavid(2S21:1517).
ISHBOSHETH.1.ThefourthsonofSaulonthedeathofhisfatherandthreebrotherson
Mt.Gilboa,hecontestedthethroneofIsraelwithDavidforsevenyears.DrivenbyDavidovertheJordan,hetookuphisheadquartersatMahanaim,where,
afterhavingbeendesertedbyAbner,hewasmurderedbytwoofhiscaptains.Hisnameisgivenin1Ch8:33and9:39asEshbaal.Thesamevariationmeets
usinthenameofJonathanssonMephiboshethorMeribbaalandinthecaseofJerubbaalorJerubbeshethsimilarly,wehaveBeeliadaandEliada.In1S
14:49IshbaalhasbecomeIshvi,whichinitsturnisacorruptionforIshiah,ormanofJahweh.ThechangeofIshbaal,manofBaal,intoIshbosheth,man
oftheshamefulthing,isordinarilyaccountedforonthesuppositionthatthelaterreligionwishedtoavoidthenowodioustermBaal.Thetheory,however,is
metbythedifficultythatitisintheChroniclerthattheformcompoundedwithBaaloccurs.HenceithasbeensuggestedthatBoshethisthefossilizednameofa
BabyloniandeityBast,forwhichtheory,however,littlesupportisforthcoming.2.IshboshethorIshbaalisprobablythetruereadingforJashobeamin1Ch
11:11etc.,whichiscorruptedtoJoshebbasshebethin2S23:8.
W.F.COBB.
ISHHOD.AManassite(1Ch7:18).
ISHI.1.AJerahmeelite(1Ch2:31).2.AJudahitechief(1Ch4:20).3.AchiefofEastManasseh(1Ch5:24).4.Oneofthecaptainsofthe500menof
thetribeofSimeonwhosmotetheAmalekitesatMt.Seir(1Ch4:42).
ISHI(myhusband).ThenamewhichHosea(2:16)recommendsIsraeltoapplytoJinsteadofBaali(mylord).
ISHMA.OneofthesonsofEtam(1Ch4:3).
ISHMAEL.1.ThesonofAbrahambyHagar.Hisname,whichmeansMayGodhear,wasdecideduponbeforehisbirth(Gn16:11).Asinthecaseof
thehistoryofhismother,threedocumentarysourcesareusedbythenarrator.JsuppliedGn16:414,E21:821,whilstPaddssuchlinksas16:15f.,17:1827,
25:710,1217.ForthestoryofhislifeuptohissettlementinthewildernessofParan,thenorthernpartoftheSinaiticpeninsula,seeHAGAR.Attheageof
thirteenhewascircumcisedonthesamedayashisfather(Gn17:25f.).InParanhemarriedanEgyptianwife,andbecamefamousasanarcher(21:20f.).No
otherincidentisrecorded,exceptthathewasassociatedwithhisstepbrotherintheburialoftheirfather(25:9),andhimselfdiedattheageof137(25:17).
Ishmaelhadbeenresolvedintoaconjecturalpersonificationofthefounderofagroupoftribesbutthenarrativeistoovividinitsportrayalofincidentand
character,andtootrueinitspsychologicaltreatment,tosupportthatview.Thatthereissomeidealizationintheparticularsispossible.Tribalrivalrymayhave
undesignedlycolouredthepresentmentofSarahsjealousy.Thelittlediscrepanciesbetweenthedocumentspointtoavarietyofhumanstandpoints,andareas
explicableupontheimplicationofhistoricityasuponthetheoryofpersonification.Thenoteofalltherecordedpassionsandpromptingsisnaturalnessandthe
obviousintentionofthenarrative,withtheimpressionproduceduponanuncommittedreader,isthatofanattemptatactualbiographyratherthanatthe
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obviousintentionofthenarrative,withtheimpressionproduceduponanuncommittedreader,isthatofanattemptatactualbiographyratherthanatthe
constructionofanartificialexplanationofcertainrelationshipsofrace.
InregardtothesocalledIshmaelites,thecaseisnotsoclear.Ishmaelisrepresentedasthefatheroftwelvesons(Gn25:1216,1Ch1:2931),andthe
phrasetwelveprincesaccordingtotheirnations(cf.Gn17:20)almostsuggestsanattemptonthepartofthewriteratanexhibitionofhisviewofracial
origins.AfurthercomplicationarisesfromtheconfusionofIshmaelitesandMidianites(37:28ff.,Jg8:24,26),thoughthetwoaredistinguishedinthe
genealogiesofGn25:1,4,13.Branchesofthedescendantsofthetwostepbrothersmayhavecombinedthroughsimilarityofhabitandlocation,andbeen
knownsometimesbytheonename,andsometimesbytheotherbuttherewasclearlynopermanentfusionofthetwofamilies.Norisitpossibletosaywhether
atanytimeareligiousconfederationoftwelvetribeswasformedunderthenameofIshmael,orifthenamewasadopted,becauseofitsprominence,forthe
protectionofsomeweakertribes.Theschememayhaveevenlessbasisinhistory,andbebutpartofanethnictheorybywhichtheHebrewgenealogistssought
toexplaintherelationshipsoftheirneighbourstooneanother,andtotheHebrewsthemselves.Adozentribes,scatteredovertheSinaiticpeninsulaandthe
districtseastoftheJordan,becauseofsomesimilarityincivilizationorlanguage,orinsomecasespossiblyundertheinfluenceofcorrecttradition,aregrouped
askinsmen,beingsonsofAbraham,butofinferiorstatus,asbeingdescendedfromthesonofahandmaid.ThatthedifferencesfromthepureHebrewwere
thoughttobestronglyEgyptianintheircharacterorsource,isindicatedbythestatementthatIshmaelsmotherandhiswifewerebothEgyptians.The
IshmaelitessoondisappearfromScripture.Thereareafewindividualsdescribedasofthatnationality(1Ch2:17,27:30)butinlatertimesthewordcouldbe
usedmetaphoricallyofanyhostilepeople(Ps83:6).
2.AsonofAzel,adescendantofSaulthroughJonathan(1Ch8:38,9:44).3.AncestoroftheZebadiahwhowasoneofJehoshaphatsjudicialofficers(2Ch
19:11).4.AmilitaryofficerassociatedwithJehoiadaintherevolutioninfavourofJoash(2Ch23:1).5.AmemberoftheroyalhouseofDavidwhotookthe
principalpartinthemurderofGedaliah(Jer41:1,2).ThestoryistoldinJer40:741:15,withasummaryin2K25:2326.ItisprobablethatIshmaelresented
NebuchadnezzarsappointmentofGedaliahasgovernorofJuda(Jer40:5)insteadofsomememberoftherulingfamily,andconsideredhimasunpatrioticin
consentingtorepresentanalienpower.FurtherinstigationwassuppliedbyBaalis,kingofAmmon(Jer40:14),whowasseekingeitherrevengeoran
opportunitytoextendhisdominions.GedaliahandhisretinuewerekilledafteranentertainmentgiventoIshmael,whogainedpossessionofMizpah,theseatof
government.ShortlyafterwardshesetoutwithhiscaptivestojoinBaalis,butwasovertakenbyabodyof
GedaliahssoldiersatthepoolofGibeon(Jer41:12),anddefeated.Hemadegoodhisescape(41:15)withthemajorityofhisassociatesbutofhissubsequent
lifenothingisknown.Theconspiracymayhavebeenpromptedbymotivesthatwereinpartwellconsidered,ifonthewholemistakenbutitissignificantthat
JeremiahsupportedGedaliah(40:6),inmemoryofwhosemurderanannualfastwasobservedforsomeyearsinthemonthTishri(Zec7:5,8:19).6.Oneofthe
priestspersuadedbyEzratoputawaytheirforeignwives(Ezr10:22cf.Ismael,1Es9:22).
R.W.MOSS.
ISHMAIAH.1.TherulerofthetribeofZebulun(1Ch27:19).2.OneofDavidsthirty(1Ch12:4).
ISHMERAI.ABenjamitechief(1Ch8:18).
ISHPAH.TheeponymofaBenjamitefamily(1Ch8:16).
ISHPAN.ABenjamitechief(1Ch8:22).
ISHSECHEL.InEzr8:18itissaid:AndbythegoodhandofourGoduponustheybrought
usamanofunderstanding,ofthesonsofMahli,whereRVgivesformanofunderstandingthemarginalpropernameIshsechel.Thatapropernameis
requirediscertain,butwhetherIshsechelisthatnameisnotsocertain.Isaacharhasbeensuggested.
W.F.COBB.ISHVAH.SecondsonofAsher(Gn46:17,1Ch7:30).
ISHVI.1.ThirdsonofAsher(Gn46:17,Nu26:44P,1Ch7:30)patronymicIshvites(Nu26:44).2.SecondsonofSaulbyAbinoam(1S14:49).
ISLAND,ISLE.TheHeb.wordmeansprimarilycoastlands,butsometimeslandsingeneral,andinonepassage(Is42:15)drylandasopposedto
water.InIs20:6Palestineiscalledthisisle(AV,butRVcoastland).TheislandsoftheGentilesorheathen(Gn10:6,Zeph2:11)areapparentlythecoastsof
theW.Mediterraneantheislesofthesea(Est10:1,Ezk26:18etc.)arealsotheMediterraneancoaststheisles(Ps72:10etc.,Is42:10etc.)meanstheWest
generallyascontrastedwiththeEast.TyreismentionedasanisleinIs23:2,andhereperhapsthetermmaybetakenliterally,asTyrewasactuallyatthattime
anisland.TheisleofKittim(Jer2:10,Ezk27:6)isprobablyCyprus,andtheisleofCaphtor(Jer47:4mg.),Crete.IntheNTfiveislandsarementioned:Cyprus
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anisland.TheisleofKittim(Jer2:10,Ezk27:6)isprobablyCyprus,andtheisleofCaphtor(Jer47:4mg.),Crete.IntheNTfiveislandsarementioned:Cyprus
(Ac4:36,11:19f.,13:4,15:39,21:3,16,27:4),Crete(27:7,12,13,21),Clauda(v.16),Melita(28:1),andPatmos(Rev1:9).
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
ISMACHIAH.ALeviteinthetimeofHezekiah(2Ch31:13).Cf.SEMACHIAH.
ISMAEL(1Es9:22)=Ezr10:22Ishmael.
ISMAERUS(1Es9:34)=Ezr10:34Amram.
ISRAEL
I.HISTORY
1.Sources.ThesourcesofJewishpoliticalandreligioushistoryaretheOT,thesocalledApocryphalwritings,theworksofJosephus,theAssyrianand
Egyptianinscriptions,allusionsinGreekandRomanhistorians,andtheMishnaandTalmud.
Moderncriticismhasdemonstratedthatmanyofthesesourceswerecomposedbyweavingtogetherpreviouslyexistingdocuments.Beforeusinganyofthesesources
excepttheinscriptions,therefore,itisnecessarytostatetheresultsofcriticalinvestigationandtoestimateitseffectuponthehistoricaltrustworthinessofthenarratives.
Genesis.Exodus,Leviticus,Numbers,Deuteronomy,andJoshua(theHexateuch)aretheproductofonelongliteraryprocess.Fourdifferentdocuments,eachtheworkofa
schoolofwriters,havebeenlaidundertributetocomposeit.Thesedocumentsarequotedsoliterallythattheycanstillbeseparatedwithpracticalcertaintyonefrom
another.ThedocumentsaretheJahwistic(J),composedinJudahbyJ1beforeB.C.800,perhapsinthereignofJehoshaphat,thoughfragmentsofolderpoemsarequoted,and
supplementedalittlelaterbyJ2theElohistic(E).composedintheNorthernKingdombyE1aboutB.C.750andexpandedsomewhatlaterbyE2theDeuteronomiccode
(D),composedbyD1aboutB.C.650,towhichD2prefixedasecondprefaceaboutninetyyearslatertheCodeofHoliness,compiledbyP1aboutB.C.500oralittleearlier,
thepriestlyBookofOriginswrittenbyP 2aboutB.C450,andvarioussupplementarypriestlynotesaddedbyvariouswritersatlatertimes.ItshouldbenotedthatD2added
variousnotesthroughouttheHexateuch.
ThedateshereassignedtothesedocumentsarethosegivenbytheGrafWellhausenschool,towhichthemajorityofscholarsinallcountriesnowbelong.TheEwald
Dillmannschool,representedbyStrackand
Kittel,stillholdthatPisolderthanD.FordetailsseeHEXATEUCH.
Judges,1and2Samuel,and1and2Kingswerealsocompiledbyoneliteraryprocess.ThecompilerwasafollowerofD,whowroteprobablyabout600.Thework
receivedasupplementbyakindredwriterabout560.Thesourcesfromwhichtheeditordrewwere,forJudges,Samuel,andthefirsttwochaptersofKings,theJandE
documentsinJg5apoemcomposedaboutB.C.1100isutilized.Theeditorinterpolatedhisowncommentsandattimeshisowneditorialframework,butthesourcesmaystill
bedistinguishedfromtheseandfromeachother.Afewadditionshavebeenmadebyastilllaterhand,butthesearereadilyseparated.In1K311achronicleofthereign
ofSolomonandanoldTemplerecordhavebeendrawnupon,buttheyareinterwovenwithglossesandlaterlegendarymaterial.Inthesynchronoushistory(1K122K17)
theprincipalsourcesaretheBookoftheChronicleoftheKingsofIsraelandtheBookofthe
ChronicleoftheKingsofJudah,thoughvariousotherwritingshavebeendrawnuponforthenarrativesofElijahandElisha.Theconcludingportion(2K1825)is
dependentalsoupontheJudanChronicle.InallpartsofKingstheDeuteronomiceditorallowshimselflargeliberties.Fordetailsseeartt.ontheBooksof
JUDGES,SAMUEL ,andKINGS.
Chronicles,Ezra,andNehemiaharealltheresultofalateliterarymovement,andcameintoexistenceaboutB.C.300.Theywerecomposedundertheinfluenceofthe
Leviticallaw.ThehistorywasretoldinChronicles,inordertofurnishthefaithfulwithanexpurgatededitionofthehistoryofIsrael.ThechiefsourcesoftheChronicler
weretheearliercanonicalbookswhicharenowfoundinourBibles.Wherehediffersfromtheseheisofdoubtfulauthority.SeeCHRONICLES.AmemoirofEzraandoneof
Nehemiahwerelaidundercontributioninthebookswhichrespectivelybearthesenames.Apartfromthesequotations,the
Chroniclercomposedfreelyashispointofviewguidedhisimagination.SeeEZRAandNEHEMIAH[Booksof].
Oftheremaininghistoricalbooks1Maccabeesisafirstratehistoricalauthority,havingbeencomposedbyanauthorcontemporarywiththeeventsdescribed.Theother
apocryphalworkscontainmuchlegendarymaterial.
JosephusisfortheearlierhistorydependentalmostexclusivelyupontheOT.Herehisnarrativehasnoindependentvalue.Fortheeventsinwhichhewasanactorheis
awriterofthefirstimportance.InthenonIsraelitishsourcesIsraelismentionedonlyincidentally,buttheinformationthusgivenisofprimaryimportance.TheMishnaand
Talmudarecompilationsoftraditionscontaininginsomecasesanhistoricalkernel,butvaluableforthelighttheythrowuponJewishlifeintheearlyChristiancenturies.
2.Historicalvalueoftheearlierbooks.IftheoldestsourceinthePentateuchdatesfromthe9thcent.,thequestionastothevalueofthenarratives
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2.Historicalvalueoftheearlierbooks.IftheoldestsourceinthePentateuchdatesfromthe9thcent.,thequestionastothevalueofthenarratives
concerningthepatriarchalperiodisforceduponus.Cantheaccountsofthattimeberelieduponashistory?Theanswerofmostscholarsofthepresentdayis
thatinparttheycan,thoughinadifferentwayfromthatwhichwasformerlyinvogue.Winckler,itistrue,woulddissolvethesenarrativesintosolarandastral
myths,butthemajorityofscholars,whilemakingallowanceforlegendaryandmythicalelements,areconfidentthatimportantoutlinesoftribalhistoryare
revealedintheearlybooksoftheBible.
ThetenthchapterofGenesiscontainsagenealogicaltableinwhichnationsarepersonifiedasmen.ThusthesonsofHamwereCush(Nubia),Mizraim
(Egypt),Put(EastAfrica?),andCanaan.ThesonsofShemwereElam,Assyria,Mesopotamia,Lud(alandofunknownsituation,notLydia),andAram(the
Aramans).Ifcountriesandpeoplesareherepersonifiedasmen,thesamemaybethecaseelsewhere:andinAbraham,Isaac,Jacob,Esau,andthetwelvesons
ofJacob,wemaybedealingnotwithindividualsbutwithtribes.Themarriagesofindividualsmayrepresentthealliancesorunionoftribes.Viewedinthisway,
thesenarrativesdisclosetoustheformationoftheIsraelitishnation.
Thetraditionsmay,however,beclassifiedintwoways:(1)astoorigin,and(2)astocontent.
(FortheclassificationastooriginseePaton,AJThviii.[1904],658ff.)
1.(a)Sometraditions,suchasthoseconcerningkinshipwithnonPalestiniantribes,thedeliverancefromEgypt,andconcerningMoses,werebroughtinto
Palestinefromthedesert.(b)Others,suchasthetraditionsofAbrahamsconnexionwithvariousshrines,andthestoriesofJacobandhissons,weredeveloped
inthelandofCanaan,(c)Stillotherswerelearnedfromthe
Canaanites.ThuswelearnfromaninscriptionofThothmesIII.aboutB.C.1500thatJacobelwasaplacenameinPalestine.(SeeW.M.Mller,Asienund
Europa,162.)Israel,aswillappearlater,wasanameofapartofthetribesbeforetheyenteredCanaan.InGenesis,JacobandIsraelareidentified,probably
becauseIsraelhadsettledintheJacobcountry.ThelatternamemusthavebeenlearnedfromtheCanaanites.Similarly,intheinscriptionofThothmesJosephel
isaplacename.Genesis(48:9ff.)tellshowJosephwasdividedintotwotribes,EphraimandManasseh.ProbablythelatterareIsraelitish,andaresocalled
becausetheysettledintheJosephcountry.LotorLuten(Egyp.Ruten)isanoldnameofPalestineorofapartofit.InGenesis,MoabandAmmonaresaidtobe
thechildrenofLot,probablybecausetheysettledinthecountryofLuten.Inmostcaseswhereatraditionhasblendedtwoelements,oneofthesewaslearned
fromtheCanaanites.(d)Finally,afourthsetoftraditionswerederivedfromBabylonia.ThisisclearlythecasewiththeCreationandDelugenarratives,
parallelstowhichhavebeenfoundinBabylonianandAssyrianliterature.(SeeKIBvi.)
2.Classifiedaccordingtotheircontent,wehave:(a)narrativeswhichembodythehistoryandmovementsoftribes.(b)Narrativeswhichreflectthe
traditionsofthevariousshrinesofIsrael.ThestoriesofAbrahamatBethel,Shechem,Hebron,andBeershebacomeunderthishead.(c)Legendaryand
mythicalsurvivals.Manyofthesehaveantiologicalpurposetheyexplaintheoriginofsomecustomorthecauseofsomephysicalphenomenon.ThusGn18,
19thedestructionofSodomandtheothercitiesoftheplainisastorywhichgrewuptoaccountfortheDeadSea,which,wenowknow,wasproducedby
verydifferentcauses.SimilarlyGn22isastorydesignedtoaccountforthefactthattheIsraelitessacrificedalambinsteadofthefirstborn.(d)Othernarratives
aredevotedtocosmogonyandprimevalhistory.ThisclassificationisworkedoutindetailinPetersEarlyHebrewStory.Itisclearthatinwritingahistoryof
theoriginofIsraelwemustregardthepatriarchalnarrativesasrelatinglargelytotribesratherthanindividuals,andmustusethemwithdiscrimination.
3.Historicalmeaningofthepatriarchalnarratives.PartsoftheaccountofAbrahamarelocaltraditionsofshrines,butthestoryofAbrahams
migrationisthenarrativeofthewestwardmovementofatribeorgroupoftribesfromwhichtheHebrewsweredescended.Isaacisashadowyfigureconfined
mostlytothesouth,andpossiblyrepresentsasouthPalestinianclan,whichwasafterwardsabsorbedbytheIsraelites.JacobIsrael(Jacob,asshownabove,isof
Canaanitishorigin
Israelwasthenameoftheconfederatedclans)representsthenationIsraelitself.IsraeliscalledanAraman(Dt26:5),andtheaccountofthemarriageofJacob
(Gn2931)showsthatIsraelwaskindredtotheAramans.Wecannowtraceinthecuneiformliteraturetheappearanceandwestwardmigrationofthe
Aramans,andweknowthattheybegintobementionedintheEuphratesvalleyaboutB.C.1300,andweremovingwestwardforalittlemorethanacentury
(seePaton,SyriaandPalestine,103ff.).TheIsraeliteswereapartofthisAramanmigration.
ThesonsofJacobaredividedintofourgroups.SixReuben,Simeon,Levi,Judah,Issachar,andZebulunaresaidtobethesonsofLeah.Leahprobably
meanswildcow(Delitzsch,
Prolegomena,80W.R.Smith,Kinship2,254).Thisapparentlymeansthatthesetribeswereofnearkin,andpossessedasacommontotemthewildcowor
bovineantelope.ThetribesofManasseh,Ephraim,andBenjamintracedtheirdescentfromRachel.Rachelmeansewe,andthesetribes,thoughkindredto
theothersix,possessedadifferenttotem.Judahwas,intheperiodbeforetheconquest,afarsmallertribethanafterwards,for,aswillappearlater,many
PalestinianclanswereabsorbedintoJudah.BenjaminissaidtohavebeentheyoungestsonofJacob,borninPalestinealongtimeaftertheothers.Thename
Benjaminmeanssonsofthesouth,orsoutherners:theBenjamitesareprobablythesouthernersofthetribeofEphraim,andweregraduallyseparatedfrom
thattribeaftertheconquestofCanaan.FoursonsofJacobDan,Naphtali,Gad,andAsheraresaidtobethesonsofconcubines.Thislesshonourablebirth
probablymeansthattheyjoinedtheconfederacylaterthantheothertribes.SincethetribeofAshercanbetracedintheelAmarnatabletsintheregionoftheir28/62
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probablymeansthattheyjoinedtheconfederacylaterthantheothertribes.SincethetribeofAshercanbetracedintheelAmarnatabletsintheregionoftheir
subsequenthabitat(cf.Barton,SemiticOrigins,248ff.),thistribeprobablyjoinedtheconfederacyaftertheconquestofPalestine.Perhapsthesameistrueof
theotherthree.
4.ThebeginningsofIsrael.TheoriginalIsrael,then,probablyconsistedoftheeighttribesReuben,Simeon,Levi,Judah,Issachar,Zebulun,
Manasseh,andEphraim,thoughperhapsthe
RacheltribesdidnotjointheconfederacyuntiltheyhadescapedfromEgypt(see6).Thesetribes,alongwiththeotherAbrahamidtheEdomites,
Ammonites,andMoabitesmovedwestwardfromtheEuphratesalongtheeasternborderofPalestine.TheAmmonites,Moabites,andEdomitesgaineda
footholdintheterritoriesafterwardsoccupiedbythem.TheIsraelitesappeartohavebeencompelledtomoveontothelessfertilesteppetothesouth,between
BeershebaandEgypt,roamingattimesasfarasSinai.Budde(Rel.ofIsr.totheExile,6)regardstheKhabiri,whointheelAmarnatabletslaysiegeto
Jerusalem,asHebrewswhomadeanincursionintoPalestine,c.B.C.1400.
ThoughmanyscholarsdenythattheywereHebrews,perhapstheywere.
5.TheEgyptianbondage.FromthetimeofthefirstEgyptiandynasty(c.B.C.3000),the
EgyptianshadbeenpenetratingintotheSinaiticPeninsulaonaccountoftheminesintheWadiMaghara(cf.Breasted,Hist.ofEgypt,48).Incourseoftime
Egyptdominatedthewholeregion,andonthisaccountitwascalledMusru,EgyptbeingMusruorMisraim(cf.Winckler,HibbertJour.ii.571ff.,andKAT3
144ff.).Becauseofthis,Wincklerholds(KAT3212ff.)thatthereisnohistoricalfoundationforthenarrativeoftheEgyptianoppressionoftheHebrewsand
theirexodusfromthatcountryallthis,hecontends,arosefromalatermisunderstandingofthenameMusru.But,asBudde(Rel.ofIsr.totheExile,ch.i.)has
pointedout,thefirmandconstanttraditionoftheEgyptianbondage,runningasitdoesthroughallfourofthePentateuchaldocumentsandformingthe
backgroundofallIsraelsreligiousandpropheticconsciousness,musthavesomehistoricalcontent.WeknowfromtheEgyptianmonumentsthatatdifferent
timesBedufromAsiaenteredthecountryonaccountofitsfertility.ThefamousHyksoskingsandtheirpeoplefoundaccesstothelandoftheNileinthisway.
Probability,accordingly,strengthensthetraditionthatHebrewssoenteredEgypt.Ex1:11statesthattheywerecompelledtoaidinbuildingthecitiesofPithom
andRaamses.ExcavationshaveshownthatthesecitieswerefoundedbyRamesesII.(B.C.12921225cf.Hogarth,AuthorityandArchology,55).Ithasbeen
customary,therefore,toregardRamesesasthePharaohoftheoppression,andMenephtah(Merenptah,12251215)asthePharaohoftheExodus.Thisview
hasinrecentyearsmetwithanunexpecteddifficulty.In1896astelewasdiscoveredinEgyptonwhichaninscriptionofMenephtah,datedinhisfifthyear,
mentionstheIsraelitesasalreadyinPalestineorthedeserttothesouthofit,andasdefeatedthere,(cf.Breasted,Anc.RecordsofEgypt,iii.256ff.).This
inscriptioncelebratesacampaignwhichMenephtahmadeintoPalestineinhisthirdyear(cf.Breasted,op.cit.272).Onthesurface,thisinscription,which
containsbyfartheoldestmentionofIsraelyetdiscoveredinanyliterature,andtheonlymentioninEgyptian,seemstofavourWincklersview.Thesubject
cannot,however,bedismissedinsolightamanner.ThepersistenthistoricaltraditionwhichcoloursallHebrewreligiousthoughtmusthave,onewouldthink,
somehistoricalfoundation.Themainthreadofitmustbetrue,butindetails,suchasthereferencetoPithomandRaamses,thetraditionmaybemistaken.
Traditionsattachthemselvestodifferentmen,whynottodifferentcities?Perhaps,asseveralscholarshavesuggested,anothersolutionismoreprobable,that
notalloftheHebrewswenttoEgypt.Wildeboer(JahvedienstenVolksreligieIsrael,15)andBudde(op.cit.10)holdthatitwasthesocalledJosephtribes,
EphraimandManasseh,thatsettledforatimeinEgypt,andthatMosesledforth.ThisreceivessomesupportfromthefactthattheEdocument,which
originatedamongtheEphraimites,isthefirstonethatremembersthatthenameJahwehwas,untiltheExodus,unknowntothem(cf.
Ex3:14).
Probablyweshallnotgofarastray,ifwesupposethattheLeahtribeswereroamingthesteppetothesouthofPalestinewhereMenephtahdefeatedthem,
whiletheRacheltribes,enticedintoEgyptbytheopportunitytoobtainaneasierlivelihood,becameentangledintroublethere,fromwhichMosesemancipated
them,perhapsinthereignofMenephtahhimself.
6.TheExodus.TheJ,E,andPdocumentsagreeintheirmainpictureoftheExodus,althoughJdiffersfromtheothertwoinholdingthattheworshipof
Jahwehwasknownatanearliertime.
Moses,theytellus,fledfromEgyptandtookrefugeinMidianwithJethro,aKenitepriest(cf.Jg1:16).Here,accordingtoEandP,atHoreborSinai,Jahwehs
holymount,MosesfirstlearnedtoworshipJahweh,who,hebelieved,senthimtodeliverfromEgypthisoppressedbrethren.Aftervariousplagues(Jgives
themassevenE,fiveandPsix)Mosesledthemout,andbyDivineaidtheyescapedacrosstheRedSea.JmakesthisescapetheresultofJahwehscontrolof
naturalmeans(Ex14:21).MosesthenledthemtoSinai,where,accordingtobothJandE,theyenteredintoasolemncovenantwithJahwehtoserveHimas
theirGod.AccordingtoE(Ex18:12ff.),itwasJethro,theKeniteorMidianitepriest,whoinitiatedthemintotheriteandmediatedthecovenant.Afterthisthe
RacheltribesprobablyalliedthemselvesmorecloselytotheLeahtribes,and,throughtheaidofMoses,graduallyledthemtoadopttheworshipofJahweh.
Religionwasatthisperiodpurelyanaffairofritualandmaterialsuccess,andsinceclanshadescapedfromEgyptthroughthenameofJahweh,otherswould
morereadilyadoptHisworshipalso.PerhapsitwasduringthisperiodthattheRacheltribesfirstbecamearealpartoftheIsraeliteconfederation.
7. TheWildernesswandering.ForsometimethehabitatofIsrael,asthusconstituted,wastheregionbetweenSinaionthesouthandKadesh,aspring
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7.TheWildernesswandering.ForsometimethehabitatofIsrael,asthusconstituted,wastheregionbetweenSinaionthesouthandKadesh,aspring
somefiftymilessouthofBeersheba,onthenorth.AtKadeshthefountainwassacred,andatSinaitherewasasacredmountain.Mosesbecameduringthis
periodthesheikoftheunitedtribes.BecauseofhispreeminenceintheknowledgeofJahwehheacquiredthisparamountinfluenceinalltheircounsels.Inthe
traditionsthisperiodiscalledtheWanderingintheWilderness,anditissaidtohavecontinuedfortyyears.Theexpressionfortyyearsis,however,usedbyD
andhisfollowersinavaguewayforanindefiniteperiodoftime.Inthiscaseitisprobablyratheroverthanundertheactualamount.
TheregioninwhichIsraelnowroamedwasanythingbutfertile,andthepeoplenaturallyturnedtheireyestomorepromisingpasturelands.Thistheydid
withthemoreconfidence,because
Jahweh,theirnewGod,hadjustdeliveredaportionofthemfromEgyptinanextraordinarymanner.Naturallytheydesiredthemostfertilelandintheregion,
Palestine.Findingthemselvesforsomereasonunabletomovedirectlyuponitfromthesouth(Nu13,14),perhapsbecausethehostileAmalekitesinterposed,
theymadeacircuittotheeastward.Accordingtothetraditions,theirdetourextendedaroundtheterritoriesofEdomandMoab,sothattheycameuponthe
territorynorthoftheArnon,whereanAmorltekingdomhadpreviouslybeenestablished,overwhich,inthecityof
Heshbon,Sihonruled.SeeAMORITES.
8.ThetransJordanicconquest.TheaccountoftheconquestofthekingdomofSihonisgivenbyEwithafewadditionsfromJinNu21.Nodetails
aregiven,butitappearsthatinthebattlesIsraelwasvictorious.WelearnfromthePdocumentinNu32thattheconqueredcitiesofthisregionweredivided
betweenthetribesofReubenandGad.PerhapsitwasatthistimethatthetribeofGadcameintotheconfederacy.Atleasttheyappearinrealhistoryherefor
thefirsttime.ThegenealogiesrepresentGadasthesonofaslavegirl.This,asalreadynoted,probablymeansthatthetribejoinedthenationatacomparatively
lateperiod.ProbablytheGaditescameinfromthedesertatthisperiod,andinunionwiththeReubeniteswonthisterritory,whichextendedfromtheArnontoa
pointalittlenorthofHeshbon.ItisusuallysupposedthattheterritoryofReubenlaytothesouthofthatofGad,extendingfromtheArnontoElealeh,northof
Heshbonbutinrealityeachtookcertaincitiesinsuchawaythattheirterritoryinterpenetrated(Nu32:34).ThustheGaditeshadDibon,Ataroth,andAroerto
thesouth,JazernorthofHeshbon,andBethnimrahandBethbaranintheJordanvalleywhiletheReubeniteshadBaalmeon,Nebo,Heshbon,andElealeh,
whichlaybetweenthese.Probablythecountrytothenorthwasnotconquereduntillater.ItistruethatDclaimsthatOg,thekingofBashan,wasconqueredat
thistime,butitisprobablethattheconquestofBashanbyapartofthetribeofManassehwasabackwardmovementfromthewestaftertheconquestof
Palestinewasaccomplished.DuringthisperiodMosesdied,andJoshuabecametheleaderofthenation.
9.CrossingtheJordan.TheconquestsofthetribeofGadbroughttheHebrewsintotheJordanvalley,buttheswiftlyflowingriverwithitsbanksofclay
formedaninsuperableobstacletotheseprimitivefolk.Thetraditionstellofamiraculousstoppageofthewaters.TheArabichistorianNuwairitellsofaland
slideofoneoftheclayhillsthatbordertheJordan,whichaffordedanopportunitytotheArabstocompleteamilitarybridge.Theaccountofthiswaspublished
withtranslationinthePEFSt,1895,p.253ff.TheJwriterwouldseeinsuchanevent,ashedidintheactionofthewindsuponthewatersoftheRedSea,the
handofJahweh.Theaccountsofitinwhichthepriestsandthearkfigureareoflaterorigin.Thesestoriesexplainedtheoriginofacircleofsacredstonescalled
Gilgal,whichlayonthewestoftheJordan,bythesuppositionthatthepriestshadtakenthesestonesfromthebedoftheriveratthetimeofthecrossing.
10.TheconquestofCanaan.ThefirstpointofattackaftercrossingtheJordanwasJericho.InJos6JsaccountandEsaccountofthetakingofJericho
arewoventogether(cf.theOxfordHexateuch,orSBOT,ad.loc.).AccordingtotheJaccount,theIsraelitesmarchedaroundthecityonceadayforsixdays.As
theymadenoattack,thebesiegedwerethrownofftheirguard,sothat,whenontheseventhdaytheIsraelitesmadeanattackattheendoftheirmarching,they
easilycapturedthetown.Astothesubsequentcourseoftheconquest,thesourcesdifferwidely.TheDandPstrataofthebookofJoshua,whichformthemain
portionofit,representJoshuaasgainingpossessionofthecountryintwogreatbattles,andasdividingitupamongthetribesbylot.TheJaccountofthe
conquest,however,whichhasbeenpreservedinJg1andJos810,13:1,7a,13,15:1419,63,16:13,10,17:1118,19:47,whileitrepresentsJoshuaasthe
leaderoftheRacheltribesandaswinningadecisivevictorynearGibeon,declaresthatthetribeswentuptowintheirterritorysingly,andthatintheendtheir
conquestwasonlypartial.Thisrepresentationismucholderthantheother,andismuchmoreinaccordwiththesubsequentcourseofeventsandwithhistorical
probability.
AccordingtoJ,thereseemtohavebeenatleastthreelinesofattack:(1)thatwhichJoshualedupthevalleyfromJerichotoAiandBethel,fromwhichtheterritories
afterwardsoccupiedbyEphraimandBenjaminweresecured.(2)AmovementonthepartofthetribeofJudahfollowedbytheSimeonites,southwestwardfromJerichointo
thehillcountryaboutBethlehemandHebron.(3)Lastly,therewasthemovementofthenortherntribesintothehillcountrywhichbordersthegreatplainofJezreel.JinJos
11:1,49tellsusthatinagreatbattlebytheWatersofMerom(wh.see)JoshuawonfortheIsraelitesavictoryoverfourpettykingsofthenorth,whichgavetheIsraelites
theirfootholdthere.InthecourseofthesestrugglesadisasterbefellthetribesofSimeonandLeviinanattempttotakeShechem,whichpracticallyannihilatedLevi,and
greatlyweakenedSimeon(cf.Gn34).ThisdisasterwasthoughttobeaDivinepunishmentforreprehensibleconduct(Gn49:57).Jdistinctlystates(Jg1)thattheconquest
wasnotcomplete,butthattwolinesoffortresses,remaininginthepossessionoftheCanaanites,cuttheIsraelitishterritoryintothreesections.Oneoftheseconsistedof
Dor,Megiddo.Taanach,Ibleam,andBethshean,andgavetheCanaanitescontrolofthegreatplainofJezreel.while,holdingastheydidJerusalem,Aijalon,Harheres
(Bethshemesh),andGezer,theycutthetribeofJudahofffromtheirnorthernkinsfolk.JfurthertellsusdistinctlythatnotalltheCanaanitesweredrivenout,butthatthe
CanaanitesandtheHebrewslivedtogether.Later,hesays,IsraelmadeslavesoftheCanaanites.ThislatterstatementisperhapstrueforthoseCanaaniteswhoheldoutin 30/62
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CanaanitesandtheHebrewslivedtogether.Later,hesays,IsraelmadeslavesoftheCanaanites.ThislatterstatementisperhapstrueforthoseCanaaniteswhoheldoutin
thesefortresses,butreasonswillbegivenlaterforbelievingthatbyintermarriageagradualfusionbetweenCanaanitesandIsraelitestookplace.
Reasonshavebeenadduced(3)forbelievingthatthetribeofAsherhadbeeninthecountryfromaboutB.C.1400.(Theconquestprobablyoccurredabout1200.)
ProbablytheyalliedthemselveswiththeothertribeswhenthelatterenteredCanaan.AtwhattimethetribesofNaphtaliandDanjoinedtheHebrewfederationwehaveno
meansofknowing.Jtellsus(Jg1:34,35)thattheDanitesstruggledforafootholdintheShephlah,wheretheyobtainedoutaninsecurefooting.Astheyafterwards
migratedfromhere(Jg17,18),andasaplaceinthisregionwascalledtheCampofDan(Jg13:25,18:12),probablytheirholdwasveryinsecure.WelearnfromJg15that
theypossessedthetownofZorah,whereSamsonwasafterwardsborn.
11.PeriodoftheJudges.Duringthisperiod,whichextendedfromabout1200toabout1020B.C.,Israelbecamenaturalizedintheland,andamalgamated
withtheCanaanites.ThechronologyoftheperiodasgivenintheBookofJudgesiscertainlytoolong.TheDeuteronomiceditor,whoisresponsibleforthis
chronology,probablyreckonedfortyyearsastheequivalentofageneration,and
1K6:1givesusthekeytohisscheme.HemadethetimefromtheExodustothefoundingofthe
Templetwelvegenerations(cf.Moore,JudgesinICC,p.xxxviii.).ThesocalledMinorJudgesTola,Jair,Ibzan,Elon,andAbdon(Jg10:15,12:815)
werenotincludedintheeditorschronology.Thestatementsconcerningthemwereaddedbyalaterhand.Asthreeoftheirnamesappearelsewhereasclan
names(cf.Gn46:13,14,Nu26:23,26,Dt3:14),andasanotherisacity(Jos21:30),scholarsareagreedthatthesewerenotrealjudges,butthattheyowetheir
existencetothemistakeofalatewriter.Similarly,Shamgar(Jg3:31)wasnotarealjudge.Hisnameappearswhereitdoesbecausesomelatewritermistakenly
inferredthatthereferencetoShamgar(probablyaHittitechief)inJg5:6wasanallusiontoanearlierjudge(cf.Moore,JAOSxix.159ff.).Somedoubtattaches
alsotoOthniel,whoiselsewhereayoungerbrotherofaCaleb,theCalebites,abranchoftheEdomiteclanoftheKenaz(cf.Jg1:13withGn36:11,15,42),
whichhadsettledinSouthernJudah.ThisdoubtisincreasedbythefactthatthewholeofthenarrativeoftheinvasionofCushanrishathaim,kingof
Mesopotamia,istheworkoftheeditor,RD,andalsobythefactthatnokingofMesopotamiawhocouldhavemadesuchaninvasionisknowntohaveexisted
atthistime.Furthermore,hadsuchakinginvadedIsrael,hispowerwouldhavebeenfeltinthenorthandnotinJudah.Ifthereisanyhistoricalkernelinthis
narrative,probablyitwastheEdomiteswhoweretheperpetratorsoftheinvasion,andtheirnamehasbecomecorrupted(cf.Paton,Syr.andPal.161).Itis
difficult,then,toseehowOthnielshouldhavebeenadeliverer,asheseemstohavebelongedtoakindredclan,butthewholemattermayhavebeenconfused
byoraltransmission.PerhapsthenarrativeisadistortedreminiscenceofthesettlementinSouthernJudahoftheEdomiticclansofCalebandOthniel.
TherealjudgeswereEhud,Deborah,Gideon,Jephthah,Eli,andSamuel.Samsonwasakindofgianthero,buthealwaysfoughtsinglehandedhewasno
leaderandorganizerofmen,anditisdifficulttoseehowhecanjustlybecalledajudge.Theagewasaperiodofgreattribalrestlessness.Othersweretryingto
dowhattheIsraeliteshaddone,andgainafootholdinPalestine.Waveafterwaveofattemptedinvasionbrokeovertheland.Eachcomingfromadifferent
directionaffectedadifferentpartofit,andinthepartaffectedapatriotwouldarousetheHebrewsofthevicinityandexpeltheinvader.Theinfluencethus
acquired,andthepositionwhichthewealthderivedfromthespoilofwargavehim,madesuchapersonthesheikofhisdistrictforthetimebeing.Thusthe
judgeswereinrealitygreattribalchieftains.Theyowedtheirofficetopersonalprowess.Becauseoftheircharactertheircountrymenbroughttothemtheir
causestoadjust,andtheyhadnoauthorityexceptpublicopinionwherebytoenforcetheirdecisions.
DeborahandBarakdeliveredIsrael,notfrominvaders,butfromamonarchwhomuptothattimetheHebrewshadbeenunabletoovercome.Itisprobable
thatthispowerwasHittite(cf.Moore,JAOS,xix.158ff.).Thisepisode,whichshouldprobablybedatedabout1150,markstheconclusionoftheconquestof
NorthernPalestine.
Therewerefourrealinvasionsfromoutsideduringtheperiodofthejudges:thatoftheMoabites,whichcalledEhudintoprominencethatoftheMidianites,
whichgaveGideonhisopportunitythatoftheAmmonites,fromwhomJephthahdeliveredGileadandthatofthePhilistines,againstwhomSamson,Eli,
Samuel,andSaulstruggled,butwhowerenotovercomeuntilthereignofDavid.ThefirstoftheseinvasionsaffectedtheterritoriesofReubenandGadonthe
east,andofBenjaminonthewest,oftheJordan.Itprobablyoccurredearlyintheperiod.ThesecondinvasionaffectedthecountryofEphraimandManasseh,
andprobablyoccurredaboutthemiddleoftheperiod.GideonssonAbimelechendeavouredtoestablishapettykingdominShechemafterGideonhadrunhis
successfulcareer,buttheattemptatkingshipwaspremature(cf.Jg9).TheAmmoniteinvasionaffectedonlyGilead,whilethePhilistineinvasionwaslater,
moreprolonged,andaffectedallofCentralPalestine.ThesepeoplecameintoPalestinefromtheoutside
(cf.PHILISTINES),pushedtheinhabitantsoftheMaritimePlainbackupontheIsraelites,mademanyattemptstoconquerthehillcountry,andbytheendofthe
reignofSaulheldthegreaterpartofthePlainofJezreel.
ThestruggleswiththeseinvadersgraduallycalledintoexistenceanationalconsciousnessinIsrael.ItisclearfromthesongofDeborahthatwhenthatpoem
waswrittentherewasnosenseofnationalunity.Adimsenseofkinshipheldthetribestogether,butthiskinshipbroughttoDeborahsstandardonlythosewho
hadsometribalinterestinthestruggle.TheReubenitesdidnotrespondtotheappeal(Jg5:16),whilethetribeofJudahisnotmentionedatall.
Attheendoftheperiod,thekingshipofSaul,whorespondedtoacalltohelpJabesh,aGileaditecity,againstasecondinvasionofAmmonites,isthe31/62
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Attheendoftheperiod,thekingshipofSaul,whorespondedtoacalltohelpJabesh,aGileaditecity,againstasecondinvasionofAmmonites,isthe
expressionofadevelopingnationalconsciousness.
AtsometimeduringthisperiodapartoftheDanitesmovedtothefootofMountHermon,tothecitywhichwashenceforthtobecalledDan(Jg17,18).Duringthese
yearstheprocessofamalgamationbetweentheIsraelitesandthetribespreviouslyinhabitingthelandwentsteadilyforward.PerhapsitoccurredinthetribeofJudahona
largerscalethanelsewhere.Atallevents,wecantraceittheremoreclearly.ThestoriesofJudahsmarriagesinGn38reallyrepresenttheunionofShnaitesandTamarites
withthetribe.TheunionoftheKenazitesandCalebiteswithJudahhasalreadybeennoted.TheKenitesalsounitedwiththem(Jg1:16),asdidalsotheJerahmeelites(cf.1
S30:29with1Ch2:9).WhatwentoninJudahoccurredtosomeextentinallthetribes,thoughprobablyJudahexcelledinthis.Perhapsitwasalargeradmixtureofforeign
bloodthatgaveJudahitssenseofaloofnessfromtherestofIsrael.Certainitis.however,thatthegreatincreaseinstrengthwhichIsraelexperiencedbetweenthetimeof
DeborahandthetimeofDavidcannotbeaccounted
foronthebasisofnaturalincrease.TherewereelementsinthereligionoftheIsraeliteswhich,notwithstandingtheabsorptionofculturefromtheCanaanites,enabledIsrael
toabsorbinturnthe
Canaanitesthemselves.Thereligiousandethicalaspectsoftheperiodwillbeconsideredinconnexionwiththereligion.
12.ReignofSaul.TherearetwoaccountsofhowSaulbecameking.Theolderofthese(1S9:1,10:16,27b,11:1,15)tellshowSaulwasledtoSamuelin
seekingsomelostasses,howSamuelanointedhimtobeking,andhowaboutamonthafterthatthemenofJabeshgilead,whomtheAmmoniteswere
besieging,sentoutmessengersearnestlyimploringaid.Saul,bymeansofagorysymbolismconsonantwiththehabitsofhisage,summonedtheIsraelitesto
followhimtowar.Theyresponded,andbymeansofthearmythusraisedhedeliveredthedistressedcity.AsaresultofthisSaulwasproclaimedking,
apparentlybyacclamation.Thelateraccount(whichconsistsofthepartsof1S812notenumeratedabove)presentsapicturewhichissounnaturalthatit
cannotbehistorical.Saulgainedhiskingdom,then,becauseofhissuccessasamilitaryleader.Probablyatfirsthissovereigntywasacknowledgedonlybythe
RacheltribesandGilead.
ThePhilistines,uponhearingthatIsraelhadaking,naturallyendeavouredtocrushhim.Soonafterhisaccession,therefore,Saulwascompelledtorepelan
invasion,bywhichthePhilistineshadpenetratedtoMichmash,withintenmilesofhiscapital.TheircampwasseparatedfromSaulsbythedeepgorgeof
Michmash.OwingtothedaringandvalourofJonathan,avictorywasgainedforIsraelwhichgaveSaulforatimefreedomfromtheseenemies(cf.1S13,14).
SauloccupiedthisrespiteinanexpeditionagainstIsraelsoldtimeenemiestheAmalekites.Ouraccountofthis(1S15)comesfromthelater(E)source,and
givesus,bywayofexplainingSaulslaterinsanity,thestatementthathedidnotdestroytheaccursedAmalekiteswithalltheirbelongings,butpresumedtotake
somebootyfromthem.
Soon,however,SaulwascompelledoncemoretotakeuparmsagainstthePhilistines,whomhefoughtwithvaryingfortunesuntiltheyslewhiminbattle
onMountGilboa.DuringthelateryearsofSaulslifefitsofinsanitycameuponhimwithincreasingfrequency.Thesewereinterpretedbyhiscontemporariesto
meanthatJahwehhadabandonedhimthushisfollowersweregraduallyestrangedfromhim.Alargepartofthespacedevotedtohisreignbythesacredwriters
isoccupiedwiththerelationsbetweenSaulandtheyouthfulDavid.Thesenarrativesarepurelypersonal.Theonlylightwhichtheythrowuponthepolitical
historyoftheperiodisthattheymakeitclearthatSaulsholduponthetribeofJudahwasnotaveryfirmone.
HowlongthereignofSaulcontinuedwehavenomeansofknowing.TheBooksofSamuelcontainnostatementconcerningit.Manyscholarsbelievethat
theeditorofSamuelpurposelyomitteditbecauseheregardedDavidasthelegitimatereligioussuccessorofSamuel,andviewedSaulconsequentlyasa
usurper.Saulmusthaveruledforsomeyearstenorfifteen,probablyandhiskingdomincludednotonlytheterritoryfromthePlainofJezreeltoJerusalem,
withalessfirmholduponJudah,butthetransJordanicGileadites.Thelatterweresoloyaltohimthathisson,whenJudahseceded,abandonedhishomein
Gibeon,andmadeMahanaimhiscapital.WhatattitudethetribestothenorthofJezreeltooktowardsSaulwedonotknow.
13.ReignofDavid.BeforeSaulsdeathDavidhadattachedthemenofJudahsofirmlytohimself,andhadexhibitedsuchqualitiesofleadership,that,
whenSaulfellatGilboa,DavidmadehimselfkingofJudah,hiscapitalbeingHebron.AsJonathan,thecrownprince,hadfalleninbattle,Abner,Saulsfaithful
general,madeIshbaal(calledinSamuelIshbosheth)king,removinghisresidencetoMahanaim.Forsevenandahalfyearscivilwardraggeditselfalong.
ThenJoabbytreacherousmurderremovedAbner(2S3:27ff.),assassinsdisposedoftheweakIshbaal,andIsraelandJudahweresoonunitedagainunderone
monarch,David.Wearenottounderstandfrom2S5thattheeldersofIsraelallcameimmediatelyinonebodytomakeDavidking.Probablytheycameoneby
oneatintervalsoftime.Thereweremanytribaljealousiesandambitionsdeterringsomeofthemfromsuchacourse,butthetimesdemandedaunitedkingdom,
andastherewasnoonebutDavidwhogavepromiseofestablishingsuchamonarchy,theyultimatelyyieldedtothelogicofevents.
Davidsoondevotedhimselftotheconsolidationofhisterritory.JustatthenorthernedgeofthetribeofJudah,commandingthehighwayfromnorthto
south,stoodtheancientfortressof
Jerusalem.IthadneverbeeninthepossessionoftheIsraelites.TheJebusites,whohadhelditsince
IsraelsentranceintoCanaan,fondlybelievedthatitspositionrendereditimpregnable.ThiscityDavidcaptured,andwiththeinsightofgeniusmadeithis
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IsraelsentranceintoCanaan,fondlybelievedthatitspositionrendereditimpregnable.ThiscityDavidcaptured,andwiththeinsightofgeniusmadeithis
capital(2S5:4ff.).Thischoicewasawiseoneineveryway.HadhecontinuedtodwellinHebron,bothBenjaminwhichhadinthepreviousreignbeenthe
royaltribeandEphraimwhichnevereasilyyieldedprecedencetoanyotherclanwouldhaveregardedhimasaJudanratherthananationalleader.
JerusalemwastotheIsraelitesanewcity.Itnotonlyhadnoassociationswiththetribaldifferencesofthepast,but,lyingasitdidontheborderlandoftwo
tribes,wasneutralterritory.Moreover,thenaturalfacilitiesofitssituationeasilymadeitanalmostimpregnablefortress.DavidaccordinglyrebuilttheJebusite
strongholdandtookuphisresidenceinit,andfromthistimeonwarditbecamethecityofDavid.
ThePhilistines,everjealousoftherisingpowerofIsrael,soonattackedDavidinhisnewcapital,buthegainedsuchavictoryoverthem(2S5:18ff.)thatin
thefutureheseemstohavebeenabletoseekthemoutcitybycityandsubduethemathisleisure(2S8:1ff.).HavingcrushedthePhilistines,Davidturnedhis
attentiontothetransJordaniclands.HeattackedMoab,andafterhisvictorytreatedtheconqueredwiththegreatestbarbarity(8:2).Hewas,however,thechild
ofhisage.Allwarswerecruel,andtheAssyrianscouldteachevenDavidlessonsincruelty.Edomwasalsoconquered(8:13,14).Ammonneedlesslyprovoked
awarwithDavid,andafteralongslegetheircapitalRabbah,onthedistantborderofthedesert,succumbed(10,11).ThepettyAramanStateofZobahwas
drawnintothewar,andwascompelledtopaytribute(8:3ff.).Damascus,whoseinhabitants,askinsfolkofthepeopleofZobah,triedtoaidthelatter,was
finallymadeatributaryStatealso(8:5ff.),sothatwithinafewyearsDavidbuiltupaconsiderableempire.Thisterritoryhedidnotattempttoorganizeina
politicalway,but,accordingtotheuniversalOrientalcustomofhistime,heruleditthroughtributarynativeprinces.Toi,kingofHamath,andHiram,kingof
Tyre,sentembassiestowelcomeDavidintothebrotherhoodofkings.ThusIsraelbecameunited,andgainedarecognizedpositionamongthenations.
ThissuccesswaspossiblebecauseatthemomentAssyriaandEgyptwerebothweak.Intheformercountrytheperiodofweaknesswhichfollowedthereignofthe
greatTiglathpileserI .wasatitsheight,whileinthelatterlandthe21stdynasty,withitsduallineofrulersatThebesandTanis,renderedthecountrypowerlessthrough
internaldissensions.
DaviduponhisremovaltoJerusalemorganizedhiscourtuponamoreextensivescalethanSaulhadeverdone,and,accordingtoOrientalcustom,increased
hisharem.TheearlySemitewasoftenpredisposedtosexualweakness,andDavidexhibitedthefrequentbentofhisrace.HissinwithBathsheba,and
subsequenttreacherytoherhusbandUriah,neednotberetold.DavidsfondnessforhissonAbsalomandhislaxtreatmentofhimproducedmoredirepolitical
consequences.AbsalomledarebellionwhichdrovethekingfromJerusalemandnearlycosthimhisthrone.Davidonthisoccasion,likeIshbaalbeforehim,
tookrefugeatMahanaim,theeastJordanichinterland.HereDavidsconducttowardstherebellioussonwassuchthat,butforthefactthattherelentlessJoab
disregardedtheexpresscommandsofhisroyalmasterandputAbsalomtodeathafterhisarmyhadbeendefeated,itisdoubtfulwhetherAbsalomwouldnot
havetriumphedintheend.Asmallerrevoltgrewoutofthis,butthereductionofAbelnearDaninthenorthfinallyrestoredDavidsauthoritythroughoutthe
land.
DuringthereignofDavid,thoughwedonotknowinwhatpartofit,twomisfortunesbefellthecountry.Thefirstofthesewasafamineforthreesuccessive
years(2S21).ThemeanstakentowinbackthefavourofJahweh,whichitwassupposedIsraelhadforfeited,sothatHeshouldgiverainagain,isaneloquent
commentaryonthebarbarousnatureoftheageandtheprimitivecharacterofitsreligiousconceptions.Theothereventwasaplague,whichfollowedanattempt
ofDavidtotakeacensus(ch.24),andwhichtheIsraelitesaccordinglybelievedJahwehhadsenttopunishthekingforpresumptuouslyintroducingsuchan
innovation.
ThelastdaysofDavidwererenderedunquietbytheattemptofhissonAdonijahtoseizethe
crown(1K1).Having,however,fixedthesuccessionuponSolomon,thesonofBathsheba,Davidissaidtohavelefttohimasaninheritancethedutyoftaking
vengeanceuponJoabandShimei(1K2:1ff.).
TothereignofDavidsubsequentgenerationslookedasthegoldenageofIsrael.NeveragaindidtheboundariesofaunitedIsraelitishempireextendsofar.
Theseboundaries,magnifiedalittlebyfondimagination,becametheideallimitsofthePromisedLand.Davidhimself,idealizedbylaterages,becamethe
prototypeoftheMessiah.ThereignofDavidissaidtohavelastedfortyyears.ItprobablyextendedfromaboutB.C.1017to977.
14.ReignofSolomon.ProbablyupontheaccessionofSolomon,certainlyduringhisreign,twoofthetributaryStates,EdomandDamascus,gainedtheir
independence(1K11:1425).TheremainderoftheempireofDavidwasheldbySolomonuntilhisdeath.UptothetimeofSolomontheIsraeliteshadbeena
simpleruralpeopleuntouchedbythesplendourorthecultureoftheworldoutside.Simpleshepherdsandvinedressers,theyknewnothingofthesplendoursof
TyreorBabylonorEgypt,andhadneverpossessedwealthenoughtoenjoysuchsplendourshadtheyknownthem.Davidhadrisenfromthepeople,andtohis
deathremainedasimplemanofhisrace.Solomon,borninthepurple,determinedtobringhiskingdomintolinewiththegreatpowersoftheworld.He
accordinglyconsummatedamarriagewiththedaughterofPharaoh,probablyoneofthePharaohsoftheTanitebranchofthe21stdynasty.Thismarriage
broughthimintotouchwiththeoldcivilizationofEgypt.Inordertoequiphiscapitalwithpublicbuildingssuitabletotheestateofsuchanempire,Solomon
hiredPhnicianarchitects,andconstructedapalaceforhimself,oneforthedaughterofPharaoh,andaTempleofsuchmagnificenceastherusticIsraeliteshad
neverseen.Latergenerationshaveoverlaidtheaccountsofthese,especiallyoftheTemple,withmanyglosses,increasingtheimpressionoftheirgrandeur(cf.33/62
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neverseen.Latergenerationshaveoverlaidtheaccountsofthese,especiallyoftheTemple,withmanyglosses,increasingtheimpressionoftheirgrandeur(cf.
TEMPLE),butthereisnodoubtthatinthewayofluxurytheyfarsurpassedanythingpreviouslyknowninIsrael.Thewholepilewasapproachedthrougha
hypostylehallbuiltonEgyptianmodels,calledthehouseoftheforestofLebanon,whileintotheTemplebrazenworkandbrazeninstrumentswere
introduced,inflagrantviolationofIsraelitishtraditions.Evenabrazenaltarofburntofferingwassubstitutedforthetraditionalaltarofstone.Ornamentsof
palmtreesandcherubimsuchasadornedthetempleofMelkartatTyredecoratednotonlytheinterioroftheTemple,butthebrazeninstrumentsaswell.These
religiousinnovationswerelookeduponwithdisfavourbymanyofSolomonscontemporaries(cf.1K12:28b),andthebuildings,althoughtheboastofalater
age,wereregardedwithmingledfeelingsbythosewhowerecompelledtopaythetaxesbywhichtheywereerected.
NotonlyinbuildingsbutalsoinhiswholeestablishmentdidSolomondepartfromthesimplewaysofhisfather.Henotonlymarriedthedaughtersofmany
ofthepettyPalestiniankingswhowerehistributaries,butfilledhisharemwithnumerousotherbeautiesbesides.Probablythestatementthathehad700wives
and300concubines(1K11:3)istheexaggerationofalaterwriter,but,allowingforthis,hisharemmusthavebeenverynumerous.Hismethodoflivingwasof
courseinaccordwiththemagnificentbuildingswhichhehaderected.Tosupportthissplendourtheoldsystemoftaxationwasinadequate,andanewmethod
hadtobedevised.Thewholecountrywasdividedintotwelvedistricts,eachofwhichwasplacedunderthechargeofataxgatherer,andcompelledtofurnish
forthekingshousetheprovisionforonemonthineachyear(1K4:718).Itisnoteworthythatinthisdivisioneconomicconditionsratherthantribalterritories
werefollowed.Notonlywerethetribesunequalinnumbers,buttheterritoryofcertainsectionswasmuchmoreproductivethanthatofothers.Solomonstax
collectorswereplacedinthemostfertilesectionsoftheland.Solomonisalsosaidtohavedepartedfromthesimplewaysofhisfatherbyintroducinghorses
andchariotsforhisuse.TheassistheanimalofthesimplePalestinian.TheancientHebrewalwayslookedaskanceatahorse.Itwasanemblemofprideand
luxury.Inhiseyesitwastheinstrumentofwar,notofpeace.Theintroductionofthisluxuryfurtherestrangedmanyof
SolomonsnonJudansubjects.HiswealthwasincreasedbyhiscommercewithSouthArabia.HeestablishedafleetoftradingvesselsontheRedSea,
mannedwithPhniciansailors(1K9:26ff.).
EarlyinhisreignSolomonobtainedareputationforwisdom.WisdomtotheearlyHebrewdidnotmeanphilosophy,butpracticalinsightintohuman
natureandskillinthemanagementofpeople(cf.1K3:1628).Itwasthisskillthatenabledhimtoholdhiskingdomintactinspiteofhismanyinnovations.It
wasthisskillthatinthelatertraditionsmadeSolomon,fortheIsraelite,thetypicalwiseman.AlthoughwecannotlongerascribetohimeithertheBookof
ProverbsortheBookofEcclesiastes,hisreputationforwisdomwasnodoubtdeserved.
Solomonsreignissaidtohavecontinuedfortyyears(1K11:42).Ifthisbeso.B.C.977937isprobablytheperiodcovered.TowardsthecloseofSolomons
reignthetribeofEphraim,whichinthetimeoftheJudgescouldhardlybeartoallowanothertribetotakeprecedenceofit,Becamerestless.Itsleaderwas
Jeroboam,ayoungEphraimiteofficertowhomSolomonhadentrustedtheadministrationoftheaffairsoftheJosephtribes(1K11:28).Hisplansforrebelling
involvedthefortificationofhisnativecityZeredah.whichcalledSolomonsattentiontohisplot,andhefledaccordinglytoEgypt,wherehefoundrefuge.In
thelattercountrythe21stdynasty,withwhichSolomonhadintermarried,hadpassedaway,andtheLibyanShishak(Sheshonk),thefounderofthe
22nddynasty,hadascendedthethroneinB.C.945.HeruledaunitedEgypt,andentertainedambitionstorenewEgyptsAsiaticempire.Shishakaccordingly
welcomedJeroboamandofferedhimasylum,butwasnotpreparedwhileSolomonlivedtogivehimanarmywithwhichtoattackhismaster.
15.Divisionofthekingdom.UponthedeathofSolomon,hissonRehoboamseemstohavebeenproclaimedkinginJudahwithoutopposition,butas
somedoubtconcerningtheloyaltyoftheothertribes,ofwhichEphraimwasleader,seemstohaveexisted,RehoboamwenttoShechemtobeanointedasking
attheirancientshrine(1K12:1ff.).Jeroboam,havingbeeninformedinhisEgyptianretreatoftheprogressofaffairs,returnedtoShechemandpromptedthe
eldersofthetribesassembledtheretoexactfromRehoboamapromisethatincasetheyacceptedhimasmonarchhewouldrelievethemoftheheavytaxation
whichhisfatherhadimposeduponthem.Afterconsideringthematterthreedays,Rehoboamrejectedtheadviceoftheolderandwisercounsellors,andgave
suchananswerasonebredtothedoctrineoftheDivinerightofkingswouldnaturallygive.Thesubstanceofhisreplywas:Mylittlefingershallbethicker
thanmyfathersloins.AstheresultofthisanswerallthetribesexceptJudahandaportionofBenjaminrefusedtoacknowledgethedescendantofDavid,and
madeJeroboamtheirking.Judahremainedfaithfultotheheirofheroldhero,and,becauseJerusalemwasontheborderofBenjamin,theJudankingswere
abletoretainastripofthelandofthattribevaryingfromtimetotimeinwidthfromfourtoeightmiles.AllelsewaslosttotheDavidicdynasty.
Thechiefforceswhichproducedthisdisruptionwereeconomic,buttheywerenottheonlyforces.Religiousconservatismalsodiditsshare.Solomonhadin
manywayscontravenedthereligiouscustomsofhisnation.HisbrazenaltarandbrazenutensilsfortheTemplewerenotorthodox.Althoughhemadeno
attempttocentralizetheworshipathisTemple(whichwasinrealityhisroyalchapel),hisdisregardofsacredritualhaditseffect,andJeroboammadeanappeal
toreligiousconservatismwhenhesaid,Beholdthygods,OIsrael,whichbroughttheeupoutofthelandofEgypt.Sinceweknowthehistoryonlythroughthe
workofapropagandistofalatertypeofreligion,theattitudeofJeroboamhaslongbeenmisunderstood.Hewasnotareligiousinnovator,butareligious
conservative.
Whenthekingdomwasdivided,thetributaryStatesofcoursegainedtheirindependence,andIsraelsempirewasatanend.Thedaysofherpoliticalglory
hadbeenlessthanacentury,andherempirepassedawaynevertoreturn.Thenation,dividedanditspartsoftenwarringwithoneanother,couldnoteasily
becomeagainapowerofimportance.
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becomeagainapowerofimportance.
16.FromJeroboamtoAhab(937875).Afterthedivisionofthekingdom,thesouthernportion,consistingchieflyofthetribeofJudah,wasknownas
thekingdomofJudah,whilethenortherndivisionwasknownasthekingdomofIsrael.JudahremainedloyaltotheDavidicdynastyaslongasshemaintained
herindependence,butinIsraelfrequentchangesofdynastyoccurred.Onlyonefamilyfurnishedmorethanfourmonarchs,someonlytwo,whileseveralfailed
totransmitthethroneatall.Thekingsduringthefirstperiodwere:
ISRAEL.JUDAH.
JeroboamI 937915.
Nadab 915913. Abijam 920917.
Baasha 913889. Asa 917876.
Elah 889887. Jehoshaphat 876.
Zimri days.

Omri 887875.
FewofthedetailsofthereignofJeroboamhavecomedowntous.HefortifiedShechem(1K12:25),butTirzah(whichKlostermannregardsasthesameas
Zeredah)wasalsoaresidence(1K14:17).Jeroboamextendedhisroyalpatronagetotwosanctuaries,DanandBethel,theoneatthenorthernandtheotherat
thesouthernextremityofhisterritory.NaturallytherewerehostilerelationsbetweenhimandJudahaslongasJeroboamlived.Nodetailsofthishostilityhave
comedowntous.IfwehadonlytheBiblicalrecordsbeforeus,weshouldsupposethatJeroboamwasaidedinthiswarbyShishakofEgypt,forwearetold
howheinvadedJudah(1K14:25)andcompelledRehoboamtopayatributewhichstrippedtheTempleofmuchofitsgoldentreasureandornamentation.It
appearsfromtheEgyptianinscriptions,however,thatShishakscampaignwasdirectedagainstboththeHebrewkingdomsalike.Hisarmymarchednorthward
tothelatitudeoftheSeaofGalilee,capturedthetownsofMegiddo,Taanach,andShunemintheplainofJezreel,thetownofBethsheanatthejunctionof
JezreelwiththeJordanvalley,andinvadedtheEastJordaniccountryasfarasMahanaim.ManytownsinJudahwerecapturedalso.(Cf.BreastedsHist.of
Egypt,530.)HowdeeptheenmitybetweenIsraelandJudahhadbecomemaybeinferredfromthefactthatthisattackoftheEgyptianmonarchdidnotdrive
themtopeace.937920.Rehoboam
Shishakscampaignseemstohavebeenamereplunderingraid.ItestablishednopermanentAsiaticempireforEgypt.Afterthisattack,Rehoboam,
accordingtotheChronicler,strengthenedthefortificationsofhiskingdom(2Ch11:511).Accordingtothispassage,histerritoryextendedtoMareshah(Tell
Sandehannah)andGath(TellesSafi?)intheShephlah,andsouthwardasfarasHebron.NomentionismadeofanytownnorthofJerusalemorintheJordan
valley.
ThehostilerelationsbetweenthetwokingdomswereperpetuatedafterthedeathofRehoboam,duringtheshortreignofAbijam.Intheearlypartofthe
reignofAsa,whileNadabwasonthethroneofIsrael,activehostilitiesceasedsufficientlytoallowthekingofIsraeltobesiegethePhilistinecityofGibbethon,
atowninthenorthernpartoftheMaritimePlainoppositethemiddleportionoftheIsraelitishterritory.TheIsraelitishmonarchfeltstrongenoughtoendeavour
toextendhisdominionsbycompellingtheseancientenemiesofhisracetosubmitoncemore.Duringthesiegeofthistown,Baasha,anambitiousmanofthe
tribeofIssachar,conspiredagainstNadab,accomplishedhisassassination,andhadhimselfproclaimedkinginhisstead(1K15:2729).Thusthedynastyof
Jeroboamcametoanendinthesecondgeneration.
BaashauponhisaccessiondeterminedtopushmorevigorouslythewarwithJudah.EnteringintoanalliancewithBenhadadI.ofDamascus,heproceededto
fortifyRamah,fivemilesnorthofJerusalem,asabaseofoperationsagainstJudah.Asainthiscrisiscollectedallthetreasurethathecould,sentittoBenhadad,
andboughthimoff,persuadinghimtobreakhisalliancewithIsraelandtoenterintoonewithJudah.Benhadadthereuponattackedsomeofthetownsinnorth
easternGalilee,andBaashawascompelledtodesistfromhisJudancampaignanddefendhisownborders.AsatookthisopportunitytofortifyGeba,about 35/62
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easternGalilee,andBaashawascompelledtodesistfromhisJudancampaignanddefendhisownborders.AsatookthisopportunitytofortifyGeba,about
eightmilesnortheastofJerusalem,andMizpeh,fivemilestothenorthwestofit(1K15:1622).TheonlyotherimportanteventofAsasreignknowntous
consistedoftheerectionbyAsasmotherofanashrahmadeinadisgustinglyrealisticform,whichsoshockedthesenseofthetimethatAsawascompelledto
removeit(15:13).
Cf.,forfullerdiscussion,below,II.1(3).
DuringthereignofElahanattemptwasmadeoncemoretocaptureGibbethon.ThesiegewasbeingprosecutedbyanablegeneralnamedOmri,whilethe
weakkingwasenjoyinghimselfatTirzah,whichhadbeentheroyalresidencesincethedaysofJeroboam.Whilethekingwasinadrunkenbrawlhewaskilled
byZimri,thecommanderofhischariots,whowasthenhimselfproclaimedking.Omri,however,uponhearingofthis,hastenedfromGibbethontoTirzah,
overthrewandslewZimri,andhimselfbecameking.Thusoncemoredidthedynastychange.OmriprovedoneoftheablestrulerstheNorthernKingdomever
had.TheBibletellsuslittleofhim,buttheinformationwederivefromoutsidesourcesenablesustoplacehiminproperperspective.Hisfamespreadto
Assyria,where,evenafterhisdynastyhadbeenoverthrown,hewasthoughttobetheancestorofIsraelitishkings(cf.KIBi.151).Omri,perceivingthesplendid
militarypossibilitiesofthehillofSamaria,chosethatforhiscapital,fortifiedit,andmadeitoneofhisresidences,thusintroducingtohistoryanamedestined
insucceedinggenerationstoplayanimportantpart.HeappearstohavemadeapeacefulalliancewithDamascus,sothatwarbetweenthetwokingdomsceased.
HealsoformedanalliancewiththekingofTyre,takingJezebel,thedaughteroftheTyriankingEthbaal,asawifeforhissonAhab.Wealsolearnfromthe
MoabiteStonethatOmriconqueredMoab,compellingtheMoabitestopaytribute.AccordingtotheBible,thistributewaspaidinwool(2K3:4).Scantyasour
informationis,itfurnishesevidencethatbothinmilitaryandincivilaffairsOmrimustbecountedastheablestruleroftheNorthernKingdom.Ofthenatureof
therelationsbetweenIsraelandJudahduringhisreignwehavenohint.Probably,however,peaceprevailed,sincewefindthenexttwokingsofthesekingdoms
inalliance.
17.FromAhabtoJeroboamII.(875781).
Themonarchsofthisperiodwereasfollows:
ISRAEL. JUDAH.

Ahab 875853.
Ahaziah 853851. Jehoram 851843.
Joram 851842. Ahaziah 843842.
Jehu 842814. Athaliah 842836.
Jehoahaz 814797. Joash 836796.
Jehoash 797781. Amaziah 796782.

Azariah(Uzziah)782.
WiththereignofAhabwecomeuponanewperiodinIsraelshistory.Economicandreligiousforceswhichhadbeenslowlydevelopingforcenturiesnow
maturedforactionandmadetheperiodoneofremarkableactivity.Movementsbeganwhichweredestinedintheirfaroffconsummationtodifferentiatethe
religionofIsraelfromtheotherreligionsoftheworld.876851.Jehoshaphat
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religionofIsraelfromtheotherreligionsoftheworld.876851.Jehoshaphat
ThenewqueenJezebelwasaTyrianprincess.Accordingtothecustomofthetime,shewaspermittedtoraiseshrinesforhernativedeities,Melkartand
AshtartofTyre.ThesegodswerekindredtoJahwehandtheCanaaniteBaalsinthatallhadsprungfromthesameantiqueSemiticconceptionsofdivinitybut
theydifferedinthatTyrehadbecomethroughcommerceoneofthewealthiestcitiesoftheworld,anditswealthhadmadeitscultmoreornatethanthesimpler
cultsofruralCanaan,andmuchmoreornatethantheJahwehcultofthedesert.Theidlenesswhichwealthcreates,too,hadtendedtoheighteninadisgusting
waythesexualaspectsoftheSemiticcultaspractisedatTyre.Theseaspectswereinprimitivetimescomparativelyinnocent,andintheJahwehcultwerestill
so(cf.Barton,SemiticOrigins,300).JezebelseemstohavepersuadedherhusbandalsotodisregardwhattheIsraelites,inwhomthespiritofindividualand
tribalfeelingstillsurvived,consideredtobetheirrights.TherewasaroyalresidenceinthecityofJezreel.NearthisacertainNabothownedavineyard,which
theroyalpairdesired.Asherefusedtopartwithitonanyterms,theonlywayforthemtoobtainitwastohavehimputtodeathonthefalsechargeofhaving
cursedGodandtheking.ThisJezebeldid,andthenAhabseizedhisproperty.Hebrewpolitymadenoprovisionfortheforcibletakingofpropertybythe
Governmenteveniftheequivalentinmoneywerepaid,andthishighhandedprocedurebroughtfromthewildsofGileadachampionofJahwehandofpopular
rightsagainstthekingandtheforeigngodsinthepersonofElijahtheTishbite.ItwasnotthatNabothhadbeenputtodeathonfalsetestimony,butthathis
propertyhadbeentaken,thatwasintheeyesofElijahthegreatersin.ThisinfringementofoldHebrewprivilegeheconnectedwiththeworshipoftheforeign
deity,andinhislongcontestwithAhabandJezebelhebeganthatpropheticmovementwhichcenturiesafterforeconomic,religious,and,later,forethical
reasonsproducedJudaism.
OnthepoliticalsideweknowthatAhabmadeanalliancewithJehoshaphatofJudah,whichsecuredpeacebetweenthetwokingdomsforaconsiderable
time.Jehoram,thesonofJehoshaphat,marriedAthaliah,thedaughterofAhabandJezebel(1K22:44,2K8:26).AhabrebuiltandfortifiedJericho(1K
16:34).Thefirstpartofhisreignseemstohavebeenprosperous,butaboutthemiddleofittheMoabites,accordingtotheMoabiteStone,gainedtheir
independence.InB.C.854Ahabwasoneofaconfederacyoftwelvekings,whowereheadedbyBenhadadII.ofDamascus,andwhofoughtShalmaneserII.at
KarkarontheOrontes(KIBi.173ff.).AlthoughShalmaneserclaimsavictory,itisclearthatthealliespracticallydefeatedhim.Hemayhavetakensomespoil
asheclaims,buthemadenofurtherprogressintoPalestineatthattime.InthenextyearwefindthatBenhadadhadinvadedthetransJordanicterritoryandhad
seizedRamothgilead.Ahab,inendeavouringtoregainit,hadtheassistanceoftheJudanking,butwaswoundedinbattleandlosthislife.WhenAhabdied,
therefore,theMoabitesandAramanshaddividedhisEastJordaniclandsbetweenthem.OfthebriefreignofhissonAhaziahweknownothing.
Meantime,inJudah,Jehoshaphathadhadaprosperousreign,althoughtheBiblicalwriterstelluslittleofit.HehadmadeEdomtributarytohim(1K
22:47),andhadreestablishedaHebrewfleetupontheRedSea(22:48).Jehoram(orJoram),whosucceededtothethroneofIsraelinJehoshaphatslastyear,
leavingtheAramansinpossessionofRamothgileadforatime,endeavoured,withtheaidofJehoshaphatandhistributarykingofEdom,toresubjugate
Moab(2K3).Theymadetheattackfromthesouth,marchingtoitaroundtheDeadSea.ThearmieswereaccompaniedbytheprophetElisha,whohad
succeededtotheworkofElijah,althoughhewasnotamanofElijahssturdymould.Afteramarchonwhichtheynearlydiedofthirst,theyoverranMoab,
besiegedandnearlycaptureditscapital.InhisdistressthekingofMoabsacrificedhiseldestsontoChemosh,theMoabitegod.Thesacrificewasperformedon
thecitywallinsightofbotharmies,andproducedsuchoppositeeffectsonthesuperstitiousmindsofthebesiegedandthebesiegersthatthesiegewasraised
andtheconquestofMoababandoned.
ThechiefeventofthereignofJehoramofJudah,Jehoshaphatssuccessor,wasthelossof
Edom,whichregaineditsindependence(2K8:20ff.).HissonAhaziah,thesonofAthaliah,andanephewofJehoram,thereigningkingofIsrael,wenttoaid
hisuncleinthesiegeofRamothgilead,whichwasstillinpossessionofthekingofDamascus.Joramwaswoundedinbattle,andthetwomonarchsreturnedto
theroyalresidenceatJezreelwhilethewoundwashealing.Meantimethepropheticcircles,inwhichthetraditionsofthesimpleworshipofJahwehwere
cherished,determinedtooverthrowthehatedhouseofAhab.ElishaencouragedJehu,amilitaryofficeremployedinthesiegeofRamothgilead,toreturnto
Jezreelandslaytheking.Thishedid,killingnotonlythekingofIsrael,butalsothekingofJudah,andexterminatingJezehelandallheroffspring.Thisdone,
JehustartedforSamaria.OnthewayhewasjoinedbyJonadab,sonofRechab,whohadfoundedakindoforderofzealotsforthepreservationofthesimpler
formsof
Jahwehworship.AccompaniedbyJonadah,hewenttoSamaria,calledasolemnfeastinhonourofBaal,andwhentheworshipperswereassembled,massacred
themall.ThusbarbarousandunethicalweretheJahwehreformersofthisperiod(cf.2K9,10).IntheveryyearthatJehuthusgainedthethrone,Shalmaneser
II.againmarchedintotheWest.Thistimeapparentlynopowerfulalliancewasformedagainsthim.DamascusandIsraelwereatwarresistancetotheAssyrian
seemedhopeless,andJehuhastenedtorendersubmissionandpayatribute.InconsequenceofthisJehuispicturedontheblackobeliskofShalmaneserinthe
BritishMuseumintheundignifiedattitudeofkissingtheAssyrianmonarchsfoot.Beyondthisnottoogloriousrevolutionandthisinglorioussubmission,the
reignofJehu,thoughlong,accomplishednothing.
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InJudah,whenAhaziahwasputtodeath,Athaliah,thedaughterofJezehel,sawthatheropportunitywasslippingaway.Aqueenmothercountedfor
somethingshehadheldthatpositionbutforayear,andnowitwasgone.AthaliahinheritedthespiritandtheruthlessnessofJezebel.Accordinglysheseized
thereinsofgovernmentandputtodeath,asshethought,alltheroyalseedthatcouldinanywaydisputehersway.ThusithappenedthatadaughterofJezebel
satonthethroneofDavid.HerenodoubtsheexercisedherpreferencesforthericherandmorerepulsivecultofMelkart,butinJudahtherehaddevelopedas
yetnostrongoppositiontosuchinnovations.InthisearlyperiodthereligiousinterestisintheNorthernKingdom.Whattherewasnoprophettodo,priests,
however,accomplished.Onelittleprince,Joash,hadbeenrescuedwhentheslaughteroftheprincesoccurred,andafterhehadbeenconcealedsixyears,under
theguidanceofJehoiada,thepriest,hewasproclaimedking,andAthaliahwasassassinated(2K11).Joashenjoyedalongreignoffortyyears,duringtheearly
partofwhichhewasundertheguidanceofthepriests.DuringhisreignmoneyfortherepairoftheTemplewasraisedinaverynaturalway,butinawaynot
sanctionedbythelaterLeviticalCode(cf.2K12:416).
Meantime,inIsrael,Jehuhadpassedaway,andhissonJehoahazhadsucceededhim.AtthebeginningofhisreignJehoahaz,likehispredecessors,was
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Meantime,inIsrael,Jehuhadpassedaway,andhissonJehoahazhadsucceededhim.AtthebeginningofhisreignJehoahaz,likehispredecessors,was
unsuccessfulinhiseffortsagainstDamascus,butHazael,whonowoccupiedtheAramanthrone,wasalessablemanthanhispredecessors,andJehoahaz
ultimatelydefeatedhim(2K13:25).ThiswasthebeginningofaneraofprosperityforIsraelwhichwascontinuedoverintothenextperiod.
Hazael,ashewaslosingstrengthintheEast,soughttoincreasehisprestigeintheWest.AfterasuccessfulcampaignintheMaritimePlain,hemoved
againstJerusalem.Joashwasnowarrior,andhastenedtobuyofftheAramanwithaheavytribute(2K12:17ff.).Whetheritwasthisthatdisaffectedthe
subjectsofJoashwedonotknow,buthewasassassinatedbyaconspiracy(2K12:20),whichplacedhissonAmaziahonthethrone.
MeantimeJehoahazofIsraelhadbeensucceededbyhissonJehoash,whofolloweduphisfathersvictoryovertheAramans,defeatingthemthreeseparate
times,andregainingallIsraelsEastJordanicterritory(2K13:25).Amaziah,theJudanking,whenonceestablishedinpower,executedtheassassinsofhis
father,andthensetouttobuilduphiskingdom.EdomseemedthenaturaldirectioninwhichJudahcouldexpandheaccordinglyattacked,defeated,and
occupiedapartatleastofthatcountry.HethensentachallengetoJehoashofIsrael,whichthatkingatfirsttreatedwithcontempt.Thechallenge,however,
producedwar,Israelseemstohavebeentheinvaderafterall,forthebattlewasfoughtatBethshemesh.JudahwasdefeatedsocompletelythatJehoashwentup
andtookJerusalemwithoutseriousopposition,andbrokedownfourhundredcubitsofitswall,fromthecornergatetothegateofEphraim.Later,Amaziah,
learningthataconspiracyhadformedagainsthim,fledtoLachish,whichseemstohavebelongedtoJudah.Theconspiratorspursuedhimthither,slewhim,and
madehisyoungsonAzariah,orUzziah,king.
18.FromJeroboamII.tothefallofSamaria(781,722).Thechronologyofthisperiodisasfollows:
ISRAEL. JUDAH.
JeroboamII 781740
Zechariah 6months Jotham 737735
Shallum 740737 Ahaz 735725
Menahem 737735 Hezekiah 725696

Pekahiah 2 months
Pekah 735733.

Hoshea 733722.
Towardstheendoftheperiodtreatedintheprecedingparagraph,Israelsenemiesoneverysidehadgrownweaker.AnAssyrianking,AdadnirariIII.,had
madeanexpeditionintotheWestin797,onwhichheclaimstohavereceivedtributenotonlyfromTyreandSidon,butalsofromthelandofOmriasthe
AssyriansstillcalledthekingdomofIsrael,butafterthisformorethanhalfacenturyAssyriawastooweaktodisturbtheHebrews.TheAramansunder
HazaelhadalsolosttheirpowertodisturbtheIsraelites.Egyptunderthe22nddynastybecameunable,aftertheoneexpeditionofShishak,tointerferein
Asiaticaffairs.AccordinglythekingdomsofIsraelandJudahunderthetwoablekings,JeroboamandUzziah,entereduponaneraofunprecedentedprosperity.
Betweenthemthesemonarchsrestoredtheterritoryoverwhichtheyruled,almosttothelimitsoftheDavidicboundaries.Jeroboaminhislongreignextended
theboundariesofIsraelnorthwardtoHamathandDamascus,perhapsincludinginhisempireDamascusitself(2K14:28),whileUzziah,iftheChronicleristo
befollowed(2Ch26),extendedhisboundariessouthwardtotheRedSea,andreducedthePhilistinecitiesoncemoretothepositionoftributaries.With
outpostsinallthesedirections,andtheRedSeaopentocommerce,avigorousandprofitabletradesprangupinthislongeraofpeace.Freedfromthenecessity
ofcontinualwarfare,thespiritofthenationgaveitselfwithtremendousenthusiasmtotheacquisitionofmaterialadvantages.Neitherearthquakenortempest
coulddampentheirardourbymisfortune.Wealthincreasedgreatly,andpalaceswhichtothesimpleIsraelitesseemedvastwererearedoneveryhand.Every 39/62
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coulddampentheirardourbymisfortune.Wealthincreasedgreatly,andpalaceswhichtothesimpleIsraelitesseemedvastwererearedoneveryhand.Every
documentofthetimespeaksoftheerectionofbuildingsorpalaces.Wealthandleisurecreatedaliteraryepoch,asaresultofwhich,about750,theEdocument
wascomposed.Wealth,however,wasnotevenlydistributed.Thepalaceswereforacomparativelysmallminority.Thepoor,whiletheysawprosperity
increasingaroundthem,weredailybecomingpoorer.TheeconomicconditionsofthereignofAhab,whichhadcalledforththedenunciationsofElijah,not
onlyexistednowinanexaggeratedform,butweredailybecomingworse.Amoneyedclass,distinctfromtheoldshepherdandagriculturalclass,hadbeen
evolved.Capitaliststhen,asnow,desiredinterestfortheirmoney.Lendingittothepoorhusbandman,theynaturallyfeltjustifiedinseizinghislandifhewas
unabletorepay.ThissocialconditionappearedtotheconservativeworshippersofJahwehasinthehighestdegreeobnoxious.JahwehhadneverbeentheGod
ofacommercialpeople.ForoneofHisworshipperstoexactusuryfromanotherwasregardedasanoffenceagainstHimtotakefromoneofHisfaithfulones
landgivenhimbyJahwehinpaymentfordebt,howeverjustthedebt,wasinJahwehseyes
unpardonableoppressionofthepoor.782737Azariah(Uzziah)
Thesesocialconditions,thusviewed,calledforthanewsetofprophets,menofahighermoralandspiritualorderthananyknownbeforeinSemitic
history.Twoofthese,AmosandHosea,belongaltogethertothisperiod,whileIsaiahbeganhispropheticworkwhentwothirdsofithadpassed.Amos(wh.
see),theearliestofthem,cameforwardabout755todenouncethesocialinjusticesoftheNorthernKingdomandtopronounceJahwehsdoomonthewhole
circleofsinfulnationswhichsurroundedIsrael.Onesidedashiseconomicpointofviewwas,hisethicalstandardwastheloftiestandpurest,andhis
conceptionofJahwehastheGodwhoruledallnationscarriedmensthoughtsintoacleareratmosphere.Amossimplydenounced,butHosea(wh.see),who
camealittlelater,andputforwardaviewofJahwehnolessethical,proclaimedJahwehasaGodofredeeminglove.Itisclearfromtheworkoftheseprophets
thatthecultsofJahwehandBaalhadinthelapseoftimebecomemingled.JahwehhadlongbeenconceivedasaBaal.Hoseaproclaimsagainthenomadic
Jahweh,austere,simple,andmoral,ascomparedwiththedeterioratedcultsnowpractisedbyHisfollowers.
Itisclear,therefore,thatthesameforceswereatworkthatappearedinthetimeofAhabandElijah,onlynowtheforeignreligiouselementwasnotso
clearlyforeignintheeyesofthepeopleatlarge,andtheeconomicconditionsweremoreaggravated.
AmosandHoseawerecountryprophets,whosesympathieswerenaturallywiththepoorerclassesofthepeople,butIsaiah,thecityprophet,isnoless
strenuousthantheyinhisdenunciationsofmansinhumanitytoman.Towardstheendofthislongperiodofoutwardprosperityandsocialandreligious
ferment,achangeoccurredinAssyria.Pul,orTiglathpileserIII.,ashenowcalledhimself,seizedthethrone(B.C.745),subsequentlyprovinghimself,bothasa
generalandasastatesman,oneoftheworldsgreatmen.Thismonarchwas,however,occupieduntiltheyear742inreducingtheEasttohissceptre.Whenhe
turnedhisattentiontotheWest,thesiegeofArpadoccupiedhimfortwoyears,sothatbeforeheinterferedinPalestinianaffairsJeroboamII.hadpassedaway.
ThechronologyoftheNorthernKingdomafterthedeathofJeroboamII .isveryconfused.ManyofthestatementsofthepresentBiblicaltextaremanifestlyincorrect.
ThestatementofitgivenaboveisaconjecturalreconstructionrestingpartlyontheAssyrianevidence.
AfterZechariah,thesonofJeroboam,hadreignedbutsixmonths,aconspiracyremovedhimandplacedShallumonthethrone.WithZechariahthehouse
ofJehudisappeared.
Uzziah,whoinhisoldagehadbecomealeper,andhadassociatedhissonJothamwithhimonthethrone,appearstohavetakenaleadingpartinthe
organizationofacoalitionofnineteenStates,includingCarchemish,Hamath,andDamascus,toopposethewestwardprogressofTiglathpileser.Beforethe
AssyrianmonarchmadehisappearanceagainintheWest,anotherrevolutioninSamariahadremovedShallumandplacedMenahemonIsraelsthrone.The
Assyrian,whoapparentlycamein737(EsarhaddonmutilatedtheinscriptionsofTiglathpilesersothatourdataareincomplete),seemstohavemarched
southwardalongtheMaritimePlainasthoughtoattackUzziahhimself.UponhisapproachMenahemdesertedtheconfederacyandhastenedtopayhistribute
toAssyria.WhetheritwasthisdefectionorwhetheritwasabattlethatcompelledUzziahtopaytributewedonotknow,butTiglathpileserrecordshimamong
histributepayers(KIBii.20).Uzziahdiedinthatyear.Theshort,independentreignofJothamseemstohavebeenuneventful.Menahemdiedabout735his
sonPekahiahwassoonremovedbyarevolution,andPekahbecamekinginSamaria(2K
15:2227).InJudah,JothamwassucceededinthesameyearbyhisyouthfulsonAhaz.Pekahand
Rezin,whonowsatonthethroneofDamascus,desiredtoformanewconfederacytothrowoffAssyriasyoke.IntothistheyattemptedtodrawAhaz,and
whenhedeclinedtoengageinthehopelessenterprisetheythreatenedtomakewarjointlyonJudah,deposeAhaz,andplaceacertainTabeelonthethroneof
Judah.Uponthereceiptofthisnews,consternationreignedinJerusalem,butbothkingandpeoplewerereassuredbytheprophetIsaiah(Is7).Isaiahshopes
werewellfounded,forinthenextyear(134)TiglathpileserreturnedtotheWest,tookDamascusafteraconsiderablesiege(atownwhichhispredecessorshad
atvarioustimesformorethanahundredyearstriedinvaintocapture),madeitanAssyriancolony,putPekahthekingofIsraeltodeath(KIBii.33),carried
captivetoAssyriatheprincipalinhabitantsoftheterritorynorthofthePlainofJezreel(2K15:29ff.),madeHosheakingofareducedterritory,andimposed
uponhimaheavytribute.Ahaz,upontheapproachofTiglathpileser,hadrenewedhisallegianceandafterthecaptureofDamascushewentthithertodo
obeisanceinpersontotheAssyrianmonarch.ThusthewholeofIsraelpassedirrevocablyintoAssyriaspower.AtDamascus,Ahazsawanaltartheformof
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obeisanceinpersontotheAssyrianmonarch.ThusthewholeofIsraelpassedirrevocablyintoAssyriaspower.AtDamascus,Ahazsawanaltartheformof
whichpleasedhim.HeaccordinglyhadapatternofitbroughttoJerusalem,andonelikeitconstructedthere.ThebrazenaltarwhichSolomonhaderected
beforetheTemplewasremovedtoonesideandreservedforthekingsownuse.Thenewaltar,establishedinitsplace,becamethealtarofordinarypriestly
services.
OnewouldsupposethattheNorthernKingdomhadnowreceivedsuchachastisementthatfurtherrevoltwouldnotbethoughtof,andapparentlyitwasnot,
solongasTiglathpileserlived.Thatmonarchpassedaway,however,in727andsoonafterwardsHoshea,encouragedbythekingofacountrytothesouth,
withheldhistribute.TheBiblicaltextcallsthiskingSo,kingofEgypt(2K17:4),andithasbeencustomarytoidentifyhimwithShabaka,thefirstkingofthe
25thdynasty.Itnowappears,however,thateitherhewasakingoftheMusritothesouthofPalestine,orwassomepettyruleroftheEgyptianDelta,otherwise
unknown,forShabakadidnotgainthethroneofEgypttillB.C.712(cf.Breasted,Hist.ofEgypt,549and601).ThefollyofHosheascoursewassoonapparent.
Shalmaneseriv.,whohadsucceededTiglathpileser,sentanarmywhichoverranalltheterritorylefttoHoshea,cutoffhissupplies,andthenshuthimupin
Samariainamemorablesiege.ThemilitarygeniusofOmrihadselectedthesitewisely,butwiththecountryinruinsitisamarvelthatSamariaresistedfor
threeyears.Whilethesiegedraggedonitswearylength,Shalmaneserdied,andSargonII.gainedtheAssyrianthrone.Perhapsthegeneralswhowere
prosecutingthesiegedidnotknowofthechangetillSamariahadfallen,butSargoncountsthereductionofSamariaasoneoftheachievementsofhisfirstyear.
WhenSamariafell,Sargondeported27,290(cf.KIBil.55)oftheinhabitantsoftheregion,includingnodoubtthemorewealthyandinfluentialcitizens,
princes,priests,etc.,tocitieswhichhehadrecentlycapturedinthefarEast,andbroughttoSamariapeoplefromCuthahandSipparinBabylonia,andfrom
HamathinSyria,tominglewiththemassofHebrewpopulationwhichhehadleftbehind(2K17:24).TheIsraelitishmonarchyheabolished.
TheforeignerswhowereintroducedintoSamariaatthistimeworshippedatfirsttheirowngods,butwhenlionsattackedthem,theypetitionedtohavea
priestofJahwehtoteachthemtheworshipoftheGodoftheland.Sargongrantedtheirrequest,andsentbackacaptivepriest.Induetimetheseforeigners
intermarriedwiththeIsraeliteswhohadbeenleft,thecultsoftheirgodsweremergedintheJahwehcult,andtheybecametheSamaritans.Thosewhoseekfor
thetenlosttribesshouldrememberthattheywereneverlostbycaptivity.Onlythemerestpercentageofthemwerewrenchedfromtheirland.Theywerelost
bybecomingthesubstratumoflaterpopulations,andahandfulstillsurvivesintheSamaritans(wh.see).
19.HezekiahandIsaiah.ThefallofSamariamadedolefulreverberationsinJerusalem.ThedateoftheaccessionofHezekiahisnotquitecertain,butit
probablyoccurredbeforethefallofSamaria.ThroughouthisreigntheprophetIsaiahwasoneofhischiefadvisers,andforthemostpartheruledinaccordwith
thepropheticideals.Aboutthetimeofhisaccession,andapparentlybeforethefallofSamaria,anotherprophet,Micah,begantoprophesyinthetownof
Moresheth(Maresha)intheSbephlahonthePhilistineborder.Hisburdenwasconsonantwiththatofthethreegreatliteraryprophetswhohadprecededhim.
JudahescapedwhenSamariafell,becauseshemaintainedthatsubmissiveattitudetoAssyriawhichshehadassumedwhenUzziahpaidtributetoTiglath
pileser.Thisattitudesecuredherpeaceforsomeyearstocome,thoughitwasnotaneasyattitudetomaintain.OnJudahswesternborderthepettykingdomsof
PhilistiawerealwaysplottingtothrowofftheAssyrianyoke,andendeavouringtosecurethecooperationofHezekiah.Suchcooperation,however,Isaiah
steadilyopposed.Intheyear711Ashdodsucceededinbeadingacoalitionwhichshehopedwouldgainherfreedom,butSargonsentanarmywhichsoon
broughthertoterms(Is20:1).ThecourseofpoliticaleventswentonsmoothlythereforeuntilafterthedeathofSargonin705then,assooftenhappenedin
Orientalcountries,manysubjectlandsendeavouredtogaintheirindependencebeforethenewmonarchcouldconsolidatehispower.Hezekiahwastempted
now,notbythePhilistinesonly,butalsobyMerodachhaladan(Mardukapaliddin),aBabyloniankingwhomSargonhadearlyinhisreigndrivenfrom
Babylonandwhonowsoughttheopportunitytoreturn(2K20:12ff.,Is39:1ff.).InthisnewcoalitiontheEgyptiansalso,nowunderthestrongercontrolofthe
25thdynasty,hadapart.AlthoughIsaiahstillconsistentlyopposedthemove,Hezekiahneverthelessyielded.InthecityofEkrontherewasonepettyking
faithfultoSennacherib.Himhissubjectsdeposed,threwintofetters,anddeliveredtoHezekiah,whocasthimintoadungeon(cf.KIBii.93).Thiswasadirect
actofrebellion,whichSennacheribwassuretoavenge.AffairsintheEastdelayedtheblow,butin701itfinallyfed.SennacheribmarchedintotheWest,
defeatedthealliesatEltekeh,besiegedandtookEkron,impaledmanyoftherebelliousinhabitants,andinvadedJudah.Fortysixofthesmallertownswere
captured,andJerusalemitselfwasinvested.Itsinhabitantswereofcoursepanicstricken,butIsaiahcameforward,declaringJerusalemtobethehomeof
Jahweh,and,assuch,inviolableinHiseyes(Is31:4).Hezekiah,meantimerecognizingthathisrebellionhadbeenagrievouserror,senttoLachish,
Sennacheribsheadquarters,andofferedtopayindemnityandtribute.MeantimeSennacheribhadsenthismainarmyontoinflictpunishmentuponEgypt,the
strongestmemberoftheallianceagainsthim.OntheborderofEgypthisarmywasattackedwithbubonicplague(suchseemstobethemeaningof2K19:35
combinedwithHerod.ii.141),whichrenderedfurtheroperationsimpossibleheaccordinglyacceptedHezekiahsterms,raisedthesiegeofJerusalem,and
withdrewtoAssyria.
ThiseventhadaprofoundinfluenceonIsraelsreligioushistory.InthetimeofDavidandSolomon,JerusalemwasanewtowntotheIsraelites,andatown
withoutreligiousassociations.
TherealhomeofJahwehwasonMountSinai,butthelandcontainedscoresofshrinesmoredeartoHimthanJerusalem,becauseHebadlongerdweltinthem.
Solomonsinnovationshadtendedtoincreasethisfeeling,andalthoughthelapseofthreehundredyearshadgivenJerusalemanimportantplaceamongthe
shrines,especiallyasthecapitalofthekingdomofJudah,nothinghadoccurreduntilnowtomakementhinkthatitwasthehomeofJahwehparexcellence. 41/62
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shrines,especiallyasthecapitalofthekingdomofJudah,nothinghadoccurreduntilnowtomakementhinkthatitwasthehomeofJahwehparexcellence.
NowHehadpalpablyabandonedtheshrinesoftheNorthernKingdom,andbythisvictory,vindicatingasitdidthewordofHisprophet,HehadshownthatHe
hadchosenJerusalemasHispermanentabode.ThusthiseventIntroducedJerusalemtothatplaceinthereverenceandaffectionoftheHebrewswhichhasmade
ittheHolyCityofthreegreatreligions.
Accordingto2K18:4(RD),HezekiahattemptedtoabolishthecountryshrinesandcentralizetheworshipinJerusalem.Somehavedoubtedthisstatement,
andothershavethoughtthatitisconfirmedbyanolderdocumentquotedin2K18:22.Itseemsinaccordwithhistoricalprobabilitythat,promptedbyIsaiah,
Hezekiahshouldinhisclosingyearshavemadesuchaneffort.Hoseahadseen,agenerationbefore,thattheworshipofJahwehcouldneverbesociallypuretill
separatedfromtheelementswhichhebelievedhadbeenintroducedfromthecultofBaal,andnowthatIsaiahhadbecomeconvincedthatJerusalemhadbeen
DivinelyprovedtobeJahwehsspecialabode,itiscertainlywithintherealmofprobabilitythathepromptedthekingtodoawaywithallotherdemoralizing
shrines.IfJahwehcouldhaveonlyonetempleandthatunderpropheticcontrol,HiscultwouldbeforeverdifferentiatedfromthatoftheBaals.Whattime
couldbemoreopportuneforsuchamovementthanthebeginningofthe7thcent.,whenfirstthecaptivityoftheNorthernKingdom,andthenthereductionof
theterritoryofJudahtonarrowlimitsbySennacherib,leftataminimumthenumberofshrinestobedestroyed?
20.ManassehandAmon.FromthetimeofAmostotheaccessionofManassehthepropheticvisionhadmadesteadyprogress,andtheelevationofthe
religionofJahwehandoftherecognizedstandardofmoralshadgonesteadilyforward,butinthelongreignofManasseh(696641)astrongreactionoccurred.
ItisdifficulttoaccountforthisreactionunlesssomeattempttodestroythevillageshrineshadbeenmadebyHezekiah,butifthishepresupposed,allthat
occurredisnatural.Thesuperstitiousprejudicesofthevillagepeoplehadbeenoutraged.Theyclamouredforlibertytoworshipatthevillageshrines
consecratedbytheusageofunknownantiquity,andtheking,whenIsaiahwasgone,hadnorealmotiveforresistingthem.Then,too,theperiodseemstohave
beenatimeofdistress,ManassehseemstohavequietlyremainedinvassalagetoAssyria,sothatthearmiesofEsarhaddonandAshurbanipal,whichfourtimes
marchedalongthecoastandaccomplishedthereductionofEgyptduringhisreign,didnotdisturbJudah,thoughshemayhavebeencompelledtocontributeto
theirsupport.PerhapstherewascivilwarinJerusalem,forwearetoldthatManassehshedmuchinnocentblood(2K21:16).Atallevents,whetheronaccount
ofwar,orfamine,orunjustrule,hisreignwasatimeofdistress,andJudahsoughtescapefromhertrouble,notthroughpropheticreform,butbytherevivalof
halfheathenish,outwornformsofworship.JahwehwasworshippedasMelek,orking,andtoHiminthiscapacitychildsacrifice,whichhadbeenprevalent
amongtheSemitesinearlydays,wasrevived.TheAmmonitescalledtheirgodMelek(Molech[wh.see]),andhumansacrificewasstillpractisedattimesby
Judahsheathenneighbours,especiallybythePhnicians.TheprophetsaccordinglycombatedthisformofworshipasdispleasingtoJahweh,andtriedto
persuadetheircountrymenthatitwasaforeigncult.
ThisturnofaffairsdrovethosewhocherishedtheIdealsofIsaiahintoretirement,where,being
abletodonothingelseforthecausetheyloved,oneofthem,about650,drewupthelegalcodeofDeuteronomyastheexpressionoftheconditionswhichthe
propheticexperiencehadfoundtobenecessarytotherealizationoftheirideal.
ThebriefreignofAmonwasbutacontinuationofthereignofhisfather.
21.JosiahandtheDeuteronomicReform.OftheearlypartofthereignofJosiah,whoascendedthethroneasaboyofeight,weknowlittle.Probably
thecustomswhichthepreviousreignhadestablishedwerecontinued.Inhisthirteenthyear,Jeremiah,ayoungpriestfromAnathoth,cameforwardasaprophet.
InthenextyearthegreatAssyriankingAshurbanipaldied,andAssyria,whosepowerhadbeenshatteredbyagreatrebelliontwentyyearsbefore,rapidlysank
toherend.InJosiahseighteenthyearrepairsontheTemplewereundertakenatthekingscommand.Duringtheprogressofthese,itwasreportedtohimthatin
makingtherepairstheyhadfoundthecopyofacodepurportingtobetheLawofMoses.Whenthiswasreadtothekinghewasfilledwithconsternation,since
thecurrentcultviolateditinalmosteveryparticular.TotestthegenuinenessoftheLawitwassubmittedtoanoldprophetess,Huldah,who,sinceitagreedwith
herconceptionsoftheidealreligionofJahweh,declaredittobethegenuineLawofMoses(2K22).UponthisJosiahsethimselftoadjustthereligiousworship
andinstitutionsofhiskingdomtothisstandard,andtoagreatreform,whichsweptawayfromJudahallshrinesexcepttheTempleinJerusalem,allpillarsas
representativesofdeity,andallashrahs,togetherwithallimmoralitypractisedundertheguiseofreligion(2K23).Moderncriticismhasclearlydemonstrated
thattheLawwhichcameintooperationatthistimewastheLawofDeuteronomy.
Thisreformcostalongstruggle.PeoplewhohadalltheirlivesregardedcertainspotsasplaceswhereJahwehrevealedHimself,andwhoknewthattheir
ancestorsforcenturieshaddonethesame,didnottamelyyieldtotheneworder.Alltheauthorityofthekingandallthestrengthofthepropheticorderwere
neededtocarryitthrough,andthestrugglecontinuedforageneration.Itwasthisreform,however,thatbeganthecreationoftheJew.Butforit,hewouldnot
stillbeadistinctfigureintheworld.
Thisstruggleforabetterreligionwentonsuccessfullyforsomeyears,whenthelittleJudanStatewasovertakenbyasadmisfortune.
Assyriawastotteringtoitsfall.Babylon,whichhadregaineditsindependenceuponthedeathofAshurbanipal,in625,wasrapidlygrowinginpower.
Egypt,whichunderthe26thdynastynowpossessedoncemorealineofnativekings,hadamonarch,NechoII.,ambitioustoreestablishforheranAsiatic
empire.In609or608NechomarchedanarmyintoAsiaandmovednorthwardalongtheMaritimePlain.Josiah,probablybecausehedeterminedtoclaim
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empire.In609or608NechomarchedanarmyintoAsiaandmovednorthwardalongtheMaritimePlain.Josiah,probablybecausehedeterminedtoclaim
sovereigntyoveralltheterritoryformerlyoccupiedbyIsrael,marchednorthwardwithanarmy,foughtNechoattheancientbattlefieldofMegiddo,andmet
withdefeatanddeath(2K23:29ff.).Agreatercalamitycouldscarcelyhavebefallenthepartyofreligiousreform.Notonlywastheirkingfallen,buttheirhope
ofaprosperousJudankingdom,faithfultoJahwehsnewLaw,wasrudelydashedtotheground.
22.LastDaysoftheKingdom.WhenthenewsofthedefeatatMegiddoreachedJerusalem,theleadersofthepeoplethereplacedJehoahaz,asonof
Josiah,onthethrone.Nechomeantimeproceedednorthward,takingpossessionofthecountry,andestablishedhisheadquartersatRiblahintheterritoryof
Hamath.ThitherhesummonedJehoahaz,threwhimintobonds,senthimtoEgpytasaprisoner,andmadehisbrotherEliakimking,imposingaheavytribute
uponthecountry(2K23:3134).EliakimuponhisaccessiontookthenameofJehoiakim(2K23:34).JudahthusbecametributarytoEgypt.Jehoiakimproved
tobeamanofquitedifferentreligiousinterestsfromhisfather,astheBookofJeremiahmakesclear.
EventsinWesternAsiawerechangingrapidly,andwithinafewyearstheygaveJehoiakimanewmaster.ThenewBabylonianpowerwaspushingwestward
tosecureasmuchoftheEuphratesvalleyandoftheWestaspossible.AssyriahadfallenatthehandsofIndoEuropeanhordesintheyear606.Nechowas
ambitioustofollowuphisprevioussuccessandtocheckthegrowthoftheBabylonianpower.Accordinglyin604heenteredAsiaagainandmarchedtothe
Euphrates.HerehewasmetbyNebuchadnezzar,theBabyloniancrownprince,andsocrushinglydefeatedthathefledrapidlyhomeward,Nebuchadnezzar
followingcloselyuponhisheels(Jer46).ThusperishedNechosdreamsofAsiaticempire,andthusJudahpassedintovassalagetoBabylon.
Nebuchadnezzar,ontheborderofEgypt,readytoinvadeandconquerit,wasinformedofthedeathofhisfatherinBabylon,andhastenedhometosecurehis
crown.
SoimportantinthehistoryofhispeopledidJeremiahconsiderthiscrisis,thatatthistimehefirstbegantoputthesubstanceofhispropheciesinwriting,
thattheymighthavewiderandmorepermanentinfluence(Jer36).NebuchadnezzarappearsnottohavebeenabletoestablishorderinWesternAsiaallatonce,
sodistractedwasthecountry.HeestablishedhisheadquartersatRiblah,andforseveralyearssentoutbandsofsoldierswhithertheyweremostneeded.
Jehoiakim,thinkingtotakeadvantageoftheunsettledstate,withheldhistribute,andsomeofthesebands,composedofmenofneighbouringtribes,weresent
againsthim(2K24:1ff.).Jehoiakimcontinuedobstinate,however,andNebuchadnezzarfinally,in598,sentalargearmy.BeforeitarrivedJehoiakimwasno
more,andhisyoungsonJehoiachinwasoccupyinghisthrone.NebuchadnezzarlaidsiegetoJerusalem,whichafterthreemonthswascompelledtocapitulate,
whereupontheBabyloniantooktenthousandofthemostprominentmen,princes,warriors,priests,andcraftsmen,andtransportedthemtoBabylonia.Another
sonofJosiah,whonowtookthenameofZedekiah,wasplaceduponthethrone,subjectofcoursetoaheavyBabyloniantribute.Jehoiachin,ayouthoftwenty,
wastakenprisonertoBabylon,tolanguishinprisonformanyyears.
ItwasnowtobeseenwhetherJudahwouldrepeatthehistoryoftheNorthernKingdomorwhetherherkingwouldhavewisdomtoremainfaithfulto
Babylon.Jeremiah,ashehaddoneforyears,steadilyproclaimedthatJudahssolesafetylayinfidelitytoBabylonsuchwasthewillofJahweh.Therewasin
Jerusalem,however,astrongpartywhoadvocatedanalliancewithEgyptasameansofsecuringfreedomfromBabylon.Thekinghimselfwasweakand
unwise.Finally,in588,whenHophra,filledwithambitionsforanAsiaticempire,ascendedtheEgyptianthrone,hemadesuchpromisesofaidtoJudahthatthe
standardofrevoltwasraised.Jeremiah,oneofthegreatestreligiousteachersthateverlived,didnot,likeIsaiahacenturybefore,proclaimJerusaleminviolate.
Hehadseenfurtherintotheheartofreligion,andnowdeclaredthatJahwehwouldabandonJerusalem,andestablishaninnercovenantoftheheartwithallwho
werefaithful.Hisyoungercontemporary,Ezekiel,ayoungpriestwhohadbeencarriedtoBabyloniain598,andhadin593becomeaprophetthere,wasalso
teachingasimilarlyhighconceptionofreligion,andwith
Jeremiah,preparingthefaithofthepeopletosurvivetheapproachingshock.In587theBabylonianarmyappearedandthesiegeofJerusalembegan.The
tedioussufferingofitswearymonthsmaybetracedintheBookofJeremiah.Earlyin586,HophramarchedanarmyintoPalestine,and
NebuchadnezzarwasobligedtoraisethesiegetosendhisfullforceagainsttheEgyptian.Jerusalemwasthenwildwithjoy,thinkingdeliverancehadcome.
Jeremiahandhispartywerelaughedtoscorn.ButHophrawassoondefeated,thesiegeofJerusalemrenewedandpressedtocompletion.InAugustthecity
surrendered,itswallwasbrokendown,itsgloriousTempledestroyed,anotherlargebodyofcaptivestransportedtoBabylonia,andZedekiahafterbeingblinded
wastakentheretoo(2K25).ThusJerusalemsufferedthefateofSamaria.Providentially,however,beforeJerusalemfell,theworkoftheprophetshadsotaken
root,andsuchreformshadbeeninstituted,thatthefutureofspiritualreligionwasassured.Thosewhohadbeendeportedwereagainthemoreprominent
citizens.Thepoorerpeopleandthepeasantrywerenotdisturbed.GedaliahwasmadegovernorofJuda,and,becauseJerusalemwasdesolate,Mizpeh,five
milestothenorthwest,wasmadethecapital.Gedaliahhadbeeninofficebuttwomonthswhenhewasassassinated,andthiseventsoterrifiedsomefriendsof
Jeremiah,whohadbeenpermittedwiththeprophettoremaininPalestine,thattheytookJeremiah,contrarytohisadvice,andfledtoEgypt(2K25:25ff.and
Jer4143).
23.TheExile.Countingwomenandchildren,perhapsfiftythousandJewshadbeentransportedtoBabyloniainthetwodeportationsofNebuchadnezzar.
These,withtheexceptionofafewpoliticalleaders,weresettledincolonies,inwhichtheywerepermittedtohavehousesoftheirown,visitoneanotherfreely,
andengageinbusiness(Jer29:5ff.).EzekielgivesusthepictureofoneoftheseatTelabib(Ezk3:15,8:1,20:1ff.,24:18etc.),bytheriverChebar(acanalnear43/62
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andengageinbusiness(Jer29:5ff.).EzekielgivesusthepictureofoneoftheseatTelabib(Ezk3:15,8:1,20:1ff.,24:18etc.),bytheriverChebar(acanalnear
Nippurcf.Bab.Ex.ofUniv.ofPa.,Cun.Texts,ix.28),inwhichthePalestinianorganizationof
elderswasperpetuated.InsuchcommunitiestheJewssettleddowninBabylonia.ThepooreronesinPalestinekeptupasbesttheycouldtheoldreligion,inan
ignorantandsuperstitiousway(cf.Jer41:5ff.),whilethepriestsandthemoreintelligentofthereligiousdevoteestransportedtoBabyloncherishedthelawsof
thepast,andfondlyframedidealsforafuturewhichtheywereconfidentwouldcome.SuchanonewasEzekiel,wholivedandwroteamongthecaptivestill
aboutB.C.570.Afterthedestructionofthecityheelaboratedanewreligiouspolityforthenation,hopingthatitwouldformthebasisofIsraelsorganization
whenthetimeforthereconstructionoftheStatecame.Someyearslateranotherwriter(P)wrotetheHolinessCodegatheringupthetraditionsofthepast,
and shaping them with a view to a future religious ideal. Meantime many of the practically minded Jews had engaged in business in Babylonia and were
acquiringwealth.
Thustimepassedon,Nebuchadnezzardied,andhisweaksuccessorswererapidlyfollowingoneanother,whenintheEastanewpoliticalfigureappeared.
Cyrus,apettykingofAnshan,asmalldistrictofElam,hadconqueredPersia,thenMediaandtheIndoEuropanhordescalledintheinscriptionsManda,and
waspushinghisarmswestwardtothesubjugationofCrsusofLydia.Atthisjunctureoneoftheworldsgreatpoetsandprophetsappearedamongthe
captives,andinmosteloquentandpoeticstraintaughtthemthatCyruswastheinstrumentofJahweh,theGodofheaven,thathewasconqueringforJahweh
andforthem,andthatitwasJahwehswillthattheyshouldreturntorebuildJerusalemandthedesolationsofJudah.Thenameofthisprophetislost,buthis
worknowformschs.4045oftheBookofIsaiah.ThehopeofthispoetinCyruswasjustified,forin538CyruscapturedBabylon,overturningtheChaidan
empire,andreversedthepolicyoftransportationwhichAssyriansandBabyloniansalikehadpursuedfromthetimeofTiglathplieserIII.Cyrushimselftellsina
cuneiforminscription(KIBiii2.121ff.thathepermittedcaptivepeoplestoreturntotheirlandsandrebuildtheirtemples.ThisgavetheJewstheopportunityfor
whichtheSecondIsaiah(socalled)hadhoped.Theprophetsfaithinhisownpeoplewasnotsowelljustified.Itwasyearsbeforeanyconsiderablenumberof
thecaptivesmadeuseoftheirnewlyacquiredliberty(see24).Theywereinterestedintheirreligion,buttheyhadlearnedtopractiseitoutsideofPalestine
withoutsacrificialritual,andtheopportunitiesinBabyloniaforwealthandtradeweretoogoodtobeabandonedforthesterilesoilofthelandoftheirfathers.
Here,accordingly,theycontinuedtoliveforfifteenhundredyears.TheyfrequentlysentmoneycontributionstotheirbrethreninJerusalemandoccasionallya
fewofthemreturnedthither.AfteratimetheychoseExiliarchs,orPrincesoftheCaptivity.SchoolsofJewishlearningdevelopedhere.Induetimethe
BabylonianTalmudwascompiledintheseschools.Thesecommunitiesthussurvivedthe
vicissitudesofPersian,Macedonian,Parthian,Sassanian,andArabianrule,continuingtohavetheirExiliarchstillthe11thcent.A.D.,whentheoppressionsto
whichtheyweresubjectedledthemgraduallytomigrate(cf.JEv.288291).
24.ReconstructionoftheJewishState.Wehavebeenaccustomedtosuppose,ontheauthorityoftheBookofEzra,thatwhenCyrusissuedhis
permissiontoexiledpeoplestoreturnandrehabilitatetheirshrinesandtheirStates,alargenumberatoncewentback.Recentinvestigationhas,however,
discreditedthisview.HaggaiandZechariahtwentyyearslaterknowofnosuchreturn,andprobablyitdidnottakeplace.Twentyyearslaterwefind
Zerubbabel,agrandsonoftheunfortunatekingJehoiachin,presentinJerusalemasgovernor,andahighpriestnamedJoshuainchargeoftheworship.Thealtar
ofJahwehhadbeenrebuiltontheoldsite,butJerusalemandtheTemplewerestillinruins.ThetoleranceofthePersiansisshowninallowingtheJewsa
governoroftheirownroyalfamily.He,withasmallretinue,hadnodoubtreturnedfromBabylonia,butwehavenoevidencethatothershadcomeback.
TheJewishpopulationwhichhadbeenleftbehindinPalestine,equallywiththoseinBabylonia,expectedatsometimethereconstructionoftheJewish
institutions.AprolongedfamineledHaggaiinthesecondyearofDariusI.(B.C.519)topersuadethepeoplethatJahwehwithheldrainbecauseHewas
displeasedthattheTemplewasnotyetrebuilt.Anotherprophet,Zechariah.tookupthesameburden,andundertheirleadershipandinspirationtheTemplewas
rebuiltbyB.C.516onthelinesoftheoldwall.ContributionstoaidthisenterprisehadbeenreceivedfromtheirbrethreninBabylonia.Thefirstsixyearsofthe
reignofDariusweretroubloustimes.Thereignofthefalse
BardiyahadmadenationssuspectthatthegovernmentofPersiawasweak,anditbecamenecessaryforDariustoreconquerhisempire,asmanyofthesubject
nations took the opportunity to rebel. It is probable that Zerubbabel represents such a movement. Scholars now have no doubt that Zechariah regarded
ZerubbabelastheMessiah,andexpectedhimtobecrownedandtoreignjointlywiththehighpriestJoshua.SuchisthemeaningwhichunderliesthetextofZec
3(cf.H.P.Smith,OTHist.357ff.).Howtheseexpectationswerethwartedwecanonlyguess.WeknowwithwhatastrongarmthegreatDariusputdown
revolutionselsewhere,andcertainitisthatJewishhopesforindependencewerenotatthistimerealized.
Ourknowledgeofthenexteightyyears,tillthearrivalofNehemiah,isderivedfromIs5666,largepartsofwhichappeartocomefromthisperiod,and
fromtheanonymousprophetcalledMalachi,who,perhaps,wroteshortlybeforeNehemiahsreturn.Thetoneofthesewritingsisoneofdepressionand
anarchy,bothincivilandinreligiousaffairs.Zerubbabelhadbeensucceededbyaforeigngovernor(Mal1:8),whoprobablyhadlittlesympathywithJewish
ideals.TheNabatanshadpushedtheEdomitesoutoftheiroldterritory,andthelatterhadoccupiedsouthernJudaalmostasfarasHebron.Thesemigrations
causedunrestandsufferinginJudah.TheSamaritans,whohadapparentlyspreadtothevalleyofAijalon,heldmanyoftheapproachestothecity.TheJewish
colonyoccupiedbutasmallterritoryaboutJerusalem,andintheirdistresssome,asinthedaysofManasseh,wereseekingreliefintherevivaloflongdiscarded
superstitiousrites(Is65:11).TherewereneverthelesssomesoulsofnoblefaithwhoseutteranceswestillcherishamongthetreasuresofourScriptures.Thus 44/62
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colonyoccupiedbutasmallterritoryaboutJerusalem,andintheirdistresssome,asinthedaysofManasseh,wereseekingreliefintherevivaloflongdiscarded
superstitiousrites(Is65:11).TherewereneverthelesssomesoulsofnoblefaithwhoseutteranceswestillcherishamongthetreasuresofourScriptures.Thus
passedthereignsofDariusandXerxes.Somewhere,whetherinBabyloniaorPalestinewecannottell,thepriestlyGrundschriftthemainbodyofthePriestly
documentwascompiledbyP2duringthisperiod,aboutB.C.450.
SuchwasthestateofaffairswheninB.C.444,Nehemiah,thenobleyoungJewishcupbearerofArtaxerxesI.,arrivedinJerusalemwithacommissionfrom
thekingtorebuildthewalls.TheenergywithwhichNehemiahdevotedhimselftotheerectionofthewalls,theoppositionwhichheencounteredfromthe
surroundingtribes,especiallyfromtheSamaritans,whowishedtoshareinthereligiousprivilegesoftheTemple,butwhomhisnarrowconceptionsexcluded,
andthesuccesswhichattendedhislabours,areforciblydepictedinNeh17.Beforethesummerof444wasover,JerusalemhadawallaswellasaTemple.
Nehemiahremainedforsomeyearsasgovernor,andthenreturnedtoPersia.HecamebackasecondtimetothegovernorshipinB.C.432,andcontinuedinthe
officeforalengthoftimewhichwecannotnowtrace.Perhapsitwasuntilhisdeath,butwedonotknowwhenthisoccurred.DuringNehemiahs
administrationhepersuadedtheJewstodoawaywithallforeignmarriageswith,itisstated,theaidofEzrathescribe,heintroducedthePentateuch,so
constructedthattheLeviticallawwasitsheartandcore,andboundthepeopletoobserveitsprovisions(Neh8:9)andhecompletelyseparatedthetrueJews
fromtheSamaritans(Neh
13:28ff.),thusthoroughlyorganizingtheJewishcommunityincivilandreligiousaffairs.NehemiahcompletedwhatEzekielhadbegun.ThewholeLevitical
ritualwasatthistimeestablished.ThemenialofficesoftheTemplewereassignedtoLevites,towhomalsowascommittedthesinging.Thisorganizationa
hundredyearslaterwassothoroughlyfixedthattheChroniclercouldattributeittoDavid.ProbablyitwasatthetimeofNehemiahthatthefirstbookofthe
Psalter(Pss341)wascompiled.WhenNehemiahdied,theJewishStatewasnotonlyreconstructed,butwastransformedintotheJewishChurch.
25.LatePersianandEarlyGreekPeriods.AfterthetimeofNehemiahoursourcesfailusforaconsiderableperiod.Onlyoneotherglimpseofthe
JewishcolonydotheyaffordusbeforethefallofthePersianempire,andthisglimpseisasomewhatconfusedone.Josephus(Ant.XI.vii.1)tellsusthatthe
PersiangeneralBagoas,whomhecallsBagoses,enteredtheTemple,andoppressedtheJewssevenyears,becausethehighpriestJohnmurderedhisbrother
Joshua,afriendofBagoas,forwhomthelatterhadpromisedtoobtainthehighpriesthood.Perhapstherewasmoreunderlyingthisthanappearsuponthe
surface.Manyhavesupposed,atleast,thattheactionofBagoaswastheresultofanattemptonthepartoftheJewstoregaintheirindependence.
Josephus(Ant.XI.viii.3f.)alsotellsataleofthefidelityofthenighpriestJadduatoDariusIII .,whileAlexandertheGreatwasbesiegingTyre.Alexandersummoned
theJewstoaidhim,sothestoryruns,butonthegroundofloyaltytheyrefused.Alexander,afterthesurrenderofGaza,marchedpersonallytoJerusalemtotakevengeance
uponit.AthisapproachtheJews,cladinwhite,marchedouttoScopus.Thehighpriest,wearinghisgloriousrobesofoffice,ledtheassemblage,andAlexanderseeing
themforgothiswrathandsalutedthehighpriestgraciously.Thisstoryisnodoubtmerelegend.Arrian,forexample,declaresthattherestofPalestinehadsubmittedbefore
thesiegeofGaza.JerusalemwastoAlexandersimplyoneSyriantown.Itwasoutofhisroute,andprobablywasnevervisitedbyhim.Theoneelementortruthinthetaleis
thatthehighpriestwastheheadoftheJewishcommunity.
DuringthewarsthatfollowedthedeathofAlexander,Judamustoftenhavesuffered.Inthestrugglesbetweenthegenerals,thearmiesofAntigonusand
Demetriuswereatvarioustimesinthisregion.In312agreatbattlewasfoughtnearGaza,andtheJewsmusthavehadtheirshareofthehardshipand
uncertaintywhichintheshockofempiresduringthoseyearstriedmenssouls.Palestinefinallyfellhowever,tothelotofPtolemyLagi,whohadsecured
Egypt,andforacenturywassubjecttothePtolemaicline.Seleucusregardeditasrightfullyhis,butonaccountofthehelpPtolemyhadgivenhimwhenhis
fortuneswereatalowebb,hedidnothingmorethanenteraverbalprotest,thoughSulpiciusSeverussays(Sacr.Hist.II.17)thatheexacted300talentsin
tributefromhim.Theagewasaperiodofmigration,andtheJewsfelttheImpulsealongwithothers.Duringthiscenturylargesettlementsweremadebythem
inEgypt,andprobablyelsewhere(seeDISPERSION).In220AntiochustheGreatgainedPalestineforSyria,butin219itrevertedtoEgyptagain.Finally,inB.C.
199,hepermanentlyattachedittoSyria,anditsfortuneswereneversubjecttothePtolemysagain.
Thechiefconnexionwiththesuzerainpowerduringthisperiodwasthroughthepaymentoftaxes.AtoneperiodtheEgyptiankingbecamedissatisfiedwith
thehighpriestsmanagementofthefinancesandcommittedthemtothecareofoneJoseph,sonofTobias,whowithhissonsledforagenerationortwo
spectacularcareers(cf.Ant.XII.iv.).AttimestributehadtobepaidbothtoSyriaandtoEgypt.
DuringthisperiodtheheadoftheJewishcommunitywasthehighpriest,assistedbya
Sanhedrinorcouncil.Thereligiouslifeofthecommunitycanonlybeinferredfromtheliterature.AnintensedevotiontotheLawwasbegotteninthemindsof
theJewishpeople,asisshownbysuchpsalmsasthe119th.Butthelifeofthecommunitywasavariedone.TheWisdomliteraturewascultivated,andmanya
passionatepsalmatteststhatadeepreligiouslifesuperiortoallformalismwasspringingup(cf.e.g.Ps51).
26.TheMaccabanRevolt.FormanyyearstheHelleniccivilization,radiatingfromthemanycitiesfoundedbytheMacedonians,foundnowelcome
amongthelittleJewishcommunityinJerusalem.Gradually,however,itpenetratedeventhere,andundertheSyrianscertainhighpriestsadoptedGreeknames,
and,tocourtthefavouroftheSyriankings,cultivatedHellenicpractices.InJerusalem,wheretherewasaSyriangarrison,Greekculturebecamepopular,
gymnasiawereestablished,andmenwentsofarastoattempttoremoveartificiallythesignsofcircumcision.Thecountrytownsweremoreconservative,but 45/62
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gymnasiawereestablished,andmenwentsofarastoattempttoremoveartificiallythesignsofcircumcision.Thecountrytownsweremoreconservative,but
possiblyevenherethemovementwouldhavemadeitswayhadnotAntiochusiv.determinedtoforceupontheJewsbothGreekcultureandreligion.One
curiousfeatureofthisperiodconsistsinthefactthatahighpriest,OniasIII.,deposedbySyrianintervention,wenttoEgyptandestablishedatLeontopolisinthe
nameofHeliopolisatempletoJahweh,whichexistedthereforahundredyears.
InB.C.168,AntiochuscommandedaltarstoZeustobeerectedthroughouttheland,andespeciallyintheTempleatJerusalem.Healsodirectedswinetobe
offeredinsacrificeuponthem.ThefearofSyrianarmssecuredwidespreadobediencetothisdecree.InthelittletownofModin,however,anoldpriest.
Mattathias,struckdowntheofficiatingpriestandraisedthestandardofrevolt.Thefaithfulsoonralliedtohisstandard,andhemadehissonJudascaptainover
them.Unexpectedvictoriesspeedilyfollowed,andthesuccessfulJudaswassurnamedMakkab,thehammer.Mattathiasdiedbeforetheendofthefirstyear,
butthestrugglewascontinuedbyhissons.AttheendofthreeyearstheSyrianshadbeendrivenfromtheTemple,thoughtheystillheldthefortresswhich
overlookedit.Accordingly,inDecember165,threeyearsaftertheTemplehadbeendefiled,agreatfeastwasheldforitsdedication.UptothistimeJudashad
beenaidedbytheChasdm,orpiousasetofreligiousdevoteeswhoseidealwasceremonialpuritanism.Thispartywouldhavebeensatisfiedtorestinwhat
hadalreadybeenachieved,butJudasandhisbrethrenaimedatpoliticalIndependence.AlthoughitestrangedtheChasdm,Judas,withvaryingfortunes,
maintainedthestruggletillB.C.161.AntiochusIV.died,theforcesoftheyoungAntiochusv.weredefeated,agreatvictorywaswonoverNicanor,whom
DemetriusI.,thenextkingofSyria,senttoJuda.Thisvictorywaslongcelebratedinayearlyfestival.Judashimselffellbeforetheendoftheyear161ina
battlewiththeforcewhichDemetriussenttoavengethedeathofNicanor.
ThedirectionoftheJewishcausethenfelltoJonathan,oneofthebrothersofJudas,whofornearlytwentyyearswastheleader(161143).Atthebeginning
ofthisperiodtheMaccabanfortuneswereattheirlowestebb.AtfirstJonathanthoughtoftakingrefugewiththeNabatans,butherehewastreacherously
treatedandhisbrotherJohnwasslain.Hehimself,withaconsiderableforce,wascaughtneartheJordanbytheSyrians,andescapedonlybyswimmingthe
rivertothewesternside.HereJonathanmaintainedhimselfforsomeyearsasanoutlawinthewildernessofJuda.Aftermanyunsuccessfuleffortstocapture
him,theSyriansfinally(B.C.153)enteredintoatreatywithhimwherebyhewaspermittedtoliveatMichmashasakindoflicensedfreebooter.Here,like
Davidinhisoutlawdays,heruledoversuchascametohim.AlittlelaterAlexander
BalasappearedinthefieldasacontestantfortheSyriancrown.ThisprovedagreathelptotheMaccabancause,asbothpartieswerewillingtobidhighfor
thesupportofJonathan.JonathanforatimeadheredtothecauseofAlexander,whokilledDemetriusI.andsecuredthecrown.ButalthoughAlexanderhad
drivenDemetriusI.fromthefield,hewasleftbutashorttimeinundisputedpossessionoftheSyrianthrone.DemetriusII.appeared,andbidhighforJewish
favour.HerecognizedJonathanashighpriest,andexemptedtheJewsfromvarioustaxes.ThisangeredtheadherentsofAlexander,oneofwhomluredJonathan
toPtolemaisforaconferenceandtreacherouslyputhimtodeath.Anotherbrother,Simon(143135),thenassumedtheleadership.ThestarofAlexanderBalas
wentdown,andDemetriusII.madeatreatywhichoncemorerecognizedtheindependenceoftheJews.Thiseventcreatedthewildestjoy.NeversinceUzziah
hadpaidtributetoTiglathpileserIII.inB.C.737,unlessitwasforafewyearsinthereignofJosiah,hadtheJewsbeenpoliticallyfree.Itseemedlikeanew
birthofthenation,anditstimulatedthenationalgeniusanddevotioninalldirections.Manypsalmswerewrittenatthisperiod,andthewholecivilandreligious
polityofthenationwerereorganized.Simonwasmadebothpoliticalheadofthenationandhighpriest,anditwasordainedthattheseofficesshouldcontinuein
hishouseforever,oruntilafaithfulprophetshouldarise(1Mac14:41ff.).Simonspenthisenergiesinthefollowingyearsinorganizinghisgovernmentand
consolidatinghisterritory.HewassuccessfulintakingpossessionofGezer,wherehebuiltalargecastle,recentlyexcavatedalsoJoppa,whichhemadehis
port,andontheothersideofthecountry,Jericho.AtthelatterplacehewasassassinatedinB.C.135byhissoninlaw,whohopedtoseizethegovernment.27.
TheHasmonanDynasty.Thechronologyfollows:JohnHyrcanusI
AristobulusI 105104
AlexanderJannus 10479
Alexandra 7969
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JohnHyrcanusII 6963
}
AristobulusII
DuringtheearlyyearsofHyrcanusI.thevigorousAntiochusVII.(Sidetes),whohadgainedtheSyriancrown,pressedhimsohardthatthestrugglefor
independencenotonlyhadtoberenewed,butseemedforatimetowaverinthebalance.Weakerhands,however,sooncameintopossessionoftheSyrian
sceptreandHyrcanus,hisindependencesecure,setaboutconsolidatingthepowerofJuda.HeconqueredtheEdomites,whohadcenturiesbeforebeenpushed
upintosouthernJudah,andcompelledthemtoacceptJudaism.LaterheconqueredSamariaandlowerGalilee,treatingthelattercountryashehadtreated
Iduma(cf.Jos.Ant.XIII.x.2).DuringthereignofHyrcanusthePhariseesandSadduceesbegantoemergeintowelldefinedandopposingparties.Theformer
weredevelopedoutoftheChasdmoftheearliertime.Theydesiredseparationandexclusionfromforeignersinorderthattheymightdevotethemselvestothe
keepingoftheLaw.TheSadducees,ontheotherhand,consistedlargelyoftheoldpriestlyfamilies.whosewealthandpositionpreventedthemfromeitherthe
narrownessorthedevotionofthePharisees.Hyrcanusthrewinhislotwiththelatter.135105
AristobulusI.,uponhisaccession,assumedthetitleofking(Ant.XIII.xi.1)astepwhichstillfurtherestrangedthePharisees.Hewasamanofcrueland
suspiciousdisposition,whoimprisonedhisbrotherandtreatedhissubjectsroughly.HeconqueredandJudaizedintheoneyearofhisreignupperGalilee,by
whichitissupposedIturaismeant.
Uponhisdeathhiswidow,Alexandra,releasedherbrotherinlaw,AlexanderJannus,fromprisonandofferedhimherhandandthethrone,bothofwhich
heaccepted.Inhislongandchequeredreignhenotonlyputdownrebelliononthepartofhisturbulentsubjects,butconqueredandJudaizedtheoldIsraelitish
territoryacrosstheJordan,sothatunderhimthelittleJewishcommunityhadspread,byconquestandforcibleconversion,fromthenarrowlimitsofthedaysof
NehemiahtopracticallythelimitsoftheterritoryofancientIsrael.ThusthefoundationsoftheNTdistributionofPalestinianJewswerelaidbythe
Hasmonans.DuringthewholeofthereignofAlexandertheoppositionofthePhariseestothedynastyanditspolicywasexceedinglybitter.Ashisend
approached,AlexandercommittedthegovernmenttoAlexandra,advisinghertomakeherpeacewiththePharisees(Ant.XIII.xv.5).Thisshedid,andforthe
nexttenyearstheinternalaffairsofthekingdomweremorepacific.Alexandramadeherson,JohnHyrcanusII.,highpriest.Uponherdeathsheleftthecivil
authoritytoAristobulusII.,theyoungerofhertwosons(Ant.XIII.xvi.1).Thisdivisionofthetwooffices,whichhadbeenunitedfromSimontoAlexandra,
provedafatalmistake.Eachbrotherdesiredtheofficeoftheother,andacivilwarfollowed.Thisdraggeditselfonforseveralyears.Aristobuluswasmore
popularwiththesoldiery,andinashorttimehaddefeatedHyrcanusandassumedthehighpriesthood.ThecontemplativeHyrcanuswouldprobablyhavebeen
quietlyrelegatedtoprivatelifehadnotanextraordinaryman,Antipater,anIduman,appeared.HeattachedhimselftoHyrcanus,andpersuadedthelatterto
fleetoHaretathIII.(Aretas),kingoftheNabatans,whouponthepromisethatthecitieswhichAlexanderJannushadtakenshouldberestoredtohim,
furnishedanarmyfortheprosecutionofthecivilwar.TheadvantageseemstohavebeenwithHyrcanus,whenintheyear65,Scaurus,therepresentativeofthe
RomangeneralPompey,appearedinDamascus,andbothbrothersappealedtohim.TheinterferenceofScaurusgaveAristohulussomeadvantage,butsettled
nothing,sothatwhen,in6463,Pompeyhimselfappeared,bothbrotherssenthimrichgiftsandappealedtohim.Pompeypostponeddecisionuntilheshould
reachJerusalem.MeantimehesetoutuponanexpeditionagainsttheNabatans,takingbothAristobulusandHyrcanuswithhim.
IntheprogressofthisexpeditionAristobulusdesertedandfled,firsttoAlexandriumandthentoJerusalem.Pompey,hearingofthis,proceededatonceto
Jerusalem.Whenheapproachedit,Aristobulusfirstpromisedtocapitulate,andthen,attheinstigationofhissoldiers,shutthegatesagainsthim.Pompey
investedthecity,which,afteraterriblesiegeofthreemonths,capitulated(Ant.XIV.iv.14).WiththefallofJerusalem.InOct.63,theJewsforeverlosttheir
independence,andthedreamofempirewhichhadbeenawakenedbythesuccessofSimoneightyyearsbefore
wasdispelled.
28.RomanRulebeforeHerod.ThehistoryoftheJewsforthenextfewyearsreflectsthevicissitudesofthetangledpoliticsofthecityofRome.From
B.C.6348PalestinewasunderthepersonalpowerofPompey.ThatgeneralhadreestablishedHyrcanusII.inpowerashighpriest,butstrippedhimofmostof
theterritorywonsincethedaysofSimon,andmadehimsubjecttohispersonalrepresentative,Scaurus.Intheyearsthatfollowed,Hyrcanuscamemoreand
moreundertheinfluenceofAntipater,hisselfappointedadviser.AntipaterwasfoundtobeamanofsuchabilitythattheRomanscommittedtohimthe
financesofJuda,andonmorethanoneoccasionentrusteddelicatemissionstohim,butHyrcanuswasinnametheruleroftheland.HowthePhariseesfelt
duringthisperiodwelearnfromthepoemscalledThePsalterofSolomon.Thelossofindependencehadledthemtocherishwithrenewedfervourthehopes
ofaMessianickingdom.
AfterthedefeatanddeathofPompeyin48,AntipaterandHyrcanuswereabletorenderJuliusCsarmaterialaidatAlexandria,thuswinninghisfavour. 47/62
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AfterthedefeatanddeathofPompeyin48,AntipaterandHyrcanuswereabletorenderJuliusCsarmaterialaidatAlexandria,thuswinninghisfavour.
Antipater,whohadofcoursebeenthechiefinstrumentinthis,wasmadeaRomancitizenbyCsar,andalsoprocuratorofJuda.Manyprivilegesofwhich
PompeyhaddeprivedthemwererestoredtotheJews.TheoldpowersoftheSanhedrinwererevivedthereligiouscustomsoftheJewswereguaranteed,not
onlyinJuda,butinAlexandriaandelsewhere,andtheirtaxeswereremittedintheSabbaticalyears(Ant.XIV.ix.35).Antipaterproceededtobuildupthe
fortunesofhisfamily,makinghissonPhasaelusgovernorofJerusalem,andHerodgovernorofGalilee.Herodprovedanableadministrator,butnarrowly
escapedcondemnationbytheSanhedrinforpresumingtoexercisethepoweroflifeanddeathwithoutitsconsent.
InB.C.44LuciusCassiuswenttoSyriatoraisefundsfortheconspirators.Antipatermadenoresistance,butsoughttoshowhowusefulhisfamilycouldbe.
Hesethissonstoraisethe700talentsimposedontheJews,andHerodwassosuccessfulinraisingthepartassignedtohimthathewasmadegeneralofthe
forces,bothlandandmaritime,ofCleSyria.
ThewithdrawalofCassiusfromSyriawasfollowedbythemurderofAntipater,afterwhichHyrcanuscameunderthepowerofHerodandPhasaelus.When
CassiusandBrutusweredefeatedatPhilippi(B.C.42),AntonymovedontotheeastwardtosecureSyria.AlthoughmanyJewscomplainedbitterlyofthesons
ofAntipater,hemadethemtetrarchswithfullpoliticalpower,leavingtoHyrcanusonlythehighpriesthood.
WhileAntonywasinEgypt,Antigonus,asonofAristobulusII.,gainedtheaidoftheParthians,whosentaforcewhichcapturedJerusalem(B.C.40),and
madeAntigonusbothkingandhighpriest.IntheprogressofeventswhichthusculminatedPhasaelushadcommittedsuicide.HyrcanuswastakentoBabylon
andhadhisearscutoff,thathemightneverbehighpriestagain.Herod,inviewoftheseevents,madeamostremarkablewinterjourneytoRome,wherehe
besoughtAugustusandAntonytomakeAristohulus.agrandsonofHyrcanusII.,king.TheseRomanstatesmen,however,preferredtocommitthegovernment
toonewhoseabilityhadalreadybeenprovedtheyaccordinglymadeHerodkingandhereturnedtowinhiskingdom.NaturallyHerodcoulddolittleuntil
Antony,whowasleadinganexpeditionagainsttheParthians,couldallowhimtroopswithwhichtofight,butwithaidsofurnishedhefinallyexpelled
AntigonusandbecamekingoftheJewsinfactaswellasinnameinB.C.37.
29.Herodandhissuccessors.ThereignofHerod(wh.see)wasmarkedatfirstbyaperiodofdifficulty.Hismaster,Antony,wastheslaveofthe
EgyptianCleopatra,andHerodhadnotonlytheordinarydifficultyofaruleroftheJewstocontendwith,butthecapricesofCleopatraaswell.Afterthebattle
ofActiumhewonthefavourofAugustus,whobecamethemasterofthewholeRomanworld,andaperiodofprosperitysetin.Herodhadapassionfor
building,andknewhowtosqueezemoneyoutofhissubjectsforhispurposes.Hethereforebuiltmanycities,adorningthemwiththebeautiesofGreek
architecture.Healsobuiltmanytemples.HisrebuildingoftheTempleinJerusalemis,perhaps,thebestknownoftheseundertakings,butitisonlyoneof
many.Thetaxesnecessaryforhisvariousenterprisesfellheavilyuponhissubjects,andrenderedthemwretchedandrestless.Hisdomesticlifewastragic,
thoughhisowndispositionwasthecauseofthis.DuringhisreignHellenismmadenewinroadsintoJuda,andPharisaismbecameconsolidatedinthe
celebratedschoolsofHillelandShammai.
WhenHeroddied(B.C.4),Augustusdividedhisdominionsamonghissons,ArchelausreceivingJudaandSamariaAntipas,GalileeandPeraandPhilip,
IturaandTrachonitis.AntipasheldhisterritorytillA.D.39,andwastherulerofGalileeinthetimeofChrist,butArchelausprovedsuchahadrulerthatinA.D.
6Augustusremovedhim,banishinghimtoGaul(Jos.BJII.vii.3).JudawasthenplacedunderprocuratorsasapartoftheprovinceofSyria.Thefifthof
theseprocuratorswasPontiusPilate,underwhomChristwascrucified.
Oncemore(A.D.4144)allthedominionsofHerodwereunitedunderHerodAgrippaI.,agrandsonofHerodtheGreat.Agrippawasafriendofthe
EmperorCaligula,whogavehimthisposition,buthisrulewasbrief.UponhisdeaththecountrypassedoncemoreunderdirectRomanrulethrough
procurators.
30.Lastpoliticalstruggles.FromthetimethatPompeyconqueredJerusalemmanyJewshadentertainedhopesofnationalindependence.Somethought
thatthetablesmightbeturned,andJerusalemmightreplaceRomeasthemistressoftheworld.Graduallythesefeelingspervadedmostofthepopulation,and
becamemoreintense.Finally,inA.D.66,theytookshapeinopenrebellion.TheRomangeneralVespasianwassenttoputdowntherevolution,andhadreduced
GalileeandtheoutlyingcitiesofJudawhenheheardofthedeathofNero,andwithdrewtoEgypttoawaitevents.During69Vespasianwasfightingforthe
empire,whichhefinallywonbuttheJews,insteadofstrengtheningthemselvesforthecomingconflict,wereconsumingoneanotherbycivilwar.Finally,in
A.D.70,TitusappearedbeforeJerusalemwithaRomanarmy,andafteroneofthemostterriblesiegesinitshistory,whichJosephusfullydescribes(BJV.ii.
ff.),itwasoncemoredevastated.TheTemplewasruined,itssacredfurnituretakentoRome,wherethecandlestickmaystillbeseencarvedontheArchof
Titus,thewallofthecitybrokendown,andthewholesitelaidwaste.TheservicesoftheJewishTemplethenceasedforever.
ThetenthRomanlegionwasleftinchargeofthespot,andcampedhereformanyyears.AsmallgarrisonoftheJewswhohadcapturedthefortressof
Masada,ontheshoreoftheDeadSea,heldoutforthreeyearslonger,butwasfinallycaptured(Jos.BJVII.viii.).
AfterthisterriblecalamitytheJewswerepoliticallyquietformanyyears.TheSanhedrinremovedfromJerusalemtoJabneh(Jamnia),atowninthe
PhilistineplainsouthofJoppa,whereinlateryearsitssessionsbecamefamousforthediscussionsofRabbiAkibaandothersconcerningEcclesiastesandthe
SongofSongsandotherinterestingquestions.
In . .116,undertheEmperorTrajan,JewsinCyprusandtheEastMediterraneanlandsraisedarevolt,butitaccomplishednothing.Hadrian,arulerofjust
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InA.D.116,undertheEmperorTrajan,JewsinCyprusandtheEastMediterraneanlandsraisedarevolt,butitaccomplishednothing.Hadrian,arulerofjust
andtolerantspirit,issaidtohavegrantedpermissionfortherebuildingoftheTemple,whentheslandersoftheSamaritansledhimtorevokeit.Suchanevent
tendedtofosternationalresentment.In132anewJewishleader,calledBarCochba,orSonoftheStar,appearedandledanewandstubbornrevolution.This
precipitatedabloodywar.AfterthedefeatofthemainforceabodyoftroopsfortifiedthemselvesatBether(mod.Bittir),wheretheyheldouttill133.Hadrian
wassoexasperatedthathedeterminedtoerasethenameofJerusalemfromthemap.ARomancolony,calledliaCapitolina,wasaccordinglyfoundedonthe
siteofJerusalem,fromwhichallJewswerebanished,andatempletoJupiterwaserectedonthesiteoftheTempleofJahweh.
ThisrevoltwasthelastexpressionofIsraelsnationalaspirations.Inthecenturieswhichhaveelapsedsince,theJewhasbeenscatteredinmanycountries.
Oftenpersecuted,hehasinpersecutioncherishedMessianicexpectations.Hehasmaintainedhisnationalidentitywithoutlandornationalgovernment,content
tostandastherepresentativeofareligiousideaonceembodiedinagloriousnationallife.II.RELIGION
1.ThepreJahwisticreligionofIsrael.ThehistoryofthereligionofIsraelisthehistoryofthereligionofJahweh.ThereligionofJahwehwas,however,
introducedatadefinitetimeinIsraelshistory,andHisreligionaspractisedbytheHebrewscontainsmanyfeatureswhichareidenticalwiththoseofother
Semiticreligions.SeveralofthesecanbeprovedtohavehadtheirorigininveryprimitiveconditionscommontoalltheSemites,fromwhichtheIsraeliteshad
inagooddegreeemergedbeforetheworshipofJahwehwasintroduced.Itwillaidtoclearnessofthoughttonoteatthebeginningwhatthosefeatureswere
whichtheHebrewsbroughttothereligionofJahwehfromtheircommonSemiticinheritance.
(1)Inthisearlyreligiontotemismprevailed.InComparativeReligionthetermtotemismdenotestheideathatanaturalobjectusuallyananimalis
kindredinbloodtotheworshipper.Suchanimalsareheldingreatvenerationoftentheyareregardedasspeciallyrelatedtothegodofthetribe,andarethen
worshippedastherepresentativesofthedeity.TracesofsuchaconceptionamongtheancestorsoftheIsraelitesarefoundinthefactthatthenameLeahmeans
wildcowRachel,eweSimeon,akindofwolforhynaCaleb,adog.ConfirmationofthisviewisfoundinthefoodtaboosoftheIsraelites.Certain
animalswereclean,andothersunclean.Thelatterclasswasinearlytimesindistinguishablefromholyanimals(Smith,RS425ff.).Forfurtherproofof
totemism,seeBarton,SemiticOrigins,34ff.,andthereferencestheregiven.
(2)AnotherconceptioncommontotheprimitiveHamiteandSemitewastheideathatdeitymanifestsitselfespeciallyintheprocessesofreproduction,and
thatthereforetheorgansofreproductionareespeciallysacred.Thatthiswastrueofthesepeoplegenerallyisabundantlyproved(cf.Barton,ch.iii.).Onedirect
evidencethatitsurvivedinIsraelisthefactthatwheninearlytimesonesworebyJahwehheputhishandunderthethigh(Gn24:2),asonenowputsitonthe
Bible.
(3)Thepillar(mazzbah)wasasacredsymbolintheworshipofJahwehdowntothereformofJosiah(cf.Gn28:22,Hos3:4,Dt7:5,2K23:14).This
objectwasnotpeculiartotheIsraelites,butisfoundinallSemiticcountries.Thepillarwasatfirstarepresentationofaphallus(cf.Barton,102),andno
doubt,assuch,cametobethesymbolofdeity.TheEgyptianobelisksarebutmoreconventionallyfashionedpillars.
Withthepillarmustbeplacedtheashrah.ThisobjectwasamongtheHebrewsattimesawoodenpost,butusuallyconsistedofmorethanone.Thereis
somereasonforsupposingthattheashrahwasnotcompleteuntiltherewascarvedinitarudedoorway,symbolicofthephysicaldoorwayoflife,inwhicha
figureofagoddessstood(cf.OhnefalschRichter,Kypros,p.165ff.,Plates17,18,29,80,83also1K15:13).Ifthisbetrue,thepillarandtheashrahtogether
representedateverysanctuarythemaleandfemaleorgansofreproduction(cf.Whatham,Amer.Jour.ofRel.Psychology,i.25ff.).Ashrahsstoodbythealtar
ofJahwehdowntotheDeuteronomicreform(2K23:6).Thesesymbols,then,weresurvivalsfromthepreJahwisticreligionofIsrael,andtheirexistence
provesthattheconceptionofdeityofwhichtheyaretheexpressionformedapartofthatearlyreligionalso.Cf.artt.ASHERAH,PILLAR.
(4)CircumcisionalsoisaninstitutionwhichtheHebrewshadinheritedfromtheirSemiticancestry.ItcannolongerberegardedasapeculiarlyHebrew
institution,foritwaspractisedbybothHamitesandSemites(Barton,98117),andispicturedonanEgyptianmonumentearlierthanthe1stdynasty(Bull.de
cor.hellnique,1892,p.307ff.,andpl.1).Circumcision,likemanyotherreligiousinstitutions,underwentdifferentinterpretationsatdifferentperiodsbutits
originisclearlyconnectedwiththatnaiveconceptionofthecloseconnexionofthereproductiveorganswiththeDivinewhichcharacterizedallthepeopleof
theHamitoSemiticrace(cf.Whatham,OriginofCircumcision,l.c.i.301ff.).ThepracticeofcircumcisionamongtheIsraelitesisanotherproofthattheir
conceptionofdeitywasinearlytimescloselyconnectedwithanimalfertility.
(5)FromthepreJahwisticperiodcamealsotheideathatspiritsornuminadweltincertainnaturalobjects,suchastrees,stones,andsprings.This
conceptionbelongedtotheprimitiveSemites,bywhomitwasheldincommonwithprimitivepeoplesgenerally(cf.RS2132,167183,
185195Sem.Or.82ff.,8797).SacredtreesexistedinmanypartsofPalestine.Therewas
AbrahamsoakofMamrenearHebron(Gn13:18,18:1),atShechemstoodanother(Jos24:26),atOphrahanother(Jg6:11,19),andatmanyotherplacesthey
werefound,andindeedtheyarestillfoundinPalestineatthepresentday(cf.Curtiss,Prim.Sem.Rel.Today,91ff.Barton,AYearsWanderingsinBible
Lands,162,163,andBiblicalWorld,xxiv.170,174).
Wellswerealsosacred.ThefountainatKadeshwascalledEnmishpat(Gn14:7),orthespringofjudgment,nodoubtbecauseoraculardecisionswere
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Wellswerealsosacred.ThefountainatKadeshwascalledEnmishpat(Gn14:7),orthespringofjudgment,nodoubtbecauseoraculardecisionswere
obtainedthere.ThewellofLahairoi(Gn16:14)hadastorytoaccountforitssacredness,ashadalsothewellsatBeersheba(Gn21:29),whichwereevidently
sacred.Enrogel(modernJobsWell)wassosacredthatAdonijahheldasacrificebyit(1K1:9ff.),whileSolomonwasanointedatGihon(modernVirgins
Fountain)forthesamereason.
AsacredcircleofstonescalledGilgalexistedonthewestoftheJordan(Jos4:19ff.).Thissacredstonecircle,likemanywhichexiststillontheeastofthe
Jordan(cf.Barton,AYearsWanderings,143,andBiblicalWorld,xxiv.177),wasnodoubtofprehistoricorigin.InthepreJahwisticreligion,then,suchnumina
wereworshippedbytheHebrews.
(6)Anotherfeatureofthisearlyreligionwassacrifice.Inlatertimessacrificewasregardedmainlyasagiftoffoodtothedeity(cf.Ps50),andprobablyin
earlytimesthisideaenteredintoit.ThelateW.R.Smiththoughtthatthechieffeatureofprimitivesacrificewascommunion,i.e.thatacommensalfeast,in
whichthegodandtheworshipperpartookofthesamefood,andtheirkinshipwasconsequentlyrenewed,wasitschieffeature(RS2,vi.xi.).Whetherthiswas
itssolefeatureornot,therecanbenodoubtthatthesacrificialfeastformedanimportantpartofprimitivesacrifice,andofsacrificeamongtheearlyHebrews
(cf.Ex24:11).Curtissbelievesthattheoriginallysignificantelementinsacrificewastheburstingforthoftheblood,thatthisratherthanthefeastconstituted
itasacrifice(Prim.Sem.Rel.Today,216228),whileWhatham(l.c.ii.38)holdsthathumansacrifice,atleast,originatedinimpersonatingthedeathofthe
earthgoddesssson,i.e.thedeathofvegetation.Whateverthemeaningsattachedtoit(andinthelongdevelopmentsofprehistorictimetheymayhavebeen
many),sacrificebothofhumanbeingsandofanimalswaspractisedbytheprimitiveSemites,andwasperpetuatedbytheHebrewsintotheOTperiod.Traces
ofhumansacrificewerefoundbyMr.MacalisterduringtheexcavationatGezer(cf.PEFSt,1903,pp.33ff.,121,306ff.).ThestoryofthesacrificeofIsaac
(Gn22)isinrealityanattempttojustifythediscontinuanceofthesacrificeofthehumanfirstborn,andtosubstitutearamforit.ItisreallythestoryofIsaacs
deliverance,notofhissacrifice.ItspresenceintheOTprovesthatinearlytimestheIsraelites,incommonwithotherSemites,practisedhumansacrifice.
(7)Probablytheban(chrem),bywhichevenbeforeabattleallthepopulationoftheenemiescountryandtheireffectsweredevotedtodestructionasa
solemnobligationtoJahweh,isanothersurvivalfromprimitivetimes.ManyexamplesofitarefoundintheOT(cf.Nu21:2,Jos6:17,1S15:3ff.).Itseemsto
havebeenthecustomoftheMoabites,forMeshasays(MoabiteStone,l.11f.):IkilledallthepeopleofthecityapleasingspectacletoChemosh.So
barbarousacustomwasnodoubtprimitive.
(8)AnothercustomperpetuatedbytheIsraelitesfrompreJahwistictimeswasthelawofbloodrevenge,bywhichitbecameareligiousduty,whenonewas
injured,toinflictalikeinjury,andifthebloodofoneskinsmanwasshed,toshedthebloodofthosewhohadcommittedthedeed.Thisideanotonlymeetsus
frequentlyintheOT(Gn4:14ff.,23ff.,Ex21:23ff.),butisalsofoundoftenintheCodeofHammurabi,B.C.2100(127,195197,200,202,210,219,229,
230,231),andamongtheArabstoday(cf.e.g.Zwemer,Arabia.155,265).Itisclearlyoneofthereligiouspointsofviewwhichhavecomeoutofthe
primitiveSemiticpast.
(9)ThePassover,orspringleapingfestival,socalled,perhaps,becausetheyoungwerethengambollingabout,isanotherinstitutionwhichasisnow
generallyrecognized,theIsraelitesbroughtwiththemfromtheirremoteSemiticpast(cf.RS2406ff.,464Sem.Or.108ff.:Kautzsch,inHastingsDB,Ext.Vol.
621ff.:Schmidt,ProphetofNazareth,62).ItisoneofthesurvivalsoftheearlySemiticworshipofdeityasthegiverofanimallifeand,likethepillarand
ashrah,isanevidenceofthesacrednatureofreproductionamongtheancestorsoftheHebrews.Itunderwentinlatertimesadifferentinterpretationattheir
hands(cf.Ex12),butitiscertainthatthatexplanationdoesnotaccountforitsorigin.
(10)Itisprobablethatanautumnfestival,whichinprimitiveSemitictimeswasconnectedwiththedateharvest,andintheOTperiodwasknownas
theFeastofTabernacles,wasbroughtbytheIsraelitesintoJahwehworshipfromtheirprimitivelife.Thisisnotsouniversallyrecognizedasinthecaseofthe
Passover,buthasbeenpracticallyprovedbyBarton(Sem.Or.111115).InconnexionwiththisfestivalprobablyinprimitivetimesthewailingforTammuz
occurred,andallthoseceremonieswhichcelebratedthedeathandresurrectionofvegetation.ThiswailingwasinthelateHebrewritualinterpretedasmourning
forsinontheDayofAtonement(cf.RS2411:Sem.Or.289ff.).SimilarlyafterthesettlementinCanaanitwasregardedasthefeastofthegrapeharvestinstead
ofthedateharvest.
(11)WecanhardlysaythattheHebrewswerebelieversinpolytheismbeforethecovenantwithJahweh,butcertainlytheywerenotmonotheists.
Probablyeachtribehaditsgod.Oneofthese,thegodofthetribeGad,hassurvivedintheOTwithaspecializedfunction(cf.Is65:11).Thesetribaldeities
receivedthespecialhomageoftheirrespectiveclans,butnodoubtwhenmenwanderedintotheregionofotherlocalnuminatheypropitiatedthesealso.Sucha
condition,wheretribesworshiponedeitybutrecognizetherealityofotherdeities,iscalledbysomescholarshenotheism.
2.ThecovenantwithJahweh.ThehistoricalcircumstancesunderwhichJahwehbecametheGodofIsraelhavebeensketchedabove(I.6).
(1)ThosecircumstancescertainlysuggestthatJahwehwasthegodoftheKenitesbeforeHewastheGodofIsrael.
Thisview,firstsuggestedbyGhillanyalsoindependentlybyTiele,morefullyurgedbyStade,fullyworkedoutbyBudde,isnowacceptedbyGuthe,Wildeboer.H.P. 50/62
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Thisview,firstsuggestedbyGhillanyalsoindependentlybyTiele,morefullyurgedbyStade,fullyworkedoutbyBudde,isnowacceptedbyGuthe,Wildeboer.H.P.
Smith,Barton,andW.R.Harper.Thereasonsforitare:(a)OfthethreedocumentswhichnarratetheExodus,EandPtelloftheintroductionofthenameJahwehasanew
name.InearlyreligionanewnameusuallymeansanewdeityE,onwhom
Pisdependentinthispartofthenarrative,wasanEphraimiteandpreservedthetraditionscurrentamongthe
Josephtribes.(b)Theaccountoftheinstitutionofthecovenant(Ex18:12ff.)makesitclearthatJethro,theKenitepriest,offersthesacrifice.Hereallyinitiatesthe
HebrewsintotheworshipofJahweh.ThisisconfirmedbytheunderlyingthoughtofallthedocumentsthatitwasinthisMidianiteorKenitecountry(theKeniteswerea
branchoftheMidianites)thatMosesfirstlearnedofJahweh.(c)ForcenturiesafterthisSinaiwasregardedasthehomeofJahweh.FromhereHemarchedforthtogive
victorytoHispeople(Jg5:4ff.,Dt33:2,Hab3:1,Ps68:4).ElijahalsomadeapilgrimagetoSinaitoseekJahwehinHishome(1K19).(d)The
KenitesduringseveralsucceedingcenturieswerethechampionsofthepureworshipofJahweh.JaelkilledSisera(Jg5:24ff.).TheRechabites,whofromJehutoJeremiah
(2K10:15,Jer35)championedJahweh,wereKenites(1Ch2:55).(e)SomeoftheKenitesjoinedIsraelinhermigrations(Nu10:29ff.),minglingwithIsraelbothinthe
north(Jg5:24)andinthesouth(Jg1:16)someofthemremainedonthesouthernborderofJudah.wheretheymaintainedaseparateexistencetillthetimeofSaul(1S15:6),
andwerefinally,inthedaysofDavid,incorporatedintothetribeofJudah(1S30:26ff.,29ff.).(f)itisthisabsorptionoftheKenitesbyJudahwhich,ifJahwehwerea
Kenitedeity,explainswhytheJdocument,writteninJudah,regardstheknowledgeofthenameJahwehasimmemorial(Gn4:26).TheperpetualseparatenessofJudahfrom
theothertribestendedtoperpetuatethisinspiteofcontrarycurrentsfromotherquarters.WearethereforejustifiedinholdingthatJahwehwasthegodoftheKenites,that
someoftheHebrewtribesentangledinEgyptwerereadytoabandontheiroldgodsforonethatcoulddeliverthem,andthusHebecametheirGod.Theobjectionstothis
viewurgedbyKautzsch(loc.cit.626ff.)reallydonottouchthenerveoftheargument.ThewordsGodofthyfathersonwhichhelayssomuchstressarewrittenfroma
laterpointofview,andthatpointofviewisquiteaswelljustifiedbytheKenitehypothesis(fortheKeniteswereabsorbedbyJudah)asbythesuppositionthatJahwehwas
thegodofoneoftheIsraelitishclans.
(2)WhatconceptiontheHebrewsofthetimeofMosesheldofJahwehwecaninbroadoutlinedefine.EvidentlytheyconceivedHimtobeagodofwar.
Theneedsoftheoppressedtribesdemandedawarrior.Thepeoplearesaidtohavesung,aftertheirdeliverance,Jahwehisamanofwar.Abookofoldpoems
wascalledTheBookoftheWarsofJahweh(Nu21:14),andJahwehofhosts(orarmies)wasafterwardsoneofHismostconstantnames.Therecanbelittle
doubtthatthisconceptionofJahwehasawargodhaddevelopedamongtheKenites,andthatithadlargeinfluenceindrawingtheHebrewsintoHisworship.
Thereisreasonalsotobelievethat,asJahwehhadlongbeenworshippedaroundMountSinai,whereseverethunderstormsoccur(cf.AgnesSmithLewis,
Expos.Times,June1906,p.394),HehadcometoberegardedasagodwhomanifestedHimselfespeciallyinthephenomenaofstorms.Heisusually
representedascominginathunderstorm(Ps18,Ezk1,Hab3,Is19:1,Job38),andtheregularnameforthunderwasthevoiceofJahweh(Ps29:3ff.,Job
37:4).HeisalsosaidtohaveledHispeopleinacloud(Ex13,14),tohaveappearedonMountSinaiandintheTempleinacloud(Ex19,1K8:10,11)andin
themiddlebooksofthePentateuchthecloudisusedmorethanfortytimesasthesymbolofJahwehspresence.Probably,then,theIsraelitesreceivedHimfrom
theKenitesasagodofwarwhomanifestedHimselfinthestormcloudandutteredHisterriblevoiceinthunder.
Theseconceptions,however,didnotexhausttheirthoughtofHim.TheIsraeliteswereSemites,andtheythoughtofHimasagodoflife.Hadthisnotbeen
so,circumcisionwouldnothavebeenHissign,thepillarandashrahwouldnothavebeensymbolicinstrumentsinHisworship,thefirstbornwouldnothave
beenofferedtoHiminsacrifice,andthegenitalswouldnothavebeenthepartofthebodyspeciallysacredtoHim.BartonhasshownthatJahwehisan
evolutionoutofthatprimitiveSemiticconceptionwhichmadeplantandanimalfertilityespeciallyrevealdeity(op.cit.ch.vii.).Theseconceptions,too,the
HebrewsinthetimeofMosesheldofJahweh.
(3)ThenameJahweh,explainedinEx3:14asIamthatIamorIwillbethatwhichIwillbe,waslongthoughttojustifytheviewthatatthetimeof
MosestheIsraelitesregardedJahwehastheselfexistentoruncreatedOne.Ithasnowbeengenerallyrecognized,however,thatthisisonlyalaterHebrew
explanationofanametheoriginalmeaningofwhichhadbeenforgotten.
Inanattempttorecoverthelostoriginal,manyandvarioustheorieshavebeenputforward.Foraresumofthese,seeBarton(op.cit.283,284).Scholarsarebyno
meansagreedastothemeaningofthename.Therearealmostasmanytheoriesofitsetymologyastherearedifferentscholars.Bartonhascorrectlyseenthatthename
probablyhadsomereferencetoJahwehastheGodoflife,theGodwhoserewardisthefruitofthewomb(Ps127:3),buthefailed,then,toseethattheetymology
shouldbesoughtnotinHebrewbutinArabic.TheKeniteswereanArabiantribe,andJahwehwasnodoubtanArabianepithet.Probablyitisconnectedwiththeroothawa,
tolovepassionatelyusedinsomeformsespeciallyofsexualdesire.IfthismeaningwereunderstoodbyHebrewsatthetimeofMoses,itwaslostassoonastheIsraelites
begantospeakaCanaanitishdialect.
(4)ItisprobablethatthecovenantbetweenJahwehandIsraelinvolvedatthetimenomorethanthattheywouldbecomeHisworshippersinreturnfor
deliverance,victory,andprotection.InbecomingHisworshippers,however,itwasnecessarytohaveaknowledgeofHisritual,i.e.howtoworshipHim.Our
oldestdocumentJgivesalistoftencommandsorwords(Ex34),whichitsauthorregardedasthebasisofthecovenant.AsthisDecalogueofJstands,it
wouldformaconvenientsummaryofrituallawforanomadicpeopletocarryinthememory.
Somefeaturesofitcannot,however,beasoldasMoses,forthefeastofunleavenedbreadis,as
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Somefeaturesofitcannot,however,beasoldasMoses,forthefeastofunleavenedbreadis,as
Wellhausenandothershavedemonstrated,anagriculturalfestival,whichgrewupafterthesettlementinCanaan.Itwas,however,mergedwiththePassover,anditsname
hasprobablybeensubstitutedforthePassoverbysomeeditor.TheFeastsofWeeksandofIngatheringwerealsoagriculturalfestivals,but,aspointedoutinthepreceding
section,thelattergoesbacktoanomadicdatefestival.TheobservanceoftheSabbathprobablygoesback,asToyhasshown(JBLxviii.190ff.),toanoldtaboo.Withvery
littlealteration,therefore,theDecalogueofJsuitsallthewildernessconditions.
WemaysupposethatthesummaryofritualwhichMosestaughttheIsraelitesasthebasisofthecovenantwithJahwehwassomewhatasfollows:
1.Thoushaltworshipnoothergod.
2.Thoushaltmaketheenomoltengods.
3.ThefeastofthePassoverthoushaltkeep.
4.Thefirstlingofanassthoushaltredeemwithalamb.
5.Noneshallappearbeforemeempty.
6.Ontheseventhdaythoushaltrest.
7.Thoushaltobservethefeast[ofthedateharvest].
8.Thoushaltnotofferthebloodofmysacrificewithleavenedbread,neithershallthesacrificeofthePassoverbeleftuntilthemorning.
9.ThefirstlingsofthyflocksthoushaltbringuntoJahwehthygod.
10.Thoushaltnotseetheakidinitsmothersmilk.
Thesecommandsareinpartconjectural,butastheyareobtainedfromJbyomittingthe
agriculturalandlaterelements,theyareprobablyapproximatelyright.
(5)Itwillbenoticedthatthesecondcommandisnotaprohibitionofidols,butonlyofexpensiveidols.Kautzsch(loc.cit.629)thinksthatthenumberof
referencestothebodilypresenceofJahweh(cf.e.g.Ex33:23)mayindicatethatsomeidolofHimexistedinSinai.Thisisquitepossible,sincetheDecalogue,
asJunderstooditinthe9thcent.,didnotprohibitsuchimages.
(6)Jahwehssymbolatthistimewasthesacredark.AstheEgyptiansandBabylonianshadsimilarstructuresforcarryingtheirgods(cf.Wilkinson,Ancient
Egyptians,iii.289IsaiahinSBOT,78),itisprobablethatthearkwasakindofmovablesanctuaryforanomadicpeople.Alatetradition(1K8:9,21)says
thatitcontainedtheTenCommandmentswrittenonstone.ThelaterversionsoftheCommandmentsdiffersoradicallythatitisnotprobablethatan
authoritativecopyfromsuchearlydatewaspreserved.ScholarssupposethereforethatthearkcontainedanaeroliteorsomesuchsymbolofJahweh.Centuries
afterwards,whenitwascarriedintothecampofthePhilistines,itwasthoughtthatJahwehHimselfhadcomeintothecamp(1S4).
IntheJdocumentthearkplaysasmallpart,whileintheEdocumentitismuchmoreprominent.JapparentlythoughtmuchmoreofSinaiasthehomeof
Jahweh.ThisprobablycameaboutfromthefactthatafterthesettlementthearkwasinthepossessionoftheJosephtribesandbecametheirshrine.
(7)Accordingtotheoldestsources,thereseemstohavebeennopriesthoodatthistimeexceptthatofMoseshimself.Jtellsusthatwhenthecovenantwas
ratified,Moses,Aaron,Nadab,AbihuandseventyeldersofIsraelwentupintoJahwehsmountain,butonlyMoseswaspermittedtocomebeforeHim(Ex24:1,
2,911),whileEtellsusofatentofmeetingwhichMosesusedtopitchatadistancefromthecamp,andtowhichhewouldgotoconsultJahweh(Ex33:7
11),andthenreturn.InthistentJoshua,Mosesminister,abodeallthetime(Ex33:11).Itisclearthatneitherofthesewritershadanyconceptionofthechoice
ofthetribeofLeviforthepriesthood.IndeedEmakesnomentionofthetribeofLevianywhere.MoseswasinhisviewapparentlyofoneoftheJosephtribes,
andhowthetermLeviteforpriestoriginatedhedoesnottellus.InJg17:7hetellsusofaLevitewhobelongedtothetribeofJudah(cf.SBOT,adloc.),so
thathereLevitecannothaveatribalsignification.JtellsusofatribeofLevitowhichacalamityhappened(Gn34,49:57),andhetellsusalso(Ex32:2628)
ofanumberofmenwhoinacrisisattached(lewied)themselvestoMosesforthepreservationofthereligionofJahweh,andwere,perhaps,accordinglycalled
Levites.Manyscholarsthinkthatthelaterpriesthoodwasdevelopedoutofthisband,andthatitsidentificationwiththeunfortunateclanofLeviisduetoa
laterconfusionofthenames.Inthepresentstateofourknowledge,thisis,perhaps,themostprobableview.(Forthegreatvarietyofopinionamongscholars,
cf.art.LeviinJEvii.21.)ThepriesthoodisprobablyadevelopmentlaterthanMoses.
3.TheprePropheticreligioninCanaan.(1)TheconquestofCanaanstrengthenedthefaithoftheIsraelitishtribesinJahwehasthegodofwar.Their
successstrengthenedtheholdofJahwehuponthem.ASemiticpeopleuponenteringanewlandalwaysfeltitnecessarytopropitiatethegodoftheland.Asthis
wasthecaseaslateasthe8thcent.(2K17:2434),itwouldbeallthemoretrueatthebeginningofthe12th.Atfirst,therefore,theymusthavemingledthe
worshipoftheBaalswiththeworshipofJahweh.Aswehaveseen,theconquestdidnotoccurallatoncetheremusthavebeenmanyconflicts,whichkeptthe
tribesinconstantdependenceuponJahweh(cf.Jg5:23).
TheseconflictscontinuedtothetimeofSaulandDavid,andconstitutedalifeanddeathstruggle.When,underDavid,Israelemergedvictorious,Jahwehwas 52/62
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TheseconflictscontinuedtothetimeofSaulandDavid,andconstitutedalifeanddeathstruggle.When,underDavid,Israelemergedvictorious,Jahwehwas
morethaneverthegodofarmies.Thesevicissitudestendedtoeliminatetheworshipofthetribaldeities.LittlebylittleJahwehcametoberegardedasthegod
oftheland,asaBaal,andassuchtookpossessionintheirthoughtoftheprincipalCanaanitishshrines.
(2)GraduallytheCanaanitishconceptionsconnectedwiththeseshrinesweretransferredtoJahweh.Thisfusionwaseasilypossiblebecauseofthekinship
ofJahwehandtheBaals.Bothhadsprungfromthesameprimitiveconceptions.Bothwereregardedasgodsofanimalfertility.Toboththesamesymbolsof
fertilityweresacred.ThemaindifferencewasthattheBaalswerethegodsofclanswhichhadlongerresidedinafertileland(cf.Sem.Or.297ff.).Bythis
fusionthesomewhatmeagreandsimpleritualofJahwehwasenriched.BythetimeofGideonthetermBaal(lord)wasappliedtoJahweh,asJerubbaal,
Gideonsrealname,proves.IshbaalandMeribaal,sonsofSaul,andBeeliada,asonofDavid,bearnameswhichprovethesamething.
(3)DuringthisperioditwasnotthoughtwrongtomakeimagesofJahweh.GideonmadeanephodidolatOphrah(Jg8:27),Micahmadeanimageto
Jahweh(Jg17:3ff.),anditisprobablethatsimilarimagesexistedelsewhere.SometimesthesewereintheformofbullocksaswerethosewhichJeroboamsetup
atBethelandDan.TheselattersymbolizedJahwehasthegeneratoroflife,andthegodofpastoralwealth.Householdnuminacalledteraphimwerealso
worshipped.Imagesofthesewerealsomade,sometimeslargeenoughtobepassedoffforaman(1S19:13ff.).
(4)InthewholeofthisperioditwasthoughtthatJahwehexistedintheformofaman.Hemightappearandtalkwithaperson,indistinguishablefroma
humanbeing,untilthemomentofHisdeparture(cf.Gn18:2ff.,Jg6:11ff.,13:3ff.).Sometimes,asinthelasttwopassagescited,itwastheangelofJahwehthat
appeared,butattheperiodwhenthesenarrativeswerewritten,theconceptionofthedifferencebetweenJahwehandHisangelwasnotfullydeveloped.Sothe
face(presence)ofJahweh(Ex33)isareferencetothepersonofJahweh.ItindicatesthatHewasconceivedashavingabodilyformWhentheJdocument
waswritten,thePropheticperiodwasalreadydawning.AsweareindebtedtothatdocumentformostoftheseanthropomorphicrepresentationsofJahweh,we
maybesurethatthisconceptionprevailedthroughouttheprePropheticperiod.
(5)TheonlyliteraturewhichhascometousfromthispreProphetictimeconsistsofafewpoemstheSongofDeborah(Jg5),DavidsLamentoverSaul
andJonathan(2S1),andafewfragmentselsewhere(e.g.Nu21andJos10:12).NoonenowthinksofattributingthePsalmsintheforminwhichwehavethem
toDavid,orthebooksofProverbsandEcclesiastestoSolomon.Theliteratureofthisperiod,then,is,sofarasweknowit,secularincharacter.Thepeoplewere
religious,butthereligionexistedasahelptosecularlife.Itconsistedlargelyofinheritedcustoms,ofhalfsuperstitiousbeliefs,whilethemaininterestofall
wascentredinphysicalprosperity.Certainpracticeswereregardedaswrong,asoffencesagainstJahweh(e.g.thecrimeofJg19andDavidssin[2S11]),but
theethicalcontentofthereligionwasofaveryrudimentarycharacter.Stealing(cf.Jg18),deceit(Gn27),andtreachery(Jg3:15ff.,5:24,27)werenotonly
condonedbutattimesevenglorified.
(6)BeforethetimeofSolomonatravellerinPalestinewouldhavefoundnoelaboratetempleorstructuredevotedtoreligion.Instead,ineveryvillagehe
wouldhavefoundanopenairhighplace,markedbypillarsandashrahs,highplacessuchashaverecentlybeenexcavatedatGezerandMegiddoand
foundatPetra.Inconnexionwiththesetherewereoftensacredcavesandotheraccessoriesofprimitiveworship.Insome,asatGezerandJerusalem,serpent
worshipwaspractised,andbrazenserpentsaswellasthelivinganimalwerekept(cf.PEFSt,1903,p.2222K18:4).Probablyatmostofthem,asatGezer,
someformofAshtart,themothergoddess,wasalsoworshipped(cf.PEFSt,1903,p.228).Astimewenton,anoccasionalshrinehadabuilding.Thefirstof
thesewhichwecantracewasatShiloh(1S13)ithadatleasttworoomsanddoors.SolomonthenerectedthesplendidTempleatJerusalemonPhnician
models,departing,ashasbeenpointedout(I.14),fromolderHebrewpracticeinmanyways.PerhapsJeroboamerectedtemplesatBethelandatDan(cf.1K
12:31,Am7:13),butforthemostparttheseshrineswereofthesimplestnatureandwithoutbuildings.Awealthycitizenmightinthisperiodhaveaprivate
templeinconnexionwithhisresidence(Jg17).
(7)Thepriesthoodinthisperiodwasnotconfinedtoanytribe.Thereseemstohavebeenafeelingthatitwasbettertohavealeviforpriest(whateverthat
mayhavemeantcf.Jg17:10),butMicah,anEphraimite,madehissonapriest(Jg17:5)Samuel,amemberofoneoftheJosephtribes,actedaspriest(1S
9:12ff.)andDavidmadehissonspriests(2S8:18RVm).AccordingtoJ(cf.Jg18:30),Jonathan,agrandsonofMoses,startedlifeasanimpecuniousresident
ofBethleheminJudahinseekinghisfortunehebecameapriestintheprivateshrineofMicah,theEphraimitethenattheinstigationoftheDanitesherobbed
thatshrineandfledwiththemtothenorth,becomingthefounderofalineofpriestsinthetempleofDan.EvenifhisdescentfromMosesshouldnotbe
credited,thestorygivesevidenceofthekindofirregularityinthepriesthoodwhichwasstillconceivablewhentheJdocumentwascomposed.Sofaras
Jerusalemwasconcerned,Davidimprovedthischaoticconditionbyregulatingthepriesthood.
(8)Thefestivalsatthisperiodwereofasimple,joyouscharacter.Theywereheldintheinterestoftheworshipper.Apictureofonehasbeenpreservedin1
S1,2.Thepriestskilledthesacrifice,pouringoutthebloodnodoubttoJahweh,andthenthefleshwascooked.Whileitwascooking,thepriestobtainedhis
portionbyakindofchance(cf.1S2:13ff.),afterwhichthevictimwasconsumedbytheworshippersinajoyousfestival.Thisfestivalwastheappropriatetime
toprayforchildren,anditisprobablethatconsiderablelicenceaccompaniedit(cf.Sem.Or.287ff.).Thefeastdescribedoccurredannually,buttherewere
lesserfeastsatthetimeofthenewmoonsandonotheroccasions,whichwereprobablyobservedinthesamesimpleway(cf.1S20:5ff.).Inadditiontothe
sacrificesatsuchfeasts(cf.1S9:22ff.),itisclearthatonextraordinaryoccasionshumansacrificewasinthisperiodstillpractised.ThestoryofJephthahs
daughter,whetherhistoricalinallitsfeaturesornot,provesthatsuchsacrificeswereregardedaspossible.Itisprobablethat1K16:34isproofthatchildren 53/62
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daughter,whetherhistoricalinallitsfeaturesornot,provesthatsuchsacrificeswereregardedaspossible.Itisprobablethat1K16:34isproofthatchildren
werestillsacrificedwhenimportantstructuresweresetup.ThelanguageofthispassagehasbeengreatlyilluminatedbythediscoveriesatGezer(cf.above,1
(6)).
(9)Aglimpseintothehouseholdworshipofthetimeweobtainfromtheteraphim.Theseseemtohavebeenhouseholddeities,similartothosefoundin
Babylonia(Ezk21:21)andamongtheAramans(Gn31:19).Oftheiruseweknowlittle.Theyseemtohavebeenemployedfordivination(Zec10:2),andthey
weresometimesmadeinhumanform(1S19:16).Throughoutthisperiodtheywerearecognizedelementintheworship(cf.Jg18:20,Hos3:4).Whetherthese
godsformedthecentreofthehomeworshipornotwecannottell.Theywereevidentlyacrudesurvivalfromanearliertime,andwithreligiousprogressthey
disappeared.
InadditiontothefeaturesofthereligionoftheprePropheticperiodwhichhavebeenenumerated,itmustberememberedthatthefundamentalinstitutions
ofthepreJahwisticreligionofIsrael,enumeratedin1,continuedthroughthisperiodalso.
(10)AnotherreligiousphenomenonoftheprePropheticperiodconsistedinthedevelopmentofaclassofseersorprophets,whoaretobecarefully
distinguishedfromthegreatmoralandliteraryprophetsofthenextperiod.Theprophetsofthisperiodwerecloselyakintotheseersandfortunetellerswhoare
commontheworldover.TheyhadtheirparallelinotherSemiticcountries,e.g.PhniciaandAssyria.InthetimeofSaultherewasaclassofecstaticprophets
inIsraelwhousedmusictoaidtheirpropheticexcitement,whoutteredthemselveswhenpossessedbyanuncontrollablefrenzy,andwhowentaboutinhands
(cf.1S10:913,19:23,24).
TheseprophetshavetheiranalogueinayouthatGebalinPhnicia,ofwhomtheEgyptianWenamonmakesreportaboutB.C.1100.Thisyouthwasseizedbythespiritof
thegodsandthrownintoafrenzy,andthenutteredprophecieswhichmovedaking(cf.AJSLxxi.105).Thistypeofprophecywasthereforeinthisperiodwidelyspreadover
thecountryevenbeyondtheboundsofIsrael.TheeonsoftheprophetsreferredtosooftenintheOTweresimplyguildsofthesemenorganizedformutualhelp.Music
helpedtobringonthefrenzy,anditwasmorecontagiouswhenanumberweretogether.
Samuelwasnotsharplydistinguishedfromthesonsoftheprophets,althoughhewasevidentlyamanofahigherorder,believedbythepeopletopossesssuperiorgifts.
Hewascalledaseer(1S9:9),andwasbelievedtobeabletodirectpeopleinfindinglostproperty,andnottobeabovetakingafeeforit(1S9:7).Somewhatparallelto
suchaseeristheonementionedbyAshurbanipal(G.Smith,Assurbanipal,119ff.).
Thesemenwereheldinhighesteem,andobtainedtheirlivingbytellingpeoplewhattheywishedtoknow.Theiroraclesweremostlyaboutthefuture,butoftennodoubt
theytoldamanwhetherthisorthatactionwasinaccordwiththewillofJahweh,orofthegodwhomtheyrepresented.BaalaswellasJahwehhadhisprophets(1K
18:19).Suchmenwerenecessaryadjunctsofacourt,forakinghadoftentoengageinhazardousenterprisesofState.WefindaccordinglythatAhabkeptfourhundredof
themabouthim(1K22:6).Davidandotherkingshadprobablydonethesame.NodoubtNathanandGad,whomlaterwritersmentioninconnexionwithDavid,werereally
menofthischaracter,whoareinthenarrativespicturedlikethenoblerprophetsoflatertime.
Theseprophetsbyprofessionpossessednohigherethicaltendenciesthantheothermenoftheirtime.Theirsustenancewasdependentonthepleasureof
theirroyalmaster,iftheywereconnectedwiththecourt,andusuallytheygavesuchoraclesasweredesired.(Forfulleraccount,seeBatten,TheHebrew
Prophet,2772.)Theinstitutionwasheldinhighregard.Whentheecstaticfrenzycameuponamanandhishighernervecentreswerebytheexcitement
inhibitedfromaction,hewas,assuchmenusuallyareamongsavageandprimitivepeople(cf.Davenport,PrimitiveTraitsinReligiousRevivals,ch.I.vi.),
thoughttobeunderthepossessionofasupernaturalspirit.Hewasaccordinglylistenedtomostcarefully,andhisutterancesweresupposedtorevealtheDivine
will.ItissignificantthattheHebrewsusedthesamewordforprophetandforlunatic.Theinstitutionwascapableneverthelessofhighpossibilities.Ifthose
cameforwardexercisingitsgiftswhowereanimatedbyhighethicalpurposeandpossessedagreatspiritualmessage,theregardinwhichthisinstitutionwas
heldassuredthemofahearing.
4.ReligioninthePropheticperiod.TheperiodwhichwecallPropheticextendsfromElijahtothegreatprophetoftheExile,thesocalledSecond
Isaiah.Itwasinthisperiodthat,thankstothelaboursofthegreatschoolofpropheticreformers,thereligionofIsraelbecameethicalandspiritual.Theygaveit
thiscontent,andbythenewInterpretationwhichtheyputonthecovenantwithJahwehwhichMosesandJethrohadmediated,forcedituponthenation.Inthis
theywereaidedbythemisfortunesandsufferingsincidenttotheinterferenceofAssyriaandBabyloninHebrewaffairs.Inoneimportantrespecttheprophets
inthisnoblesuccessionchangedthemethodofpropheticutterance.Withoneexception,theydiscardedthemethodofecstaticutterance,andspokeastheresult
ofpropheticvision.Justwhattheymeanbyvisionwemaynotsay,butwemaybesurethatintelligenceandimaginationhadtheirpartinit.Itledtothe
perceptionofanobleideal,andgavethebeholderaholypassiontorealizeit.
(1)Elijah.ThepropheticworkbeganwithElijah.Themainpointsofhiscareer(1K1719)havealreadybeentoucheduponabove(I.17).Hissignificanceliesinthe
actthatinthenameofJahwehhechampionedthepooragainsttherich.ThathisconceptionofJahwehwasnarrow,thatheregardedHimasagodofthenomadictype,
thatheopposedaforeigncult,areallincidental.Anyenthusiasticmemberofapropheticguildmighthavedoneanyoneofthesethreethings.Thesignificanceofthework
ofElijahliesinthefactthatitmarksthedawnofethicalpurityandsocialjusticeinJahwehsreligion.ThemethodofElijah,too,wasanethicalmethod.Hedeliveredhis 54/62
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ofElijahliesinthefactthatitmarksthedawnofethicalpurityandsocialjusticeinJahwehsreligion.ThemethodofElijah,too,wasanethicalmethod.Hedeliveredhis
message,andrelieduponitsweightfortheresults.
(2)TheJahwist(Jwriter).Inthesamecentury,perhapscontemporarywithElijah,thefirstoftheJwriterswascomposinghismatchlessprosenarrativesinJudah.He
waspervadedbythepropheticspiritinitsincipientform.HetracesthecreationofmantoJahweh,andisinterestedinthedescentofthenationsfromaprimitivepair.He
tellsthestoriesofthepatriarchstoillustratethepowerofJahweh,butthepurelyreligiousmotiveisnotoftenpresent.Herepresentsthepatriarchsasonfriendlytermswith
theCanaanitesaboutthem,whichindicatesthatheisnotconsciousthatthereligionofJahwehishostiletootherfaiths.HisconceptionofthebasisofJahwehscovenant
withIsraelis,aspointedoutabove(2(4)),tencommandsofapurelyritualnature.Thetoneofhisstoriesissombre.Clothingandchildhearingcameinconsequenceof
sin.Thefirstagriculturistwasthefirstmurderer.Theinventorsofmetalinstrumentsandofmusicwereespeciallywickedmen.ThecivilizationofBabyloniaattemptedsuch
astoundingstructures,that,asJahwehlookeddownfromheaven,HefoundHecouldpreventmenfromreachingheavenonlybyconfoundingtheirlanguage.TotheJahwist
civilizationmeantsin,pain,andtrouble.Hehadnohopefuloutlook.Histypeoffaithwasnomadicindeed.Herepresentsthestartingpointfromwhichtheprophetic
movementwentforward.
(3)Elishahardlydeservestobereckonedinthisgreatsuccession.Hewastheveryheadofprofesseionalprophecy.Whenabsentfromthebandofassociateshefoundit
necessarytocallaminstreltoworkuphisecstasybeforehecouldprophesy(2K3:15).Itwashe,too,whopromptedJehu,oneofthebloodiestofusurpersandreformers,to
undertakethepurificationofIsraelfromthetaintofforeignreligionandwhenitwasaccomplishedIsraelwasnotonewhitmoreethicalorspiritualthanbefore.Elishais
usuallycountedasElijahssuccessor,buthebelongstoadifferentclass.ThenoblerreligionofIsraeloweshimnothing.
(4)Amos,thefirstprophettocommithismessagetowriting,came,likeElijah,withamagnificentmessageamessageindeedwhichistothatofElijahlikenoonto
dawn.Amosannouncesforthefirsttimethefaithofapracticalmonotheist.SuchafaithhadbeenimplicitintheJahwist,whenhetracedtheexistenceofallmankindto
Jahwehsact,butinAmositisexplicit.JahwehbroughtnotonlytheIsraelitesfromEgypt,butthePhilistinesfromCaphtor,andtheAramansfromKir(Am9:7),andHe
willlikewisejudgethePhilistines,Damascus,Moab,Edom,andallnations(chs.1,2).Jahweh,too,AmosproclaimsasanethicalGod.Ethics,notritual,wasthebasisof
thecovenantatSinai(Am5:2125).JusticeistorolldownaswatersandrighteousnessasaperennialstreambeforeJahwehwillbesatisfied.InthisspiritAmos
championedinthenameofJahwehthecauseoftheoppressedpoor,andrebukedthesocialimpuritiesconnectedwithreligion,pronouncingupontheunethicalthedoomof
Jahweh.
(5)TheElohist.PerhapscontemporarywithAmoswasthefirstEwriter.Hewasamanoftruepropheticspirit.LikeJ,herecordedmanyofthetraditionsofancient
times,buthetellsthemwithamorehopefuloutlook.Hehasahighregardforaprophet,andrepresentsAbrahamasone(Gn20:7).Herepresentsahigherconceptionof
GodthanJ.Jsanthropomorphismhasdisappeared.GodisneverseeninhumanforminEsnarratives,butrevealsHimselfindreams.TheethicalcharacterofEs
conceptionofreligionappears,however,inhisconceptionofthebasisofthecovenantwhichMosesmadebetweenIsraelandJahweh.ThebasisofthisisaDecaloguein
whichtheritualisticisreducedtoaminimum(Ex20withouttheadditionsofRn),andwhichcontainsthefundamentalelementsofmorality,andacodeoflaws(Ex20:24
23:19)embodyingtheprinciplesofequitythatwerenecessaryforthelifeofasimpleagriculturalcommunity.Ingivingexpressiontothisconception,theElohistplaced
himselfinlinewiththegreatethicalprophets,anddidmuchtowardsthedifferentiationofthereligionofIsraelfromthenaturecultsaboutit.InhisopeningtotheDecalogue
(Ex20:3)heshowsthathismonotheismwassomewhatinsecure,buthisethicalconceptionofJahwehsrelationtoIsraelhelpedtoputreligiononaspiritualbasis.
(6)HoseasmaincontributiontoreligioustheorywasthethoughtthatGodislovenotthecrasssexualloveoftheearlySemite,buttheselfsacrificingloveofan
affectionatefatheroradevotedhusband,whowouldsuffertoreclaimthefallen.NotlesssternthanAmosinhisconceptionofethicalstandards,Hoseaislessoccupied
withproclaimingdoom.HeseeksbytheloveofJahwehtoallureIsraelandwinherback.Amosdevotedhimselfmainlytocheckingtheoppressionofthepoor,Hosea
largelytotheestablishmentofsocialpurity.Itbecamecleartohimthatthiscouldnotbeaccomplishedsolongastheprimitiveorgiesofsexualfreedomwhichwereenacted
inthenameofreligioninallthehighplaceswerepermittedtocontinue.ThesehebelievedwerenopartoftherealreligionofJahwehtheyhadcomeintoitfromthecultof
BaalandAstarte.Heaccordinglydenouncedthisimpurityastheworshipofanothergod,asconjugalinfidelitytoJahweh,andprohibitedtheapplicationtoJahwehinthe
futureoftheappellationBaal,orlord(Hos2:16).Thus,asinthetimeofElijahthestruggleforjusticelinkeditselfwithoppositiontoaforeigncult,sonowthestrugglefor
justiceandpurityledtooppositiontoBaal.Thecultwasnotsoforeignastheprophetssupposed.Itwasnative,aswehaveseen,toJahwehaswellastotheclansof
CanaanwhichwerenowapartofIsrael,buttheideathatitwasforeignhelpedtheprophetstofightit.ThefightwastakenupbyHoseassuccessorsandpushedtosuccess.
TherecoveryofthehighplaceatGezer,withallitscrassandrevoltingsymbolism.helpsustounderstandtheweightofdeadeningsensualismagainstwhichtheprophets
contended.
Hosea.likeAmoswasamonotheist.HisconceptionofJahwehwas,however,notperfect.HethoughtofHimascaringespeciallyforIsrael.ThoughHeruledother
nations,HoseabelievedHecontrolledthemmainlyforthesakeofIsrael.
(7)IsaiahcontinuedtheworkofAmosandHosea.HeproclaimedJahwehastheAllpowerful,whofillsheavenandearth,theHolyOne,whoprovesHissanctityby
Hisjustice.Forfortyyears,inmanycrisesandundervaryingfigures,Isaiahsetforththisdoctrine.ManisinJahwehshandsasclayinthehandsofthepotter.Thepowerful
AssyrianisbuttherodbywhichJahwehinHiswrathischastisingIsraelwhenHiswillisaccomplished,therodwillhebrokenandthrownaway(Is10:5ff.).Isaiahs
monotheism,thoughlofty,hadthesamedefectasHoseas.InupholdingthisconceptionofGod,Isaiahdenouncedthesocialsinswhichhadcalledouttheoppositionof
AmosandHosea.SogreatisJahwehsdesireforjustice,thatIsaiahbelievedthatHewouldonedayraiseupaprincegreatinallthequalitiesofaprincelyconqueror,who
shouldbeaWonderfulcounsellor,agodofawarrior,afatherofbooty,butaprinceofpeace(Is9:6).Atanothertimehesawavisionofakingdomofcompletejustice
whichanoffshootoftheDavidicdynastyshouldfound(Is11).Thesevisionsshowhow,inIsaiahsconception,theHolyOnewouldorganizehumansociety.Inadditionto
hisworkinkeepingalivetheseloftyideas,Isaiah,aswaspointedoutabove(I.19),gavepracticaldirectiontothedevelopmentofIsraelsreligion.Hisdoctrineofthe 55/62
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hisworkinkeepingalivetheseloftyideas,Isaiah,aswaspointedoutabove(I.19),gavepracticaldirectiontothedevelopmentofIsraelsreligion.Hisdoctrineofthe
inviolabilityofJerusalemtookeffectinlatertimes,andhadmuchtodowiththedevelopmentofJudaism.Heisprobablyresponsiblealsoforthatattempttosuppressthe
highplaceswhichafterwardsfoundlegalexpressioninDeuteronomy.Thesignificanceofthiswill,however,hepointedoutinconsideringthatlaw.InMicah,ayounger
contemporaryofIsaiah,thespiritandmessageofAmosreappear.
(8)TheDeuteronomist.inthedevelopmentofthePropheticperiod,followsIsaiah.Amos,Hosea,and
Isaiahhadproclaimedanethicalmonotheism.TheyhaddenouncedritualaswithoutplaceinthereligionofJahweh.Themessagehadbeenenforcedbytheawfulcalamity
whichhadovertakentheNorthernKingdomithadinconsequenceofIsaiahsfriendshipwithHezekiah,mouldedpoliciesofState.UnderManasseh,however,itbecame
painfullyevidentthatitwastotakemorethanmoralmeanstoeliminateimpureritualfromthereligionofJahweh.Nopartoftheworld,noteventheHebrews,wasready
forareligionwithoutritual.Isaiah,probably,hadseenthisinhisoldage.TheDeuteronomistatalleventssawit.Ritualshouldberetained,butitshouldbebroughtwithin
manageablelimits.Thehighplacesshouldbeeliminated,thecultcentralizedinJerusalemtheplacewhichIsaiahsteachingandthesignaldefeatofSennacheribhadso
clearlyprovedtobeJahwehsspecialdwellingplace.Fromthisallsodomitesandsacredharlotsweretobeexcluded,aswellasallsymbols,suchasthepillarand
ashrah,whichwerespeciallysignificantoftheodioussocialpractices.Toaccomplishthis,thecodeoftheElohistwasrewritteninsuchawaythatthisconceptionofthe
sanctuarystoodintheforefront,andotherpartsweremadetoconformtoit.Intothewholecodeamorehumanitariantonetowardsthepoorwasintroduced.Itwasthus
madetoexpressinlegalformtheburdenofthebestsocialteaching.AlthoughtheDeuteronomistdidnotadvancethegreatideasofspiritualreligiontohigherlevels,hedid
bythecompromiseofthiscodehelpthoseideastoinfluencepracticallife.
(9)Jeremiah,perhapsthegreatestoftheprophets,madegreatadvancesintheconceptionofspiritualreligion.Therewasinallhisworkanundertoneofpassionate
love,aheartthrob,likethatofHosea.Thegreatestsignificanceofhisteachingisnot,however,histenderness.HesawthatJahwehisindependentoftempleorplace.
AninviolableJerusalemHedidnotneed.WhatJahwehdesiresisthatmanshallbreakupthefallowgroundofhisdisposition,thatheshallcircumcisehisheart(Jer4:3ff.).
Religionisamatternotofatemple,butofasoul.Jeremiah,too,wasthefirsttodeclarethattheidolsoftheheathenaremerevanities.Othershadignoredthem,heexhibits
themintheirtruenothingness(10:8,14:22).AnothergreattruthwhichJeremiahwasthefirsttograspwasthattheheathenaswellastheHebrewmightcometoJahwehand
bewelcome(16:19).NotonlydidJeremiahproclaimuniversalityandidealityinreligion,butheshookhimselffreefromtheoldSemiticconceptionofsolidaritywhichhad
prevailedbeforehim.NoloftymoralitycouldprevailuntileveryonewasresponsibleforhisownactsandforthoseonlyandthisisthestandardproclaimedbyJeremiah
(31:29,30).Noprophetreachedaloftierflight.
(10)EzekieloccupiesapeculiarpositioninthePropheticdevelopment.Hestands,ononesideinthesuccessionofprophets,and,ontheother,isthefatherof
Judaism.Asoneofthepropheticsuccession,hischiefworklayintherecognitionandelaborationoftheideaofindividualism.Noprophetissoimpressedashewiththefact
thatGoddealswitheachsoulindividually(Ezk18).ThisthoughtleadsEzekieltoplaceaverygreatvalueupontheindividual.Thesalvationoftheindividualbecomeshis
specialcare.HeeventhinksoftheMessiahasprimarilyashepherd,apastor,onewhosechiefcarewillbetoaccomplishthesalvationofindividuals.Headdressesthe
rulersofIsraelasshepherds.Cornill,whocallsattentiontothisphaseofhiswork(ProphetsofIsrael,115ff.).callshimthefatherofpastoraltheology.Ezekielwas,
howevermoretrulythesuccessoroftheDeuteronomistthanofJeremiah.Liketheformer,heendeavouredtoadaptpropheticconceptionstoIsraelitishinstitutions.Isaiahs
conceptionofJerusalemasthehomeofJahwehhefullyshared,andintheclosingchaptersofhisbookheuttershisidealfortherehabilitationofHebrewinstitutionsabout
Jerusalemasacentre.Someoftheseconceptionswereunpractical,butotherstookdeeproot,andmadeEzekielthefatherofJudaism.
(11)TheSecondIsaiahwasthelastofIsraelsreallygreatprophets.HisconceptionofJahwehasthecreatoroftheuniverse,astheruleroftheworldandthe
makerofhistory,isclearerthanthatofanyofhispredecessors.ThegreatCyrus,whowasconqueringsosuccessfullyastheSecondIsaiahwrotewasonlyJahwehs
creature.Cyrusmightthinkotherwise,butJahwehandHisprophetknewthetruth.EvenHoseaneverexpressedthetendernessofJahwehtowardsHispeoplewithgreater
beautythandidthisprophet.HisconceptionofJahweh,too,ismoresymmetricalthanthatofthe8thcenturyprophets.Ifinhim,asinthem,
JahwehseemstocarechieflyforIsrael,itissoonlyinappearance.HehasshowninhisgreatpoemontheSufferingServant(Is52:1353:12)thatinhisviewIsraelwas
madethechosenpeoplenotthroughfavouritism,ortopuffupherselfesteem,butbecauseJahwehhadforheragreatmission.Thatmissionwasnothinglessthantobring
thenationsoftheworldtoJahweh.Thepathofthisservicewasthepathofsuffering,butitwastoaccomplishthesalvationoftheworld.Jahweh,then,lovedtheworld.He
hadchosenIsraelandgivenherhertragicexperiencethatshethroughthismightbecomeamissionarytothenationsandbringthemalltoJahweh.Itdoesnotdetractfrom
theprophetsgreatconception,thatthemissionwhichheconceivedforhispeoplewasneverfulfilledtillthecomingoftheidealIsraelite,JesusChrist.
ThispropheticconceptionofGodandreligion,whichthusdevelopedfromElijahtotheSecondIsaiah,isuniqueintheworldshistory.Onlyoncehasthis
teachingbeensurpassed.JesusofNazareth,whoperfectedthisconceptionofGodandmadeitcapableofbeinguniversallyreceived,alonehasgonebeyondit.
ItwastheteachingoftheseprophetsthatredeemedthereligionofIsraelfromthelevelofotherSemiticreligions.ItisthisthathasmadethereligionofJahweh
theinspirationoftheworldasthereligionoftheonetrueGod.Thispropheticteachingisquiteunaccountedforbyitsenvironment.Nothinglikeithasbeen
producedwithoutitsaidinanyportionoftheSemiticworld,oramonganyotherpeople.Itisinthepropheticteachingandtheinfluenceswhichflowedfromit
thatwefindproofofthetruthofthewords:MenspakefromGod,beingmovedbytheHolySpirit(2P1:21).
5.FromtheExiletotheMaccabees.(1)Itisclearfromthesketchgivenabove(I.24),thatintherehabilitationoftheJewishcommunitiesinPalestine
thewholesentimentoftheorganizerscentredintheritual.Iftherewereprophets,suchasHaggai,Zechariah,andMalachi,theyutteredtheirpropheticvisions
topersuadethepeopletomakesacrificestorestoreandmaintainthesacredceremonies.Itthushappenedthatthewholemovementintheearlydaysafterthe
Exilewaspervadedmorebythepriestlythanbythepropheticspirit.ThePriestlydocumentwithitssupplements(fortheanalysiscf.CarpenterandHarford 56/62
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topersuadethepeopletomakesacrificestorestoreandmaintainthesacredceremonies.Itthushappenedthatthewholemovementintheearlydaysafterthe
Exilewaspervadedmorebythepriestlythanbythepropheticspirit.ThePriestlydocumentwithitssupplements(fortheanalysiscf.CarpenterandHarford
BattersbysHexateuch)wastheheartofthewholemovement.ThereligiouslifeoftheJudancommunitydidnotbecomeconsistentuntilitwasorganized
uponthisbasis,andafterthisorganizationitwentforwardconfidently.TheauthorofthePriestlydocument(P2)wasthesuccessorofEzekiel,asEzekielhad
beenthesuccessoroftheDeuteronomist.AsEzekieltookmoreinterestintheorganizationoftheritualthandidD,soP2sinterestgreatlyexceededEzekiels.
ThepropheticmovementhadgivenP2hispuremonotheism.FromithehadreceivedafaithinanAllpowerful,HolyCreatorandRuleroftheuniverse.The
nearnessandwarmthofGod,astheprophetshadconceivedHim,escapedP2,butwithsuchelementsofthepropheticconceptionashecouldgraspheset
himselftotheorganizationoftheritual.
TheritualwhichhadcomedowntohimfromhispriestlyancestryhehadreceivedasthewillofGod.WecanseethatithaditsbirthinSemiticheathenism,
buthecouldnot.Inrealitythisritualboundhimtoearthbythestrandsofmanyahalfsuperstitiouscustom,butinhisthoughtithadallcomefromheaven.If
thiswereso,theproblemtohismindwastofindtheconnexionofallthiswiththewilloftheGodoftheuniverse.Toexpressthevitalconnexionwhichhe
thoughthefound,herewrotethehistoryofthecreationoftheworldandofthefortunesofthechosenpeopledowntothesettlementinCanaan,insuchaway
astomakeitappearthatcircumcisionhadbeenenjoinedonAbrahamattheverybeginningofrevelation(Gn17),andthatthebasisofthecovenantatSinaiwas
neithertheBookoftheCovenant(Ex20:2423:19),northecodeofDeuteronomy,butthewholeLeviticalritual.Thisritual,asheconceivedit,hadbeen
profoundlyinfluencedbyEzekiel.Themenialworkofthesanctuarywasnolongertobeperformed,asinpreexilicdays,byforeignslaves.Thedescendantsof
thosepriestswhohadofficiatedinshrinesotherthanJerusalemweretobeassignedtotheseservices(cf.Ezk44:814).ThusanorderofLevitesasamenial
classwascreated.IfthisritualwasthebasisofthecovenantatSinai,itcouldnothavebeenignoredintheWildernessWandering.Theremusthavebeena
movablesanctuary.SolomonsTemplewasthemodelshrinetoEzekielandthepriests,butSolomonsTemplemust(sosupposeP2andhissuccessors)have
beenpatterneduponapreviousnomadicshrinehencetheaccountoftheTabernaclewasplacedintheirhistory.AmongthenewlycreatedclassofLevitesthere
weremanywhohaddescendedfrommenwhohadofficiatedaspriestsatHebron,Gezer,Kadesh,Ashtaroth,andmanyotherancientshrines.P2andhis
followersaccountedforthisfactbysupposingthatJoshuahadgiventhetribeofLevicitiesinallpartsoftheland(Jos21cf.Barton,LeviticalCitiesofIsrael
intheLightoftheExcavationatGezer,BiblicalWorld,xxiv.167ff.).
ThisconceptionwasacceptedastherealaccountofthehistoryonlywhenthePriestlydocumenthadbeenskilfullycombinedwiththeolderwritingsinourPentateuchin
suchawaythatthesepriestlyinstitutionsseemedtobetheheartofthewholeandtoovershadowallelse.Thenapparentlyalloppositionvanished,andpriestlyenthusiasm
andpropheticfervourwerejoinedbypopularcooperationinestablishingthisritualastheonerightmethodofservingtheLivingGod.Thisenthusiasmwasinparttheresult
ofadistortedreadingofhistory,butalluncriticalreaderssodistortthehistorytothepresenthour.BythetimeofNehemiahthisviewofthehistorywasfullyaccepted,and
bythetimeoftheChronicler,acenturylater,ithaddistortedthehistoryoftheIsraelitesinCanaan,tocorrespondwiththepriestlypicture,asappearstothisdayinthe
BooksofChronicles.
Thispriestlytriumphwasinawayaretrogressionfrompropheticideals.Someoftheprophets,asJeremiah,hadtaughtareligionfreeandspiritual,capable
ofbecominguniversal.Thepriestlyconception,howevernobleitsmonotheism,wassoharnessedtooutwornritualthatitcouldappealonlyinalimiteddegree
tomenofotherraces.Neverthelessthisritualhaditsplace.Inthecenturieswhichfollowed,whenthesouloftheHebrewwastriedalmostbeyondendurance,
andnocheeringvoiceofprophetwasheard,itwasduetothisobjectiveritual,assomethingforwhichtolive,andstrive,andfight,thathesurvivedtodohis
workintheworld.WiththeadoptionofthePriestlyCodeJudaismwasborn.
(2)Theeffectsofthepriestlyritualwerenot,however,sodeadeningasonemightsuppose.Variouscausespreventeditfromstiflingthedeeperreligious
life.Theteachingsoftheprophetswerecherished,andmanyofthemhadtaughtthatreligionisamatteroftheheartandnotaceremonial.Duringthelongexile
thedevoutJewhadlearnedhowtoliveareallyreligiouslifewithoutthehelpofTempleritual.ManyofthefaithfulwereinBabylonia,andwerestillcompelled
todowithouttheTemplesacrificesandprayers.ThentheLawitselfdidnotcontainsacrificesformanysins.TheoldcustomsadaptedinLv46and16
providedsacrificesforonlyveryfewofthesinsoflife.ThesincereheartwascompelledstilltoliveitslifewithGodinlargemeasureindependentlyofthe
ritual.ThePentateuchalsocontainsmanynobleandinspiringpreceptsonmoralandspiritualmatters.Therewerethose,too,whopaidlittleattentiontothe
ceremoniesoftheTemple,althoughmostsupporteditasamatterofduty.AllthesecausescombinedtopreventtheLawfromatoncestereotypingthereligious
life.ThisperiodbecameaccordinglythecreativeperiodinJudaism.
ThefirstoftheseimportantcreationswasthePsalter,thehymnbookoftheSecondTemple.Thisgreatestoftheworldscollectionsofsacredsongwasa
gradualgrowth.BookI.(Pss341)cameintoexistenceprobablyinthetimeofNehemiah.Theothercollectionsweregraduallymadeatdifferenttimes,the
wholenotbeingcompletedtilltheMaccabanage(cf.art.PSALMS).Incompilingitsomeearlierhymnswereprobablyutilized,buttheyweresoreeditedthat
criticscannotclearlydatethem.Intothiscollectiontherewenteveryvarietyofreligiousexpression.Thebreathingsofangeragainstenemiesminglewithtender
aspirationsaftercommunionwithGod.Onepsalm,the50th,treatssacrificesarcastically,whilemanyexpressadevotiontotheLawwhichisextremely
touching.One(Ps51)expressesthemostadvancedandpsychologicallycorrectconceptionofthenatureofsinandforgivenessthatisfoundanywhereinthe
OT.AJudaismcapableofproducingsuchabookwasnobleindeed.ToliveuptothehighestexpressionsofthisthefirstfruitsofcreativeJudaismistobeapure
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OT.AJudaismcapableofproducingsuchabookwasnobleindeed.ToliveuptothehighestexpressionsofthisthefirstfruitsofcreativeJudaismistobeapure
Christian.
(3)Therewas,however,inthisperiodaclassofsageswholivedapartfromthelifeoftheTemple,untouchedbytheceremoniesofthepriestorthe
aspirationsoftheprophet.TheytreatedreligiousproblemsfromthatpracticalcommonsensepointofviewwhichtheHebrewscalledwisdom.Thebooks
producedbythisclasshadaprofoundreligiousinfluence.Theattitudeofthesemenleftthemfreeforthegreatestplayofindividuality.Theirbooksare,
therefore,writtenfromvariousstandpoints,andpresentwidelydivergentpointsofview.
Theoldestofthese,theBookofJob,discusses,insomeofthenoblestpoetryeverwritten,theproblemofsuffering,orthemysteryoflife.Theauthortreatshistheme
withabsolutefreedomofthought,untrammelledbythepriestlyconceptionsoftheLaw.Inhisconclusion,however,heisprofoundlyreligious.Hedemonstratesatoncethe
functionandthelimitsofreasoninthereligiouslife,itsfunctiontokeeptheologyintouchwithreality,anditsinabilitytofathomlifesmystery.Jobdoesnotfind
satisfactiontillhereceivesthevisionofGod,andbecomeswilling,throughappreciationoftheDivinePersonality,totrusteventhoughhisproblemsareunsolved(cf.Peake,
ProblemofSufferinginOT,100ff.).
TheBookofProverbscontainsthesayingsofsagesofthepractical,everydaysort.Theirviewoflifeisexpediential.Wisdomisgoodbecauseitpays,andthefear
(worship)ofJahwehisthebeginningofwisdom.Sometimes,asinch.8,theyrisetonoblepoetryinthepraiseofwisdom,butforthemostparttheypursuethehumdrum
pathwayofeverydayexpediency.TheirpointofviewistheoppositeofthatoftheimpassionedPsalmists,butisnotinconsistentwithformalfaithfulnessintheobservanceof
theLaw.
Ecclesiastesistheworkofamanwhohasalmostlostfaith,andwhohasquitelostthatenthusiasmforlifewhichtheperceptionofanoblemeaninginitgives.Heisnot
altogetherabletothrowoffcompletelyhischildhoodsbeliefs,buttheyhaveceasedtobeforhimasolutionoflifesmystery,andhehasscantpatiencewiththosewho,in
likecasewithhimself,continuetovolublyprofesstheirdevotionbecauseitistheorthodoxthingtodo.Heinsistsuponbringingallthingstothetestofreality.
SirachisacollectionofaphorismswhichcontinuestheworkoftheBookofProverbs.
(4)ThereligiouslifethusfardescribedwasthatwhichflourishedinPalestine.Duringthisperiod,however,theJewshadbeenscatteringovertheworld(cf.
DISPERSION).ThesescatteredcommunitieshadnoideaofbeinganythingbutJews.TheyhadtheirsynagoguesinwhichtheLawwasread,and,likethe
CaptivityinBabylonia,theymaintainedasmuchoftheirreligiouslifeastheycouldawayfromtheTemple.AsoftenaspossibletheywenttoJerusalematthe
timeofsomegreatfeast,andtookpartinitssacrificialworship.Contactwiththeheathenworld,however,broadenedthevisionoftheseJews.Theysawthat
manyGentileswerenoblemen.ProbablytoohereandthereoneofthenoblerGentileswasattractedbytheloftyreligionoftheJew.Atalleventstheresprang
upamongtheDiasporaadesiretowintheheathenworldtoJudaism.ThetranslationoftheBibleintoGreek,whichwasbeguninthe3rdcent.,wasdemanded
notonlyfortheuseoftheGreekspeakingJews,butasaninstrumentinthehandsofthosewhowouldfulfilthemissionaryconceptionoftheSecondIsaiahand
wintheworldtoJahweh.Towardstheendofthisperiodamissionaryliteraturebegantobewritten.Oneportionofthis,theSibyllineOracles,theoldestpartof
whichdatesperhapsfromtheMaccabanage,representedtheSibyl,whowassopopularintheGrcoRomanworld,asrecountinginGreekhexametersthe
historyofthechosenpeople.The
BookofJonahdatesfromthisperiod,andisapartofthisliterature,thoughprobablywritteninPalestine.Itsauthorsatirizesthenationasawholeforher
unwillingness,afterallherchastisements,eithertogoonthemissiontowhichJahwehwouldsendher,ortorejoicethatHeshowedmercytoanybutherself.
6.Thereignoflegalism.WiththebeginningoftheHasmonandynasty(JohnHyrcanusI.),thecreativeperiodofJudaismwasover,andtheleaders,
gatheringuptheheritageofthepast,werecrystallizingitintopermanentform.Thisdidnotcomeaboutallatonce,anditsbeginningsgobackintothe
precedingperiod.ThewritersofthePriestlyLawweretherealintellectualancestorsofthoseChasdm,orenthusiastsfortheLaw,outofwhomtheMaccabees
sprang.UntilaftertheMaccabanstruggle,however,thereligiouslifewastoovaried,andthegeniusofthenationtoocreative,forthepriestlyconceptionsto
mastereverybody.ThestruggleoftheMaccabeesforthelifeoftheJewishreligiongreatlystrengthenedtheChasdm,whoearlyintheHasmonanrule
developedintothePharisees.MorenumerousthantheSadducees,andpossessingamongthecountrypeopleamuchgreaterreputationforpiety,theysoon
becamethedominantpartyin
Palestine.Some,astheEssenes(wh.see),mightsplitofffromthem,buttheyweretooinsignificanttoshatterthePhariseesinfluence.TheaimofthePharisees
wastoapplytheLawtoallthedetailsofdailylife.SomeofitsprovisionswereIndefinite.ItcalledontheHebrewnottoworkontheSabbath,butsomework
wasnecessary,ifmanwouldlive.Theyendeavouredtodefine,therefore,whatwasandwhatwasnotworkwithinthemeaningofthePentateuch.Similarlythey
dealtwithotherlaws.Thesedefinitionswerenotforsomecenturiescommittedtowriting.ThustheregrewupanOralLawsidebysidewiththeWrittenLaw,
andinduetimethePhariseesregardedthisasofDivineauthorityalso.Thustheirenergiesfastenedthegripofexternalobservanceuponthereligiouslife.The
epochwasnotcreative.Theydarednotcreateanything.EverythingwasgivenouteitherasaninterpretationoftheLaw,orastheinterpretationofsome
predecessor.Therewasdevelopmentandgrowth,ofcourse,butthiswasaccomplished,notbycreatingthenew,butbyinterpretingtheold.IntheRabbinic
schools,whichweredevelopedinthereignofHerod,thissystemfullyunfoldeditself,andbecamethearchetypeoforthodoxJudaismtothepresentday.
IntheRabbinicschoolsthemethodofteachingwasbyrepetition.ThesayingsorinterpretationsoffamousRabbiswerestatedbythemasterandrepeated 58/62
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IntheRabbinicschoolsthemethodofteachingwasbyrepetition.ThesayingsorinterpretationsoffamousRabbiswerestatedbythemasterandrepeated
againandagaintilltheywereremembered.Notoriginalitybutmemorywasthepraiseworthyqualityinastudent.Thuswhen,centurieslater,theOralLawwas
committedtowriting,itwascalledMishna,orRepetition.
Inthesynagogue(wh.see),wherethepeopleworshippedontheSabbath,andwherethechildrenweretaught,theinnerreligiouslifewasfostered,but
synagoguesgraduallybecamecentresforthepropagationofPharisaism.
BeginningwiththeMaccabanstruggles,anewclassofliterature,theApocalyplic,wascalledintoexistence.Prophecywascompletelydead.Noonehad
thecreativegeniustounfoldinhisownnametheDivinepurposes.Forsomecenturiesthosewhohadamessagefortheircontemporariesinpersecution
presenteditasavisionwhichsomeancientworthy,Enoch,Daniel,Baruch,orEzra,hadseen.Theapocalyptistswereonlyinasecondarysensecreative.They
mouldedtheutterancesoftheprophetsandtraditionalmaterialborrowedfromBabylonia,soastomakethemexpressthehopeswhichtheywouldteach.No
fewerthansevenoftheseworkswereattributedtoEnoch,andsixtoBaruchonewasascribedtoMoses,onetoIsaiah,whileeachofthetwelvesonsofJacob
hadhisTestament,andSolomonaPsalter.
InthisliteraturethenationalconsciousnessofJudaism,inconflictfirstwithSyriaandthenwithRome,findsexpression.Thehopesforthelongdelayed
kingdomofwhichtheprophetshadspokenareportrayed.Asoneseesthatkingdomfade(orbrighten)fromtheearthlyempireoftheearlyapocalypsestothe
heavenlykingdomofsomeofthelaterones,onefollowstheeschatologicalconceptionswhichwereatthistimebeingborninJudaism.Theapocalyptichopes
werequiteconsistentwiththeLawtheypointedforwardtothattimewhenthefaithfulshouldhaveabilitytoserveGodcompletely,andtotherewardforall
thattheyhadsufferedhere.
ThegreatideaofGodexpressedbythePriestlydocumentpervadedandstillpervadesJudaism.TheDivineunityandmajestywereandareitswatchwords.
TheseaswellasitsPharisaicritualhavebeenembodiedinTalmudandMidrash,andtransmittedtomoderntimes.JudaismduringtheChristiancenturieshas
haditshistory,itsdevelopment,anditsheresies.IthasproducedindependentthinkerslikeMaimonidesandSpinoza.InmodernlifetheReformedJewiscasting
offtheformsofPharisaism,butthroughthelapseofallthecenturiesJudaism,asshapedbythePhariseesandheldbytheirsuccessors,hasbeentheorthodox
religionofthatracewhichtracesitslineagetoIsrael.
GEORGEA.BARTON.
ISRAELITE(Jn1:47).ThisistheonlyinstanceoftheuseofthewordIsraeliteintheGospels.Ithastheparticularsignificance,suggestedbythestory
ofJacobinGn32:28,35:10,ofonebelongingtotheJewishrace,withspecialreferencetotheprivilegesconferredbyGodonHispeople:whoseisthe
adoption,andtheglory,andthecovenants,andthegivingofthelaw,andthetempleservice,andthepromises(Ro9:4).Itsuse(asdistinctfromJewand
Hebrew)becamecloselyassociatedwithbeliefintheMessianichope(cf.Jn1:45),andtheexpressionIsraeliteindeed,addressedtoNathanael,breathesthat
senseoftragedysoapparentintheFourthGospel,inasmuchasthosewhowerespeciallyHisownreceivedHimnot.Wemaycomparetheattitudeofthe
Jews,inch.6,whoblindlyclaimedraceprivileges,andyetwereenemiesofChrist,andwhocherishedtheveryprejudicethatNathanaelovercame(cf.Jn1:46
with6:42,wheretheobjectioninbothcasesistothecommonplaceoriginofJesus),whenhereadilyrespondedtoPhilipsinvitation,Comeandsee.Itisin
thissensethatNathanaeliswithoutguile.HedoesnotallowhisdevoutsenseofprivilegetodestroyopennessofhearttowardstheclaimofJesusofNazareth.
Hisactionshowsthatheissincere,frank,andwithoutsinisteraim(cf.2Co12:16,1Th2:3).ToJesus,therefore,heisanobjectofsurprise.
R.H.STRACHAN.
ISSACHAR.ThefifthsonofLeah,bornafterGadandAsher,thesonsofZilpah,andtheninthofJacobssons(Gn30:18[E],cf.35:22bff.[P]).The
name(inHeb.Yissaskar)ispeculiarinform,andofuncertainsignificationbutitisquiteprobablethatithasarisenfromacorruptionofishsakharas
Wellhausen(Sam.95)suggests,andfurther,thatthelatterelementisthenameofadeity.Ball(SBOT,adloc.)suggeststheEgyptianMemphitegodSokar.The
namewouldthencorrespondtothenameishGadbywhichtheMoabitesknewtheGadites.JandE,however,bothconnectitwiththerootskhar,tohire:J,
becauseLeahhiredJacobfromRachelwithReubensmandrakesE,becauseshegaveZilpahtoJacob.Thedifferenceshowsthatthetraditionsareoflittle
valueaslinguisticguides.Gn49:14,15alsoappearstoplayupontherootskharinitsdescriptionofIssacharasaservantundertaskwork.Thiswould
harmonizewiththeinterpretationhiredmanorlabourer.Ithas,however,littletocommendit.
PscensusatSinaigivesthetribe54,400(Nu1:29),andatMoab64,300(26:25)cf.1Ch7:5.
FortheclansseeGn46:13and1Ch7:1ff..
TheoriginalseatofthetribeappearstohavebeenS.ofNaphtaliandS.E.ofZebulun,probablyinthehillsbetweenthetwovalleyswhichdescendfromthe
GreatPlaintotheJordan(WadyelBirehandNahrGalud)(Moore,Judges,151).OntheN.W.ittoucheduponMt.Tabor,ontheS.uponMt.Gilboa.Eastwardit
reachedtotheJordan.Pslot(Jos19:1723)assignstothetribesixteencitiesandtheirvillages,scatteredthroughouttheeasternendoftherichPlainof
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reachedtotheJordan.Pslot(Jos19:1723)assignstothetribesixteencitiesandtheirvillages,scatteredthroughouttheeasternendoftherichPlainof
EsdraelonandtheValleyofJezreel.ThetribeparticipatedinthewaragainstSisera(Jg5:15),andDeborahperhapsbelongedtoit.ThewithbeforeDeborah
mightbereadpeopleofbuttheverseisevidentlycorrupt.Baasha,thesonofAhijah,whosucceededNadab,wasofthehouseofIssacharand,possibly,
alsoOmri,whogavehisnametotheNorthernKingdom.ThereferencesintheBlessingofJacob(Gn49)wouldindicatethatduringtheearlymonarchy
Issacharlostbothitsmartialvalouranditsindependence.Ontheotherhand,intheBlessingofMoses(Dt33:18,19)greatcommercialprosperityisindicated,
andthemaintenanceofasanctuarytowhichthepeoplesflocktothesacrificialworship.Tolathejudge,thegrandsonofDodo,wasamanofIssachar(Jg
10:1).ThisnameDodo,occurringontheMeshasteleasthatofadivinity,hasledtothesuggestionthathemayhavebeenworshippedinearlytimesbythe
tribe.AccordingtotheTalmud,theSanhedrindrewfromIssacharitsmostintellectuallyprominentmembers.SeealsoTRIBESOF
ISRAEL.
JAMESA.CRAIG.
ISSHIAH.1.OneoftheheadsofthetribeofIssachar(1Ch7:3).2.AKorahitewhojoinedDavidatZiklag(1Ch12:6).3.ThesonofUzziel(1Ch23:20,
24:25).4.ALevite(1Ch24:21).
ISSHIJAH.Oneofthosewhohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:31):calledin1Es9:32Aseas.
ISSUE.SeeMEDICINE,p.600a .
ISTALCURUS(1Es8:40).UthithesonofIstalcurusherestandsforUthaiandZabbudinEzr8:14.
ITALIANBAND.SeeBAND.
ITALY.Thiswordvariedinsensefromtimetotime.ItfirstsignifiedonlytheSouthern(theGreek)partofthepeninsulalateritincludedallthecountry
southoftheLombardplainandfinally,beforethetimeofChrist,ithadcometobearthemeaningwhichithasnow.ItscentralpositionintheMediterranean,
theconformationofitscoast,andthecapabilitiesofitssoilunderpropercultivation,fittedittobethehomeandcentreofagoverningrace.Inthe1stcent.A.D.
therewasconstantcommunicationbetweenthecapitalRomeandeverypartoftheEmpire,bywellrecognizedroutes.AmongtheroutestotheE.,whichmainly
concerntheNTstudent,wasthatfromRomealongtheW.coastofItalytoCampania,whereitcrossedthecountryandeventuallyreachedBrundisium.From
theharbourtherethetravellereithersailedacrosstheAdriatictoDyrrhachium,andwentbytheEgnatianroadtoThessalonicaandbeyond,orsailedacrossto
theGulfofCorinth,transhippedfromLechumtoCenchre(wh.see),andfromtheresailedtoEphesusorAntiochorAlexandria,ashedesired.Thebest
accountofahomejourneyisinAc27.TheJewspouredintoItaly,especiallytoRome,andhadbeenfamiliartotheItalianslongbeforeChristianitycame.
A.SOUTER.
ITCH.SeeMEDICINE,p.599b.
ITHAI.SeeITTAI,2.
ITHAMAR.ThefourthandyoungestsonofAaronandElisheba(Ex6:23etc.)consecratedpriest(Ex28:1ff.)forbiddentomournforNadabandAbihu
(Lv10:6),ortoleavetheTentofMeeting(v.7)afterwardsentrustedbyMoseswithpriestlyduties(Lv10:12ff.)andrebukedbyhimforneglect(v.16ff.)set
overtheGershonitesandtheMeraritesinconnexionwiththeserviceoftheTentofMeeting(Nu4:2133,7:7f.cf.alsoEx38:21)ancestorofEli(cf.1K2:27
with1Ch24:3Jos.Ant.VIII.i.3).ThefamilyinDavidstimewasonlyhalfthesizeofEleazars(1Ch24:4).Itwasrepresentedamongthereturnedexiles
(Ezr8:2).
W.TAYLORSMITH.
ITHIEL.1.ABenjamite(Neh11:7).2.OneoftwopersonstowhomAguraddressedhisoracularsayings,theotherbeingUcal(Pr30:1).NeitherLXX
norVulg.recognizespropernameshere,andmostmoderncommentatorspointdifferentlyandtr.Ihaveweariedmyself,OGod,Ihaveweariedmyself,OGod,
andamconsumed.SoRVm.
ITHLAH.AtownofDan,nearAijalon(Jos19:42).Thesiteisunknown.
ITHMAH.AMoabite,oneofDavidsheroes(1Ch11:46).
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ITHMAH.AMoabite,oneofDavidsheroes(1Ch11:46).
ITHNAN.AcityintheNegebofJudah(Jos15:23)siteuncertain.
ITHRA.ThefatherofAmasa,andhusbandofAbigail,Davidssister.HeisdescribedasanIsraelitein2S17:25,butthebetterreadingisJetherthe
Ishmaelite(1Ch2:17).
ITHRAN.1.EponymofaHoriteclan(Gn36:26,1Ch1:41).2.AnAsheritechief(1Ch7:37),probablyidenticalwithJetherofthefollowingverse.
ITHREAM.ThesixthsonofDavid,borntohimatHebron(2S3:5,1Ch3:3).
ITHRITE,THE.AgentilicadjectiveappliedtothedescendantsofafamilyofKiriathjearim(1Ch2:53),amongstwhomweretwoofDavidsguard(2S
23:38,1Ch11:40IraandGareb).Possibly,however,thetextof2S23and1Ch11shouldbepointedtheJattirite,i.e.aninhabitantofJattir(mentionedin1
S30:27asoneofDavidshaunts)inthehillcountryofJudah(Jos15:48,21:14).SeeJATTIR.
ITS.ItiswellknownthatthiswordoccursbutonceinAV,Lv25:5,andthateventhereitisduetosubsequentprinters,thewordin1611beingitthat
whichgrowethofitowneaccord.TheuseofItforitsiswellseeninShaks.KingJohn,II.i.160.
Gotoitgrandam,child:
Givegrandamkingdom,anditgrandamwill
Giveitaplum,acherry,andafig.
Theformitswasonlybeginningtocomeintouseabout1611.TheusualsubstitutesinAVarehisandthereof.ThusMt6:33Butseekyefirstthekingdom
ofGod,andhisrighteousness,whereTindalehastherightwisnesthereof(RVtakesthepronountobemasculine,referringtoGod,notkingdom,andretains
his).
ITTAI.1.AGittiteleaderwho,withafollowingofsixhundredPhilistines,attachedhimselftoDavidattheoutbreakofAbsalomsrebellion.Inspiteof
beingurgedbyDavidtoreturntohishome,hedeterminedtofollowthekinginhismisfortune,affirminghisfaithfulnessinthebeautifulwords:AstheLord
liveth,andasmylordthekingliveth,surelyinwhatplacemylordthekingshallbe,whetherfordeathorforlife,eventherealsowillthyservantbe(2S
15:21).HethereforeremainedintheserviceofDavid,andsoonrosetoapositionofgreattrust,beingplacedincommandofathirdpartofthepeople(2S
18:2).2.ABenjamite,sonofRibai,whowasoneofDavidsmightymen(2S23:29,1Ch11:31[inthelatterIthai]).
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
ITURA[thenameisprobablyderivedfromJetur,whoismentionedinGn25:15and1Ch
1:31asasonofIshmael],withTrachonitis,constitutedthetetrarchyofPhilip(Lk3:1).ButwhetherIturaisemployedbytheEvangelistasanounoran
adjectiveisadisputedpoint.Ramsaycontends(Expositor,Jan.,Feb.,Apr.,1894)thatnoGreekwriterpriortoEusebiusinthe4thcent.A.D.everusesitasthe
nameofacountry.TheIturansasapeoplewerewellknowntoclassicalwriters.AccordingtoCicero(Philipp.ii.112),theywereapredatorypeople
accordingtoCsar(Bell.Afr.20),theywereskilfularchersaccordingtoStrabo(XVI.ii.10etc.),theywerelawless.
TheyseemtohavemigratedoriginallyfromthedeserttothevicinityofSouthernLebanonandCleSyria.BothStraboandJosephus(Ant.XIII.xi.3)locate
themintheseparts.TheRomansprobablycausedthemtoretreattowardsthedesertagainshortlybeforetheChristianera.LysaniasthesonofPtolemyiscalled
byDioCassius(xlix.32)kingoftheIturans.HewasputtodeathbyMarkAntonyinB.C.34.ZenodorushissuccessordiedinB.C.20,whereuponapartof
histerritoryfellintothehandsofHerodtheGreatandwhenHerodskingdomwasdivided,itbecamethepossessionofPhilip(Jos.Ant.XV.x.3).Whether
IturaandTrachonitisoverlapped(asRamsaythinks),orweretwodistinctdistricts(asStrabo),isuncertainG.A.Smithinhisart.IturainHastingsDBis
noncommittal.ThepassageinLukeseemstofavouradistinctanddefinitedistrict,whichwasprobablysomewhereN.E.oftheSeaofGalilee.
GEORGEL.ROBINSON.
IVORY(shn,lit.toothandshenhabbm,elephantsteeth[butreadingdoubtful],1K10:22,
2Ch9:21).Ivoryhasbeenvaluedfromtheearliesttimes.InSolomonsdaytheIsraelitesimporteditfromOphir(1K10:22):itwasusedinthedecorationsof
palaces(22:39).Thetowerofivory(Ca7:4)mayalsohavebeenabuildingdecoratedwithivory.Solomonhadathroneofivory(1K10:1820).Bedsof
ivory,suchasarementionedinAm6:4,were,accordingtoacuneiforminscription,includedinthetributepaidbyHezekiahtoSennacherib.
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ivory,suchasarementionedinAm6:4,were,accordingtoacuneiforminscription,includedinthetributepaidbyHezekiahtoSennacherib.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
IVVAH.Acitynamedin2K18:34,19:13,Is37:13,alongwithSepharvaimandHena,asconqueredbytheAssyrians.Itsrealnameandlocationareboth
uncertain.ItisfrequentlyidentifiedwithAvvaof2K17:24.Somewouldmakeitthenamenotofacitybutofagod.See,further,art.HENA.
IVY.Thisplant(Hederahelix)growswildinPalestineandSyria.Itismentionedin2Mac6:7.SeeDIONYSIA.
IYEABARIM(Iyimoftheregionsbeyond,distinguishingthisplacefromtheIimofJos
15:29).ThestationmentionedinNu21:11,33:44(inv.45Iyimalone)anddescribed(21:11)asinthewildernesswhichisbeforeMoabtowardthesun
rising,andmorebriefly(33:44)asintheborderofMoab.Nothingisknownastoitspositionbeyondtheseindications.
IYIM(heapsorruins).1.ShortformofIyeabariminNu33:45.2.Jos15:29(AVandRVincorrectlyIim),atowninJudah,oneoftheuttermost
citiestowardtheborderofEdom.
IYYAR.SeeTIME.
IZHAR.1.SonofKohaththesonofLevi(Ex6:18,21,Nu3:19,16:1,1Ch6:2,18,38,23:12,18)patron.Izharites(Nu3:27,1Ch24:22,26:28,29).2.
AJudahite(1Ch4:7).
IZLIAH.ABenjamitechief(1Ch8:18).
IZRAHIAH.AchiefofIssachar(1Ch7:8).
IZRAHITES.Gentilicnamein1Ch27:8,possiblyanotherformofZerahites,vv.11,13.
IZRI.ChiefofoneoftheLeviticalchoirs(1Ch25:11)calledinv.3Zeri.
IZZIAH.Oneofthosewhohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:25)calledin1Es9:26Ieddias.
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JAAKAN.SeeBEEROTHBENEJAAKAN.
JAAKOBAH.ASimeoniteprince(1Ch4:36).
JAALA(Neh7:58)orJAALAH(Ezr2:56).ThenameofafamilyofthesonsofSolomonsservantswhoreturnedwithZerubbabelcalledin1Es5:33Jeeli.
JAAR.AHeb.nameforawood,forest,thicket,occurringaboutfiftytimesintheOT.Itoccursonceasapropername,namelyinPs132:6,where,speakingof
theark,thePsalmistsaysthatitwasheardofatEphrathahandfoundatJaar.TheparallelismofHebrewpoetryrequiresthatJaarshallberegardedhereassetover
againstEphrathah.ThearkwasbroughtfromtheregionofBethlehem(Ephrathah),yea,fromthewoodyheightsofKiriathjearim.
W.F.COBB.
JAAREOREGIM.Accordingto2S21:19,thenameofthefatherofElhanan,oneofDavidsheroesbutaccordingto1Ch20:5hisnamewasplainJair.
Obviouslyoregim(weavers)hascreptinfromthenextline.SeeELHANAN.
W.F.COBB.
JAARESHIAH.ABenjamitechief(1Ch8:27).
JAASIEL.TherulerofBenjamin(1Ch27:21),probablyidenticalwiththeMezobaiteof11:47.
JAASU(Ezr10:37Kethibh)orJAASAI(Qer,soRVm.Oneofthosewhohadmarriedforeignwives.
JAAZANIAH.1.AJudan,oneofthemilitarycommanderswhocametoMizpahtogiveintheirallegiancetoGedaliah(2K25:23=Jer40:8Jezaniah).2.
AchieftainoftheclanoftheRechabites(Jer35:3).3.SonofShaphan,whoappearedinEzekielsvisionasringleaderofseventyoftheeldersofIsraelinthe
practiceofsecretidolatryatJerusalem(Ezk8:11).4.SonofAzzur,againstwhosecounselsEzekielwascommandedtoprophesy(Ezk11:1ff.).
JAAZIAH.AsonofMerari(1Ch24:26,27).
JAAZIEL.ALeviteskilledintheuseofthepsaltery(1Ch15:18)calledinv.20Aziel.
JABAL.SonofLamechbyAdah,andoriginatorofthenomadicformoflife,Gn4:20(J).
JABBOK.ArivernowcalledNahrezZerka(theBlueRiver),whichrisesnearAmmntheancientRabbatbammon,andafterrunningfirstN.E.,thenN.,N.
W.,W.,finallybendsS.W.toentertheJordan.Onalmostthewholeofitscurvedcourseof60milesitrunsthroughadeepvalley,andformsanaturalboundary.On
itscurvedupperreachesitmaybesaidpracticallytoboundthedesert,whilethedeepgorgeofitslower,straightercoursedividesthelandofGileadintotwohalves.
ItismentionedasafrontierinNu21:24,Dt2:37,3:16,Jos12:2,Jg11:13,22.TheJabbokisfamousforalltimeonaccountofthestrikingincidentofJacobs
wrestlingtherewiththeAngel(Gn32:24f.).
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
JABESH.FatherofShallum,whousurpedthekingdomofIsraelbytheassassinationofkingZechariah(2K15:10,13,14).
JABESH,JABESHGILEAD.AcitywhichfirstappearsinthestoryoftherestorationoftheBenjamites(Jg21).Probablyitbadnotfullyrecoveredfromthis
blowwhenitwasalmostforcedtosubmittothedisgracefultermsofNahashtheAmmonite(1S11).IngratitudeforSaulsreliefofthecity,theInhabitantsrescued
hisbodyfrommaltreatmentbythePhilistines(1S31:1113)anactwhichearnedthemthecommendationofDavid(2S2:4).
AccordingtotheOnomasticon,thesiteis6RomanmilesfromPella.ThenameseemstobepreservedinYabis,awadytributarytotheJordan,whichrunsdown
atthesouthpartoftransJordanicManasseh.Thesiteitself,however,isnotyetidentifiedwithcertainty.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
JABEZ.1.AcityinJudahoccupiedbyscribes,thedescendantsofCaleb(1Ch2:55).2.AmanofthefamilyofJudah,notedforhishonourablecharacter(1
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/j.htm 1/124
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JABEZ.1.AcityinJudahoccupiedbyscribes,thedescendantsofCaleb(1Ch2:55).2.AmanofthefamilyofJudah,notedforhishonourablecharacter(1
Ch4:9ff.)calledYabts,whichisrenderedasifitstoodforYatsb,hecausespain.Inhisvow(v.10)thereisagainaplayuponhisname.
W.EWING.
JABIN([God]perceives).ACanaanitekingwhoreignedinHazor,aplaceneartheWatersofMerom,notfarfromKedesh.Intheaccount,inJg4,ofthe
defeatofJabinshostunderSisera,theformertakesupquiteasubordinateposition.Inanotheraccount(Jos11:19)ofthisepisodethevictoryofthetwotribesof
ZebulunandNaphtaliisrepresentedasaconquestofthewholeofnorthernCanaanbyJoshua.Bothaccounts(Jos11:19,Jg4)arefragmentstakenfromanearlier,
andmoreelaborate,sourcetheJabinineachpassageisthereforeoneandthesameperson.
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
JABNEEL.1.AtownontheN.borderofJudah,nearMt.Baalah,andclosetothesea(Jos15:11).In2Ch26:6itismentionedunderthenameJabneh,
alongwithGathandAshdod,asoneofthecitiescapturedfromthePhilistinesbyUzziah.AlthoughthesearetheonlyOTreferences,itisfrequentlymentioned
(underthenameJamnia)intheBooksofMaccabees(1Mac4:15,5:58,10:69,15:40,2Mac12:8,9,40)andinJosephus.Judasissaidtohaveburneditsharbour
itwascapturedbySimonfromtheSyrians.InJth2:28itiscalledJemnaan.AftervariousvicissitudesitwascapturedinthewaroftheJewsbyVespasian.Afterthe
destructionofJerusalem,Jabneel,nowcalledJamnia,becamethehomeoftheSanhedrin.AtthetimeoftheCrusadesthecastleIbelinstoodonthesite.Todaythe
villageofYebnastandsontheruinedremainsoftheseancientoccupations.Itstands170feetabovetheseaonaprominenthillS.oftheWadyRubin.Theancient
MajumasorharbourofJamnialiestotheWest.TheportwouldseemtobenaturallybetterthananyalongthecoastofPalestineS.ofCsarea(Warren).
2.AnunknownsiteontheN.boundaryofNaphtalinotfarfromtheJordan(Jos19:33).
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
JABNEH.SeeJABNEEL.
JACAN.AGaditechief(1Ch5:13).
JACHIN.1.FourthsonofSimeon(Gn46:10,Ex6:15)calledin1Ch4:24JaribinNu
26:12thepatronymicJachinitesoccurs.2.Eponymofapriestlyfamily(1Ch9:10,Neh11:10).
JACHINANDBOAZ.Thesearethenamesbornebytwobrazen,ormoreprobably
bronze,pillarsbelongingtoSolomonsTemple.Theyevidentlyrepresentedthehighestartisticachievementoftheirauthor,HiramofTyre,thehalfTyriancopper
worker,whomSolomonfetchedfromTyretodofoundryworkforhim,whosename,however,wasmoreprobablyHuramabi(2Ch2:12,Heb.text).The
descriptionofthemnowfoundin1K7:1522isexceedinglyconfusedandcorrupt,butwiththehelpofthebetterpreservedGr.text,andofotherOT.references
(viz.7:41,42,2Ch3:1517,4:12,13andJer52:2123=2K25:17),recentscholarshaverestoredthetextoftheprimarypassagesomewhatasfollows:
Andhecastthetwopillarsofbronzefortheporchofthetemple18cubitswastheheightoftheonepillar,andalineof12cubitscouldcompassitabout,anditsthicknesswas4
fingerbreadthe(foritwas)hollow[withthiscf.Jer52:21].Andthesecondpillarwassimilar.Andhemadetwochapiters[i.e.capitals]ofcastbronzeforthetopsofthepillars,
etc.[asinRV].Andhemadetwosetsofnetworktocoverthechapiterswhichwereuponthetopsofthepillars,anetworkfortheonechapiterandanetworkforthesecondchapiter.
Andhemadethepomegranatesandtworowsofpomegranatesinbronzewereupontheonenetwork,andthepomegranateswere200,roundaboutupontheonechapiter,andsohe
didforthesecondchapiter.Andbesetupthepillarsattheporchofthetemple,etc.[asinv.21RV].
Theoriginaldescription,thusfreedfromlaterglossessuchasthedifficultlilyworkofv.19,consistsofthreepartsthepillars,theircapitals,andthe
ornamentationofthelatter.Thepillarsthemselveswerehollow,withathicknessofmetalequaltothreeinchesofourmeasuretheirheight,onthebasisofthelarger
cubitof201/2inches(seeHastingsDBiv.907a),wasabout31feet,whiletheirdiameterworksoutatabout61/2feet.Thecapitalsappearfrom1K7:41tohave
beenglobularorspheroidalinform,eachabout81/2feetinheight,givingatotalheightforthecompletepillarsofroughly40feet.Theornamentationofthecapitals
wastwofold:firsttheywerecoveredwithaspeciallycastnetworkofbronze.Overthiswerehungfestoonwisetwowreathsofbronzepomegranates,eachrow
containing100pomegranates,ofwhichitisprobablethatfourwerefixedtothenetwork,whiletheremaining96hungfree(seeJer52:23).
AsregardstheirpositionrelativetotheTemple,itmayberegardedascertainthattheywerestructurallyindependentoftheTempleporch,andstoodfreeinfront
ofitprobablyonplinthsorbasesJachinonthesouthandBoazonthenorth(1K7:21),oneoneithersideofthestepsleadinguptotheentrancetotheporch(cf.
Ezk40:49).SuchfreestandingpillarswereafeatureofPhnicianandothertemplesofWesternAsia,thestatementsofGreekwritersonthispointbeingconfirmed
byrepresentationsoncontemporarycoins.Aglassdish,discoveredinRomein1882,evenshowsarepresentationofSolomonsTemplewiththetwinpillars
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byrepresentationsoncontemporarycoins.Aglassdish,discoveredinRomein1882,evenshowsarepresentationofSolomonsTemplewiththetwinpillars
flankingtheporch,asabovedescribed(reproducedinBenzingersHeb.Arch.[1907],218).
ThenamesJachinandBoazpresentanenigmawhichstillawaitssolution.ThemeaningssuggestedinthemarginsofEVJachin,heshallestablish,Boaz,
initisstrengthgivenohelp,andarebesidesveryproblematical.ThevariousformsofthenamespresentedbytheGreektextsforwhichseeEBiii.2304f.and
esp.BarnesinJThStv.[1904],447551pointtoapossibleoriginalnomenclatureasBaalandJachunthelatteraPhnicianverbalformofthesamesignification
(hewillbe)astheHeb.Jahweh.
Theoriginalsignificanceandpurposeofthepillars,finally,arealmostasobscureastheirnames.ThefactthattheyweretheworkofaPhnicianartist,
however,makesitprobablethattheirpresenceistobeexplainedontheanalogyofthesimilarpillarsofPhniciantemples.These,thoughviewedinmoreprimitive
timesastheabodeoftheDeity(seeP ILLAR),had,ascivilizationandreligionadvanced,cometoberegardedasmeresymbolsofHispresence.ToaPhnician
templebuilder,JachinandBoazwouldappearasthenaturaladjunctsofsuchabuilding,andaretherefore,perhaps,bestexplainedasconventionalsymbolsofthe
GodforwhoseworshiptheTempleofSolomonwasdesigned.
Foranother,andentirelyimprobable,viewoftheiroriginalpurpose,namely,thattheywerehugecandelabraorcressetsinwhichthesuetofthesacrifices,wasburned,seeW.
R.SmithsRS 2,488andforthelatestattemptstoexplainthepillarsintermsoftheBabylonianastralmythology,seeA.Jeremias,DasalteTest.imLichted.alt.Orients 2
[1906],494,etc.Benzinger,op.cit.,2nded.[1907],323,331.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
JACINTH.SeeJEWELSANDP RECIOUSS TONES,p.467a.

JACKAL.AlthoughthewordjackaldoesnotoccurintheAV,thereisnodoubtthatthisanimalisseveraltimesmentionedinOT:itoccursseveraltimesin
RVwhereAVhasfox.(1)shlisusedinHeb.forbothanimals,butmostofthereferencesaremostsuitablytr.jackal.
TheonlyOTpassageinwhichthefoxisprobablyintendedisNeh4:3.(2)tannm(pl.),AV
dragons,isinRVusuallytr.jackals.SeeIs34:13,Jer9:11,10:22etc.Postconsiders
wolveswouldbebetter.(3)iyym,tr.AVwildbeastsoftheisland(Is13:22,34:14,Jer50:39),isinRVtr.wolves,butPostthinksthesehowlingcreatures(as
wordimplies)weremoreprobablyjackals.(4)hm,dolefulcreatures(Is13:21),mayalsohavebeenjackals.Thejackal(Canisaureus)isexceedinglycommon
inPalestineitsmournfulcriesareheardeverynight.Duringthedayjackalshideindesertedruins,etc.(Is13:22,34:13,35:7),butassoonasthesunsetstheyissue
forth.Theymayatsuchtimesbefrequentlyseenglidingbackwardsandforwardsacrosstheroadsseekingformorselsoffood.Theirstaplefoodiscarrionofall
sorts(Ps63:10).AtthepresentdaytheBedouinthreatenanenemywithdeathbysayingtheywillthrowhisbodytothejackals.Thoughharmlesstogrownmen
whensolitary,awholepackmaybedangerous.ThewriterknowsofacasewhereaEuropeanwaspursuedformilesoverthePhilistineplainbyapackofjackals.It
isbecausetheygoinpacksthatwetaketheshulimofJg15:4tobejackalsratherthanfoxes.Bothanimalshaveaweaknessforgrapes(Ca2:15).Cf.art.Fox.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
JACOB.1.SonofIsaacandRebekah.HisnameisprobablyanellipticalformofanoriginalJakobel,Godfollows(i.e.rewards),whichhasbeenfound
bothonBabyloniantabletsandonthepylonsofthetempleofKarnak.BythetimeofJacobthisearlierhistoryofthewordwasoverlookedorforgotten,andthe
namewasunderstoodasmeaningonewhotakesbytheheel,andthustriestotripuporsupplant(Gn25:26,27:36,Hos12:3).HishistoryisrecountedinGn
25:2150:13,thematerialsbeingunequallycontributedfromthreesources.ForthedetailsofanalysisseeDillmann,Com.,andDriver,LOT 3,p.16.Psuppliesbuta
briefoutlineJandEarecloselyinterwoven,thoughadegreeoforiginalindependenceisshownbyanoccasionaldivergenceintradition,whichaddstothe
credibilityofthejointnarrative.
Jacobwasborninanswertoprayer(25:21),nearBeershebaandthelaterrivalrybetween
IsraelandEdomwasthoughtofasprefiguredinthestrifeofthetwinsinthewomb(25:22f.,2Es3:16,6:810,Ro9:1113).Thedifferencesbetweenthetwo
brothers,eachcontrastingwiththeotherincharacterandhabit,weremarkedfromthebeginning.Jacobgrewupaquietman(Gn25:27RVm),ashepherdand
herdsman.Whilststillathome,hesucceededinoverreachingEsauintwoways.HetookadvantageofEsaushungerandheedlessnesstosecurethebirthright,
whichgavehimprecedenceevenduringthefatherslifetime(43:33),andafterwardsadoubleportionofthepatrimony(Dt21:17),withprobablythedomestic
priesthood.Atalatertime,aftercarefulconsideration(Gn27:11ff.),headoptedthedevicesuggestedbyhismother,and,allayingwithingeniousfalsehoods(27:20)
hisfatherssuspicion,interceptedalsohisblessing.Isaacwasdismayed,butinsteadofrevokingtheblessingconfirmedit(27:3337),andwasnotabletoremove
Esausbitterness.Inbothblessingslaterpoliticalandgeographicalconditionsarereflected.ToJacobispromisedCanaan,awellwateredlandoffieldsand
vineyards(Dt11:14,33:28),withsovereigntyoveritspeoples,eventhosewhowerebrethrenordescendedfromthesameancestryasIsrael(Gn19:37f.,2S
8:12,14).EsauisconsignedtothedryandrockydistrictsofIduma,withalifeofwarandplunderbuthissubjectiontoJacobislimitedinduration(2K8:22),if 3/124
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vineyards(Dt11:14,33:28),withsovereigntyoveritspeoples,eventhosewhowerebrethrenordescendedfromthesameancestryasIsrael(Gn19:37f.,2S
8:12,14).EsauisconsignedtothedryandrockydistrictsofIduma,withalifeofwarandplunderbuthissubjectiontoJacobislimitedinduration(2K8:22),if
notalsoincompleteness(Gn27:40f.,whichpointstotherestlessnessofEdom).
OfthissuccessfulcraftonJacobspartthenaturalresultonEsauswashatredandresentment,toavoidwhichJacoblefthishometospendafewdays(27:44)
withhisuncleinHaran.Twodifferentmotivesareassigned.JErepresentsRebekahaspleadingwithhersonhisdangerfromEsaubutPrepresentsheras
suggestingtoIsaacthedangerthatJacobmightmarryaHittitewife(27:46).Thetraditionsappearonliterarygroundstohavecomefromdifferentsourcesbutthere
isnorealdifficultyinthenarrativeasitstands.Notonlyaremansmotivesoftencomplexbutawomanwouldbelikelytousedifferentpleastoahusbandandtoa
son,andifamothercancounselhersontoyieldtohisfear,afatherwouldbemorealivetothepossibilityofanoutbreakoffolly.OnhiswaytoHaran,Jacob
passedanightatBethel(cf.13:3f.),andhissleepwas,notunnaturally,disturbedbydreamsthecromlechsandstoneterracesofthedistrictseemedtoarrange
themselvesintoaladderreachingfromearthtoheaven,withangelsascendinganddescending,whilstJehovahHimselfbentoverhim(28:13RVm)withloving
assurances.RemindedthusofthewatchfulprovidenceofGod,Jacobsalarmsweretransmutedintoreligionsawe.Hemarkedthesanctityofthespotbysettingup
asasacredpillartheboulderonwhichhisheadhadrested,andundertooktodedicateatitheofallhisgains.ThenceforwardBethelbecameafamoussanctuary,
andJacobhimselfvisiteditagain(35:1cf.Hos12:4).
ArrivedatHaran,Jacobmetinhisunclehissuperiorforatimeintheartofoverreaching.ByaruseLabansecuredfourteenyearsservice(29:27,Hos12:12,Jth
8:26),towhichsixyearsmorewereadded,underaningeniousarrangementinwhichtheexactingunclewasatlastoutwitted(30:31ff.).Attheendoftheterm
Jacobwastheheadofahouseholdconspicuouseveninthosedaysforitsmagnitudeandprosperity.QuarrelswithLabanandhissonsensued,butGodis
representedasinterveningtoturntheirarbitraryactions(31:7ff.)toJacobsadvantage.AtlengthhetookflightwhilstLabanwasengagedinsheepshearing,and,re
crossingtheEuphratesonhiswayhome,reachedGilead.TherehewasovertakenbyLaban,whoseexasperationwasincreasedbythefactthathisteraphim,or
householdgods,hadbeentakenawaybythefugitives,Rachelshopeinstealingthembeingtoappropriatethegoodfortuneofherfathers.Thedisputethat
followedwasclosedbyanallianceoffriendship,thedoublecovenantbeingsealedbysettingupincommemorationacairnwithasolitaryboulderbyitsside
(31:45f.,52),andbysharingasacrificialmeal.JacobpromisedtotreatLabansdaughterswithspecialkindness,andbothJacobandLabanundertooktorespectthe
boundarytheyhadagreeduponbetweentheterritoriesofIsraelandoftheSyrians.ThereuponLabanreturnedhomeandJacobcontinuedhisjourneytoCanaan,
andwasmetbytheangelsofGod(32:1),asiftocongratulateandwelcomehimasheapproachedtheLandofPromise.
Jacobsnextproblemwastoconciliatehisbrother,whowasreportedtobeadvancingagainsthimwithalargebodyofmen(32:6).Threemeasureswereadopted.
Whenasubmissivemessageelicitednoresponse,JacobindismayturnedtoGod,thoughwithoutanyexpressionofregretforthedeceitbywhichhehadwronged
hisbrother,andproceededtodividehispartyintotwocompanies,inthehopethatoneatleastwouldescape,andtotrytoappeaseEsauwithagreatgift.Thenext
nightcametheturningpointinJacobslife.Hithertohehadbeenambitious,steadyofpurpose,subjecttogenuinereligiousfeeling,butgivenupalmostwhollyto
theuseofcrookedmethods.Nowthehigherelementsinhisnaturegaintheascendencyandhenceforth,thoughheisnolessresourcefulandpolitic,hisfearofGod
ceasestobespoiltbyinterveningpassionsoracompetingselfconfidence.AloneonthebanksoftheJabbok(WadyZerka),fullofdoubtastothefatethatwould
overtakehim,herecognizesatlastthathisrealantagonistisnotEsaubutGod.AllhisfraudanddeceithadbeenpreeminentlysinagainstGodandwhatheneeded
supremelywasnotreconciliationwithhisbrother,buttheblessingofGod.Sovividwastheimpression,thattheentirenightseemedtobespentinactualwrestling
withalivingman.Histhighwassprainedinthecontestbutsincehiswillwassofixedthathesimplywouldnotberefused,theblessingcamewiththedaybreak
(32:28).HisnamewaschangedtoIsrael,whichmeansetymologicallyGodperseveres,butwasappliedtoJacobinthesenseofPersevererwithGod(Hos
12:3f.).AndasanamewastoaHebrewasymbolofnature(Is1:26,61:3),itschangewasasymbolofachangedcharacterandthesupplanterbecametheonewho
perseveredinputtingforthhisstrengthincommunionwithGod,andthereforeprevailed.Hisbrotherreceivedhimcordially(33:4),andofferedtoescorthimduring
therestofthejourney.Theofferwascourteouslydeclined,ostensiblybecauseofthedifferenceofpacebetweenthetwocompanies,butprobablyalsowithaview
toincurnoobligationandtorisknorupture.EsaureturnedtoSeirandJacobmovedontoasuitablesiteforanencampment,whichreceivedthenameofSuccoth,
fromtheboothsthatwereerectedonit(33:17).ItwaseastoftheJordan,andprobablynotfarfromthejunctionwiththeJabbok.Thevalleywassuitableforthe
recuperationoftheflocksandherdsaftersolongajourneyanditisprobable,fromthecharacterofthebuildingserected,aswellasfromthefactthatopportunity
mustbegivenforDinah,oneoftheyoungestofthechildren(30:21),toreachamarriageableage(34:2ff.),thatJacobstayedthereforseveralyears.
AfteraresidenceofuncertainlengthatSuccoth,JacobcrossedtheJordanandadvancedtoShechem,wherehepurchasedaplotofgroundwhichbecame
afterwardsofspecialinterest.Joshuaseemstohaveregardeditasthelimitofhisexpedition,andtheretheLawwaspromulgatedandJosephshoneswereburied
(Jos24:25,32cf.Ac7:16)andforatimeitwasthecentreoftheconfederationofthenortherntribes(1K12:1,2Ch10:1).AgainJacobsstaymustnotbe
measuredbydaysforheerectedanaltar(33:20)anddugawell(Jn4:6,12),andwasdetainedbydomestictroubles,ifnotofhisownoriginalintention.The
troublesbeganwiththeseductionoroutrageofDinahbutthenarrativethatfollowsisevidentlycompactedoftwotraditions.Accordingtotheone,thetransaction
waspersonal,andinvolvedafulfilmentbyShechemofacertainunspecifiedconditionaccordingtotheother,theentireclanwasinvolvedoneitherside,andthe
storyisthatofthedangeroftheabsorptionofIsraelbythelocalCanaanitesanditsavoidancethroughtheinterpositionofSimeonandLevi.Butmostofthe
difficultiesdisappearontheassumptionthatShechemsmarriagewas,aswasnatural,expedited,adelighttohimselfandgenerallyapprovedamongsthiskindred
(34:19).Thatpressingmatterbeingsettled,thequestionofanalliancebetweenthetwocians,withthesinistermotivesthatprevailedoneitherside,wouldbe
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(34:19).Thatpressingmatterbeingsettled,thequestionofanalliancebetweenthetwocians,withthesinistermotivesthatprevailedoneitherside,wouldbe
gradually,perhapsslowly,broughttoanissue.TherewouldbetimetopersuadetheShechemitestoconsenttobecircumcised,andtoarrangeforthetreacherous
reprisai.Jacobspartintheproceedingswasconfinedchieflytoatimidreproachofhissonsforentanglinghishouseholdinperil,towhichtheyrepliedwiththeplea
thatthehonourofthefamilywasthefirstconsideration.
ThestateoffeelingarousedbythevengeanceexecutedonShechemmadeitdesirableforJacobtocontinuehisjourney.HewasdirectedbyGodtoproceed
sometwentymilessouthwardstoBethel.Beforestarting,duepreparationsweremadeforavisittososacredaspot.Theamuletsandimagesofforeigngodsinthe
possessionofhisretainerswerecollectedandhuriedunderaterebinth(35:4cf.Jos24:26,Jg9:6).Thepeoplethroughwhomhepassedweresmittenwithsucha
panicbythenewsofwhathadhappenedatShechemasnottointerferewithhim.ArrivedatBethel,headdedanaltar(35:7)tothemonolithhehaderectedonhis
previousvisit,andreceivedinatheophany,forwhichinmoodhewaswellprepared,arenewalofthepromiseofregalprosperity.Theadditionalpillarhesetup
(35:14)wasprobablyasepulchralsteletothememoryofDeborah(cf.35:20),dedicatedwithappropriatereligiousservicesunlesstheverseisoutofplaceinthe
narrative,andisreallyJsversionofwhatErelatesin28:18.FromBethelJacobledhiscaravantoEphrath,afewmilesfromwhichplaceRacheldiedinchildbirth.
This
EphrathwasevidentlynotfarfromBethel,andwelltothenorthofJerusalem(1S10:2f.,Jer
31:15)andthereforetheglossthesameisBethlehemmustbeduetoaconfusionwiththeotherEphrath(Ru4:11,Mic5:2),whichwassouthofJerusalem.The
nextstoppingplacewasthetowerofEder(35:21)ortheflockagenericnameforthewatchtowerserectedtoaidintheprotectionoftheflocksfromrobbersand
wildbeasts.Mic4:8appliesasimilartermtothefortifiedsouthernspurofZion.Butitcannotheprovedthatthetwoallusionscoalesceandactuallynothingis
knownofthesiteofJacobsencampment,exceptthatitwasbetweenEphrathandHebron.Hisjourneywasendedwhenhereachedthelastnamedplace(35:27),
thehomeofhisfathers,wherehemetEsauagain,andapparentlyforthelasttime,atthefuneralofIsaac.
FromthetimeofhisreturntoHebron,JacobceasestobethecentralfigureoftheBiblicalnarrative,whichthenceforwardrevolvesroundJoseph.Amongthe
leadingincidentsareJosephsmissiontoinquireafterhisbrethrenswelfare,theinconsolablesorrowoftheoldmanonthereceiptofwhatseemedconclusive
evidenceofJosephsdeath,thedespatchofhissurvivingsonsexceptBenjamintobuycorninEgypt(cf.Ac7:12ff.),thebitternessofthereproachwithwhichhe
greetedthemontheirreturn,andhisbelatedanddespairingconsenttoanotherexpeditionastheonlyalternativetodeathfromfamine.Thestoryturnsnextto
JacobsdelightatthenewsthatJosephisalive,andtohisownjourneytoEgyptthroughBeersheha,hisearlyhome,wherehewasencouragedbyGodinvisionsof
thenight(46:17).InEgypthewasmetbyJoseph,and,afteraninterviewwiththePharaoh,settledinthepastoraldistrictofGoshen(47:6),afterwardsknownas
thelandofRameses(fromRameses II.ofthenineteenthdynasty),intheeasternpartoftheDelta(47:11).ThismigrationofJacobtoEgyptwasaneventofthefirst
magnitudeinthehistoryofIsrael(Dt26:5f.,Ac7:14f.),asastageinthegreatprovidentialpreparationforRedemption.JacoblivedinEgyptseventeenyears
(47:28),atthecloseofwhich,feelingdeathtobenigh,heextractedapledgefromJosephtoburyhiminCanaan,andadoptedhistwograndsons,placingthe
youngerfirstinanticipationofthepreeminenceofthetribethatwoulddescendfromhim(48:19,He11:21).ToJosephhimselfwaspromised,asatokenofspecial
affection,theconquereddistrictsofShechemonthelowerslopesofGerizim(48:22,Jn4:5).Finally,theoldmangatheredhissonsabouthim,andpronounced
uponeachinturnablessing,afterwardswroughtupintotheelaboratepoeticalformof49:227.Thetribesarereviewedinorder,andthecharacterofeachis
sketchedinadescriptionofthatofitsfounder.Theatmosphereofthepoeminregardaliketogeographyandtohistoryisthatoftheperiodofthejudgesandearly
kings,when,therefore,thegenuinetraditionmusthavetakentheforminwhichithasbeenpreserved.Afterblessinghissons,Jacobgavethemtogetherthe
directionsconcerninghisfuneralwhichhehadgivenpreviouslytoJoseph,anddied(49:33).Hisbodywasembalmed,convoyedtoCanaanbyagreatprocession
accordingtotheEgyptiancustom,andburiedinthecaveofMachpeiahnearHebron(50:13).
OpinionisdividedastothedegreetowhichJacobhasbeenidealizedintheBiblicalstory.Ifitberememberedthatthenarrativeisbaseduponpopularoral
tradition,anddidnotreceiveitspresentformuntillongafterthetimetowhichitrelates,andthataninterestinnationaloriginsisbothnaturalanddistinctly
manifestedinpartsofGenesis,someidealizationmayreadilyheconceded.Itmaybesoughtinthreedirectionsintheattempttofindexplanationsofexisting
institutions,intheanticipationofreligiousconceptionsandsentimentsthatbelongedtothenarratorstimes,andintheinvestmentofthereputedancestorwiththe
characteristicsofthetribedescendedfromhim.AlltheconditionsarebestmetbytheviewthatJacobwasarealperson,andthattheincidentsrecordedofhimare
substantiallyhistorical.Hischaracter,asdepicted,isamixtureofevilandgoodandhiscareershowshow,bydisciplineandgrace,thebetterelementscameto
prevail,andGodwasenabledtouseafaultymanforagreatpurpose.
2.FatherofJoseph,thehusbandofMary(Mt1:15f.).
R.W.MOSS.
JACOBSWELL.SeeS YCHAR.
JACUBUS(1Es9:48)=Neh8:7Akkub.
JADA.AJerahmeelite(1Ch2:28,32).
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JADA.AJerahmeelite(1Ch2:28,32).
JADDUA.1.Oneofthosewhosealedthecovenant(Neh10:21).2.Ahighpriest(Neh12:11,22).HeisdoubtlesstheJadduawhoisnamedbyJosephusin
connexionwithAlexandertheGreat(Jos.Ant.XI.viii.5,cf.vii.2,viii.7).
JADDUS(AVAddus).ApriestwhosedescendantswereunabletotracetheirgenealogyatthereturnunderZerub.,andwereremovedfromthepriesthood(1
Es5:38).HeistheresaidtohavemarriedAugia,adaughterofZorzelleusorBarzillai,andtohavebeencalledafterhisname.InEzr2:61andNeh7:63heiscalled
byhisadoptednameBarziliai.
JADON.AMeronothite,whotookpartinrebuildingthewailofJerusalem(Neh3:7).ThetitleMeronothiteoccursagain1Ch27:30,butaplaceMeronothis
nowherenamed.AccordingtoJos.(Ant.VIII.viii.5,ix.1),JadonwasthenameofthemanofGodsentfromJudahtoJeroboam(1K13).
JAEL.ThewifeofHeber,theKenite(Jg4:11,17).TheKeniteswereonfriendlytermsbothwiththeIsraelites(1:16)andwiththeCanaanites,towhomJabin
andhisgeneral,Sisera,belonged.OnhisdefeatbytheIsraelites,SiserafledtothetentofJaei,aspotwhichwasdoublysecuretothefugitive,onaccountbothof
intertribalfriendshipandoftherulesofOrientalhospitality.TheactoftreacherywherebyJaelslewSisera(Jg4:21)wasthereforeofthebasestkind,accordingto
themoralsofherowntime,andalsotomodernideas.Thepraise,therefore,accordedtoJaelandherdeedintheSongofDeborah(Jg5:2427)mustbeaccounted
foronthequestionablemoralprinciplethatanevildeed,ifproductiveofadvantage,mayberejoicedoverandcommendedbythosewhohavenottakenpartinit.
ThewriteroftheSongofDeborahrecordsanactwhich,thoughbase,resultedinputtingthesealtotheIsraelitevictory,andthuscontributedtotherecoveryof
Israelfromamightyoppression(Jg4:3)intheexultationoverthisresultthewomanwhohelpedtobringitaboutbyheractisextolled.Thoughthewriterofthe
Songwouldprobablyhavescornedtocommitsuchadeedhimself,heseesnoincongruityinpraisingitforitsbeneficentconsequences.Thisisonedegreeworse
thandoingevilthatgoodmaycome,fortheevilitselfisextolledwhereas,intheothercase,itisdeplored,andunwillinglyacquiescedinbecauseitisnecessary.
ThespiritwhichpraisessuchanactasJaelsis,insomesense,akintothatofaJewishcustom(Corban)whichgrewupinlaterdays,andwhichreceivedthe
condemnationofChrist,Mk7:11ineachcaseacontemptibleactiscondoned,andevenextolled,becauseoftheadvantage(ofonekindoranother)whichit
brings.
InJg5:6thewordsinthedaysofJaelcreateadifficulty,whichcanbeaccountedforonlybyregardingthem,withmostscholars,asagloss.SeealsoBARAK,
DEBORAH,S ISERA.
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
JAGUR.AtownintheextremesouthofJudah(Jos15:21).Thesiteisunknown.
JAH.SeeGOD,2(g).
JAHATH.1.AgrandsonofJudah(1Ch4:2).2.AgreatgrandsonofLevi(1Ch6:20,43).3.AsonofShimei(1Ch23:10).4.Oneofthesonsof
Shelomoth(1Ch24:22).5.AMerariteLeviteinthetimeofJosiah(2Ch34:12).
JAHAZ(in1Ch6:78,Jer48:21Jahzah).AtownatwhichSihonwasdefeatedbyIsrael(Nu21:23,Dt2:32,Jg11:20).AfterthecrossingoftheArnon,
messengersweresenttoSihonfromthewildernessofKedemoth(Dt2:26),andhewentoutagainstIsraelintothewildernessandcametoJahaz(Nu21:23).
JahazismentionedinconnexionwithKedemoth(Jos13:18,21:36).ThesepassagesindicateapositionforJahazintheS.E.portionofSihonsterritory.
JahazwasoneoftheLevitecitiesofReubenbelongingtothechildrenofMerari(Jos13:18,
21:36(seenoteinRVm],1Ch6:78).AccordingtotheMoabiteStone(11:1820),thekingofIsraeldweltatJahazwhileatwarwithkingMesha,butwasdriven
out,andthetownwastakenandaddedtoMoabiteterritory.Isaiah(15:4)andJeremiah(48:21,34)refertoitasinthepossessionofMoab.Thesitehasnotyetbeen
identified.
JAHAZIEL.1.ABenjamitewhojoinedDavidatZiklag(1Ch12:4).2.Oneofthetwopriestswhoblewtrumpetsbeforethearkwhenitwasbroughtby
DavidtoJerusalem(1Ch16:6).3.AKohathiteLevite(1Ch23:19,24:23).4.AnAsaphiteLevitewhoencouragedJehoshaphatandhisarmyagainstaninvading
host(2Ch20:14).5.Theancestorofafamilyofexileswhoreturned(Ezr8:5)calledin1Es8:32Jezelus.
JAHDAI.ACalebite(1Ch2:47).
JAHDIEL.AManassitechief(1Ch5:24).
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JAHDIEL.AManassitechief(1Ch5:24).
JAHDO.AGadite(1Ch5:14).
JAHLEEL.ThirdsonofZebulun(Gn46:14,Nu26:25)patron.Jahleelites(Nu26:25).
JAHMAI.AmanofIssachar(1Ch7:2).
JAHWEH.SeeGOD,2(f).
JAHZAH.TheformofJahaz(wh.see)in1Ch6:78andJer48:21.
JAHZEEL.Naphtahsfirstborn(Gn46:24,Nu26:48)in1Ch7:13Jahzielpatron.Jahzeelites(Nu26:48).
JAHZEIAH.Oneoffourmenwhoarementionedasopposing(soRV)Ezrainthematteroftheforeignwives(Ezr10:15).TheAVregardedJahzeiahandhis
companionsassupportersofEzra,renderingwereemployedaboutthismatter.ThisviewissupportedbyLXX,1Es9:14RVmbuttheHeb.phraseherefound
elsewhere(cf.1Ch21:1,2Ch20:23,Dn11:14)expressesopposition.
JAHZERAH.Apriest(1Ch9:12)calledinNeh11:13Ahzai.
JAHZIEL.SeeJAHZEEL.
JAIR.1.AclanofJairiteslivedontheeastofJordanwhowerecalledafterJair.ThisJairwasofthechildrenofManasseh(Nu32:41),andifwemayassume
atraditionalfusionajudge(Jg10:3ff.).ThesettlementofthisclanmarksasubsequentconquesttothatofthewestofJordan.ThegentilicJairiteisusedforIra
(2S20:26).2.ThefatherofMordecai(Est2:5),3.
ThefatherofElhanan.SeeELHANAN,JAAREOREGIM).
W.F.COBB.
JAIRUS(=Jair).ThisGreekformofthenameisusedintheApocrypha(Ad.Est11:2)forMordecaisfatherJair(Est2:5)and(1Es5:31)fortheheadofa
familyofTempleservants.In
NTitisthenameoftherulerofthesynagoguewhosedaughterJesusraisedfromthedead(Mk5:22,Lk8:41).In||Mt.(9:18)heisnotnamed.Thestoryofthis
raisingcomesfromthePetrinetradition.
A.J.MACLEAN.
JAKEH.FatherofAgur,theauthoroftheproverbscontainedinPr30.
JAKIM.1.ABenjamite(1Ch8:19).2.Apriest,headofthe12thcourse(1Ch24:12).
JALAM.AsonofEsau(Gn36:5,14,18,1Ch1:35).
JALON.ACalebite(1Ch4:17).
JAMBRES.SeeJANNESANDJAMBRES.
JAMBRI.ArobbertribewhichattackedandcapturedaconvoyunderthechargeofJohntheMaccabee.TheoutragewasavengedbyJonathanandSimon,
whowaylaidandslaughteredalargepartyofthesonsofJambri(1Mac9:3542).
JAMES
1.James,thesonofZehedee,oneoftheTwelve,theelderbrotherofJohn.TheirfatherwasaGalilanfisherman,evidentlyinathrivingway,sincehe
employedhiredservants(Mk1:20).TheirmotherwasSalome,and,sinceshewasapparentlyasisteroftheVirginMary(cf.Mt
27:56=Mk15:40withJn19:25),theywerecousinsofJesusaftertheflesh.Likehisbrother,JamesworkedwithZebedeeinpartnershipwithSimonandAndrew 7/124
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27:56=Mk15:40withJn19:25),theywerecousinsofJesusaftertheflesh.Likehisbrother,JamesworkedwithZebedeeinpartnershipwithSimonandAndrew
(Lk5:10),andhewasbusywithboatandnetswhenJesuscalledhimtoleaveallandfollowHim(Mt4:21,22=Mk1:19,20).HisnameiscoupledwithJohnsin
thelistsoftheApostles(Mt10:2=Mk3:17=Lk6:14),whichmeansthat,whentheTwelveweresentouttwobytwotopreachtheKingdomofGod(Mk6:7),
theywentincompany.Andtheyseemtohavebeenmenoflikespirit.TheygotfromJesusthesameappellation,theSonsofThunder(seeBOANERGES),andthey
stood,withSimonPeter,ontermsofspecialintimacywithHim.Jamesattainedlessdistinctionthanhisbrother,butthereasonisnotthathehadlessdevotionor
aptitude,butthathislifecametoanuntimelyend.
HewasmartyredbyHerodAgrippa(Ac12:2).
2.James,thesonofAlphus(probablyidenticalwithClopasofJn19:25RV),styledtheLittle(nottheLess),probablyonaccountoftheshortnessofhis
stature,todistinguishhimfromtheotherApostleJames,thesonofZebedee.HismotherwasMary,oneofthedevotedwomenwhostoodbytheCrossandvisited
theSepulchre.HehadabrotherJoses,whowasapparentlyabeliever.SeeMk15:40,Jn19:25,Mk16:1.
Traditionsaysthathehadbeenataxgatherer,anditisverypossiblethathisfatherAlphuswasthesamepersonasAlphusthefatherofLevithetaxgatherer(Mk2:14),
afterwardsMatthewtheApostleandEvangelist.Iftheseidentificationsheadmitted,thatfamilywasindeedhighlyfavoured.ItgavetotheKingdomofheavenafather,amother,
andthreesons,ofwhomtwowereApostles.
3.James,theLordsbrother(seeBRETHRENOFTHELORD).LiketherestoftheLordsbrethren,JamesdidnotbelieveinHimwhileHelived,but
acknowledgedHisclaimsaftertheResurrection.HewaswontofaithbyaspecialmanifestationoftherisenLord(1Co15:7).Thereafterherosetohigheminence.
HewastheheadoftheChurchatJerusalem,andfiguresinthatcapacityonthreeoccasions.(1)ThreeyearsafterhisconversionPaulwentuptoJerusalemto
interviewPeter,and,thoughhestayedforfifteendayswithhim,hesawnooneelseexceptJames(Gal1:18,19.).SosoondidJamessauthorityrivalPeters.(2)
AfteranintervaloffourteenyearsPaulwentupagaintoJerusalem(Gal2:110).Thiswastheoccasionofthehistoricconferenceregardingthetermsonwhichthe
GentilesshouldbeadmittedintotheChristianChurchandJamesactedaspresident,hisdecisionbeingunanimouslyaccepted(Ac15:434).(3)Jameswasthe
acknowledgedheadoftheChurchatJerusalem,andwhenPaulreturnedfromhisthirdmissionaryjourneyhewaitedonhimandmadeareporttohiminpresence
oftheelders(Ac21:18,19).
Accordingtoextracanonicaltradition,JameswassurnamedtheJusthewasaNaziritefromhismotherswomb,abstainingfromstrongdrinkandanimalfood,andwearing
linenhewasalwayskneelinginintercessionforthepeople,sothathiskneeswerecallouslikeacamelshewascruellymartyredbytheScribesandPharisees:theycasthimdown
fromthepinnacleoftheTemple(cf.Mt4:5,Lk4:9),andasthefalldidnotkillhim,theystonedhim,andhewasfinallydespatchedwithafullersclub.
ThisJameswastheauthoroftheNTEpistlewhichbearshisnameanditisanindicationofhischaracterthathestyleshimselfthere(1:1)notthebrother,but
theservantoftheLordJesusChrist.Seenextarticle.
4.James,thefatheroftheApostleJudas(Lk6:16RV),otherwiseunknown.TheAVJudasthebrotherofJamesisanimpossibleidentificationofthe
ApostleJudaswiththeauthoroftheEpistle(Jude1).
DAVIDS MITH.
JAMES,EPISTLEOF
1.TheauthorclaimstobeJames,aservantofGod,andoftheLordJesusChrist(1:1).HeisusuallyidentifiedwiththeLordsbrotherthebishopof
Jerusalem,notamemberoftheTwelve,butanapostleinthewidersense(seeJAMES,3).Thenameiscommon,andthewriteraddsnofurthernoteofidentification.
Thisfactmakesfortheauthenticityoftheaddress.IftheEpistlehadbeenpseudonymous,thewriterwouldhavedefinedthepositionoftheJameswhoseauthority
hewishedtoclaim,andthesameobjectionholdsgoodagainstanytheoryofinterpolation.Oragain,ifithadbeenwrittenbyalaterJamesunderhisownname,he
musthavedistinguishedhimselffromhisbetterknownnamesakes.Theabsenceofdescriptionsupportsthecommonviewoftheauthorshipoftheletteritisamark
ofmodesty,thebrotheroftheLordnotwishingtoinsistonhisrelationshipafterthefleshitalsopointstoaconsciousnessofauthoritythewriterexpectedtobe
listenedto,andknewthathismerenamewasasufficientdescriptionofhimself.SoJudewritesmerelyasthebrotherofJames.Ithasindeedbeendoubted
whetheraJewofhispositioncouldhavewrittensuchgoodGreekaswefindinthisEpistle,butweknowreallyverylittleofthescopeofJewisheducationthere
waseveryopportunityforintercoursewithGreeksinGalilee,andaprioriargumentsofthisnaturecanatmostbeonlysubsidiary.Ifindeedthelatedate,suggested
bysome,beadopted,thepossibilityofthebrotheroftheLordbeingtheauthorisexcluded,sinceheprobablydiedin62otherwisethereisnothingagainstthe
ordinaryview.Ifthatberejected,theauthorisentirelyunknown.Morewillbesaidintherestofthearticleonthesubjectbutattentionmustbecalledtothe
remarkablecoincidenceinlanguagebetweenthisEpistleandthespeechofJamesinAc15.
2. Date.Theonlyindicationsofdatearederivedfromindirectinternalevidence,theinterpretationofwhichdependsontheviewtakenofthemainproblems8/124
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2.Date.Theonlyindicationsofdatearederivedfromindirectinternalevidence,theinterpretationofwhichdependsontheviewtakenofthemainproblems
raisedbytheEpistle.Itisvariouslyput,eitherasoneoftheearliestofNTwritings(soMayorandmostEnglishwriters),oramongtheverylatest(thegeneral
Germanopinion).ThechiefproblemistherelationshipstootherwritingsoftheNT.TheEpistlehasstrikingresemblancestoseveralbooksoftheNT,andthese
resemblancesadmitofveryvariousexplanations.
(a)MostimportantisitsrelationtoStPaul.IthaspointsofcontactwithRomans:1:22,4:11andRo2:13(hearersanddoersofthelaw)1:24andRo5:35
(thegradualworkoftemptationortribulation)4:11andRo2:1,14:4(thecriticselfcondemned)1:21,4:1andRo7:23,13:12andthecontrastbetween2:21and
Ro4:1(thefaithofAbraham).Puttingthelatterasideforthemoment,itishardtopronounceonthequestionofpriority.SandayHeadlam(Romans,p.lxxix.)see
noresemblanceinstylesufficienttoproveliteraryconnexiontherearenoparallelsinorder,andsimilaritiesoflanguagecanmostlybeexplainedfromOTand
LXX.Mayor,ontheotherhand,supposesthatSt.PaulisworkinguphintsreceivedfromJames.
ThemainquestionturnsupontheapparentoppositionbetweenJamesandPaulwithregardtofaithandworks.Thechiefpassagesarech.2,esp.vv.17,21ff.,
andRo3:28,4,Gal2:16.BothwritersquoteGn15:6,anddealwiththecaseofAbrahamastypical,buttheydrawfromitapparentlyoppositeconclusionsSt.
Jamesthatamanisjustified,asAbrahamwas,byworksandnotbyfaithaloneSt.Paulthatjustificationisnotbyworksbutbyfaith.Wemaysayatoncewith
regardtothedoctrinalquestionthatitisgenerallyrecognizedthatthereisherenorealcontradictionbetweenthetwo.Thewritersmeandifferentthingsbyfaith.
St.Jamesmeansacertainbelief,mainlyintellectual,intheoneGod(2:19),thefundamentalcreedoftheJew,towhichabeliefinChristhasbeenadded.ToSt.Paul
faithisessentiallyfaithinChrist(Ro3:22,26etc.).Thisfaithhasbeeninhisownexperienceatremendousovermasteringforce,bringingwithitaconvulsionof
hiswholenaturehehasputonChrist,diedwithHim,andrisentoanewlife.SuchanexperienceliesoutsidetheexperienceofaSt.James,atypicallygoodman,
withapractical,matteroffact,andsomewhatlimitedviewoflife.Tohimconductisthreefourthsoflife,andheclaimsrightlythatmenshallauthenticatein
practicetheirverbalprofessions.ToaSt.Paul,withanoverwhelmingexperienceworkingonamysticaltemperament,suchademandisalmostmeaningless.Tohim
faithisthenewlifeinChrist,andofcourseitbringsforththefruitsoftheSpirit,ifitexistsatallfaithmustalwaysworkbylove(Gal5:6).Heindeedguardshimself
carefullyagainstanyideathatbeliefinthesenseofverbalconfessionorintellectualassentisenoughinitself(Ro2:620),anddefinestheworkswhichhe
disparagesasworksofthelaw(3:20,28).Eachwriter,infact,wouldagreewiththedoctrineoftheotherwhenhecametounderstandit,thoughSt.Jamesswould
appeartoSt.Paulasinsufficient,andSt.PaulstoSt.Jamesassomewhattooprofoundandmystical(seeSandayHeadlam,Romans,pp.102ff.).
Itisunfortunatelynotsoeasytoexplaintheliteraryrelationbetweenthetwo.Atfirstsightthepointsofcontactaresostrikingthatweareinclinedtosaythat
onemusthaveseenthewordsoftheother.Lightfoot,however,hasshown(Galatians3,pp.157ff.)thatthehistoryofAbraham,andinparticularGn15:6,figured
frequentlyinJewishtheologicaldiscussions.Theverseisquotedin1Mac2:52,tentimesbyPhilo,andintheTalmudictreatiseMechilta.Buttheantithesisbetween
faithandworksseemstobeessentiallyChristianwecannot,therefore,onthegroundoftheJewishuseofGn15,denyanyrelationshipbetweenthewritingsof
thetwoApostles.Thismuch,atleast,seemsclearSt.JameswasnotwritingwithRomansbeforehim,andwiththedeliberateintentionofcontradictingSt.Paul.His
arguments,soregarded,areobviouslyinadequate,andmakenoattempt,evensuperficially,tomeetSt.Paulsrealposition.Itis,however,quitepossiblethathemay
havewrittenashedidtocorrectnotSt.Paulhimself,butmisunderstandingsofhisteaching,whichnodoubteasilyarose(2P3:16).Ontheotherhand,ifwith
MayorweadoptaveryearlydatefortheEpistle,St.PaulmayequallywellbecombatingexaggerationsofhisfellowApostlesposition,whichindeedinitselfmust
haveappearedinsufficienttohimweareremindedoftheJudaizerswhocamefromJamesbeforetheCouncil(Ac15:24).St.Paul,accordingtothisview,
preservesallthatisvaluableinSt.Jamesbyhisinsistenceonlifeandconduct,whilehesupplementsitwithaprofounderteaching,andguardsagainst
misinterpretationsbyamorecarefuldefinitionoftermse.g.inGal2:16(cf.Ja2:24)hedefinesworksasworksofthelaw,andfaithasfaithinJesusChrist.
Wemustalsobearinmindthepossibilitythattheresemblanceinlanguageonthisandothersubjectsmayhavebeenduetopersonalintercoursebetweenthetwo
(Gal1:19,Ac15)indiscussingthesequestionstogethertheymaywellhavecometouseverysimilartermsandillustrationsandthispossibilitymakesthequestion
ofpriorityinwritingstillmorecomplicated.Itis,then,veryhardtopronouncewithanycertaintyonthedateoftheEpistlefromliteraryconsiderations.Onthe
wholetheymakeforanearlydate.Suchadateisalsosuggestedbytheundevelopedtheology(notethenontechnicalandunusualwordforbegatin1:18)andthe
generalcircumstancesoftheEpistle(seebelow)andtheabsenceofanyreferencetotheGentilecontroversymayindicateadatebeforetheCouncilofAc15,i.e.
before52A.D.
(b)Again,thepointsofcontactwith1Peter(1:10,5:191P1:24,4:8)andHebrews(2:25He11:31),thoughstriking,areinconclusiveastodate.Itisdifficult
toacquiesceintheviewthatJamesissecondarythroughout,andmakesageneraluseoftheEpp.ofNT.
(c)ItwillbeconvenienttotreatheretherelationtotheGospelsandparticularlytotheSermonontheMount,thoughthisisstilllessdecisiveastodate.The
variationsaretoostrongtoallowustosupposeadirectuseoftheGospelsthesayingsofChristwerelongquotedinvaryingforms,andin5:12St.Jameshasa
remarkableagreementwithJustin(Ap,i.16),asagainstMt5:37.Thechiefparallelsarethecondemnationofhearersonly(1:22,25,Mt7:25,Jn13:17),ofcritics
(4:11,Mt7:15),ofworldliness(1:10,2:5,6etc.,Mt6:19,24,Lk6:24)theteachingaboutprayer(1:5etc.,Mt7:7,Mk11:23),poverty(2:5,Lk6:20),humility
(4:10,Mt23:12),thetreeanditsfruits(3:11,Mt7:16seeSalmon,Introd.toNT9p.455).ThisfamiliaritywithourLordslanguageagreeswellwiththehypothesis
thattheauthorwasonewhohadbeenbroughtupinthesamehome,andhadoftenlistenedtoHisteaching,thoughnotoriginallyadiscipleitcanhardly,however,9/124
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thattheauthorwasonewhohadbeenbroughtupinthesamehome,andhadoftenlistenedtoHisteaching,thoughnotoriginallyadiscipleitcanhardly,however,
hesaidnecessarilytoimplysuchaclosepersonalrelationship.
3.ThetypeofChristianityimpliedintheEpistle.WeareatoncestruckbythefactthatthedirectChristianreferencesareveryfew.Christisonlytwice
mentionedbyname(1:1,2:21)notawordissaidofHisdeathorresurrection,Hisexampleofpatience(5:10,11contrast1P2:21),orofprayer(5:17contrastHe
5:7).HencethesuggestionhasbeenmadebySpittathatwehavereallyaJewishdocumentwhichhasbeenadaptedbyaChristianwriter,ashappened,e.g.,with2
EsdrasandtheDidache.Theanswerisobvious,thatnoeditorwouldhavebeensatisfiedwithsoslightarevision.Wefind,indeed,onlookingcloser,thatthe
Christianelementisgreaterthanappearsatfirst,andalsothatitisofsuchanaturethatitcannotberegardedasinterpolated.TheparallelswithourLordsteaching
alreadynoticed,couldnotbeexplainedasduetoindependentborrowingfromearlierJewishsources,evenontheverydoubtfulassumptionthatanysuchexisted
containingthesubstanceofHisteaching.Again,wefindChristmentioned(probably)inconnexionwiththeParousia(5:7,8)[5:6,11areprobablynotreferencesto
thecrucifixion,andtheLordisnotoriginalin1:12]belovedbrethren(1:16,19,2:5),thenewbirth(1:18),theKingdom(2:5),thenamewhichisblasphemed
(2:7),andtheroyallawofliberty(1:25,2:8)areallpredominantlyChristianideas.Itcannot,however,bedeniedthatthegeneraltoneoftheEpistleisJudaic.The
typeoforganizationimpliedisprimitive,andisdescribedmainlyinJewishphraseology:synagogue(2:2),eldersoftheChurch(5:14),anointingwithoilandthe
connexionofsinandsickness(ib.).Abrahamisourfather(2:21),andGodbearstheOTtitleLordofSabaoth(5:4)[onlyhereinNT].Thistone,however,isin
harmonywiththetraditionalcharacterofJames(seeJAMES,3),andwiththeaddresstothetwelvetribeswhichareoftheDispersion(1:1),takeninitsliteralsense.
St.JamesremainedtotheendofhislifeastrictJew,notedforhisdevotiontotheLaw(Ac15,21:20),andintheEpistletheLaw,thoughtransformed,istothe
writeralmostasynonymfortheGospel.Hisargumentastotheparamountimportanceofconductisexactlysuitedtotheatmosphereinwhichhelived,andof
whichherealizedthedangers.TheRabbiscouldteachthattheycooltheflamesofGehinnomforhimwhoreadstheShema[Dt6:4],andJustin(Dial.141)bears
witnesstotheclaimoftheJews,thatiftheyaresinnersandknowGod,theLordwillnotimputetothemsin.Hisprotestisagainstaceremonialismwhichneglects
theweightiermattersoftheLawcf.esp.1:27,wherereligionmeansreligiononitsoutwardside.HisEpistlethenisJudaic,becauseitshowsusChristianityasit
appearedtotheordinaryJewishChristian,towhomitwasasomethingaddedtohisoldreligion,notarevolutionaryforcealteringitswholecharacter,asitwasto
St.Paul.ItseemstobelongtotheperioddescribedintheearlychaptersoftheActs,whentheseparationbetweenJewsandChristianswasnotcompletewehave
already,onothergrounds,seenthatitseemstocomebeforetheCouncil.Salmon(Introd.toNTp.456)pointsoutthatitsattitudetowardstherichagreeswithwhat
weknowofJewishsocietyduringthisperiod,whenthetyrannyofthewealthySadduceanpartywasatitsheight(cf.Jos.Ant.XX.viii.8ix.2)therearestill
apparentlylocalJewishtribunals(2:6).Themovementfromcitytocitysupposedin4:13maypointtothefrequentJewishmigrationsforpurposesoftrade,andthe
authoritywhichthewriterexercisesovertheDiasporamaybeparalleledbythatwhichtheSanhedrinclaimedoutsidePalestine.Wemaynotethatthereare
indicationsthattheEpistlehasinmindtheneedsandcircumstancesofspecialcommunities(2:1ff.,4:1,5:13)itreads,too,notlikeaformaltreatise,butaswordsof
advicegiveninviewofparticularcases.
Ontheotherhand,manyContinentalcriticsseeintheseconditionsthedescriptionofalaterage,whenChristianityhadhadtimetobecomeformaland
secularized,andmoraldegeneracywascoveredbyintellectualorthodoxy.Theaddressissupposedtobealiterarydevice,theChurchbeingthetrueIsraelofGod,
ortohaveinviewscatteredEsseneconventicles.ItissaidthattheabsenceofChristiandoctrineshowsthattheEpistlewasnotwrittenwhenitwasintheprocessof
formation,butatanaltogetherlaterperiod.Thisargumentisnotaltogethereasytofollow,and,aswehaveseen,theindications,thoughseparatelyindecisive,yetall
combinetopointtoanearlydate.PerhapsmoremaybesaidfortheviewthattheEpistleincorporatesJewishfragments,e.g.in3:118,4:115:6theapostropheof
therichwhoareoutsidethebrotherhoodisratherstartling.WemayindeedbelievethattheEpistlehasnotyetyieldeditsfullsecret.Itcannotbedeniedthatitomits
muchthatweshouldexpecttofindinaChristiandocumentofhoweverearlyadate,andthatitscloseisveryabrupt.Ofthetheories,however,whichhavesofar
beenadvanced,theviewthatitisaprimitiveChristianwritingatleastpresentsthefewestdifficulties,thoughitstillleavesmuchunexplained.
4.Earlyquotationsandcanonicity.TheEpistlepresentspointsofcontactwithClementofRome,Hermas,andprobablywithIrenns,butisfirstquotedas
ScripturebyOrigen.Eusebius,thoughhequotesithimselfwithoutreserve,mentionsthefactthatfewoldwritershavedoneso(HEii.23),andclassesitamong
thedisputedbooksoftheCanon(iii.25).ItisnotmentionedintheMuratorianFragment,butisincludedinthePeshitta(theSyriacversion),togetherwith1Peter
and1JohnoftheCatholicEpistles.TheevidenceshowsthatitwasacknowledgedintheEastearlierthanintheWest,possiblyasbeingaddressedtotheEastern(?
)Dispersion,thoughitsapparentusebyClem.Rom.andHermassuggeststhatitmayhavebeenwritteninRome.Thescarcityofquotationsfromitandits
comparativeneglectmaybeduetoitsJewishandnondoctrinaltone,aswellastothefactsthatitdidnotclaimtobeApostolicandseemedtocontradictSt.Paul.
OthersbeforeLuthermaywellhavefounditanepistleofstraw.
5.Styleandteaching.Ashasbeensaid,thetoneoftheEpistleislargelyJudaic.InadditiontotheJewishfeaturesalreadypointedout,wemaynoteits
insistenceonrighteousness,anditspraiseofwisdomandpoverty,whicharecharacteristicofJudaismatitsbest.ItsillustrationsaredrawnfromtheOT,anditsstyle
frequentlyrecallsthatofProverbs,andtheProphets,particularlyonitssternerside.Theworldlyareadulteresses(4:4cf.theOTconceptionofIsraelasthebride
ofJehovah,whetherfaithfulorunfaithful),andthewholeEpistleisfullofwarningsanddenunciations54imperativeshavebeencountedintwiceasmanyverses.
Thequotations,however,aremainlyfromtheLXXgreeting(1:1)istheLXXformulafortheHeb.peace,andoccursagaininNTonlyintheletterofAc15:23.
ThepointsofcontactwithourLordsteachinghavebeenalreadynoticedtheEpistlefollowsHimalsoinitsfondnessformetaphorsfromnature(cf.theparables),10/124
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ThepointsofcontactwithourLordsteachinghavebeenalreadynoticedtheEpistlefollowsHimalsoinitsfondnessformetaphorsfromnature(cf.theparables),
andinthepoeticelementwhichappearscontinually1:17isactuallyahexameter,butithasnotbeenrecognizedasaquotation.Thestyleisvividandabrupt,
sometimesobscure,withagreatvarietyofvocabularythereare70wordsnotfoundelsewhereinNT.Thereisnocloseconnexionofideas,orlogicaldevelopment
ofthesubjectawordseemstosuggestthefollowingparagraph(e.g.ch.1).AccordinglyitisuselesstoattemptasummaryoftheEpistle.Itsmainpurposewasto
encourageenduranceunderpersecutionandoppression,togetherwithconsistencyoflifeanditsleadingideasarethedangersofspeech,ofriches,ofstrife,andof
worldliness,andthevalueoftruefaith,prayer,andwisdom.TheEpistleisessentiallypragmatici.e.itinsiststhatthetestofbeliefliesinvalueforconduct.It
doesnot,indeed,ignorethedeepersideithasitstheologywithitsteachingaboutregeneration,faith,andprayer,butthewritersmaininterestliesinethics.The
condition
oftheheathenworldaroundmadeitnecessarytoinsistonthevalueofaconsistentlife.Thatwas
Christianityandneitherdoctrinalnormoralproblems,asoftheoriginofevil,troublehim.TheEpistledoesnotreachtheheightsofaSt.PauloraSt.John,butit
hasitsvalue.Itpresents,sharplyandinemphasis,asideofChristianitywhichisalwaysindangerofbeingforgotten,andthepracticalmindinparticularwillalways
feeltheforceofitspracticalmessage.
C.W.EMMET.
JAMES,PROTEVANGELIUMOF.SeeGOSPELS[APOCRYPHAL],5.
JAMIN.1.AsonofSimeon(Gn46:10,Ex6:15,Nu26:12,1Ch4:24).ThegentilicnameJaminitesoccursinNu26:12.2.AJudahite(1Ch2:27).3.Apriest
(?orLevite)whotookpartinthepromulgatingoftheLaw(Neh8:7in1Es9:48Iadinus).
JAMLECH.ASimeonitechief(1Ch4:34).
JAMNIA(1Mac4:15,5:58,10:69,15:40,2Mac12:8,9,40).ThelaternameofJabneel(wh.see).ThegentilicnameJamnitesoccursin2Mac12:9.
JANAI.AGaditechief(1Ch5:12).
JANGLING.Jangling,saysChaucerintheParsonsTale,iswhanmanspekethtomochebeforefolk,andclappethasamille,andtakethnokepewhathe
seith.Thewordisusedin1Ti1:6vainjangling(RVvaintalking)andintheheadingof1Ti6toavoidprofanejanglings,whereitstandsforbabblingsin
thetext(1Ti6:20).
JANIM.AtowninthemountainsofHebron,nearBethtappuah(Jos15:53).Thesiteisuncertain.
JANNAI.AnancestorofJesus(Lk3:24).
JANNESANDJAMBRES.In2Ti3:8thesenamesaregivenasthoseofMosesopponentstheEgyptianmagiciansofEx7:11,22aredoubtlessreferredto,
thoughtheirnamesarenotgiveninOT.Theyaretraditional,andwefindthemintheTargumicliterature(which,however,islate).Boththereandin2Ti3:8we
findthevariousreadingMambres(orMamre).JannesisprobablyacorruptionofJohannes(John)JambresisalmostcertainlyderivedfromaSemiticroot
meaningtooppose(imperfecttense),theparticipleofwhichwouldgiveMambres.Thenameswereevenknowntothebeathen.PlinytheElder(A.D.2379)
mentionsMoses,Jamnes(orJannes),andJotapes(orLotapes)asJewishmagicians(Hist.Nat.
XXX.1ff.)thusJannes,atleast,musthavebeenatraditionalnamebeforetheChristianera.
Apuleins(c.A.D.130)inhisApologyspeaksofMosesandJannesasmagiciansthePythagorean
Numenius(2ndcent.A.D.),accordingtoOrigen(c.Cels.iv.51),relatedtheaccountrespectingMosesandJannesandJambres,andEusebiusgivesthewordsof
Numenius(Prp.Ev.ix.8).InhisCommentaryonMt27:8(knownonlyinaLatintranslation),OrigensaysthatSt.PaulisquotingfromabookcalledJannesand
Mambres(sic).ButTheodoret(Com.inloc.)declaresthatheismerelyusingtheunwrittenteachingoftheJews.JannesandJambresarealsoreferredtointhe
ApocryphalGospelofNicodemus5(4thor5thcent.initspresentform?),andintheApostolicConstitutions,viii.1(c.A.D.375).LaterJewishfancyranwildon
thesenamesaccordingtosometheywereBalaamssonsaccordingtootherstheyweredrownedintheRedSeaortheywereputtodeath,eitherforincitingAaron
tomaketheGoldenCalforatalaterstageofthehistory.
A.J.MACLEAN.
JANOAH.1.AtowninthenorthernmountainsofNaphtali,nearKedesh(2K15:29).ItisprobablythemodernYanh.2.AplaceontheborderofEphraim11/124
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JANOAH.1.AtowninthenorthernmountainsofNaphtali,nearKedesh(2K15:29).ItisprobablythemodernYanh.2.AplaceontheborderofEphraim
(Jos16:6,7)situatedwherethepresentYnnnowstands,withthesupposedtombofNun.
JAPHETH(Heb.Yepheth).1.OneofthesonsofNoah.Themeaningofthenameisquiteuncertain.InGn9:27thereisaplayonthenameMayGodmake
wide(yapht)forYepheth[i.e.makeroomforhim],thathemaydwellinthetentsofShem.Thepeoplesconnectedwith
Japheth(10:14)occupythenorthernportionoftheknownworld,andincludetheMadai
(Medes)ontheE.ofAssyria,Javan(Ionians,i.e.Greeks)ontheW.coastandislandsofAsiaMinor,andTarshish(Tartessus)ontheW.coastofSpain.Onthetwo
traditionsrespectingthesonsofNoahseeHAM.2.AnunknownlocalitymentionedinJth2:25.
A.H.MNEILE.
JAPHIA.1.KingofLachish,defeatedandslainbyJoshua(Jos10:3ff.).2.OneofDavidssonsbornatJerusalem(2S5:14b16,1Ch3:58,14:47).3.A
townonthesouthborderofZebulun(Jos19:12)probablythemodernYf,nearthefootoftheNazarethhills.
JAPHLET.AnAsheritefamily(1Ch7:32f.).
JAPHLETITES.ThenameofanunidentifiedtribementionedinstatingtheboundariesofthechildrenofJoseph(Jos16:3).
JARAH.AdescendantofSaul,1Ch9:42.In8:36heiscalledJehoaddah.
JAREB.ItisnotsafetopronouncedogmaticallyonthetextandmeaningofHos5:13,10:6.Butourchoiceliesbetweentwoalternatives.Ifweadheretothe
currenttext,wemustregardJareb(orJarb)asasobriquetcoinedbyHoseatoindicatetheloveofconflictwhichcharacterizedtheAssyrianking.ThusKingJarib
=KingWarrior,KingStriver,KingCombat,orthelikeandtheeventsreferredtoarethoseof B.C.738(see2K15:19).Mostoftheancientversionssupport
this,as,e.g.,LXXKingJareimSymm.andVulg.KingAvenger.IfwedividetheHebrewconsonantsdifferently,Wegetthegreatking,correspondingtothe
Assyr.sharrurabbu(cf.2K18:19,28,Is36:4).Ithasevenbeenthoughtthatthissignificationmaybeacceptedwithoutanytextualchange.Inanycaselinguistic
andhistoricalevidenceisagainsttheideathatJarebisthepropernameofanAssyrianoranEgyptianmonarch.Other,lessprobable,emendationsarekingof
Arabia,kingofJathriborofAribi(bothinN.Arabia).
J.TAYLOR.
JARED.ThefatherofEnoch(Gn5:15,16,18,19,20,1Ch1:2,Lk3:37).
JARHA.AnEgyptianslavewhomarriedthedaughterofhismasterSheshan(1Ch2:34f.).
JARIB.1.TheeponymofaSimeonitefamily(1Ch4:24=JachinofGn46:10,Ex6:15,
Nu26:12).2.OneofthechiefmenwhoweresentbyEzratoCasiphiainsearchofLevites(Ezr8:16)calledin1Es8:44Joribus.3.Apriestwhohadmarrieda
foreignwife(Ezr10:18)calledin1Es9:19Joribus.
JARIMOTH(1Es9:28)=Ezr10:27Jeremoth.
JARMUTH.1.AroyalcityoftheCanaanites(Jos10:3etc.),intheShephlab,assignedtoJudah(Jos15:35).ItisprobablyidenticalwithJermuchaofthe
Onomasticon,10RomanmilesfromElentheropolis,ontheJerusalemroad.ThisisnowKhirbetYarmk,betweenWdyesSarrandWdyesSant,about8milesN.
ofBeitJibrn.2.AcityinIssachar,allottedtothe
GershoniteLevites(Jos21:29,LXXBRemmath).ItcorrespondstoRamothin1Ch6:73,andRemethappearsinJos19:21amongthecitiesofIssachar.Guthe
suggestserRmeh,about11milesS.W.ofJenn,butthisisuncertain.
W.EWING.
JAROAH.AGaditechief(1Ch5:14).
JASAELUS(1Es9:30)=Ezr10:29Sheal.
JASHAR,BOOKOF(spherhayshr,BookoftheRighteousOne).Anancientbookofnationalsongs,whichmostlikelycontainedbothreligiousand 12/124
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JASHAR,BOOKOF(spherhayshr,BookoftheRighteousOne).Anancientbookofnationalsongs,whichmostlikelycontainedbothreligiousand
secularsongsdescribinggreateventsinthehistoryofthenation.IntheOTtherearetwoquotationsfromthisbook(a)Jos10:12,13theoriginalformmusthave
beenapoeticaldescriptionofthebattleofGibeon,inwhichwouldhavebeenincludedtheoldworldaccountofJahwehcastingdowngreatstonesfromheaven
uponIsraelsenemies.(b)2S1:1927inthiscasethequotationisamuchlongerone,consistingofDavidslamentationoverSaulandJonathan.Ineachcasethe
BookofJasharisreferredtoaswellknownonemightexpect,therefore,thatotherquotationsfromitwouldbefoundintheOT,andperhapsthisisactuallythecase
with,e.g.,theSongofDeborah(Jg5)andsomeotherancientpieces,whichoriginallymayhavehadareferencetotheirsourceinthetitle(e.g.1K8:12f.).
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
JASHEN.ThesonsofJashenarementionedinthelistofDavidsheroesgivenin2S23:32.Intheparallellist(1Ch11:34)theyappearasthesonsof
Hashem,whoisfurtherdescribedastheGizonite(wh.see).
JASHOBEAM.OneofDavidsmightymen(1Ch11:11,12:6,27:2).ThereisreasontobelievethathisrealnamewasIshbosheth,i.e.Eshbaal (man of
Baal).Cf.ADINOandJOSHEBBASSHEBETH.
JASHUB.1.Issacharsfourthson(Nu26:24,1Ch7:1calledinGn46:13Iobpatron.Jashubites(Nu26:24).2.Areturnedexilewhomarriedaforeigner
(Ezr10:29)calledin1Es9:30Jasubus.
JASHUBILEHEM.TheeponymofaJudahitefamily(1Ch4:22).Thetextismanifestlycorrupt.
JASON.ThisGreeknamewasadoptedbymanyJewswhoseHebrewdesignationwas
Joshua(Jesus).1.ThesonofEleazardeputedtomakeatreatywiththeRomans,andfatherof
Antipaterwhowaslatersentonasimilarerrand,unlesstwodifferentpersonsaremeant(1Mac8:17,12:16,14:22).2.JasonofCyrene,anauthor,ofwhosehistory
2Mac.(see2:23,26)isanepitome(writtenafterB.C.160).3.Joshuathehighpriest,whooustedhisbrotherOniasIII.fromtheofficeinB.C.174(2Mac4:7ff.),but
washimselfdrivenoutthreeyearslater,anddiedamongtheLacedmoniansatSparta(2Mac5:9f.).4.InAc17:6ff.aJasonwasSt.PaulshostatThessalonica,
fromwhomthepolitarchstookbailforhisgoodbehaviour,thus(asitseems)preventingSt.PaulsreturntoMacedoniaforalongtime(seeart.P AULTHEAPOSTLE,
8).TheJasonwhosendsgreetingsfromCorinthinRo16:21,akinsmanofSt.Paul(i.e.aJew),isprobablythesameman.
A.J.MACLEAN.
JASPER.SeeJEWELSANDP RECIOUSS TONES,p.467a.

JASUBUS(1Es9:30)=Ezr10:29Jashub.
JATHAN.SonofShemaiahthegreat,andbrotherofAnaniasthepretendedfatherofRaphael(To5:13).
JATHNIEL.ALeviticalfamily(1Ch26:2).
JATTIR.AtownofJudahinthesouthernmountains,aLeviticalcity(Jos15:48,21:14,1Ch6:42).ItwasoneofthecitiestowhoseeldersDavidsentofthe
spoilfromZiklag(1S30:27).ItssiteistheruinAttr,N.E.ofBeersheba,onahillspurclosetothesoutherndesert.
JAVAN,theHeb.renderingoftheGr.Ian,Ionian,isageneraltermintheBibleforIoniansorGreeksverysimilarformsofthenameoccurintheAssyrian
andEgyptianinscriptions.InthegenealogicaltableinGn(10:2,4)and1Ch(1:5,7)JavanisdescribedasasonofJaphethandthefatherofElishah,Tarshish,
Kittim,andDodanim(orbetter,Rodanim,i.e.Rhodes)fromthereferencetoKittim(Kition)ashisson,itispossiblethatthepassagerefersparticularlytoCyprus.
InIs66:19JavanisincludedamongthedistantcountriesthatwillhearofJahwehsgloryinJl3:6thesonsoftheJavanitesarereferredtoastradinginJewish
captiveswiththePhniciansandPhilistinesinEzk27:13Javan,withTubalandMeshech,isdescribedastradingwithTyreinslavesandvesselsofbrass.Inall
threepassagesthereferencesaretotheIoniancoloniesonthecoastofAsiaMinor.InEzk27:19Javanappearsasecondtimeamongthenationsthattradedwith
TyreclearlytheIoniansarenotintended,and,unlessthetextiscorrupt(asisveryprobable),thereferencemaybetoanArabtribe,orperhapstoaGreekcolonyin
Arabia.InDn8:21,10:20,11:2,wheretheking,theprince,andthekingdomofJavanarementioned,thepassageshavereferencetotheGrcoMacedonian
empire.
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L.W.KING.
JAVELIN.SeeARMOUR,ARMS,1(b).
JAZER.AnAmoritetownN.ofHeshbon,takenbyIsrael(Nu21:32),allottedtoGad(Jos
13:25etc.),andfortifiedbyit(Nu32:35).Itlayinadistrictrichinvines(Is16:8etc.,Jer48:32).
ItisprobablyrepresentedbyKhirbetSr,about7milesW.ofAmmn,amileE.ofWdySr.
JudasMaccabustookthecity,whichwastheninthehandsoftheAmmonites(1Mac5:9Jos.Ant.XII.viii.1).
W.EWING.
JAZIZ.AHagritewhowasovertheflocksofkingDavid(1Ch27:31).
JEALOUSY.Thelawofthejealousyordeal(inwhichawifesuspectedofunfaithfulnesshadtoproveherinnocencebydrinkingthewaterofbitterness
[holywatermixedwithdustfromtheflooroftheTabernacle])isfoundinNu5:1131.TheconceptionofidolatryasadulteryandofJehovahastheHusbandof
IsraelledtheOTwritersfrequentlytospeakofHimasajealousGod(Ex20:5,Dt5:9,Jos24:19,1K14:22,Ps78:58,Ezk36:6,Nah1:2).Thisjealousyisthe
indicationofJehovahsdesiretomaintainthepurityofthespiritualrelationbetweenHimselfandHispeople.Extraordinaryzealforthissameendischaracteristicof
theservantsofJehovah,andissometimescalledjealousywiththem(2Co11:2,Nu25:11,13,1K19:10).Afewtimesthewordisusedinabadsense(Ro13:13,1
Co3:3,2Co12:20,Gal5:20,Ja3:14,
16).
D.A.HAYES.
JEARIM,MOUNT.MentionedonlyinJos15:10,whereitisidentifiedwithChesalon(wh.see).
JEATHERAI.AnancestorofAsaph(1Ch6:21)calledinv.41Ethni.
JEBERECHIAH.ThefatherofZechariah,afriendofIsaiah(Is8:2).
JEBUS,JEBUSITES.TheformerisanamegiventoJerusalembyJinJg19:11andimitatedbytheChronicler(1Ch11:4)thelatteristhetribewhich
inhabitedJerusalemfrombeforetheIsraelitishconquesttillthereignofDavid.ItwasformerlysupposedthatJebuswastheoriginalnameofJerusalem,butthe
lettersofAbdiKhibaamongtheelAmarnatabletsprovethatthecitywascalledJerusalem(Urusalim)aboutB.C.1400.NotraceofJebusitesappearsthen.When
theygainedpossessionofitwedonotknow.JstatesthatatthetimeoftheIsraeliteconquestthekingofJerusalemwasAdonizedek(Jos10:3),andthatthe
IsraelitesdidnotexpeltheJebusitesfromthecity(Jos15:63,Jg1:21).DuringthetimeoftheJudgeshetellsusthatitwasinpossessionoftheJebusites(Jg19:11),
andgivesabriefaccountofitscapturebyDavid(2S5:68).EmentionstheJebusitesonlyonce(Nu13:29),andthenonlytosaythat,liketheHittiteandAmorite,
theyinhabitthemountain.ThefavouritelistofPalestiniannationswhichDandhisfollowersinsertsooftenusuallyendswithJebusite,butaddsnothingtotheir
history.Pmentionsthemonce(Jos15:8).TheyarementionedinNeh9:8andEzr9:1inlistsbasedonD,whileZec9:7forarchaiceffectcallsdwellersinJerusalem
Jebusite(soWellhausen,Nowack,andMarti).Thenameoftheking,Adonizedek,wouldindicatethattheJebusiteswereSemitic,probablyrelatedtothe
Canaanitetribes.
Davidcapturedtheircityanddweltinit,anditwassubsequentlycalledthecityofDavid.Fromreferencestothis(cf.JERUSALEM)itisclearthattheJebusite
citywassituatedonthesouthernpartoftheeasternhillofpresentJerusalem,andthatthathillwascalledZion.ItssituationwassupposedbytheJebusitestorender
thecityimpregnable(2S5:6).
OneotherJebusitebesidesAdonizedek,namely,Araunah,ismentionedbyname.The
Templeissaidtohavebeenerectedonathreshingfloorpurchasedfromhim(cf.2S24:1624,2Ch3:1).ItwouldseemfromthisnarrativethattheJebusiteswere
notexterminatedorexpelled,butremainedinJerusalem,andweregraduallyabsorbedbytheIsraelites.
GEORGEA.BARTON.
JECHILIAH(In2K15:2Jecoliah).ThemotherofkingUzziah(2Ch26:3).
JECHONIAH.SeeJEHOIACHIN.
JECHONIAS.1.TheGr.formofthenameofkingJeconiah,employedbytheEnglishtranslatorsinthebooksrenderedfromtheGreek(Ad.Est11:4,Bar
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JECHONIAS.1.TheGr.formofthenameofkingJeconiah,employedbytheEnglishtranslatorsinthebooksrenderedfromtheGreek(Ad.Est11:4,Bar
1:3,9)calledinMt1:11f.Jechoniah.2.1Es8:92=Ezr10:2Shecaniah.
JECOLIAH.SeeJECHILIAH.
JECONIAH.SeeJEHOIACHIN.
JECONIAS.1.OneofthecaptainsoverthousandsinthetimeofJosiah(1Es1:9)calledin2Ch35:9Conaniah.2.SeeJEHOAHAZ,2.
JEDAIAH.1.Apriestlyfamily(1Ch9:10,24:7,Ezr2:36[in1Es5:24Jeddu],Neh7:39,11:10,12:6,7,19,21).2.Oneoftheexilessentwithgiftsofgold
andsilverforthesanctuaryatJerusalem(Zec6:10,14).3.ASimeonitechief(1Ch4:37).4.OneofthosewhorepairedthewallofJerusalem(Neh3:10).
JEDDU(1Es5:24)=Ezr2:36Jedaiah.
JEDEUS(1Es9:30)=Ezr10:29Adaiah.
JEDIAEL.1.TheeponymofaBenjamitefamily(1Ch7:6,10,11).2.OneofDavidsheroes(1Ch11:45),probablyidenticalwiththeManassiteof12:20.3.
TheeponymofafamilyofKorahiteporters(1Ch26:2).
JEDIDAH.MotherofJosiah(2K22:1).
JEDIDIAH(belovedofJ).ThenamegiventoSolomonbytheprophetNathan(2S12:25)fortheLORDSsake.SeeS OLOMON.
JEDUTHUN.AnunintelligiblenamehavingtodowiththemusicorthemusiciansoftheTemple.Accordingto1Ch25:1etc.,itwasthenameofoneofthe
threemusicalguilds,anditappearsinsomepassagestomaskthenameEthan.Jeduthun(Jedithun)occursintheheadingsofPss39,62,77,andappearstoreferto
aninstrumentortoatune.ButinourignoranceofHebrewmusicitisimpossibletodomorethanguesswhatJeduthunreallymeant.
W.F.COBB.
JEELI(1Es5:33)=Ezr2:56Jaalah,Neh7:58Jaala.
JEELUS(1Es8:92)=Ezr10:2Jehiel.
JEGARSAHADUTHA(cairnofwitness).ThenamesaidtohavebeengivenbyLabantothecairnerectedontheoccasionofthecompactbetweenhimand
Jacob(Gn31:47).
JEHALLELEL.1.AJudahite(1Ch4:16).2.ALevite(2Ch29:12).
JEHDEIAH.1.TheeponymofaLeviticalfamily(1Ch24:20).2.AnofficerofDavid(1Ch27:30).
JEHEZKEL(Godstrengtheneth,thesamenameasEzekiel).Apriest,theheadofthetwentiethcourse,1Ch24:18.
JEHIAH.ThenameofaLeviticalfamily(1Ch15:24).
JEHIEL.1.OneofDavidschiefmusicians(1Ch15:18,20,16:5).2.AchiefoftheLevites(1Ch23:8,29:8).3.Onewhowaswith(=tutorof?)thekings
sons(1Ch27:32).4.OneofJehoshaphatssons(2Ch21:2).5.OneofHezekiahsoverseers(2Ch31:13).6.ArulerofthehouseofGodinJosiahsreign(2Ch
35:8).7.ThefatherofObadiah,areturnedexile(Ezr8:9)calledin1Es8:35Jezelus.8.FatherofShecaniah(Ezr10:2)calledin1Es8:92Jeelus,perhaps
identicalwith9.Oneofthosewhohadmarriedforeignwives(Ezr10:26)calledin1Es9:27Jezrielus.10.ApriestofthesonsofHarimwhohadmarriedaforeign
wife(Ezr10:21)calledin1Es9:21Hiereel.
JEHIELI.ApatronymicfromJehielNo.2(1Ch26:21,22cf.23:8,29:8).
JEHIZKIAH.AnEphraimitewhosupportedtheprophetOdedinopposingthebringingofJudancaptivestoSamaria(2Ch28:12ff.).
JEHOADDAH.AdescendantofSaul(1Ch8:36)calledin9:42Jarah.
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JEHOADDAH.AdescendantofSaul(1Ch8:36)calledin9:42Jarah.
JEHOADDAN(2Ch25:1and,asvocalized,2K14:2.Theconsonantsofthetextin2K14:2givetheformJehoaddin[soRV]).MotherofAmaziahkingof
Judah.
JEHOAHAZ
1.JehoahazofIsrael(in2K14:1and2Ch34:8,36:2,4Joahaz)succeededhisfatherJehu.Ourrecordstellusnothingofhimexceptthelengthofhisreign,
whichisgivenasseventeenyears(2K13:1),andthelowestateofhiskingdom,owingtotheaggressionsofSyria.Aturnforthebetterseemstohavecomebefore
hisdeath,becausetheforcesofAssyriapressingonthenorthofDamascusturnedtheattentionofthatcountryawayfromIsrael(vv.35).
2.JehoahazofJudah(in1Es1:34JoachazorJeconiasinv.38Zarakes)wasthepopularchoiceforthethroneafterthedeathofJosiah(2K23:30).But
Pharaohnecho,whohadobtainedpossessionofallSyria,regardedhiscoronationasanactofassumption,deposedhiminfavourofhisbrotherJehoiakim,and
carriedhimawaytoEgypt,wherehedied(v.34).Jeremiah,whocallshimShallum,findshisfatesadderthanthatofhisfatherwhofellinbattle(Jer22:1012).
3.2Ch21:17,25:23=Ahaziah,No.2.
H.P.S MITH.
JEHOASH,intheshorterformJOASH,isthenameofakingineachofthetwolines,IsraelandJudah.
1.JehoashofJudahwasthesonofAhaziah.Whenaninfanthisbrothersandcousinsweremassacred,someofthembyJehuandsomebyAthaliah.After
beingkeptinconcealmentuntilhewassevenyearsold,hewascrownedbythebodyguardundertheactiveleadershipofJehoiada,thechiefpriest.Inhisearlier
yearshewasundertheinfluenceofthemantowhomheowedthethrone,butlaterbemanifestedhisindependence.Besidesanarrangementwhichhemadewith
thepriestsaboutcertainmoneyswhichcameintotheirhands,therecordtellsusonlythataninvasionoftheSyrianscompelledhimtopayaheavytribute.Thiswas
drawnfromtheTempletreasury.Jehoashwasassassinatedbysomeofhisofficers(2K11f.).
2.JehoashofIsraelwasthethirdkingofthelineofJehu.TheturnofthetideintheaffairsofIsraelcameaboutthetimeofhisaccession.Thewayinwhich
theBiblicalauthorindicatesthisischaracteristic.HetellsusthatwhenElishawasabouttodieJehoashcametovisithim,andweptoverhimasagreatpowerabout
tobelosttoIsrael.ElishabadehimtakebowandarrowsandshootthearrowofvictorytowardsDamascus,thentostrikethegroundwiththearrows.Thethree
blowswhichhestruckrepresentthethreevictoriesobtainedbyJehoash,andtheblameexpressedbyElishaindicatesthathiscontemporariesthoughtthekingslack
infollowinguphisadvantage.JehoashalsoobtainedasignalvictoryoverJudahinawarwantonlyprovoked,itwouldseem,byAmaziah,kingofJudah(2K13:10
ff.).
H.P.S MITH.
JEHOHANAN.1.1Ch26:3aKorahitedoorkeeper.2.2Ch17:15oneofJehoshaphatsfivecaptains.3.Ezr10:6(Jonas,1Es9:1Johanan,Neh12:22,23
Jonathan,Neh12:11)highpriest.HeiscalledsonofEliashibinEzr10:6,Neh12:23,butwasprobablyhisgrandson,Joiadabeinghisfather(Neh12:11,22).4.
Ezr10:28(=Joannes,1Es9:29),oneofthosewhohadtakenstrangewives.5.Neh6:18sonofTobiahtheAmmonite.6.Neh12:13apriestinthedaysof
Joiakim.7.Neh12:42apriestpresentatthededicationofthewalls.
JEHOIACHIN,kingofJudah,ascendedthethronewhenNebuchadrezzarwasonthemarchtopunishtherebellionofJehoiakim.Ontheapproachofthe
Chaldanarmy,theyoungkingsurrenderedandwascarriedawaytoBabylon(2K24:8ff.).Hisreignhadlastedonlythreemonths,buthisconfinementinBabylon
extendeduntilthedeathofNebuchadrezzarthirtysevenyears.Ezekiel,whoseemstohaveregardedhimastherightfulkingofJudahevenincaptivity,
pronouncedadirgeoverhim(19:1ff.).AttheaccessionofEvilmerodachhewasfreedfromdurance,andreceivedadailyallowancefromthepalace(2K25:27f.).
Jeremiahgiveshisnamein24:1,27:20,28:4,29:2asJeconiah,andin22:24,28,37:1asConiah.In1Es1:43heiscalledJoakim,inBar1:3,9Jechonias,andin
Mt1:11,12Jechoniah.
H.P.S MITH.
JEHOIADA.1.FatherofBenaiah,thesuccessorofJoab,2S8:18,20:23etc.Itisprobablythesamemanthatisreferredtoin1Ch12:27,27:34,wherewe
shouldprobablyreadBenaiahthesonofJehoiada.2.ThechiefpriestoftheTempleatthetimeofAhaziahsdeath(2
K11:4etc.).TheBookofChroniclesmakeshimthehusbandoftheprincessJehosheba(orJehoshabeath,2Ch22:11),bywhosepresenceofmindtheinfant
princeJehoashescapedthemassacrebywhichAthaliahsecuredthethroneforherself.Jehoiadamusthavebeenprivytotheconcealmentoftheprince,anditwas
hewhoarrangedthecoupdtatwhichplacedtherightfulheironthethrone.InthishemayhavebeenmovedbyadesiretosaveJudahfromvassalagetoIsrael,as
muchasbyzealforthelegitimateworship.
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H.P.S MITH.
JEHOIAKIM,whoseoriginalnamewasEliakim,wasplaceduponthethroneofJudahbyPharaohnecho,whodeposedthemorepopularJehoabaz.Hisreign
ofelevenyearsisnotwellspokenofbyJeremiah.ThereligiousabuseswhichhadbeenabolishedbyJosiahseemtohavereturnedwithgreaterstrengththanever.
AtatimewhenthekingdomwasimpoverishedbywarandbytheexactionsofEgypt,Jehoiakimoccupiedhimselfinextravagantschemesofbuildingtobecarried
outbyforcedlabour(2K23:2424:7).ThingsweresohadthatinthefourthyearofhisreignJeremiahdictatedtoBaruchasummaryofallhisearlierdiscourses,
andbadehimreaditinpublicasthoughtoindicatethattherewasnolongeranyhope.Thekingshowedhiscontemptforthepropheticwordbyburningtheroll.
Activepersecutionofthepropheticpartyfollowed,inwhichonemanatleastwasputtodeath.Jeremiahsescapewasduetopowerfulfriendsatcourt(Jer22:13
19,36:126,26:2024).ItwasaboutthetimeoftheburningoftheBookofJeremiahthattheEgyptiansupremacywasendedbythedecisivebattleofCarchemish.
TheevacuationofPalestinefollowed,andJehoiakimwasobligedtosubmittotheBabylonians.Hisheart,however,waswiththePharaoh,towhomheowedhis
elevation.AfterthreeyearsherevoltedfromtheBabylonianrule.Nebuchadrezzarthoughttobringhimintosubjectionbysendingguerillabandstoharrythe
country,butasthisdidnotsucceed,heinvadedJudahwithanarmyofregulars.BeforehereachedJerusalem,Jehoiakimdied,andthesurrenderwhichwas
inevitable,wasmadebyhisson.WhetherJeremiahspredictionthatthecorpseofthekingshouldbedenieddecentburialwasfulfilledisnotcertain.
H.P.S MITH.
JEHOIARIB(1Ch9:10,24:7,elsewhereJoiaribcalledin1Mac2:1Joarib).ThenameofoneofthetwentyfourcoursesofpriestsfirstinDavidstime(1
Ch24:7),butseventeenthinthetimeofZerub.(Neh12:6)andofthehighpriestJoiakim(12:19).Thenameisomitted,probablybyaccident,inthelistofthepriests
thatsealedtothecovenant(Neh10).TheclanismentionedamongthosethatdweltinJerusaleminthetimeofNehemiah(11:10).
JEHONADABorJONADAB.1.SonofShimeah,Davidsbrother,andthefriendofAmnonthesonofDavid.Heisdescribedasaverysubtilman.He
aidedAmnontocarryouthisintrigueagainsthishalfsisterTamar(2S13:3ff.),andaftertheassassinationofAmnonwasthefirsttograspthetruestateofaffairs,
andtoallaythekingsdistressbyhispromptreportofthesafetyoftheroyalprinces(2S13:30ff.).2.SonofRechab,oftheclanoftheKenites(1Ch2:55),and
formulatoroftherulesimposedupondescendants,theRechabites(Jer35see
RECHABITES).JehonadabwasthoroughlyinsympathywiththemeasuresadoptedbyJehuforthevindicationofthereligionofJ(2K10:15,23).
JEHONATHAN.AmoreexactrenderingofthenameusuallyrepresentedinEnglishasJonathan.InRVthisformoccurstwice.1.2Ch17:8oneofthe
LevitessentoutbyJehoshaphatwiththeBookoftheLawtoteachthepeopleinthecitiesofJudah.2.Neh12:18theheadofthepriestlyfamilyofShemaiahinthe
daysofJoiakimthesonofJeshua.
JEHORAM,intheshorterformJORAM,isthenameoftwokingsintheOT.
1.JehoramofIsraelwasasonofAhab(2K3:1),andcametothethroneafterthebriefreignofhisbrotherAhaziah.Thefirstthingthatclaimedhisattention
wastherevoltofMoab.Thisheendeavouredtosuppress,andwiththeaidofJehoshaphatofJudahheobtainedsomesuccesses.Butatthecrisisoftheconflictthe
kingofMoabsacrificedhissontohisgodChemosh.Theresultwasthattheinvadingarmywasdiscouraged,andthealliesretreatedwithouthavingaccomplished
theirpurpose(2K3:4ff.).ItisprobablethattheMoabitesassumedtheoffensive,andtooktheIsraelitecitiesofwhosecaptureMeshaboasts.TheprophetElisha
wasactiveduringthereignofJehoram,anditisprobablethatthesiegeofSamaria,ofwhichwehavesographicanaccountin2K6and7,alsobelongstothis
period.JehoramengagedinthesiegeofRamothgilead,andwaswoundedthere.ThesequelintherevoltofJehuiswellknown.SeeJEHU.
2.JehoramofJudah,sonofJehoshaphat,cametothethroneduringthereignoftheotherJehoraminIsrael.HewasmarriedtoAthaliah,daughterofAhab
andJezebel.AllthatthehistorytellsusisthathewalkedinthewaysofthekingsofIsrael,andthatEdomrevoltedsuccessfullyfromJudahinhistime.In
endeavouringtosubduethisrevoltJehoramwasingreatdanger,butwithafewofhismenhecuthiswaythroughthetroopsthatsurroundedhim(2K8:1624).
3.ApriestsentbyJehoshaphattoteachtheLaw(2Ch17:8).
H.P.S MITH.
JEHOSHABEATH.SeeJEHOSHEBA.
JEHOSHAPHAT.1.TherecorderinthereignsofDavidandSolomon(2S8:16etc.,1K4:3).2.OneofSolomonscommissariatofficers(1K4:17).3.
FatherofkingJehu(2K9:2,
14).4.ThesonofAsa,kingofJudah.HereceivesagoodnamefromthecompileroftheBookofKings(1K22:43).Thisischieflybecausehecarriedoutthe
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14).4.ThesonofAsa,kingofJudah.HereceivesagoodnamefromthecompileroftheBookofKings(1K22:43).Thisischieflybecausehecarriedoutthe
religiousreformsofhisfather.TheimportantthinginhisreignwastheallianceofJudahwithIsrael(v.44),whichputanendto
theirlonghostility.Somesupposethesmallerkingdomtohavebeentributarytothelarger,butonthispointoursourcesaresilent.Thealliancewascementedbythe
marriageofthecrownprinceJehoramtoAhabsdaughterAthaliah(2K8:18).JehoshaphatappearsastheallyofAhabagainstSyria,andhimselfwentintothe
battleofRamothgilead(1K22).HealsoassistedAhabssonagainsttheMoabites(2K3).HeseemstohavehadtroublewithhisownvassalsinEdom,andhis
attempttorenewSolomonscommercialventuresontheRedSeawasunsuccessful(1K22:48).
H.P.S MITH.
JEHOSHAPHAT,VALLEYOF(Jl3:2,12).ThedeepvalleytotheE.ofJerusalem,betweenthecityandtheMt.ofOlives,hassincethe4thcent.A.D.been
identifiedbyanunbrokenChristiantraditionwiththeValleyofJehoshaphat.MoslemsandJewshavealsoforcenturieslookeduponthisvalleyasthesceneofthe
LastJudgment.TheJewsespeciallyconsiderthisofallplacesonearththemostsuitableforburial,asitistaughtthatallbodiesburiedelsewheremustfindtheirway
thitheratthelastday.Thevalleywastheordinaryplaceforgravesinpreexilictimes(2K23:6etc.).Inspite,however,ofthesetraditions,itisquiteprobablethat
thenameofthisvalleywasatonetimeWadyShaft,fromtheneighbouringvillageofShaft,andthatthissuggestedtoearlyChristianpilgrims,insearchofsites,
theBiblicalnameJehoshaphat.ThesocalledTombofJehoshaphat,whichliesnearthetraditionalTombofAbsalom,isanimpossiblesite,forin1K22:50and
2Ch21:1itisstatedthathewasburiedinthecityofDavid.Thevalley,moreover,doesnotsuittheconditions,inthatitisanachal(wady)thenachalKidron
(wh.see),whereastheValleyofJehoshaphatwasinHeb.anmeq(awide,openvalley).Ithasbeensuggestedthatthevalley(meq)ofBeracah,where
Jehoshaphatreturnedthanksafterhisgreatvictory(2Ch20:26),maybetheplacereferredtobyJoel.Itis,however,atleastasprobablethattheprophetdidnot
refertoanyspeciallocalityandgavethenameJehoshaphat,i.e.Jehovahjudges,toanidealspot.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
JEHOSHEBA(2K11:2Jehoshabeathin2Ch22:11).DaughterofJehoramofJudah.OnthedeathofherhalfbrotherAhaziah,shewasinstrumentalin
preservingtheDavidicstock,byconcealingtheinfantJehoashinalumberroomofthepalace(RVm).AccordingtotheChronicler,shewaswifeofJehoiada.
JEHOVAHSeeGod,2(f).
JEHOVAHJIREH.ThenamegivenbyAbraham(Gn22:14)tothespotwhereheofferedaraminplaceofhisson.ThenamemeansJehovahsees,and
probablyalso(withreferencetoGn22:8)Jehovahprovides.Theproverbconnectedinv.14withthenameclearlyrelatestotheTemplehill,themountofthe
Lord.Butitisnoteasytoseetheexactconnexionbetweenthenameandtheproverb.ThemostobvioustranslationisinthemountofJehovahoneappears
(referringtothefestalpilgrimagestoJerusalem),butinthatcasetheconnexioncanbeonlyverbal.Otherpossibletranslationsare:(1)InthemountofJehovahitis
seen,i.e.providedthisisapossibletranslationinthecontextbutitappearstobesuggestedthattheproverbhadanexistenceindependentlyofthetraditionof
Abrahamssacrificeinwhichcasethemeaningassignedtotheverbisnotanaturalorobviousone.(2)InthemountofJehovah,Jehovahisseen.The
significanceofthephrasewouldthenbethat,asJehovahseestheneedsofthosewhocometoworshipHim,soasapracticalresultHeisseenbythemasahelper.
Othertranslationshavebeensuggestedwhichdonot,however,alterthegeneralsense.Driverdecidesthat,unlesstheconnexionberegardedaspurelyverbal,the
lastsuggestionquotedaboveseemsthemostsatisfactory.Inanycase,thepointliesintherelationbetweenthenamewhichAbrahamgavetotheplaceofhis
sacrificeandsomepopularproverbdealingwiththeTempleatJerusalem.
A.W.F.BLUNT.
JEHOVAHNISSI(Jismybanner).ThenamegivenbyMosestothealtarheerectedafterthedefeatofAmalek,Ex17:15(E).Godisconsideredthecentre
orrallyingpointofthearmyofIsrael,andthenameofGodastheirbattlecry(cf.Ps20:7f.).Theinterpretationofv.16issomewhatdoubtful.Manycriticsreadns
(banner)forks(=kisseh,throne),butthisappearsneithertobenecessarynortoyieldasuitablesense.ThemeaningisprobablyeitherJhathsworn,(EV),or
I(Moses)swear(withhandupliftedtoJsthrone).
JEHOVAHSHALOM.ThenamegivenbyGideontothealtarheerectedinOphrah(Jg
6:24).ThenamemeansJispeace(i.e.welldisposed),inallusiontoJswordsinv.23Peacebeuntothee.
JEHOVAHSHAMMAH(Jisthere).ThenametobegiventotherestoredandglorifiedJerusalem(Ezk48:35cf.Is60:1422,62:2,Rev21:2f.).The
prophetbeheldtheLORDforsakeHistemple(ch.11),andhebeheldHimagainenterit(ch.43)nowHeabidesinitamongHispeopleforever.
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JEHOVAHTSIDKENU(Jisourrighteousness,orJourrighteousness,Jer23:6,
33:16).Inbothpassages(whichareinfactthesameprophecyrepeated)itisthetitleofthe
Branch,theperfectlyRighteousKing,whoistoruleoverthepeopleontheirreturnfromtheCaptivity.
JEHOZABAD.1.OneoftheservantsofkingJoashwhoconspiredagainsthismasterandjoinedinhisassassination(2K12:21=2Ch24:26).2.A
Benjamitechief(2Ch17:18).3.ALeviticalfamily(1Ch26:4).AshortenedformofthenameisJozabad(wh.see).
JEHOZADAK.FatherofJoshuathehighpriest(1Ch6:14,15,Hag1:1,12,14,2:2,4,Zec6:11).ThenameisshortenedtoJozadakinEzr3:2,8,5:2,
10:18,Neh12:26.ItappearsasJosedekin1Es5:5,48,56,6:2,9:19,Sir49:12.
JEHU.1.Aprophet,thesonofHanani(1K16:1etc.).2.AJudahite(1Ch2:38).3.ASimeonite(1Ch4:35).4.OneofDavidsheroes(1Ch12:3).5.Aking
ofIsrael.Liketheotherfoundersofdynastiesinthatcountry,heobtainedthethronebythemurderofhismonarch.ItisevidentthataconsiderablepartyinIsrael
badlongbeendissatisfiedwiththehouseofAhab.Thiswaspartlyonaccountofitsreligiouspolicy,butperhapsevenmoreforitsoppressionofitssubjects,so
emphaticallyillustratedbythestoryofNaboth.TheleaderoftheoppositionwasElijah,andafterhimElisha.Jehu,wheninattendanceuponAhab,hadheard
ElijahsdenunciationofthemurderofNaboth(2K9:25f.).Laterhewasgeneralofthearmy,andcommandedintheoperationsatRamothgileadintheabsenceof
kingJehoram.ThelatterhadgonetoJezreelonaccountofwoundshehadreceived.Elishasawthistobethefavourablemomenttostartthelongplannedrevolt.
Hisdiscipleanointedthegeneral,andtheassentofthearmywaseasilyobtained.ThevividnarrativeofJehuspromptactionisfamiliartoeveryreaderoftheOT.
Thekingwastakencompletelybysurprise,andheandhismotherwereslainatonce(2K9,10).
TheexterminationofAhabshousewasaforegoneconclusion.TheskillofJehuisseeninhismakingthechiefmeninthekingdompartnersinthecrime.The
exterminationoftheroyalhouseinJudahseemsuncalledfor,butwasperhapsexcusedbythetimesonaccountofthecloserelationshipwiththefamilyofAhab.It
hasbeensuggestedthatJehupurposedtoputanendtotheindependenceofJudah,andtoincorporateitfullywithhisownkingdom.Butwehavenodirect
evidenceonthishead.HoseasawthatthebloodofJezreelresteduponthehouseofJehu,andthatitwouldbeavenged(Hos1:4).
ElishasactivityextendedthroughthereignofJehu,butthenarrativeoftheprophetslifetellsuslittleoftheking.FromanothersourcetheAssyrian
inscriptionswelearnthatJehupaidtributetoShalmaneserintheyear842B.C.,whichmusthavebeentheyearofhisaccession.Heprobablyhopedtosecurethe
greatkingsprotectionagainstDamascus.Buthewasdisappointedinthis,forafterasingleexpeditiontotheWestin839theAssyrianswereoccupiedintheEast.
ThelatterportionofJehusreignwasthereforeatimeofmisfortuneforIsrael.
H.P.S MITH.JEHUBBAH.AnAsberite(1Ch7:34).
JEHUCAL.AcourtiersentbykingZedekiahtoentreatfortheprayersofJeremiah(Jer37:3f.)calledinJer38:1Jucal.
JEHUD.AtownofDan,namedbetweenBaalathandBeneberak(Jos19:45).ItisprobablythemodernelYehdyeh,8milesE.ofJoppa.
JEHUDI(generally=aJew,butappearstobeapropernameinJer36:14,21,23).AnofficerofJehoiakim,atwhosesummonsBaruchreadtotheprincesof
Judahtherollof
Jeremiahsprophecies,andwhowasafterwardshimselfemployedtoreadtherolltotheking.
JEHUDIJAH(1Ch4:18AV).SeeHAJEHUDIJAH.
JEHUEL.AHemaniteinHezekiahsreign(2Ch29:14).
JEIEL.1.AReubenite(1Ch5:7).2.AnancestorofSaul(1Ch8:29,suppliedinRVfrom
9:35).3.OneofDavidsheroes(1Ch11:44).4.5.ThenameoftwoLevitefamilies:(a)1Ch15:18,21,16:5,6,2Ch20:14(b)2Ch35:9[1Es1:9Ochielus].6.
AscribeinthereignofUzziah(2Ch26:11).7.Oneofthosewhohadmarriedforeignwives(Ezr10:43).In2.3.6.KethbhhasJeuel.
JEKABZEEL(Neh11:25).SeeKABZEEL.
JEKAMEAM.ALevite(1Ch23:19,24:28).
JEKAMIAH.1.AJudahite(1Ch2:41).2.AsonofkingJeconiah(1Ch3:18).
JEKUTHIEL.AmanofJudah(1Ch4:18).
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JEKUTHIEL.AmanofJudah(1Ch4:18).
JEMIMAH.TheeldestofJobsdaughtersborntohimafterhisrestorationtoprosperity(Job42:14).
JEMNAAN(Jth2:28).SeeJABNEEL.
JEMUEL.AsonofSimeon(Gn46:10,Ex6:15)=NemuelofNu26:12,1Ch4:24.
JEPHTHAH.SpokenofsimplyastheGileadite,andasbeingamightymanofvalour.InJg11:1itissaidthathewasthesonofaharlot,forwhichcause
hewasdrivenoutfromhishomeinGileadbyhisbrethren.Hereuponhegathersabandoffollowers,andleadsthelifeofafreebooterinthelandofTob.Sometime
afterthis,GileadisthreatenedwithanattackbytheAmmonites,andJephthahisbesoughttoreturntohiscountryinordertodefendithepromisestoleadhis
countrymenagainsttheAmmonitesonconditionofhisbeingmadechief(king?)ifhereturnsvictorious.Notonlyisthisagreedto,butheisforthwithmadeheadof
hispeople(Jg11:411).
Inthelongpassagewhichfollows,11:1228,IsraelsclaimtopossessGileadisurgedbymessengerswhoaresentbyJephthahtotheAmmonitekingthepassage,however,is
concernedmostlywiththeMoabites(cf.Nu20,21),andisclearlyoutofplacehere.
ThespiritoftheLordcomesuponJephthah,andhemarchesouttoattacktheAmmonites.Onhiswayhemakesavowthatifhereturnsfromthebattle
victorious,hewillofferup,asathanksgivingtoJahweh,whoevercomesoutofhishousetowelcomehim.HedefeatstheAmmonites,and,onhisreturn,his
daughter,anonlychild,comesouttomeethim.Thefatherbeholdshischild,accordingtoourpresenttext,withhorrorandgrief,butcannotgobackuponhisword.
Thedaughterbegsfortwomonthsrespite,inordertogointothemountainstobewailhervirginity.Attheendofthisperiodshereturns,andJephthahfulfilshis
vow(anarchologicalnoteishereappended,11:40,concerningwhichseebelow).TherefollowsthenanepisodewhichrecallsJg8:13theEphraimitesresent
nothavingbeencalledbyJephthahtofightagainsttheAmmonites,justastheyresentednotbeingcalledbyGideontofightagainsttheMidianitesinthepresent
case,however,thematterisnotsettledamicablyabattlefollows,inwhichJephthahisagainvictorioustheEphraimitesflee,butareinterceptedatthefordsof
Jordan,and,beingrecognizedbytheirinabilitytopronouncetheshinthewordShibboleth,areslain.Jephthah,aftercontinuinghisleadershipforsixyears,dies,
andisburiedinGilead,butthepreciselocalityisnotindicated.
WhetherthestoryofthesacrificeofJephthahsdaughterbehistoricalornot,itsmentionisofconsiderableinterest,inasmuchasitbearswitnesstotheprevalenceamongthe
earlyIsraelitesofpracticeswhichwerewidelyrecognizedamongancientpeoplesasbelongingtotheessentialsofreligion.Inthestorybeforeusweobviouslymustnotexpecttosee
theoriginalformitisacompilationfrommorethanonesource,andhasbeenworkedoverintheinterestsoflaterreligiousconceptionsthattwototallydistinctpracticeshave,
therefore,gotmixeduptogetherneedcausenosurprise.Thefirstofthesepracticeswasthesacrificeofahumanbeingattimesofspecialstress(thesacrificeofthefirstbornbelongs
toadifferentcategory)thesecondisthatknownastheWeepingforTammuz.Amongearlypeoplestherewerecertainriteswhichrepresentedthedeathandresurrectionof
vegetation,inconnexionwithwhichvariousmythsarose.Intheiroriginalform(inwhichhumansacrificeplayedapart)theseriteswereintended,andbelieved,tobethemeansof
assistingNaturetobringforththefruitsoftheearth.AmongsuchriteswasthatknownastheWeepingforTammuz(=Adonis),cf.Ezk8:14theritewasbasedonthemyththat
Tammuz,abeautifulyouth,waskilledbyaboarTammuzwasthepersonificationoftheprincipleofvegetation,andrepresentedtheSummer,whiletheboarrepresentedtheWinter.
ThisdeathofTammuzwascelebratedannuallywithbitterwailing,chieflybywomen(Jg11:40)often(thoughnotalways,fortheritedifferedindifferentlocalities)his
resurrectionwascelebratedthenextday,thusensuringbymeansofimitativemagicthereappearanceoffreshvegetationinitstime.
Thebewailingofvirginity(v.37),andthenote,shehadnotknownaman(v.39),areinsertedtolaystressonthefactthatifJephthahsdaughterhadhada
husband,orhadbeenamother,herfatherwouldhavehadnopoweroverhersince,intheonecase,herhusbandwouldhavebeenherpossessor,andintheother,
shecouldhaveclaimedprotectionfromthefatherofthechild,whetherthelatterwerealiveornot.
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
JEPHUNNEH.1.ThefatherofCaleb(Nu13:6).2.AsonofJetheranAsherite(1Ch
7:38).
JERAH.MentionedinthegenealogiesofGn10:26and1Ch1:20asasonofJoktan.Probably,inanalogywithothernamesinthisconnexion,Jerahistobe
takenasthedesignationofanArabiantribe.TheArabicgeographersrefertoplacesnamedWarkh,Yurkh,andYarch,withanyoneofwhichitmightbe
identified.Ontheotherhand,inHebrewthewordsignifiesnewmoonitmaythereforebethetranslationofatotemicclanname.Infact,Bochartpointedoutthat
sonsofthemoonisapatronymicstillfoundinArabia.
W.M.NESBIT.
JERAHMEEL(MayElhavecompassion!)1.AnonIsraeliteclanintheextremeS.ofPalestine,withwhichDavidcultivatedfriendlyrelationsduringhis
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JERAHMEEL(MayElhavecompassion!)1.AnonIsraeliteclanintheextremeS.ofPalestine,withwhichDavidcultivatedfriendlyrelationsduringhis
exile(1S27:10,30:29).AfterSaulsdeaththeJerahmeelitesformedpartofthelittleprincipalityoverwhichhereignedinHebron.Howindistincttherecollection
ofthemwasappearsfromthevariousformsassumedbytheirnameinMSSoftheLXX:Jesmega,Isramelei,Aermon,Israel,Jeramelei.Subsequentlytheywere
consideredtohavebeenaJudahiteclan(1Ch2:9,25ff.,3542:hereJerahmeelisCalebselderbrotherthelistofhisdescendantsinvv.3542isoflaterorigin
thanvv.9,2527andbringsthemdowntotheChroniclersday).Wehavenohistoricalorotherrecordsconnectedwiththesenames,savethatMolid(v.29)isa
townmentionedelsewhere(Jos19:2,Neh11:26).2.LXXandOldLat.readJerahmeelat1S1:1asthenameofSamuelsgrandfather.Inallprobabilitythe
JerohamofMTisanabbreviatedform,likeJacobforJacobel,ortheYarkhamufoundinaBabylonianlistofHammurabistime.3.Oneofthethreemenordered
byJehoiakimtoarrestJeremiahandBaruch(Jer36:26).AVfollowsVulg.(filioAmelech),callinghimsonofHammelech:RV,withLXX,thekingsson.Hewas
ascionoftheroyalhouse,butnotnecessarilyachildofJehoiakim.4.InalistofLevites(1Ch24:2031)drawnupconsiderablylaterthanthatin23:6ff.,
JerahmeelsnameisaddedassonofKish(MTsons:thetextisinaconfusedstate).TheremustatthetimehavebeenadivisionofLevitescalledafterhim,and
not,aspreviously,afterKish.
J.TAYLOR.
JERECHU(1Es5:22)=Ezr2:34,Neh7:36Jericho.
JERED(thesamenameasJaredinGn5:15,16,18,20,1Ch1:2).AJudahite(1Ch
4:18).
JEREMAI.AJewofthefamilyofHashumwhohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:33[1Es9:34Jeremias]).
JEREMIAH.1.AwarriorofthetribeofGad,fifthinreputation(1Ch12:10).2.Thetenthinreputation(1Ch12:13)ofthesameGaditeband.3.Abowman
andslingerofthetribeofBenjamin(1Ch12:4).4.TheheadofafamilyinE.Manasseh(1Ch5:24).5.AJewofLibnah,whosedaughter,HamutalorHamital,was
oneofthewivesofJosiah,andmotherofJehoahaz(2K23:31)andZedekiah(2K24:18,Jer52:1).6.ThesonofHabazziniahandfatherofJaazaniah,theheadof
theRechabites(Jer35:3)inthetimeoftheprophetJeremiah.7.Apriestwho
returnedwithZerubbabel(Neh12:1).Hisnamewasgiventooneofthetwentytwocoursesofpriests(Ezr2:3839,Neh7:3942,12:13).8.Apriestwhosealedthe
covenant(Neh10:2)andtookpartinthededicationofthewallofJerusalem(12:34).9.Theprophet.Seenextarticle.
JEREMIAH
1.Thetimes.JeremiahtheprophetwasborntowardsthecloseofManassehslongandevilreign(c.B.C.696641),theinfluenceofwhichovershadowedhis
life(Jer15:4,2K23:26).HeprophesiedunderJosiahandhissonsfromtheyear626tothefallofJerusaleminB.C.586(1:2f.),andforsomeshorttimeafterthis
untilhevanishesfromsightamongstthefugitiveJewsinEgypt(chs.4044).
ThroughJosiahsminority(seeJOSIAH)theethnicizingrgimeofManassehcontinuedJeremiahsearliestpreaching(chs.26),andthepropheciesofhis
contemporaryZephaniah(wh.see),revealamedleyofheathenworshipsinJerusalem,grossoppressionandprofligacy,insolenceandinsensibilitycharacterizing
bothcourtandpeople.Meanwhileaninternationalcrisisisapproaching.ThegiantpowerofAsshur,whichforacenturyhaddominatedIsraelsworld,isinrapid
decline,andisthreatenedbythenewMedianStateonitseasternborderNahum(wh.see)hadalreadycelebratedNinevehsdownfallinhissplendidverses.The
AssyriancapitalwassavedforthetimebytheirruptionoftheScythiannomads(EzekielsGogandMagog),whowereswarmingsouthwardsfromtheOxusplains
andovertheCaucasuspasses.ThesehordesofwildhorsemenoverranWesternAsiaforageneration,leavingalastinghorrorbehindthem.Ninevehavoidedcapture
bytheMedesin625onlyattheexpenseofseeingherlandswastedandherdependenciesstrippedfromher.ThewarcloudoftheScythianinvasionoverhangsthe
skyofZephaniah,andofJeremiahattheoutsetofhisministry.TheterritoryofJudahseems,afterall,tohaveescapedtheScythiandeluge,whichswepttothe
bordersofEgypt.ThenomadcavalrywouldreachwithdifficultytheJudanhighlandsandifJosiah,comingofageaboutthistime,showedaboldfrontagainst
themandsavedhiscountryfromtheirravages,wecanaccountfortheprestigethatheenjoyedandusedtosuchgoodpurpose.Atthesamedate,orevenearlier,the
AssyrianoverlordshiphadbeenrenouncedforwefindJosiahexercisingindependentsovereignty.ItwasnotasthevassalofNineveh,butintheassertionofhis
hereditaryrightsandasguardianoftheoldterritoryofIsrael,thathechallengedPharaohnecho,whowasattemptingtoseizethelostwesternprovincesofAssyria,
tothefatalencounterofMegiddointheyear608(2K22:2,23:1520,2Ch35:20).ThePharaohpointedlycallshim
thoukingofJudah,asifbiddinghimkeepwithinhisbounds(2Ch35:21).JeremiahpraisesJosiah,incontrasttohisson,asanuprightandprosperousking,good
tothepoorandcommendinghisreligionbyhisrule(Jer22:1517).
ThegreateventofJosiahsreignwasthereformationeffectedbyhiminitseighteenthyear
( . .621),uponthediscoveryofthebookofthelawintheTemple(2K22:823:25seeD
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/j.htm ).Sofarasconcernedoutwardreligion,thiswasadrastic
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(B.C.621),uponthediscoveryofthebookofthelawintheTemple(2K22:823:25seeDEUTERONOMY).Sofarasconcernedoutwardreligion,thiswasadrastic
andenduringrevolution.NotmerelythelateridolatriesimportedfromtheEastundertheAssyriansupremacy,butalsotheindigenousritesofMolechandthe
Baalimwereabolished.Aboveall,anendwasputtotheimmemorialcultusofthelocalhighplaces,atwhichtheserviceofJehovahhadbeencorruptedby
mixturewiththatoftheCanaanitedivinities.WorshipwascentralizedattheroyalTempleofJerusalemandthecovenantwithJehovahmadebykingandpeople
thereinthetermsofDeuteronomy,followedbythememorablePassoverfeast,wasdesignedtoinaugurateaneworderofthingsinthelifeofthepeoplethis
proved,infact,aturningpointinIsraelshistory.Howeverdisappointinginitsimmediatespiritualeffects,theworkofJosiahandhisbandofreformersgavethe
peopleawrittenlawbookandadefinitelyorganizedreligioussystem,whichtheycarriedwiththemintotheExiletoformthenucleusoftheOTScripturesandthe
basisofthelaterJudaism.
ThefallofJosiahinbattleconcludedtheintervaloffreedomandprosperityenjoyedbyJudahunderhisvigorousrule.Forthreeyearsthecountrywassubjectto
thevictoriousPharaoh,whodeposedanddeportedShalumJehoahaz,thenationalchoice,replacinghimonthethroneofJudahbyhisbrotherEliakimJehoiakim.
ThegreatbattleofCarchemish(605),ontheEuphrates,decidedthefateofSyriaandPalestinetheempireofWesternAsia,quicklysnatchedfromEgypt,passed
intothestronghandsoftheChaldankingNebuchadrezzar,thedestineddestroyerofJerusalem.FromthistimeBabylonstandsforthetyrannousandcorrupting
powersoftheworldshebecomes,forScriptureandtheChurch,themetropolisofthekingdomofSatan,asJerusalemofthekingdomofthesaints.TheChaldan
empirewasarevivaloftheAssyrian,lessbrutalanddestructive,moreadvancedincivilization,butjustassensualandsordid,andexploitingthesubjectracesas
thoroughlyasitspredecessor.Thepropheciesof
Habakkuk(chs.1and2)revealtheintensehatredandfearexcitedbytheapproachoftheChaldanstheferocityofNebuchadrezzarstroopswasprobably
aggravatedbytheincorporationwiththemofScythiancavalry,largebodiesofwhichstillroamedsouthoftheCaspian.Therepeatedanddesperaterevoltsmadeby
theJudansareaccountedforbytheharshnessofNebuchadrezzarsyoke,toescapewhichTyreenduredsuccessfullyathirteenyearssiege.Hisenormousworks
ofbuilding(seeHab2:12,13)musthaveinvolvedcrushingexactionsfromthetributaries.
Jehoiakim,afterCarchemish,transferredhisallegiancetoBabylon.ForthreeyearshekeptfaithwithNebuchadrezzar,andthenapparentlywithoutalliesor
reasonablehopeofsupportrebelled(2K24:1).JehoiakimwasatypicalEasterndespot,selfwilled,luxurious,unprincipled,oppressivetowardshisownpeople,
treacherousandincompetentinforeignpolicy.Jeremiahdenounceshimvehementlythewonderisthathedidnotfallavictimtothekingsanger,likehisdisciple
Uriah(Jer26:2024,36:2630,22:1319).TherevivednationalfaithinJehovah,whichhadrestedonJosiahspoliticalsuccess,wasshakenbyhisfallthe
characterofthenewking,andtheeventsofhisreign,furtheredthereaction.ApopularJehovistpartyexistedbutthiswasthemostdangerousfactorinthe
situation.ItsleaderstheprophetHananiahamongstthem(Jer28)preachedoutofseasonIsaiahsolddoctrineoftheinviolabilityofZionevenafterthecapture
ofJerusalemin597andthefirstexile,theprophetspromisedinJehovahsnameaspeedyreinstatement.ThepossessionoftheTempleandtheobservanceofthe
Law,theyheld,boundJehovahtoHispeoplesdefence.Thefanaticismthusexcited,ofwhichtheJewishracehasgivensomanysubsequentexamples,brought
aboutthesecond,andfatal,rupturewithBabylon.
NebuchadrezzarshowedacertainforbearancetowardsJudah.OnJehoiakimsfirstrevolt,in601,heletloosebandsofraidersontheJudanterritory(2K24:2
cf.Jer12:9,14)fouryearslaterbemarchedonthecapital.JehoiakimdiedjustbeforethishisyouthfulsonJehoiachin(calledalsoJeconiahandConiah)
surrenderedthecity,andwascarriedcaptive,withthequeenmotherandtheliteofthenoblesandpeople,toBabylon,wherehelivedformanyyears,tobereleased
uponNebuchadrezzarsdeathin561(2K24:617,25:2730,Jer22:2430).
ThereignofMattaniahZedekiah,raisedtothethronebyNebuchadrezzar,wasineffectarepetitionofthatofhiselderbrother.Zedekiahfailedthrough
weaknessmorethanthroughwickednesshesoughtJeremiahsadvice,butlackeddecisiontofollowit.EarlyinhisreignaconspiracywasonfootinPalestine
againsttheChaldans,whichhewastemptedtojoin(Jer27:111seeRVmonv.1).TheJudans,insteadofbeingcowedbytherecentpunishment,wereeager
forarisingpublicopinionexpresseditselfinHananiahscontradictiontoJeremiahswarnings(ch.28).ThesamefalsehopeswereexcitingtheexilesinBabylon
(ch.29).Nebuchadrezzar,awareofthesemovements,summonedZedekiahtoBabylon(Jer51:59)thelatterwasable,however,toclearhimselfofcomplicity,and
returnedtoJerusalem.AtlastZedekiahyieldedtothetidehebrokehisoathsofallegiancetoNebuchadrezzarconductsternlycondemnedbyEzekiel(17:1121)
aswellasbyJeremiahandtheJewishpeoplewerelaunchedonastrugglealmostasmadasthatwhichitundertookwithRome650yearslater.Thesiegeof
Jerusalemwasstubbornlyprolongedfortwoyears(588586).TheEgyptiansunderthenewandambitiousPharaohhophra(Apries,588569),effectedadiversion
oftheChaldantroops(Jer37:510,Ezk17:15)but,asoftenbefore,Pharaohprovedabrokenreedtothosewhotrustedinhim.Reducedbyfamine,Jerusalem
wasstormed,Zedekiahbeingcapturedinhisattempttoescape,andmeetingapitiabledeath(2K25:17).ThistimeNebuchadrezzarmadeanendoftherebels.
Jerusalemwasrazedtothegroundthesurvivorsofthesiege,andoftheexecutionsthatfollowed,werecarriedintoexile.Aremnant,ofnopoliticalimportance,
waslefttotillthegroundthebulkofthese,afterthetragicincidentsrelatedinJer3943,fledtoEgypt.Jeremiah,whohadinvainresistedthismigration,was
carriedwiththerunawayshehadthedistressofseeinghiscompanionsrelapseintoopenidolatry,protestingthattheyhadfaredbetterwhenworshippingthequeen
ofheaventhanunderthenationalJehovah.Jewishtraditionrelatesthathediedatthehandsofhisincensedfellowexiles.Theprophetspredictionthattheswordof
Nebuchadrezzarwouldfollowthefugitives,wasfulfilledbytheChaldaninvasionofLowerEgyptintheyear569,ifnotearlierthanthis.TheBabylonianempire22/124
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Nebuchadrezzarwouldfollowthefugitives,wasfulfilledbytheChaldaninvasionofLowerEgyptintheyear569,ifnotearlierthanthis.TheBabylonianempire
lastedfromB.C.605to538,alittleshortofthe70yearsassignedtoit,inroundnumbers,byJeremiah(25:11,29:10).
2.Theman.TheBookofJeremiahislargelyautobiographical.Theauthorbecame,unconsciously,theheroofhiswork.Thisprophetstemperamentand
experiencehavecolouredhisdeliverancesinamannerpeculiaramongstOTwriters.Histeaching,moreover,marksanevolutionintheIsraelitereligion,which
acquiresamorepersonalstampasitsnationalframeworkisbrokenup.InJeremiahslifewewatchthespiritofrevelationbeingdriveninwards,takingrefugefrom
theshipwreckoftheStateinthesouloftheindividual.Jeremiahistheprophetofthatchurchwithinthenation,traceableinitsbeginningstoIsaiahstime,to
whichthefutureofrevealedreligionishenceforthcommitted.ThisinnercommunityofheartbelieverssurvivedtheExileitgavebirthtotheBibleandthe
synagogue.
JeremiahwasanativeofAnathoth,alittletownsome31/2milesN.E.fromJerusalem,perchedhighonthemountainridgeandcommandinganextensiveview
overthehillsofEphraimandtheJordanvalley,towardswhichhismemoryoftenturned(4:15,7:14,15,12:5,31:45,18,49:19).JeremiahhadnomereJudan
outlookthelargerIsraelwasconstantlyinhisthoughts.HisfatherwasHilkiah[nottheHilkiahof2K22:4],oftheprieststhatwereinAnathothinthelandof
Benjamin(1:1)buthedoesnotshow,likethecontemporarypriestprophetEzekiel,thesacerdotalmind.AnathothhadbeenthesettlementofAbiathar,thelasthigh
priestofElishouse,whowasbanishedthitherbySolomon(1K2:26)Jeremiahmayhavebeenascionofthisdeposedline.Hismissionbroughthim,probablyat
anearlyperiod,intoconflictwiththemenofAnathoth,whosoughthislife(11:1823).HisattempttovisitAnathothduringthelastsiegeofJerusalem,andthe
transactionbetweenhimselfandhiscousinoverthefieldatAnathoth(32:6ff.,37:1114),gotoshowthathewasnotentirelycutofffromfriendlyrelationswithhis
kindredandnativeplace.
Jeremiahscall(ch.1)inB.C.626foundhimadiffidentandreluctantyoungman,notwantingindevotion,butshrinkingfrompublicity,andwithnonatural
drawingtowardsthepropheticcareeryetheissetoverthenations,topluckupandtobreakdown,andtobuildandtoplant!Alreadytherebeginsthestruggle
betweentheimplantedwordofJehovahandthenatureoftheman,onwhichturnsJeremiahsinnerhistoryandthedevelopmentofhisheroiccharacter,allthings
considered,thenoblestintheOT.Hisministrywastobealongmartyrdom.Hemuststandasafencedcityandanironpillarandbrazenwallsagainstthewhole
land,asolitaryandimpregnablefortressforJehovah.ThemannerofhiscallimportsanintimacywithGod,anidentificationofthemanwithhismission,more
closeandcompletethaninthecaseofanypreviousprophet(seevv.5and9).NointermediarynoteventhespiritofJehovah,nospecialvehicleormeansof
propheticalincitement,iseverintimatedinhiscase:
simplythewordofJehovahcametohim.HeconceivesthetrueprophetasstandinginJehovahscouncil,toperceiveandhearhisword(23:18cf.Is50:4).So
thathemaybeinperson,aswellasinword,aprophetofthecomingtribulation,marriageisforbiddenhimandallparticipationindomesticlife(16:113),a
sentencepeculiarlybittertohistenderandaffectionatenature.Jeremiahsimaginationwashauntedbyhislosthomehappiness(7:34,16:9,25:10,33:11).Endowed
withthefinestsensibilities,insoevilatimehewasboundtobeamanofsorrows.
BehindthecontestwagedbyJeremiahwithkingsandpeopletherelayaninteriorstruggle,lastingmorethantwentyyears.Solongittookthisgreatprophetto
acceptwithfullacquiescencetheburdenlaiduponhim.Wemaytracethroughanumberofselfrevealingpassages,thegeneraldriftofwhichisplain
notwithstandingtheobscurityofsomesentencesandthechronologicaluncertainty,Jeremiahsprogressfromyouthfulconsecrationandardour,throughmoodsof
doubtandpassionaterepugnance,toacompleteselfconquestandsettledtrust(see,besideschs.1,11,16alreadycited,8:189:2,15:10,11and1521,17:1418,
18:1823,20,26and3032).ThedisciplineofJeremiahmaybedividedintofourstages,followingonhissupernaturalcall:(a)theyouthfulperiodoffierce
denunciation,B.C.626621(b)thetimeofdisillusionandsilence,subsequenttoJosiahsreforms,621608(c)thecriticalepoch,608604,openedbythefallof
JosiahatMegiddoandclosinginthefourthyearofJehoiakimafterthebattleofCarchemishandtheadventofNebuchadrezzar,whentheparoxysmoftheprophets
soulwaspastandhisvisionofthefuturegrewclear(d)thestageoffullillumination,attainedduringthecalamitiesofthelastdaysofJerusalem.
To(a)belongstheteachingrecordedinchs.26,subjecttothemodificationsinvolvedincondensingfrommemorydiscoursesuttered20yearsbefore.Here
JeremiahisonthesamegroundasZephaniah.HestronglyrecallsHosea,whoseloveforEphraimheshares,andwhosesimilitudeofthemarriageunionbetween
JehovahandIsraelsuppliesthebasisofhisappeals.Judah,heinsists,hasprovedamorefaithlessbridethanhernorthernsisteradivorceisinevitable.Ch.5reflects
theshockingimpressionmadebyJeremiahsfirstacquaintancewithJerusaleminch.6JehovahsscourgeinthefirstinstancetheScythiansisheldoverthecity.
Withrebukesminglecallstorepentanceand,morerarely,hopesofarelentingonthepeoplespart(3:2125inotherhopefulpassagescriticsdetectinterpolation).
Jeremiahspowerfulandpatheticpreachinghelpedtopreparethereformationof621.ButasthedangerfromthenorthernhordespassedandJosiahsrulebrought
newprosperity,theprophetsvaticinationswerediscountedhispessimismbecameanobjectofridicule.
(b)JeremiahsattitudetowardsJosiahsreformationistheenigmaofhishistory.Thecollectionofhispropheciesmadein604(seechs.112),apartfromthe
doubtfulallusionin11:18,ignoresthesubjectJosiahsnameisbutoncementioned,bywayofcontrastto
Jehoiakim,in22:1319.Fromthissilencewemustnotinfercondemnationandsuchpassagesas7:22,23and8:8donotsignifythatJeremiahwasradically
opposedtothesacrificialsystemandtotheuseofawrittenlaw.Wemayfairlygatherfrom11:18,ifnotfrom17:1927(theauthenticityofwhichiscontested),
thatJeremiahcommendedtheDeuteronomiccode.HiswritingsinmanypassagesshowaDeuteronomicstamp.But,fromthispointofview,thereformationsoon 23/124
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thatJeremiahcommendedtheDeuteronomiccode.HiswritingsinmanypassagesshowaDeuteronomicstamp.But,fromthispointofview,thereformationsoon
showeditselfafailure.Itcamefromthewilloftheking,notfromtheconscienceofthepeople.Iteffectednocircumcisionoftheheart,noinwardturningto
Jehovah,nosuchbreakingupofthefallowgroundasJeremiahhadcalledforthegoodseedoftheDeuteronomicteachingwassownamongthorns(4:3,4),
whichsprangupandchokedit.Thecantofreligionwasinthemouthsofungodlymenapostasyhadgivenplace,inthepopulartemper,tohypocrisy.Convincedof
this,Jeremiahappearstohaveearlywithdrawn,andstoodalooffortherestofJosiahsreign.Hencetheyears621608areablankintherecordofhisministry.For
thetimetheprophetwasnonplussedtheevilhehadforetoldhadnotcomethegoodwhichhadcomewasadoubtfulgoodinhiseyes.Hecouldnotsupport,he
wouldnotoppose,theworkoftheearnestandsanguineking.Thosetwelveyearsdemonstratedtheemptinessofapoliticalreligion.Theyburntintotheprophets
soulthelessonoftheworthlessnessofeverythingwithoutthelawwrittenontheheart.
(c)JosiahsdeathatMegiddoprickedthebubbleofthenationalreligiousnessthiscalamityrecalledJeremiahtohiswork.Soonafterwardshedeliveredthe
greatdiscourseof7:18:3,whichnearlycosthimhislife(seech.26).HedenouncesthefalserelianceontheTemplethatreplacedtheidolatroussuperstitionsof20
yearsbefore,therebymakingthepriestsandtheprophets,towhoseearsthethreatofShilohsfateforZionwasranktreason,fromthistimehisimplacable
enemies.ThepostreformationconflictnowopeningwasmoredeadlythantheprereformationconflictsharedwithZephaniah.AfalseJehovismhadentrenched
itselfwithintheformsoftheCovenant,armedwiththeweaponsoffanaticalselfrighteousness.Tothisphaseofthestrugglebelongchs.710(subtractingthegreat
interpolationof9:2310:16,ofwhich10:116issurelypostJeremianic)so,probably,mostofthematterofchs.1420,identifiedwiththemanylikewordsthat
wereaddedtothevolumeofJeremiahburntbyJehoiakiminthewinterof604(36:2732).
Thepersonalpassagesofchs.15,17,18,20belongtothisdecisiveepoch(608605,betweenMegiddoandCarchemish).TheclimaxofJeremiahsinward
agonywasbroughtaboutbytheoutrageinflictedonhimbyPashhur,theTempleoverseer(ch.20),when,tostophismouth,theprophetwasscourgedandputin
thestocks.Hebreaksout,OJehovah,thouhastbefooledme,andIhavebeenbefooled!andendsbycursingthedayofhisbirth(vv.718).Jehovahhasused
Hisalmightypowertoplaywithaweak,simpleman,andtomakehimalaughingstock!Jehovahswordisafireinhisbonesheiscompelledtospeakit,onlyto
meetridiculeandinsult!Hiswarningsremainunfulfilled,andGodleaveshiminthelurch!Hedesiresnothingbutthepeoplesgoodyettheycounthimatraitor,
andputdownhisterrifyingvisionstomalignity!ThislastreproachcutJeremiahtotheheartagainandagainhehadrepelledit(15:10,17:16,18:20).Thesceneof
ch.20wasJeremiahsGethsemane.IttookplacenotlongbeforethecrisisofthefourthyearofJehoiakim,theoccasionwhentherollofdoomwasprepared(ch.
36)whichwasreadtothepeopleandtheking,andwhen,afterthebattleofCarchemish,NebuchadrezzarwashailedasJehovahsservantandexecutioner(ch.25).
AtthisjuncturetheconclusivebreachwithJehoiakimcameabout,whenthefaithlessking,byrunninghisknifethroughJeremiahsbook,severedthetieswhich
hadboundprophecytothesecularthroneofDavidsinceSamuelsday.RecallingatthisdatehismisgivingsandinwardfightingsagainstGod,theprophetvirtually
tellsusthattheyarepast.Fromtheyears6054hemarcheswithfirmsteptothegoalheseestheendofGodskingdom,andtheway.Jeremiahisatlastequalto
hisoffice,readytopluckupandtobreakdownthenations,andtobuildandtoplant.Masterofhimself,heismasteroftheworld.
(d)Chs.3033(33:1426arewantingintheLXXtheremainderof33,alongwith32:1644,liesundergravecriticalsuspicion)containadistinctwordof
Jehovah,committedtoaseparatebook.ThisistheBookoftheFutureofIsraelandJudah(Duhm),andthecrownofJeremiahslifework.LiketheChristian
prophetwhowrotetheEpistletotheHebrews,JeremiahfledtotheidealandeternalfromthehorrorsofthenationaldownfallastheearthlyZionsinks,theimageof
Godstruecityrisesonhissoul.ThelongforeseencatastrophehasarrivedJeremiahmeetsitbravely,fordaysarecoming,Jehovahtellshim,whenIwillrestore
thecaptivityofmypeopleIsraelandJudah,andIwillcausethemtoreturntothelandoftheirfathers(30:3ff.).Theprophetaddsdeedstowords:hetakesthe
opportunityofbuying,beforewitnesses,afieldatAnathothofferedduringthesiegebyhiscousinHanameel,intokenthathousesandfieldsandvineyardsshall
yetagainbeboughtinthisland(32:15).Buttherestorationmeanssomethingfarbetterthanrecoveryofthelanditwillbeaspiritualrenovation,achangeofheart
goingdeeperthanJosiahsrenewaloftheoldcovenant.Theyshallbemypeople,Jehovahpromises,andIwillbetheirGodandIwillgivethemoneheartand
oneway,thattheymayfearmeforever.AndIwillmakeaneverlastingcovenantwiththem,andIwillputmyfearintheirhearts(32:38,39vv.3144ofthis
disputedchapterarefullofJeremianictraits).Theannouncementofthenewcovenantinch.31:3134isthekerneloftheBookoftheFuturethisisJeremiahs
greatestcontributiontotheprogressoftheKingdomofGod.ThispassagetouchesthehighwatermarkofOTprophecyitwasappropriatedbytheLordJesusatthe
LastSupper,andsuppliedthebasisoftheNTdoctrineofsalvation(seeHe10:1418).TodepriveJeremiahoftheNewCovenantoracle(asB.Duhm,e.g.,would
do)istoremovethetopstoneofhislifesedificeitistomakehisrleoneofpluckingupandbreakingdown,withnocommensuratebuildingandplanting
(1:10)uponthedesolatedsite.JeremiahhadreadfirstinhisownheartthesecretthusconveyedtoIsrael.Themissionwhichhehadborneforlongasapainful
yoke,helearnttorestinwithentirecontentment.Heisabletosay,Idelighttodothywill,OmyGodyea,thylawiswithinmyheartandheprophesiesthat,
underthenewcovenant,everymanshallsaythis.
Jeremiahsstyleandpowersasawriterhavebeenunderestimatedbetterjusticeisdonetothembyrecentscholars.Thegloomovershadowingmanyofhis
pageshasbeenrepellentandthemistakenattachmentofhisnametoLamentationshasbroughtonhimthedisparagingepithetoftheweepingprophet.Muchof
thebookcomestousfromotherpensinitsnarrativepartswerecognizethehandofBaruchandallowanceshouldbemadeforeditorialglossesandadditions,here
andthereinterruptingtheflowandimpairingtheforceoftheoriginal.JeremiahslanguageistouchedwithoccasionalAramaisms,andshowssomefallingofffrom
theperfectionoftheclassicalHebrewofthe8thcentury.JeremiahhasneitherthesublimityandsustainedoratoricalpowerofIsaiah,northepungencyofAmos,nor
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theperfectionoftheclassicalHebrewofthe8thcentury.JeremiahhasneitherthesublimityandsustainedoratoricalpowerofIsaiah,northepungencyofAmos,nor
thepoignancyofHosea,northefireandverveofNahum,northesubtletyofHabakkukbutinrichnessofimagery,infulnessofhumaninterest,inlucidityand
naturalness,inhiscommandofthevariousresourcesofpoetry,eloquence,pathos,andpracticalappeal,byvirtueofthecombinationofexcellenceshepresentsand
thevalueofhistotaloutput,Jeremiahisthegreatestofthewritingprophets.
3.TheBook.WeowetheBookofJeremiahtohiscollaboratorBaruch(ch.36).Infairness,thisshouldbeentitledTheBookofJeremiahtheprophetand
Baruchthescribe.WithBaruchshelpJeremiahissuedin604arollofabook,containingthesumofhispublicteachinguptothatdate.Thisvolumewasnottoo
largetobereadtotheassembledpeople,andreadaloudtwicemoreinthecourseofthesameday.Insizeandcontentsitcorrespondedtochs.212oftheexisting
book(thetwofragmentsof9:2326seemtobealaterJeremianic,and10:116apostJeremianicinsertionsomewouldalsorefer12:717toasubsequentdate).
ThedestructionofthefirstrollbyJehoiakimcalledforanewedition,containingmanylikewords,whichaddedtothebulkofthefirstpublication:chs.1and14
20,with(possibly)25,maybetakentocontainthesupplementarymatterreferredtoin36:32,extendingandillustratingchs.212(ch.13isoutofplace,sinceit
bearsintheallusionofvv.18,19manifestreferencetothecaptivityof597).Withtheexceptionsnamed,andsomeothersoflessmoment,chs.120maybereadas
therewrittenrollofJer36:32,whichdatedfromthewinterofB.C.604.
Inchs.21:1123:40wefindadistinctcollectionoforacles,relatingtothekings(downtoJehoiachin)andprophets,associatedunderthedesignationof
shepherdsitisprefacedbyastory(in3rdperson:21:110)aboutkingZedekiah,germanetothelatercollectionofchs.3739.Chs.13and24and2729are
reminiscencesofJeremiahrelativetotheearlyyearsof
Zedekiahsreign,subsequenttotheFirstCaptivity(597)surelych.35,thestoryoftheRechabites(in1stperson),relatingtoJehoiakimsclosingyears,should
comeinhere.ThisaddedmattermayhavegonetomakeupathirdeditionofJeremiahBaruchswork,publishedaboutthisdate,extendingoverchs.129,withthe
deductionsandadditionpreviouslynoted(ch.
26ismentionedbelow).
Chs.3033formatotallydistinctworkfromtheBookofDoomthusfaranalyzedthisisJeremiahsbookofpromiseorconsolation,recordingtherevelationof
hispeoplesfuturegiventohimduringthelastslegeofJerusalem.Chs.3739,towhich21:110shouldbeattached,and4044,aretwodistinctmemoirs,bearing
onJeremiahshistory(a)inthefinalsiege,and(b)afterthecaptureofJerusalemtheauthorshipofhissecretaryisindicatedbythefactthattheshortoracle
concerningBaruch(ch.45)issetattheendofthesenarratives,thoughtheeventrelatedtookplaceearlier,in604.Itistobenotedthatthedataof1:13donot
coverthematterofchs.4044.Itlooksasthoughthatsuperscriptionwasdrawnupwhenthebookextendedonlyfromch.139,andasthoughweoughtto
recognizeafourthstageinthegrowthofJeremiahsbookaredactionmadesoonafterthefallofJerusalem,whichwassupplementedafterwardswhenBaruch
addedchs.4045,makingthefifth(enlarged)edition.To(a)isprefixedthesupremelyimportantBaruchstory(ch.36),ofthesamedateastheabovementioned
(ch.45)whichconcludes(b).Ch.26isadetachednarrativepiece,outofplacewhereitstandsthisappearstobeBaruchsaccountofthecrisisinJeremiahswork
towhich7:18:3relates(B.C.608).Altogether,wemaycredittoBaruchsmemoirsofJeremiahchs.26,36,3739and4045tosomeextentheprobablyworked
overandeditedthematterreceivedbydictationfromhismaster.
ThisleavesremainingonlythecollectionofForeignOracles,whichhavebeenseparatelyplacedattheendofJeremiahsworks,inchs.4651andthe
HistoricalAppendix,ch.52,borrowedbyhiseditorsfromtheBookofKings(orbythecompilersofKingsfromthisplace).ThegreatdoomoftheChaldansand
Babyloninchs.50:151:58,judgedbyinternalevidence,wascertainlyapostscripttoJeremiahsworkandaproductoftheExilecriticaldoubts,oflessgravity,
attachtootherpartsoftheForeignOracles.In38:28b39:10wefindalreadyinserted,inshorterform,thefirstpartofthenarrativeincorporatedinch.52.Ch.
52:2830suppliesavaluablebitoftraditionabouttheCaptivitywantinginKings,missingalsointheLXXtextofJeremiah.Thefinalredactionofthecanonical
Jeremiah(thesixthedition?)datesconsiderablyposteriortotheExilefor50:251:58,ifwrittenbyanexilicprophet,couldhardlyhavebeenascribedtoJeremiah
untilalateage.Ontheotherhand,chs.5052arefoundintheLXX,whichdatedc.B.C.200,andmustthereforehavebeenincorporatedinthebookbeforethis
time.
TheLXXdepartsfromtheMassoretictextintwomainrespects:(1)inarrangement,theForeignOracles(chs.4651)beingletinbetweenvv.13and14ofch.
25,andrunninginadifferentorder.ItisnotunlikelythattheDoomsoftheNationswereoriginallyassociatedwithch.25buttheirGreekpositioncannotpossibly
besustained.(2)Again,theLXXtextdiffersfromtheMTinquantity,beingshorterbysome2700words,oroneeighthofthewhole.Thesubtractedmatterconsists
partlyofomissionsofparagraphsandsentencesamongstthechiefofthesebeing11:7,8,17:14,29:1620,33:1426,48:4547,51:4548,52:2,3,2830
partlyofabbreviations,titlesshortened,propernamesdispensedwith,synonymsdroppedanddescriptionscurtailed.Theformerphenomenapoint,inanumberof
instances,toaccretionsgatheredbytheMTsubsequentlytothedateoftranslationtheabbreviationsbetrayinthetranslatorastudiedattemptatconciseness.Ithas
beensupposedthattheLXXrestedonanolderandpurerrecensionoftheHebrewtext,preservedinEgyptbutthistheoryisabandoned.BothtextsofJeremiah
havethesamearchetypebutthisarchetypeunderwentagradualprocessofexpansion,andtheprocessisrepresentedatanearlierstageintheMSorMSS
underlyingtheLXX,andatamoreadvancedstageinthoseatthebasisoftheMT.Speakinggenerally,the
MTisqualitativelygreatlysuperiortotheGreekbut,ontheotherhand,quantitatively,theGreekisnearertheoriginaltext.Thisjudgmentisgeneral,admitting
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MTisqualitativelygreatlysuperiortotheGreekbut,ontheotherhand,quantitatively,theGreekisnearertheoriginaltext.Thisjudgmentisgeneral,admitting
manyexceptions,thatis,caseswherethequalityoftheGreektextisbetter,anditsreadingsmoreoriginalthantheHebrewandalsocaseswhere,inregardto
quantity,theHebrewistobepreferred,theomissionsintheLXXbeingduetofaultsinthetranslatorsMS,tohisownoversight,ortohistendencytoscampand
abridge(A.B.Davidson).
S YNOPSISOFTHEBOOK
I. ThegreatBookofDoom,dictatedbyJeremiahin B. C.604:chs.120,25,withparts(probably)of4651,correspondingtotheoriginalvolumereadbyBaruch(36:2,
10)andthemanylikewordsaddedonrewriting(36:32).
(a)ThebookburntbyJehoiakim:chs.212(minus9:2310:16etc.).Thisincluded
1. TheJudgmentuponJudahstreacherytowardsJehovah:chs.26,embodyingJeremiahsprereformationteaching[3:618hasslippedoutofitsplacethisoracle
shouldcomeeitherbefore(Cornill),orafter(Bruston),therestofchs.2,3].
2. TheJudgmentuponJudahshypocrisy.chs.712(?12:717minus9:2310:15)belongingtothepostreformationpreachingof608andonwards.
(b)Themanylikewords,illustrating(a):chs.1:1420,andprobably25,etc.consistingofscenesandreminiscencesfromJeremiahsearlierministry,upto B. C.604[ch.
13waslaterithasbeendisplacedseeV.].
II. TheJudgmentontheShepherds(kings,priests,andprophets):chs.2123[21:110hasbeentransferredfromV.:theremainderofthissectionneednothavebeenlater
thanc. B. C.597].
III. LatermemorandaofJeremiah,extendingfromc.600to593:chs.12:717(?)13,24,2729and35.II.andIII.mayhavebeenaddedtoI.toformathird
(enlarged)editionofthegreatBookofDoom,issuedinthemiddleofZedekiahsreignandbeforethefinalstrugglewithNebuchadrezzar.
IV. ThelittleBookofConsolation:chs.3033,datingfromthesecondsiege.
V. BaruchsMemoirsofJeremiah:
(a)BeforetheFallofJerusalem(coveredbythetitlein1:13):chs.26,36,34,3739,with21:110.
(b)AftertheFallofJerusalem:chs.4044.(c)Baruchspersonalnote:ch.45.
WhethertheabovememoirswereintroducedbyBarocborextractedlaterbyothereditorsfromaseparateworkofhis,cannotbedeterminedwithcertainty.Thepositionofch.
45speaksforhiseditinguptothispointbutifso,somelaterhandhasdisturbedhisarrangementofthematter.Insomeinstancesthedisplacementswehavenotedmaybedueto
accidentsoftranscription.
VI. TheCollectionofForeignOracles:chs.4649[50:251:58]51:5964againstEgypt(2),Philistia,Moab,Ammon,Edom,Damascus,KedarandHazor,Elam
[Babylon].IntheLXXtheDoomsaredifferentlyarranged,attachedto25:13,andslightlyshorter.TheBabylonDoomadmittedlybetraysthehandofalatecompiler
additionstoJeremiahsworkaresuspectedinotherpartsofthesection,particularlyintheDoomsofEgyptandMoab.
VII. TheHistoricalAppendix:ch.52,nearlyidentical,bygeneraladmission,with2K24:1825:30.
Theabovemustbetakenasageneraloutlineandsketchofthegrowthofthework.Thereareanumberofdetachedfragments,suchas9:23,24and25,26,thetrueconnexion
ofwhichislost.AndpostJeremianicinterpolationsandannotations,relativelynumerous,mustberecognizedthemostconspicuousofthese,besidesthelastthreechapters,are10:1
16and33:1426.
G.G.F INDLAY.
JEREMIAS(1Es9:34)=JeremaiinEzr10:33.
JEREMIEL.Thearchangelwhoin2Es4:36answersthequestionsoftherighteousdead.AVhasUriel,theangelsenttoinstructEsdras(2Es4:1,5:20,
10:28).
JEREMOTH.1.2.TwoBenjamites(1Ch7:8,8:14).3,4.TwoLevites(1Ch23:23,25:22)thelattercalledin24:30Jerimoth.5.ANaphtalite(1Ch27:19).
6,7,8.Threeofthosewhohadmarriedforeignwives(Ezr10:26,27,28).InthelastinstanceQerhasandRamoth(soAV).ForNos.6and8.1Es.(9:27,30)has
HieremothforNo.7ithas(v.28)Jerimoth.
JEREMY.TheforminwhichthenameoftheprophetJeremiahappearsinbothAVandRVof1Es1:28,32,47,57,2:1,2Es2:18,aswellasinAVof2Mac
2:1,5,7,Mt2:17,27:9.InthelastthreepassagesRVhasJeremiah.TheformJeremyisusedalsoinbothAVandRVinthetitleoftheEpistleascribedtothe
prophetinBar6:1.Seeart.APOCRYPHA,10.
JERIAH.ThechiefofoneoftheLeviticalcourses(1Ch23:19,24:23,26:31[inthislastAVandRVJerijah]).
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JERIAH.ThechiefofoneoftheLeviticalcourses(1Ch23:19,24:23,26:31[inthislastAVandRVJerijah]).
JERIBAI.OneofDavidsheroes(1Ch11:46).
JERICHO.AcitysituatedintheJordanvalleyabout5milesfromthenorthendoftheDeadSea,nowrepresentedbythemiserablevillageoferRha.Itwas
thefirstcityconqueredbytheIsraelitesaftertheirpassageoftheJordan.Thecourseofevents,fromthesendingofthespiestothedestructionofAchanfor
infractionofthetabuonthespoil,istoowellknowntoneedrepetitionhere(seeJos17).Asmallhamletremainedonthesite,belongingtoBenjamin(Jos18:21),
whichwasinsignificantenoughforDavidsambassadorstoretireto,torecoverfromtheirinsultingtreatmentbyHanun(2S10:5,1Ch19:5).Thecitywasre
foundedbyHiel,aBethelite,whoapparentlyendeavouredtoavertthecursepronouncedbyJoshuaoverthesitebysacrificinghissons(1K16:34).Acollegeof
prophetswasshortlyafterwardsfoundedhere(2K2:4),forwhosebenefitElishahealeditsbitterwaters(v.18).HithertheIsraeliteswhohadraided
Judah,inthetimeofAhaz,restoredtheircaptivesontheadviceoftheprophetOded(2Ch28:15).HeretheBabyloniansfinallydefeatedZedekiah,thelastkingof
Judah,andsodestroyedtheJudahitekingdom(2K25:5,Jer39:5,52:8).Bacchides,thegeneraloftheSyriansintheMaccabanperiod,capturedandfortified
Jericho(1Mac9:50)Aristobulusalsotookit(Jos.Ant.XIV.i.2).PompeyencampedhereonhiswaytoJerusalem(ib.XIV.iv.1).Itsinhabitants,whomthegreat
heatoftheGhrhaddeprivedoffightingstrength,fledbeforeHerod(ib.XIV.xv.3)andVespasian(BJIV.viii.2).IntheGospelsJerichofiguresinthestoriesof
Bartimus(Mt20:29,Mk10:46,Lk18:35),Zacchus(Lk19:1),andtheGoodSamaritan(Lk10:30).
ThemodernerRhaisnotexactlyonthesiteofancientJericho,whichisacollectionofmoundsbesidethespringtraditionallyassociatedwithElisha.The
RomanandByzantinetownsarerepresentedbyothersitesintheneighbourhood.Ancientaqusducts,mills,andotherantiquitiesarenumerous,asarealsoremains
ofearlymonasticism.
Thesite,thoughunhealthyforman,isnotedforitsfertility.Josephus(BJIV.viii.3)speaksofitwithenthusiasm.Evenyetitisanimportantsourceoffruit
supply.ThedistrictroundJerichoisthepersonalpropertyoftheSultan.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
JERIEL.AchiefofIssachar(1Ch7:2).
JERIJAH(1Ch26:31).SeeJERIAH.
JERIMOTH.1,2.TwoBenjamites(1Ch7:7,12:5).3,4,5.ThreeLevites(1Ch24:30[calledin25:22Jeremoth]25:4,2Ch31:13).6.AsonofDavidand
fatherofRehoboamswife(2Ch11:18).
JERIOTH.OneofCalebswives(1Ch2:18),butalmostcertainlytheMTiscorrupt.
JEROBOAMisthenameoftwokingsofIsrael.
1.JeroboamI.wasthefirstkingofthenortherntribesafterthedivision.HisfirstappearanceinhistoryisasheadoftheforcedlabourersleviedbySolomon.
ThiswasperhapsbecausehewashereditarychiefinEphraim,butwemustalsosupposethatheattractedtheattentionofSolomonbyhisabilityandenergy.Atthe
sametimeheresentedthetyrannyoftheprincewhomheserved,andplottedtooverthrowit.ThedesigncametotheknowledgeofSolomon,andJeroboamfledto
Egypt.Onthekingsdeathhereturned,andalthoughhedidnotappearonthescenewhenthenortherntribesmadetheirdemandofRehoboam,hewasprobably
activelyenlistedinthemovement.WhentherefusalofRehoboamthrewthetribesintorevolt,Jeroboamappearedasleader,andwasmadeking(1K11:26ff.,12:1
14:20).Jeroboamwasawarlikeprince,andhostilitieswithJudahcontinuedthroughouthisreign.HiscountrywasplunderedbytheEgyptiansatthetimeoftheir
invasionofJudah.ItisnotclearlymadeoutwhetherhisfortificationofShechemandPenueiwassuggestedbytheexperiencesofthiscampaignornot.His
religiousmeasureshavereceivedthereprobationoftheBiblicalwriters,buttheywereintendedbyJeroboamtopleasetheGodofIsrael.Heembellishedthe
ancestralsanctuariesofBethelandDanwithgoldenbulls,incontinuanceofearlyIsraelitecustom.Itisfairtoassumealsothathehadprecedentforcelebratingthe
autumnfestivalintheeighthinsteadoftheseventhmonth.
2.JeroboamII.wasthegrandsonofJehu.InhistimeIsraelwasabletoassertitsancientvigouragainstitshereditaryenemySyria,andrecoveritslost
territory.ThiswasduetotheattacksoftheAssyriansuponthenorthernborderofDamascus(2K14:2329).ThetemporaryprosperityofIsraelwasaccompanied
bysocialandmoraldegeneracy,asissetforthdistinctlybyAmosandHosea.
H.P.S MITH.
JEROHAM.1.ThefatherofElkanahandgrandfatherofSamuel(1S1:1).2.ABenjamitefamilyname(1Ch8:27,9:8).3.Apriestlyfamily(1Ch9:12,Neh
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JEROHAM.1.ThefatherofElkanahandgrandfatherofSamuel(1S1:1).2.ABenjamitefamilyname(1Ch8:27,9:8).3.Apriestlyfamily(1Ch9:12,Neh
11:12).4.SonsofJerohamwereamongstDavidsheroes(1Ch12:7).5.ADanitechief(1Ch27:22).6.ThefatherofAzariah,whohelpedJehoiadainthe
overthrowofAthaliah(2Ch23:1).
JERUBBAAL.AnamegiventoGideon(Jg6:32,7:1,8:29,35,9:1,2,5,16,19,24,28,57).Itis=Baalstrives,BaalbeinganameforJ,asinIshbaal,
Meribbaalitcannot=onewhostriveswithBaal,asJg6:32wouldsuggest.ThisnamewasalteredtoJerubbesheth(besheth=shame)whenBaalcouldno
longerbeusedofJwithoutoffence(2S11:21)cf.Ishbosheth,Mephibosheth.
JERUBBESHETH.SeeJERUBBAAL.
JERUEL.ThepartofthewildernessofJudathatfacestheW.shoreoftheDeadSeabelowEngedi.ItwasherethatJehoshaphatencounteredagreathostof
thechildrenofMoab,Ammon,andothertransJordanictribes(2Ch20:16).
JERUSALEM
I.S ITUATION.JerusalemisthechieftownofPalestine,situatedin314645N.lat.and351325E.long.ItstandsonthesummitoftheridgeoftheJudan
mountains,atanelevationof2500feetabovethesealevel.Theelevatedplateauonwhichthecityisbuiltisintersectedbydeepvalleys,definingandsubdividing
it.
1.Thedefiningvalleysare:(1)theWadyenNr,theBiblicalValleyoftheKidronorof
Jehoshaphat,which,startingsomedistancenorthofthecity,runsatfirst(underthenameof
WadyelJz)inaS.E.directionitthenturnssouthwardanddeepensrapidly,separatingtheJerusalemplateaufromtheridgeoftheMountofOlivesontheeast
finally,itmeandersthroughthewildmountainsoftheJudandesert,andfindsitsexitontheW.sideoftheDeadSea.(2)AdeepcleftnowknownastheWadyer
Rabbi,andpopularlyidentifiedwiththeValleyofthesonofHinnom,whichcommencesonthewestsideofthecityandrunsdowntoandjoinstheWadyenNr
abouthalfamilesouthofthewallofthepresentcity.IntheforkofthegreatirregularYwhichthesetwovalleysform,thecityisbuilt.
2.ThechiefintersectingvalleyisoneidentifiedwiththeTyroponofJosephus,whichcommencesinsomeolivegardensnorthofthecity(betweentheforks
oftheY),runs,everdeepening,rightthroughthemoderncity,andfinallyenterstheWadyenNr,about1/8milsabovethemouthoftheWadyerRabbi.Thereis
alsoasmallerdepressionrunningaxiallyacrossthecityfromWesttoEast,intersectingtheTyroponatrightangles.Theseintersectingvalleysarenowalmost
completelyfilledupwiththeaccumulatedrubbishofaboutfourthousandyears,andbetraythemselvesonlybyslightdepressionsinthesurfaceoftheground.
3.BythesevalleysthesiteofJerusalemisdividedintofourquarters,eachonitsownhill.ThesehillsaretraditionallynamedAcra,Bezetha,Zion,andOphel,
intheN.W.,N.E.,S.W.,andS.E.respectivelyandOphelisfurthersubdivided(butwithoutanynaturallineofdivision)intoOphelproperandMoriah,thelatter
beingthenorthernandhigherend.Butitmustbenoticedcarefullyattheoutsetthataroundthesenamesthefiercestdiscussionshaveraged,manyofwhichareas
yetnotwithinsightofsettlement.
4.ThesiteofJerusalemisnotwellprovidedwithwater.TheonlynaturalsourceisanintermittentspringintheKidronValley,whichisinsufficienttosupply
thecitysneeds.Cisternshavebeenexcavatedforrainstoragefromtheearliesttimes,andwaterhasbeenledtothecitybyconduitsfromexternalsources,someof
themfardistant.Probablytheoldestknownconduitisachannelhewnintherock,enteringJerusalemfromthenorth.Another(thelowlevelaqueduct)is
traditionallyascribedtoSolomon:itbringswaterfromreservoirsbeyondBethlehemandathird(thehighlevelaqueduct)isofRomandate.Severalconduitsare
mentionedintheOT:theconduitoftheupperpool,inthehighwayofthefullersfield(Is7:3),whichhasnotbeenidentifiedtheconduitwherebyHezekiah
broughtthewatersofGihonstraightdownonthewestsideofthecityofDavid,alsoreferredtoastheconduitwherebyhebroughtwaterintothecity(2K
20:20,2Ch32:30),isprobablytobeidentifiedwiththeSiloamtunnel,famousforits(unfortunatelyundated)OldHebrewinscription.
II.HISTORY
1.Primitiveperiod.TheoriginofthecityofJerusalemislostinobscurity,andprobably,owingtothedifficultiesinthewayofexcavation,mustcontinueto
bematterofspeculation.ThefirstreferencethatmaypossiblybeconnectedwiththecityistheincidentofthemysteriousMelchizedek,kingofSalem(Gn14:18),
whohasbeenthecentreofmuchfutilespeculation,duetoalargeextenttomisunderstandingofthesymbolicuseofhisnamebytheauthorsofPs110(v.4)and
Hebrews(chs.57).ItisnotevencertainthattheSalemoverwhichthiscontemporaryofHammurabiruledistobeidentifiedwithJerusalem(seeS ALEM)thereis
nootherancientauthorityforthisnamebeingappliedtothecity.Wedonottouchsolidgroundtillsomeeightorninehundredyearslater,when,about1450,we
findAbdkhiba,kingofUrusalim,sendingletterstohisEgyptianoverlord,whichwerediscoveredwiththeTellelAmarnacorrespondence.Thecontentsofthese
lettersaretheusualmeagrerecordofmutualsquabblesbetweenthedifferentvillagecommunitiesofPalestine,andtosomeextenttheyraisequestionsratherthan
answerthem.SometheoriesthathavebeenbasedonexpressionsusedbyAbdkhiba,andsupposedtoilluminatetheMelchizedekproblem,arenowregardedasof
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answerthem.SometheoriesthathavebeenbasedonexpressionsusedbyAbdkhiba,andsupposedtoilluminatetheMelchizedekproblem,arenowregardedasof
novalueforthatdesirableend.ThechiefimportanceoftheTellelAmarnacorrespondence,sofarasJerusalemisconcerned,isthedemonstrationofthetrue
antiquityofthenameJerusalem.
WherewastheJerusalemofAbdkhibasituated?Thisquestion,whichisboundupwiththeauthenticityorotherwiseofthetraditionalZion,andaffectssuch
importanttopographicalandarchologicalquestionsasthesiteofDavidstomb,isoneofthemosthotlycontestedofallthemanyproblemsofthekindwhichhave
tobeconsideredbystudentsofJerusalem.Inanarticlelikethepresentitisimpossibletoenterintothedetailsofthecontroversyandtodiscussatlengththe
argumentsonbothsides.ButthemajorityofmodernscholarsarenowcomingtoanagreementthatthepreDavidicJerusalemwassituatedonthehillknownas
Ophel,thesoutheasternofthefourhillsaboveenumerated,inthespaceinterceptedbetweentheTyroponandKidronvalleys.Thisisthehillunderwhichisthe
onlynaturalsourceofwaterinthewholeareaofJerusalemtheVirginsFountain,anintermittentspringofbrackishwaterintheKidronValleyandupon
whichistheprincipalaccumulationofancientdbris,withancientpotteryfragmentsstrewnoverthesurface.Thishillwasopenforexcavationtillthreeorfour
yearsago,thoughcumberedwithvegetablegardenswhichwouldmakediggingexpensivebutlatelyhouseshavecommencedtobebuiltonitssurface.Atthe
upperpartofthehill,onthistheory,wecannotdoubtthatthehighplaceofthesubjectsofAbdkhibawouldbesituatedandthetraditionofthesanctityofthis
sectionofthecityhaslastedunchangedthroughallthevaryingoccupationsofthecityHebrew,Jewish,Byzantine,Arab,Crusader,andmodernMohammedan.
WhetherhisbethelandofMoriahofGn22:2isdoubtful:ithasbeensuggestedthatthenameishereacopyistserrorforlandofMidian,whichwouldbea
morenaturalplaceforJahwehworshipinthedaysofAbrahamthanwouldthehighplaceoftheguardiannumenofJerusalem.
IncertainBiblicalpassages(Jos18:28[butseeRV],Jg19:10,1Ch11:4)analternativename,Jebus,isgivenforthecityanditsinhabitantsarenamed
Jebusites,mentionedinmanyenumerationswiththerestoftheAmorites(Gn10:16,Ex23:23,Jos3:10etc.),andspeciallyassignedtothiscityinJg1:21.Untilthe
discoveryoftheTellelAmarnacorrespondenceitwassupposedthatJebuswastheprimitivenameofthecity,changedontheIsraeliteconquesttoJerusalembut
thishasbeenrendereduntenable,anditnowseemsprobablethatthenameofJebusisamerederivative,ofnoauthority,fromtheethnicJebusites,themeaningand
etymologyofwhicharestilltoseek.
CF.ART.JEBUS.AttheIsraeliteimmigrationthekingofJerusalemwasAdonizedek,
who headed a coalition against Gibeon for having made terms with Joshua. This king is generally equated with the otherwise unknown Adonibezek, whose
capture and mutilation are narrated in Jg 1:57 ( see Moores Judges, ad loc.). The statement that Judah burnt Jerusalem (Jg 1:8) is generally rejected as an
interpolationitremainedaJebusitecity(Jg1:21,19:11)untilitsconquestbyDavid.AccordingtothecadastreofJoshua,itwastheoreticallyjustwithinthesouth
borderofthetribeofBenjamin(Jos15:8,18:16,28).
2.DavidandSolomon.ThecityremainedforeigntotheIsraelites(Jg19:11)untiltheendoftheperiodof71/2yearswhichDavidreignedinHebron,when
hefelthimselfpowerfulenoughtoattacktheJebusitestronghold.Thepassagedescribinghiscaptureofthecityis2S5:410,andfewpassagesinthehistorical
booksoftheOldTestamentaremoreobscure,owingpartlytotextualcorruptionandpartlytotopographicalallusionscleartothewriter,butveiledindarknessfor
us.ItappearsthattheJebusites,trustinginthestrengthoftheirgates,threwtauntstotheIsraelitekingthattheblindandthelamewouldbeenoughtokeephim
outandthatDavidretortedbyapplyingthetermtothedefendersofthecity:Goupthedrain,hesaidtohisfollowers,andsmitethoseblindandlameones.He
evidentlyrecognizedtheimpregnabilityofthedefencesthemselvesbutdiscoveredandutilizedaconvenientdrain,whichledundergroundintothemiddleofthe
city.AsimilardrainwasfoundintheexcavationatGezer,withadeviceinthemiddletopreventitsbeingusedforthispurpose.Duringtherevoltofthefellahn
againstIbrahimPashain1834,Jerusalem,oncemorebesieged,wasenteredthroughadraininthesameway.ItneedhardlybesaidthatDavids,gutterhasnot
yetbeenidentifiedwithcertainty.
IftheidentificationoftheJebusitecitywithOphelbeadmitted,wecannotfailtoidentifyitalsowiththecityofDavid,inwhichhedwelt(2S5:9).Butwhen
wereadfurtherthatDavidbuiltroundaboutfromMilloandinwardweareperplexedbyourtotalignoranceastowhat
Millomayhavebeen,andwhereitmayhavebeensituated.ThewordisbytheLXXrenderedAcra,andthesamewordisusedbyJosephus.Thepositionofthe
AcraisaquestionasmuchdisputedasthepositionoftheJebusitecity,anditisoneforwhichfarlesslightcanbeobtainedfromanexaminationofthegroundthan
inthecaseoftheotherproblemmentioned.AssoonasDavidhadestablishedhimselfinhisnewsurroundings,hisfirstcarewastobringthearkof
Jahwehintothecity(2S6),buthisdesiretoerectapermanentbuildingforitsreceptionwasfrustratedbyNathantheprophet(2S7).ThesiteoftheTemplewas
chosen,namely,thethreshingfloorofAraunah(2S24:16)orOrnan(1Ch21:15),oneoftheoriginalJebusiteinhabitants,andpreparationsweremadeforits
erection.
AssoonasSolomonhadcometothethroneandquelledtheabortiveattemptsofrivals,hecommencedtheworkofbuildingtheTempleinthesecondmonthof
thefourthyearofhisreign,andfinisheditintheeighthmonthofhiseleventhyear(1K6).Hisroyalpalaceoccupiedthirteenyears(1K7:1).Theseerectionswere
notinthecityofDavid(1K9:24),whichoccupiedthelowerslopesofOpheltothesouth,butonthesummitofthesamehill,wheretheirplaceisnowtakenby
theMohammedanNobleSanctuary.Besidestheseworks,wherebyJerusalemreceivedagloryithadneverpossessedbefore,SolomonbuiltMillo,whateverthat
mayhavebeen(1K9:24),andthewallofJerusalem(9:15),andclosedupthebreachofthecityofDavid(11:27),thelatterprobablyreferringtoanextensionof
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mayhavebeen(1K9:24),andthewallofJerusalem(9:15),andclosedupthebreachofthecityofDavid(11:27),thelatterprobablyreferringtoanextensionof
theareaofthecitywhichinvolvedthepullingdownandrebuildingelsewhereofasectionofthecitywalls.
3.TheKingsofJudah.InthefifthyearofRehoboam,JerusalemsustainedthefirstsiegeithadsufferedafterDavidsconquest,beingbeleagueredby
Shishak,kingofEgypt(1K14:25),whotookawaythetreasuresoftheTempleandoftheroyalhouse.Rehoboamprovidedcoppersubstitutesforthegoldthus
lost.TheroyalhousewasagainpillagedbyacoalitionofPhilistinesandArabs(2Ch21:16)inthetimeofJehoram.Shortlyafterwardstookplacethestirringevents
oftheusurpationofAthaliahandhersubsequentexecution(2K11).HersuccessorJoashorJehoashdistinguishedhimselfbyhisrepairoftheTemple(2K12)but
hewasobligedtobuyoffHazael,kingofSyria,andpersuadedhimtoabandonhisprojectedattackonthecapitalbyagiftofthegoldoftheTemple(2K12:18).
Soonafterwards,however,JehoashofIsraelcamedownuponJerusalem,breachedthewall,andlootedtheroyalandsacredtreasuries(2K14:14).Thisevent
taughtthelessonoftheweaknessofthecity,bywhichthepowerfulkingUzziahprofited.In2Ch26:9,15istherecordofhisfortifyingthecitywithadditional
towersandballistastheworkofstrengtheningthefortificationswascontinuedbyJotham(2K15:35,2Ch27:3).Thanksprobablytotheseprecautions,anattack
onJerusalembythekingsofSyriaandofIsrael,inthenextreign(Ahazs),provedabortive(2K16:5).HezekiahstillfurtherpreparedJerusalemforthestruggle
whichheforesawfromtheadvancingpowerofAssyria,andtohim,asisgenerallybelieved,isduetheengineeringworknowfamousastheSiloamTunnel,
wherebywaterwasconductedfromthespringintheKidronValleyoutsidethewallstothereservoiratthebottomoftheTyroponinsidethem.Byanothergift
fromtheapparentlyinexhaustibleroyalandsacredtreasures,HezekiahendeavouredtokeepSennacheribfromanattackonthecapital(2K18:13)buttheattack,
threatenedbyinsultingwordsfromtheemissariesofSennacherib,wasfinallyavertedbyamysteriouscalamitythatbefelltheAssyrianarmy(2K19:35).By
allianceswithEgypt(Is36:6)andBabylon(ch.39)Hezekiahattemptedtostrengthenhisposition.ManassehbuiltanouterwalltothecityofDavid,andmade
otherfortifications(2Ch33:14).InthereignofJosiahtheBookoftheLawwasdiscovered,andthekingdevotedhimselftotherepairsoftheTempleandthemoral
reformationwhichthatdiscoveryinvolved(2K22).ThedeathofJosiahatMegiddowasdisastrousforthekingdomofJudah,andhewassucceededbyaseriesof
pettykinglings,allofthempuppetsinthehandsoftheEgyptianorBabylonianmonarchs.ThefallofJerusalemcouldnotbelongdelayed.Nebuchadnezzarof
Babyloncapturedandlootedit,andcarriedawaycaptivefirstJehoiachin(2K24:12),andfinallyZedekiah,thelastkingofJudah(ch.25).
TheaspectandareaoftheJerusalemcapturedbyNebuchadnezzarmusthavebeenverydifferentfromthatconqueredabout420yearsbeforebyDavid.Thereis
nodirectevidencethatDavidfoundhousesatallonthehillnowknownasZionbutthecitymustrapidlyhavegrownunderhimandhiswealthysuccessorandin
thetimeofthelaterHebrewkingsincludednodoubtthesocalledZionhillaswell.ThatitalsoincludedthemodernAcraisproblematical,aswehaveno
informationastothepositionofthenorthwallinpreexilictimesanditiscertainthatthequitemodernquartercommonlycalledBezethawasnotoccupied.Tothe
southamuchlargerareawasbuiltonthanisincludedinmodernJerusalem:theancientwallhasbeentracedtothevergeoftheWadyerRabbi.Thedestructionby
Nebuchadnezzarandthedeportationofthepeoplewerecomplete:thecitywasleftinruins,andonlythepoorestofthepeoplewerelefttocarryontheworkof
agriculture.
4.TheReturn.WhenthelastSemitickingofBabylon,Nabonidus,yieldedtoCyrus,therepresentativesoftheancientkingdomofJudahwere,throughthe
favourofCyrus,permittedtoreestablishthemselvesintheiroldhomeandtorebuildtheTemple.TheBooksofEzraandNehemiaharetherecordoftheworksthen
undertaken,theformerbeingspeciallyconcernedwiththerestorationoftheTempleandthereligiousobservances,thelatterwiththereconstructionofthe
fortificationsofthecity.
TheBookofNehemiahcontainsthefullestaccountthatwehaveofthefortificationsofJerusalem,andithasbeenthemostcarefullystudiedofanysourceof
informationonthesubject.ApaperbyProf.H.G.MitchellontheWallofJerusalemaccordingtoNehemiah(intheJBLfor1903,p.85)isamodelofexhaustive
treatment.CarefulcomparisonismadethereinbetweenthestatementsofNehemiahandtheresultsofexcavation.Wecannotheregointoalltheargumentsbrought
forwardfortheidentifications,buttheyseemconclusive.StartingattheheadoftheWadyerRabbi(ValleyofHinnomsocalled),wefindattheS.W.cornerofthe
wallarockscarpwhichseemstohavebeenpreparedforastrongtower,identifiedwiththetowerofthefurnaces(Neh3:11).ThencomestheValleygate,which
hasbeenfoundhalfwaydownthevalley(Neh3:13).Atthebottomofthevalley,whereitjoinedtheKidron,wastheDunggate(Neh3:15),outsideofwhichwas
foundwhatappearstohavebeenacesspit.Turningnorthward,wefindtheFountaingate(Neh3:13)incloseproximitytothemadepool,i.e.thepoolofSiloam
atthefootoftheTyroponValleyandtheWatergateonOphel,overtheVirginsFountain.Thegatesonthenortheastandnorthsidesofthewallcannotbe
identified,asthecourseofthatparthasnotbeendefinitelydetermined.Theyseemtohavebeen,inorder,theHorsegatetheEastgate,thegateHammiphkad
(theappointed?),afterwhichcamethecornerofthewall.ThenonthenorthsidefollowedtheSheepgate,theFishgate,and,somewhereonthenorthornorth
westside,theOldgate.ProbablytheEphraimandCornergates(2K14:13)weresomewhereinthisneighbourhood.Besidesthesegates,theTemplewas
providedwithentrances,someofwhosenamesarepreservedbuttheiridentificationisanevenmorecomplexproblemthanthatofthecitygates.Suchwerethe
gateSurandtheGateoftheguard(2K11:6),theShallechethgateatthewest(lCh26:16),Parbar(26:18),andtheEastgate(Ezk11:1).TheBeautifulgate,of
Ac3:10wasprobablythesameastheNicanorgate,betweentheWomensandthePriestsCourt:itisalludedtointheepitaphofthedonor,Nicanor,recently
discoveredatJerusalem.
5.FromAlexandertheGreattotheMaccabees.BythebattleofIssus(B.C.333)
AlexandertheGreatbecamemasterofPalestineandthePersiansuzerainty,underwhichtheJewshadenjoyedprotectionandfreedomtofollowtheirownrites, 30/124
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AlexandertheGreatbecamemasterofPalestineandthePersiansuzerainty,underwhichtheJewshadenjoyedprotectionandfreedomtofollowtheirownrites,
cametoanend.AlexandersdeathwasthesignalforthelongandcomplicatedstrugglebetweentheSeleucidsandthePtolemys,betweenwhomJerusalempassed
morethanonce.Oneresultoftheforeigninfluencesthusbroughttobearonthecitywastheestablishmentofinstitutionshithertounknown,suchasagymnasium.
ThisleavenofGreekcustoms,and,wecannotdoubt,ofGreekreligionalso,wasdisquietingtothoseconcernedforthemaintenanceofDeuteronomicpurity,and
theunrestwasfannedintorevoltin168,whenAntiochusEpiphanessethimselftodestroytheJewishreligion.
ThedesecrationoftheTemple,andtheattempttoforcetheJewstosacrificetopagandeities(1
Mac1:2),ledtotherebellionheadedbytheMaccabanfamily,wherein,aftermanyvicissitudes,theshortlivedHasmonandynastywasestablishedatJerusalem.
Internaldissensionswreckedthefamily.TosettleasquabbleastothesuccessorofAlexanderJannus,theRomanpowerwascalledin.Pompeybesieged
Jerusalem,andprofanedtheTemple,whichwaslaterpillagedbyCrassusandinB.C.47theHasmonansweresupersededbytheIdumandynastyoftheHerods,
theirfounderAntipaterbeingestablishedasrulerofPalestineinrecognitionofhisservicestoJuliusCsar.
6.HerodtheGreat.HerodtheGreatandhisbrotherPhasaelsucceededtheirfatherinB.C.43,andin40HerodbecamegovernorofJuda.Afterabrief
exile,owingtotheusurpationoftheHasmonanAntigonus,hereturned,andcommencedtorebuildJerusalemonascaleofgrandeursuchashadneverbeen
knownsinceSolomon.Amonghisworks,whichwecanonlycataloguehere,weretheroyalpalacethethreetowersHippicus,Phasaelus(namedafterhis
brother),andAntoniaatheatreand,aboveall,theTemple.Ofthesestructuresnothingremains,sofarasisknown,ofthepalaceorthetheatre,ortheHippicus
tower:thebaseofPhasaelus,commonlycalledDavidstower,isincorporatedwiththecitadellargefragmentsofthetowerAntoniaremainincorporatedinthe
barracksandotherbuildingsofthesocalledViaDolorosa,thestreetwhichleadsthroughthecityfromtheSt.Stephensgate,northoftheTempleenclosure:while
oftheTempleitselfmuchremainsinthesubstructures,andprobablymuchmorewouldbefoundwereexcavationpossible.SeeTEMPLE.
7.FromthetimeofChristtothedestructionofJerusalem.TheeventsinthelifeofChrist,insofarastheyaffectJerusalem,aretheonlydetailsofinterest
knowntousfortheyearssucceedingthedeathofHerodinB.C.4.Theseweneednotdwelluponhere,butawordmayfitlybespokenregardingthecentral
problemofJerusalemtopography,thesiteoftheHolySepulchre.Theauthenticityofthetraditionalsitefallsatonce,ifitlieinsidethenorthwallofJerusalemasit
wasinChriststime,forChristsufferedandwasburiedwithoutthewalls.Butthisispreciselywhatcannotbedetermined,asthelineofthewall,whereveritmay
havebeen,isdenselycoveredwithhousesanditisverydoubtfulwhethersuchfragmentsofwallashavefromtimetotimebeenfoundindiggingfoundations
haveanythingtodowitheachother,orwiththecityrampart.AprioriitdoesnotseemprobablethatthetraditionalsiteoftheHolySepulchreshouldhavebeen
withoutthewalls,foritassumesthatthesemadeadeepreentrantangleforwhichthenatureofthegroundoffersnojustification,andwhichwouldbesingularly
foolishstrategically.TheidentificationofthesitecannotwithcertaintybetracedbackearlierthanHelenaand,thoughshevisitedJerusalemasearlyas326,yetit
mustnotbeforgottenthatinendeavouringthentofindthetombofChrist,withoutdocumentstoguideher,shewasinashopelessapositionasamanwhounder
similiarcircumstancesshouldatthepresentyearendeavourtofindthetombofShakespeare,ifthathappenedtobeunknown.Indeed,Helenawasevenworseoff
thanthehypotheticalinvestigator,forthepopulation,andpresumablythetradition,havebeencontinuousinStratfordonAvon,whichcertainlywasnotthecase
withJerusalemfromA.D.30to326.Afortioritheseremarksapplytotherivalsitesthatinmorerecentyearshavebeensuggested.ThesocalledGordonsCalvary
andsimilarfantasticidentificationswecandismissatoncewiththeremarkthattheargumentsintheirfavourarefatuousthatpowerfulargumentscanbeadduced
againstthemthattheycannotevenclaimtheminordistinctionofhavingbeenhallowedbythedevotionofsixteencenturiesandthat,inshort,theyareentirely
unworthyofthesmallestconsideration.TheonlydocumentsnearlycontemporarywiththecrucifixionandentombmentaretheGospels,whichsupplynodata
sufficientfortheidentificationofthescenesoftheseevents.Exceptinthehighlyimprobableeventofaninscriptionbeingatsometimefoundwhichshallidentify
them,wemayrestinthecertaintythattheexactsitesneverhavebeen,andneverwillbe,identified.
InA.D.35,PontiusPilatewasrecalledAgrippa(4144A.D.)builtanouterwall,thelineofwhichisnotknownwithcertainty,onthenorthsideofthecity,and
underhisruleJerusalemgrewandprospered.HissonAgrippabuiltapalace,andinA.D.64finishedtheTemplecourts.In66theJewsendeavouredtorevoltagainst
theRomanyoke,andbroughtonthemselvesthefinaldestructionwhichwasinvolvedinthegreatsiegeandfallofJerusaleminA.D.70.
8.FromthedestructionofJerusalemtotheArabconquest.Theeventsfollowingmustbemorebrieflyenumerated.In134therebellionoftheJews
underBarCochbawascrushedbyHadrian,andthelasttracesofJudaismextinguishedfromthecity,whichwasrebuiltasapaganRomantownunderthenameof
liaCapitolina.By333theJewshadacquiredtherightofvisitingannuallyandlamentingoverthepiercedstoneonwhichtheiraltarhadbeenerected.Under
Constantine,Christianitywasestablished,andthegreatfloodofpilgrimagebegan.Julianin362attemptedtorebuildtheTemplesomenaturalphenomenon
ingeniouslyexplainedastheexplosionofaforgottenstoreofnaphtha,suchaswasfoundsomeyearsagoinanotherpartofthecitypreventedhim.In450the
EmpressEudociaretiredtoJerusalemandrepairedthewallsshebuiltachurchoverthePoolofSiloam,whichwasdiscoveredbyexcavationsomeyearsago.In
532Justinianerectedimportantbuildings,fragmentsofwhichremainincorporatedwiththemosquebuttheseandotherChristianbuildingswereruinedin614by
thedestroyingkingChosrosII.AshortbreathingspacewasallowedtheChristiansafterthisstorm,andthentheyoungstrengthofIslamsweptoverthem.In637
OmarconqueredJerusalemafterafourmonthssiege.
9.FromtheArabconquesttothepresentday.Underthecomparativelyeasyruleofthe
OmeyyadCalifs,ChristiansdidnotsufferseverelythoughexcludedfromtheTemplearea
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OmeyyadCalifs,ChristiansdidnotsufferseverelythoughexcludedfromtheTemplearea
(whereAbdelMelekbuilthisbeautifuldomein688),theywerefreetousetheBasilicaoftheHolySepulchre.This,however,couldnotlastunderthefanatical
Fatimites,ortheSeljukswhosucceededthemandthesufferingsoftheChristiansledtothatextraordinaryseriesofpiraticalinvasions,commonlycalledthe
Crusades,bywhichPalestinewasharriedforaboutahundredyears,andtheundyingtraditionofwhichwillretardindefinitelythefinaltriumphofChristianityover
theArabrace.ThecountrywashappilyridofthedegradedanddegradingLatinkingdomin1187,whenJerusalemfelltoSaladin.Forabriefinterval,from1229to
1244,theGermanChristiansheldthecitybytreatybutin1244theKharezmianmassacreswallowedupthelastrelicsofChristianoccupation.In1517itwas
conqueredbySultanSelimI.,andsincethenithasbeenaTurkishcity.ThepresentwallswereerectedbySuleimantheMagnificent(1542).Inrecentyearsthe
populationhasenormouslyincreased,owingtotheestablishmentofJewishrefugeecoloniesandvariouscommunitiesofEuropeansettlerstherehasalsobeenan
extraordinarydevelopmentofmonasticlifewithinandaroundthecity.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
JERUSHA(2K15:33=JERUSHAH2Ch27:1).MotherofJothamkingofJudah.
JESAIAS.SeeJESHAIAH,4.
JESHAIAH.1.AgrandsonofZerubbabel(1Ch3:21).2.OneofthesonsofJeduthun(1
Ch25:3,15).3.ALevite(1Ch26:25).4.ThechiefoftheBenElamwhoreturned(Ezr8:7[1Es8:33Jesaias]).5.ChiefoftheMerarites(Ezr8:19[1Es8:48
Osaias]).6.ABenjamite(Neh
11:7).
JESHANAH.AtowntakenfromJeroboambyAbijah(2Ch13:19).ItisthemodernAinSnia,about31/4milesnorthofBethel.
JESHARELAH.SeeASHARELAH.
JESHEBEAB.ALevite,theheadofthefourteenthcourse(1Ch24:13).
JESHER.AsonofCaleb(1Ch2:18).
JESHIMON.Thisword,derivedfromaHeb.rootmeaningtobewasteordesolate,isusedeitherasacommonnoun(=desert,wilderness)or(withthe
art.,theJeshimon)asapropername(Nu21:20,23:28,1S23:19,24,26:1,3).InthelatterusagethereferenceiseithertothewastecountryintheJordanvalley
N.oftheDeadSeaandeastoftheriver(soapparentlyinNumbers),ortotheeasternpartofthehillcountryofJudahonthewesternshoreoftheDeadSea(so1
Sam.).
JESHISHAI.AGaditefamily(1Ch5:14).
JESHOHAIAH.ASimeonitefamily(1Ch4:36).
JESHUA(anotherformofJoshua).1.JoshuathesonofNun(Neh8:17).2.Theheadoftheninthcourseofpriests(1Ch24:11).3.ALeviteinthetimeof
Hezekiah(2Ch31:15).4.AmanofthehouseofPahathmoabwhosedescendantsreturnedwithZerub.(Ezr2:6,Neh7:11[1Es5:11Jesus])perhapsidentical
withNo.2above.5.ALeviticalhouseoritssuccessiveheadsinthetimesofZerub.,Ezra,andNehemiahmentionedinconnexionwiththebuildingoftheTemple
(Ezr3:9),theexplanationoftheLaw(Neh8:7,cf.9:4f.),andthesealingofthecovenant(10:9).Cf.alsoEzr2:40[1Es5:26Jesus]8:33[1Es8:63Jesus],Neh
7:43,12:8,24.6.ThehighpriestwhoalongwithZerub.headedthefirstbandofexiles.InEzr.andNeb.heiscalledJeshua,inHag.andZec.Joshua.Hetooka
leadingpartintheerectionofthealtarofburntofferingandthelayingofthefoundationsoftheTemple(Ezr3:2ff.).InHag.andZec.heisfrequentlycoupledwith
Zerub.,aftertheseprophetshadbeguntostimulatethepeopletoundertakebuildingoperationsinearnest(Hag1:1,12,14,Zec3:1ff.,6:10,11).Heiseulogizedin
Sir49:12[Jesus],7.Apriestlyfamily,Ezr2:36=Neh7:39=1Es5:24[Jesus].8.AtowninthesouthofJudah(Neh11:26).ThesiteispossiblyattheruinSawi
westofTettAradandsouthofAttr.
JESHURUN.ApoeticorapetnameforIsraelwhichoccursfourtimesintheOT(Dt
32:15,33:5,26,Is44:2).Itisfoundinthelaterwritings,andrepresentsapatrioticfeelingthat
Israelwas=yasharEi,theuprightofGod.Ifthisbeso,thenwemayaccepttherenderingofJeshurunastherighteouslittlepeople.InBalaamselegy,Letme32/124
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Israelwas=yasharEi,theuprightofGod.Ifthisbeso,thenwemayaccepttherenderingofJeshurunastherighteouslittlepeople.InBalaamselegy,Letme
diethedeathoftherighteousseemstorefertotheIsraeloftheprecedingclause,andinPs83:1thethoughtwhichunderliesJeshurunappears,ifweadoptthe
temptingreading:TrulyGodisgoodtotheupright.W.F.COBB.
JESIAS(1Es8:33)=Ezr8:7Jeshaiah.
JESIMIEL.TheeponymofaSimeonitefamily(1Ch4:36).
JESSE(morecorrectlyJishai,cf.,asregardsformation,Ittaiperhapsanabbreviatedformthemeaningofthenameisquiteuncertain).ABethlehemite,best
knownasthefatherofDavid.Theearliesthistoricalmentionofhim(1S17:12seeDAVID,1)representshimasalreadyanoldman.Onthisoccasionhesends
DavidtotheIsraelitecampwithprovisionsforhisbrothersthiswasdestinedtobealongseparationbetweenJesseandhisson,forafterDavidsvictoryoverthe
PhilistinegiantheentereddefinitelyintoSaulsservice.Therearetwootheraccounts,eachofwhichpurportstomentionJesseforthefirsttime:1S16:1ff.,in
whichSamuelissenttoBethlehemtoanointDavidand1S16:18,inwhichJessessonissentfortoplaytheharpbeforeSaul.NothingfurtherisheardofJesse
untilwereadofhimandhishousecomingtoDavidinthecaveofAdullamDavidthenbringshisfatherandmothertoMizpehofMoab,andentruststhemto
thecareofthekingofMoab(1S22:3,4).Thisisthelastwehearofhim.InIs11:1thestockofJesseismentionedasthatfromwhichtheMessiahistoissuethe
thoughtprobablybeingthatofthehumbledescentoftheMessiahascontrastedwithHisgloriousKingdomwhichistobe.
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
JESUS,theGr.formofthenameJoshuaorJeshua,isemployedasadesignationof1.JoshuathesonofNun(AVof1Mac2:55,2Es7:37,Sir46:1,Ac7:45,
He4:8,inallofwhichpassagesRVhasJoshua).2.1Es5:11=JeshuaofEzr2:6andNeh7:11.3.1Es5:24=JeshuaofEzr2:36andNeh7:39.4.Jeshua
(Joshua),thehighpriest(1Es5:5,8,48,56,68,70,6:2,9:19,Sir49:12).5.ALevite(1Es5:26,58,8:63,9:48)whoinEzr2:40,3:9iscalledJeshua.6.An
ancestorofourLord(Lk3:29RV,whereAVhasJose).7.Jesus,sonofSirach.8.JesuscalledJustus,aJewishChristianresidinginRome,salutedbySt.Paulin
Col4:11.9.Seenextarticle.
JESUSCHRIST.ThereisnohistoricaltaskwhichismoreimportantthantosetforththelifeandteachingofJesusChrist,andnonetowhichitissodifficult
todojustice.TheimportanceofthethemeissufficientlyattestedbythefactthatitisfelttobeHisduetoreckonanewerafromthedateofHisbirth.Fromthepoint
ofviewofChristianfaiththereisnothingintimeworthytobesetbesidethedeedsandthewordsofOnewhoisadoredasGodmanifestintheflesh,andthe
Saviouroftheworld.Intheperspectiveofuniversalhistory.HisinfluencerankswithGreekcultureandRomanlawasoneofthethreemostvaluableelementsin
theheritagefromtheancientworld,whileitsurpassestheseotherfactorsinthespiritualqualityofitseffects.Ontheotherhand,thesuperlativetaskhasitspeculiar
difficulties.ItisquitecertainthatamodernEuropeanmakesmanymistakeswhentryingtoreproducetheconditionsofthedistantprovinceofOrientalantiquityin
whichJesuslived.Theliterarydocuments,moreover,areofnogreatcompass,andarereticentorobscureinregardtomanymatterswhichareofcapitalinterestto
themodernbiographer.Andwheneruditionhasdoneitsbestwiththeprimaryandauxiliarysources,thehistorianhasstilltoputtheheartsearchingquestion
whetherhepossessesthequalificationsthatwouldenablehimtounderstandthecharacter,theexperience,andthepurposeofJesus.Hewhowouldworthilywrite
theLifeofJesusChristmusthaveapendippedintheimaginativesympathyofapoet,intheprophetsfire,intheartistscharmandgrace,andinthereverenceand
purityofthesaint(Stewart,TheLifeofChrist,1906,p.vi.).
1.TheLiterarySources
(A)CANONICAL
(1)TheGospelsandtheirpurpose.ItisnowgenerallyagreedthattheGospelaccordingtoMk.istheoldestofthefour.BeginningwiththeBaptismofJesus,
itgivesasketchofHisPublic
Ministry,withspecimensofHisteaching,andcarriesthenarrativetothemorningoftheResurrection.Theoriginalconclusionhasbeenlost,buttherecanbeno
doubtthatitwentontorelateatleastcertainGalilanappearancesoftherisenLord.ThisGospelsuppliesmostofourknowledgeofthelifeofJesus,butitsmain
concernistobringouttheinnermeaningandthereligiousvalueofthestory.Itis,inshort,ahistorywrittenwiththepurposeofdemonstratingthatJesuswasthe
expectedMessiah.InproofofthisitissufficienttopointoutthatitdescribesitselfattheoutsetassettingforththegospelofJesusChrist,theSonofGod(Mk1:1),
thatthefaithofthedisciplesculminatesinPetersconfessionthatHeistheChrist(8:29),thatthegroundofHiscondemnationisthatHeclaimstobetheChrist,the
SonoftheBlessed(14:61,62),andthattheaccusationwrittenoverHiscrossisTheKingoftheJews(15:26).
TheGospelaccordingtoMt.isnowusuallyregardedasasecondandenlargededitionofanApostolicoriginal.Theearlierversion,knownastheLogiaonthe
groundofanoteofPapias(Euseb.HEiii.39),wasacollectionoftheMemorabiliaofJesus.AstheLogiaconsistedmainlyofthesayingsofourLord,thelater
editorcombineditwiththenarrativeofMk.inordertosupplyamorecompletepictureoftheMinistry,andatthesametimeaddedfreshmaterialfromindependent
sources.Itsdidacticpurpose,likethatofMk.,istoexhibitJesusastheMessiah,anditsupportstheargumentbycitingnumerousinstancesofthefulfilmentinthe 33/124
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sources.Itsdidacticpurpose,likethatofMk.,istoexhibitJesusastheMessiah,anditsupportstheargumentbycitingnumerousinstancesofthefulfilmentinthe
lifeofJesusofOTprediction.ItissometimesdescribedastheGospeloftheJewishChristiansanditappearstohaveaddresseditselfspeciallytothedifficulties
whichtheyfeltinviewofthedestructionofJerusalem.CouldJesus,theymaywellhaveasked,betheMessiah,seeingthatHismissionhadissued,notinthe
deliveranceofIsrael,butinitsruin?InanswertothistheGospelmakesitplainthattheoverthrowoftheJewishStatewasapunishmentwhichwasforeseenby
Jesus,andalsothatHehadbecometheheadofavasterandmoregloriouskingdomthanthatofwhich,asJewishpatriots,theyhadeverdreamed(28:1820).
TheGospelaccordingtoLukeisalsodependentonMk.forthegeneralframework,andderivesfromtheoriginalMt.alargebodyoftheteaching.Itfollowsa
differentauthorityfromMt.fortheNativity,andtosomeextentgoesitsownwayinthehistoryofthePassionwhilethegreatinterpolation(9:5118:14),madein
partfromitsspecialsource,formsapricelessadditiontotheSynopticmaterial.Lk.approachedhistaskinamoreconsciouslyscientificspiritthanhispredecessors,
andrecognizedanobligationtosupplydates,andtosketchinthepoliticalbackgroundofthebiography(2:2,3:1,23).Butforhimalsothemainbusinessofthe
historianwastoemphasizethereligioussignificanceoftheevents,andthatbyexhibitingJesusastheSaviouroftheworld,theFriendofsinners.Heisspecially
interested,asthecompanionanddiscipleofSt.Paul,inincidentsandsayingswhichillustratethegraciousnessandtheuniversalityofthegospel.Prominenceis
giventotherejectionofJesusbyNazarethandJerusalem(4:1630,19:4144),andtoHisdiscoveryamongtheGentilesofthefaithforwhichHesought(17:18,
19).ItisalsocharacteristicthatLk.givesafullaccountofthebeginningsofthemissionaryactivityoftheChurch(10:120).
TheauthoroftheFourthGospelmakesconsiderableuseofthenarrativesoftheSynoptists,butalsosuggeststhattheiraccountisinimportantrespects
defective,andincertainparticularserroneous.Theseriousdefect,fromtheJohanninepointofview,isthattheyrepresentGalileeastheexclusivesceneofthe
Ministryuntilshortlybeforetheend,andthattheyknownothingofaseriesofvisits,extendingovertwoyears,whichJesusmadetoJerusalemandJudain
fulfilmentofHismission.ThattherewasadesigntocorrectaswellastosupplementappearsfromthedisplacementoftheCleansingoftheTemplefromthecloseto
thebeginningoftheMinistry,andfromtheemphaticwayinwhichattentionisdrawntotheaccurateinformationastothedayandthehouroftheCrucifixion.And
stillmoredesignedlythanintheearlierGospelsisthehistoryusedasthevehicleforthedisclosureofthesecretandthegloryofthePersonofJesus.Thepredicate
oftheMessiahisreaffirmed,andastheSaviourHeappearsinthemostsublimeandtendercharacters,buttheProloguefurnishesthekeytotheinterpretationofHis
Personinatitlewhichimportsthehighestconceivabledignityoforigin,being,andprerogative:
InthebeginningwastheWord,andtheWordwaswithGod,andtheWordwasGod.AndtheWordbecameflesh,anddweltamongus(andwebeheldhisglory,
gloryasoftheonlybegottenfromtheFather),fullofgraceandtruth(1:1,14).
TrustworthinessoftheGospels.ItisimpossibletoproceedontheviewthatwepossessfourbiographiesofJesuswhich,beinggivenbyinspiration,areabsolutelyimmunefrom
error.ThemeansbywhichtheywerebroughtintoshapewasverydifferentfromthemethodofDivinedictation.TheEvangelistswereseverelylimitedtothehistoricaldatawhich
reachedthembyordinarychannels.Theycopied,abridged,andamplifiedearlierdocuments,andonedocumentwhichwasfreelyhandledinthisfashionbyMt.andLk.was
canonicalMk.Thatmistakeshavebeenmadeastomattersoffactisprovedbytheoccurrenceofconflictingaccountsofthesameevents,andbytheuncertaintyastotheorderof
eventswhichisoftenpalpableinMt.andMk.,andwhichtosomeextentbaffledLk.inhisattempttotracethecourseofallthingsaccurately.Thereisalsoconsiderablediversity
inthereportofmanyofourLordssayings,whichcompelsustoconcludethatthereportismoreorlessinaccurate.Whethergivingeffecttotheirownconvictions,orreproducing
changeswhichhadbeenmadebythemindoftheChurchontheoraltradition,writerscolouredandalteredtosomeextentthesayingsofourLord.AtthesametimetheSynoptics,
whentestedbyordinarycanons,mustbepronouncedtobeexcellentauthorities.TheymaybedatedwithinaperiodoffortytofiftyyearsafterthedeathofChristMk.about A. D.
69,Mt.and(probably)Lk.notlaterthan A. D.80.ThegreatmassoftheSynopticGospelshadassumeditspermanentshapenotlaterthanthedecade A. D.6070,andthechanges
whichitunderwentafterthegreatcatastropheofthefallofJerusalemwerebutsmall,andcanwithoutdifficultyberecognized(Sanday, Outlines).Further,thatGospelscomposed
inthesecondgenerationcanbetrustedtohavereproducedtheoriginaltestimonywithgeneralaccuracymaybeheldontwogrounds.Thereiseveryreasontobelievethe
ecclesiasticaltraditionsthatthecontentsoforiginalMt.werecompiledbyoneoftheTwelve,andthatthereminiscencesofPeterformedthestapleofMk.(Euseb.HEiii.39).Itis
alsocertainthattheSynopticmaterialwasusedthroughouttheinterveningperiodintheChristianmeetingsforworship,andthememoryofwitnessesmustthushavebeenina
positiontoensurethecontinuityofthereport,andtocheckanyseriousdeviationsfromtheoldesttestimony.Thegeneraltrustworthinessisfurthersupportedbytheconsiderationof
theoriginalityoftheSynopticpictureofJesusandHisteaching.ThecharacterofJesus,andtheactsinwhichitisrevealed,formawholewhichhastheunmistakablestampof
historicalreality,andforbidsustothinkthattoanygreatextentitcanhavebeentheproductofthecollectiveChristianmind.Jesus,inshort,isneededtoexplaintheChurchand
cannotbeHimselfexplainedastheproductofHisowncreation.ItisalsotobenoticedthattheSynopticteachinghasaclearcutindividualityofitsownwhichshowsthatithas
sturdilyrefusedtoblendwiththeApostolictypeoftheology.
WiththeFourthGospelthecasestandssomewhatdifferently.IfitbeindeedtheworkofJohnthebeloveddisciple,itsauthoritystandshigherthanalltherest.Inthatcasethe
dutyofthehistorianistoemployitashisfundamentaldocument,andtoutilizetheSynopticsasauxiliarysources.Intheviewofthepresentwriterthequestionisoneofgreat
difficulty.ItistruethatthereisapowerfulbodyofPatristictestimonyinsupportofthetraditionthattheFourthGospelwascomposedbytheApostleJohninEphesusinhisoldage
about A. D.95.ItisalsotruethattheGospelsolemnlystakesitscreditonitsrighttobeacceptedasthenarrativeofaneyewitness(Jn19:35,21:24).Anditsclaimisstrengthened
bythefactthat,inthejudgmentevenofmanyunsympatheticwitnesses,itembodiesalargerorsmalleramountofindependentandvaluableinformation.Ontheotherhand,itisa
seriousmatterthataGospel,appearingatthecloseofthecentury,shouldpracticallyrecastthestoryofJesuswhichhadcirculatedintheChurchforsixtyyears,andshouldput
forwardaviewofthecourseoftheMinistrywhichisnotevensuspectedintheotherApostolicsources.Passingtotheteaching,wefindthattheprocesswhichwasindiscoverablein
theSynopticreporthashereactuallytakenplace,andthatthediscoursesofJesusareassimilatedtoawellmarkedtypeofApostolicdoctrine.Thereisreasontobelievethatforboth
historyanddoctrinetheauthorhadathisdisposalMemorabiliaofJesus,butinbothcasesalsoitwouldseemthathehashandledhisdatawithgreatfreedom.Thetreatmentofthe
historicalmatter,itmaybepermittedtothink,ismorelargelytopical,andthechronologicalframeworkwhichitprovidesislessreliable,thaniscommonlysupposed.The
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historicalmatter,itmaybepermittedtothink,ismorelargelytopical,andthechronologicalframeworkwhichitprovidesislessreliable,thaniscommonlysupposed.The
discourses,again,havebeenexpandedbythereporter,andcastinthemouldsofhisownthought,sothatinthemwereallypossessacombinationofthewordsofJesusofNazareth
withthoseoftheglorifiedChristspeakingintheexperienceofadisciple.ThehypothesiswhichseemstodojusticetobothsetsofphenomenaisthatJohnwasonlytheauthorina
similarsensetothatinwhichPeterwastheauthorofMk.,andMatthewofcanonicalMt.,andthattheactualcomposeroftheFourthGospelwasadiscipleofthesecondgeneration
whowasservedheirtotheknowledgeandfaithoftheApostle,andwhoclaimedconsiderablepowersasanexecutor.Inviewoftheseconsiderations,itisheldthatasketchofthe
lifeofJesusisproperlybasedontheSynopticrecord,andthatinutilizingtheJohannineadditionsitisdesirabletotakeupacriticalattitudeinregardtotheformandthe
chronology.ThereisalsomuchtobesaidforexpoundingtheteachingofJesusonthebasisoftheSynoptics,andfortreatingtheJohanninediscoursesasprimarilyasourcefor
Apostolicdoctrine.ItisadifferentquestionwhethertheinterpretationofChristwhichtheFourthGospelsuppliesistrustworthy,andonthevalueofthis,itsmainmessage,two
remarksmaybemade.Itis,inthefirstplace,substantiallythesamevaluationofChristwhichpervadesthePaulineEpistles,andwhichhasbeenendorsedbythesaintlyexperience
oftheChristiancenturiesasansweringtotheknowledgeofChristthatisgiveninintimatecommunionwiththerisenLord.Moreover,thedoctrineofProvidencecomestothe
succourofafaithwhichmaybedistressedbythebreakdownofthehypothesisofinerrancy.ForitisareasonablebeliefthatGod,inwhoseplanwiththeracetheworkofChristwas
tobeadecisivefactor,tookorderthatthereshouldbegiventotheafterworldarecordwhichshouldsufficientlyinstructmeninreplytothequestion,WhatthinkyeofChrist?
(2)TheEpistles.FromtheEpistlesitispossibletocollecttheoutstandingfactsastotheearthlycondition,thedeath,andtheresurrectionofChrist.Incidentally
St.PaulshowsthathecouldciteHisteachingonapointofethics(1Co7:11),andgiveadetailedaccountoftheinstitutionoftheLordsSupper(11:23ff.).Itisalso
significantthatinallusionstotheTemptation(He4:15),theAgony(5:7),andtheTransfiguration(2P1:17),thewriterscanreckononareadyunderstanding.
(B)EXTRACANONICALS OURCES
(1)Christian
(a)Patristicreferences.TheFathersmakeverytriflingadditionstoourknowledgeofthefactsofthelifeofJesus.Thereisnothingmoreimportantthanthe
statementofJustin,thatasacarpenterJesusmadeploughsandyokes(Dial.88).MorevaluablearetheadditionstothecanonicalsayingsofJesus(Westcott,Introd.
totheGospels8,1895Resch,Agrapha2,1907).Ofthe70Logiawhichhavebeenclaimed,Ropespronounces43worthless,13ofpossiblevalue,and14valuable
(DieSprcheJesu,1896).ThefollowingaredeemedbyHucktobenoteworthy(SynopsederdreierstenEvangelien3,1906):
(1)Askgreatthings,andthesmallshallbeaddedtoyouandaskheavenlythings,andtheearthlyshallbeaddedtoyou(Origen,deOrat.2).
(2)Ifyeexaltnotyourlowthings,andtransfertoyourrighthandthethingsonyourleft,yeshallnotenterintomykingdom(ActaPhilippi,ch.34).
(3)Hewhoisnearmeisnearthefire,hewhoisfarfrommeisfarfromthekingdom(Origen,Hom.
inJer.20:3).
(4)Ifyekeptnotthatwhichissmall,whowillgiveyouthatwhichisgreat?(Clem.Rom.ii.8).
(5)Bethousavedandthysoul(Exc.e.Theod.ap.Clem.Alex.2).
(6)Showyourselvestriedbankers(Clem.Alex.Strom.i.28).
(7)Thouhastseenthybrother,thouhastseenGodib.i.19).
MorerecentadditionstothematerialaretobefoundinGrenfellandHunt,SayingsofourLord(1897)andNewSayingsofJesus(1904).
(b)ApocryphalGospels.ThesefallintothreegroupsaccordingastheydealwiththehistoryofJosephandMary(ProtevangeliumofJames),theInfancy
(GospelofThomas),andPilate(ActsofPilate).Theyareworthlesselaborations,withtheadditionofgrotesqueandsometimesbeautifulfancies(Apocryphal
Gospels,ActsandRevelations,vol.xvi.oftheAnteNiceneLibrary,1870).OfmorevaluearethefragmentsoftheGospelsoftheHebrews,theEgyptians,and
Peter(Hilgenfeld,NTextracanonemreceptum2,187684Swete,TheAkhmimFragmentoftheGospelofPeter,1903).
(2)Jewishsources.JosephusmentionsJesus(Ant.XX.ix.1),butthemostfamouspassage(XVIII.iii.3)ismainly,ifnotentirely,aChristianinterpolation.
TheJewsrememberedHimaschargedwithdeceivingthepeople,practisingmagicandspeakingblasphemy,andashavingbeencrucifiedbutthecalumniesofthe
TalmudastothecircumstancesofHisbirthappeartohavebeencomparativelylateinventions(Huldricus,SepherToledotJeschua,1705Laible,JesusChristusim
Talmud,1900).
(3)Classicalsources.Thereisevidenceintheclassicalwritersforthehistoricalexistence,approximatedate,anddeathofJesus,butotherwisetheirattitude
wasignorantandcontemptuous(Tac.Ann.XV.44Suetonius,LivesofClaudiusandNerotheyoungerPliny,Epp.X.97,98Lucian,deMortePeregriniCelsusin
Origencf.Keim,JesusofNazara[Eng.tr.],1876,i.pp.
2433).
2.Presuppositions.ItisimpossibletowriteaboutChristwithoutgivingeffecttoaphilosophicalandreligiouscreed.Theclaimtobefreefrompresuppositions
commonlymeansthatawriterassumesthatthefactscanbeaccommodatedtoapurelynaturalisticviewofhistory.Asafact,thereislessreasontoconstrueChristin
naturalistictermsthantoreviseanaturalisticphilosophyinthelightofthefactofChrist.Arecentreviewofthewholeliteratureofthesubject(Schweitzer,Von
ReimaruszuWrede,1906)showshowprofoundlythetreatmenthasalwaysbeeninfluencedbyawritersattitudetowardsultimatequestions,andhowfarthepurely
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ReimaruszuWrede,1906)showshowprofoundlythetreatmenthasalwaysbeeninfluencedbyawritersattitudetowardsultimatequestions,andhowfarthepurely
historicalevidenceisfrombeingabletocompelaconsensussapientium.Thereare,infact,asmanytypesoftheLifeofChristastherearepointsofviewin
theology,anditmaybeconvenientatthisstagetoindicatethebasisfromwhichtheworkhasbeendoneintheprincipalmonographs.
TYPESOFTHELIFEOFCHRIST
I. Eliminationofthesupernatural,fromthestandpointof(1)EighteenthCenturyDeismPaulus,DasLebenJesu,1828(2)ModernPantheismD.F.Strauss,LebenJesu,
183536(Eng.tr.1846)(3)PhilosophicalScepticismRenan,LaViedeJsus,1863(Eng.tr.1864).
II. Reductionofthesupernatural,witheclecticreservation,fromthestandpointofTheismSeeley,EcceHomo,1866Hase,DieGesch.Jesu,1876Keim,DieGesch.Jesuvon
Nazara,186772(Eng.tr.
187377)O.Holtzmann,DasLebenJesu,1901(Eng.tr.1904).
WithintherationalisticschooltherehaveemergedsomewhatradicaldifferencesintheconceptionformedofJesusandHismessage.OnegroupconceivesofHimasamanwhois
essentiallymodernbecausethevalueofHisideasandofHismessageisperennial(Harnack,DasWesendesChristenthums,Eng.tr.1901)anotherregardsHimas,aboveall,the
spokesmanofunfulfilledapocalypticdreams(J.Weiss,DiePredigtJesuvomReicheGottes,1892).Boussetmediatesbetweenthetwoviews(Jesus.
1906).
III. ReproductionoftheBiblicalaccountingeneralagreementwiththefaithoftheChurchNeander,DasLebenJesuChristi,1837(Eng.tr.1848)B.Weiss,DasLebenJesu,
1882(Eng.tr.1883)Edersheim,TheLifeandTimesofJesustheMessiah,1884Didon,JesusChrist,1891Sanday,OutlinesoftheLifeofChrist,1906.
ThebooksofthisgrouphaveasecondcommonfeatureintheiracceptanceoftheFourthGospelasavaluablehistory.TheworksofWeissandSandaydisposeofthearrogant
assumptionofSchweitzer(op.cit.)thatcompetentscholarshipnowregardsthecardinalquestionsassettledinanegativesense.(ForafullbibliographyseeSchweitzer,op.cit.,art.
JesusChristinPRE 3).
3.TheConditionsinPalestine(Schrer,GJV3 [HJP II.i.1ff.]).TheconditionoftheJewsatthebirthofChristmaybesummarilydescribedasmarkedby

politicalimpotenceandreligiousdecadence.
(1)Thepoliticalsituation.FromtheageoftheExile,theJewsinPalestineweresubjecttoaforeigndominationPersian,Greek,Egyptian,Syrian,inrapid
succession.FollowinguponacenturyofindependenceundertheMaccabees,thecountrywasincorporatedintheRomanEmpireasadivisionoftheprovinceof
Syria.Incertaincircumstances,whichhaveaparallelin
BritishIndia,theRomansrecognizedafeudatoryking,anditwaswiththisstatusthatHerodtheGreatreignedoverPalestine.AthisdeathinB.C.4,hisdominions
weredividedamonghisthreesonsbutonthedepositionofArchelausin6A.D.,JudaandSamariawereplacedunderaRomanprocurator.HerodAntipasand
Philipcontinuedtoruleasvassalprinces,withthetitleoftetrarchs,overGalileeandIturarespectively.ThepressureoftheRomanrulewasfeltinthestern
measureswhichweretakentosuppressanydangerousexpressionsofnationalfeeling,andalsointheexactionsofthepublicanstowhomthetaxeswerefarmed.
InternaladministrationwaslargelyanaffairoftheJewishChurch.ToahighlyspiritedpeopleliketheJews,withmemoriesofformerfreedomandpower,thelossof
nationalindependencewasgallingandtheirnaturalrestlessnessundertheforeignyoke,combinedasitwaswiththeMessianichopesthatformedamostvital
elementoftheirreligion,wasasourceofanxietynotonlytotheRomanauthoritiesbuttotheirownleaders.
(2)Thereligioussituation.Fromthereligiouspointofviewitwasadecadentage.Nodoubtthereisatendencytoexaggeratethedegradationoftheworldat
ourLordscoming,ontheprinciplethatthedarkesthourmusthaveprecededthedawnandinfairnesstheindictmentshouldberestrictedtothestatementthatthe
agemarkedaseriousdeclensionfromthehighestlevelofOTreligion.Ithad,infact,manyofthefeatureswhichhavereappearedinthedegenerateperiodsofthe
ChristianChurch.(a)Onesuchfeaturewasthedisappearanceofthepropheticman,andhisreplacementasareligiousauthoritybyrepresentativesofsacred
learning.AsthenormalconditionofthingsintheChristianChurchhasbeensimilar,itcannotinitselfbejudgedtobesymptomaticofanythingworsethanasilver
agethattheexponentsoftheScripturesandofthetraditionwerenowthechiefreligiousguidesofthepeople(seeS CRIBES).Moreover,averygenuinereligious
originalityandfervourhadcontinuedtofindexpressionintheApocalypticliteratureoflaterJudaism(seeAPOCALYPTICLITERATURE).(b)Amoredecisiveproofof
degradationistheexaltationoftheceremonialandformalsideofreligionasasubstituteforpersonalpietyandrighteousnessoflife.Thistendencyhaditsclassic
representativesinthePharisees.Thebestoftheirnumbermusthaveexhibited,asJosephusshows,azealforGodandaselfdeniallikethatofRomanCatholic
saintsotherwisethevenerationofthepeople,whichJosephusshared,wouldbeinexplicable(Ant.XVII.ii.4)butasaclassourLordchargesthemwithsinsof
covetousnessandinhumanity,whichgavethecolourofhypocrisytotheirritualisticscruples(Mt24seeP HARISEES).(c)Afurthercharacteristicofdecadenceisthat
thereligiousorganizationtendstocomeintheplaceofGod,astheobjectofdevotion,andthereappearsthepowerfulecclesiasticwho,thoughhemaybeworldly
andevensceptical,isindispensableasthesymbolandprotectorofthesacredinstitution.ThistypewasrepresentedbytheSadduceesintheirgeneraloutlookmen
oftheworld,intheirdoctrinescepticswithanostensiblebasisofconservatism,whofilledthepriestlyoffices,controlledtheSanhedrin,andendeavouredto
maintaincorrectrelationswiththeirRomanmasters.Itcanalsowellbebelievedthat,asJosephustellsus,theyprofessedanaristocraticdisliketopublicbusiness, 36/124
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maintaincorrectrelationswiththeirRomanmasters.Itcanalsowellbebelievedthat,asJosephustellsus,theyprofessedanaristocraticdisliketopublicbusiness,
whichtheyneverthelessdominatedandthattheyhumouredthemultitudebyanoccasionalshowofreligiouszeal(seeS ADDUCEES).
Inthisworldpresidedoverbypedants,formalists,andpoliticalecclesiastics,thecommonpeoplereceiveafairlygoodcharacter.Theirreligionwasthebestthat
thenhadafootingamongmen,andtheywereinearnestaboutit.Theyhadbeenpurifiedbytheprovidentialdisciplineofcenturiesfromthelastvestigesofidolatry.
ItisnoteworthythatJesusbringsagainstthemnosuchsweepingaccusationsofimmoralityandcrueltyasaremetwithinAmosandHosea.Theirchieffaultwas
thattheyweredisposedtolookontheirreligionasameansofprocuringthemworldlygood,andthattheywereblindandunreceptiveinregardtopurelyspiritual
blessings.TheinfluencewhichthePhariseeshadoverthemshowsthattheywerecapableofreverencing,andeagertoobey,thosewhoseemedtothemtospeakfor
GodandtheirresponsetothepreachingofJohntheBaptistwasstillmoretotheirhonour.Thereisevidenceofacontemporarystrainofselfrenouncingidealismin
theexistenceofcommunitieswhichsoughtdeliverancefromtheeviloftheworldintheausteritiesofanasceticlife(Jos.Ant.XVIII.i.5seeESSENES).TheGospels
introduceustonotafewmenandwomenwhoimpressusasexemplifyingasimpleandnobletypeofpietynourishedastheywereonthereligionoftheOT,and
waitingpatientlyforthesalvationofGod.IntoacirclepervadedbythisatmosphereJesuswasborn.
4.DateofChristsBirth(cf.art.CHRONOLOGY,p.135b,andinHastingsDB).IfJohnbegantobaptizeinthefifteenthyearofTiberiusCsar(Lk3:1)
beingA.D.29andifJesusWASthirtyyearsofagewhenHewasbaptized(v.23),thetraditionaldatefixedbyDionysiusExiguuswouldbeapproximatelycorrect.
ButitisprobablethatthereignofTiberiuswasreckonedbyLk.fromhisadmissiontojointauthoritywithAugustusinA.D.1112,sothatJesuswouldbethirtyin
A.D.256,andwouldbebornaboutB.C.5.ThisagreeswiththerepresentationofMt.thatHewasbornunderHerod,sinceHeroddiedB.C.4,andanumberof
eventsoftheInfancyarementionedasoccurringbeforehisdeath.AreferenceinJn2:20tothefortysixyearsduringwhichtheTemplehadbeenincourseof
constructionleadstoasimilarresultviz.A.D.
26forthesecondyearoftheMinistry,andB.C.5fortheBirthofJesus.
5.BirthandInfancy(cf.Sweet,TheBirthandInfancyofJesusChrist,1907).Mt.andLk.
haveanarrativeoftheInfancy,andagreeinthefollowingpointsthatJesuswasofDavidsline,thatHewasmiraculouslyconceived,thatHewasbornin
Bethlehem,andthattheHolyFamilypermanentlysettledinNazareth.TheadditionalincidentsrelatedbyMt.aretheappearanceoftheangeltoJoseph(1:1824),
theadorationoftheMagi(2:112),theflightintoEgypt(vv.1315),themassacreatBethlehem(vv.1618).Lk.ssupplementarymatterincludesthepromiseofthe
birthofJohntheBaptist(1:523),theAnnunciationtoMary(vv.2638),thevisitofMarytoElisabeth(vv.3956),thebirthoftheBaptist(vv.5780),thecensus
(2:1ff.),thevisionofangels(2:814),theadorationoftheshepherds(vv.1520),thecircumcision(v.
21),thepresentationintheTemple(vv.2239).
Thenarrativesembodytwoideaswhicharesinglyimpressive,andinconjunctionmakeaprofoundappealtothefeelingsandtheimagination.Thehumiliation
oftheSaviourisemphasizedbyonesetofeventsthelowlyparentage,thebirthinastable,therageofHerod,theflightofHisparentstoadistantland.Theother
seriesshowsHimashonouredandaccreditedbyheaven,whileearthalsoagrees,intherepresentativesofitswealthanditspoverty,itswisdomanditsignorance,to
doHimhonouratHiscoming.Ahaloofmiraclesisformedaroundthecentralmiracle,comparabletotheraysoftherisingsun(Lange,LifeofChrist,Eng.tr.i.
257,258).
Atthispointtheinfluenceoftheologicalstandpointmakesitselfacutelyfelt.IntheLiveswrittenfromthenaturalisticandUnitarianstandpoints,themassofthematerialis
describedasmythicalorlegendary,andtheonlypointsleftoverfordiscussionarethesourcesofinvention,andthedateatwhichthestorieswereincorporatedwiththegenuine
tradition.Theresiduumofhistoricalfact,accordingtoO.Holtzmann,isthatJesuswasbornatNazarethinGalilee,thesonofJosephandMary,beingtheeldestoffivebrothersand
severalsisters,andthereHegrewup(LifeofJesus,Eng.tr.p.89).Thechiefgroundsonwhichthenegativecaseisrestedmaybebrieflyconsidered.
(1)ThenarrativesoftheInfancyarenotapartoftheoriginaltradition,sincetheyareknowntoonlytwooftheEvangelists,andhavenoBiblicalsupportoutsidetheseGospels.
Tothisitseemsasufficientreplythatadditionsmayhavebeenmadelaterfromagoodsource,andthattherewereobviousreasonswhysomeatleastoftheincidentsshouldhave
beentreatedforatimewithreserve.
(2)ThetwoGospelswhichdealwiththeInfancydiscreditoneanotherbytheincompatibilityoftheirstatements.Mt.,itisoftensaid,supposesthatBethlehemwasJosephs
homefromthebeginningLk.saysthathemadeavisittoBethlehemontheoccasionofacensus.AccordingtoMt.,thebirthinBethlehemwasfollowedbyaflightintoEgypt
accordingtoLk.,theyvisitedJerusalemandthenreturnedtoNazareth.Butthedifficultieshavebeenexaggerated.ThoughitisquitepossiblethatMt.didnotknowofanoriginal
residenceinNazareth,hedoesnotactuallydenyit.AndalthoughneitherEvangelistmayhaveknownoftheothershistory,itisquitepossible,withoutexcessiveharmonisticzeal,to
worktheepisodesofMt.intoLk.sscheme.TheaccountsmaybecombinedwithconsiderableplausibilityifwesupposethatJosephandMaryremainedafullyearinBethlehem,
duringwhichthepresentationintheTempletookplace,andthatthevisitoftheMagiwasmuchlaterthantheadorationoftheshepherds(Gloag,Introd.totheSynopticGospels,
pp.136,137).
(3)TheeventsnarratedaresaidtobeinconsistentwiththeindirectevidenceofotherportionsoftheGospels.Iftheyreallyoccurred,whywasMarynotpreparedforallthat
followed?andwhyaidJesusbrethrennotbelieveinHim?(Mk3:21,31ff.,Mt12:4650).Inparticular,thebodyoftheGospelscontains,itissaid,evidencewhichisinconsistent
withtheVirginbirth.Thedifficultyisarealone,buthardlygreaterthanthedifficultypresentedinthefactthatthemightyworksoftheMinistrydidnotoverbeardoubtand
disbeliefinthosewhowitnessedthem.
(4) ThenarrativesinquestionarealsosaidtohavehadtheirorigininmansillusoryideasastothepropermannerofthecomingofaDivinemessenger.Thehistoryofthe 37/124
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(4)ThenarrativesinquestionarealsosaidtohavehadtheirorigininmansillusoryideasastothepropermannerofthecomingofaDivinemessenger.Thehistoryofthe
foundersofotherreligionse.g.ConfuciusandGautamashowsafondpredispositiontoinvestthebirthofaSaviouroramightyprophetwithamiraculoushaloanditis
suggestedthatsimilarstorieswereinventedaboutChrist,withtheeffectofobscuringthedistinctivethoughtandpurposeofGod.Theyaredeforminginvestitures,misplaced,like
courtdressesonthespiritsofthejust(Martinean,LossandGain).Thereisundeniableforceinthis,butitwillbenoticedthatitisanobservationwhichwouldmakeanend,as
indeedthosewhouseitintend,ofthewholemiraculouselementinthelife.If,ontheotherhand,webelievethatthelifeofChristwassupernatural,itiseasilycrediblethatthe
risingoftheSunwasheralded,inLangesimage,byraysofglory.
OftheeventsofthegloriouscyclewhichhavethejointsupportofMt.andLk.therearethreewhichhavebeenfelttohavereligioussignificance.
(1)TheDavidicdescent.ItwasanarticleofcommonbeliefintheprimitiveChurchthatJesuswasdescendedfromDavid(Ro1:3).Mt.andLk.supply
genealogieswhichhavethepurposeofsupportingthebelief,butdonotstrengthenitprimafacie,asonetracesthedescentthroughSolomon(Mt1:6),theother
throughasonofDavidcalledNathan(Lk3:31).ThefavouritewayofharmonizingthemistosupposethatMt.givesthedescentthroughJoseph,Lk.throughMary,
whileothersthinkthatMt.givesthelistofheirstotheDavidicthrone,Lk.theactualfamilytreeofJesus.Itmaywellbebelievedthatdescendantsoftheroyal
housetreasuredtherecordoftheiroriginandontheotherhanditseemsunlikelythatJesuscouldhavebeenacceptedasMessiahwithoutgoodevidenceofDavidic
origin,orthatalatefabricationwouldhavebeenregardedassuch.
(2)TheVirginbirth(cf.Gore,DissertationsontheIncarnation,1895Lobstein,TheVirginBirthofChrist,Eng.tr.1903).Thestudentisreferredforafull
statementonbothsidestotheworksabovecited,butaremarkmaybemadeonthetwobranchesoftheevidence.(a)Theobjectionsbasedonhistoricalandliterary
grounds,asdistinctfromantidogmaticprejudice,areofconsiderableweight.NoaccountofMk.spurposesatisfactorilyexplainshisomissionifheknewofit,and
itseemsincrediblethat,ifknown,itwouldnothavebeenutilizedinthePaulinetheology.Uponthisitcanonlybesaidthatitmayhavebeenafact,althoughithad
notyetcometotheknowledgeofMk.andPaul.Further,Mt.andLk.themselvesraiseagravedifficulty,sincethewholepointofthegenealogiesseemstobethat
JesuswasdescendedfromDavidthroughJoseph.Theusual,thoughnotquiteconvincing,answeris,thatJesuswaslegallythesonofJoseph,andthereforeDavids
heir.ItmustprobablybeadmittedthattheoriginalcompilersofthegenealogiessharedtheignoranceoftheearliestGospel,butignoranceorsilenceisnotdecisive
astoafact.(b)Ithasbeencommontoexaggeratethedoctrinalnecessityofthetenet.ItisusuallyheldtohavebeennecessarytopreserveJesusfromthetaintof
originalsinbutasMarywastrulyHismother,anadditionalmiraclemusthavebeennecessarytopreventthetransmissionofthetaintthroughher,andthis
subsidiarymiraclecouldhavesafeguardedthesinlessnessofJesuswithoutthemiraculousconception.Norcanitbesaidthatitisanecessarycorollaryofthe
EternalSonshipofChristsinceitisfoundintheGospelswhichsaynothingofHispreexistence,andisabsentfromtheGospelwhichplacesthisintheforefront.
AndyetitwouldberashtosaythatithasnovalueforChristianfaith.TheuniquecharacterofChrist,withitsnoteofsinlessperfection,cannotbeexplainedby
purelynaturalfactorsandthedoctrineoftheVirginbirthatleastrenderstheserviceofaffirmingtheoperationofasupernaturalcausalityintheconstitutionofthat
character.Itmustalsobesaidthatthenegationisgenerallyfelttobeaphaseofanantisupernaturalcampaigntowhichtheoverthrowofthispositionmeansthe
captureofanoutwork,andapointofdepartureforamorecriticalattack.ItisalsodifficultforaChristianthinkertoabandonthedogmawithoutfeelingpuzzledand
distressedbythealternativeexplanationswhichopenup.
(3)TheBirthatBethlehem(cf.Ramsay,WasChristbornatBethlehem?1902).ForthebirthatBethlehemwehavethestatementoftheGospels.Lk.seemsto
haveinvestigatedthepointwithspecialcare,andexplainsthepresenceofJosephandMaryatBethlehemasduetoacensuswhichhadbeenorderedbyAugustus
(Lk2:1).IthasfrequentlybeenassumedthatLk.hasblundered,asQuiriniuswasnotgovernorofSyriauntilA.D.6,whenhemadeanenrolmentandthe
impossibledatetowhichwearethusledseemstodiscreditthewholecombination.IndefenceofLk.itispointedoutthatQuiriniusheldamilitaryappointmentin
SyriaaboutB.C.6whichmayhavebeenlooselydescribedasagovernorship,andthatthereisevidenceforatwelveyearscycleinImperialstatisticswhichwould
giveafirstenrolmentaboutthesamedate.
6.YearsofPreparation(cf.Keim,vol.ii.pt.2).ThesilenceoftheGospelsastotheboyhoodandearlymanhoodofJesusisbrokenonlybythementionofa
pilgrimagetoJerusalem(Lk2:41ff.).EvenifitbetruethatnoneofHistownsfolkbelievedonHim,itmighthavebeenexpectedthatthepietyofHisdiscipleswould
haverecoveredsomefactsfromthepublicmemory,andthatinanycasethetraditionwouldhavebeenenrichedatalaterdatebymembersofthefamilycircle.The
onlypossibleexplanationofthesilenceisthatduringtheyearsinNazarethJesusdidandsaidnothingwhichchallengednotice.Itisalsoevidentthatthesilenceis
anindirecttestimonytothecredibilityofthegreateventsofthelateryears,astherewaseveryreasonwhythetradition,haditnotbeenboundbyfacts,shouldhave
investedtheearlierperiodwithsupernaturalsurprisesandglories.
(1)EducationofJesus.Earliestintime,andprobablychiefinimportance,wastheeducationinthehome.TheJewishLawearnestlyimpresseduponparents,
especiallyuponfathers,thedutyofinstructingtheirchildrenintheknowledgeofGod,HismightyactsandHislaws,andalsoofdiscipliningtheminreligionand
morality.Wetakemostpainsofall,saysJosephus,withtheinstructionofchildren,andesteemtheobservationofthelaws,andthepietycorrespondingwith
them,themostimportantaffairsofourwholelife(c.Apion,i.12).Weknowthelaws,headds,aswellasourownname.ItwasthehomeinNazareththat
openedtoJesustheavenuesofknowledge,andfirstputHiminpossessionofthetreasuresoftheOT.ItalsoseemscertainthatinHishometherewasatypeof
familylifewhichmadefatherhoodstandtoHimhenceforwardasthehighestmanifestationofalovebeneficent,disinterested,andallforgiving.Itisprobablethat
Jesushadotherteachers.Wehearinthecourseofthesamecenturyofaresolutiontoprovideteachersineveryprovinceandineverytownandbeforetheattempt38/124
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Jesushadotherteachers.Wehearinthecourseofthesamecenturyofaresolutiontoprovideteachersineveryprovinceandineverytownandbeforetheattempt
wasmadetosecureauniversalsystem,itwasnaturalthattuitionshouldbegiveninconnexionwiththesynagoguetoboyslikelytoprofitabovetheirequals.Of
theofficersconnectedwiththesynagogue,therulerandtheeldersmaysometimeshavedonetheirworkasalabouroflove,andthereisevidencethatitcouldbe
laidonthechazzanasanofficialduty.Thestatedservicesofthesynagogue,inwhichthechiefpartwastheexpoundingoftheScripturesbyanypersonpossessed
oflearningoramessage,musthavebeenaneventofthedeepestinteresttotheawakeningmindofJesus.FromearlychildhoodHeaccompaniedHisparentsto
JerusalemtokeeptheFeasttheutmoststressbeinglaidbytheRabbisuponthisasameansfortheinstilmentofpiety.Ithasalsobeenwellpointedoutthatthe
landofPalestinewasitselfawonderfuleducationalinstrument.Itwasalittlecountry,insizelessthantheScottishHighlands,ofwhichagreatpartcouldbeseen
fromamountaintop,andeverydistrictvisitedinafewdaysjourneyanditsvalleysandtowns,and,aboveall,Jerusalem,werefilledwithmemorieswhich
compelledthecitizentoliveinthestoryofthepast,andtoreflectateverystageandprospectonthemissionofhispeopleandthewaysofGod(Ramsay,The
EducationofChrist,1902).Tothesehastobeaddedthedisciplineofwork.Jesuslearnedthetradeofacarpenter,andappearstohavepractisedthistradein
NazarethuntilHereachedthethresholdofmiddleage(Mk6:3).ItisperhapsremarkablethatnoneofHisimageryisborrowedfromHishandicraft.Onehasthe
feelingthattheworkofthehusbandmanandthevinedresserhadmoreattractionforHim,andthatHisselfsacrificemayhavebegunintheworkshop.Thedeeper
preparationissuggestedintheoneincidentwhichischronicled.ThepointofitisthateveninHisboyhoodJesusthoughtofGodasHisFather,andofHishouseas
Histruesphereofwork(Lk2:49.TheholyofholiesinthesilentyearswasthelifeofcommunionwithGodinwhichHeknewtheDivineFatherhoodtobeafact,
andbecameconsciousofstandingtoHimintheintimaterelationshipofaSon.
(2)KnowledgeofJesus.ThereisnoreasontosupposethatJesusstudiedintheRabbinicalschools.Noristheremoregroundforthebelief,whichhasbeen
madethemotiveofcertainLivesofChrist(Venturini,NatrlicheGesch.desgrossenProphetenvonNazareth,18002),thatHehadacquiredesotericwisdom
amongtheEssenes.Ithasalsobecomedifficultforthosewhotaketheirimpressionsfromthehistoricalrecordstobelievethat,whileinvirtueofHishumannature
Hisknowledgewasprogressiveandlimited,invirtueofHisDivinenatureHewassimultaneouslyomniscient.AllwecansayisthatHepossessedperfect
knowledgewithinthesphereinwhichHisvocationlay.TheonebookwhichHestudiedwastheOT,andHeuseditcontinuallyintemptation,conflict,and
suffering.Heknewhumannatureinitslittlenessandgreatnessthelittlenessthatspoilsthenoblestcharacters,thegreatnessthatsurvivestheworstpollutionand
degradation.Hereadindividualcharacterwithaswiftandunerringglance.Butwhatmustchieflyhaveimpressedthelistenersweretheintimacyandthecertainty
withwhichHespokeofGod.IntheworldofnatureHepointedoutthetokensofHisbountyandthesuggestionsofHiscare.Therealmofhumanaffairswasto
HiminstinctwithprincipleswhichillustratedtherelationsofGodandman.HespokeasOnewhosawintotheveryheartofGod,andwhoknewatfirsthandHis
purposewiththeworld,andHisloveforsinfulandsorrowladenmen.
7.JesusandtheBaptist.Thereligiouscommonplacenessoftheage,whichhasbeendescribedabove,wasatlengthbrokenbytheappearanceofJohnthe
Baptist,whorecalledtheancientprophets.HeproclaimedtheapproachoftheDayoftheLord,whentheMessiahwouldtaketoHimselfHispowerandreign.He
rejectedtheideathattheJewscouldclaimspecialprivilegesonthegroundofbirth(Mt3:9),andproclaimedthatthejudgment,withwhichHisworkwouldbegin,
wouldbesearchingandpitiless.AlongwithotherGalilansJesusrepairedtothesceneoftheministryinthelowerJordanvalley,andreceivedbaptism(Mk1:9),
not,indeed,asthoughHeneededrepentance,butasasymbolandmeansofconsecrationtotheworkwhichlaybeforeHim.TheGospelsaremoredeeplyinterested
intheimpressionmadebyJesusonJohn,modernwritersintheinfluenceexertedbyJohnuponJesus.AccordingtoalltheSynoptics,Johnproclaimedthenear
adventoftheMessiahaccordingtoMt.,hemayhaveimpliedthatJesuswastheMessiah(3:14)whiletheFourthGospelstatesthatheexplicitlypointedHimout
astheMessiahtohisdisciples(1:29,36).IfwesupposethatJesusheldintercourseforatimewiththeBaptist,itiseasytobelievethatthestainlessnessand
commandinggreatnessofHischaracteratleastevokedfromtheBaptistanavowalofhisowninferiority.ThathewentsofarastodeclareHimtheMessiahwhom
hepreachedisastatementwhichitisdifficulttoacceptliterally,orasmeaningmorethanthattheschooloftheBaptistpointedtoitsconsummationintheschoolof
Christ.Ontheotherhand,contactwiththeBaptistsministryevidentlyprecipitatedthecrisisinthelifeofChrist.Themanwhorediscoveredtheneedandthe
powerofapropheticmissionwasaninstrumentinbringingJesusfacetofacewithHisprophetictaskwhilehisproclamationoftheimpendingadventofthe
MessiahmusthavehadthecharacterforJesusofacalltotheworkforwhich,astheuniqueSon,HeknewHimselftobefurnished.Itisevidentthattheactof
baptismwasaccompaniedbysomethingdecisive.AccordingtoMk.,JesusthenhadavisionoftheSpiritdescendinguponHimlikeadove,andheardavoicefrom
heaven,ThouartmybelovedSon,inwhomIamwellpleased(1:10,11).Thisismoreprobablethanthestatementthatitwasapublicrevelation(Lk3:21,22),or
thatitwastheBaptisttowhomthevisionwasvouchsafed(Jn1:32).WeshallhardlyerrifwesupposethatJesusspoketothedisciplesofHisbaptismasthetime
whenHisMessianicconsciousnessbecameclear,andHereceivedanendowmentofstrengthforthetasktowhichHewascalled.
8.TheTemptation.TheviewtakenofthesignificanceoftheBaptismisconfirmedbythenarrativeoftheTemptation,whichwouldnaturallyfollowclosely
upontheacceptanceoftheMessianicvocation(Mk1:1213,Mt4:111,Lk4:113).LikethesceneattheBaptism,thetemptationsprobablycametoJesusinthe
formofavision,whichHeafterwardsdescribedtoHisdisciples.Ithasgenerallybeenagreedthatthetemptationsmustbeunderstoodasgrowingoutofthe
Messianiccommission,butthereiswidedifferenceofopinionastotheirprecisesignificance.Theviewwhichseemsmostprobabletothepresentwritermaybe
brieflysetforth,itbeingpremisedthatLukesorderseemstoanswerbesttothelogicofthesituation.AssumingthatintheBaptismJesusacceptedtheMessianic
call,thepossibilitiesoftheensuingordealoftemptationwerethreethatHeshouldrecoilfromthetask,thatHeshouldmisconceiveit,orthat,rightlyapprehending
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call,thepossibilitiesoftheensuingordealoftemptationwerethreethatHeshouldrecoilfromthetask,thatHeshouldmisconceiveit,orthat,rightlyapprehending
it,Heshouldadoptwrongmethods.Thefirsttemptation,accordingly,mayverynaturallybesupposedtohaveconsistedinthesuggestionthatHeshouldchoose
comfortratherthanhardshipthatHeshouldturnback,whiletherewasyettime,fromthearduousandperilouspath,andliveoutHisdaysintheshelteredlifeof
Nazareth.ThisHerejectedonthegroundthattherearehighergoodsthancomfortandsecuritymanshallnotlivebybreadalone(Mt4:4).Theheroiccourse
resolvedon,thegreatquestiontobenextfacedwasifHewastoaimatestablishingakingdomofthepoliticalkindwhichthepeoplegenerallyexpected,ora
kingdomofaspiritualorder.Tofoundandmaintainanearthlykingdom.Heknew,meanttheuseofviolence,craft,andotherSatanicinstrumentsandofsuch
means,eveniftheendhadapproveditselftoHimasHisvocation,Herefusedtomakeuse(Mt4:8ff.).Thisdecisiontaken,thequestionremainedastothewayin
whichHewastowinbeliefforHimselfandHiscause.ForonewithperfecttrustinGoditwasanaturalsuggestiontochallengeGodtoownHimbyfacingrisksin
whichHislifecouldbesavedonlythroughtheinterpositionofastupendousmiracle(4:5ff.).ButthisHeputasideasimpious,andcastupontheFatherthecareof
makingHispathplain,whileHeawaited,prudentlyaswellasbravely,thegradualdisclosureofHiscalltoworkanddanger.
9.DurationoftheMinistry(cf.art.CHRONOLOGYaboveandinDB).TheSynopticsgivenocertainindicationofthelengthoftheperiod.Itisarguedthat
theincidentofpluckingtheearsofcorn(Mk2:23)pointstoAprilorJuneofoneyear,andthatatthefeedingofthefivethousandweareinthespring(green
grass,Mk6:39)oftheyearfollowingwhileatleastanothertwelvemonthswouldberequiredforthejourneyswhicharesubsequentlyrecorded.Thechronological
schemeusuallyadoptedisbasedontheFourthGospel,whichhasthefollowingnotesoftime:aPassover(2:13),fourmonthstoharvest(4:35),afeastoftheJews
(5:1),anotherPassover(6:4),thefeastofTabernacles(7:2),thefeastofDedication(10:22),thelastPassover(11:55).Thefirstfourcanbecombinedinmorethan
onewaytofitintoasingleyeare.g.(a)PassoverMayanylesserfeastPassoveror(b)PassoverJanuaryPurim(February)Passover.From6:4to
11:55thespacecoveredisexactlyayear,theautumnFeastofTabernacles(7:2),andthewinterFeastofDedication(10:22),beingsignalizedinthecourseofit
(art.ChronologyinDBi.409a,408a).
ItwasawidespreadopinioninPatristictimes,supportedbythephrasetheacceptableyearoftheLord(Lk4:19),thattheministrylastedonlyoneyearandin
theopinionofsomemodernscholarsitcanbemaintainedthateventheFourthGospelincludesitsmaterialbetweentwoPassovers(WestcottandHort,GreekTest.
Briggs,NewLightontheLifeofJesus).Ontheotherhand,itwasassertedbyIrenus(adv.Hr.ii.22)onthegroundofJn8:57,andofanallegedJohannine
tradition,thatfromtentotwentyyearselapsedbetweentheBaptismandthe
Crucifixion. Jn 8:57 is quite inconclusive, and the best authority for the Johannine tradition must be the Gospel, the evidence of which may be summed up by
sayingthatwhiletwoyearsmust,notmorethantwoyearscan,beallowedfortheintervalfromJn2:13,23toJn11:55(art.
ChronologyinDB).
10.PeriodsoftheLifeofChrist.ThedivisionsarenecessarilyaffectedbytheviewwhichistakenofthevalueofthechronologicalschemeoftheFourth
Gospel.
Keim,whogenerallyfollowstheguidanceoftheSynoptics,dividesasfollows:Preliminaryperiodofselfrecognitionanddecision.
1. TheGalilanspringtime,beginninginthespringof A. D.34[certainlymuchtoolate],andlastingforafewmonths.Characteristics:theoptimismofJesus,andthe
responsivenessofthepeople.
2. TheGalilanstorms,extendingoverthesummerandautumnof A. D.34andthespringofthefollowingyear.Scene:Galileeandtheneighbouringregions.Characteristics:
increasingopposition,andintensificationofthepolemicalnoteintheteachingofJesus.
3. TheMessianicprogresstoJerusalem,andtheMessianicdeathatthePassoverof A. D.35.Scene:PeraandJerusalem(JesusofNazara).
TheJohanninematerialcanbecombinedwiththeSynopticintwoperiods,eachofwhichlastedaboutayear.ThefollowingistheschemeofHase:Preliminaryhistory.
1.TheacceptableyearoftheLord,markedbyhopefulness,activelabour,andmuchoutwardsuccess.Scene:JudaandGalilee.Time:fromtheBaptismtotheFeedingofthe
Multitude(somemonthsbeforePassoveroftheyear A. D.30or31toshortlybeforePassoverofthefollowingyear).
2.Theyearofconflict.Scene:Galilee,Pera,Juda.Time:fromthesecondtothelastPassover.
3.ThePassionandResurrection.Scene:Jerusalem.Time:Passover(Gesch.Jesu).
ThemonthsbetweentheBaptismandthefirstPassovermayberegardedasaperiodwithdistinctcharacteristics,andwemaydistinguish(1)theyearofobscurity,(2)theyearof
publicfavour,(3)theyearofopposition(Stalker,LifeofJesusChrist,1879).
ThedivisionintosubperiodshasbeenmostelaboratelycarriedoutbyDr.Sanday(Outlinesofthe
LifeofJesusChrist).
A. PreliminaryperiodfromtheBaptismtothecalloftheleadingApostles.Sources:Mt3:14:11,Mk1:113,Lk3:14:13,Jn1:64:54.Scene:mainlyinJuda,butinpart
alsoinGalilee.Time:winter
A. D.26toafewweeksbeforePassover, A. D.27.
B. Firstactiveorconstructiveperiod.Sources:Mt4:1313:53,Mk1:146:13,Lk4:149:6,Jn5.Scene:mainlyinGalilee,butalsopartlyinJerusalem.Time:fromabout
Pentecost, A. D.27,toshortlybeforePassover, A. D.28.
C. Middleorculminatingperiodoftheactiveministry.Sources:Mt14:118:35,Mk6:149:50,Lk9:750,Jn6.Scene:Galilee.Time:PassovertoshortlybeforeTabernacles,
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C. Middleorculminatingperiodoftheactiveministry.Sources:Mt14:118:35,Mk6:149:50,Lk9:750,Jn6.Scene:Galilee.Time:PassovertoshortlybeforeTabernacles,
A. D.28.
D. CloseoftheactiveperiodtheMessianiccrisisinview.Sources:Mt19:120:34,Mk10:152,Lk9:5119:28,Jn7:111:57.Scene:JudaandPera.Time:Tabernacles,
A. D.28,toPassover, A. D.29.E.TheMessianiccrisisthelastweek,passion,resurrection,ascension.Sources:Mt21:128:20,Mk11:116:8[16:920],Lk19:2924:52,Jn12:1
21:23.Scene:mainlyinJerusalem.Time:sixdaysbeforePassovertotendaysbeforePentecost, A. D.29.
Weisssschemeagreeswiththeabovesofarasregardsthedurationoftheministry(from2to3years),andthedateoftheCrucifixion(Passover, A. D.29).Hisperiodsare:(1)
thepreparation,correspondingtoDr.SandayspreliminaryperioddowntotheweddinginCanaofGalilee(2)theseedtime,includingtheremainderofthepreliminaryperiod,
andthefirstactiveorconstructiveperiod(3)theperiodoffirstconflicts,and(4)theperiodofcrisis,correspondingtothemiddleorculminatingperiod(5)theJerusalemperiod,
correspondingtothecloseoftheactiveperiod(6)thePassionandthesubsequentevents.
UsefulastheaboveschemesofWeissandSandayareforarrangingthesubjectmatter,anddeservingastheyareofrespectfortheirscholarlygrounding,the
writerdoubtsifwecanpretendtosuchexactknowledgeofthecourseofevents.EvenifweassumethattheFourthGospelgivesareliablechronological
framework,itisaveryprecariousassumptionthattheSynopticmaterial,whichislargelyputtogetherfromatopicalpointofview,canbeassigneditsproperplace
inthescheme.Further,itisbynomeansclearthatwearerightinsupposingthattherewasaJudanministrywhichranparallelwiththeGalilanministry.Thereis
muchtobesaidfortheviewthatthenarrativesoftheFourthGospelpresupposeasituationtowardsthecloseoftheministry,andthatininterweavingthemwiththe
SynopticnarrativesoftheGalilanperiod,weanticipatetheactualmarchofthehistory.TheviewheretakenisthattherewasaGalilanministry,forwhichthe
SynopticsarealmostthesolesourcethatthiswasfollowedforsomemonthsbeforetheendbyaJudanministry,thematerialsofwhicharesuppliedmainlybythe
FourthGospelandthatfinallythesourcesunitetogiveapictureoftheLastWeek,thePassion,andtheResurrection.
(A)THEGALILANMINISTRY.JesusseemstohaveremainedwiththeBaptistuntilthelatterwasputinprison(Mk1:14),whenHereturnedtoGalilee.The
changeofscene,whichinanycasewasnaturalinviewoftheblowthathadbeenstruck,servedtomarkthedistinctnessofHismissionfromthatofJohn.Hemay
alsohavebeeninfluencedbyHisknowledgeofthegreaterreceptivenessoftheNorthernstock.ThecentreofHisactivitywasthepopulousdistrict,studdedwith
prosperoustowns,whichlayaroundtheSeaofGalilee.FromCapernaum,inwhich
Helivedforatime(Mt4:13,Mk9:33),HehadeasyaccesstotheothercitiesontheLake,andHealsoappearstohavemadewidercircuitsthroughoutGalilee,in
thecourseofwhichHepreachedinthesynagogueatNazareth(Lk4:16ff.).AtthecloseoftheperiodHepenetratedtotheregionsbeyondbeingfoundonthe
bordersofTyreandSidon(Mk7:24),thenintheheathendistrictofDecapolistotheeastofJordan(v.31),afterwardsinthetownsofCsareaPhilippiinthe
dominionsofthetetrarchPhilip(8:27).Exceptfortheincidentalreferencesabovereferredto,thereisnothingtofixthedurationoftheGalilanministrybut
thoughcrowdedwithlaboursandincidents,itseemstohavebeencomparativelyshort.ItsimportanceismeasuredbythefactthatitsettheChristiangospelin
circulationintheworld,andlaidthefoundationoftheChristianChurch.
(1)Treatmentofthematerials.Indealingwiththisperiod,thecharacteristictaskofthehistorianmayalmostbesaidtobeginwherethatoftheEvangelists
ends.Themodernstudentisnotonlyinterestedinchronologyandinthedetailsoftheenvironment,buthetriestobringthecourseofeventsunderthepointof
viewofdevelopment,andtopenetratetothecauseswhichexplainthemovementandtheissueofthehistory.TheGospels,ontheotherhand,contributeapicture
ratherthanahistoryapicture,moreover,inwhichthesettingispresupposedratherthandescribed,whiletheyleaveusinignoranceofmuchthatweshouldliketo
knowabouthiddenforcesandspringsofaction.ItseemsadvisabletobeginbyreproducinginitssalientaspectstheSynopticpictureoftheGalilanministry,based
primarilyonMk.,andthereaftertoadverttosomecontributionswhichhavebeenmadetothebetterelucidationofthecourseofevents.
(2)ThepictureoftheGalitanMinistry.TheprincipalsourceisthesketchinMk.,whichsetsforththeMinistryfromthepointofviewofonewhoregardedit
asthemanifestationoftheMessiah.Thechronologicalorderofeventsisnecessarilymirroredtosomeextent,asthenarrativedescribesamissionanditsoutcome
butthearrangementaswellastheselectionofthematerialislargelygovernedbytopicalconsiderations.ThetopicsofMk.maybesummarizedasfollows:(a)the
preliminaryattestationofJesusastheMessiah(b)theMessianicactivities(c)theoppositiontoJesus,andHisselfvindication(d)theattitudeofJesusHimselfto
thequestionofHisMessiahship(e)theresultsoftheGalilanMinistry.
TheaboveargumentistakenoverbyMt.,withsomechangeintheorderofthesections,whilehesupplementsfromtheolderApostolicsourcethemeagre
accountgivenbyMk.ofthecontentsoftheteachingofJesus.Lk.followsMk.morecloselyinthesectionsdealingwiththeGalilanministry,butincidentally
showstheuncertaintyofthechronologicalschemebytransferringtothebeginningthevisittoNazareth(4:1630cf.Mk6:16,Mt13:5358),ontheapparent
groundthatitcouldberegardedasinsomerespectsatypicalincident.
(a)Thepreliminaryattestation.TheSynoptictraditionputsintheforefrontcertaincredentialsofJesus.JohntheBaptistpredictedHiscoming(Mk1:78),a
voicefromheavenproclaimedHimtobetheSon(v.11),thedemonsknewHim(vv.23,24cf.5:7)whilethechosenfew,thoughasyetnotknowingHimforwhat
Heis,instinctivelyobeyedHiscall(1:18),andthemultituderecognizedinHimanextraordinaryman(1:22).ApartfromthereferencestotheBaptistandthevision
attheBaptism,thefactswhichunderlaythisapologeticargumentwerethatdemoniacswerepeculiarlysusceptibletoHisinfluence,andthatupontheuncorrupted
andunprejudicedheartJesusmadetheimpressionofacommandingauthoritywhichwasentitledtobeobeyed.
(b) TheMessianicactivities.UponthecredentialsfollowsadescriptionofthelaboursbywhichJesusproceededtocarryoutHisplan,andwhichrevealed
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(b)TheMessianicactivities.UponthecredentialsfollowsadescriptionofthelaboursbywhichJesusproceededtocarryoutHisplan,andwhichrevealed
HimastheMessiah.Themeansemployedwerethreetoteachthenature,theblessings,andthelawsoftheKingdom,toexemplifyitspoweranditsspiritin
mightyworks,andtocallandtrainmenwhoshouldexemplifythenewrighteousness,andalsoshareandcontinueHislabours.
(i)Theministryofteaching(cf.Wendt,TeachingofJesus,Eng.tr.1892).TheworkwhichlaynearesttothehandofJesus,astheMessiah,wastopreach.He
neededtopreachrepentance,astheconditionofthereceptionoftheKingdomHeneededtogainentranceforatrueconceptionofitsnatureandHehadto
legislateforthesocietywhichwastoownHimasitsKing.ItisaccordinglyastheMessiahprophetthatHeisintroduced:JesuscameintoGalilee,preachingthe
gospelofGod,andsaying,Thetimeisfulfilled,andthekingdomofGodisathand:repentye,andbelieveinthegospel(Mk1:14,15).Followinguponasimilar
notice(4:23),Mt.interpolatestheSermonontheMount,inwhichtheprinciplesofthegospeloftheKingdomaresetforth,ontheonehandasarevisionoftheOT
moralcode,ontheotherasanantithesistothemaximsandthepracticeofcontemporaryJudaism.ThemeagrespecimensofourLordsteachingwhichMk.thought
itsufficientforhispurposetogive,arefurthersupplementedbyMt.inhiscollectionoftheparablesoftheKingdom,andbyLk.inthepeculiarsectionwhich
includestheparablesoftheLostCoin,theLostSheep,andtheLostSon.
Thesynagogueswereopen,atleastinthefirstperiod,toJesus.Healsotaughtwhereveropportunityofferedinthehouse,onthemountainside,fromaboat
mooredbytheshoreoftheLake.ToalargeextentHisteachingwasunsystematic,beingdrawnforthbywayofcommentonsomecasualincident,orofarejoinder
madetoaquestionoranobjection.Onotheroccasions,e.g.whenpreachinginthesynagogue,wemustsupposeHimtohavetreatedofsomelargesubjectinaset
discourse,butitisunlikelythatanyonecontainedmorethananexpositionofanOTpassage(Lk4:16ff.),orthemessageofoneoftheparables(Mt13:1ff.).The
grandcharacteristicofHismannerofteachinghasbeendescribedasthecombinationoftheutmostdegreeofpopularintelligibilitywithmemorablepregnancyof
expression(Wendt,2).(a)Themeansbywhichintelligibilitywasattainedwasthecopioususeoftheconcreteexample,andofthecomparisonofideas.The
comparisonisusedinthreeformsthesimile,themetaphor,andtheparable.Theparables,again,obviouslyfallintothreeclasses.Inoneclasswehaveastory
whichillustratesbyaconcreteexampleanattitudewhichJesusdesiredtocommendortocondemn(theGoodSamaritan,Lk10:30ff.thePhariseeandthePublican,
18:10ff.).ThoseofasecondclassdrawattentiontoalawoperatinginthenaturalworldwhichhasitscounterpartintheKingdomofGod(theSeedGrowing
Secretly,Mk4:2629theMustardSeed,4:3032).inathirdclassthereisadescriptionofaneventwhichhasoccurredinspecialcircumstances,whetherinnature
orinthedealingsofmanwithman,andtheparticulareventisemployedtoillustratesomeaspectoftheDivinemessage(theSower,Mt13:1ff.theProdigalSon,
Lk15:11ff.).(b)ThesecondnoteoftheteachingofJesus,whichmightperhapsbecalledincisiveness,isillustratedinthenumerousshortsayings,oraphorisms,
intowhichHecondensesabodyofdoctrineorprecept(Mk4:22,24,10:31).Itisalsoseeninthenaked,oftenparadoxical,fashion,inwhichHestatesaprinciple.
Thedoctrineofnonresistance,e.g.,Heteachesinuncompromisingformbymeansofthespecialinstance(Mt5:3841),andleavesittothediscipletodiscoverthe
otherconsiderationswhichcrossandlimititsapplication.Thelatterobservationisofimportanceasapreservativeagainsttheerrorsofanexcessiveliteralisminthe
interpretationoftheteachingofJesus.Itisalsodesirabletobearinmindtherule,whichisoneofthegainsofmodernexegesis,thateachoftheparablesofJesusis
toberegardedasthevehicleofonegreatlesson,andthatitisillegitimatetotreatitasanallegoryeverydetailofwhichhasbeenconsciouslyfilledwithdidactic
meaning.AsregardstheaimofJesusinHisteaching,itmightbethoughtselfevidentthatitcouldbenothingelsethantomakeHismessagecleartoHishearers.It
isthereforesurprisingtoreadthattheparablesarespokenbyJesuswiththepurposeofobscuringtothemthatarewithoutthetruthswhichtheyrevealtothe
disciplesthatseeingtheymaysee,andnotperceiveandhearingtheymayhear,andnotunderstand(Mk4:1012,Mt13:1015,Lk8:9,10).Thattheteaching
ofJesuswaslargelymisapprehendedis,ofcourse,true,andalsothatithadtheeffectofmakingthoseworsewhorejectedit,butthiswouldappeartobeaninstance
inwhichtheChurchhasmisreportedatragicconsequenceasanoriginalanddeliberateintention.
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(ii)Themightyworks(cf.Bruce,TheMiraculousElementintheGospels,1886).Theteachingministrywasaccompaniedfromthefirstbyactsofhealing,and
thesewerefollowedlaterbyotheractsinvolvingsuperhumanpower.TheSynopticaccountofthemightyworksmaybebrieflysummarized.(1)Theywerevery
numerous,andwereofdifferentkinds.Inadditiontothemiracleswhicharedescribedindetail,therearereferencesofageneralsortwhichimplythatJesuswork43/124
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numerous,andwereofdifferentkinds.Inadditiontothemiracleswhicharedescribedindetail,therearereferencesofageneralsortwhichimplythatJesuswork
wascasttoalargeextentintheformofahealingministry(Mk1:33,34).Someofthemiraclesmightbeunderstoodasfaithcureswroughtuponpersonssuffering
fromnervousdisordersormentalderangement,butthoseareinextricablyboundupwithotherswhicharenotexplainedbymoraltherapeutics,whileathirdgroup
notexplainedimplyasupernaturalcontroloftheforcesofexternalnature.Thehealingmiraclesmaybedividedasfollows:(a)cureoforganicdefects(theblind,
Mk10:4652thedeafanddumb,7:3137)(b)disease(leprosy,Mk
1:4045,Lk17:1116fever,Mk1:2931dropsy,Lk14:16paralysis,Mk2:112,Mt8:513)(c)death(Mk5:22ff.,Lk8:41).Asaspecialgroup,conceivedas
miraclesinthespiritworld,arethecuresofepilepsyandlunacy(Mk1:2128,5:120,7:2430,9:14ff.).TheNaturemiracleshavebeenclassifiedas(a)miraclesof
creativepower(feedingofthemultitude,Mk6:3544,8:110walkingonthewater,6:48,51)()MiraclesofProvidence,including(i.)miraclesofblessing(the
miraculousdraughtoffishes,Lk5:111thestillingofthetempest,Mk4:3541)and(ii.)amiracleofjudgment(thecursingofthefigtree,Mk11:1214,20cf.
Westcott,Introd.totheGospels3,1895,App.E).(2)Theworkingofmiracleswasconditionedinvariousways.Thegeneralconditiononthesideofthepatients
wasthepresenceoffaith(thewomanwiththeissue,Mk5:2534Bartimus,Mk10:4652).IntheabsenceoffaithJesuscoulddonothingorlittle(Mk6:46,Mt
13:58).Itwasnot,however,necessarythatthisfaithshouldbepersonal:insomecasesitwasthevicariousfaithofaparentorofafriendthathadpowerand
prevailed(thecenturionsservant,Mt8:513:thedaughteroftheSyrophnicianwoman,Mk7:2430).Insomeinstancesthemiracleisrepresentedashavingits
springinsympathy,apartfromanyreferencetothespiritualconditionofthesufferer(thefever,Mk1:2934dropsy,Lk14:16)whileincasesofpossessionit
couldtakeplaceinthefaceofreluctanceandantagonism(theuncleanspirit.Mk1:21ff.:themaninthetombs,5:117).AsregardsthepowersofJesus,the
impressionisnotgiventhatHewasinpossessionofanomnipotencewhichHewasabletowieldatwill.ForwhatHeisabletoaccomplishHeisdependentonthe
Father,whosuppliesHimwithpowerinthemeasureinwhichitisneededforthedischargeofHismission.Inthebackgroundofthemiracleswasthelifeof
communionwithGodwhichJesuslived.Thiskind,Hesignificantlysays,cancomeoutbynothing,savebyprayer(Mk9:29).Itwouldalsoappearthatthe
curesmadeademanduponHisenergieswhichgaverisetoafeelingofphysicalexhaustion(Mk5:30).(3)Thesignificanceofthemiracles.Theleadingpointof
viewinwhichtheyareregardedintheGospelsisundeniablytheevidential.Inthefundamentalnarrativetheargumentadvancesfromthetestimoniesasthefirst
link,tothemightyworksasthesecondlink,inthechainofMessianicproof.Itwouldbeimpossibletostatetheevidentialaspectmorestronglythanisdoneinthe
replytothequestionofJohntheBaptist(Mt11:2ff.).
(iii)Thecallingandteachingofdisciples(cf.Bruce,TheTrainingoftheTwelve,1877).TheeffectoftheMinistrywasthatJesus,liketheprophetsofold,
JohntheBaptist,andtheRabbis,gatheredaroundHimagroupofdisciples.ThegreatbodyofthosewhoregardedHimasaDivinelysentteachermusthave
remainedintheirhomes,andbeencontenttohearHimwhentheyhadaconvenientopportunityandthereisnoreasontothinkthattheywereorganizedinanyway
intosocieties,exceptinsofarasanaturalinstinctwouldpromptthemtomeetandspeakonetoanotherofthethingswhichtheyhadseenandheard.Therewasa
secondbodyofdisciples,sometimeslargebutfluctuatinginsize,whichaccompaniedJesusonHisjourneys.SomeHeinvitedtojointhiscompany,othersHe
sternlyinvitedtocountthecost(Mt8:19ff.).WithinthiscompanyHeformedaninnercircleoftwelve,wholeftallforHissake,andwithafewbreakswerefound
constantlyatHisside.ThecallofSimonandAndrew,JamesandJohn(Mk1:16ff.).IsrelatedtohaveoccurredinthefirstdaysoftheGalilanministry.Anearly
Christiantradition(Ep.Barn.5)speaksoftheApostlesasreclaimedsinnersoftheworsttype,butthisismanifestlyanexaggerationdesignedtoillustratethe
regenerativepowerofthegospel.
TheleadingmembersofthebandwerefishermenofacraftwhichispursuedunderasenseofdependenceonProvidence,andthereforetendstofosterthespiritof
piety.ThesonsofZebedeeseemtohavebeeninbettercircumstancesthantherest,andMatthewthetaxgathererdoubtlesswieldedacompetentpenbuttheywere
ignorantmenastestedbythestandardoftheschools,whetherancientormodern.Humility,sincerity,andprudence,coupledwithtrustinGodanddevotionto
Himself,werethequalificationswhichchieflyguidedJesusinselectingthem(Mt10:5ff,16:17).IncallingtheApostles,JesuswassatisfyinganeedofHisown
innerlife.ItwasamaximoftheRabbisthatitwasasintohavenofriendwithwhomtodiscourseoftheDivineLaw,andforJesusthisopportunitywasprovidedby
theirintimateconverse.ItisalsoevidentthatHewaswonttofeelstrengthenedbytheirsympathy(Mk14:37).Ontheotherhand,Heneededthemfortheworkof
theKingdom.ItwasnecessarythatinthemtherighteousnessoftheKingdomshouldbepersonallymanifested,sothatmenmightseetheirgoodworksandglorify
theFather(Mt5:16).ForthisreasonwefindthatitbecomesincreasinglythepeculiarcareofJesustoperfecttheirtraininginknowledgeandincharacter.Healso
lookedtothemasinstrumentstoaidHiminHiswork.
To the disciples were left the details of the daily provision of food they furnished the boat, they rowed Him across the lake sometimes one and sometimes another of them
executedHiscommissionstheywereHischannelsofcommunicationwiththepeople,withthesick,withthePharisees(Keim,iii.p.280).
TheyweretoJesusarmsandeyes,andeveninasenseanextendedpersonality.HeassignedtothempowersanddutiessimilartoHisown.Heappointed
twelvethattheymightbewithhim,andthathemightsendthemforthtopreachandtohaveauthoritytocastoutdevils(Mk3:14f.).Andtheywentoutand
preachedthatmenshouldrepent.Andtheycastoutmanydevils,andanointedwithoilmanythatweresickandhealedthem(6:12,13).
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preachedthatmenshouldrepent.Andtheycastoutmanydevils,andanointedwithoilmanythatweresickandhealedthem(6:12,13).
(c)Theoppositionandselfvindication.TwosectionsinMk.,withparallelsinMt.andLk.,aredevotedtoexplainingwhycertainclassesrefusedtobelievein
Jesus,andtoshowinghowHerepliedtotheirobjections.Thechargesmaybereducedtothreeheadsblasphemy,irreligiousconduct,andinsanity.
(i)ThechargeofblasphemywasearlybroughtagainstJesusbycertainofthescribes,onthegroundthatHeprofessedtoforgivesins(Mk2:7).Thereplyof
JesusisthatinhealingtheparalyticHegivesevidencethatHehasreceivedthisauthorityfromGod.Thesamegeneralchargeisimpliedintherequestofthe
Pharisees,seekingofHimasignfromheaven,temptinghim(8:11)thegroundtakenbeingthatitwasimpioustoteachasHedid,unlessHecouldproduce
satisfyingevidenceofaDivinesanction.HadtheEvangelisteditedhismaterialwithinventivelicence,weshouldhaveexpectedtothisquestionthesamereplyas
wassenttoJohntheBaptist.Instead,wehavethestartlinglyauthenticword,Whydoththisgenerationseekasign?Thereshallnosignbegiven(v.12).Itis
incrediblethatthisshouldmeanthatJesusdisclaimedtoworkmiraclesbutitcertainlyimpliesthatHedidnot,andprobablythatHecouldnot,whenHewas
challengedtoperformthemoutofconnexionwithmoralconditions,andasamerecontributiontoacontroversy.
(ii)Irreligiousconduct.Therearechargesofsinsofomissionandofsinsofcommission.AmongthesinsofomissionchargedagainstJesusisHisneglectof
fastingarecognizedexerciseoftheholylife,whichhadbeenenforcedbyJohntheBaptist(Mk2:18).Thereplyisthatthereisatimetofast,andthatthetimewill
comeforHisdiscipleswhentheirMasteristakenaway(vv.19,20).TothesamecategorybelongstheaccusationwhichwaspreferredbythePhariseesandcertain
ofthescribes,thatsomeofHisdisciplesneglectedthelawsofceremonialpurityandatewithunwashedhands(7:1ff).Jesusrepliesthatdefilementconsistsinthe
impureheart,whichisthesourceofallevil(v.20).OfthesinsofcommissionthechieftransgressionchargedwasthatHeandHisdisciplesdidnotkeepthe
Sabbath(2:2328),andHedefendedHimselfbyappealingtoOTprecedent,andbylayingdowntheprinciplethattheSabbathlawcouldnotbebrokenbydoing
goodtomanonthatday.ItwasalsoacommongroundofaccusationthatHismanneroflife,especiallyHisconsortingwithdisreputablepersons,stampedHimas
wantinginthecharacterofsanctity(2:16).HerepliedthatHevisitedthemasaphysician(v.17).
(iii)Thechargeofinsanitywasalsomade.TheEvangelistdoesnotshrinkfromrecordingthatsomeofHisfriendsthoughtthatHewasbesideHimself(Mk
3:21).ScribesfromJerusalemrepeatedthisintheformthatHewasthetoolofdiabolicalinfluences(v.22).HowcanSatan,Heasked,castoutSatan?(v.23).
(d)TheattitudeofJesusHimselftotheMessiahship.WhiletheSynopticslabourtoshowbyaccumulatedproofsthatJesuswastheMessiah,theydonot
representHimasobtrudingtheclaim.Onthecontrary,Heenjoinssilenceuponthosewhoknow.Heforbidsthespiritstotestify(1:25),Heeventakesstepstokeep
secretthenotablemiraclessuchasthehealingoftheleper(1:44),andtheraisingofthedaughterofJairus(5:43),whichwouldhavebeenlikelytocarry
convictiontothegeneralmind.TheimpressionwhichisconveyedisthatJesusdesiredthatHisdisciples,withoutbeingprompted,andastheresultoftheir
knowledgeofHim,shoulddrawtherightinferenceastoHisdignityandmission.EvenwhenthegranddiscoverywasmadeandproclaimedbyPeteratCsarea
PhilippiandinalltheGospelsthisconfessionisrecognizedasmomentousJesusenjoinedreserve(Mk8:2730,Mt16:13ff.).Henceforward,Hespokeofit
freelytotheTwelvewiththepurposeofpreparingthemfortheunexpectedissueofHisMessiahshipinsufferinganddeath.FollowinguponPetersconfession,He
begantoteachthemthathemustsuffermanythings,andbekilled,andonthethirddayriseagain(Mk8:31).ThesamewastheburdenofHisteachingonthelast
journeythroughGalilee(9:3032).ThesepredictionsofHisPassion,itmaybeadded,weremanifestlyprecioustothePrimitiveChurchasremovingastumbling
blockinthewayofbelievingtheMessiahship.TheCrucifixionwasaveryrealdifficultytofaith,butitwouldhavebeenmuchgreaterhadnottheApostolic
witnessestestifiedthatHewhoclaimedtobetheMessiahhadalsoforetoldHisowndeath.
(e)TheresultsoftheGalilanministry.TheSynoptictradition,whilenotconcealingthedarkersideofthepicture,ismostconcernedwiththeachievements
andthegainsoftheGalilanperiod.Itiswellknownthat,asJesusforetold,muchoftheseedfellonbadsoilorcametonothing.WereadofaWoepronouncedby
JesusonChorazinandBethsaidawhichexpressesasensethatHehadfailedtoproduceageneralchangeforthebetterinthecitiesbytheLake(Mt11:20ff.).Luke,
inparticular,putsintheforefrontHisrejectionbythepeopleofHisowntown(Lk4:2830).ButasthePrimitiveChristianslookedbackonit,itmightwellseem,in
thelightoflaterconfidenceandoptimism,thatthesuccesswasmoreconspicuousthanthefailure.ThepeoplereverencedinHimOneofsuperlativegreatness
eithertheBaptist,orElijah,ortheprophet(Mk8:28).HehadgatheredroundHimabodyofdisciples,whowerethegermofthefutureChurch(Mt16:18).Above
all,theyhadrisen,inspiteofprejudiceandopposition,toaheroicavowalofthefaithinHisPersonandinHismissionwhichwastomoveandtotransformthe
world(Mk8:29).
TheepictreatmentoftheGalilanministry.InthetreatmentofthisperiodmanymodernLivesproceedonthefootingthattheGalilanministryhasthetragicinterestofa
splendidfailurefollowingonthebrightesthopes.Ithasbeencommonenoughinpubliclifeforgreatmentosinkfrompopularity,throughconflict,toneglectandimpotenceand
thereisnotalittletosuggestthatitwassowithJesusinGalilee.Theusualrepresentationisthat,afterbeingbornealongonatideofpopularenthusiasm,theoppositiongrewmore
persistentandenvenomed,Hewasforsakenbythemultitude,andwasforcedtomovefromplacetoplacewithahandfuloffaithfulfollowers.Thedramaticeffectissedulously
labouredbyKeim,whorepresentsHimasbecomingahomelessfugitive,seekingsafetyfromHisenemiesindistantjourneysorinobscureplaces.Graphicpicturesaredrawnofthe
changeinthepopularattitude.FormerlythemultitudeofhearersthrongedJesus,sothatHecouldnoteatinthehouseinpeace,andhadtobetakeHimselffromtheshoretothe
lake.NowHesitsaloneinthehousewiththedisciples,andthecollectorsoftheTempletaxknownotwhethertheyaretoassessHimasstillamemberoftheircommunity(O.
Holtzmann.Christus,1907,p.71).InexplanationofHisdesertionbythemultitude,useismadeoftheincidentrecordedinMk7:1ff.,which,itisthought,waspopularlyregarded
asmeaningthatHehadbeendefinitelyrepudiatedbythehighestreligioustribunal.Thelatter,itissupposed,movedtheGalilanauthoritiestoactionwhichmenacedthelibertyof
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asmeaningthatHehadbeendefinitelyrepudiatedbythehighestreligioustribunal.Thelatter,itissupposed,movedtheGalilanauthoritiestoactionwhichmenacedthelibertyof
Jesus,andevenHislife.
Thisdramatictreatmentisnotwhollyjustifiedbytherecordsandistosomeextentdependentoninherentprobabilityintheidyllicearlydays,whenwearetoldthatonlythe
firstmurmursofoppositionwereheard,Mk.saysthatthecryofblasphemyandofSabbathbreakingwasalreadyraisedagainstJesus,andthattherewasaconspiracytomurderHim
(3:6).Atthecloseoftheperiod,again,whenHeispicturedasadiscreditedpopularhero,theverdictofGalileestillisthatHeisaDivinemessenger(8:28),whileatthe
Transfiguration,whichfallsinthedarkestdays,agreatmultitudestillattendsuponHissteps(9:4).ThetruthwouldseemtobethattheSynoptics,especiallyMk.,havegiven
insufficientexpressiontotheelementofmovementandtotheproportionoffailure,andthatmodernbiographershavestriventoomuchafterstrongeffects.Atthesametimethe
modernworkhascertainlybroughtintoclearerreliefcertainpoints.Itseemscertainthattherewasagrowingbitternessandviolenceonthepartofthereligiousauthorities,asseen
inthefactthatJesusceasedtopreachinthesynagogues.Therewasalsoameasureofpopulardisappointment,whichwastheinevitableresultoftheabsenceofthepatrioticnote
fromtheteachingofJesus,andofthehighpitchedspiritualityofHisdemands.Jesus,moreover,regardedtheresponseofGalileetoHispreachingashavingbeenrepresentatively
given,andastantamounttoarefusaltorepentandbelievethegospel.Astothemotiveofthejourneysofthelastmonths,therearevariousconsiderationstobetakenintoaccount.
ThatonemotivewastoavoidthemachinationsofHisenemiesisquitepossible,asthiswouldhavebeeninaccordancewithacounselgivenbyHimtoHisdisciples(Mt10:23).But
thiswasquiteconsonantwithapurposetoproclaimthegospelinregionshithertounevangelized.Andif,asistrue,thereislittleevidencethatthesejourneyshadamissionaryaim,it
maywellbethatforJesusthemostpressingnecessitynowwastodevoteHimselftothetrainingofthedisciples,andintheirsocietytopreparethem,alongwithHimself,forthe
trialsandthetasksthatawaitedthematJerusalem.
Theoriesofdevelopment.Itischaracteristicofthemodernwritingofhistorytopostulateaprocessofevolutionandtotrytoexplainitscausesandreferencemayherebemade
tothetreatmentfromthispointofviewofthecentralthemeoftheperiodtheMessianicconsciousnessofJesus.TheGospelsknowofdevelopmentonlyintheformofagrowthin
thefaithofthedisciples,andofamodificationoftheeducativemethodofJesusbutthequestionisraisedwhethertheoriginalplanofJesus,andthemeansbywhichHeproposedto
accomplishit,werenotalsoalteredduringitscourse.Thetheorieswhichmaybenoticedarethoseof(1)amodificationofHisearlierideasundertheinfluenceofJohntheBaptist
(2)thesubstitutionoftheideaofapurelyspiritualKingdomforthatofatheocraticState,undertheimpressionwhichhadbeenmadeuponHimbytheprovidentialcourseofevents
(3)Hismorecompleteadoption,alsoastheoutcomeofexperience,oftheApocalypticconceptionofaheavenlyKingdomtobefoundedontheruinsoftheearthlyworld.
(1)TheGalilanministrywhichhasbeendescribedissupposedbyRenantorepresentadeclensionfromanearlierstage.Hesupposesthatforsomemonths,perhapsayear,
previously.JesushadlabouredinGalileeastheteacherofasimplegospelofDivineandhumanlove.OnjoiningJohntheBaptistHeabsorbedhisideasandhisspirit,andafterthe
arrestofthelatterbegantopublishanewmessageJesusisnolongersimplyadelightfulmoralistaspiringtoexpresssimplelessonsinshortandlivelyaphorisms,Heisthe
transcendentrevolutionarywhoessaystorevolutionizetheworldfromitsverybasis,andtoestablishonearthanidealwhichHehadconceived(LifeofJesus,Engtrp106).Itis
clear,asalreadysaid,thatatimecamewhenJesusbecamecertainofHisMessianicvocationbutthatHewasalreadyengagedinteachingbeforeHecameintocontactwiththe
Baptist,thereisnoevidencewhatever.AndtheGalilanspringtide,asKeimcallsit.certainlydoesnotbearouttheideathattheinfluenceoftheBaptisthadtingedthespiritof
Jesuswithgloom.
(2)AccordingtoHase,theexperiencesoftheGalilanministryledtoamodificationofthehopesandplansofJesus.AttheoutsetHeexpectedtofoundaKingdomsuchasthe
OTprophetshadforetold,viz.aKingdomwhich,whiledistinguishedbypietyandrighteousness,wouldbeinformagloriousrevivaloftheKingdomofDavid.Healsohopedthat
thepeopleasawholewouldrepentandbelievethegospel,andacceptHimasthegreatemancipator.DowntothetimewhenHisearthlycareerwasapproachingthecatastrophe,we
neverheararebukeoftheworldlyhopeswhichtheMessianicideaeverywherecalledforthandontheotherhand,HespokeoftheApostlesassittingonthrones,judgingthetwelve
tribesofIsrael,andansweredquestionsofthedisciplesaboutplacesofsupremehonourandpower.Butwhen,inviewofthefallingawayofthepeople.Hisearthlydestruction
seemedimpending,HerecognizedittobethepurposeofGod,andmadeitHisownpurposetoestablishonlyaspiritualKingdominloyalhearts,andleftittothewonderworking
energyofHisHeavenlyFathertomakeitgrowintoaworldpower(Gesch.Jesu2,517ff.).Thisconstructionderivesacertainplausibilityfromthefactthatitseemstobeageneral
lawofProvidencethatGodonlygraduallyrevealsHispurposetoHischoseninstruments,andthatthefoundingandreformationofreligionshasseldombeencarriedoutin
accordancewithapredeterminedplan.ButapartfromthedoctrinaldifficultyofsupposingthatJesuswasignorantofamattersovital,theweightofthehistoricalevidenceisagainst
thehypothesis.ThestoryoftheTemptationmakesitclearthatJesusfromthebeginningrejectedtheideaofaMessiahshiprestingonabasisofpoliticalpower.Hewas,moreover,
toodeeplyversedinOThistorynottoknowtheusualfateoftheprophets.Anearlysayingispreserved,inwhichHecomparedtheGalilanspringtidetoaweddingwhichwould
befollowedbybereavementandmourning(Mk2:19,20).
(3)AmorerecentphaseofthediscussionwasinitiatedbyBaldensperger(DasSelbstbewusstseinJesu,1888).whomadeuseoftheideasoftheJewishApocalypticliteratureto
explainthelaterteachingofJesus.HediffersfromHaseinthatheholdsthatthepoliticalidealwascompletelyrejectedinthewilderness,andthatduringtheGalilanperiodJesus
madeprominentthespiritualnatureoftheKingdomalthoughnotknowingwhenandhowitwastoberealized.Atthelaterdate,whenthefatalissuebecameprobable,Hewould
welcomethethoughtofHisdeathassolvingmanydifficulties,whileHemorefullyappropriatedthecurrentApocalypticideasoftheKingdom,andpromisedtoreturnintheclouds
toestablishbysupernaturalmeansaKingdomofaheavenlypattern.TheinterestingfactbroughtoutbythislineofinvestigationisthatinHisMessianicutterancesJesusappliedto
Himself,toamuchgreaterextentthanwasformerlysupposed,thecontemporaryJewishconceptionsabouttheMessiah,themannerofHisadvent,andtheexerciseofHispower.
ButtheattemptsotoenterintoHisconsciousnessastotraceadevelopmentinHisattitudetowardstheseideasistoospeculativetobereadilyendorsed.
AttheoppositepoleisthetheoryofWrede(DasMessiasgeheimniss,1901),whodeniesthatJesuseverclaimedtobetheMessiah,andregardstherelativepassages,andalsothe
injunctionstosecrecy,asfiction.ButeventheResurrectionwouldnothavecreatedthebeliefintheMessiahshiphadJesusnotmadetheclaiminlife(Jlicher,NeueLinien,1906,p.
23).
(B)THEJUDANMINISTRY.InseekingtofollowthefootstepsofJesusafterHisdeparturefromGalilee,wehavetochoosebetweentheSynopticsandthe
FourthGospel.AllthattheformerdirectlytellusisthatHenextentereduponamissioninJudaandbeyondJordan,Mk10:1(JudabeyondJordan,Mt19:1).
andthatafteranundefinedintervalHetravelledbywayofJericho,withacompany,tokeepthelastPassoverinJerusalem.AccordingtotheFourthGospel,the
PeransojournwasonlyanepisodeinaSouthernministrywhichextendedoversixmonths,andofwhichthescenewaslaidmainlyinJerusalem.Therecanbe 46/124
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andthatafteranundefinedintervalHetravelledbywayofJericho,withacompany,tokeepthelastPassoverinJerusalem.AccordingtotheFourthGospel,the
PeransojournwasonlyanepisodeinaSouthernministrywhichextendedoversixmonths,andofwhichthescenewaslaidmainlyinJerusalem.Therecanbe
littledoubtthatatthispointtheFourthGospelisinpossessionofreliableinformation.Mk.andMt.areveryvagueintheirnotices,andLk.usesthejourneyto
Jerusalem(9:5118:14)astheframeworkofamassofmaterialwhichobviouslybelongstoanumberofdifferentplacesandtimes.Itistobenoticedthatthereare
incidentalreferencesinMk.andLk.whichimplythattherewerevisitstoJerusalembeforetheendnotablytheincidentattheinhospitableSamaritanvillage,
whichmaywellhaveoccurredwhenJesuswentuponanearlieroccasionfromGalilee(Lk9:5155cf.17:1119).Wemayhold,asTatianheld,thattheFourth
Gospelmisplacesimportantevents,andeventhateventsoftheJudanministryarealtogetherantedatedbutitseemscertainthatitisrightinplacingamissionto
JerusalemimmediatelyaftertheclosingscenesinGalilee.Apartfromtheconfidenceandcircumstantialityofthereport,therearevariousconsiderationswhichmake
itprobablethatHeproceededtoJerusalem.ForJesusHimself,withHisknowledgeofthedestinedend,feltthenecessityofbringingthingstoadecisiveissue.He
wasstraitenedtillHisbaptismshouldbeaccomplished(12:50).Fromthepointofviewofthedisciples,whocouldnotbelieveinthetragicevent,itwasnaturalto
expectHimtolaybeforethereligiousleadersandthepeopleofthecapitaltheevidencethathadcreatedtheirownfaith.Wealsohearofanaturaltauntofthosewho
believednot.Whyhesitatetosubmitthecasetothosewhoarereallycompetenttojudge?(Jn7:4).Ontheotherhand,therearefactswhicharedifficulttoexplain
onthesuppositionthatJesusonlyarrivedinJerusalemafewdaysbeforetheCrucifixion.TheknowledgeandthehatredofHisenemiesdisclosedinthelastweek,
pointtoearliercollisions,andanearlierministryofsomedurationseemsclearlyimpliedinthewords,HowoftenwouldIhavegatheredthychildrentogether,even
asahengatherethherchickensunderherwings,andyewouldnot!(Mt23:37).
(1)Sequenceofevents.AttheFeastofTabernacles,whichfellinthethirdweekofthemonthTishri(Sept.Oct.),JesusappearedinJerusalem,whereHe
taughtanddisputedinthecourtsoftheTemple,makingmanydisciples(Jn8:30).Thehealingofthemanblindfromhisbirthbelongstothistime.Afterabrief
retirement(8:59),HereturnedtotheFeastofDedication(10:22)onthelastweekoftheninthmonth(Nov.Dec.),whenHisclaimsandrebukesledtoathreatof
stoning,andtoplansforHisarrest(10:31,39).HenextwithdrewbeyondJordan,where
Hisministrymetwithmuchsuccess(Jn10:4042,withwhichmatterinMk10,Mt19,20,Lk
18:1519:27maybeparallel).HenceHereturnstoBethanyonhearingofthesicknessofLazarus,whomHeraisesfromthedead(Jn11:146).Nextfollowsa
sojournwithHisdisciplesatEphraim,atownsupposedtobeintheN.E.ofJuda(11:54).ThenarrativesarecombinedbythehypothesisthatfromEphraimHe
proceededtojointhetrainofGalilanpilgrimsprobablyatJericho(Mk10:46,Mt20:29,Lk18:35)andthatintheircompanyHemadeHislastjourneyto
Jerusalem.HearrivedontheFriday,beforethebeginningoftheJewishSabbath,andlodgedatBethany(Jn12:1).
(2)TheJohanninepicture.InpassingfromtheSynopticstotheFourthGospelweareconsciousofmanydifferences.Incontrasttothefreemovementofact
andspeech,thereissomethingstereotypedinthewayinwhicheventsdevelopandargumentsaresustained.Inplaceofthevividnessandtherichvarietyofthe
Synopticdiscourses,wehavethefrequentrecurrenceofafewthemes,andtheciterationandexemplificationofthefundamentalideasoftheGospel.Butwhatis
mostnoticeableisthat,whilewiththeSynopticstheMessiahshipofJesusisasecretwhichisspokenofonlyafteragreatventureoffaithintheApostoliccircle,
thereisherenoevidencewhateverofreserve.TheconfessionofPeterismentioned(6:69),butmanyhaveknownHimbefore,AndrewasfarbackastheBaptism
(1:41).Moreover,thepointofmostofthediscoursesdeliveredbyJesusisthatHeistheMessiah,andmorethantheMessiah,andthatHisclaimrestsuponthe
strongestauthentication.ThatthiswastheburdenofHisteachingafterCsareaPhilippi,wemaywellbelieve,foritisquiteinaccordancewiththesituation
disclosedbytheSynopticsatthecloseoftheGalilanministry,thatJesus,afterbeingassuredofthefaithoftheApostles,shouldhaveproceededtourgeHisclaim
intheboldestandmostpublicway.ButforthesamereasonitisdifficulttobelievethatthediscoursesconnectedwithearliervisitstoJerusalem,whichcontainthe
samemessage,areproperlydated.TheinterviewwithNicodemus,aswellasthecleansingoftheTemple,maywellbelongtothelaterphaseoftheministryandthe
storyofthewomanofSamariamaybeanincidentofthejourneyfromGalileetotheFeastofTabernacles.ThesuppositionthattheFourthGospelhasinterwoven
withtheGalilanperiodeventswhichallbelongtotheoneJudanministryofthelastsixmonthsseemstothewritertogofartolightenthedifficultiesofthe
harmonist,andtomakeitpossibletoprofit,withoutbeingmisled,byitshistory.
(a)TheselfwitnessofJesus.HepubliclyclaimstobetheMessiah.IfthouarttheChrist,tellusplainly.Jesusansweredthem,Itoldyou,andyebelieved
not,(10:24,25cf.9:3537).ThereisalsodevelopedahighdoctrineofHisoriginandprimordialdignity.HeisfromGod(7:29)HeisbeforeAbrahamwas(8:58)
HeandtheFatherareone(10:30)whichlastisinterpretedtomeanthatbeingaman,HemakesHimselfGod(v.33).ProportionaltoHisdignityaretheblessings
whichHebestowsreposeandrefreshmentofsoul(7:37cf.4:14),truelife(5:40),spiritualfreedom(8:32),resurrectionandlifeeverlasting(11:25).
(b)TheproofofChristsclaim.TotherepeateddemandforcorroborationJesusappealstoGodasHiswitness.ThesourceofHisdoctrine,Godalsoattestsits
truth(8:18).Inthisconnexionthehealingoftheblindman(ch.7)isthoughtofasdecisive:WhentheChristshallcome,themultitudeask,willhedomoresigns
thanthosewhichthismanhathdone?(v.31).HisDivinemission,itisfurtherdeclared,isaccreditedbyHisdisinterestedzealforGodsglory(8:49,50).Onthe
otherhand,greatstressislaidonthefactthattheattitudetoChristisdeterminedbythespiritandthelifeofthosewhocomeincontactwithHim.Thosewhoareof
thetruthinstinctivelyrecognizeHimforwhatHeis,asthesheepknowthevoiceoftheirshepherd(10:4,cf.18:37).ToagoodmanChristisselfevidencing.Ifany
manwillethtodohiswill,heshallknowoftheteachingwhetheritbeofGod(7:17).
(c) TheexplanationofthePassion.HespeaksofHissufferingsanddeathnotmerelytoHisdisciples,buttothehalfbelieving(3:14),andbeforethemultitude
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(c)TheexplanationofthePassion.HespeaksofHissufferingsanddeathnotmerelytoHisdisciples,buttothehalfbelieving(3:14),andbeforethemultitude
(10:120).ThepointsofviewunderwhichthePassionispresentedarethatitisnotanevidenceofGodsrejection,butanactofselfsurrenderwhichcallsforththe
Fatherslove(10:17),thatdeathcomesinthelineofthevocationofagoodshepherd(10:11ff.),thatitisHisownvoluntaryact(10:18),andthatitisatoncethe
groundofsalvation(3:14f.)andthesecretofthegospelsspell(12:32).
(d)Theresponseofthehearers.TheFourthGospelshowsusJesussurroundedbythreeclassesabandofbelievers,themultitudewhich,thoughdividedand
wavering,isdeeplyimpressed,andthereligiousleaderswhoregardHimwithhatredorcontempt.Thecharges,asinGalilee,aremainlySabbathbreaking(7:23)
andblasphemousutterances(10:33)andtheattemptismadefurthertodiscreditHimasunlearned(7:15)andaGalilan(v.41).Finally,adefiniteresolutionis
formedtodestroyHim.Whatbroughtmatterstoahead,accordingtothisGospel,wastheraisingofLazarus,whichproducedapopularexcitementthatportended
theacceptanceofJesusastheMessiah,andgavereasontofeartheinflictionofthemostsevereretributionbytheRomans(11:48).
11.TheweekofthePassion.AviewmaybegivenoftheprobableorderofeventsbetweenthearrivalofJesusinBethanyontheeveoftheSabbathandthe
Crucifixion.
Saturday:thesupperinthehouseofSimontheleper(Jn12:1ff.,Mk14:3ff.).
Sunday:thetriumphalentryintoJerusalem(Mk11:110||),visittotheTemple,returntoBethany(Mk11:11).
Monday:visittoJerusalem,thecursingofthefigtree(Mk11:1214),thecleansingoftheTemple(Mk11:1518||),returntoBethany(v.19).
Tuesday: visit to Jerusalem, teaching in the Temple, interrogation by members of the Sanhedrin ( Mk 11:2733 ||), Pharisees (12:1317), and Sadducees (12:1827||), and
othersparables(Mk12:112||)returntoBethany.
Wednesday:visittoJerusalem,denunciationofthePharisees(Mk12:3840||),discourseonthelastthings(Mk13:537||),deliberationsoftheSanhedrin(14:4),theovertures
ofJudas(14:10),returntoBethany.
Thursday:preparationforthePassover(Mk14:1216),theLastSupper(14:1726||)theAgony(14:3242||),thebetrayalandthearrest(14:43ff.||).
Thechiefdifficultiespresentedbythenarrativesmaybebrieflynoticed.(a)TheSynoptistsmakethetriumphalentrytakeplaceonthearrivalofJesuswiththe
pilgrimsfromGalilee(Mk11:1ff.),whileaccordingtoJohnitwasarrangedwhileJesuswasstayingatBethany(12:1,12).
()TheanointinginBethany,whichisseeminglyplacedbyMk.(14:1)twodaysbeforethePassover,isexpresslydatedbyJn.(12:1)sixdaysbeforethePassover,
()ThedayofourLordsdeath,accordingtoallaccounts,wasontheFridaybutwhiletheSynopticsmakethistohavebeenthePassoverday,orthe15thNisan
(Mk14:12,17),theFourthGospelrepresentsitasthedaybeforetheFeastofthePassover(13:1),orthe14thNisan.Ineachofthesecasesthereisreasontobelieve
thattheFourthGospelisaccurate.AsregardsthedayofourLordsdeath,itisunlikelythatthePassoverday,whichhadthesanctityofaSabbath,wouldhavebeen
profanedbytheJewishauthoritiesengaginginbusiness,whiletheevidenceofhasteincarryingoutthecrucifixionpointstothesameconclusion.
(1)TheactivityofJesus.InagreementwiththegeneralviewoftheJudanministrygivenintheFourthGospel,theworkofJesusduringthelastweekfalls
mainlyunderthepointofviewofanaffirmationofHisMessiahshipindeedandword.Naturally,also,Hismindisturnedtothefuture,andHisdiscoursessetforth
thepowerandgloryreservedforthecrucifiedMessiahinthecounselsofGod.TheexplanationandvindicationofHismissionhavetheircounterpartinanattack
upontheprinciplesofthosewhohadrejectedHimandwhowereplottingHisdestruction.
(i)TheMessianicacts.Thetriumphalentry,inwhichJesuswasofferedandacceptedthehomageofthemultitude(Mk11:1ff.),isdecisiveevidencethatHe
madetheclaimtobetheMessiah.Evidently,also,thereisanaturalconnexionbetweenthepublicassumptionofHisdignityandthecleansingoftheTemple.
Accordingtooneaccount,JesusproceededimmediatelyafterHistriumphalentrytocarryoutthereformoftheTempleofGod(Mt21:12,13).
(ii)TheMessianicdiscourses.TheburdenofthediscoursesinwhichtheMesslanicclaimisprominentisthatthereawaitsHimthesamefateastheprophets
thatHewillberejectedbyHispeopleandputtodeath(parablesoftheVineyard,Mk12:112andtheMarriageFeast,Mt22:114).Butbeyondthisseeming
failure,twovistasopenupintothefuture.Thedeathisthepreludetoagloriousfuture,whenChristwillreturnasecondtime,accompaniedbytheangels,andwill
haveatHiscommandallpowerneededfortheestablishmentanddefenceofHisKingdom.ForthistypeofteachingthemainsourceisthesocalledSynoptic
Apocalypse(Mk
13:537,Mt24:436,Lk21:836),withthetopicsoftheDayoftheSonofMan,thePassover,andtheLastJudgment.Theotherleadingthoughtisthattheguiltof
therejectionoftheirMessiahwillbeterriblyavengedupontheJewsinthehorrorsofthelastdays,andespeciallyinthedestructionofJerusalemandoftheTemple
(Mk13:1,2,Mt24:1,2,15ff.).
(iii)Thepolemics.TheselfvindicationofJesusnaturallyinvolvedanexaminationofthepositionofthosewhorejectedHisclaim.Wehavealreadyseenthe
natureofHisrepliestothedetailedobjectionswhichweremadetoHisteaching.Asthecrisisapproaches,Headvances,inthemannerrepresentedbytheFourth
GospeltobecharacteristicofthewholeJudanministry,toanattackuponthereligionspositionofHisadversariesespeciallyoftheprofessedsaintsandreligious
guides.Theirhypocrisy,theirspiritualpride,theirblindness,thecupidityandcrueltywhichtheirpretendedsanctitycannotwhollymask,areexposedinthemost
mercilessinvective(theWoesofMt23:136).
(2) ReasonsforthehatredofJesus.WeareaccustomedtothinkoftheoppositiontoJesusasduetoatemporaryascendencyofadiabolicelementinhuman 48/124
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(2)ReasonsforthehatredofJesus.WeareaccustomedtothinkoftheoppositiontoJesusasduetoatemporaryascendencyofadiabolicelementinhuman
nature,butasafactthehatredoftheprincipalparties,andthemurderousconspiracyinwhichitissued,aretooeasilyintelligiblefromthepointofviewofaverage
politicalaction.ThechiefresponsibilityrestswiththeSadducees,whodominatedtheSanhedrin,andwhosetinmotionthemachineryofthelaw.Aswesaw,they
werestatesmenandecclesiastics,anditistherecognizedbusinessofthestatesmantomaintainsocialorder,oftheecclesiastictodefendtheinterestsofan
institution,bysuchmeasuresastheexigenciesofthecaseseemtodemand.AndiftheywereconvincedthatthepopularexcitementarousedbyJesuswaslikelyto
bemadeapretextbytheRomansfordeprivingthemofthelastvestigesofnationalexistence(Jn11:48)andif,ontheotherhand,HisreformingzealintheTemple
wasanattackononeofthesourcesoftherevenuesofthepriesthood(Mk11:1518),theycouldclaimthatwhattheydidwastoperformanadministrativeact
underthecompulsionofhigherexpediency.ThePharisees,whilelessabletostrike,exhibitedamorevenomoushatred.Theyrepresentedthestandpointofreligious
conservatismandithasbeennouncommonthing,oruniversallycensured,formentobelievethatwhatisessentialinreligionisoldandunchangeable,andthatit
isadutytoGodtosuppress,ifnecessarybyviolence,theintrusionofnewandrevolutionaryideas.Andthoughitistruethattheold,towhichtheyclung,itself
containedthepromiseofthenew,thenewapproachedtheminsuchunexpectedshapethattheconservativespiritcouldfeeljustifiedinattemptingtocrushit.
Again,politicalandecclesiasticalleadersdependgreatlyonpublicrespectandconfidence,andaremovedbytheinstinctofselfpreservationtoprotectthemselves
againstthosewhohumiliatethemorthreatentosupplantthem.Itisthereforenosurprisingconjunctionthatsoonaftertheexposureofthereligionofthescribesand
Pharisees,wereadofaconsultationtotakehimandkillhim(Mk14:1,Mt26:2,Lk20:19).Onthewhole,therefore,itwouldappear,notindeedthattheenemies
ofJesuswereexcusable,butthattheyweresocloselyrepresentativeofnormalwaysofjudgingandactinginpubliclifeastoinvolvemankind,assuch,intheguilt
oftheplotwhichissuedinthedeathofJesus.
(3)Thepreparationofacase.Unlessresortwastobehadtoassassination,itwasnecessarytoframeacapitalchargewhichcouldbesubstantiatedbeforea
legaltribunal,andaseriesofattemptsweremadeatthistimetoextractfromJesusstatementswhichcouldbeusedforthispurpose.ToconvictHimofblasphemy
mightbesufficient,butastheconsentoftheRomanauthoritieshadtobeprocuredtothedeathpenalty,itwasanobviousadvantagetohavethechargeofsedition
inreserve.Thefirstquestion,evidentlyframedbytheSanhedrin,wasastoHisauthority(Mk11:2733||).IfwemaybelievetheFourthGospel,Hehadoften
enoughclaimedtobefromGod,andtospeakthethingswhichtheFatherhadshowedHimbutHerefusestofallinwiththeirdesign,andputsaquestionabout
JohntheBaptistwhichreducesthemtoconfusion.Itisquiteprobablethattheincidentofthewomantakeninadultery(Jn7:538:11)occurredatthesametime
theintentionbeingtocompromiseJesusbyelicitingamercifuljudgmentwhichwouldhavethecharacteroftherepudiationofaMosaiccommandment.Jesus
avoidedthesnareinasmuchasHedidnotchallengethelawwhichvisitedadulterywithdeath,butatthesametimemadeanappealtotheconsciencesofthe
accuserswhichconstrainedthemtofallawayfromthecharge.ThequestionaboutthelawfulnessofpayingtributetoCsar(Mk12:1317||)wasdesignedto
procureadeliverancewhichwouldsupportthechargeoftreason.TheanswerofJesusclearlymeantthatHeregardedtheRomanruleaspartoftheprovidential
orderwhichHedidnotproposetodisturb,whileyetitimpliedthattherewasaregionintowhichtheauthorityofRomedidnotextend.Whilethisanswerbaulked
theimmediatepurposeofHisquestioners,itmaybethatitsofarservedtheirendastodampthepopularenthusiasmwithwhichHehadbeenwelcomedto
Jerusalem.ThequestionoftheSadduceesaboutremarriageandimmortality(Mk12:1827)doesnotseemtohavehadanymoreseriouspurposethantomakea
scepticalpointwhilethequestionofthescribetouchingthefirstcommandmentofalllikewiseappearstohavelainoutsideoftheplot(12:28ff.||).
(4)Thematuringoftheplan.OntheWednesdayameetingoftheSanhedrinwasheldinthehouseofCaiaphas(Mt26:3cf.Mk14:1),atwhichitwas
resolvedtoapprehendJesus.Itwasofimportancetoavoidatumult,andtheyfoundawelcomeinstrumentinJudas,whocouldundertaketoguidethemtoHisplace
ofretirement(Mk14:10,11).Itissuggestedinallaccountsthatthemotivewasmercenary(Mk14:11cf.Jn12:6),butitisalsoimpliedthatJudaswasbeside
himselfwhenhelenthimselftosuchanactoftreachery(Lk22:3,Jn13:27).Manymoderns,followingDeQuincey,havethoughtthattheactionofJudaswas
intendedtoforceJesustoputforthHispower.ItwouldthusbeofakindwiththepolicyofThemistocleswhenheknewthattheGreekfleetcouldconquerifdriven
intoacorner,andsentaseeminglytreacherousmessagetothePersiansurgingthemtoadvancetotheattack.ItismoreprobablethatJudaswasapatrioticfanatic
whocouldnotreconcilehimselftothenewconceptionoftheMessiah,andnowjudgedittobealostcause.
12.TheLastSupper.TheWednesdaynight,asbefore,waspassedatBethany.OntheforenoonoftheThursdayJesussenttwoofHisdisciplesintothecity,
tobespeakaroomfromoneofHisfriends,andtomakethenecessarypreparationforthePaschalmeal.Thechronologicaldifficultyalreadyreferredtoisbest
surmountedbysupposingthatJesusinpartakingofthePassoverwithHisdisciplesanticipatedbyadaytheregularcelebration.Themattersrecordedarethefeet
washing(Jn13:1ff.),theannouncementofthebetrayal(Mk14:1821||),theinstitutionofthesacramentoftheLordsSupper(Mk14:2225,Mt26:2629,Lk
22:1520,1Co11:23ff.),andthefarewelldiscourses(Jn1417).
13.TheInstitutionoftheLordsSupper.ItwasinaccordancewithadeeplyhumaninstinctthatJesus,knowingthehourofseparationtobeathand,desired
tocelebrateinthecompanyofHisdisciples,whomHesometimescalledHischildren,themostsolemndomesticobservanceofOTreligion(Lk22:15).Itwas
furtherinagreementwithHismethodofteachingthat,indistributingtothembreadandwine,Heshouldhavegiventotheactthesignificanceofaparableand
madeittotestifyofspiritualthings(Mk14:22ff.).
Intheolderperiodofcontroversythequestionsagitatedwere,ofakindwhichcouldbesettledonlybyhighdoctrinalconsiderations,buttherehasbeenarecentdiscussionofthe
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Intheolderperiodofcontroversythequestionsagitatedwere,ofakindwhichcouldbesettledonlybyhighdoctrinalconsiderations,buttherehasbeenarecentdiscussionofthe
wholesubject,conductedonliteraryandhistoricalgrounds,inwhichthefollowingquestionshavebeenraised.(1)DidJesusintendtoinstitutearitewhichshouldberepeated
amongHisfollowersasthesacramentoftheLordsSupper?
ThemainreasonfordenyingitisthatthereisnoinjunctiontorepeatitinMk.orMt.,orintheoldesttextofLk.,andthatwearethusthrownbackonSt.Paulasthesoleauthority.
SomehavethereforethoughtoftheApostle,whowasfamiliarwiththepowerofmysteries,asthefounderoftheinstitution(P.Gardner,TheOriginoftheLordsSupper,1893).But
therecollectionofitsrepetitionasasacramentgoesbacktotheearliestdaysoftheChurch(Ac2:42,46)and,besides,itisincrediblethatausagewhichwaspracticallythe
inventionofSt.PaulcouldhavespreadfromanoutlyingGentileChurchoverthewholeofChristendom(Sanday,Outlines).
(2)Aretheelementsofbreadandwineanessentialpartoftheobservance?IthasbeencontendedbyHarnack(TUvii.2)thatintheprimitiveusagetheonlyconstantelement
wasbread,andthatwaterwasfrequently,ifnotcommonly,usedinplaceofwine.Ifalibertyistobeallowedwiththeoriginalinstitution,thereislesstobesaidinfavourof
unfermentedwine,whichdestroysthesymbolism,thanofwater,whichwasexpresslyusedbyourLordasanemblemofthehighestblessingswhichHebestows(Jn4:14,7:37).
(3)Howwasthesacramentintendedtobeobserved?Wasitintendedtobecomeanelementinapurelyreligiousservice,ortobegraftedasanactualmealuponthesociallifeof
acommunity?ItwascertainlyinstitutedinconnexionwithacommonmealinApostolictimesitfollowedon,ifitwasnotidenticalwith,theAgapeandthismodeofobservance
continuedtobepopular,asAugustineattests,downtothefifthcentury.But,whiletheremaybereasontoregretthatamodeofobservanceceasedwhichwascalculatedtohavea
hallowinginfluenceinthesphereofsocialintercourse,nowalmostentirelysecularized,wemustbelievewithSt.Paulthattheprimitiveassociationofitwithacommonsupper
entailedthegreaterdangerofsecularizing,andevenprofaning,thesacrament(1Co11:21,22).
(4)WhatmeaningdidJesusintendthesacramenttoconvey?Inrecentdiscussionithasbeenconceivedasessentiallypredictiveincharacteri.e.asaforetasteofthe
communionwhichthediscipleswouldenjoywiththeirMasterinthefutureKingdomofHeaven.Itscentrallessonhasalsobeendeclaredtobethatfoodanddrinkwhenrightlyused
areameansofgracethattheybecomethefoodofthesoulwhenpartakenofwiththanksgiving,inmemoryofChristsdeath(Harnack).Withoutdenyingtothesesuggestionsan
elementoftruth,itmaybefirmlyheldthattheaveragethoughtoftheChurchhasmorenearlydivinedthemeaningofJesusininterpretingitasaparableofsalvationthroughHis
sacrifice.ThebreadandwineweresymbolsofthestrengthandjoywhichChristbestowedthroughHislifegivinggospel,andHedesiredHisdeathtoberememberedasthesacrifice
whichinsomewayratifiedandusheredinthenewdispensation(Mk14:24).
TheattitudeoftheFourthGospeltotheLordsSupperisenigmatical.Itrelatestheincidentofthefeetwashing(13:2ff.),andfurnishesinanothercontexta
discoursewhichhastheaspectofcontainingthesacramentalteachingoftheGospel(6:5ff.).Itisincrediblethattherewasapurposeofdenyingtheinstitutionofthe
ordinancebyChrist,butitmaywellbethattheFourthGospelintendedtoemphasizethetruththateatingofthefleshanddrinkingofthebloodofChristisa
spiritualactwhichisnottiedexclusivelytotheriteoftheLordsSupper.
14.TheinnerlifeofJesusduringtheperiod.ThesoulofJesuswasagitatedbyasuccessionofdeepandconflictingemotions.Amidthehosannas
ofthetriumphalentryHeweptoverJerusalem(Lk19:41).InpainandwrathHecontendedwithHisenemies,andintheintervalsofconflictHespokeofa
peacewhichtheworldcouldnottakeaway,andutteredwordsofthanksgivingandjoy.HewasgladdenedbytokensoffaithanddevotionfromHisfollowers
(Jn12:3),andHewasalsowoundedinthehouseofHisfriends,whenoneoftheTwelvebecamethetoolofHisenemies,andevenPetersfaithfailed.Moreand
moreexclusivelyHefeltHimselfthrownforsympathyontheunseenpresenceoftheFather(16:32).Everynighthewentout,andlodgedinthemountthatis
calledthemountofOlives(Lk21:37).Heprobablyspentthenightintheopenairandgavehoursofvigiltotheduty,whichHenowsoearnestlyenforced,of
watchingandpraying.Itwastolookaroundandbefore,andtolookupwardtotheFather,that
HeleftthesupperroomandwentuntoaplacecalledGethsemane(Mk14:3242).ItmaywellbethatthereweremanythoughtsthatburdenedHismindinthe
Agony,buttheplainsenseofthenarrativeisthatHeprayedthatHemightbeenabled,insomeotherwaythanthroughshameanddeath,toaccomplishthework
whichhadbeengivenHim.Beingtrulyman,Hecouldshrinkfromtheimpendingordealofhumiliationandsuffering,andasktobesparedbeingtheperfectSon,
Headded,howbeitnotwhatIwill,butwhatthouwilt(v.36).TosuchaprayertheonlypossibleanswerwasthatHereceivedfromtheFathertheassurancethat
accordingtoHisholyandlovingcounseltherewasnootherpossibleway(Weiss,ii.500).ThenHearoseandwentforwardtomeetthearmedbandwhichJudas
hadguidedthroughthedarknesstoHisretreat.
15.ThePassion.Theorderofevents.
Thearrest,inGethsemaneontheThursday,sometimebeforemidnight(Mk14:452,Mt26:4756,Lk22:4753,Jn18:112).
Removaltothepalaceofthehighpriest,privateexaminationbyAnnas(Jn18:13ff.)
TrialintheearlymorningbeforetheSanhedrin,meetinginthehighpriestspalace,andpresidedoverbyCaiaphas,condemnationandbuffeting(Mk14:5365,Mt26:57,68,
Lk22:6671),Petersdenial(Mk14:6672||).
TrialbeforePilateatdaybreak,probablyintheFortofAntonia(Mk15:25,Mt27:1114,Lk23:25,Jn18:3338).
JesusbeforeHerod(Lk23:612).
TheRomantrialresumed,thesentence,themocking,andthescourging(Mk15:620,Mt27:1630,Lk23:1325,Jn18:39,19:16).
ThejourneytotheCross(Mk15:2023,Mt27:3134,Lk23:2632,Jn19:16,17)
TheCrucifixion,beginningat9 A. M.(Mk15:25),orafternoonday(Jn19:14)deathandburial(Mk15:3447,Mt27:46,61,Lk23:4456,Jn19:2842).
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TheCrucifixion,beginningat9 A. M.(Mk15:25),orafternoonday(Jn19:14)deathandburial(Mk15:3447,Mt27:46,61,Lk23:4456,Jn19:2842).
TheprimarysourceisthenarrativeinMk.,which,however,becomesmeagreandsomewhatexternalinitsreportoftheeventssubsequenttoPetersfall.The
authoroftheFourthGospelclaimstohavehadopportunitiesforamoreintimateviewofthings(Jn18:15),andasafactgivesilluminatinginformationaboutthe
moresecretproceedingsoftheauthorities.Lk.addssomeincidents,notablytheappearancebeforeHerod.
(1)Thetrials.IntheJewishtrialthereareusuallydistinguishedtwostagesaprivateexaminationbeforeAnnas(Jn18:13ff.),andtheprosecutionbeforethe
SanhedrinunderthepresidencyofCaiaphas(Mk14:53).Thereis,moreover,reasontosupposethatthesecondofthesewasameetingofacommitteeofthe
Sanhedrinheldduringthenight,oroftheSanhedrinmeetingasacommittee,andthatitwasfollowedbyaregularsessionoftheCouncilatdaybreak,atwhichthe
provisionalfindingwasformallyratified(Mk15:1).
(i)TheexaminationbeforeAnnas.Annas,whohadbeendeposedfromthehighpriesthoodtwentyyearsbefore,continuedtobethedefactoleaderofthe
Council,anditwasnaturalforhimtowishtoseeJesus,withaviewtoputtingmattersintrain.InreplytohisquestionaboutHisdisciplesandHisteaching,Jesus
askedhimtocallhiswitnessesthepointbeingthataccordingtoJewishlawamanwasheldtobeinnocent,andevenunaccused,untilhostilewitnesseshadstated
theircase.
(ii)ThetrialbeforetheSanhedrin.AtthesubsequentmeetingoftheCounciltheordinaryprocedurewasfollowed,andtheindictmentwasmadebywitnesses.
Thechargewhichtheybroughtforwardwasaconstructivechargeofblasphemy,foundedonthestatementthatHehadattackedsacredinstitutionsinthreateningto
destroytheTemple(Mk14:58).Theevidencenotbeingconsistent(v.69),thehighpriestappealeddirectlytoJesustosayifHeclaimedtobetheChrist(v.61).
Thoughthisquestionwascontrarytolaw,whichforbadeanyonetobecondemnedtodeathonhisownconfession,JesusansweredIam.Thesupernaturalclaim
wasforthwithdeclared,withsignsofhorrorandindignation,toamounttoblasphemy,andHewascondemnedtobeworthyofdeath(v.64).Thataformal
meetingoftheSanhedrinwasthereafterheldtoratifythejudgmentisimpliedinMk15:1,andwasprobablynecessarytoregularizetheproceedings,ascapitaltrials
mightbebegunonlyinthedaytime.(Onthisandcognatepoints,seeTaylorInnes,TheTrialofJesusChrist,1905.)
(iii)TheRomantrial.ItisnotquitecertainwhethertheSanhedrinhadtherightoftryingapersononacapitalchargeinanycase,adeathsentencerequiredto
beendorsedbytheRomangovernor.TheJewsobviouslytookthepositionthatinacaseofthekinditwasthedutyofthegovernortogiveeffecttotheirjudgment
withoutgoingintoitsmeritsbutPilateinsistedonhisrighttomakeafullreviewofthechargeanditsgrounds.Inthissituation,againstwhichtheyprotested,they
feltthedifficultyofsecuringsentenceonthereligiouschargeofblasphemy,andaccordinglyfellbackonthepoliticalchargeoftreason.Theybegantoaccusehim,
saying.Wefoundthismanpervertingournation,andforbiddingtogivetributetoCsar,andsayingthathehimselfisChristaking(Lk23:2).InreplytoPilates
question,Jesusclaimedtobeaking,butdoubtlessdisarmedthegovernorssuspicionbysomesuchadditionasthatHewasakingintherealmofthetruth(Jn
18:36).ThenfollowthreedevicesofPilatetoevaderesponsibilitytheremandtothetribunalofthevassalprinceofGalilee,HerodAntipas(Lk23:8ff.)the
proposaltoscourgeHimandreleaseHim(v.16)andthereferencetothemultitude(Mk15:6ff.).Foiledineachattempt,hestillhesitated,whentheaccusersputthe
matterinalightwhichoverwhelmedhisscruples.Theythreatenedtocomplainthathehadnotsupportedtheminstampingouttreason
(Jn19:12).Tiberiuswasknowntobepeculiarlysensitiveonthepointoflaesamajestas,whilePilateshandswerenotsocleanthathecouldwelcomeany
investigationandhethereforepronouncedHimguiltyofseditionasthepretendedkingoftheJews,anddeliveredHimtobecrucified(v.16).Hewasthen
scourged,dressedwithmockemblemsofroyalty,treatedwithderisionandinsult,andledforthtotheplaceofexecution(Mk15:16ff.).
Theactionofthejudges.TherehasbeenconsiderablediscussionoftheactionofthejudgesofJesusfromthepointofviewofJewishandRomaolaw.Thattheprocedureand
verdictoftheJewishauthoritieswereaccordingtothelawwhichtheyweresettoadministerhasbeenablyarguedbySalvador(Hist.desInstitutionsdeMoise3,1862),butitseems
tohavebeenshownthatintheproceedingsthemostsacredprinciplesofJewishjurisprudencewereviolated,andthattheprocesshadneithertheformnorthefairnessofajudicial
trial(TaylorInnes,op.cit.).Ithasalsobeenarguedthat,inviewoftherequirementsoftheRomanlaw,andofthedutiesofhisposition,Pilatewasrightinpassingsentenceof
death(FitzjamesStephen,Liberty,Equality,Fraternity).OnthisitmustbesaidthatasPilatedidnotbelieveJesustobeguiltyofthecrimeimputedtoHim,hemustbeheldtohave
transgressedthespiritofRomanjustice.Ontheotherhand,itistruethattheclaimofJesuswastrulyinconsistentwiththeclaimoftheStatewhichCsarrepresented.andthatin
sentencingJesustodeathPilatefaithfully,ifunconsciously,interpretedtheantagonismoftheRomanEmpireandthe,Christianreligion(TaylorInnes,op.cit.p.122).
(2)Thedisciplesinthecrisis.Thedisciplesmadenoheroicfigureinthecatastrophe.Theytooktoflightatthearrest(Mk14:50),andPeter,whofollowedafar
off,deniedhisMasterwithcurses(v.66ff.).ItisalsosignificantthatnoattemptwasmadetocapturetheApostlesapartfromJesusitwasevidentlythoughtthat
theywerequitenegligible.Infairnessitshould,however,berememberedthatthetwoopportunitieswhichtheymighthavehadofshowingtheircouragewere
deniedthemtheywereforbiddenbyJesustoresistwhenHewasarrested(Mt26:52),andnowitnesseswereallowedtocomeforwardinHisdefenceatthetrial.
Thebeloveddisciple,alongwithMary,themotherofJesus,andtwootherwomen,waspresentatthecrucifixion(Jn19:25).
(3)ThebearingofJesus.ThewordsofJesusduringthelastdaywerefew.ForthemostpartHelistenedtotheaccusations,andboretheindignities,insilence.
Theoldestreport,whilemakingHimtestifythatHesufferedanddiedastheMessiah,representsHimasdeliberatelyrefusingtoanswerthefalsewitnesses,orto
pleadbeforePilate.TheotheraccountsrelatethatHecondescended,asisprobableenough,topointouttheiniquityoftheprocedure(Mt26:55,Jn18:21),andto
explaintoPilatethetruenatureofHisclaim(Jn18:36).ThedecisioninGethsemanegaveHimtheinsightandtheresolutionthatboreHimunshakenthroughthe 51/124
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explaintoPilatethetruenatureofHisclaim(Jn18:36).ThedecisioninGethsemanegaveHimtheinsightandtheresolutionthatboreHimunshakenthroughthe
ordealofthetrials.Heexpressedtheassurancethat,hadHeasked,theFatherwouldhavedeliveredHimbyHisangels(Mt26:53)butHeknewtheFatherswill,to
whichHehadbowed,tobethat,accordingtotheScriptures(v.54),Heshouldbeledasalambtotheslaughter.WhatHefelttowardsHisenemiescanonlybe
gatheredfromHissilencewhichmayhavehadinitanelementofholyscorn,butcertainlyalsoinvolvedcompassionfortheblindedmenwhowerenowfixedly
committedtotheirmurderouspurpose.Whetheractuallyheardbywitnessesornot,thefirstwordonthecross(Lk23:34)assuredlyexpressesanauthenticthought
ofHimwhohadtaught,Loveyourenemies,andprayforthemthatpersecuteyou(Mt5:44).Onlylessstrikingistheselfforgettingsympathythatcameto
expressioninthejourneyofJesustothecross,whenthewomenbewailedandlamentedHim:DaughtersofJerusalem,weepnotforme,butweepforyourselves,
andforyourchildren(Lk23:28).
(4)TheCrucifixion.ThesceneoftheexecutionwasGolgotha(Mk15:22),possiblysonamedfromtheskulllikecontouroftheeminence.Crucifixionwasa
formofdeathbytorturewhichwasreservedbytheRomansforslavesandrebels,andthatcombinedtheheightofignominywiththeextremityofsuffering.
Terriblewerethesufferingscausedbythepiercingofthehandsandthefeetinthemostsensitiveparts,theextensionofthelimbswiththeirhurningwounds,the
impedingofthecirculationoftheblood,thegrowingoppressionandexhaustion,theincreasingthirstunderthelongdrawnmortalagonies(Weiss,ii.536).The
indignityofsuchadeathwasheightenedbythespectacleofthesoldierscastinglotsforHisgarments(Mk15:24),andbythetauntsofHisfellowsufferers,ofthe
multitude,andofthepriests(vv.2932).Thenarcoticdraughtwhichwasusuallyofferedtothevictim,wasrefusedbyJesus(v.23).Forsixhours,accordingtovv.
25,34,Histormentsenduredandlateintheafternoon,withaloudcry,Heexpired(v.37).Theaccompanyingsigns,accordingtoMk.,wereadarknesslastingfor
threehours(v.33),andtherendingoftheveiloftheTemple(v.38),towhichMt.addstheportentmanybodiesofthesaintsthathadfallenasleepwereraised
(27:52).Both,alongwithLk.(23:47),recordaconfessionoffaithbytheRomancenturion.Jn.relates,withasolemnaffirmationoftheauthorityofaneyewitness,
thatasoldierpiercedhissidewithaspear,andstraightwaytherecameoutbloodandwater(19:34).
TheSevenWordsonthecrossarecommonlysupposedtohavebeenspokeninthefollowingorder:
(1)Father,forgivethem,fortheyknownotwhattheydo(Lk23:34)assignedtothetimewhenHewasbeingnailedtothecross.
(2)TodayshaltthoubewithmeinParadise(v.43)spokentothepenitentrobber.
(3)Woman,beholdthysonBeholdthymother(Jn19:26,27)spokentoMary,andtothebeloveddisciple.
(4)Ithirst(v.28).
(5)MyGod,myGod,whyhastthouforsakenme?(Mk15:34,Mt27:46).
(6)Itisfinished(Jn19:30).
(7)Father,intothyhandsIcommendmyspirit(Lk23:48).
Thewordsarenotallequallycertain.Ontextualgrounds(1)isplacedbyWHindoublebrackets,andisregardedbyWeissasunquestionablyasecondcentury
gloss.Theincidentofthepenitentrobberwasunknowntotheoldesttradition.EvidentlytherewasalsouncertaintyastothelastutteranceofJesus.Thatreportedby
Mk.Mt.iscertainlyauthenticnonecouldhaveinventedasayingwhichascribedtoJesusasenseofdesertionbytheFatherinthehourofdeath.Ontheotherhand,
thecharacterofJesusrequiresustobelievethatupontheagonytheresupervenedthefilialtrustandresignationwhichfindexpressionintheLukanandJohannine
words.
(5)Theburial.TherewerefriendsofJesuswho,thoughpowerlesstoresistthegeneralwill,wereatleastabletosecuretheseemlyburialofthebody.With
Pilatespermission,JosephofArimatha,withwhomNicodemusisassociated(Jn19:39),hadthecorpseremovedfromthecross,wrappedinalinencloth,andlaid
inarockhewntombtheentrancetowhichwasclosedbyagreatstone(Mk15:43ff.||).Mt.addsthat,attherequestoftheJewishauthorities,thestonewassealed,
andaguardsetoverthetomb(27:6263).
16.TheResurrection.NothinginhistoryismorecertainthanthatthedisciplesofJesusbelievedthat,afterbeingcrucified,deadandburied,Heroseagain
fromthedeadonthethirdday,andthatatintervalsthereafterHemetandconversedwiththemindifferentplaces.Theproofthattheybelievedthisistheexistence
oftheChristianChurch.Itissimplyinconceivablethatthescatteredanddisheartenedremnantcouldhavefoundarallyingpointandagospelinthememoryofone
whohadbeenputtodeathasacriminal,iftheyhadnotbelievedthatGodhadownedHimandaccreditedHismissioninraisingHimupfromthedead.Thereare
manydifficultiesconnectedwiththesubject,andthenarratives,whicharedisappointinglymeagre,alsocontainirreconcilablediscrepanciesbutthosewho
approachitundertheimpressionoftheuniquenessofChristsPersonandofHisclaimonGod,findthehistoricaltestimonysufficienttoguaranteethecredibilityof
thecentralfact.
(1)Therisingonthethirdday.ThereisaconsensusoftestimonyintheGospelstothefollowingfactsthatonthemorningofthefirstdayoftheweek
certainwomenwenttothesepulchre,thattheyfoundthestonerolledawayandthegraveempty,thattheywereinformedbyanangelthatJesuswasrisen,andthat
theywerebiddentoconveythenewstotheotherdisciples.WhetherthediscoverywasfirstmadebyMaryMagdalenealone(Jn20:1),orincompanywithother
women(Mk16:1)whethertherewasoneangel(Mt28:2),ortwo(Jn20:12)whetherfearorjoypreponderated(Mk16:8,Mt28:8),werepointsonwhichthe
reportvaried.Amoreseriousdiscrepancyisthat,accordingtotheoldestsource,themessagetothediscipleswasthattheywouldmeettherisenLordinGalilee(Mk
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reportvaried.Amoreseriousdiscrepancyisthat,accordingtotheoldestsource,themessagetothediscipleswasthattheywouldmeettherisenLordinGalilee(Mk
16:7,Mt28:7)whileasafactalltheGospels,exceptthemutilatedMk.,proceedtonarrateappearancesinJerusalem,andLk.knowsofnoother.Itcannot,
however,besaidthattheinconsistencyisinsuperable,asMt.hasconsciouslycombinedtheGalilanpromisewithareferencetoapreliminaryappearancein
Jerusalem(Mt28:810).
(2)Theplacesandnumberoftheappearances.Subjecttothepossibilityofconfusionarisingfromtheslightnessoftheallusions,theBiblicallistisasfollows:

(1)Tocertainwomenastheyreturnedfromthesepulchre(Mt28:810).
(2)ToMaryMagdaleneonthesameday(Jn20:1118).
(3)ToPeter,onthedayoftheResurrection,inJerusalem(Lk24:34,1Co15:5).
(4)TotwodisciplesonthesamedayonthewaytoEmmaus(Lk24:1335cf.Mk16:12,13).
(5)TothetenApostlesonthesamedayinJerusalem(Mk16:1418,Lk24:3649,Jn20:1923,1Co
15:5).
(6)TotheelevenApostlesaweeklaterinJerusalem(Jn20:2629).
(7)Toseveraldisciples,includingatleastfourApostles,attheSeaofGalilee(Jn21:123).
(8)Tofivehundredbrethren(1Co15:6cf.perhapsMt28:1620).
(9)ToJames(1Co15:7).
(10)TotheApostlesatJerusalembeforetheAscension(Lk24:5052,Ac1:3,8cf.Mk16:19).St.PauladdstheappearancetohimselfonthewaytoDamascus(1Co
15:8,9:1).(Milligan,ResurrectionofourLord,259261).
Theaccountspresentmanydifficulties.WhydoesMt.relatetheappearanceinJerusalemtothewomenonly,andignoretheallimportantmanifestationstothe
Twelve?If,accordingtothemessageoftheangel,thesceneoftheintercourseoftherisenLordwithHisdiscipleswastobeinGalilee,whydoesLk.recordonly
appearancesinJerusalemandintheneighbourhood?Further,asthedisciplesareinJerusalemeightdaysaftertheResurrection,andagainattheAscension,itseems
difficulttointerpolateareturntoGalileeinwhichtheApostlesresumedtheirformeravocations(Jn21:3).IthasbeensupposedbysomethataftertheCrucifixion
thedisciplesreturnedtoGalilee,thatitwasamongthehauntswhichwereinstinctwithmemoriesofHimthatJesusreturnedtotheminvision,andthatthisolder
recollection,thoughnotaltogethereradicated,hasbeenblurredintheGospelsbylatermanipulation.Butthemostcertainofallthefactsisthatbeliefinthe
ResurrectionbeganonthethirddaywhichpointstoJerusalemwhilethedifficultyaboutfittingtheGalilanappearancesintothechronologicalschemeisreduced
byconsiderationoftherapiditywithwhichthelittlecountrycouldbetraversed.
(3)ThemodeofexistenceoftherisenChrist.Therearetwosetsofnoticeswhicharenoteasilycombinedinanintelligibleconception.Ontheonehand,there
areseveralstatementswhichcreatetheimpressionthatJesusresumedthesamemodeofbodilyexistencewhichwasinterruptedatHisdeathuponthecross.The
storyoftheemptytomb(Mk16:18||)meantthatthebodywhichhadhunguponthecrosswasrevivified.Thatitwasabodyoffleshandblood,capableofbeing
handled,andsustainedbyfoodanddrinknotanapparitionofaspiritualistickind,isapointwhichisspeciallyemphasizedindetailsofthenarratives(Jn20:27,
Lk24:30).Ontheotherhand,itisfarfrombeinganormallifeinthebody.Hisfaceandformhaveastrangeaspect.Heappearssuddenlyinthemidst,thedoors
beingshut(Jn20:26),andassuddenlyvanishesoutoftheirsight(Lk24:31).TothisseriesbelongthereferencesofSt.Paul,whoplacestheappearancetohimself
onalevelwiththeothers,andspeaksofChristaspossessingabodywhichisnotoffleshandblood,buthasbeentransfiguredandglorified(1Co15:50,Ph3:21).
Theexplanationofthephenomena,accordingtoSchleiermacher,isthatintheonesetofstatementswehavethematterdescribedfromthesideoftherisenChrist,
intheotheranaccountoftheimpressionwhichHemadeonthedisciples(LebenJesu).OthersconceivethatwhileaftertheResurrectionHeexistedasaspiritual
being,Heyetassumedmaterialsubstanceandformatspecialmomentsforspecialpurposes(Rothe,TheologischeEthik).Theprimitivetheoryprobablywasthat
aftertheResurrectionHismodeofexistencewasthesameasduringtheministry,withanaugmentationofthepoweroverHisbodywhichHeeventhenpossessed(
Mk6:4550),andthatonlyattheAscensionwasthebodytransformed.Somemoderntheologiansholdthatthebodywasraisedfromthegraveasaspiritualbody,
othersthatitwasgraduallyspiritualizedintheperiodbetweentheResurrectionandtheAscension.Thephenomenabelongtoasphereaboutwhichwecannot
dogmatize.
(4)DenialoftheResurrection.Thenegativecasehastwobranches:(1)acriticalexaminationofthehistoricalevidence(2)ahypothesiswhichshallexplain
howtheChurchcametobelievethatJesushadrisenfromthedead.Onthefirstheadithasalreadybeensuggestedthatitisunfairtomagnifythediscrepanciesand
ignoretheimportantconsensus.
Theexplanationsbeganwith(1)thetheoryofimposture.Thedisciples,itwassaid,wereunwillingtoreturntowork,andinorderthattheymightstillhaveamessage,theystole
thebody,andpretendedthatChristhadrisen(Reimarus,VondemZweckeJesuu.seinerJnger,1892).Noonenowbelievesthatanygreatreligion,leastofallChristianity,was
foundedonfraud.Thedisciplesmightindeedhavebeenthemselvesdeceivedbyfindingthetombempty.JosephofArimathamighthaveremovedthebodytoanothergrave
withouttheknowledgeofthedisciples(O,Holtzmann,LebenJesu,1901).Butitisdifficulttobelievethatamisapprehensionsoeasilycorrectedcouldhavebeenallowedtodevelop
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withouttheknowledgeofthedisciples(O,Holtzmann,LebenJesu,1901).Butitisdifficulttobelievethatamisapprehensionsoeasilycorrectedcouldhavebeenallowedtodevelop
intotheuniversalbeliefthatHehadbeenseenalive.
(2)IntheschoolofEighteenthCenturyRationalismthefavouriteexplanationwasthatJesusdidnotreallydieonthecross,butrevivedinthecoolofthesepulchre,andagain
appearedamongHisdisciples(mostrecentlyHase,Gesch.Jesu2,727ff.).ItistruethattoescapewithHislifeafterbeingnailedtothecrossmighthavebeendescribedasa
resurrectionfromthedeadbutitisincrediblethattheRomansoldiersshouldhavefailedtocarryouttheexecutionofacondemnedman,andequallyincrediblethatalaceratedand
emaciatedman,whosoonafterwardsdiedofHiswounds,shouldhavemadetheimpressionofhavingcomeoffasmorethanaconqueror.
(3)Theusualexplanationnowgivenfromthenaturalisticstandpointisthattheappearanceswerepurelyvisionary.Visionsarecommonphenomenaofthereligiouslifeintimes
ofexcitementtheyare,moreover,oftencontagious,anditissupposedthattheybeganwiththewomen,probablywithMaryMagdalene(Renan,LifeofJesus,Eng.tr.p296),and
wererepeatedforatimeintheApostoliccircle.Themostweightyobjectionstothishypothesisare,thatwhileinothercasesthevisionshavefollowedfaith,inthecasebeforeus
theycreateditoutofsorrowanddespair,andalsothatwhileothervisionshaveledtonothingconsiderable,thesebroughttheChurchintoexistenceandimmeasurablyenrichedthe
higherlifeoftheworld.
(4)ThehypothesisofKeimistotheeffectthattheappearanceswererealinsofarthatJesus,whosespirithadreturnedtoGod,produceduponthemindsofbelievers
impressionswhichtheyinterpretedasbodilymanifestations.Christianfaithoverstepstheseboundaries(ofthenaturalorder),notmerelyinthecertainassurancethatJesustookHis
coursetothehigherworldofspirits,butalsointheconvictionthatitwasHeandnootherwho,asdeadyetrisenagain,ascelestiallyglorifiedevenifnotrisen,vouchsafedvisions
toHisdisciples.Itthuscompletesandillumineswhattoscienceremainedanobscurepointandavexatiouslimitationofitsknowledge(JesusofNazara,Eng.tr.vi.p.360).This
theorydeservestobetreatedwithmorerespectthanithascommonlyreceivedfromapologists.Itatleastrejectstheideathatthevisionswerehallucinationsandwearenotsowell
informedastothenatureofexistenceastobeabletodenyrealitytowhatisgiveninexperienceswhichareduetothepower,andwhichareaccordingtothepurpose,ofGod.The
mostseriousdifficultyforthosewhofollowtherecordsisthatitsupposesthatthegravewasnotleftempty,andthatthebodyunderwentcorruption.
(5)Anothertheory,whichhasrecentlyhadsomecurrency(Martineau,SeatofAuthorityinReligion,pp.3637)findsthebasisofthebeliefinaphysicalresurrectionina
misconceptionofthemeaningofmysticalutterancesofthedisciplesaboutunionandcommunionwithChrist.Itis,however,clearthatSt.Pauldistinguishedveryclearlybetweenthe
experiencethattohimtolivewasChrist,orthatChristlivedinhim,andtheappearancewhichhehadwitnessedonthewaytoDamascus.TheysaidtheyhadseenJesusafter
Hisdeath,andtheirhearersunderstoodthemtomeantheyhadseenHiminthebody.IftheywerenotputrightbytheApostles,itisfairlysaidthatthissomewhatcompromised
theircharacterforcandour(Bruce,Apologetics2,396f.).
TheimpressionconveyedbyareviewofthevarioustheoriesisthatthephenomenawhichgeneratedthefaithoftheChurchhavenotbeenexplainedon
naturalisticprinciples.Theyareintelligibleonlyasaninterminglingoftwouniversesofbeingordinarilykeptdistinct.Theyhavesomethingincommonwiththe
phenomenaofSpiritualism,andasafacttheSpiritualistclaimstounderstandelementsinthestorywhichChristianshavehumblyacceptedinfaith,andtofind
supremelycrediblewhattheordinaryrationalismdismissesassuperstition.Itis,however,onlyinaveryindirectway,ifatall,thatChristianfaithcanderivesupport
fromSpiritualism.Itseemstobeprovedthatifcommunicationisestablishedatallwiththespiritworld,itismerelywiththedregsandleesoftheunseen
universewithspiritswhoeitherhavenotthepowerorelsethewilltocommunicateanythingofimportancetomanand,thisbeingso,theResurrectionand
appearancesofChrist,withtheiruniqueandfarreachingspiritualresult,comeunderatotallydifferentDivineeconomy.IntherisenChristwehavetheone
authenticglimpseoftheworldwhichotherwisecandonomorethanattestitsexistencetothosewhopeepandmutter(Waite,StudiesinMysticism,1906).
(5)SignificanceoftheResurrection.(a)InthePrimitiveChurchtheResurrectionwasregardedasatoncetheauthenticationofChristianity,andavitally
importantelementofdoctrine.
ItsapologeticvaluewasappraisedequallyhighlyintheappealtoJewsandtoGentiles(Ac4:10,17:31).TheargumentwasthatGodhadaccreditedJesusmission
andacceptedHisworkinraisingHimupfromthedead.Inrecentapologetic,atleastoftheEnglishschool,therehasbeenatendencytostakethetruthof
ChristianityontheevidencefortheResurrection(Row,ChristianEvidences,1887)butitisalwaystoberememberedthattheevidenceforthemiracleitself
dependsforitscredibilityontheanteriorimpressionofthesupernaturalmadebythePersonofChrist.ItisnotsogenerallyrecognizedthattheResurrectionhasthe
valueofavindicationofthewaysofGod.HadtheRuleroftheUniversegivennosignwhenthespotlessandlovingChristwasmadeawaywithbyHismurderers,
theproblemofevilwouldhavebeenwellnighoverwhelming,andfaithinthesupremacyofamoralorderwouldhavelackedoneofitsstrongestsupports.(b)
DoctrinallytheResurrectionwasregardedaspossessingahighsignificanceforChristHimself.Itis,indeed,anexaggerationtosaythatforSt.Paulthe
ResurrectionhadtheimportancewhichearlierthoughtclaimedfortheBaptism,andlaterthoughtfortheVirginBirth,viz.ofconstitutingJesusSonofGodbuthe
atleastregardeditasmarkingthetransitionfromtheforeshadowingtothefullrealityofthepowerandgloryoftheSonofGod(Ro1:4).Itwasalsothesourceof
themostcharacteristicandvitalelementsofhiseschatologicalteaching.InthelifeoftherisenChristhesawtheprototypeofthelifewhichawaitsthosethatareHis
inthefuturestate(Phil3:21).HealsousedtheresurrectionofChrist,thoughassuredlywithoutanysuggestionthatitwasonlyafigure,asaparableofthe
beginning,themanifestations,andthegoalofthenewlife(Ro6:4).
16.ThecharacterofJesus.InthissectionitisnotproposedtodealwiththedoctrineofthePersonofChrist(seeP ERSONOFCHRIST),butonlytogatherup
themainfeaturesofthecharacteroftheManChristJesusasitisportrayedintheGospels.Thepointofviewissomewhatmodern,butdoesnotnecessarilyimplya
naturalisticorUnitarianinterpretationofChrist(Keim,JesusofNazara,Eng.tr.vol.ii.Peabody,JesusChristandtheChristianCharacter,1906,ch.2.).
ThetaskofdescribingthecharacterofJesusisdifficult.Jesusisoneofthemostrealandlifelikefiguresinhistory,andthereisawayofobserving,feeling,and54/124
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ThetaskofdescribingthecharacterofJesusisdifficult.Jesusisoneofthemostrealandlifelikefiguresinhistory,andthereisawayofobserving,feeling,and
judgingwhichisunmistakablyChristlikebutwhenwetrytodescribeHimweareindangerofsettingforthamerepersonifiedsystemofmoralsandpsychology,
consistingofacatalogueofallpossiblevirtuesandcapabilities(Hase).ThereisthereforesomethingtobesaidforleavingthematterwhereitisleftbytheGospels,
whichsimplyrevealthecharacterintellingthestoryofthelife.ThegeneralobservationwhichismostconvincingisthatinJesustherewerecombinationsof
qualitieswhichareusuallyfoundinisolation,andregardedasmutuallyinconsistent.Thisholdsgood,first,intheregionoftemperament.Itiseasytoshowthatat
leastthreeoftherecognizedtemperamentsthesanguine,themelancholic,andthecholeric,weremanifestedbyJesus,andthatwhatisgoodinthephlegmatichad
itscounterpartinHisreposeandpurposefulness.FromasimilarpointofviewithasbeensaidthattherewasinHimthewomanheartaswellasthemanlybrain
allthatwasmostmanlyandallthatwasmostwomanly(F.W.Robertson,Serm.ii.231butcontrariwiseHase:Hischaracterwasthoroughlymasculine,31).It
hasbeenheldbysomethatHebelongedtotheclassofecstaticmen,byothersthatHereasonedandactedwiththeserenityofthesage:thetruthisthatreposewas
thenormalconditionofHisspirit,butthatitwasintermittentlybrokenbypropheticexperiencesofvisionandtumult.Ontheintellectualsidewefindtheabstract
powerwhichunerringlyseizesuponthevitalprinciple,unitedwiththepoetsmindwhichdelightstoclothetheideawithformandcolourandtofindforitthemost
perfectartisticexpression.AnotherandmoreimpressivecontrastispresentedintheforceandthegentlenessofHischaracter.FromHimtherewentoutaninfluence
whicheitherawedmenintodocilesubmissionorrousedthemtoafrenzyofopposition,whilethesameJesusspokewordsoftendersolacetoapenitentMagdalene,
andcalledthelittlechildrentoHisside.Healsocombinedwithwideoutlookandsublimepurposeanactiveinterestinsmallthingsandininconsiderablepersons.
RecognizingitasHisvocationtobuildtheKingdomofGod,HedidnotconsideradaylostinwhichHeconversedwithawomanofSamariaatawaysidewell.
WhiletheseandsimilartraitshelptogivegreatervividnesstoourconceptionofJesus,theessentialcontentofwhatiscalledHischaracterliesinHisattitude,on
theonehandtotheFather,ontheothertotheproblemsofdutywhichariseforamanamongmen.
(1)BeginningwiththeGodwardsideofthecharacterofJesus,thatwhichwedescribeaspiety,wefindthatitcombinesfamiliartraitswithotherswhichare
novelandunique.ToalargeextentitisafulfilmentoftheJewishidealofpiety,butitshowsimpressiveomissionsanddeviationsfromtheOTpattern.Hefulfilsit
inthatHehasaconstantsenseofthepresenceofGod,andregardsalleventsasinstinctwithaDivinemeaningofguidance,ofblessing,orofjudgment.Helivesin
habitualprayerfulness,givingthanks,supplicating,intercedingforothers.HeshowsasensitivereverenceforallthatiscalledGodHisname,Hisword,Hishouse,
andisfullofpropheticzealforHishonour.ItisHismeatandHisdrinktolabourinthetaskswhicharemadeknowntoHimasthewillofGod.Whenthatwill
approachesHimasacalltosufferanddie,HetrustsimplicitlyinthewisdomandgoodnessoftheFather,andpraysthatHiswillbedone.
Thereare,however,twosignificantparticularsinwhichthereligionofJesus,ifwemaysotermit,differedfromthepietyofHebrewsaints,aswellasofthe
saintsofChristiantimes,(a)ThepenitentialnoteisoneofthemostdistinctivefeaturesoftheOT.Thedepthofthesenseofsinmayalmostbesaidtobethemeasure
ofsanctity,andthesamemaybesaidofthosewhomtheChristianChurchhaschieflyveneratedasitsreligiousheroes.Butofpenitencethe
experienceofJesusshowsnotrace.WhileteachingHisdisciplestopray,Forgiveusourdebts,HeHimselfneverconfessedsin.NeitherinGethsemanenoronthe
cross,whenthenearapproachofdeathchallengedHimtopassrighteousjudgmentonHispastlife,wasHeconsciousofanylapsefromfidelitytotheFathers
commands.(b)AsecondnoteofHebrewpietyisasenseofdependenceuponGod,accompaniedbytheknowledgethattoHimbelongstheglory,andthatthe
humaninstrumentcountsfornothingincomparison.ButJesus,whileconfessingHisdependenceontheFatherinteachingandhealing,doesnotspeakofHimself
asamereagentwhodeliversamessageandaccomplishesaworkandisforthwithforgotten.EnjoyingafilialintimacywithGodwhichcontrastsmarkedlywith
thealoofnessofGodinOTtimes,andthefearmanifestedinHispresenceevenbyprophets,Heclaimedprerogativeswhichtheywouldhaveregardedasa
usurpationofthesphereofGod.ForHeforgavesins,claimedafaithandadevotiontowardHimselfwhichwereindistinguishablefromworship,andforetoldthat
Hewouldreturntojudgetheworld.WhatmakestheseutterancesthemorestrikingisthatHesimultaneouslyinvitedmentolearnofHimasmeekandlowlyinheart
(Mt11:29).WethereforeseemtobedriventotheconclusionthatJesuswaslessthanasaint,unlessHewasmorethanaman.UnlessHewassinless,Hewasguilty
ofaselfrighteousnesswhichwasmoreblindedthanthatofthePhariseesandunlessHehadauniquedignityandcommission,Hewasguiltyofanoverweening
arrogance.Thehypothesisofauniqueexperienceandvocation,orthebeliefthatHewasinauniquesenseDivine,ismorecrediblethanthechargeofimperfect
piety.
(2)InstudyingthecharacterofJesusontheethicalside,itisusefultoobservetheforminwhichHerecognizedandrealizedthefundamentalvirtues.Wisdom
Hewouldscarcelyhavedescribedasavirtue.HedidnotHimselfpossessorvalueitintherangewhichitbegantohavewiththeGreeks,butHeassuredlyhad
wisdominthegrandwayofthinkingdeepthoughtsaboutGodandmanwhichhavebeenworkedupinphilosophicalsystems,andalsointhehomelyformof
prudentdealingwithtasksanddangers.CourageHecertainlydidnotillustrateinthetypicalformthatitassumesinamanofwarbutthereisabundantproofof
physicalaswellasofmoralcourageintheheroismwhichledHim,whilediscardingforceandforeseeingtheissue,togouptoconfrontHispowerfulenemiesinthe
nameofGodandtruth.OneglimpseofHisbearingisunforgettable.AndtheywereinthewaygoinguptoJerusalemandJesuswasgoingbeforethemandthey
wereamazedandtheythatfollowedwereafraid(Mk10:32).ThevirtueoftemperanceorselfcontrolmightseemtolieonaplaneonwhichHedidnot
condescendtobetried.Butinitsessence,asthevirtuewhichrequiresthesurrenderofthelowerforthehigher,ofthetemporaryfortheenduringgood,ithasits
illustration,notmerelyinthevictoryoftheTemptation,butinthemouldofselfsacrificeinwhichHiswholelifewascast.Justice,asthevirtuewhichrenderstoall
theirdue,entereddeeplyintothethoughtandlifeofJesus.TheparableoftheUnjustSteward,whichonasuperficialviewmakeslightofdishonesty,isplacedina55/124
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theirdue,entereddeeplyintothethoughtandlifeofJesus.TheparableoftheUnjustSteward,whichonasuperficialviewmakeslightofdishonesty,isplacedina
settingofwordsofJesusfromwhichitappearsthatHethoughtitusefultogiveHisdisciplesthetestofanhonestman,andevenmadecommonhonestyacondition
ofadmissiontolife(Lk16:1012).ItisalsonoteworthyhowoftenHecommendsthewiseandfaithfulservantwhileHisownidealmightbesummedupasthe
performancewithfidelityofHisappointedwork.NoteventhesympathyofJesusismoredistinctivethanHisconscientiousnessinregardtotheclaimsbothofGod
andofman.
ThecharacterofJesusalsoexemplifiedthefundamentalqualityofsteadfastness.Hepraiseditinothers:JohntheBaptist,whowasnoreedshakenwiththe
windSimon,whomHesurnamedtherocklikeman.Hiswholeministry,whichbeganwithvictoryintheTemptation,hadbehindittheforceofsteadyandof
resolutepurpose.HesteadfastlysethisfacetogotoJerusalem(Lk9:51)mayserveforadescriptionofthewayinwhichHeheldstraightontoHispreconceived
andpredeterminedgoal.
OnthisgeneralgroundworkofcharacterthereemergestheloveofJesus,whichwasmarkedbyextraordinaryrangeandintensity.FormanasmanHehada
prodigalityofsympathyandlookedonHimselfasadebtortoallwhowereburdenedbysufferingorsin.ItmayindeedbeobservedthatHislove,whileall
embracing,haddegrees.ThecenturionofCapernaumandtheSyrophnicianwomancamewithinitsscope,butHelookedonthepeopleofIsraelasthosewhohad
thefirstclaimonHisaffectionandservice.HesharedthefeelingsforJerusalemwhichareexpressedinmanyofthePsalms,andyearnedovertheholycitymore
thanoverthecitiesoftheLake.WithinthehouseofIsraeltherewerethreeperhapsfourclasses,whomHeregardedwithapeculiartenderness.Firstinordercame
thedisciples,nextthecommonpeopleandthesocialoutcasts,anddoubtlesswemayaddthechildren.ItishardtobelievethatthefamilycircleatNazarethwasnot
alsooneofthenearergroups,butduringtheperiodoftheMinistrytheattitudeofHiskinsfolk,withtheprobableexceptionofMary(Jn19:26),divertedHisstrong
naturalaffectiontothosewhowereHiskinsfolkafterthespirit.ThewaysinwhichHisloveexpresseditselfwereontheonehandtoseektomakethoseHeloved
trulyHisownbybindingthemtoHimselfbytheirfaithanddevotionontheother,tobestowonthem,andthatatwhatevercostto
Himself,allbenefitswhichitlaywithinhisvocationtoconfer.TheformsofservicetowhichHissympathypromptedHimwereasmanyastheformsofhuman
distress.Hismission,indeed,proceededonthefootingthattheworstevilsfromwhichmensufferarespiritual,andthatthebenefactorwhomtheychieflyneedis
onewhowillleadthemtorepentanceandshowthemtheFather.ButnosmallpartofHisministryalsowasoccupiedwithworksofthephilanthropickind,whichit
wouldbealtogetherwrongtointerpretontheanalogyofsomemodernenterprises,ashavingthemerepurposeofcreatingafavourabledispositionforthegospel.
Hisdistinctiveworkwastocomfortbysaving,butHealsoactedasonewhofeltthatthereliefofpainhaditsownindependentclaim.
InseemingcontrastwiththegentlenessofthesympatheticChristwasthesternnesswhichmarkedmanyofHiswordsandacts.Itisofinteresttonotethatthe
disciple,whomJesuslovedisrememberedintheSynoptics(Lk9:4956)chieflyasamanwithacapacityforfieryindignationandthisqualitymaywellhavebeen
onethatdrewJesusandJohnmorecloselytogether.IfthereweresomesinsthatmovedJesuschieflytocompassion,therewereothersthatrousedHimtoholy
wrath.Thosewho,likeprodigalsandfallenwomen,couldbedescribedastheirownworstenemy,Hechieflypitied,butsternermeasurewasnevermetedoutthan
byJesustothosewhoseguilthadthequalityofprofanityorofinhumanity.TheprofanitywhichirreverentlydealtwiththethingsofGodinswearing,incorrupting
Hisword,inpollutingHisTemple,wasunsparinglyrebukedononememorableoccasionbyactandthegreatoffenceofthePhariseesinHiseyeswasthat,while
makingaparadeofsanctitybeforemen,theywereinsultingGodbyactingalie.ThesecondtypeofsinwhichprovokedHisburninginvectivewasinhumanity
towardstheweak.Anexampleisthesinofthosewhomakeoneofthelittleonestooffend(Mt18:6),whichmayperhapsbetakenliterallyofthosewhopervert
childrenandtheunpardonableaggravationoftheguiltofthescribeswasthat,whilemakinglongprayers,theydevouredwidowshouses(Mk12:40||).
WhilethecharacterofJesushascommonlybeenregarded,evenbynonChristians,asthenoblestthattheworldhasseen,ithasnotescapedcriticisminancientormodemtimes.
Twoformsoftheindictmentmaybealludedto.Renanprofessestofindevidenceofdeterioration,andinthistherealtragedyofthelifeofJesus.Writingofthelastdays,hesays:
HisnaturalgentlenessseemstohaveabandonedHim:Hewassometimesharshandcapricious,contactwiththeworldpainedandrevoltedHim.Thefatallawwhichcondemnsan
ideatodecayassoonasitisappliedtoconvertmenappliedtoHim.HeisevensaidtohaveyieldedtothewishesofHisenthusiasticfriendsandtohaveacquiescedinapretended
miraclebywhichtheysoughttoreviveHissinkingcause.Hisdeathwasahappyreleasefromthefatalnecessitiesofapositionwhicheachdaybecamemoreexactingandmore
difficulttomaintain(p.252).Toapessimisticallytingedscepticismtheremaybesomethingcongenialinthisrepresentation.Asafacttheideaofdegenerationisborrowedfromthe
careerofMohammed,andhasnosupportexceptintheassumptionthatJesuswasuncommissionedtorepresenttheDivinewrathagainstsin.Verydifferentwastheinsightofhim
whowrotethatHelearnedobediencebythethingswhichhesuffered,andwasthusmadeperfect(He5:89).
FromtheHellenicpointofviewitisacommoncriticismthatthecharacterofJesusisonesidedorfragmentary.Thereare,itissaid,elementsofhumanexcellencewhichHe
eitherdidnotpossessorwhichHedeliberatelyundervaluedandrenounced.TherewerewholespheresofvaluablehumanexperienceintowhichHedidnotentermarriedlife,
politicalservice,scientificlabour,therealmofstheticinterests.Hisattitude,also,totheeconomicsideofhumanaffairswasunsatisfactory:Hetaughtmentodespisewealthand
distributeitamongthepoor,andthusstruckattheveryfoundationsofthesocialfabric.Inreplytothisindictment,itissometimesurgedthatthecharacterofJesusactuallyincluded
mostelementswhichenterintotheHellenicidealnotablythestheticsenseasseeninHiscloseobservanceandloveofthingsbeautiful,intellectualvitalityandacquisitivness,and
thetemperateenjoymentofthepleasuresofthetableinthesocietyofHisfriends.ItisalsopointedoutthatHisprinciplessanctionamuchwiderrangeofactivitythanHeHimself
actuallyexemplified.InHislovetoman,whichdesignedtobestoweveryformofrealgood,therelaythesanctionofalltheactivitiesscientific,economic,political,aswellas
religiousandphilanthropic,whichfilloutwithhelpfulservicethevariousspheresofdutyinthemodernworld.AtthesametimeitmustbeadmittedthatJesuswasnottheuniversal
manintheliteralsense,butwaslimitedinHisequipmentandaimbythespecialcharacterofHismission.HewasasceticinthesensethatinHisschemeofvaluesHeseverely
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manintheliteralsense,butwaslimitedinHisequipmentandaimbythespecialcharacterofHismission.HewasasceticinthesensethatinHisschemeofvaluesHeseverely
subordinatedallthegoodsofthisworldtospiritualblessings,andtaughtthatthefirstweretobedespisedandrenouncedinthemeasureinwhichtheyimperilledthesecond.He
exemplifiedselflimitationandselfsacrifice,notindeedasanendinitself,butasanecessaryconditionofaccomplishingthehighestforGodandman.
17.ThefundamentalideasofourLordsteaching.ItisoneofthegainsofmoderntheologythatBiblicalTheologyisseparatedfromDogmatics,andthat
thesacredwritersareallowedtospeakforthemselveswithoutbeingforcedintoconsistencywithasystemofecclesiasticaldoctrine.Inpursuanceofthishistorical
task,interesthascentredchieflyintheattempttoexpoundandsystematizetheteachingofJesus.ItwasnaturallyfeltthatnoChristiandocumentsaresovaluablefor
anunderstandingoftheChristianreligionasthosewhichcontaintheteachingoftheFounder,andthat,indispensableastheApostolicwritingsare,theyareina
veryrealsensederivativeandsupplementary.ExperiencealsoshowedthattheteachingofJesus,whichintheoraltraditionwasforatimethemainsustenanceof
thePrimitiveChurch,hasbeenabletoquickenandrefreshthereligiouslifeofnotafewinthemodernworldwhohadceasedtofeelthepowerofthestereotyped
phrasesofatraditionaltheology.AnaccountofourLordsteaching,ithastobeadded,isproperlybasedontheSynoptics.TheauthenticmatteroftheFourth
Gospelissoinextricablyblendedwithbelievingexperienceandreflexionthatitcanonlybesetforthasasupplementtotheheadsofdoctrinecollectedfromthe
Synoptists(Wendt),orutilizedasasourcefortheJohannineTheology(Weiss).
InadditiontothesketchesinthegreatmanualsofNTTheology(Weiss,Bibl.Theol.desNT,Eng.tr.18823Beyschlag,NTTheolEng.tr1891Holtzmann.
LehrbuchderNTTheol.,1897
Stevens,Theol.ofNT,1899),therearenumerousmonographs,ofwhichthemostimportantisWendt,LehreJesu(Eng.tr.1892),andthemostinterestingareBruce,
TheKingdomofGod,1890,andHarnack,DasWesendesChristenthums(Eng.tr.1901).
A.THEKINGDOMOFGOD.TheEvangelistsgiveasthesummarydescriptionofthemessageofJesusthegospelofthekingdom.AndJesuswentaboutin
allGalilee,teachingintheirsynagogues,andpreachingthegospelofthekingdom(Mt4:23cf.Mk1:14,15,Lk8:1).AsJesuswasconsciousofbeingthe
promisedMessiah,itwasnaturalthatHisteachingministryshouldbelargelydirectedtosettingforththenature,theprivileges,andthelawsoftheMessianic
Kingdom.Mostmodernexpositors,accordingly,havetreatedtheideaoftheKingdomascentral,andassupplyingaschemeunderwhichthewholebodyofthe
teachingmaybesystematicallyarranged.Thus,afterdeterminingthenatureoftheKingdominrelationtothepastofIsrael,andtotheideasofcontemporary
Judaism,WeisstreatsofthecomingoftheKingdomintheMessiahandHiswork,ofitsrealizationintherighteousnessandtheprivilegesofitsmembers,andofits
predictedconsummationinthefuture.
(1)ThenatureoftheKingdom.InelucidatingChristsconceptionoftheKingdom,itisusualtobeginbycontrastingitwithpreexistingideas.Inthefirst
place,itisclearthat,whileJesusclaimedtofulfilOTprophecy,andtobetheMessiahforwhomthepeoplewaited,HebrokewiththegeneralstrainofMessianic
prophecyandexpectationintheimportantparticularthatHerejectedtheconceptionthattheKingdomwouldexistintheformofapoliticalorganization.Itwasa
verynaturalaspirationfortheJewstodesiretobefreeandpowerful,andmorethanarespectableambition,whenitisrememberedthattheEmpireofwhichthey
dreamedwastocarryinitstraintheworshipandserviceofthetrueGodbutJesussubstitutedforthepoliticalconceptiontheideaofaKingdomwhichwasspiritual
initsnature,andbyconsequenceuniversal.Itsessentiallyspiritualcharacterisshownbythenatureofitsblessingsamongwhichthereisfrequentmentionofthe
forgivenessofsins,righteousness,andthelike,butlittleofearthlygoodandnothingofpoliticalpower.AKingdomwhichcomethnotwithobservation(Lk17:20)
couldnotbeofthesamekindwiththekingdomoftheMaccabeesortheRomanEmpire.AndifitwasaspiritualKingdom,inwhichmembershipwasgrantedon
termsoffaithandlove,itfollowedthatitwasinprincipleauniversalKingdom.ItwasnomonopolyofthoseofJewishbirth,fornotallJewshadfaith,andofsome
whowereGentilesHesaidthatHehadnotfoundsogreatfaithinIsrael(Mt8:10).Manyshallcomefromtheeastandthewestbutthesonsofthekingdomshall
becastforthintotheouterdarkness(vv.11,12).
Thefurtherelucidationofitsnaturemaybecarriedoutbythehelpofananalysisoftheideaofakingdom.Itinvolvesauthorityandrule(doctrineofGodandof
theMessiah),blessingswhichareenjoyedbythecitizens(theKingdomasagood,theprivileges),lawswhichareenactedandenforced(therighteousnessofthe
Kingdom),atitletocitizenship(conditionsofentrance),anorganizationofthesubjectsincommunityoflifeandservice(theKingdomasacommunity,doctrineof
theChurch),afutureandadestiny(doctrineoftheLastThings).
TheKingdomaspresentandasfuture.OneofthedifficultiesofthesubjectisthatinsomepassagesJesusspeaksoftheKingdomaspresent,whileinmanyothersHespeaksof
itasfutureandtherehasbeenawidedifferenceofopinionastotherelationofthetwosetsofutterances,andtheimportancetobeattributedtotheeschatologicalseries.
(i)TheKingdomasapresentreality.ThattheKingdomhadcome,andwasapresentrealityonearthwhenHetaughtandlaboured,isstatedinanumberofpassages.He
speaksofHismightyworksasproof.IfIbythespiritofGodcastoutdevils,thenisthekingdomofGodcomeuponyou(Mt12:28cf.Lk10:18).Inthesamesenseitissaidthe
kingdomofGodisamongyou,(notwithinyou,whichcouldnothavebeensaidtothePharisees(Lk17:21)).Itisalsoimpliedthattherearethosewhoarealreadyinthe
Kingdom(Mt11:11).TheparablesoftheMustardSeedandtheLeaven(Mt13:3133),andalsooftheSeedGrowingSecretly(Mk4:2629),seemclearlytoteachthatthe
Kingdomwasthenpresentintheworldinsmallandlowlybeginnings,whichweretobesucceededbyaprocessofwonderfulgrowthandexpansion.
(ii) TheKingdomasafutureevent.InalargernumberofcasesHespokeoftheKingdom,andofentranceintoit,asfuture.Exceptyourrighteousnessexceedthe
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(ii)TheKingdomasafutureevent.InalargernumberofcasesHespokeoftheKingdom,andofentranceintoit,asfuture.Exceptyourrighteousnessexceedthe
righteousnessofthescribesandPharisees,yeshallinnowiseenterintothekingdomofheaven(Mt5:20).ComeyeblessedofmyFather,inheritthekingdompreparedforyou
fromthefoundationoftheworld(Mt25:34).Moreover,averylargeportionofHisteachingisconcernedwiththemantieroftheestablishmentoftheKingdominthelastdays,
andwiththesublimeeventsbywhichitistobeusheredinandestablished.
ThetimeoftheConsummation,Jesusdeclared,wasunknowneventotheSon(Mk13:32),butitwouldbeheraldedbyvarioussignspersecution,apostasy,thepreachingofthe
gospelthroughouttheworld(Mt24).UponthiswouldfollowthereturnoftheSonofMan,whowouldcomeinthecloudsofheavenwithpowerandgreatglory(24:30,25:31cf.
Mk14:62).TheimmediatepurposeoftheReturnistosifttherighteousandthewicked,toexecutejudgmentupontheenemiesofGod,andtogathertogethertheelectfromthefour
winds(Mt24:29ff.).ThereafterthereisestablishedaKingdomwhichcannotbemoved,inwhichtheblessedenjoyallthatispromisedthemintheloveofGod.Thesceneappearsto
belaidonearth(Mt5:4).Sofarasthepictureiselaborateditisbyutilizingthetonesandthecoloursofearthlyexperience,aswellasfamiliarformsofdignity,power,and
enjoyment(Mk10:40,14:25,Mt8:11).Atthesametimethespiritualblessingsareofcoursethechiefest(Mt5:8),andthetransfigurationofthenaturalissuggestedinasignificant
particular(Mk12:25).
(iii)RelationofthetwoaspectsoftheKingdom.TherearethreemainviewsastotherelationofthetwosetsofutterancesabouttheKingdomtheymaybedistinguishedasthe
traditional,theliberalandtheeschatological.
(a)Accordingtothetraditionalview,bothgroupsofsayingsareauthentic,andareeasilycombinedintoaconsistentwhole.JesuscouldsaythattheKingdomwaspresentin
respectthatithadcome,andfutureinrespectthatithadnotyetfullycomeinpowerandglory.Itshistoryfallsintotwostages,oneofwhichisnowunderthedispensationofthe
Spirit,theothertocomeinstupendousactsofjudgmentandmercyattheSecondAdvent.
(b)TheliberalviewofmoderntheologyisthattheeschatologicaloutlookofJesuswasborrowedfrom,oraccommodatedto,temporaryformsofJewishthought,andthatthe
valuableandenduringelementistheconceptionoftheKingdomasenteringintothelifeofmankindinthisworld,growinginrangeandpower,anddestinedtopermeatesocietyand
allitsinstitutionswithitsDivinespirit.FromthispointofviewtheSecondComing,thecentraleventofthehistory,istobeunderstoodasaspiritualreturnwhichhasbeentaking
placeintheeventsofhistoryfromPentecostdowntothepresenthour.SimilarlytheLastJudgmentisinterpretedasacontinuousprocesswhichrunsparallelwiththehistoryof
nationsandchurches.ThatthisviewhassomesupportintheFourthGospelmustbeadmitted.ThereturnorwhichChristtherespeakswithmuchfulnessisthemissionoftheSpirit,
andtheJudgmentwhichisbeforethemindoftheEvangelistisalmostalwaysthejudgmentwhichissimultaneouswithcharacterandconduct.Theremayevenbeclaimedforit
somesupportfromtheSynopticteachingasinthedatingoftheReturnfromnow(Mt26:64),andthedistinctionofdaysoftheSonofMan(Lk17:22),andalsointhe
associationoftheSecondComingwiththedestructionofJerusalem(Mt24).ButonthewholeitmustbesaidthattheattempttoimputethepurelyspiritualconceptiontoJesusis
unhistorical.ItmaybearguedthatHissayingsareexamplesofprophecy,andthattheologyhasawarranttorecastpropheticsayingsinnewforms.Butitcanhardlybegainsaidthat
JesusthoughtoftheReturnasadefiniteevent,visibleandimpressive,whichwouldchallengetheattentionofallmankind,andinvolveactsthatwouldrevolutionizetheorderofour
world.
(c)SomemodernscholarsholdthatthedistinctiveteachingofJesuswasthattheKingdomwasasupernaturalKingdom,tobeestablishedbyDivinepoweratHisSecond
Coming,andthatthereferencesintheGospelstoapresentKingdomwithagradualdevelopmentareeitherillusoryorunauthentic(J.Weiss,DiePredigtJesuvomReicheGottes).
OnthisviewJesusclaimedtobetheMessiahonlyinthesensethatHelookedforwardtobecomingtheMessiah.Hewas,likeJohntheBaptist,aforerunner,butwiththedifference
thatthefutureMessiahtowhomHeborewitnesswastheJesusoftheSecondAdvent.ThetextualevidencewhichsupportstheviewthatJesusfoundedapresentKingdomofGodon
earthbeforeHisdeathisdiscountedonthegroundthataneventwhichisimminentmaybeintelligiblysaidtobepresent.ThustheconfessionatCsareaPhilippiistobetaken
proleptically:itmerelymeantthatPeterbelievedthatHewastheMessiahdesignate,ortheheirtotheoffice.JesusdepartedthislifewiththeconsciousnessthattheKingdomwas
notyetestablished(J.Weiss).TheparableswhichspeakofagradualdevelopmentoftheKingdomofGodareexplainedeitherashavingbeeninterpolatedorasteachingadifferent
lesson.ButthisaccentuationoftheeschatologicalsideofourLordsteachingishardlylikelytobeaccepted,asSchweitzerclaims,asanassuredresultofcriticism.IfevenintheOT
theJewishStatewassometimesconceivedofasthepresentKingdomofGod,andiftheRabbinicaltheologysometimesspokeoftheKingdomofGodasapowertobeyieldedto
now,itisdifficulttoseewhyJesusshouldnothaveentertainedthesimilarconceptionwhichiscontainedorimpliedinthetextsquoted.Aboveall,itisimpossibletobelievethat
Jesus,whotaughtthatthehighestblessingsareenjoyedincommunionwithGod,didnotholdthattheKingdomwaspresentamongthosewhoexperiencedHisloveandwhoobeyed
Hiswill.
B.THEHEAVENLYF ATHERANDHISCHILDREN.ItmaybedoubtediftheteachingofJesusismostsatisfactorilysetforthundertheformsoftheKingdom.The
difficultyevenofthetraditionalconception,thedoubtsastothecorrectnessofthisconceptionwhichhavebeenreferredto,andalsothetransitorinessoftypesof
politicalconstitution,suggestthattheorganizingideamaybetterbesoughtinanothersphere.AsafactthecentralconceptionsofHisreligiousandethicalteaching
areborrowednotfromthepolitical,butfromthedomesticsphere.WhenitissaidthatoneisyourFather,andthatallyearebrethren(Mt23:8,8),wehavethe
descriptionofafamily.TothewriteritthereforeseemsthattheteachingisbestexpoundedundertherubricoftheHeavenlyFatherandHischildren,ortheholy
family,andinwhatfollowsweshallconfineourselvesmainlytotheelucidationoftheheadsofthisgospelofDivineandhumanlove.
(1)TheHeavenlyFather.ChristcouldtakeforgrantedinHishearerstheelementsoftheknowledgeofGodsetforthintheOT,asoneGod,allpowerful,all
wise,allholy,allgood.ThissplendidspiritualinheritanceHeenrichedbythecontentofHisdoctrineofGodastheHeavenlyFather.Thename,indeed,wasnot
new.EventheGreeksspokeofZeusasthefatherofgodsandmenwhileinnotafewOTpassagesGodislikenedtoandevennamedaFather.FortheGreeks,
however,theFatherhoodofGodhardlymeantmorethanthatHewastheGodofCreationandProvidence,whileinOTthoughtGod,asFatherwastheprotecting
GodofIsrael,ortheFatheroftheMessianicKing.OnthelipsofJesusthenamemeantthatGodwastheFatherofindividualmen,wholavisheduponeachthe
utmostresourcesofaFatherswiseandtendercare.Itmay,infact,besaidthatifwestudyhumanfatherhoodatitsbest,noteeverylovelyandgraciousfeature
whichisrealizedoradumbratedinanearthlyhome,andthenattributetheseinperfectedformtotheheartandthewilloftheAlmighty,wediscovertheheadsofthe
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whichisrealizedoradumbratedinanearthlyhome,andthenattributetheseinperfectedformtotheheartandthewilloftheAlmighty,wediscovertheheadsofthe
teachingofJesusconcerningGod.
Therelationofanearthlyfathertohischildreninvolvesatleastsevenpointstohimtheyowetheirexistence,fromhimtheyborrowhisnatureandlikeness,he
providesfortheirwants,heeducatesanddisciplinesthem,heholdsintimateintercoursewiththem,heisgraciouslydisposedtoforgivetheiroffences,andhemakes
themhisheirs.Allthis,now,JesushasaffirmedofGodinrelationtomen.ThefirsttwopointsthatitisHethatmadeus,andnotweourselves,andthatweare
madeinHisimagewerearticlesofOTdoctrinewhichHedidnotneedtoemphasizethoughitmaybepointedoutthatHisconceptionoftheinfinitevalueofthe
individualsoulhaditsrootsinHisbeliefthatmanhearstheimageoftheHeavenlyFather.Theotherpointsmentionedarequiteexplicitlyemphasized.
(a)GodprovidesforthewantsofHischildren.Heisawareoftheirbodilywants(Mt6:32):theGodwhofeedsthefowlsandclothesthelilieswillnotsufferHis
childrentobeinwant.This,infact,isdeduceddirectlyfromtheideaoffatherhood.Ifye,beingevil,knowhowtogivegoodgiftsuntoyourchildren,howmuch
moreshallyourFatherwhichisinheavengivegoodthingstothemthataskhim?(7:11).Thattheprovisionincludesspiritualblessingsasitschiefpartismade
explicitinLk11:13.
(b)GodeducatesanddisciplinesHischildren.Jesusdoesnotsaythisexpressly,butitmaybenoticedthattherearetwoaspectsofachildsearthlytraining
whicharereproducedinwhatHesaysabouttheDivineeducationofsouls.Achildseducation,thougharduousandpainful,isdesignedforitsgoodandsimilarly,
Jesussays,Blessedarethepoor,themourners,thepersecuted,thereviled(Mt5:3ff.).Thesecondaspectisthatthechildrendonotalwaysappreciatethewisdom
andkindnessofthediscipline,butmustbeaskedtotakeitontrust.Similarly,theearthlychildmustoftentrusttheHeavenlyFatherslovewherehecannot
comprehendHispurpose,saying,Yea,Father,forsoitwaswellpleasinginthysight(Mt11:26).
(c)GodholdsintimateintercoursewithHischildren.Itdoesnotlieintheideaofanearthlyparenttoholdalooffromhischildren,andGodadmitsHistoclose
communionwithHimself.Ontheirsideittakestheformofprayer,onHisofresponse.Theyareencouragedtoseekbothspiritualandmaterialblessings,andthat
importunately(parablesoftheImportunateWidow,Lk18:1ff.theFriendatMidnight,11:5ff.),andtheyareassuredthatwhatsoevertheyshallaskinprayer,
believing,theyshallreceive(Mt21:22).
(d)GodisgraciouslydisposedtoforgiveHischildrensoffences.Hiswaywithsinnersisnotthewayofamanwithhisenemy,towhomherefusesonanyterms
tobereconciled,orofacreditorwithhisdebtor,whoinsistsonfullpayment,butthatofafather,whomeetsapenitentsoninaspiritofmagnanimity,rejoicesover
hisreturn,andreceiveshimbacktohishome.ThepointofthethreegreatparablesinLk15isthat,whiletherespectableworldwasscepticalabouttherestoration
oftheerring,andfrownedonthosewhoattemptedit,thereisinheavenacharitythatbelievethallthings,andjoyunspeakableoveronesinnerthatrepenteth.
(e)GoddestinesHischildrentoaninheritance.Thisisitself,ashasbeenindicated,adistinctandlargetopicoftheteachingofJesus,anditissufficienthereto
refertoatextinwhichthelogicoftherelationshipisclearlybroughtout:Fearnot,littleflock,foritisyourFathersgoodpleasuretogiveyouthekingdom(Lk
12:32).
Inthelightoftheaboveanalysisweareinapositiontodealwiththemuchdiscussedquestion,DidJesusconceiveofGodastheFatherofallmen,oronlyas
theFatherofthosewhoarewithinthefamilyKingdom?ItmaybethatJesusappliesthenameofFathertoGodonlyinrelationtothechildrenoftheKingdom,but
thepalpablemeaningofHisteachingisthatGodistheFatherofallmen,whileyetitisnotpossibleforHimtobetheFather,inthefullsenseoftheword,ofthose
whoarelivinginimpenitenceandinalienationfromHim.HeistheFatherofalltotheextentthattheyarecreatedbyHim,aremadeinHisimage,havetheirwants
suppliedbyHim,andaredisciplinedbyHimbutjustasitisimpossibleforanearthlyfathertoforgiveacontumaciousson,toholdintercoursewithanabsentson,
andtomakeanheirofasonwhohasalreadysquanderedhisportion,soisitimpossibleforGodtobeinthefullsenseaFathertothosewhoshunHisfaceand
spurnHisgifts.
(2)Thetermsofsonship.ThenextgreatthemeisthequestionhowmenbecomemembersofthefamilyKingdom.NegativelyJesusteachesthatwearenot
bornintoit,asonewasbornintotheJewishState,andalsothatmembershipisnotanorderofmeritconferredinrecognitionofdistinguishedattainmentsinpiety
andvirtue.ThemostimportantandcomprehensiveutteranceofourLordonthepointisthisExceptyeturnandbecomeaslittlechildren,yeshallinnowiseenter
intothekingdomofheaven(Mt18:3).HereagainwecantracethefidelityofthedetailtothefundamentalideaofthefamilyKingdom:whatshouldbeso
necessaryinthesonaschildlikeness?OnexaminationchildlikenessprovestoincludeavarietyofqualitieswhichareelsewheredeclaredbyJesustobeconditions
ofsonship:(a)Trustfulness.WhenJesus
proposedthechildrenasamodel,therecanbelittledoubtthatHehadprominentlyinmindthechildscapacityoffaith.HewouldhaveHisfollowerstrustinthe
wisdomandtheloveoftheFatherwiththesublimeconfidencewithwhichachildnaturallytrustsinanearthlyparent.ThereareexamplesofthejoywhichHefelt
atunexpectedcasesofheroicfaith,e.g.ofthecenturionofCapernaumandtheSyrophnicianwoman.ThegrandobjectofthisfaithwasGod.Havefaith,He
says,inGod(Mk11:22).ButthisfaithinGodincludedalsofaithinHimselfastheappointedinstrumentfortheperformanceofGodsgreatworkwithmen.(b)
Senseofneed.Achild,beingcastuponothersforthesupplyofitswants,hasakeensenseofneed.Andthissense,whichfromonepointofviewishumility,is
alsoaprominentmarkofthechildrenoftheKingdom.Weareaskedtoadmirethepublican,who,incontrasttotheselfsatisfiedPharisee,confessedhis
unworthinessandhisneedofmercy(Lk18:13).TheselfcomplacencyoftheRichYoungRulershowedthatthoughnotfarfrom,hewasstilloutsideof,the
KingdomofGod(Mk10:17ff.).TheBeatitudeisforthosewhohungerandthirstafterrighteousness(Mt5:6).(c)Thepenitentialspirit.Withchildlikenessmay 59/124
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KingdomofGod(Mk10:17ff.).TheBeatitudeisforthosewhohungerandthirstafterrighteousness(Mt5:6).(c)Thepenitentialspirit.Withchildlikenessmay
alsobeassociatedthegraceofpenitence,forchildhood,whennotspoiledbyhardeninginfluences,istheperiodofthesensitiveconscience.Inanycasepenitenceis
closelyboundupwithfaithastheessentialcondition.HecameintoGalileepreachingandsaying,Repentyeandbelievethegospel(Mk1:15).Thestagesof
penitencearevividlyillustratedintheparableoftheProdigalSon(Lk15:1132).(d)
Resolution.Afourthparallelisthatinthechildthereis,alongwithasenseofneed,aresolutedeterminationtosecurewhatitvalues.Therearesome,itistrue,
whoreceivetheheavenlyblessingsinresponsetoaninvitation,oralmostundercompulsion,buttheruleisthattheyarelikethemerchantmanseekinggoodly
pearls,andwillingtomakeanysacrificetosecurewhattheyseek.Thekingdomofheavensufferethviolence,andmenofviolencetakeitbyforce(Mt11:12).
(3)Theprivilegesofthechildren.TheenumerationofthesehasalreadybeenanticipatedinwhathasbeensaidoftheimplicationsoftheDivineFatherhood.
Thechildrenpossess,infactorinpromise,thefulnessoftheblessingswhichGodastheHeavenlyFather,whoisalsoallpowerful,isdisposedtobestow.They
includetheforgivenessofsins,accesstotheFatherinprayer,theprovisionneededforthesupplyofbodilyandspiritualwants,guidanceinperplexity,protectionin
danger,powerofasupernaturalkind,andtheassurancethattheirnamesarewritteninheaven(Lk10:20).Theprivilegesaresummarilydescribedaslife(Mt7:14,
Mk9:43)andassalvation(Lk19:9),Theirexceedingvalueisemphasizedinparticularmaxims(Mt16:26),andintheparablesoftheHidTreasureandofthePearl
ofPrice(Mt13:4446).Inspiteofthehardshipsandperilsofthelifetowhichtheyarecalled,thehabitualmoodofthechildrenisoneofreposeandevenofjoy
(Mt11:2830,Lk6:23).
(4)ThefilialandfraternalobligationsTheobservationthattheteachingofJesusisinsubstanceasystembuiltupoutofthehigherelementsoffamilylifeis
confirmedwhenweapproachitspracticalideal.ThisismadeupoffilialobligationstowardsGod,andoffraternalobligationstowardsmen.
(i)ThedutiestowardsGodarethosewhichnaturallydevolveuponthechildreninconsiderationoftheFathersgreatness,wisdom,andgoodness.Lovebeing
thegreatthingmanifestedbyGodtowardsthem,theirfundamentaldutyistoloveHiminreturnwithalltheirheart,andwithalltheirsoul,andwithalltheirmind,
andwithalltheirstrength(Mk12:30).TheirspecialdutiestowardsGod,whicharealsoprivileges,arethesetotrustHimwholly,tomaketheirdesiresknownto
Himinprayer,toperformwithfidelitytheworkHegivesthemtodo,andtosubmitinmeeknessandpatiencewhenHecallsthemtosuffer.
(ii)Dutytowardsman.Thesupremefraternalobligation,likethefilial,islove.Thoushaltlovethyneighbourasthyself,(Mk12:31).Byourneighbourweare
tounderstandallwhoareinneed,andwhomitisinourpowertohelp(parableoftheGoodSamaritan,Lk10:30ff.).Whenweinquirehowthisprinciplemanifests
itself,itappearsthattheChristianethichasthreefeatureswhicharecommonlydescribedasinwardness,selfsacrificingservice,andthepassivevirtues.Without
goingintodetail,itissufficienttoillustratehowtheseformanethicalidealwhichhasitsprototypeinthelifeofthefamily.
(a)Inwardness.AdistinctivefeatureoftheethicalteachingofJesusistheinsistencethatitisnotsufficienttorefrainfromovertactsofwrong,andtoperform
theovertactswhichdutyrequires.Theheartmustbepureandthemotiveright.Fromthispointofviewbenefactionsthatarenotaccompaniedbysympathylose
halftheirvalue.Ontheotherhand,theevilpurposehasthequalityofanevilacthatredismurderintheminordegree.Now,startlingasisthedemandforaperfect
heartinanethicofgeneralobligation,itisfamiliarenoughinfamilylife.Thereawomancountsallbenefactionsasworthlessifshedonotpossessherhusbands
loveor,again,thehatredofbrothersandsistersisatoncefelttohaveanenormityofguiltbeyondthatofmostevildeeds.
(b)Disinterestedservice.Inwhatissaidoftheformsofservicetheidealismanifestlysuggestedbybrotherhood.Ofthechiefformsmaybedistinguishedfirst
beneficence,whichisspeciallydirectedtothereliefofthepoor,theentertainmentofthehomeless,thetendingofthesick,thevisitingofcaptives(Mt25:34ff.),the
comfortingofthesorrowful,thereconciliationofthosewhoareatfeud(Mt5:9).AnotheristheministryofteachingwithoutdoubtJesusintendedHisdisciples,as
oneoftheirchiefformsofservice,tofollowHiminthedisseminatingofthetruthswhichHetaught.Athirdisthespiritualministryproper,whichhasthesameend
asHisownpastoralworktosavesoulsfromsin,andtohelpthemtorisetohigherendsofexcellenceandnobility.Theidealhere,inshort,isthatthekindof
thingswhichtheparent,thebrother,andthesisterdo,ormaybeexpectedtodo,inaccordancewiththespiritoffamilylife,aremadebindingintheirapplicationto
ourfellowmenassuch.Wemayalsonoticetwoaccompanyingrules.()Theserviceistobedisinterested.Thisisenforcedbythecounselthatwearepreferablyto
performactsofkindnesstothosewhoarenotinapositiontomakeareturn(Lk6:34f.).()TheyarealsotobedoneunostentatiouslynotasbythePharisees,who
blowatrumpetbeforethem,butsothatthelefthandknowethnotwhattherighthanddoeth(Mt6:24).Inthefirstofthesecounselsweseeareflexionofthespirit
whichhasitspurestexpressioninmaternaldevotion.Thesecondstatestheconditionwithoutwhichthebestserviceinanyspherelosesitsgrace.
(c)Thepassivevirtues.Athirdgroupofgraces,speciallyknownasthepassivevirtues,includesmeeknessandpatienceunderadversityandwrong,andthe
forgivenessofinjuries.Verygreatstressislaidonforgivinginjuries,ofwhichJesusalludestothreekindsinjurytotheperson(Mt5:39),lossofproperty(v.40),
anddefamationofcharacter(5:11).Instructionsaregivenastothestepstobetakeninsecuringreconciliation,beginningwithprivateexpostulation(Mt18:15).As
motivestoforgivenessweareremindedthatweoughttoforgiveaswehopetobeforgiven,andalsothat,asGodsetstheexampleofreadyclemency,thechild
oughttoimitatetheFather(Mt5:45).Thesevirtues,itwillagainbenoticed,werenotnewonthesoiloffamilylife.Fromthebeginningtherehavebeenwomen
whowithinthesphereofthehomehavebornehardshipmeekly,enduredwrongpatiently,andbeenreadytoforgiveuntoseventytimesseven.
(5)TheuniqueSonandHiswork.ItmaybethoughtthattheschemewhichhasbeenfollowedisinconsistentwiththewitnessbornebyJesustoHisPerson
andHiswork,inasmuchasHisclaimshavenoobviouscounterpartinthelifeofthefamily.Thewholesubjectistreatedinaspecialarticle(P ERSONOFCHRIST),but
mustbeglancedathereinthegeneralcontextofSynopticdoctrine.Inthefirstplace,itiscertainlytruethatJesusassertedforHimselfapeculiardignity,andforHis
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mustbeglancedathereinthegeneralcontextofSynopticdoctrine.Inthefirstplace,itiscertainlytruethatJesusassertedforHimselfapeculiardignity,andforHis
workapeculiarefficacy.HecallsHimselfnotaSon,buttheSon(Mt11:27),whostandsinauniquerelationtotheFather,andwhoalsomakesupontheother
childrenademandforfaithandobedience.IfnowweaskwhatitisthatmakesChristunique,wefindthatthestressislaiduponthreeparticulars(a)Heisinthe
Fathersconfidence,andfromHimtheotherchildrenobtaintheirknowledgeoftheFather(ib.).(b)Hefullypossessestheprivilegesandfulfilstheobligations
whichareinvolvedinsonship.(c)Hisdeathwasthemeansofprocuringforthemthehighestblessings(Mk14:24||).Now,allthesethings,ifnotexplainedby,have
atleastparallelsin,thelifeofthefamily.Theson,whoinallrespectsobeyshisfatherswill,enjoysapositionofpeculiarintimacyandinfluence.Theeldestsonin
manycountries,andnotleastintheJewishtradition,oftenoccupiesanintermediatepositionbetweentheheadandthesubordinatemembersofthefamily.Andif
Jesus,asHecertainlydid,lookeduponHimselfastheeldestbrotherofthefamilyKingdomwhofirstrealizeditsprivilegesanditsrighteousness,andastheSon
inwhomtheFatherwaswellpleased,andwhomconsequentlyHetookintoHisdeepestconfidencewecanseehowHecouldteachthatfaithinHimwasan
elementinthegospel.NorarethereferencestothenecessityofHisdeath,asissometimessaid,inconsistentwiththegospeloftheHeavenlyFather.Everydeathin
afamilytendstobeameansofgracethedeathinanoblecauseofonewhoisreveredandlovedisanalmostmatchlesssourceofinspirationandtherewere
reasons,apartfromdeepertheologicalexplanations,whyJesusshouldteachthatHisdeathwoulddomoreeventhanHislifetomakeeffectivethegospelofDivine
andhumanlove.
(6)Thebrotherhoodasasociety.ItfollowedfromthenatureoftheteachingofJesusthatHisfollowersshouldformthemselvesintoasociety.Communityof
faithandaimmadeitnaturalforthemtodoso,andthosewhoserelationswereofthenatureofbrotherhoodwereboundtorealizeitinacommonlifeandcommon
serviceaswellasincommoninstitutions.ThatthepurposeofJesuswentinthisdirectionfromthefirstappearsfromthecallandtrainingofthetwelveApostles.In
thelaterperiodofHisMinistrywehavereferencestoaChristiansocietyunderthenameoftheChurch(Mt16:18,18:1520).Thesereferenceshaveindeedbeen
thoughtbysomecriticstobeoflaterecclesiasticaloriginbutwhenthebreachwiththeJewishauthoritiesbecameinevitable,Hemust,inthinkingofthefuture,
haveconceivedofHisfollowersasaseparatesociety.Theomissionsareasremarkableastheprovisions.Thereisnothingsaidaboutformsofworship,nothing
aboutecclesiasticalconstitution.Thefew
provisionsmaybegatheredupunderthefollowingheads:
(a)Generalprinciples.Therulingspiritisthedesireofeachmembertohelpallandeachaccordingtothemeasureofhisability.Titleswhichinvolvethe
assumptionofpersonalauthorityaretobeavoided(Mt23:8).Honourandinfluencearetobeproportionatetoservice(Mk10:43,44).Itistobeacontrasttothe
naturalsocietyintworespectsthatnooneseekshisownbutonlythegeneralgood,andthattherearenodistinctionsofrankandpowerrestinguponaccident,
intrigue,orviolence.InthelightofthesemaximsthepromisetoPetermustbeinterpreted(Mt16:18).ItcertainlymeantthatPeterwasthechiefinstrumentby
whichintheprimitiveperiodtheChurchwastobebuiltup,butthepromisewastoPeterasconfessingChrist,andbyimplicationtoallwhomakethemselveshis
successorsbysharinghisfaith.
(b)TheworkoftheChristiansociety.TherecanbenodoubtthatthisisformulatedbyJn.inaccordancewiththemindofJesusinthewordsAsthoudidst
sendmeintotheworld,evensosentIthemintotheworld(17:18cf.Mk3:14ff.).HisinstructionstotheTwelve,andtotheSeventy,inwhichHeappointsand
equipsthemforaministrylikeHisown,showthatHeconceivedofthesocietyasaninstrumentwhichshouldcarryonHisworksofpreachingandhealing.The
risenLordlaysontheconsciencethedutyofmakingdisciplesofallnations(Mt28:19).TheworkoftheChurchwhichisspokenofinmostdetailisdiscipline,the
aimofwhichisdeclaredtobetheimprovementoftheerringbrother,whilethestagesoftheprocedurearelaiddown(Mt18:15ff.).Importanceisalsoattachedto
thefunctionofbindingandloosing(v.18),whichisregardedastheprerogativeoftheChristiansocietyasawhole,notofaparticularclass.Thereferenceisto
forbiddingandpermittingi.e.framingmaximsandrulesoflifewhichshouldberecognizedasoperativewithinthesociety.
(c)Thereligiousrites.ThereiseveryreasontobelievethatJesusinstitutedtwosimpleritestobeobservedinthesociety.ThatbaptismwasappointedbyHim
hasbeendenied,onthegroundthatitisvouchedforonlyinthenarrativeofthepostresurrectionlife,andthatitembodiesaTrinitarianformula(Mt28:19).Itis,
however,antecedentlyprobable,fromtheconnexionofJesuswiththeBaptist,thatHetookovertheriteofbaptism,whileitsusefromthebeginningoftheChristian
ChurchasthesacramentofinitiationpresupposesitsappointmentorsanctionbyJesus.TheinstitutionoftheLordsSupperasastandingordinancehasalready
beenreferredto.
(7)Thefutureandtheinheritance.TheteachingofJesusaboutthefuture,sofarasitdealswiththeReturn,hasalreadybeentouchedon,anditissufficient
nowtonote(1)referencestothegrowthoftheChristiansocietyonearth(2)theglimpsesofthefinalinheritance.
(a)Thedevelopmentofthesociety.Thereareanumberofpassages,especiallyintheparables,whichimplyahistoryoftheChurchmarkedbythreefeatures
agradualgrowthtoaworldleaveningandworldovershadowinginfluence,debasementthroughalargeadmixtureofevilelements,andexperiencesoftrialand
persecution(Mt13).
(b)Thefinalportion.ItisinvainthatwelookintheteachingofJesusforinstructionuponmanyeschatologicalquestionswhichhaveexercisedthemindsof
theologians.Hismessagemaybesummedupinthetwoarticles,thatthereisafearfulpunishmentreservedforthosewhocometotheJudgmentinunbeliefand
impenitence,andthatforthosewhoareHisthereremainsagreatandanenduringinheritance.Astotheconditionsandthecontentoftheblessednessofthosewho
enterintolifethereisalargemeasureofreserve.Hehasnodoctrineoftheintermediatestate.Hefixesourgazeonthefinalstateinwhichthereisnolongerany61/124
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enterintolifethereisalargemeasureofreserve.Hehasnodoctrineoftheintermediatestate.Hefixesourgazeonthefinalstateinwhichthereisnolongerany
humanimpedimenttopreventthebestowalofallthatisintheheartoftheFathertogivepeace,blessedness,glory,withopportunityofservice.Astotheultimate
fateofthewicked,wecanonlysaythatitisaproblemforthesolutionofwhichtheletterofcertainsayingsmakesinonedirection(Mt25:46),whileHis
proclamationoftheFathersunlimitedanduntiringlovemakesintheother.
18.Thecredibilityoftheteaching.TheteachingofJesuscontainstwosalientfeatures(apartfromtheChristology),whichareofsuchfundamental
importanceinaviewoflifethattheymaybebrieflytouchedonfromanapologeticpointofview.ThequestionsareIstheFatherhoodofGod,asJesusproclaimed
it,afact?IstheChristianethic,asexpoundedintheSermonontheMount,practicable?
(1)ThedoctrineoftheDivineFatherhood,onwhichvirtuallyeverythingturns,isinexpressiblybeautifulandconsolingbutthereisevidencethatJesusHimself
wasconsciousofdifficulties.OtherwiseHewouldnothavespokenoffaithasmakingademandonthewill.Hisinsistenceontheneedofimportunityinprayer
showsthatHefeltthateventsdonotalways,andatthefirstglance,fitintoaschemeofthingsinwhichthehandoftheHeavenlyFatherismanifest.InGethsemane
andonthecross,ifwordsmeananything,Hefelttothefullthetrialoffaith.Whenwequestionhumanexperience,therearenumberlesspersonswhosaythatthey
havebeenunabletotracethetenderindividualizingdisciplineofaHeavenlyFatherwhichJesusassumed,andthatthingsratherseemtohavebeengoverned,
exceptinasfarastheyhavethemselvescompelledresults,byablindanddeaffate.Modernviewsofthereignoflawincreasethedifficulty.IftheUniverseisavast
mechanism,grindingoninaccordancewithinviolablelawstopredeterminedissues,whereisthepossibilityoftheinterventionofaFathershandtocontrolthe
individuallot,andtometeoutsuchblessingsasweneedorprayfor?Thesearerealdifficultieswhichburdenmanyasinceremindandtroublemanyasensitive
heart.Butitistobeconsideredthat,apartfromtheauthoritywhichmaybeclaimedforarevelation,thereisgoodgroundforbelievinginthetitleofmantointerpret
God,asJesusdid,inthelightoftheideaofFatherhood.GodisrevealedinHisworksamongtheseworksthegreatestthingthathascomeintoviewonearthisthe
selfsacrificingloveandthedisinterestedservicewhichareassociatedwiththesanctitiesoffamilylifeandwemaywellbescepticalthatGodislessingoodness
thanahumanparent,orHispurposewithmankindlessgenerousthanthatofanearthlyfatherwithhisfamily.TheisticphilosophyconstruesGodinthelightof
mansrationalandmoralnatureChristsmethodwassimilar,exceptthatHetookasHiscluethemoralnatureasitisrevealedatitsbest,namely,inthelifeofthe
home.Noraretheobjectionsofthestrengthwhichisoftensupposed.TheUniverseisnodoubtmachinelike,butitdoesnotthereforefollowthatitputsitoutofthe
powerofGodtodealpaternallyanddiscriminatinglywithHischildren.Inthefirstplace,Godsgreatestgiftsconsistofthingswithwhichthemechanismofnature
hasabsolutelynothingtodosuchascommunionwithGod,forgivenessofsins,peace,joy,spiritualpower.Andasregardstheoutwardcircumstancesofourlot,
withwhichithastodo,itisquitepossibletohold,asmanyprofoundthinkershaveheld,thatGodworksinandthroughgenerallaws,andyetisablebytheir
instrumentalitytoaccomplishparticularprovidencesandtovouchsafeanswerstoprayer.Nordoesitseemthatanybitterhumanexperiencecanbesuchastojustify
disbeliefintheDivineFatherhood,becausethewitnessestothetruthincludethosewhohavetastedtheextremityofhumansorrow.Theparadoxofitisthatthe
beliefintheFatherhoodofGodcomestousattestedbymanywhowerebeyondotherssonsanddaughtersofafflictionandowesitsplaceintheworldsheart
abovealltoHimwho,dyinginunspeakableagony,said,
Father,intothyhandsIcommendmyspirit.
(2)TheChristianethic.ThemoderncriticismsofthemoralityoftheSermonontheMountaretwothatitisimperfect,andthatitisimpracticable.Thefirst
objectionhasalreadybeentouchedoninpart,andweneedrefernowonlytothelineofcriticismwhichfindsfaultwithitsexaltationofthepassivevirtuesasa
markofweakness.Whatlendssomecolourtothisisthat,asamatteroffact,manyweakcharactersnaturallybehaveinawaythatbearssomeresemblancetothe
preceptsoftheSermonontheMount.Theyendurewrongsmeekly,donotstrikeback,andareincapableofsustainingafeud.Butitmaystillbe,andactuallyis,a
greatthingforastrongmantodofromprinciplewhataweaklingdoesfromindolenceorcowardice.TheobjectionthattheChristianethicisimpracticableismore
frequentlyheard,atleastinGreatBritain.EventheChurchfindsitimpracticabletoactonourLordsprincipleofsecrecyinthematterofgiving,whileitwould
seemthattheindividualwhocarriedoutHispreceptsinbusinesswouldberuined,andthatthenationwhichfollowedHisprogrammeofnonresistancewould
perish.TheweightoftheobjectionissofarreducedbytheobservationthatourLordspreceptsaredesignedtobefollowed,notintheletter,butinthespiritso
that,e.g.,thereallyimportantthingis,nottogivetoathiefwhomayhavestolenacoatacloakinaddition,buttocherishkindlyfeelingsforhim,andtoactinhis
bestinterests,whichmaymeanputtinghimingaol.Similarly,ourdutytothepooristogivewiseexpressiontoourloveofthem,whichmayveryproperlytake
accountoftheexperiencethatindiscriminatecharityincreasesthedistresswhichitprofessestorelieve.Thereallyessentialthingisthatbrotherlyloveshould
prevail,thatthatwhichistoalargeextentafactinthesphereofthefamilyshouldbecometrulyoperativeintheclass,thecommunity,thenation,andamongthe
peoplesoftheearth.Itistoberemembered,too,thateveryidealwhichhasbecomepracticablewasoncedeemedimpracticabletherehavebeenstatesofsociety
inwhichitseemedimpossibletobehonest,ortemperate,orchasteandthoughtheChristianidealtowershighabovethegeneralpracticeofourgeneration,itmay
bethatthatpracticewillonedaybelookedbackonasbelongingtothehalfsavagepracticeoftheworldsyouth.Andinthepresentithasoftenbeenmade
sublimelypracticableforthosewhomtheHolySpirittouched,andwhoseheartsweresetaflamewithaChristlikeloveofman.
W.P.P ATERSON.
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/j.htm JETHER.1.FatherinlawofMoses(RVmofEx4:18E),prob.amistakeforJethro.2. 62/124

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JETHER.1.FatherinlawofMoses(RVmofEx4:18E),prob.amistakeforJethro.2.
EldestsonofGideon(Jg8:20).3.AnIshmaelite,fatherofAmasa(1K2:5,32,1Ch2:17.SeeITHRA).4.5.TwomenofJudah(1Ch2:32,4:17).6.AmanofAsher
(1Ch7:38)calledinv.37Ithran,thenameofanEdomiteclan(Gn36:26).
JETHETH.AnEdomiteclan(Gn36:40=1Ch1:51).
JETHRO(once,Ex4:18aJether).AnArabsheikandpriestoftheSinaiticPeninsula,thefatherinlawofMosesreferredtobythisnameinEx3:1,4:18and
18:1,2ff.(E),asReuelinthepresenttextofEx2:18(J),andasHobabinNu10:29(alsoJ).HewelcomedMosesandreceivedhimintohisfamily(Ex2:21),and
manyyearslatervisitedhimatSinai(Ex18:1ff.),heardwithwonderanddelightofthedoingsofJahwehonbehalfofIsrael(v.9ff.),andgaveadviceabout
administration(vv.1726).LaterstillheprobablyactedasguidetotheIsraelites(Nu10:29ff.cf.theAVofJg1:16and4:11).Astothetwoorthreenames,itmay
benotedthatArabicinscriptions(Minan)repeatedlygiveapriesttwonames.ThenameJethro(Heb.Yithr)maymeanpreeminence.Seeart.HOBAB.
W.TAYLORS MITH.
JETUR.SeeITURA.
JEUEL.1.AJudahite(1Ch9:6).2.ALeviticalfamilyname(2Ch29:13).3.AcontemporaryofEzra(Ezr8:13).In2and3QerhasJeiel.
JEUSH.1.AsonofEsaubyOholibamahalsotheeponymofaHoriteclan(Gn36:5,14,18=1Ch1:35).2.ABenjamitechief(7:10).3.Adescendantof
Saul(1Ch8:39).4.ThenameofaLeviticalfamily(1Ch23:10f.).5.AsonofRehoboam(2Ch11:19).
JEUZ.TheeponymofaBenjamitefamily(1Ch8:10).
JEW.ThenamebywhichthedescendantsofIsraelhavebeenknownformanycenturies.ItiscorruptedfromJudah.AfterthedivisionofthekingdominB.C.
937,thesouthernportionwascalledbythenameofthepowerfultribeofJudah,whichcomposedmostofitsinhabitants.Itwasinthiskingdomthatthe
Deuteronomicreformoccurred,whichwasthefirststepinthecreationofanorganizedreligionsharplydifferentiatedfromtheotherreligionsoftheworld.This
religion,developedduringtheExile,borethenameofthekingdomofJudah.AllIsraeliteswhomaintainedtheiridentitywereitsadherents,hencethenameJew
hasabsorbedthenameIsrael.Fortheirhistory,seeISRAEL(I.2130)andDISPERSION.Fortheirreligion,seeISRAEL(II.5,6).
OnthespecialmeaningoftheJewsinJn.seep.481bf.
GEORGEA.BARTON.
JEWEL.Gn24:53theservantbroughtforthjewelsofsilver,andjewelsofgold.Theywerenotjewelssetinsilverandingold.Ornamentsmadeofgoldor
silverwereinolderEnglishcalledjewels.Nowthewordisconfinedtopreciousstones.
JEWELSANDPRECIOUSSTONES.ThegreaternumberofthepreciousstonesintheBibleoccurinthreelistswhichitwillbeinstructivetotabulateatthe
outset.Theseare:(A)thestonesinthehighpriestsbreastplate(Ex28:1720,39:1013)(B)thoseinthecoveringofthekingofTyre(Ezk28:13)(C)thoseinthe
foundationoftheNewJerusalem(Rev21:19,20).Thethreelistsaretosomeextentmutuallyconnected.Acontains12stones.BinHeb.has9,alltakenfromA,
withtracesofAsorderintheirarrangement.InLXXthetwolistsareidentical,andpossiblytheHeb.ofBiscorrupt.Calsohas12stones,andisevidentlypartly
dependentontheLXXofAandB.
ItseemslikelythatinListAaswellasinListBtheLXXiaspiscorrespondstotheHeb.yashepheh,andthatthesixthandtwelfthnamesintheHeb.ofAhave
beeninterchanged.
A.THEHIGHP RIESTSBREASTPLATE
Exodus HebrewLXX AV RV
28:17,39:10 1.OdemSardion
{
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Sardius(mg. Sardius(mg.
Ruby) Ruby)

2.PitdahTopazion Topaz Topaz
3.BareqethSmaragdos Carbuncle
Carbuncle
(mg.Emerald)
28:18,39:11 4.NophekAnthrax Emerald Emerald(mg.
{ Carbuncle)
5.SappirSappheiros Sapphire Sapphirs

Diamond Diamond(mg.
6.Yahalom Sardonyx)
Iaspis
(Yashepheh?)
28:19,39:12 7.LeshemLigurion Ligure Jacinth(mg.
{ Amber)
8.SheboAchates Agate Agate

9.AchlamahAmethystos Amethyst Amethyst
28:20,39:13 10.TarshishChrysolithos Beryl Beryl(mg.
{ Chalcedony)
11.ShohamBeryllion Onyx Onyx(mg.

Beryl)
Jasper Jasper
12.YashephehOnychion(
Yahalom?
)
Referencetothesetableswillsimplifytheuseofthefollowingnotes,whichincludeotherpreciousstonesoftheBiblebesidesthosementionedabove.In
endeavouringtoidentifythestonesinListA,threethingshavetobekeptinview.Fromthedimensionsofthebreastplateaspan(8Or9inches)eachway(Ex
28:16)the12stoneswhichcomposeditmust,evenafterallowingspacefortheirsettings,havebeenofconsiderablesize,andthereforeofonlymoderaterarity.
Further,astheywereengravedwiththenamesofthetribes,theycanhavebeenofonlymoderatehardness.lastly,preferenceshouldbegiventothestoneswhich
archologyshowstohavebeenactuallyusedforornamentalworkinearlyBiblicaltimes.Inregardtothispoint,thearticlebyProfessorFlindersPetrie(Hastings
DBiv.61921)isofspecialvalue.
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B.THECOVERINGOFTHEKINGOFTYRE(EZK28:13)
Hebrew LXX AV RV
1.Odem 1.Sardion Sardius(mg.Ruby) Sardius(mg.Ruby)
2.Pitdah 2.Topazion Topaz Topaz

9.Bareqeth 3.Smaragdos Carbuncle
Carbuncle(mg.
Emerald)
8.Nophek 4.Anthrax
Emerald(mg. Emerald(mg.
Chrysoprase) Carbuncle)
7.Sappir 5.Sappheiros Sapphire Sapphire

6.Yashepheh Jasper Jasper
6.Iaspis
7.Ligurion
8.Achates
9.Amethystos
4.Tarshish 10.Chrysolithos Beryl(mg. Beryl
Chrysolite)
5.Shoham. 11.Beryllion Onyx Onyx
3.Yahalom 12.Onychion Diamond Diamond

Adamant(Ezk3:9,Zec7:12).SeeDiamondbelow.
Agate(ListA8[Heb.shebo]).TheGr.equivalentachates(whenceagate)wasthenameofariverinSicily.Themodernagateisaformofsilica,occurringin
noduleswhichwhencutacrossshowconcentricbandsofvaryingtransparencyandcolour.Theancientachates(Pliny,HNxxxvii.54)probablyincludedthe
opaquecolouredvarietiesofsilicanowdistinguishedasjasper(seeJasperbelow).FlindersPetriesuggeststhatshebomaybethecarnelianalsoaformofsilica
(seeSardiusbelow).Agates(RVmrubies)standsforHeb.kadkodinIs54:12(LXXiaspis),Ezk27:16.Redjasperisperhapstobeunderstood.
C.THEF OUNDATIONSOFTHENEWJERUSALEM
Rev. GreekAV RV
21:19
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1.IaspisJasper Jasper
{
2.SappheirosSapphire Sapphire (
mg.
Lapislazuli)

3.ChalkedonChalcedony Chalcedony

4.SmaragdosEmerald Emerald
21:20
5.SardonyxSardonyx Sardonyx
{ 6.SardionSardius Sardius

7.ChrysolithosChrysolyte Chrysolite

8.Beryllos.Beryl Beryl

9.TopazionTopaz Topaz

10.ChrysoprasosChrysoprasus Chrysoprase

11.HyakinthosJacinth Jacinth(mg.
Sapphire)
12.AmethystosAmethyst Amethyst
Rev. GreekAV RV
21:19
1.IaspisJasper Jasper
2.SappheirosSapphire Sapphire (
mg.
Lapislazuli)

3.ChalkedonChalcedony Chalcedony

4.SmaragdosEmerald Emerald
21:20 5.SardonyxSardonyx Sardonyx

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6.SardionSardius Sardius

7.ChrysolithosChrysolyte Chrysolite

8.Beryllos.Beryl Beryl

9.TopazionTopaz Topaz

10.ChrysoprasosChrysoprasus Chrysoprase
11.HyakinthosJacinth
Jacinth(mg.
Sapphire)

12.AmethystosAmethyst Amethyst
Amber.Doubtfultr.InEzk1:4,27,8:2ofchashmal(AVmelectrum,Amer.RVglowingmetal)cf.alsoLigurebelow.
Amethyst(ListA9[Heb.achlamah,LXXamethystos],C12[amethystos]).Itisagreedthatthecommonamethyst,properlycalledamethystinequartz,is
meant.Thisisrockcrystal(transparentsilica)colouredpurplebymanganeseandiron.TheOrientalamethystisamuchrarergem,composedofvioletcorundum
(oxideofaluminium),inshort,apurplesapphire.Thenameoftheamethystisderivedfromitssupposedproperty,nodoubtassociatedwithitswinelikecolour,of
actingasapreventiveofintoxication.
Beryl(ListA10,B4alsoCa5:14,Ezk1:16,10:9,Dn10:6[Heb.tarshish]).Whatthetarshishstonewasisdifficulttosay.LXXrendersitvariously,but
neverbyberyllionorberyllos.Topaz(RVminCa5:14),yellowrockcrystal(falsetopaz),yellowserpentine,jacinth,andyellowjasper(FlindersPetrie)havebeen
suggestedaspossibleidentifications.Itisgenerallyagreedthatberylismorelikelytocorrespondtoshoham(ListA11,B5Gn2:12,Ex25:7,28:9,35:9,27,39:6,
1Ch29:2,Job28:16),whichLXXrendersberyllioninA,EValwaysonyx,but
RVmgenerallyberyl.Berylisasilicateofaluminiumandberyllium,withawiderangeoftintsfromyellow,throughgreen,toblue,accordingtotheproportionof
thecolouringmatter(oxideofchromium).Thecommonestformofthecrystalisasixsidedprism.NoweachofthetwoshohamstonesinEx28:9,10,39:6was
engravedwiththenamesofsixofthetribesofIsrael.Ahexagonalprismsuchasberylwouldbestlenditselftothispurpose.InNTberyllosoccursinListC8.
Carbuncle(ListA3,B9[Heb.bareqethorath,LXXsmaragdos]).Bareqethissimplyalightningorflashingstone.Butcarbuncle(fromcarbunculus,a
smallglowingcoal)denotesaredorfierystone,andcannotcorrespondtothesmaragdos,whichwasgreen(Pliny,HNxxxvii.16).ItisrathertheequivalentofGr.
anthrax(Heb.nophek,ListA4,B8).Plinynames12varietiesofsmaragdos,themostimportantofwhichisdoubtlessouremerald.Thisstoneshouldprobablybe
substitutedforcarbuncleinAandBsoRVm(seeEmeraldbelow).FlindersPetrie,however,thinksthatthesmaragdoswasgreenishrockcrystal(silica).
CarbuncleoccursmoreappropriatelyinIs54:12forHeb.abhneqdach(stonesofburning,RVmrubies).Anyredstonelikethegarnetmaybemeant.
Chalcedony(ListC3).Themodernstoneofthisnameissemiopaqueormilkysilica,buttheancientonewasprobablythegreendioplase(silicateofcopper).
ThisatleastseemstohavebeenthekindofsmaragdosthatwasfoundinthecopperminesofChalcedon(Pliny,HNxxxvii.18).Therewassomeconfusion,
however,betweenthestoneofChalcedonandthecarchedonia(stoneofCarthage),whichwasred(Pliny,ib.xxxvii.25,30).Carchedonoccursasavarious
readingforchalcedoninRev21:19.
Chrysolite(RVAVchrysolyteListC7).Inmodernmineralogythisistheperidote(seeTopazbelow).Theancientgemwassomeothergoldencoloured
stone.Yellowquartz,yellowcorundum,jacinth,orsomevarietyofberylmaypossiblybeunderstood.
Chrysoprase(RVAVchrysoprasus,ListC10).TheprasiusofPliny(HNxxxvii.34)wasaleekgreenchalcedony(fromGr.prason,aleek),ofwhichthere
wasagoldentintedvariety.ThelattermaybetheNTChrysoprase.Possibly,however,bothChrysopraseandchrysoliteinListCrefertoyellowishshadesofberyl.
ThemodernChrysopraseisaslightlytranslucentsilica,colouredabeautifulapplegreenbyoxideofnickel.
Coral(Job28:18,Ezk27:16)isthecalcareousskeletonsecretedbysomeofthecompoundactinozoa.Redcoral(coralliumrubrum)iscommoninthe
MediterraneanSeaandtheIndianOcean.Inthelivingstatethebranchingcalcareousframeworkiscoveredbythecnosarcorcommontissueoftheorganism,
fromwhichtheindividualpolypsprotrude.Inthecoralofcommercethelivingtissuehasofcoursedisappeared,andonlythesolidskeletonremains.Coralis 67/124
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fromwhichtheindividualpolypsprotrude.Inthecoralofcommercethelivingtissuehasofcoursedisappeared,andonlythesolidskeletonremains.Coralis
alsoapossiblerenderingofpeninim(soRVminthepassagesunderRubybelow).
Crystal.InJob28:17,AVthusrendersHeb.zekukith,butRVunderstandsglass.Inthenextverse,however,RVhascrystalforHeb.gabish,insteadofAV
pearls.InEzk1:22crystalstandsforHeb.qerach(RVmice).InNTkrystallosappearsinRev4:6,21:11,22:1.Inallthesecasesexceptthefirstthereferenceis
probablytorockcrystal(colourlesstransparentquartz).
Diamond(ListA6,B3).TheHeb.yahalomprobablystoodinthetwelfthplaceinListA,whereLXXhasonychion.HenceinthislistRVmhassardonyxfor
diamond.Thelatterisinanycaseanimpossiblerendering.Thediamondwasunknowninancienttimes.Itwouldhavebeentoohardtoengrave,andadiamond
largeenoughtohavebornethenameofatribeandtohavefilledaspaceinthehighpriestsbreastplatewouldhavebeenofincrediblevalue.Theyahalomwasmost
likelytheonyx,abandedformofsilica(seeOnyxbelow).DiamondalsooccursinJer17:1asthematerialofanengravingtool.TheHeb.isshamir,whichis
renderedadamantintwootherpassageswhereitisfound(Ezk3:9,Zec7:12).Thereferenceisprobablytocorundumoremery(aluminiumoxide),averyhard
mineral.
Emerald(ListA4,B8alsoEzk27:16[Heb.nophek,LXXanthrax,RVmcarbuncle]).Someredfierystoneisplainlyintended,theredgarnetbeingthemost
likely.EmeraldismoreprobablytheequivalentofHeb.bareqethinListA3,B9(seeCarbuncleabove).Thecommonemeraldisidenticalincompositionwith
theberyl,butdiffersfromitinhardnessandinitsbrightgreencolour.TheOrientalemerald(greencorundum)isveryrare.InNTemeraldstandsforsmaragdosin
ListC4,andinRev4:3,wheretherainbowiscomparedtoit.ThelatterpassageisamongFlindersPetriesgroundsforsupposingthatsmaragdosisrockcrystal,
whichproducesbyitsrefractionalltheprismaticcolours.
Jacinth(Gr.hyakinthos,ListC11).InRev9:17thebreastplatesofthevisionaryhorsemenarecomparedtojacinth(RVhyacinth).Thereisnodoubtthat
hyakinthosdenotedthemodernsapphire(bluecorundum).SoRVminListC.Themodernjacinthisasilicateofzircon.RVreadsjacinthforHeb.lesheminListA
7(AVligure).
Jasper(ListA12,B6).TheHeb.isyashepheh,andinBthiscorrespondstotheLXXiaspis.ProbablyyashephehshouldstandsixthinAalso,inwhichcase
iaspiswouldagainbetheLXXequivalent.InNTiaspisoccursinListC1,andalsoinRev4:3,21:11,18.In21:11thejasperstoneisluminousandclearas
crystal.TheiaspisofPlinywasprimarilyagreenstone(HNxxxvii.37),butheenumeratesmanyothervarieties.Itwasalsooftentransparent,andwemust
apparentlytakeittomeanthegreenandothershadesofchalcedonyorsemitransparentsilica.Inmodernterminologyjasperdenotesratherthecompletelyopaque
formsofthesamesubstance,whichmaybeofvariouscoloursblack,brown,red,green,oryellow.
Ligure(ListA7).TheHeb.leshemisrenderedbyLXXligurion,anobscurewordwhichispossiblythesameaslyngkurion,thelatterbeingayellowstone
whichwassupposedtobethecongealedurineofthelynx(Pliny,HNxxxvii.13).Someidentifythelyngkurionwiththemodernjacinthoryellowjargoon(silicate
ofzircon).SoRV.Otherstaketheliguriontobeamber,whichtheGreeksobtainedfromLiguria(soRVm).FlindersPetrieidentifiesitwiththeyellowagate.
Onyx(ListA11.B5alsoGn2:12,Ex25:7,28:9,35:9,27,39:6,1Ch29:2,Job28:16).TheHeb.shohamisrenderedvariouslyinLXX,butinListAby
beryllion,anditisprobablethatshohamistheberylsogenerallyRVm(seeBerylabove).FlindersPetriesuggeststhatgreenfelsparmaybeintended.Itwould
seemmorecorrecttomakeonyxthetwelfthstoneinListA,whereLXXhasonychion.If,asisprobable,theHeb.yahalom(A6)andyashepheh(A12)should
changeplaces,onychionwouldthusstandfortheformer,whichRVmrenderssardonyx.WeshouldthensubstituteonyxorsardonyxfordiamondinListB3
also.Theonyxwasabandedsemitransparentsilicasimilartothemodernagate,thenamebeingsuggestedbythecontrastbetweenthewhiteandfleshcoloured
zonesofthefingernail.InthespecialvarietycalledtheRomanonyxthemodernnicolo(onlculus)thelayersareopaque,andalternatelywhitishblueandblack.
Ruby(alwaysinpl.rubies[Heb.peninimorpeniyyim],Job28:18,Pr3:15,8:11,20:15,31:10[inallwhichpassagesRVmhasredcoralorpearls],La4:7
[RVmcoralsinthislastpassagethecontextshowsthatsomeredstoneismeant]).ThetrueorOrientalrubyisredcorundum(aluminiumoxide),averyprecious
stone.Thespinelrubyisanaluminateofmagnesium.Bothwouldbeincludedalongwithredgarnetsunderthegeneralnamecarbuncle.Sapphire(ListA5,B7,
alsoEx24:10,Job28:6,16,Ca5:14,Is54:11,La4:7,Ezk1:26,
10:1[Heb.sappir,LXXsappheiros]).SappheirosoccursinNTinListC2.Pliny(HNxxxvii.
32)describesthisstoneasofanazurecolour,opaque,refulgent,withspotsofgold.Thiscannotapplytothetransparentmodernsapphire,whichwastheancient
hyakinthos(seeJacinthabove).Itexactlyfitsthelapislazuli(mainlyasilicateofcalcium,aluminium,andsodium),whichisofabrightbluecolourandisoften
speckledwithyellowironpyrites(sulphideofiron).Inpowderedformitisknownasultramarine.
Sardius(ListA1,B1[Heb.odem,LXXsardion]).InNTsardionoccursinlistC6,andalsoinRev4:3(AVsardinestone,RVsardius).Therootmeaning
ofodemisred,andsardion,thoughpopularlyderivedfromSardis(Pliny,HNxxxvii.31),isratherthePersiansered(yellowishred).AVmandRVmhave
rubyinListsAandB,butitismostlikelythatthesardiusiscarnelian(semitransparentsilica,colouredredbyoxideofiron).FlindersPetriesuggestsred
jasper,whichismuchthesameincomposition,butopaque.
Sardonyx(ListC5alsoRVmfordiamondinlistA6).Avarietyofonyxorbandedsilicainwhichredlayersofsardiuswerepresent.Thetypicalsardonyx 68/124
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Sardonyx(ListC5alsoRVmfordiamondinlistA6).Avarietyofonyxorbandedsilicainwhichredlayersofsardiuswerepresent.Thetypicalsardonyx
wasthatinwhichthebandswerealternatelyblack,white,andred,forPliny(HNxxxvii.75)describeshowthegenuinestonewasimitatedbycementinglayersof
thesecolourstogether.
Topaz(ListA2,B2Job28:19[Heb.pitdah,LXXtopazion]).TopazionstandsalsoinListC9.ThestonesonamedbytheGreekswasnotthemoderntopaz
(silicateofaluminiuminwhichsomeoftheoxygenisreplacedbyfluorine),buttheperidote(yellowishgreensilicateofmagnesium).FlindersPetriethinksthatthe
namemayhavebeengivenstillearliertogreenserpentine,whichwasactuallyusedinEgyptianwork,andisahydratedformofthesamesubstanceasperidote.
TheOrientaltopazisyellowcorundum,andthesocalledfalsetopazisyellowquartz.RVmhastopazforberyl(i.e.thetarshishstone)inCa5:14.
Ifthestonesabovementionedbeclassifiedaccordingtotheircomposition,itwillappearthat,inspiteofthebewilderingvarietyofnames,theprincipalgroups
arecomparativelyfew.
Thelargestnumberofstonescomeundersilica,thecrystallizedformofwhichisdistinguishedasquartz.Whencolourlessornearlyso,quartziscalledrock
crystal.Yellowquartzisthefalsetopaz,violetoramethystinequartzthecommonamethyst.Theamorphoussemiopaquevarietiesofsilicaaregroupedunderthe
modemtermchalcedony.Thismaybered(sardius,carnelian),leekgreen(prasius,ancientjasper),orbanded(onyx,sardonyx,modernagate).Opaquesilicagives
themodernjasper(ancientagate),whichmaybecolouredred,green,yellow,etc.
Asecondgroupisformedbythesilicates(silicaincombinationwithmetallicoxides).Thuswehavemodernjacinth(silicateofzircon),peridoteorancienttopaz
(silicateofmagnesium),dioptaseorancientchalcedony(silicateofcopper),moderntopaz(mainlysilicateofaluminium),felspar(silicateofaluminiumwithsodium,
potassiumorcalcium),berylandcommonemerald(silicateofaluminiumandberyllium),lapislazuliorancientsapphire(silicateofaluminium,calciumand
sodium),garnet(silicateofaluminiumandcalcium,orasimilarcombination).
Athirdgroupconsistsofaluminiumoxide(alumina),andincludestheopaquecorundum,ofwhichemeryisanimpureform,andthetransparentmodern
sapphire(blue),Orientalruby(red),Orientaltopaz(yellow),Orientalamethyst(violet),andOrientalemerald(green).
Lastly,wehaveanaluminate(aluminaincombinationwithametallicoxide)inthespinelruby(aluminateofmagnesium).
Alabasterinthemodernsenseisgypsumorsulphateoflime.TheancientorOrientalalabaster,however,wasaformofcarbonateoflime,andwaslargelyused
forvases,whichwerethoughttobespeciallyadaptedforpreservingunguents(Pliny,HNxiii.3).Thetermalabasterseemstohavebeenappliedinageneralsense
tovasesevenwhennotmadeofthismaterial.
TherearetwowellknowninstancesinNTinwhichanalabasterbox(AV)orcruse(RV)ofointmentwasused(Lk7:37,Mt26:7,Mk14:3).
JAMESP ATRICK.
JEWRY.Thisoldformoccursfrequentlyintheolderversions,butrarelyinAV.InDn5:13itstandsforJudahInLk23:5,Jn7:1andoccasionallyinthe
Apocr.forJuda.
JEZANIAH.AJudahitemilitaryofficerwhojoinedGedaliahatMizpah(Jer40:8).Heiscalledin2K25:23Jaazaniah,andisapparentlytobeidentifiedalso
withAzariahofJer43:2.
JEZEBEL(meaninguncertain).DaughterofEthbaal,kingofTyreandpreviouslyhighpriestoftheTyrianBaalwifeofAhab,kingofIsrael,ofthedynastyof
Omri.JezebelsevilinfluenceinthelandofIsrael,especiallyincombatingthereligionofJahwehintheInterestsofBaalworship,wasexercisednotonlyduringthe
twentytwoyearsofAhabsreign,butalsoduringthethirteenyearsoftheruleofhertwosons,AhaziahandJorammoreover,thisinfluenceextended,thoughina
lessdegree,totheSouthernKingdomofJudah,whereAthaliah,thedaughterofJezebel,seemstohavefollowedinthefootstepsofhermother(2K8:18).Inher
strengthofcharacter,herlustforpower,herunshrinkingandresoluteactivityherremorselessbrushingasideofanythingandeverythingthatinterferedwiththe
carryingoutofherdesigns,shewastheveritableprototypeofCatherinedeMedicis.
IntheOTthefigureofJezebelispresentedinconnexionwithsomedramaticepisodeswhichareprobablyrecordedasillustrations,ratherthanasexceptionally
flagrantexamples,ofhernormalmodeofprocedure.Theseare:theaccountofthetrialofstrengthbetweentheprophetsofBaalandElijah(1K18:1919:3),the
narrativeaboutNabothandhisvineyard(1K21:116),and,asillustratingherobstinate,unbendingcharactertotheveryendnoteespeciallyherwordstoJehuin
2K9:31thestoryofherdeath(2K9:3037).
InRev2:20thenameofJezebeloccursshecallsherselfaprophetess,andtemptsmentowickedness.Itisquestionablewhetherthementionofthenamehere
hasanyreferenceatalltothequeenJezebel.
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
JEZELUS.1.1Es8:32=Ezr8:5Jahaziel.2.1Es8:35=Ezr8:9Jehiel.
JEZER.TheheadoftheJezerites(Nu26:49,1Ch7:13).
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JEZER.TheheadoftheJezerites(Nu26:49,1Ch7:13).
JEZIEL.ABenjamite(1Ch12:3).
JEZRAHIAH.TheleaderofthesingersatthededicationofthewallsofJerus.(Neh12:42).In1Ch7:3bisthesamenameisrenderedIzrahiah.
JEZREEL.TheHebrewnamefromwhichisderivedthenameofthePlainofEsdraelon
(seeESDRAELON).TheplainiscalledtheValleyofJezreelinJos17:16,Jg6:33,Hos1:5.
1.Primarily,however,itdenotesanImportantcityoverlookingthePlainonthesouthintheborderofthetribeofIssachar.Here,bythefountainofJezreel
probablythepowerfulspringknownasAinJaldtheIsraelitesencampedagainstthePhilistinesbeforethebattleofGilboa(1S29:1).Itisnamedasanimportant
townintheshortlivedkingdomofIshbosheth(2S2:9).UnderSolomonitwasintheadministrativedistrictofBaana(1K4:12).Butthechiefinterestofthetowns
historycentresinthetimeofthereignofAhab,whoestablishedherearoyalresidence,towhichheretiredwhenthethreeyearsdroughtcametoanend(1K21:1,
18:45),andwhencehesawandcovetedthevineyardofNaboth(21).Itisprobable,however,thattheivorypalaceof1K22:39wasnotatJezreel,butatthe
capital,Samaria.ToJezreelcameJoramtorecoverfromthewoundsreceivedinbattlewiththeSyrians(2K8:29)andhere,ontherevoltofJehu,werethatking
andhismotherJezebelslain(ch.9),aswellasallthatremainedofthehouseofAhab(ch.10).ThisisthelastwehearofJezreel,whichthereafterseemstohave
sunkintoinsignificance.TheplaceisrepresentedbothinsituationandinnamebythemodernvillageofZerin,apooranddirtyhamlet.Exceptafewruinedtombs
andfragmentsofsarcophagi,therearenoremainsofantiquitytobeseenintheneighbourhood.
2.TherewasasecondJezreel,ofwhichnothingisknownsavethatitwasintheterritoryof
Judah(Jos15:56)andwasthenativeplaceofoneofDavidswives,Abinoam(1S25:43).3.AJudahite(1Ch4:3).4.ThesymbolicalnameofHoseaseldestson
(Hos1:4).5.Jezreel(whomGodsoweth)isatitlesymbolicallyappliedtoIsraelinHos2:22f.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
JEZRIELUS(1Es9:27)=Ezr10:26Jehiel.
JIDLAPH.AsonofNahor(Gn22:22).
JOAB(Jahwehisfather).1.OneofthesonsofZeruiahtheeldestaccordingto2S2:18,thesecondaccordingto1Ch2:16andthusthenephewofDavid.
Itisperhapsnottoomuchtosaythat,humanlyspeaking,theDavidicdynastywouldnothavebeenestablishedhaditnotbeenforthemilitarygeniusandthe
loyaltyofJoab.SoconsistentlyloyalwasJoabtotheroyalhouse(seeADONIJAH),thatoneistemptedtoquestionwhetherthepassage,1K2:5,6,whichdescribes
Davidsingratitude,isgenuinecertainitisthatifDavidreallyfeltwithregardtoAbnerandAmasaasheisdescribedasfeelinginthispassage,itissurprisingthat
heshouldhavelefttothewisdomofSolomonthedutyofinflictingthepunishmentdueJoabsdeathwouldseemtohavebeenduerathertohisloyaltyin
supportingDavidsrightfulheir,Adonijah.
Aboveall,Joabwasaskilledgeneralthisisseenbythenumberofvictorieshegained,namely,overthearmyofIshboshethundertheleadershipofAbner(2S
2:1232)overtheJebusites(1Ch11:69)overtheSyriansandAmmonites(2S10:119,11:1,12:2629)overAbsalom(18:517)overSheba(20:422).These
arespecificallymentioned,buttheremusthavebeenverymanymore,forthosewhicharespokenofgenerallyasDavidsvictorieswereinallprobabilitydueto
Joab,whoisrepeatedlyspokenofasDavidscommanderinchief(e.g.2S8:16,20:22etc.).
Secondly,hisloyaltytothehouseofDavidisIllustratedbyhiswholelifeofdevotedservice,andespeciallybysuchconspicuousinstancesashisdesiretomake
hisvictoryovertheAmmonitesappeartohavebeengainedbyDavid(2S12:20ff.)hisslayingofAbner[thoughothermotivesundoubtedlyplayedapartinthis
act,itiscertainthatJoabregardedAbnerasarealdangertotheState(3:24,25)]thereconciliationwhichhebroughtaboutbetweenDavidandAbsalom(14:1ff.)
hisslayingofAbsalomwhenherealizedhistreacherytoDavid(18:14ff.,19:6)hiswordstoDavidin2S19:57oneofthemoststrikinginstancesofhis
attachmentandlastly,hischampionshipoftherightfulheirtothethrone,whichcosthimhislife(1K1:7,2:34).HowclosewasthetiebetweenDavidandJoab
maybeseen,further,intheblindobedienceofthelatter,whowaswillingtobepartakerinDavidssin(2S11:626).
ThedarkersideofJoabscharacteristobeseeninhisvindictivenessandruthlesscrueltyforalthoughitisonlyfairtopleadthespiritoftheage,theexigencies
oftheStatesweal,andthedemandofbloodrevenge,yetthetreacherousandbloodthirstyactsofwhichJoabwasguiltyconstituteadarkblotuponhischaracter
(see2S3:2227,1K11:16cf.2S18:14,20:9,10.).
2.SonofSeralah(1Ch4:14cf.Neh11:35),3.AfamilywhichreturnedwithZerubbabel(Ezr2:6=Neh7:11=1Es5:11cf.Ezr8:9=1Es8:35).
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
JOAOHAZ.1Es1:34=Jehoahaz,thesonofJosiahcf.2Ch36:1.
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JOAOHAZ.1Es1:34=Jehoahaz,thesonofJosiahcf.2Ch36:1.
JOADANUS.OneofthesonsofJesus,thesonofJosedek(1Es9:19)calledinEzr10:18Gedaliah.
JOAH.1.SonofAsaph,andrecorderatHezekiahscourt(2K18:18,26,37=Is36:3,11,22).2.ALeviticalfamilyname(1Ch6:21[apparentlysameas
Ethanofv.42],2Ch29:12).
3.ALevite(1Ch26:4).4.SonofJoahaz,andrecorderatJosiahscourt(2Ch34:8).
JOAHAZ.1.FatherofJoabtherecorder(2Ch34:8).2.SeeJehoahaz,1.
JOAKIM.ThenameisspeltJehoiakimincanon.books,butJoacimorJoachiminApocr.AV,andJoakimeverywhereinApocr.RV.
InApocr.thenamebelongstosixpersons.1.KingJehoiakim(1Es1:3742,Bar1:3).2.
Jehoiachin,sonofJehoiakim,whoiserroneouslycalledJoakimin1Es1:43.3.Apriest,sonof
Hilkiah,towhomthecaptivesaresaidtohavesentmoneyforthepurchaseofofferingsandIncense(Bar1:7).4.AhighpriestinthedaysofHolofernesandJudith
(Jth4:6,14).5.AsonofZorobabel(1Es5:5).6.ThehusbandofSusanna(Sus.1,4,63).
JOANAN.AnancestorofJesus(Lk3:27).
JOANNA.ThewifeofChuza,thestewardofHerodAntipas,oneofcertainwomenwhichhadbeenhealedofevilspiritsandinfirmities,Sheministeredto
Jesusofhersubstance,andafterthecrucifixionhelpedtoanointHisbody(Lk8:3,24:10).
JOANNES.1.1Es8:38=Ezr8:12Johanan.2.1Es9:29=Ezr10:28Jehohanan.
JOARIB.TheheadofthepriestlyfamilyfromwhichtheMaccabeesweredescended(1Mac2:1,14:29).Acc.to1Ch24:7thisfamily,therecalledthatof
Jehoiarib,wasthefirstofthetwentyfourcoursesofpriests.
JOASH.1.SeeJEHOASH.2.ThefatherofGideon(Jg6:11etc.).3.AsonofAhab(1K22:26).4.AsonofShelah(1Ch4:22).5.ABenjamite(1Ch12:3).6.
AsonofBecher(1Ch7:8).7.AservantofDavid(1Ch27:28).
JOB
1.ThemanJob.JobisreferredtointheOTinthebookbearinghisname,andinEzk
14:1220,whereheismentionedasaconspicuousexampleofrighteousnessintheApocrinSir49:9[Heb.afterSmendandRyssel],andtheVulg.ofTo2:12and
intheNTinJa5:11,thelasttwopassagesalludingtohispatience.ThereferenceinEzk.showsthatrighteousJobwasafamiliarfigureinsomeJewishcirclesinthe
6thcent.B.C.OntheassumptionthattheJobofthebookissketched,astothemainoutlines,afterancienttradition,probablythesameinsubstanceasthatknownto
Ezk.,wehavetothinkofhimasaGentilelivinginpatriarchaltimeseitherintheHauranorontheconfinesofIdumaandArabia(seeUZ),andhisfriendsalso
mustberegardedasGentiles.
ThisconclusionissupportedbythenamesofGodgenerallyemployedinthepoem.The
Tetragrammaton,whichisused31timesbythewriterintheproseparts,occursonlyonceinthepoeticportions(12:9),andisascribedtoJobonlyinoneverseinthePrologue
(1:21).Adonaiisalsometwithonce(28:28).GodisusuallyreferredtobyJobandhisassociatesbynamesnotdistinctivelyJewish:Et,55timesEtoah,41timesoutof57inthe
wholeOTandShaddai,31timesoutof48inOTEtohimiscomparativelyrareinthepoem.TheentireabsenceofdistinctallusionstoIsraelitishhistorypointstothesame
conclusion.Thegreatwordtorah,law,isusedonlyonce(22:22),andtheninthegeneralsenseofinstruction.Accordingtoalostwork,ConcerningtheJews,byoneAristeas,
citedbyEuseb.(Ev.Praep.ix.25),andtheappendixintheLXX,saidtobetakenfromaSyriacbookbutstandinginsomerelationtoAristeas,JobistobeidentifiedwithJobab,
kingofEdom(Gn36:33).Thisidentification,whichappearsalsointheTestamentofJob,aworkprobablycontaininganancientJewishnucleus,althoughcriticallyworthless,isnot
withoutinterestandvalue,aspossiblypreservingafragmentofoldtradition.ThenameJob,whichprobablybelongstothetraditionalstory,isinHeb.Iyyb.Theapparently
similarnameJob(AV)ofGn46:13,asonofIssachar,isdifferentlyspelt(inHeb.Yb),andisthereforegivenintheRVasIob.Jobab,whichismetwithinseveralconnexions(Gn
10:29JoktaniteGn36:33EdomiteJos11:1Canaanite1Ch8:9Benjamite),seemstobequitedistinct,althoughCheyneremarks(inEBi)thatthepossibilityofaconnexionmust
beadmitted.ThemeaningofIyybisextremelyuncertain.IfexplainedfromtheHeb.,itmeanseitherattackedorattacker(Siegfriedin JE).Ifexplainedwiththehelpofthe
Arabicayyb,itmeansreturning,penitent.Inallprobabilityitwasaforeignnametakenoverwiththestory,whichseemsinthefirstinstancetohavebeenofforeignorigin.
ThenameAiab,whichwascurrentinthenorthofPalestinec. B. C.1400(TellelAmarnaLetters,No.237Winckler[118Petrie]),maybeaCanaanitishequivalent,butnostresscan
belaidonthesimilarity.IthasalsobeennoticedthataiabuinBab.meantenemy(ib.50Winckler[147Petrie]),butthiscannotberegardedatpresentasmorethanacoincidence.
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2.TheBookofJob
(1)PlaceintheCanon.ExceptintheSyriacBible,whichlocatesitbetweenthePentateuchandJoshua,onaccountofitssupposedgreatantiquity,thebookis
alwaysreckonedasoneoftheKethubimorHagiographa,andisoftengiventhethirdplace.ItisusuallygroupedwithPs.andProv.,withwhichitisassociatedby
theuseofaspecialsystemofaccentuation(exceptinthePrologueandEpilogue),buttheorderofthethreebooksvaries.
InabaraithaintheBab.Talm.(Bababathra14b),whichprobablygivesthemostancientorder
(Ryle,CanonofOT,232),itcomesafterRuthandPs.inmanyHeb.MSS,especiallySpanish,andintheMassorah,afterCh.andPs.intheGermanMSS,whichhavebeen
followedinmostprintededitions,afterPs.andProverbs.OftheLXXMSSCodexBhastheremarkableorder:Ps.,Pr.,Ec.,Ca.,Job,Wis.,Sir.AhasPs.,Job,Proverbs.Inprinted
editionsoftheLXXandVulg.Jobusuallycomesfirst,andthisorderisgenerallyadoptedinEuropeanversions,owingnodoubttotheinfluenceoftheLatinBible.
(2)Text.TheHeb.textofJobwaslongregardedasexcellent,buthasbeenmuchquestionedinrecentyears,somecriticsresortingverylargelytoemendation
withthehelpoftheVersionsandfreeconjecture.Thereactionagainsttheearlierviewhasprobablyledsomescholarstoofar.Whenthedifficultyofthetheme,its
boldtreatmentinmanyplaces,andthelargenumberofwords,forms,andusesnotmetwithelsewhere(accordingtoFriedrichDelitzsch,259)aredulytakeninto
account,theconditionofthetextisseentobelesscorruptthanmighthavebeenexpected.Muchdiscussionhasbeenoccasionedbythepeculiarcharacterofthe
LXXasrestoredtoitsoriginalformbymeansoftheSahidictranslationfirstpublishedin1889.ThisversiondiffersinextentfromtheMassoretictextmorewidely
inJobthaninanyotherbook.Therearetwointerestingadditions:theexpansionof2:8andtheappendixattheendofthebookbutthechiefcharacteristicis
omission.AlittlelessthanonefifthoftheHeb.textisabsentabout400linesoutof,roundlyspeaking,2200forthewholebookand2075forthepoeticportions.
Afewhavefoundinthisshortereditiontheoriginaltextofthebook,butmostascribetheminusoftheLXXtodefectiveunderstandingoftheHebrew,imperfect
acquaintancewiththestructureofHeb.poetry,andthedesiretoconformtoHellenicstandards,etc.,ratherthantovariationoftext.Thisversiontherefore,inthe
opinionofmostcompetentjudges,isoflittleusefortherestorationofthetext.Hereandthereitsuggestsabetterreading,e.g.in8:13alatterendforpaths,but
inthemaintheMassoretictextisgreatlytobepreferred.Itisnotimprobable,however,thatthearrangementofthelatteriswronginafewpassages:e.g.inch.31,
wherevv.3537formamorefittingclosethanvv.3840.
(3)Analysis.Thebook,aswehaveit,isapoemframedinprose,withbitsofproseinterspersed.Theproseportionsareasfollows:theintroduction,often
calledthePrologue(ch.1f.),statingtheproblem,theundeservedsufferingofagoodman,givingapartialsolution,andbringingonthescenetheherosthree
friendsshortheadings(3:1,4:1etc.)asupplementarynote(31:40c.)abriefintroductiontothespeechesofElihu(32:16)andthesequel,oftencalledthe
Epilogue(42:717).ThepoemopenswithamonologueinwhichJobcursesthedayofhisbirth(ch.3).Thisisfollowedbyaseriesofthreedialoguesextending
overchs.428:(i.)414(ii.)1521(iii.)2228.
Thethreefriendsinsuccession,probablyinorderofseniority,reasonwithJob,allfromthegenerallyacceptedstandpointthatsufferingisasureindicationofsin.Asthe
discussionproceedstheybecomemoreandmorebitter,untilthemostmoderateanddignifiedofthem,Eliphaz,actuallytaxesJobwithflagrantiniquity(22:59).Inthethird
dialogue,aswehaveit,oneofthespeakers,Zophar,issilent.Jobrepliesatlengthtoeachexpostulation,sometimessinkingintodepressiononthevergeofdespair(14:112etc.),
occasionallyrisingforamomentortwointoconfidence(16:19,19:2527),butthroughoutmaintaininghisintegrity,and,notwithstandingpassionateutteranceswhichseemnear
akintoblasphemy(10:817,16:717),neverwhollylosinghisfaithinGod.
ThedialoguesarefollowedbyamonologuespokenbyJob(chs.2931),consistingofavividretrospectofthehappypast(ch.29),adismalpictureofthe
wretchedpresent(ch.30),andwhatMarshallcallsJobsoathofselfvindicationanemphaticdisavowalofdefiniteformsoftransgression,inaseriesof
sentencesmostofwhichbeginwithif,sometimesfollowedbyanimprecation(ch.31).Thesucceedingsixchapters(3237)areascribedtoanewcharacter,a
youngman,ElihutheBuzite,whoisdissatisfied]withbothJobandhisfriends.ThedistinctivenoteofhisargumentisthestresslaidonthethoughtthatGodteaches
bymeansofafflictioninotherwords,thatthepurpose,oratleastonemainpurpose,oftrialisdiscipline(33:1928,36:10,15).Elihuthendropsoutofthebook,
andtheremainderofthepoem(chs.3842:6)isdevotedtoJahwehsanswertoJobscomplaint,callingattentiontotheDivinepower,wisdom,andtenderness
revealedincreation,inthecontrolofnaturalforcesandphenomena,inthelifeofbirdsandbeasts,andintheworkingofProvidenceinhumanhistory,and
suggestingthatHewhocoulddoallthismightsurelyhetrustedtocareforHisservantandJobspenitentretractionofhispresumptuousutterances.
(4)Integrity.Onthequestionwhetherthebook,aswehaveit,isasinglewholeoracombinationoftwoormoreparts,thereisageneralagreementamong
scholarsinfavourofthelatteralternative.Thereareclearindicationsofatleasttwohands.ThespeechesofElihu(chs.3237)areascribedbymost(notbyBudde,
Cornill,Wildehoer,Briggs,andafewothers)toalaterwriter,whodesiredtosupplement,andtosomeextentcorrect,theworkofhispredecessor.
Thechiefreasonsallegedforthisconclusionare:(1)thesilenceaboutElihuintheEpilogue.(2)Thefactthatthewholesectioncanberemovedwithoutanybreakofcontinuity,
31:40c.linkingonnaturallyto38:1.(3)TheAramaiccharacterofthediction,andtheoccurrenceofwordsandphrasesnotfoundelsewhereinthepoem.(4)Literaryinferiority.(5)
Theologicaldiversity,theconceptionofGoddifferingfromwhatismetwithintherestofthebook(Marshall,JobandhisFriends,p.82ff.).
Thethirdofthesereasonshasbeenshowntobeinconclusive.ThelanguageofElihuisnotinconsistentwiththeviewthatthesechapterswerewrittenbytheauthorofthe
dialogues.Thefourthreasonisnotwithoutweight,butitmustbeallowedthattherearesomeveryfinethingsinthesechapters,anditmustberememberedthattheyhaveprobably
beenhandeddownlesscarefullythansomeotherpartsofthebook,onaccountofthedisfavourwithwhichsomeoftheancientJewsregardedElihu(inspiredbySatanTest.of 72/124
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dialogues.Thefourthreasonisnotwithoutweight,butitmustbeallowedthattherearesomeveryfinethingsinthesechapters,anditmustberememberedthattheyhaveprobably
beenhandeddownlesscarefullythansomeotherpartsofthebook,onaccountofthedisfavourwithwhichsomeoftheancientJewsregardedElihu(inspiredbySatanTest.of
Job,ch.41).Inanycase,FriedrichDelitzschhasgonetoofarindescribingtheauthorasafifthratepoet.Theremainingthreereasons,however,seemtobenearlydecisive.
Thefinepoeminch.28,whichcontraststhesuccessofmaninfindingpreciousorewithhisutterfailuretofindwisdom,doesnotfitinwiththecontext,andis
thereforeregardedbymanyasanaddition.Thestriking,butratherturgid,descriptionsofthehippopotamusandthecrocodileinchs.40,41arealsoheldbymany
tobeaninterpolation.Somequestiontheversesabouttheostrich(39:1318).ThePrologueandEpilogueareconsideredbysometobethereliesofanearlierwork
inprose.
Afewscholarsgomuchfurtherincriticalanalysis.Bickell,forinstance,inhissearchaftertheoriginaltext,expungesnotonlythespeechesofElihuandthePrologueand
Epilogue,butalsothewholeofthespeechesofJahweh,andmanysmallerportions.Cheyne(inEBi)seemstofindfourmainelementsinthebook,aswehaveit,whichhasgrown,
notbeenmade:(1)thePrologueandtheEpilogue(2)thedialogue(3)thespeechesofJahweh(4)thespeechesofElihu.Marshall(inCom.),onthegroundthattherearedifferent
strataoftheologicalbelief,alsofindsfourelements,butonlyinpartthesame.(1)Thedialoguesupto27:23,withtheEpilogue,andpartofthePrologue(2)chs.2831,andthe
speechesofJahweh(3)thespeechesofElihu(4)thereferencestotheheavenlycouncilinchs.1and2.
(5)NatureoftheBook.TheclassofHeb.literaturetowhichtheBookofJobbelongsisclearlytheChokhmahorWisdomgroup,theotherrepresentativesof
whicharePr.,Ec.,andSir.thegroupwhichdealswithquestionsofpracticalethics,religiousphilosophy,andspeculation.Thebookismainlynotentirely,as
oneoftheRabbisthought(Bababathra,15a)aworkofimagination,but,inthejudgmentofmost,withatraditionalnucleus,theextentofwhich,however,is
uncertain,astherearefeaturesinboththePrologueandtheEpiloguewhichsuggestliteraryinvention:e.g.,therecurrenceofthewordsIonlyamescapedaloneto
tellthee(1:15,16,17,19),theuseofthenumbers3(1:2,17,2:11,42:13)and7(1:2f.,42:8,13),andthedoublingofJobspossessions(42:12).Thepoem,as
handeddowntous,canhardlyhedescribedinmodernterms.Itcontainslyricalelements,butcouldnotappropriatelyhedesignatedlyrical.Ithasmorethanone
dramaticfeature,butisnotreallyadrama.Itremindsoneoftheepos,butisnotanepic.Itisdidactic,but,asBaudissinhasobserved,soarshighaboveamere
didacticpoem.Itisemphaticallysuigeneris.Itstandsabsolutelyalone,notmerelyintheliteratureofIsrael,butintheliteratureoftheworld.
(6)PoeticForm.TheAustrianscholarBickell,whohasbeenfollowedbyDuhm,andinEnglandbyDillon,hastriedtoshowthatthepoemwaswritten
throughoutinquatrains,butthetextualhavocwroughtintheattemptseemstoproveclearlythatheis,inpartatleast,onthewrongtrack.Veryfewcriticsacceptthe
theory.Theonlythingthatseemstobecertainaboutthepoeticmethodofthewriterorwritersistheusethroughoutoftheparallelismofmembers,whichhaslong
beenknownastheleadingfeatureofancientOrientalpoetry.Averseusuallyconsists
oftwolinesormembers,buttherearemanyinstanceswheretherearethree(3:4ff.,9),andoneatleastwherethereisonlyone(14:4).Morethaneighthundredout
ofaboutathousandverses,accordingtoLey,consistoftwolines,eachofwhichhasthreeindependentwords.Buthereagaintherearemanyexceptions,someno
doubtduetotextualcorruption,butmoreinallprobabilitytothepoetsmasteryoftheformswhichheemployed.
(7)Purposeandteaching.Thechiefobjectofthepoettowhomweowethedialogues,andprobablythePrologueandtheEpilogue,andthespeechesof
Jahweh,andwemayadd,ofthecompileroreditorofthewholebook,istogiveabetteranswertothequestion,Whyareexceptionallygoodmenheavily
afflicted?thanthatgenerallycurrentinJewishcirclesdowntothetimeofChrist.Asubsidiaryobjectisthedelineationofspiritualexperienceundertheconditions
supposed,ofthesuffererschangingmoods,andyetindestructiblelongingfortheGodwhomhecannotunderstand.Thepoetsanswer,asstatedinthespeechesof
Jahweh,seemsatthefirstreadingnoansweratall,butwhencloselyexaminedisseentobeprofoundlysuggestive.ThereisnospecificreplytoJobsbitter
complaintsandpassionateoutcries.InsteadofreasoningwithHisservant,Jahwehremindshimofafewofthewondersofcreationandprovidence,andleaveshim
todrawtheinference.Hedrawsit,andseestheGodwhomheseemedtohavelostsightofforeverasheneversawHimbefore,eveninthetimeofhisprosperity
seesHim,indeed,inaveryrealsenseforthefirsttime(42:5).Thebookalsocontainsotherpartialsolutionsoftheproblem.ThespeechesofElihulaystress,as
alreadyobserved,ontheeducationalvalueofsuffering.Godisapeerlessteacher(36:22b),whodelivereththeafflictedbyhisaffliction,andopeneth(uncovereth)
theirearbyadversity(36:15).ThePrologueliftsthecurtainoftheunseenworld,andrevealsamysteriouspersonalitywhoisDivinelypermittedtoinflictsuffering
ontherighteous,whichresultsinmanifestationoftheDivineglory.Theintellectualrangeofthebookisamazinglywide.Marshallobservesthateverysolution
whichthemindofmanhaseverframed[oftheproblemoftheadversityoftherighteous,andtheprosperityofthewicked]istobefoundintheBookofJob.On
thequestionofthehereaftertheteachingofthebookasawholedifferslittlefromthatoftheOTingeneral.Thereisyearningforsomethingbetter(14:1316),and
perhapsamomentaryconviction(19:2527),butthegeneralconceptionofthelifeafterdeathisthatcommontoHebrews,Assyrians,andBabylonians.
(8)Thecharacters.TheinterestoftheBookofJobisconcentratedmainlyonthecentralfigure,thehero.Oftheotherfiveleadingcharactersbyfarthemost
interestingistheSatanofthePrologue,halfangelhalfdemon,bynomeansidenticalwiththedevilasusuallyconceived,andyetwithadistinctlydiabolical
tendency.Thefriendsarenotverysharplydifferentiatedinthebookaswehaveit,butitisprobablethatthepartsarewronglydistributedinthethirddialogue,
whichisincomplete,nopartbeingassignedtoZophar.Someascribe27:710,1323toZophar,andaddtoBildadsspeech(whichinthepresentarrangement
consistsonlyofch.25)vv.514ofch.26.whatisleftofJobsreplybeingfoundin26:14,27:26,11f.MarshallfindsZopharsthirdspeechinchs.25and26:5
14,andBildadsin24:1821.Thereseemstobeconsiderableconfusioninchs.2527,sothatitisdifficulttoutilizethemforthestudyofthecharactersofBildad
andZophar.Eliphazseemstobetheoldestandmostdignifiedofthethree,withsomethingoftheseerorprophetabouthim(4:1221).Bildadisthetraditionalist.
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andZophar.Eliphazseemstobetheoldestandmostdignifiedofthethree,withsomethingoftheseerorprophetabouthim(4:1221).Bildadisthetraditionalist.
Zophar,whoisprobablytheyoungest,isverydifferentlyestimated,onescholardesignatinghimasaroughnoisyfellow,anotherregardinghimasaphilosopherof
theagnostictype.Itmustbeallowedthatthethreecharactersarenotassharplydistinguishedaswouldbethecaseinamodernpoem,thewriterbeingconcerned
mainlywithJob,andusingtheotherstosomeextentasfoils.Elihu,whohasbeenshowntobealmostcertainlythecreationofanotherwriter,isnot
byanymeansacopyofoneofthethree.Heisanardentyoungman,notfreefromconceit,butwithnoblethoughtsaboutGodandinsightintoGodswaysnot
attainedbythem.
(9)Date.IntheHeb.Sirach(49:810)JobisreferredtoafterEzekielandbeforetheTwelve.whichmaypossiblysuggestthatthewriterregardedthebookas
comparativelylate.TheoldestRabbinicopinion(Bababathra,14b)ascribedthebooktoMoses.TwoRabbisplacedJobintheperiodofthereturnfromtheExile
(ib.15a),oneaslateasthePersianperiod(ib.15b).Theseopinionshavenocriticalvalue,butthefirsthasexercisedconsiderableinfluence.Modernstudentsare
generallyagreedonthefollowingpoints:(1)Thebookinallitspartsimpliesadegreeofreflexionontheproblemsoflifewhichfitsinbetterwithacomparatively
latethanwithaveryearlyage.(2)Thedialogue,whichisunquestionablyoneoftheoldestportions,indicatesfamiliaritywithnationalcatastrophes,suchasthe
destructionofthekingdomofSamaria,theoverthrowofDamascus,andtheleadingawayoflargebodiesofcaptives,includingpriestsandnobles,fromJerusalem
toBabylon(12:1725),whichagain,ontheassumptionthatthewriterisanIsraelite,pointstoanadvancedstageofIsraelitishhistory.Manytakeafurtherstep.
TheprophetJeremiahinhispersecutions,JobwhoiscalledbyJahwehmyservantJob(42:7),andthesufferingServantofJahwehintheexilicprophetare
figureswhichseemtostandintheconnexionofadefiniteperiod(Baudissin,Einleitung,768),andsopointattheearliesttotheExileandthedecadesimmediately
precedingit.Theseandotherconsiderationshaveledmostrecentcriticstodatethemainpoemnear,orduring,oraftertheExile.
Someearlierscholars(Luther,FranzDelitzsch,Cox,andStanley)recommendedtheageofSolomon,others(Nldeke,Hitzig,andReuss)theageofIsaiah,andothers(Ewald,
Riehm,andapparentlyBleek)theperiodbetweenIsaiahandJeremiah.MarshallthinksthatthedialoguemayhavebeenwrittenasearlyasthetimeofTiglathpileser III(B. C.745
726),butnotearlier.Dillmann,Knig,Davison(inHastingsDB),andDriverfavourtheperiodoftheExileCheyne(inEBi)putstheearliestpartafter B. C.519G.
Hoffmann,c. B. C.500Duhm,from500to450Budde,E.Kautzsch,andPeake,c.400theschoolofKuenen,the4thor3rdcent.O.HoltzmanntheageofthePtolemysand
Siegfried(intheJE),thetimeoftheMaccabees.
Atpresenttheperiodfromc.B.C.600toc.400seemstocommandmostapproval.Thelaterportionsofthebook,especiallythespeechesofElihu,mayhave
beenwrittenacenturyormoreafterthemainpoem.MarshallthinksthatthelatestelementmaybeaslateastheageofMalachi,andDuhmconfidentlyassigns
Elihutothe2ndcent.B.C.Adefinitedateisevidentlyunattainableeitherforthewholeorforparts,butitseemstobetolerablycertainthateventheearlierportions
aremuchlaterthanusedtobeassumed.
(10)Authorship.BesidestheTalmudicguesscitedabove,veryfewattemptshavebeenmadetofixonanauthor.CalmetsuggestedSolomon,Bunsen
Baruch,andRoyer(in1901)Jeremiah.Noneoftheseviewsneedstobediscussed.Whoeverwastheauthorofthemainpoem,hewasundoubtedlyanIsraelite,for
aGentilewouldnothaveusedtheTetragrammatonsofreely.OffamiliaritywiththeLawthereare,indeed,veryfewtraces,butthatisdoubtlessowingtothepoets
wonderfulskill,whichhasenabledhimtomaintainthroughoutaGentileandpatriarchalcolouring.ThereisnoreasonforthinkingthathewroteeitherinBabylonia
orinEgypt.Hemusthavelivedinsomeregionwherehecouldstudythelifeofthedesert.Ithasbeenremarkedthatallthecreatureshenames(exceptthe
hippopotamusandthecrocodile,whichmayhavebeenintroducedbyalaterhand)aredesertcreatures.Hewasintimatelyacquaintedwiththelifeofcaravans
(6:1520).Heknewsomethingoftheastronomyofhistime(9:9,cf.38:31f.).HehadsomeacquaintancewiththemythsandsuperstitionsofWesternAsia:cf.9:13,
25:2,26:12,wheretheremaybeallusionstotheBabylonianmythaboutthestrugglebetweenthedragonofChaosandMarduk,thegodoflight3:8,26:13,where
referencemaybemadetopopularnotionsabouteclipsesandtotheclaimsofmagiciansandperhaps29:18b.,wheresomefindanallusiontothefabulousphnix.
HewasprobablyfamiliarwiththeWisdomloreofIsrael,andpossiblyofEdom,andmaysafelybeassumedtohaveknownallthatwasworthknowinginother
departmentsofHeb.literature(cf.Job7:17f.withPs8:4f.,andJob3:3,10withJer20:1418,althoughtheorderofdependenceisbynomeanscertaininthelatter
case).Thepoeticexecutionrevealsthehandofamaster.ItseemsmostnaturaltolookforhishomeinthesouthorsoutheastoftheHolyLand,notfarfromEdom,
wherehewouldcomeinfrequentcontactwithGentilesages,andcouldgleanmuchfromtravellers.
(11)ParallelstoJob.Cheyne(inEBi)hasendeavouredtoconnectthestoryofJobwiththeBabylonianlegendofEabani,butthesimilarityistooslight
toneeddiscussion.AfarcloserparallelisfurnishedbyapartiallypreservedpoemfromthelibraryofAshurbanipal,whichprobablyreproducesanancient
Babyloniantext.Itrepresentsthemusingsofanoldking,whohaslivedablamelessanddevoutlife,butisneverthelessterriblyafflictedinbodyandmind
pursuedallday,andwithoutrestatnightandisapparentlyforsakenofthegods.HecannotunderstandthewaysofDeitytowardseitherhimselforothers.What
seemsgoodtoamanisbadwithhisgod.Whocouldunderstandthecounselofthegodsinheaven?Thepoemendswithasongofpraisefordeliverancefrom
sinanddisease(DerAlteOrient,VII.No.3,pp.2730,andextravol.ii.134139andM.JastrowinJBLxxv[1906],p.135ff.).
TheJesuitmissionary,PreBouchet,calledattentionin1723tothestoryoftheancientIndiankingArichandirenwho,inconsequenceofadisputeinanassemblyofgodsand
goddessesandholymenastotheexistenceofaperfectprince,wasveryseverelytestedbytheleaderofthescepticalparty.Hewasdeprivedofhisproperty,hiskingdom,hisonly
son,andhiswife,butstilltrodthepathofvirtue,andreceivedasrewardstherestorationofwifeandson,andothermarksofDivinefavour.Theseparallels,however,interestingas
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goddessesandholymenastotheexistenceofaperfectprince,wasveryseverelytestedbytheleaderofthescepticalparty.Hewasdeprivedofhisproperty,hiskingdom,hisonly
son,andhiswife,butstilltrodthepathofvirtue,andreceivedasrewardstherestorationofwifeandson,andothermarksofDivinefavour.Theseparallels,however,interestingas
theyare,donotintheleastinterferewiththeoriginalityandboldnessoftheHebrewpoem,whichmusteverberegardedastheboldestandgrandesteffortoftheancientworldto
justifythewaysofGodtomen.
W.TAYLORS MITH.
JOBAB.1.AsonofJoktaninthegenealogies(Gn10:29,1Ch1:23),andthereforeprobablyanArabiangeographicalname.GlaseridentifiesJobabwith
YHYBB(likely
Yuhaybab),atribementionedintheSabaninscriptions.SprengerthroughtheLXXformIoborrelatesittoWabr,aconsiderableregioninS.Arabia.2.Akingof
Edom(Gn36:33f.,1Ch1:44f.),confused,intheapocryphalappendixtotheLXXversionofJob,withJob(seeJOB,1).3.AkingofMadon,allyofJabinof
HazoragainstJoshua(Jos11:1).4,5.NameoftwoBenjamites(1Ch8:9and18).
W.M.NESBIT.
JOCHEBED.AsisterofKohath,marriedtoAmramhernephew,andmotherofAaronandMoses(Ex6:20)andMiriam(Nu26:59).Anearlierwriter,E,in
narratingthebirthofMoses,speaksofhismotherasadaughterofLevi,butdoesnotgivehername(Ex2:1).
JOD.ThetenthletteroftheHebrewalphabet,andassuchusedinthe119thPsalmtodesignatethe10thpart,eachverseofwhichbeginswiththisletter.
JODA.1.ALevite(1Es5:58)calledinEzr3:9JudahelsewhereHodaviah,Ezr2:40Hodevah,Neh7:43Sudias,1Es5:26.2.AnancestorofJesus(Lk
3:26).
JOED.ABenjamite(Neh11:7).
JOEL.1.Theprophet(seenextarticle).Regardinghispersonalhistoryweknownothing.2.AsonofSamuel(1S8:2,1Ch6:28[RV]6:33).3.Anancestor
ofSamuel(1Ch6:36,calledinv.24Shaul).4.ASimeoniteprince(1Ch4:35).5.AReubenite(1Ch5:4,8).6.AGaditechief(1Ch5:12).7.Achiefmanof
Issachar(1Ch7:3).8.OneofDavidsheroes(1Ch11:38).
9,10,11.Levites(1Ch15:7,11,17,23:8,26:22,2Ch29:12).12.AManassitechief(1Ch27:20).13.Oneofthosewhomarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:43[1Es
9:35Juel]).14.ABenjamiteoverseeraftertheExile(Neh11:9).
JOEL,BOOKOF
1.Analysis.TheBookofJoelclearlyfallsintotwoparts:(1)acalltorepentanceinviewofpresentjudgmentandtheapproachingDayofJahweh,witha
prayerfordeliverance(12:17)(2)theDivineanswerpromisingrelief,andafterthatspiritualblessing,judgmentontheGentileworld,andmaterialprosperityfor
JudahandJerusalem(2:183[Heb.4]:21).
(1)Theimmediateoccasionofthecalltorepentanceisaplagueoflocustsofexceptionalseverity(1:2f.),extending,itwouldseemfromthepromiseinthesecondpart(2:25),
overseveralyears,andfollowedbydroughtandfamineansevereastonecessitatethediscontinuanceofthemealanddrinkoffering,i.e.probablythedailysacrifice(cf.Ex.29:41,
wherethesameHeb.wordsareusedofthedailymealofferinganddrinkoffering).Thisfearfulcalamity,whichisdistinctlyrepresentedaspresent(beforeoureyes1:16),heralds
thegreatandveryterribledayofJahweh(2:11),whichwillbeusheredinbyyetmorefearfuldistressofthesamekind(2:111).Thereasonofallthissufferingactualand
prospectiveisnationalsin,which,however,isnotspecified.JahwehspeoplehaveturnedawayfromHim(impliedin2:12).Letthemturnback,givingexpressiontotheirpenitent
sorrowintears,mourninggarb,generalfasting,andprayerofferedbypriestsintheTemple(2:1217).
(2)Thesecondpartopenswiththedeclarationthattheprayerformercywasheard:ThentheLordhadpityonhispeople(2:18RV).Itseemstobeimpliedthatthe
peoplehadrepentedandfasted,andthatthepriestshadprayedintheirbehalf.TherenderingofthispassageintheAV,ThenwilltheLordpityhispeople,isgenerallyrejected
bymodernscholarsasinaccurate,being,accordingtoDriver,grammaticallyindefensible.Whatwehaveintheoriginalisnotprediction,buthistoricalstatement.ThisDivinepity,
proceedstheprophet,speakinginJahwehsname,willexpressitselfintheremovalofthelocusts(2:20),andinthecessationofthedrought,whichwillrestoretothelanditsnormal
fertility,andsoreplacefaminebyplenty(2:2226).ButhigherblessingsyetareinstoreforthepeopleofJahweh.HisSpiritshallafterwardsbepouredbutonall,inclusiveevenof
slaves(2:28f.[Heb.3:1f.]).Andwhenthe
DayofJahwehcomesinallitsterror,itwillbeterribleonlytotheGentileworldwhichhasoppressedIsraelThegatheredhostsoftheformer,amongwhomPhniciansand
Philistinesaresingledoutforspecialcondemnation(3[Heb.4]:48),shallbedestroyedbyJahwehandHisangelsintheValleyofJehoshaphat(3[Heb.4:11bf.]),andthen
Jerusalemshallbeaholycity,nolongerhauntedbyuncleanaliens(3[Heb.4]:17),andJudah,unlikeEgyptandEdom,willbeahappynationdwellinginahappybecausewell
wateredland,andJahwehwilleverabideinitsmidst(3[Heb.4]:1821).
2. Integrity.TheunityofthebookwasquestionedbytheFrenchscholarVernes(in1881),who,however,admittedtheweaknessofhiscase,andbythe 75/124
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2.Integrity.TheunityofthebookwasquestionedbytheFrenchscholarVernes(in1881),who,however,admittedtheweaknessofhiscase,andbythe
GermanscholarRothstein(in1896),thelatterfindingafollowerinRyssel(intheJE).Thesecriticsassignthetwopartstodifferentwritersindifferentages.
Baudissin(Einleitung)suggestsextensiverevision.Thesetheorieshavefoundlittleacceptance.Recentcriticismgenerallyregardsthebook,withtheexceptionofa
glossortwo,astheworkofonehand.
Thereareindeedtwodistinctlymarkedparts,aswasshownintheanalysis,butthatisinnowayincompatiblewithunityofauthorship,forthefollowingreasons:(a)Thesecond
partdoesnotcontradictbutsupplementsthefirst.(b)ThethoughtofthedayofJahwehasadayofterroriscommontoboth(1:15and2:31[Heb.3:4]).(c)Theallegedlackof
originalityinthesecondpart,insofarasitexists,canbereasonablyaccountedforbyitsapocalypticcharacter.(d)Thedistinctivefeaturesofthefirstpart,whichismainlyhistoric,
arelargelyduetothespecialthemethedescriptionoflocustsandtheirravages,whichisuniqueinHeb.literature.
3.Date.Thereisnoexternalevidence.TheplaceofthebookintheCanonisnotconclusive,fortheBookofJonah,whichwasmanifestlywrittenafterthe
fallofNineveh,isalsofoundintheformerpartofthecollectionoftheTwelve,andcomesbeforeMicah,theearliestportionsofwhicharebeyonddoubtmuch
older.Hencethequestioncanbeanswered,insofarasananswerispossible,onlyfromthebookitself.
Thefactsbearinguponitmaybebrieflystatedasfollows:(1)ThepeopleaddressedaretheinhabitantsofJudah(3[Heb.4]:1,6,8,18ff.),andJerusalem(2:32[Heb.3:5]3
[Heb.4]:6,16f.,20).Zionismentionedin2:1,15,23,32[Heb.3:5]3[Heb.4]:16,17,21.ThereisnotraceofthekingdomofSamaria.ThenameIsraelisindeedused(2:27,3
[Heb.4]:2,16),but,asthefirstandlastofthesepassagesclearlyshow,itisnotthekingdomofIsraelthatismeant,butthepeopleofGod,dwellingmainlyaboutJerusalem.(2)
Thereisnomentionofroyaltyoraristocracy.(3)TheTempleisrepeatedlyreferredto(1:9,13f.,15,2:17,3[Heb.4]:6),andbyimplicationinthephrasemyholymountain(2:1,
3[Heb.4]:17):itsritualisregardedasofhighimportance(1:9,18,2:14),anditsministersstandbetweenthepeopleandtheirGod,givingexpressiontotheirpenitenceandprayer
(1:9,13,2:17).(4)Thepeoplearecalledontorepentofsin(2:12f.),butingeneralterms.Nomentionismadeofidolatryorformalism,orsensuality,oroppressionthesinsso
sternlydenouncedbyAmosandIsaiah.(5)TheforeignnationsdenouncedashostiletoIsraelarethePhnicians(3[Heb.4]:4),thePhilistines(ib.),EgyptandEdom(3[Heb.
4]:19).ReferenceisalsomadetotheGrecians(sonsoftheIonians,3[Heb.4]:6).andtheSahansorS.Arabians(3[Heb.4]:8)asslavedealers.Assyria,Babylonia,andAram
areneithernamednoralludedto.(6)ThehistoryofJudahandJerusalemincludesanationalcatastrophewhenthepeopleofJahwehwerescatteredamongthenationsandthelandof
Jahwehwasdividedamongstnewsettlers(3[Heb.4]:2).(7)Thisbookof73versescontains27expressionsorclausestowhichparallels,moreorlessclose,canbeadducedfrom
otherOTwritings,mainlyprophetic.In12passagesthereisverbaloralmostverbalcorrespondence:cf.1:15bandEzk30:2f.1:15candIs13:62:2andZeph1:152:6andNah
2:10[Heb.11]2:13andEx34:62:14and2S12:222:27bandEzk36:11etc.2:27candIs45:5f.,182:31b[Heb.3:4],andMal4:5[Heb.3:23]2:32[Heb.3:5]andOb173
[Heb.4]:16andAm1:23[Heb.4]:1andJer33:15etc.Intwootherplacesthereiscontrastaswellasparallelism.2:28[Heb.3:1]answerstoEzk39:29,butthelatterhasonthe
houseofIsrael,theformeronallflesh,and3[Heb.4]:10isthereverseofIs2:4andMic4:3.Thelastclauseof2:13isfoundalsoinJon4:2inthesameconnexionandnowhere
else.(8)TheHeb.exhibitssomefeatureswhicharemorecommoninlatethanintheearlierliterature.ThereareafewAramaisms:lhlament(1:8)sphhinderpart(2:20)
forqtstheHiphilofnchath3[Heb.4]:11),andrmach(3[Heb.4]:10)awordofAramaicaffinitiesandseveralexpressionsoftenmetwithinlatewriters.Still,itisnot
advisabletolaymuchstressonthispoint.
Withthesefactsbeforethemcriticshaveconcludedthatthebookmustbeeitherveryearlyorlate.Many,ledbyCredner,foundevidenceofpreexilicdate,and
mostofthese,afterhim,selectedtheminorityofJoashofJudah(c.B.C.737).KnigprefersthelatterpartofthereignofJosiah(B.C.640609).Recentcriticswitha
fewexceptions(Orelli,Kirkpatrick,Volck,andtosomeextentBaudissin)regardthebookaspostexilic:c.B.C.500(Driver,butnotwithouthesitation)afterthe
reformsofEzraandNehemiah(E.Kautzsch,W.R.Smith,G.A.Smithonthewhole,Martl,theschoolofKuenen,Nowack,Cornill,andHorton).Positivedecision
betweenthesewidelydivergentviewsisatpresentimpossible.Muchcanbesaid,asBaudissinhasrecentlyshown,infavourofapreexilicdate,which,ifproved,
wouldmodifyourconceptionofthegrowthofIsraelitishreligionbutseveralpointsseemtostronglyfavourpostexilicorigin:thereligionsatmosphere,thepolitical
situationinsofarasitcanbediscerned,referencetotheGreeks,andtheliteraryparallelisms,mostofwhicharemoreintelligibleontheassumptionofborrowingby
Joelthanviceversa.
4.Interpretation.TheancientJews,asrepresentedbytheTargum,andtheFathere,whohavebeenfollowedbyPusey,Hengstenberg,andothers,tosome
extentevenbyMerx,regardedthelocustsoftheBookofJoelasnotliteralbutsymbolic.Thatview,however,isnowgenerallyabandoned.Theseemingly
extravagantdescriptionsofthelocustswarms,andthehavocwroughtbythem,havebeenconfirmedinalmosteverypointbymodernobservers.Whatissaidabout
theirnumber(1:6),thedarknesstheycause(2:10),theirresemblancetohorses(2:4),thenoisetheymakeinflightandwhenfeeding(2:5),theirirresistibleadvance
(2:7ff.),theiramazingdestructiveness(1:7,10ff.,2:3),andtheburntappearanceofaregionwhichtheyhaveravaged(2:3ab)canhardlybepronounced
exaggeratedinviewoftheevidencecollectedbyPusey,Driver,G.A.Smith,andothercommentators.ThecolouringofthepictureisnodoubtOrientalandpoetic,
butwhenallowanceismadeforthat,itisseentobewonderfullytruetolife.Thedescriptionofthelocustsasthenorthernarmy(2:20)isindeedstillunexplained,
butisinsufficientofitselftooverthrowtheliteralinterpretation.Ontheapocalypticcharacterofthelatterportionofthebookthereisgeneralagreement.
5.Doctrine.Ascomparedwithsomeoftheotherpropheticwritings,saywithDeuteroIsaiahandJonah,theBookofJoelasawholeisparticularistic.The
writershopesofagloriousfutureseemlimitedtoJudahandJerusalem,andperhapstheDispersion(2:32[Heb.3:5]).Ontheotherhand,itisremarkablethatthe
outpouringoftheSpiritispromisedtoallflesh,notmerelytothehouseofIsraelageneralwayofstatingthepromisewhichmadetheNTapplicationpossible
(Ac2:16ff.).Sothebookmaybesaidtocontainagermofuniversalism.Itsothermoststrikingcharacteristic,fromthedoctrinalstandpoint,istheimportance
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(Ac2:16ff.).Sothebookmaybesaidtocontainagermofuniversalism.Itsothermoststrikingcharacteristic,fromthedoctrinalstandpoint,istheimportance
attachedtoritualandthepriesthood,andthecomparativelyslightstresslaidonconduct.Still,itisherethatwefindthecausticwords:Rendyourheartandnot
yourgarments(2:13).
6.Style.InstyletheBookofJoeltakesaveryhighplaceinHebrewliterature.Itisthroughoutclearly,elegantly,andforcefullywritten.Skilfuluseismadeof
parallelismnotethefiveshortclausesin1:10ofOrientalhyperbole(2:30f.[Heb.3:3f.])andofwordplay,e.g.shuddadhsadhehthefieldiswasted(1:10),
ybhshuhbhsharewitheredisashamed(1:12),shdmishshaddaidestructionfromtheAlmighty(1:15),andtheplayontheverbshphatandthe
nameJehoshaphatin3[Heb.4]:2,12).
W.TAYLORS MITH.
JOELAH.AwarriorwhojoinedDavidatZiklag(1Ch12:7).
JOEZER.OneofDavidsfollowersatZiklag(1Ch12:6).
JOGBEHAH.AtownofGadinGilead(Nu32:35),namedalsoinconnexionwithGideonspursuitoftheMidianites(Jg8:11).Itisthepresentruinel
Jubeiht(orAjbeiht),N.W.fromRabbathammon,andaboutmidwaybetweenthatplaceandesSault.
JOGLI.TheDanitechiefwhotookpartinthedivisionoftheland(Nu34:22).
JOHA.1.ABenjamite(1Ch8:16).2.OneofDavidsheroes(1Ch11:45).
JOHANAN.1.2K25:23,Jer40:843:5,thesonofKareah,chiefofthecaptainsoftheforces,whoafterthefallofJerusalemjoinedGedaliahatMizpah.
AfterthemurderofGedaliahhepursuedIshmaelandtheotherconspirators,recoveredthecaptives,and,inspiteoftheprotestofJeremiah,carriedthemtoEgypt.
2.AsonofJosiah(1Ch3:15).3.1Ch3:24apostexilicprinceofthelineofDavid.4.1Ch6:9,10ahighpriest.5.6.1Ch12:4,12twowarriorswhocameto
DavidtoZiklag,aBenjamiteandaGaditerespectively.7.Ezr8:12(Joannes,1Es8:38)oneofthosewhoreturnedwithEzra.8.2Ch28:12anEphraimite.9.See
JONATHAN,No.7,andJEHOHANAN,No.3.
JOHN.1.ThefatherofMattathias,andgrandfatherofthefiveMaccabanbrothers(1
Mac2:1).2.TheeldestsonofMattathias(1Mac2:2).InB.C.161hewasslainbythesonsof
Jambri(1Mac9:3542).In2Mac8:22,andperhapsagain10:19,heisbymistakecalled
Joseph.3.ThefatherofEupolemus(1Mac8:17,2Mac4:11),whowassentbyJudas
MaccabusasanambassadortoRome.4.AnenvoysentbytheJewstotreatwithLysias(2Mac
11:17).5.OneofthesonsofSimontheMaccabee(1Mac16:2),commonlyknownasJohnHyrcanus,anddescribedasa(valiant)man(1Mac13:53).See
MACCABEES,5,6.ThefatherofSimonPeter(Jn1:42,21:1517RVAVJonas),whoiscalledinMt16:7BarJona(h).InthelatterpassagetheformJnsmay
beacontractionforJans,orpossiblyPetersfatherhadtwonames,asinthecaseofSaulPaul.7.Oneofthehighpriestlyfamily(Ac4:6).8.JohnMark(see
MARK).9.10.FortheBaptistandtheApostleseethefollowingtwoarticles.
JOHNTHEBAPTIST.ThesinglenarrativeofJohnsbirthandcircumcision(Lk1)statesthat,asthechildofpromise(v.13),hewasborninacityofJudah
(v.39),whenhisparentswereold(v.7).Theywerebothofpriestlydescent(v.5),andhismotherwasakinswomanofthemotherofJesus(v.36).Johnwasa
Naziritefromhisbirth(v.15)hedevelopedselfrelianceinhislonelyhome,andlearntthesecretofspiritualstrengthashecommunedwithGodinthesolitudesof
thedesert(v.80).IntheJudanwildernessthewildwastewhichliestothewestoftheDeadSeathisElijahlikeprophet(v.17)onroughfoodthrovebut,
notwithstandinghisasceticaffinitieswiththeEssenes,hewasnotavegetarian,hisdietconsistingofediblelocusts(Lv11:22)aswellasthevegetablehoneywhich
exudesfromfigtreesandpalms(Mt3:4).Forthisandforotherreasonsas,e.g.,hiszealasasocialreformer,JohncannotbecalledanEssene(Graetz).Itwas
notfromthesePhariseesinthesuperlativedegree(Schrer)thatthelastoftheprophetslearnthismessage.HisfamiliaritywiththeOTisprovedbyhisfrequent
useofitspicturesquelanguage(Lk3:17,cf.Am9:9,Is66:24Jn1:23,cf.Is40:3Jn1:29,cf.Is53:7,Ex29:38,12:3),butheheardGodsvoiceinnatureaswellas
inHisword:ashebroodedonthesignsofthetimes,thebarrentreesofthedesert,fitonlyforburning,andthevipersfleeingbeforetheflamingscrub,became
emblemsofthenationsperilandlentcolourtohiswarningsofimpendingwrath(cf.G.A.Smith,HGHLp.495).
InthewildernessthewordofGodcameuntoJohn(Lk3:2).Thephraseimplies(1S15:10etc.)that,aftermorethanthreecenturiesofsilence,thevoiceofa
prophetwastobeheardintheland,andtheSynopticGospels(Mt3:112,Mk1:18,Lk3:120)tellofthestirringeffectsofhispreachingineverwideningcircles
(Mt3:5),andgiveasummaryofhismessage.Itisprobablethat,inthecourseofhissuccessfulsixmonthsministry,Johnmovednorthwardsalongthethenmore
thicklypopulatedvalleyoftheJordan,proclaimingthecomingoftheKingdomtothecrowdsthatflockedtohearhimfromthewholeregioncircumjacentto
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thicklypopulatedvalleyoftheJordan,proclaimingthecomingoftheKingdomtothecrowdsthatflockedtohearhimfromthewholeregioncircumjacentto
Jordan(Lk3:3)onceatleast(Jn10:40)hecrossedtheriver(cf.Sanday,SacredSitesoftheGospel,p.35f.Warfield,Expositor,III.[1885]i.p.267ff.andsee
BETHANY,S ALIM).Thekingdomofheavenisathand(Mt3:2)wastheBaptiststheme,butonhislipstheproclamationbecameawarningthatneitherdescent
fromAbrahamnorPharisaiclegalismwouldconstituteatitletotheblessingsoftheMessianicage,andthatitisvainforanationtopleadprivilegewhenitssins
havemadeitripeforjudgment.ThereisaPaulineringinthesternreminderthatAbrahamsspiritualseedmayspringfromthestonesofpaganism(Lk3:8,butalso
Mt3:9,cf.Ro4:16,9:7,Gal4:28).OntheuniversalityofthecomingjudgmentisbasedJohnscalltorepentanceaddressedtoallmenwithoutrespectofpersons.
Theaxealreadylaidtotherootofthetrees(Lk3:9)willsparethosebringingforthgoodfruit,andnotthosegrowinginfavouredenclosures.Soldiers,publicans,
andinquirersofdifferentclassesaretaughthowpracticalandhowvariedarethegoodworksinwhichthefruitsofrepentanceareseen(Lk3:8ff.).
ThebaptismofJohnwasthedeclarationuntoallmen,bymeansofasymbolicaction,thattheconditionofentranceintoGodsKingdomistheputtingawayof
sin.Itwasarepentancebaptism,anditspurposewasremissionofsins(Mk1:4)[WeissregardsthisstatementasaChristianizedversionofJohnsbaptism,but
Bruce(EGT,inloc.)agreeswithHoltzmannthatforgivenessisimpliedifmenreallyrepented].JohnsbaptismwasnocopyingofEssenerites,andithadadeeper
ethicalsignificancethanthediverswashingsoftheceremoniallaw.Ithascloseandsuggestiveaffinitieswiththeprophetsteachinginregardtospiritualcleansing
(Is1:16,Ezk36:25,Zec13:1),thetruthexpressedintheirmetaphoricallanguagebeingtranslatedbyhimintoastrikingsymbolicactbutJohnsbaptismhasmost
definiteconnexionwiththebaptismofproselytes,whichwastheruleinIsraelbeforehisdays(Schrer,HJPII.322f.).Johnsoughttomakemenproselytesof
righteousnessinanewandhigherorder.Hecame,asJesusoncesaid,inthewayofrighteousnessandtherighteousnesshewishedmentopossessdidnot
consistinmereobediencetothelawofacarnalcommandment,butinrepentancetowardsGodanddeliberateselfconsecrationtoHiskingdom(Lambert,The
SacramentsintheNT,p.62).WhenJesuswasbaptizedofJohn(Mt3:13ff.,Mk1:9ff.,Lk3:21f.),Hedidnotcomeconfessingsinasdidallothermen(Mt3:6)the
actmarkedHisconsecrationtoHisMessianicwork,andHisidentificationofHimselfwithsinners.ItwaspartofHisfulfilmentofallrighteousness(v.15),andwas
followedbyHisanointingwiththeHolySpirit.Johnknewthathisbaptismwastopreparethewayforthecomingofamightierthanhe,whowouldbaptizewith
theHolySpirit(Mk1:8).ButafterPentecosttherewerediscipleswhohadnotadvancedbeyondtheBaptistspointofview,andwereunawarethattheHolySpirit
hadbeenpouredout(Ac18:25,19:3f.).
ThenarrativeinJn1:1534assumesaswellknowntheSynopticaccountofJohnsactivityasevangelistandbaptizer(v.25f.).FromwhatJohnheardandsaw
atthebaptismofJesus,andfromintercoursewithJesus,hehadlearntthathismissionwasnotonlytoannouncetheMessiahscoming,andtoprepareHiswayby
callingmentorepent,butalsotopointHimouttomen.
Manycriticsregardthewords,BeholdtheLambofGod,whichtakethawaythesinoftheworld(v.
29),asinconsistentwithJohnslaterquestion,Artthouhethatcometh,orlookweforanother?(Mt11:3)butifJohnlearntfromJesuswhatwasHisidealoftheMessiahswork,
itmaywellbe,asGarviesays,thatJesusforatimeatleastraisedJohnsmindtotheheightofHisowninsightthatwhentheinfluenceofJesuswaswithdrawn,Johnrelapsedtohis
ownfamiliarmodesofthoughtandthattheanswerofJesusbythetwodiscipleswasakindlyreminderofanearlierconversation(Expositor,vi.[1902]v.375).
ThisheightenedsenseofthegloryofJesuswasaccompaniedbyadeepeninghumilityin
JohnsestimateofhisownfunctionastheMessiahsforerunner.InhislasttestimonytoJesus
(Jn3:29)thefriendofthebridegroomissaidtohaverejoicedgreatlyasheheardthewelcometidingsthatmenwerecomingtoJesus(v.26).Itwasahigheulogy
whenJesussaid,Johnhathbornewitnessuntothetruth(Jn5:33)butitalsoimpliedthehighclaimthatthelowliermembersoftheChurch,whichisHisbride,
enjoygreaterspiritualprivilegesthanhewho,inspiteofhisowndisclaimer(Jn1:21),wastrulytheElijahforetoldbyMalachi(Mt11:14cf.Mal4:5),theherald
ofthedayofwhichhesawonlythedawn.ItwasnotJohnsfaultthatintheearlyChurchthereweresomewhoattachedundueimportancetohisteachingandfailed
torecognizetheuniquegloryofJesustheLighttowhomheborefaithfulwitness(Jn1:7f.).
TheSynopticnarrativeoftheimprisonmentandmurderofJohnyieldsincidentalevidenceofhisgreatnessasaprophet.Thereweresomewhoaccountedforthe
mightyworksofJesusbysayingJohntheBaptistisrisenfromthedead(Mk6:14).
Josephus(Ant.XVIII.v.2)makesthepreachingofJohnthecauseofhisexecution,andsaysnothingofhisreproofofAntipasforhisadulterywithhisbrotherswife(Mk6:18).
Somehistorians(e.g.Ranke)arbitrarilyuseJosephusastheirmainsource,tothedisparagementoftheGospels.ButSollertinsky(JThSti.507)hasshownthatwhenthepersonof
Antipasisconcerned,weareboundtoconsiderthehistoriansstatementswiththegreatestcare.Schrer(op.cit.).whoholdsthattherealoccasionofJohnsimprisonmentwas
Herodsfearofpoliticaltrouble,neverthelessallowsthatthereisnorealinconsistencybetweenthestatementofJosephusandthefurtherassertionoftheEvangeliststhatJohnhad
rousedtheangerofHerod,andstillmoreofHerodias,byhissternrebuke.
ThelastmentionofJohnintheGospels(Mt21:26,Mk11:32,Lk20:6)showsthatHerodhadgoodcausetofearthepopulartemper.Johnsinfluencemusthave
beenpermanentaswellaswidespreadwhenthechiefpriestswereafraidofbeingstonediftheyslightedhim.AfterthetransfigurationourLordalludedtothe
sufferingsofJohn,asHeendeavouredtoteachHisdisciplesthelessonofHiscross:IsayuntoyouthatElijahiscome,andtheyhavealsodoneuntohim
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sufferingsofJohn,asHeendeavouredtoteachHisdisciplesthelessonofHiscross:IsayuntoyouthatElijahiscome,andtheyhavealsodoneuntohim
whatsoevertheylisted(Mk9:13).
J.G.TASKER.
JOHNTHEAPOSTLE.ThematerialsforalifeofSt.Johnmaybedividedintothreeparts:(1)ThespecificinformationgiveninthecanonicalScriptures(2)
earlyandwellattestedtraditionconcerninghim(3)latertraditionsofalegendarycharacter,whichcannotbeacceptedashistory,butwhichpossessaninterestand
significanceoftheirown.Butwhenalltheevidenceonthesubjectisgathered,itisimpossibletogivemorethanabareoutlineofwhatwasinallprobabilityalong
lifeandanunspeakablyimportantministry.Thepresentarticlemusthetakeninconjunctionwiththosethatfollow,inviewofthecontroversieswhichhavearisen
concerningtheauthorshipoftheJohanninewritings.
1.TheScripturedata.JohnwasasonofZebedee,amasterfishermaningoodposition,plyinghiscraftinoneofthetownsontheLakeofGalilee,possibly
Bethsaida.ItisprobablethathismotherwasSalome,oneofthewomenwhoministeredtoChristinGalilee(Mk15:41),asisterofMarythemotherofJesus.This
maybeinferredfromacomparisonofMt27:56andMk15:40,16:1withJn19:25.
ThelastpassageisbestunderstoodasnamingfourwomenwhostoodbytheCrossofJesusHismother,HismotherssisterSalome,MarywifeofClopaswhowasalsomother
ofJamesandJoses,andMaryMagdalene.Theinterpretationwhichwouldfindonlythreepersonsinthelist,andidentifyMaryofClopaswiththesisterofJesusmother,isopen
totheobjectionthattwosisterswouldhavethesamename,anditinvolvesotherseriousdifficulties.
InJn1:40twodisciplesarementionedashavingheardthetestimonyofJohntheBaptisttoJesusandhavingaccompaniedthenewTeachertoHishome.Oneof
thesewasAndrew,andithasbeensurmisedthattheotherwasJohnhimself.Ifthiswasso,theincidentmustbeunderstoodasconstitutingtheverybeginningof
Johnsdiscipleship.
InMt4:1822,Mk1:1620anaccountisgiveninalmostthesamewordsofthecalloffourfishermentofollowJesus.TwoofthesewereJohnandhiselder
brotherJames,whowerewiththeirfatherinaboatontheLakeofGalilee,mendingtheirnets.InLk5:111adifferentaccountofthecallisgiven.Nothingissaid
ofAndrewPeteristheprincipalfigureinthesceneofthemiraculousdraughtoffishes,whileJamesandJohnarementionedonlyincidentallyaspartnerswith
Simon.Directlyorindirectly,however,wearetoldthattoJohn,whilstengagedinhiscraft,thesummonswasgiventoleavehisoccupationandbecomeafisherof
men.Thecallwasimmediatelyobeyed,andconstitutesanintermediatelinkbetweentheinitialstageofdiscipleshipandtheappointmenttobeoneoftwelve
apostles.InthelistsoftheTwelve(Mt10:2,Mk3:14,Lk6:13),Johnisalwaysnamedasoneofthefirstfour,andinthecourseofChristsministryhewasoneof
aninnercircleofthree,whowerehonouredwithspecialmarksofconfidence.ThesealonewerepermittedtobepresentonthreeoccasionstheraisingofJairus
daughter,narratedinMk5:37,Lk8:51theTransfiguration,describedinthreeaccounts(Mt17:1,Mk9:2,Lk9:28):andtheAgonyintheGardenofGethsemane,
mentionedbytwooftheSynoptists(Mt26:37andMk14:33).OnoneorperhapstwooccasionsAndrewwasassociatedwiththesethreepossiblyatthehealing
ofPeterswifesmother(Mk1:29),andcertainlyattheinterviewdescribedinMk13:3,whenJesussatontheMountofOlivesandwasaskedprivately
concerningHisprophecyoftheoverthrowoftheTemple.
OntwonotableoccasionsthebrothersJamesandJohnwereassociatedtogether.Theyappeartohavebeenalikeinnaturaltemperament.Itisinthislightthatthe
statementofMk3:17isgenerallyunderstoodhesurnamedthemBoanerges,whichisSonsofthunder.Someuncertaintyattachestothederivationoftheword,
andthenoteaddedbytheEvangelistisnotperfectlyclear.Butnobetterexplanationhasbeengiventhanthatthetitlewasbestowed,perhapsbyanticipation,in
allusiontothezealandvehemenceofcharacterwhichboththeApostlesmarkedlyexhibitedontheoccasionswhentheyappeartogether.InLk9:54theyare
representedasdesiroustocalldownfirefromheaventoconsumetheSamaritanvillagewhichhadrefusedhospitalitytotheirMaster.InMk10:35theycometo
ChristwithaneagerrequestthattothemmightbeallottedthetwohighestplacesinHisKingdom,andtheyprofesstheircompletereadinesstosharewithHim
whateversufferingortryingexperiencesHemaybecalledtopassthrough.AccordingtoMt20:20,theirmotheraccompaniedthemandmadetherequest,butv.24
showsthatindignationwasrousedconcerningthetwobrethren,andthatthedesireandpetitionwerereallytheirown.OnceintheGospelsJohnisdescribedas
associatedwithPeter,thetwobeingsentbyChristtomakereadythePassover(Lk22:8).Oncehefiguresbyhimselfalone,asmakinginquiryconcerningaman
whocastoutdemonsinthenameofJesus,thoughhedidnotbelongtothecompanyofthedisciples(Mk9:38,Lk9:49).Asanindicationofcharacterthisistobe
understoodasevincingzealous,butmistaken,loyalty.Christsreplywas,ForbidhimnotevidentlyJohnwasdisposedtomanifestonthisoccasionthefiery
intolerantzealwhichheandhisbrothertogetherdisplayedinSamaria.Thoughthewordsyeknownotwhatmannerofspirityeareofdonotformpartofthebest
attestedtextinLk9,theydoubtlessdescribethekindofrebukewithwhichonbothoccasionstheMasterfounditnecessarytochecktheeagernessofadisciplewho
lovedhisMasterwell,butnotwisely.
IntheearlypartoftheActs,JohnisassociatedbynamewithPeteronthreeoccasions.OnewasthehealingofthelamemanbytheTemplegate(3:4).Thenext
wastheirappearancebeforetheSanhedrininch.4,whentheywerefoundtobemenuntrainedinRabbinicalknowledge,mereprivatepersonswithnoofficial
standing,andwerealsorecognizedbysomepresentashavingbeenpersonalfollowersofJesus,andseeninHisimmediatecompany.In8:15wereadthatthetwo
weresentbytheirbrotherApostlestoSamaria,afterPhiliphadexercisedhisevangelisticministrythere.ManyhadbeenadmittedintotheChurchbybaptism,and79/124
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weresentbytheirbrotherApostlestoSamaria,afterPhiliphadexercisedhisevangelisticministrythere.ManyhadbeenadmittedintotheChurchbybaptism,and
thetwoApostlescompletedthereceptionbyprayerandthelayingonofhands,thattheymightreceivetheHolySpirit.Thesetypicalinstancesshowthatatthe
outsetofthehistoryoftheChurchPeterandJohncametogethertothefrontandwererecognizedascoleaders,thoughtheywereverydifferentinpersonal
character,andPeterappearsalwaystohavebeenthespokesman.ThisnoteofpersonalleadershipisconfirmedbytheincidentalreferenceofPaulinGal2:9,where
James(notthesonofZebedee),Cephas,andJohnarereputedtobepillarsintheChurchatJerusalem.
OurknowledgeofJohnshistoryandcharacterislargelyincreased,andtheinterestinhispersonalityisgreatlydeepened,ifheisidentifiedwiththedisciple
whomJesusloved,theauthoroftheFourthGospel,andtheJohnoftheApocalypse.Boththesepointsarestronglycontestedinmoderntimes,thoughthe
identificationissupportedbyanearly,widespread,andsteadilymaintainedtradition.Anexaminationofthesequestionswillbefoundonpp.479,483,797bbut
hereitmaybepointedoutwhatadditionallightisshedonJohnslifeandcharacterifhisauthorshipoftheFourthGospelisadmitted.InJn13:23thedisciplewhom
JesuslovedisspokenofasreclininginJesusbosomattheLastSupper.Thephraseimpliesthatonthechiefcouchatthemeal,holdingthreepersons,Jesuswas
inthemiddleandJohnonHisrighthand,thusbeingbroughtmoredirectlyfacetofacewiththeMasterthanPeter,whooccupiedthelefthandplace.Thisexplains
theexpressionofv.25he,leaningback,ashewas,onJesusbreastaswellasPetersbeckoningmentionedinv.24.Johnhasbeenalsoidentifiedwiththe
otherdisciplementionedinJn18:15,16asknowntothehighpriestandhavingarightofentranceintothecourt,whichwasdeniedtoPeter.Again,thedisciple
whomJesuslovedisdescribedinJn19:26asstandingbythecrossofJesuswithHismother,asreceivingthesacredchargeimpliedbythewords,Woman,behold
thyson!andBeholdthymother!andasthenceforthprovidingahomeforonewhowasofhisnearkindred.In20:3heaccompaniesPetertothetombofJesus
andwhilehereachedthesepulchrefirst,Peterwasthefirsttoenterin,butJohnwasapparentlythefirsttobelieve.Inch.21thetwosonsofZebedeeareamong
thegroupofsevendisciplestowhomourLordappearedattheSeaofTiberias,andagainthedisciplewhomJesuslovedandPeteraredistinguished:theoneasthe
firsttodiscerntherisenLordupontheshore,theotherasthefirsttoplungeintothewatertogotoHim.TheGospelcloseswithanaccountofPetersinquiry
concerningthefutureofhisfriendandcompaniononsomanyoccasionsandin19:35aswellasin21:24itisnotedthatthedisciplewhowrotethesethingsbore
witnessofthatwhichhehimselfhadseen,andthathiswitnessistrue.
ItisonlynecessarytoaddthattheJohnmentionedinRev1:4,9aswritingtotheSeven
ChurchesinAsiafromtheislandofPatmoswasidentifiedbyearlytraditionwiththesonofZebedee.Ifthisbecorrect,muchadditionallightiscastuponthelater
lifeoftheApostleJohn
(seeREVELATION[BOOKOF]).
2.Earlytradition.OutsidetheNTonlyvaguetraditionenablesustofillupthegapleftbyChristsanswertoPetersquestion,Lord,andwhatshallthisman
do?WemaygatherthathespentseveralyearsinJerusalem.AfteranindefiniteintervalheisunderstoodtohavesettledinEphesus.Eusebiusstates(HEiii.18,20)
thatduringthepersecutionofDomitiantheapostleandevangelistJohnwasbanishedtoPatmos,andthatontheaccessionofNerva(A.D.96)hereturnedfromthe
islandandtookuphisabodeinEphesus,accordingtoanancientChristiantradition(lit.thewordoftheancientsamongus).Tertullianmentionsamiraculous
deliverancefromacauldronofboilingoiltowhichJohnhadbeencondemnedduringapersecutioninRome,presumablyunderDomitian.Eusebiusfurtherstates
thatJohnwaslivinginAsiaandgoverningthechurchesthereaslateasthereignofTrajan.HebasesthisassertionupontheevidenceofIrenusandClementof
Alexandria.TheformersaysthatalltheeldersassociatedwithJohnthediscipleoftheLordinAsiabearwitness,andthatheremainedinEphesusuntilthetimeof
Trajan.ClementrecitesatlengththewellknowntouchingincidentconcerningSt.Johnandtheyoungdisciplewhofellintoevilwaysandbecamethechiefofa
bandofrobbers,ashavingoccurredwhenafterthetyrantsdeathhereturnedfromtheisleofPatmostoEphesus.Tertullianconfirmsthetraditionofaresidencein
EphesusbyquotingtheevidenceoftheChurchofSmyrnathattheirbishopPolycarpwasappointedbyJohn(dePr.Hr.32).Polycrates,bishopofEphesus
towardstheendofthe2ndcent.,inalettertoVictor,bishopofRome,speaksofoneamongthegreatlightsinAsiaJohn,whowasbothawitnessandateacher,
whoreclineduponthebosomoftheLord,and,beingapriest,worethesacerdotalplate,ashavingfallenasleepatEphesus.TheMuratorianFragment,whichdates
aboutA.D.180,recordsanaccountoftheoriginoftheFourthGospel,totheeffectthatJohnwroteitinobediencetoaspecialrevelationmadetohimselfand
Andrew.Thisstoryissomewhatmythicalincharacterandisnotelsewhereconfirmed,butitprovestheearlyprevalenceofthebeliefintheApostolicoriginofthe
Gospel.IrenusstatesthattheGospelwaswrittenspeciallytoconfuteunbelieverslikeCerinthus,andtells,ontheauthorityofthosewhohadhearditfrom
Polycarp,thefamiliarstorythatSt.Johnrefusedtoremainunderthesameroofwiththearchheretic,lestthebuildingshouldfalldownuponhim.Ephesusissaidto
havebeenthesceneofthisincident.Alltraditionsagreethathelivedtoagreatage,anditisJerome(inGal.6:10)whotellsofhisbeingcarriedintothechurch
whenunabletowalkorpreach,andsimplyrepeatingthewords,Littlechildren,loveoneanother.ChristsenigmaticalanswertoPeter,IfIwillthathetarrytillI
come,whatisthattothee?led,asJn21:23indicates,tothebeliefthatJohnwouldnotdie,butwouldbetranslated.
Still,inspiteoftherecord,thelegendlingeredlongintheChurch,andismentionedbyAugustine,thatthoughapparentlydead,thebelovedApostlewasonlyasleep,andthat
thedustuponhistombroseandfellwithhisbreathing.ThepoetBrowning,inhisDeathintheDesert,adoptstheancienttraditionconcerningtheApostlesgreatageandlingering
death,andimagineshimrecalledfromadeeptranceandtheveryborderlandofthegravetodeliveralastinspiredmessage.
TheuniversalbeliefoftheearlyChurchthatSt.JohnmaintainedaprolongedministryinEphesushasneverbeenchallengedtillrecentyears.Thearguments 80/124
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TheuniversalbeliefoftheearlyChurchthatSt.JohnmaintainedaprolongedministryinEphesushasneverbeenchallengedtillrecentyears.Thearguments
adducedagainstit,thoughquiteinadequatetosetasidepositiveevidence,havebeenacceptedbycriticsofweight,andatleastdeservemention.Thechieffactof
importanceurgedisthesilenceofwriterswhomightwellbeexpectedtomakesomereferencetoit.PolycarpinhislettertothePhilippians,andIgnatiusinwriting
totheEphesians,refertoPaulandhiswritings,butnottoJohnorhisministry.ClementofRome,writingabout9395concerningtheApostlesandtheirsuccessors,
makesnoreferencetoJohnasaneminentsurvivor,butspeaksoftheApostolicageasifcompletelypast.IfJohndidlabourinAsiaforageneration,andwasliving
inthereignofTrajan,itisnotunnaturaltoexpectthatfullerreferencetothefactwouldbefoundinthewritingsofthesubApostolicFathers.Butthereplyis
twofold.First,theargumentfromsilenceisalwaysprecarious.Theliteratureoftheearlyyearsofthe2ndcent.isveryscanty,andlittleisknownofthe
circumstancesunderwhichthefragmentarydocumentswerewrittenorofthepreciseobjectsofthewriters.ThesilenceoftheActsoftheApostlesinthe1stcent.,
andofEusebiusinthe4th,isinmanyrespectsquiteasremarkableastheirspeechandmuchmoreinexplicable.Itisquiteimpossibleforthemostacutecriticinthe
20thcent.toreproducetheconditionsofanobscureperiod,andtounderstandpreciselywhysomesubjectsoflittleimportancetousarediscussedinitsliterature
andothersofapparentlygreatersignificanceignored.
Itistheweightofpositiveevidence,however,onwhichthetraditionreallyrests.Irenus,inalettertoFlorinuspreservedforusbyEusebius,describeshowasa
boyhehadlistenedtotheblessedPolycarp,andhadheardtheaccountswhichhegaveofhisintercoursewithJohnandwiththeotherswhohadseentheLord.
Andlesthismemoryshouldhediscredited,hetellshiscorrespondentthatherememberstheeventsofthatearlytimemoreclearlythanthoseofrecentyearsfor
whatboyslearn,growingwiththeirmind,becomesjoinedwithit.ItisincrediblethatawriterbroughtsoneartotheverypersonofJohn,andhavingheardhis
wordsthroughonlyoneintermediary,shouldhavebeenentirelyinerrorconcerninghisministryinAsia.Polycrates,again,abishopofthecityinwhichSt.John
hadlongresidedandlaboured,wroteofhisministrythereafteranintervalnotlongerthanthatwhichseparatesourowntimefrom(say)thepassingoftheReform
Billof1832orthebattleofWaterloo.Histestimonyobviouslyisnotthatofhimselfalone,itmustrepresentthatofthewholeEphesianChurchandwhatIrenus
rememberedasaboyothersofthesamegenerationmusthaverememberedaccordingtotheiropportunitiesofknowledge.Theexplicittestimonyofthreewriters
likePolycrates,Irenus,andClementofAlexandriacarrieswithittheimplicittestimonyofawholegenerationofChristiansextendingoveraverywidegeographic
area.Thesilenceofothersnotwithstanding,itishardlycrediblethattheseshouldhavebeenmistakenonamatterofsomuchimportance.Thetheorythatconfusion
hadarisenbetweenJohntheApostleandacertainJohntheElderisdiscussedinasubsequentarticle(seep.483),butitwouldseemimpossiblethatamistakeon
suchasubjectcouldbemadeinthemindsofthosewhoweredividedfromtheeventsthemselvesbysonarrowanintervalasthatoftwo,oratmostthree,
generations.
3.Latertraditions.Itisonly,however,asregardsthemainfactsofhistorythatthetestimonyofthe2ndcent.maybethusconfidentlyreliedon.Storiesof
doubtfulauthenticitywouldgatherroundanhonourednameinafarshorterperiodthanseventyoreightyyears.Someoftheselegendsmaywellbetrue,others
probablycontainanelementoftruth,whilstothersaretheresultofmistakeortheproductofpiousimagination.Theyarevaluablechieflyasshowingthedirections
inwhichtraditiontravelled,andweneednotdrawonanyoftheinterestingmythsoflaterdaysinordertoformajudgmentonthepersonandcharacterofJohnthe
Apostle,especiallyifhewasinaddition,astheChurchhassolongbelieved,St.JohntheEvangelist.
AnearkinsmanofJesus,ayouthinhisearlydiscipleship,eagerandvehementinhisaffectionandatfirstfullofillinstructedambitionsandstillundisciplined
zeal,JohnthesonofZebedeewasregardedbyhisMasterwithapeculiarpersonaltenderness,andwasfashionedbythattransformingaffectionintoanApostleof
exceptionalinsightandspiritualpower.OnlythedisciplewhomJesuslovedcouldbecometheApostleoflove.Onlyaminuteanddelicatepersonalknowledgeof
HimwhowasSonofManandSonofGod,combinedwithasensitiveandardentnaturaltemperamentandthespiritualmaturityattainedbylongexperienceand
patientbroodingmeditationonwhathehadseenandheardlongbefore,couldhaveproducedsuchapictureoftheSaviouroftheworldasispresentedinthe
FourthGospel.TheverysilenceofJohntheApostleinthenarrativesoftheGospelsandtheActsissignificant.Hemovedintheinnermostcircleofthedisciples,
yetseldomopenedhislips.Hisrecordedutterancescouldallhecompressedintoafewlines.YetheardentlylovedandwasbelovedbyhisMaster,andafterHewas
goneitwasgiventothebeloveddiscipletotarryratherthantospeak,ortoil,orsuffer,sothatatthelasthemightwritethatwhichshouldmoveaworldandlivein
theheartsofuntoldgenerations.ThemostChristlikeoftheApostleshasleftthislegacytotheChurchthatwithouthimitcouldnothaveadequatelyknownits
Lord.
W.T.DAVISON.
JOHN,GOSPELOF.Introductory.TheFourthGospelisuniqueamongthebooksoftheNT.Initscombinationofminutehistoricaldetailwithlofty
spiritualteaching,initstestimonytothePersonandworkoftheLordJesusChrist,andinthepreparationitmakesforthefoundationsofChristiandoctrine,itstands
alone.ItsinfluenceuponthethoughtandlifeoftheChristianChurchhasbeenproportionatelydeepandfarreaching.Itisnodisparagementofotherinspired
ScripturestosaythatnootherbookoftheBiblehasleftsuchamarkatthesametimeupontheprofoundestChristianthinkers,anduponsimplemindedbelieversat
large.Adecisionastoitscharacter,authenticity,andtrustworthinessiscardinaltotheChristianreligion.Inmanycasesauthorshipisamatterofcomparatively
secondaryimportanceintheinterpretationofadocument,andinthedeterminationofitssignificanceinthisinstanceitisvital.Thatstatementisquiteconsistent
withtwootherimportantconsiderations.(1)WearenotdependentontheFourthGospelforthefactsonwhichChristianityisbased,orforthefundamentaldoctrines
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withtwootherimportantconsiderations.(1)WearenotdependentontheFourthGospelforthefactsonwhichChristianityisbased,orforthefundamentaldoctrines
ofthePersonandworkofChrist.TheSynopticGospelsandSt.PaulsEpistlesaremorethansufficienttoestablishthebasisoftheChristianfaith,whichonany
hypothesismusthavespreadoveralargepartoftheRomanEmpirebeforethisbookwaswritten.(2)Onanytheoryofauthorship,thedocumentinquestionisof
greatsignificanceandvalueinthehistoryoftheChurch.ThosewhodonotacceptitasaGospelhavestilltoreckonwiththefactofitscomposition,andtotake
accountofitspresenceinandinfluenceupontheChurchofthe2ndcentury.
Butwhentheseallowanceshavebeenmade,itisclearlyamatteroftheveryfirstimportancewhethertheFourthGospelis,ontheonehand,theworkofaneye
witness,belongingtotheinnermostcircleofJesusdisciples,whoafteralongintervalwroteatrustworthyrecordofwhathehadheardandseen,interpretedthrough
themellowingmediumofhalfacenturyofChristianexperienceandserviceor,ontheother,atreatiseofspeculativetheologycastintotheformofanimaginative
biographyofJesus,datingfromthesecondorthirddecadeofthe2ndcent.,andtestifyingonlytotheformwhichthenewreligionwastakingunderthewidely
alteredcircumstancesofarapidlydevelopingChurch.Suchaquestionasthisisnotofsecondarybutofprimaryimportanceatanytime,andthecritical
controversiesofrecentyearsmakeadecisionuponittobecrucial.
Itisimpossibleheretosurveythehistoryofcriticism,butitisdesirabletosayafewwordsuponit.Accordingtoauniversallyacceptedtradition,extendingfrom
thethirdquarterofthe2ndcent.tothebeginningofthe19th,JohntheApostle,thesonofZebedee,washeldtobetheauthoroftheGospel,thethreeEpistlesthat
wentbyhisname,andtheApocalypse.Thistradition,sofarastheGospelwasconcerned,wasunbrokenandalmostunchallenged,theoneexceptionbeingformed
byanobscureanddoubtfulsect,orclassofunbelievers,calledAlogibyEpiphanius,whoattributedtheGospelandtheApocalypsetoCerinthus!Fromthe
beginningofthe19thcent.,however,andespeciallyafterthepublicationofBretschneidersProbabiliain1820,analmostincessantconflicthasbeenwaged
betweenthetraditionalbeliefandhypotheseswhichinmoreorlessmodifiedformattributetheGospeltoanEphesianelderoranAlexandrianChristianphilosopher
belongingtothefirsthalfofthe2ndcentury.BaurofTbingen,inwhosetheoriesofdoctrinaldevelopmentthisdocumentheldanimportantplace,fixeditsdate
about
A.D.170,butthisviewhaslongbeengivenupasuntenable.Keim,whoarguedstronglyagainsttheJohannineauthorship,atfirstadoptedthedateA.D.100115,
butafterwardsregardedA.D.130asmoreprobable.Duringthelastfiftyyearstheconflicthasbeenwagedwithgreatabilityonbothsides,withtheeffectof
modifyingextremeviews,andmorethanonceithasseemedasifanagreementbetweenthemoremoderatecriticsoneithersidehadbecomepossible.Amongthe
conservatives,ZahnandWeissinGermany,andWestcott,Sanday,Reynolds,andDrummondinthiscountry,havebeenconspicuouswhilst,ontheotherhand,
Holtzmann,Jlicher,andSchmiedelhavebeenuncompromisingopponentsofthehistoricityoftheGospelonanyterms.Schrer,Harnack,andothershavetaken
upamiddleposition,ascribingthebooktoadiscipleofJohntheApostle,whoembodiedinithismastersteachingwhilstWendtandsomeothershaveadvocated
partitiontheories,implyingtheexistenceofagenuineJohanninedocumentasthebasisoftheGospel,blendedwithlaterandlesstrustworthymatter.
ThepositiontakeninthisarticleisthatthetraditionalviewwhichascribestheauthorshipoftheGospeltoJohntheApostleisstillbyfarthemostprobable
accountofitsorigin,theundeniabledifficultiesattachingtothisviewbeingexplicablebyareasonableconsiderationofthecircumstancesofitscomposition.Fuller
light,however,hasbeencastuponthewholesubjectbythediscussionsofrecentyears,andmuchistobelearnedfromtheinvestigationsofeminentscholarsand
theirargumentsagainsttheJohannineauthorship,especiallywhenthesedonotrestuponadenialofthesupernaturalelementinScripture.Inthepresenttreatment
ofthesubject,controversywillbeavoidedasfaraspossible,andstresswillbelaiduponthepositiveandconstructiveelementsintheexamination.Themethod
adoptedwillbetoinquireinto(1)theExternalEvidenceinfavourofSt.Johnsauthorship(2)theInternalEvidence(3)thescopeoftheGospelanditsrelationto
theSynoptics(4)ObjectionsandsuggestedalternativeTheories(5)SummaryoftheConclusionsreached.
1.ExternalEvidence.Itisnotquestionedthatconsiderablybeforethecloseofthe2ndcent.thefourGospels,substantiallyaswehavethem,wereaccepted
asauthoritativeintheChristianChurch.ThisisprovedbythetestimonyofIrenus,bishopofLyons,inGaul,writingaboutA.D.180Theophilus,bishopof
Antioch,aboutA.D.170Clement,headofthecatecheticalschoolinAlexandria,about190andTertullian,theeloquentAfricanFather,whowroteattheendofthe
century,andwhoquotesfreelyfromalltheGospelsbyname.ThefullandexplicitevidenceoftheMuratorianCanonmayalsobedatedaboutA.D.180.Irenus
assumestheJohannineauthorshipoftheFourthGospelasgenerallyacceptedandunquestioned.Heexpresslystatesthatafterthepublicationoftheotherthree
Gospels,JohnthediscipleoftheLord,whoalsoleaneduponHisbreast,himselfalsopublishedtheGospel,whilehewasdwellingatEphesusinAsia.Hetellsus
thathehimselfwhenaboyhadheardfromthelipsofPolycarphisreminiscencesofhisfamiliarintercoursewithJohnandtherestofthosethathadseentheLord.
Hedwellsinmysticalfashionuponthesignificanceofthenumberfour,andcharacterizesthe
FourthGospelascorrespondingtotheflyingeagleamongthelivingcreaturesofEzk1:10and10:14.TheophilusofAntiochquotesitasfollows:Johnsays,in
thebeginningwastheWord,andtheWordwaswithGod(Aut.22).TheMuratorianFragment,whichgivesalistofthecanonicalbooksrecognizedintheWestern
Churchoftheperiod,ascribestheFourthGospeltoJohn,oneofthedisciples,andwhilstrecognizingthatinthesinglebooksoftheGospelsdifferentprinciples
aretaught,thewriteraddsthattheyallalikeconfirmthefaithofbelieversbytheiragreementintheirteachingaboutChristsbirth,passion,death,resurrection,and
twofoldadvent.ClementofAlexandria,inhandingdownthetraditionoftheeldersfromthefirst,saysthatJohn,lastofall,havingobservedthatthebodilythings
hadbeenexhibitedintheGospels,exhortedbyhisfriendsandinspiredbytheSpirit,producedaspiritualgospel(Eus.HEvi.14).Tertullian,amongother
testimonies,showshisopinionoftheauthorshipandhisdiscriminationofthecharacteroftheGospelsbysaying,AmongtheApostles,JohnandMatthewformthe
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testimonies,showshisopinionoftheauthorshipandhisdiscriminationofthecharacteroftheGospelsbysaying,AmongtheApostles,JohnandMatthewformthe
faithwithinusamongthecompanionsoftheApostles,LukeandMarkrenovateit(adv.Marc.iv.2).
WasthisclearlyexpressedandwidespreadbeliefoftheChurchwellbased?FirstofallitmustbesaidthatthepersonallinksuppliedbyIrenusisofitselfso
importantastobealmostconclusive,unlessverystrongcounterreasonscanbealleged.Itwasimpossiblethatheshouldbemistakenastothegeneraldriftof
Polycarpsteaching,andPolycarphadlearneddirectlyfromJohnhimself.OnthebroadissueofJohnsministryinAsiaandhiscompositionofaGospel,this
testimonyisofthefirstimportance.ThesuggestionthatconfusionhadariseninhismindbetweentheApostleandacertainPresbyterJohnofAsiawillbe
consideredlater,butitisexceedinglyunlikelythatonsuchamattereitherPolycarporhisyouthfulauditorcouldhavemadeamistake.Thetestimonyofchurches
andofawholegenerationofChristians,inheritorsofthesametraditionatonlyoneremove,corroboratestheemphaticandrepeatedstatementsofIrenus.
Itisquitetruethatinthefirsthalfofthe2ndcent.thereferencestotheGospelareneithersodirectnorsoabundantasmighthavebeenexpected.Thequestion
whetherJustinMartyrknew,andrecognized,ourGospelsassuchhasbeenmuchdebated.HisreferencestotheGospelnarrativeareverynumerous,andthe
coincidencesbetweentheformoftherecordswhichhequotesandourGospelsareoftencloseandstriking,buthementionsnoauthorsnames.InhisfirstApol.ch.
61(aboutA.D.160),however,weread,ForChristalsosaid,Exceptyebebornagain,yeshallinnowiseenterintothekingdomofheaven,whichwouldappearto
imply,thoughitdoesnotprove,anacquaintancewiththeFourthGospel.OtherreferencestoChristasonlybegottenSonandtheWordaresuggestive.The
recentdiscoveryofTatiansDiatessaron(c.A.D.160)makesitcertainthatthatharmonyoftheGospelsbeganwiththewords,InthebeginningwastheWord,
andthatthewholeoftheFourthGospelwasinterwovenintoitssubstance.TheEpistleofPolycarptothePhilippians(beforeA.D.120)apparentlyquotes1Jn.inthe
words,ForeveryonewhodoesnotacknowledgethatJesusChristiscomeinthefleshisantichrist,butnoexpresscitationismade.TheEpistlesofIgnatius(about
A.D.110)apparentlyshowtracesoftheFourthGospelintheirreferencestolivingwater,childrenoflight,ChristastheWordandasthedoor,butthesearenot
conclusive.PapiasmayhaveknownandusedthisGospel,asIrenusseemstoimply(adv.Hr.36)andEusebiusdistinctlysaysthatheusedtestimoniesfromthe
FirstEpistleofJohn(HEiii.39).
SomeofthemostnoteworthytestimoniestotheuseoftheGospelintheformerpartofthe2ndcent.aredrawnfromhereticalwritings.Itiscertainthat
HeracleonoftheValentinianschoolofGnosticsknewandquotedtheGospelasarecognizedauthority,anditwouldevenappearthathewroteanelaborate
commentaryonthewholeGospel.Origenquoteshimasmisapprehendingthetext,NoonehasseenGodatanytime.HippolytusinhisRefutationofallHeresies
(vi.30)provesthatValentinus(aboutA.D.130)quotedJn10:8,TheSavioursays,Allthatcamebeforemearethievesandrobbers,andthatBasilidesalittleearlier
madedistinctreferencetoJn1:9:AsitissaidintheGospels,thetruelightthatenlightenetheverymanwascomingintotheworld.Slighterandmoredoubtful
referencesarefoundintheClementineHomiliesandotherhereticalwritings,andthesegoatleastsomewaytoshowthatthepeculiarphraseologyoftheFourth
Gospelwasknownandappealedtoasauthoritativeinthemiddleofthe2ndcentury.
Itisnot,however,byexplicitreferencestotextsthataquestionofthiskindcanbebestsettled.Thechiefweightofexternalevidenceliesinthefactthat
betweenA.D.150and180fourGospelswererecognizedintheChurchasauthenticrecords,readintheassemblies,andacceptedasauthoritative.Also,thatthe
fourthofthesewaswithpracticalunanimityascribedtoSt.John,aswrittenbyhiminAsiaattheveryendofthe1stcentury.Thisacceptanceincludeddistrictsasfar
apartasSyriaandGaul,Alexandria,CarthageandRome.CanthewholeChurchofA.D.180havebeenutterlymistakenonsuchapoint?True,theearlyChristians
wereuncriticalinthemodernsenseofthewordcriticism.ButtheywerenotdisposedlightlytoacceptallegedApostolicwritingsasgenuine.Ontheotherhand,
theinquiryintotheirauthenticitywasusuallycloseandcareful.Aperiodoffiftyyearsisshortwhenwerememberhowgenerationsoverlaponeanother,andhow
carefullytraditionsonthemostsacredsubjectsareguarded.ItishardlypossibletosupposethatonsuchsalientquestionsastheresidenceoftheApostleJohnfor
twentyyearsinAsia,andthecompositionofoneofthefourauthoritativeGospels,anyseriouserrororconfusioncouldhavearisensoearly.Atleasttheprimafacie
externalevidenceissofarinfavourofJohannineauthorshipthatitmuststandaccepted,unlessveryseriousobjectionstoitcanbesustained,orsomemore
satisfactoryaccountoftheoriginoftheGospelcanbesuggested.
2.InternalEvidence.Thefirstpointtobenotedunderthisheadisthatthebookmakesadirectclaimtohavebeenwrittenbyaneyewitness,andindirectlyit
pointstotheApostleJohnasitsauthor.ThephraseWebeheldhisglory(1:14)isnotdecisive,though,takeninconnexionwith1Jn1:14,iftheEpistlebe
genuine,theclaimoffirsthandknowledgeiscertainlymade.Therecanbenoquestionconcerningthegeneralmeaningof19:35,thoughitsdetailedexegesis
presentsdifficulties.Theversemightbeparaphrased,Hethathathseenhathbornewitness,andhiswitnessisgenuineandrealandheknoweththathespeaketh
thingsthataretrue,sothatyealsomaybelieve.NoonereadingthiscanquestionthatthewriterofthenarrativeoftheCrucifixionclaimstohavebeenpresentand
toberecordingwhathehadseenwithhisowneyes.Apeculiarpronounisusedinheknoweth,andSanday,E.A.Abbott,andotherswouldinterprettheword
emphatically,ofChristbutitsuseisprobablyduetothefactthatthewriterisspeakingofhimselfinthethirdperson,andemphasizeshisownpersonaltestimony.
Parallelinstancesfromclassicalandmodernwritershavebeenadduced.In21:24furthercorroborationisgivenoftheaccuracyofthedisciplewhowasatthesame
timeaneyewitnessoftheeventsandtheauthorofthenarrative.Itappears,however,tohavebeenaddedtotheGospelbyothers.Weknowthathiswitnessistrue
isprobablyintendedasanendorsementonthepartofcertainEphesianelders,whilsttheIsupposeofv.25mayindicateyetanotherhand.Inadditiontothese
moreorlessexplicittestimonies,notesarefreelyintroducedthroughouttheGospelwhichcouldproceedonlyfromamemberoftheinnermostcircleofChrists
disciples,thoughthewriternevermentionshisownname.Instead,healludestothedisciplewhomJesuslovedinsuchawaythatbyaprocessofexhaustionit83/124
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disciples,thoughthewriternevermentionshisownname.Instead,healludestothedisciplewhomJesuslovedinsuchawaythatbyaprocessofexhaustionit
maybeprovedfromchs.20and21thatJohnwasintended.Itcanhardlybequestionedthatthewriterdelicatelybutunmistakablyclaimstobethatdisciplehimself.
Anordinarypseudonymouswriterdoesnotproceedinthisfashion.Theauthorityofanhonourednameissometimesclaimedbyanunknownauthor,asinthe
AscensionofIsaiahandtheApocalypseofBaruch,notfraudulently,butasaliterarydevicetogivecharactertohistheme.Inthiscase,however,theindirect
suggestionofauthorshipeithermustindicatethattheApostlewrotethebook,modestlyveilinghisownidentity,orelseitpointstoanunwarrantablepretenceonthe
partofalaterwriter,whothrewhisownideasintotheformofa(largelyimaginary)narrative.Somemoderncriticsdonotshrinkfromthislasthypothesisbutit
surelyimpliesamisleadingmisrepresentationoffactsincredibleunderthecircumstances.A
thirdtheory,whichwouldimplycollaborationonthepartofoneofJohnsowndisciples,willbediscussedlater.
DoestheGospel,then,asawholebearoutthisclaim,directlyorindirectlymade?Isitsuchabookasmaywellhaveproceededfromonewhorankedamongst
theforemostfiguresinthesacreddramaofwhichJesusofNazarethwastheaugustcentre?Theanswercannotbegiveninaword.ManyfeaturesoftheGospel
stronglysupportsuchaclaim.Puttingasideforthemomentitsspiritualteaching,wemaysaythatitdisplaysaminuteknowledgeofdetailswhichcouldhavecome
onlyfromaneyewitnesswhowasintimatelyacquaintednotonlywiththeplacesandscenes,butwiththepersonsconcerned,theircharactersandmotives.No
artisticimaginationcouldhaveenabledanEphesianChristianofthe2ndcent.eithertoinserttheminutetopographicalandothertoucheswhichbespeaktheeye
witness,ortoinventincidentslikethoserecordedinchs.4and9,bearingaverisimilitudewhichcommendsthematoncetothereader.Ontheotherhand,thereis
somuchintheGospelwhichimpliesapointofviewentirelydifferentfromthatofChristsimmediatecontemporaries,andtherearesomanydivergencesfromthe
SynopticsinthedescriptionofourLordsministryasregardstime,place,themannerofChriststeaching,andparticularincidentsrecordedastomakeit
impossibletoascribeittothesonofZebedeewithoutafullexplanationofseriousdifficultiesanddiscrepancies.Butforthesetwodiverseaspectsofthesame
document,therewouldbenoJohannineproblem.Itwillbewelltotakethetwoinorder,andseeiftheycanbereconciled.
IthasbeenusualtoarrangetheevidenceinnarrowingcirclestoshowthattheauthormusthavebeenaJew,aPalestinian,aneyewitness,oneoftheTwelve,
andlastlytheApostleJohn.Itisimpossible,however,toarrayherealltheproofsavailable.ItmustsufficetosaythataclosefamiliaritywithJewishcustomsand
observances,suchascouldnothavebeenpossessedbyanEphesianinA.D.120,isshownintheaccountoftheFeastofTabernacles(ch.7),theDedication(10:22),
JewsandSamaritans(4:19,20),conversationwithwomeninpublic(4:27),ceremonialpollution(18:28),andotherminutetouches,eachslightinitself,buttaken
togetherofgreatweight.ThenumerousreferencestotheMessianichopeinchs.1,4,7,8.andindeedthroughouttheGospel,indicateonewhowasthoroughly
acquaintedwithJewishviewsandexpectationsfromwithin.FamiliaritywiththeJewishScripturesandafreebutreverentuseofthemareapparentthroughout.The
placesmentionedarenotsuchasastrangerwouldorcouldhaveintroducedintoanimaginarynarrative.AsexampleswemaymentionBethanybeyondJordan
(1:28),non(3:23),Ephraim(11:54),thetreasury(8:20),thepoolofSiloam(9:7),Solomonsporch(10:23),theKidron(18:1).Itistruethatdifficultieshavebeen
raisedwithregardtosomeofthese,e.g.Sychar(4:5)butrecentexplorationhasinseveralinstancesconfirmedthewritersaccuracy.Again,thehabitofthewriteris
tospecifydetailsoftime,place,andnumberwhichmusteitherindicateexceptionalfirsthandknowledge,orhavebeengratuitouslyinsertedbyonewhowishedto
conveyanimpressionoflocalcolour.Theveryhourofthedayatwhicheventshappenedisnotedin1:39,4:6,52,19:14ortheearlymorningismentioned,as
in18:28,20:1,21:4orthenight,asin3:2,13:30.Thespecificationofsixwaterpots(2:6),fiveandtwentyfurlongs(6:19),twohundredcubits(21:8),andthe
hundredandfiftythreefishes(21:11),isafurtherillustrationeitherofanoldmansexactreminiscencesofeventslongpastorofalatewriterspretended
acquaintancewithprecisedetails.
TheportraitureofpersonsandincidentscharacteristicoftheGospelisnoteworthy.Thepictureissographic,andtheeffectisproducedbysofewstrokes,often
unexpected,thatitmustbeascribedeithertoaneyewitnessortoawriterofaltogetherexceptionalgenius.Theconversationsrecorded,thesceneofthefeet
washing,therepresentationoftheSamaritanwoman,ofthemanbornblind,theportraitureofPeter,ofPilate,ofthepriestsandthemultitude,thequestioningsof
thedisciples,therevelationofsecretmotivesandfears,theinterpretationsofChristshiddenmeaningsanddifficultsayingsmay,asanabstractpossibility,have
beeninvented.Butiftheywerenotanditishardtounderstandhowawriterwholayssomuchstressupontruthcouldbringhimselftosuchaperversionofit
thentheauthoroftheGospelmusthavemovedclosetotheverycentreofthesacredeventshedescribes.Inmanycasesitisnotfairtopresentsuchadilemmaas
this.Theuseoftheimaginationinliteratureisoftennotonlypermissible,butlaudable.ItisquiteconceivablethataJewofthe2ndcent.beforeChristmightusethe
nameofSolomon,ortheauthoroftheClementineHomiliesinthe2ndcent.A.D.mightwritearomance,withoutanyideaofdeceptioninhisownmindorinthatof
hisreaders.ButthekindofnarrativecontainedintheFourthGospel,ifitbenotgenuinelyandsubstantiallyhistorical,impliessuchanattempttoproduceafalse
impressionoffirsthandknowledgeasbecomesseriouslymisleading.Theimpossibilityofconceivingawriterpossessedofboththepowerandthewillthus
deliberatelytocolourandalterthefacts,formsanimportantlinkinthechainofargument.FabulousadditionstothecanonicalGospelsareextant,andtheir
characteriswellknown.Theypresentamarkedcontrastinalmostallrespectstothecharacteristicfeaturesofthedocumentbeforeus.ThenameofJohnisnever
oncementionedintheGospel,thoughthewriterclaimstobeintimatelyacquaintedwithallthechieffiguresoftheGospelhistory.Asdeliberateselfsuppressionthis
canbeunderstood,butasanattemptonthepartofawriteracenturyafterwardstoposeasthebeloveddisciple,aprominentfigureinelaboratedescriptionsof
entirelyimaginaryscenes,itisunparalleledinliteratureandincredibleinareligioushistorian.
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AvolumemightwellbefilledwithanexaminationofthespecialfeaturesoftheGospelinitsportrayalofChristHimself.Eventhemostsuperficialreadermust
havenoticedtheremarkablecombinationoflowlinesswithsublimity,ofsuperhumandignitywithhumaninfirmitiesandlimitations,whichcharacterizestheFourth
Gospel.ItisinitthatwereadoftheSaviourswearinessbythewellandHisthirstupontheCross,ofthepersonalaffectionofJesusforthefamilyatBethany,and
HistendercareofHismotherintheveryhourofHislastagony.ButitisinthesamerecordthatthecharacteristicgloryofHismiraclesismostfullybroughtout
inittheloftiestclaimsaremadenotonlyfortheMasterbyadisciple,butbytheLordforHimselfastheLightoftheWorld,theBreadfromHeaven,theonlytrue
Shepherdofmen,HimselftheResurrectionandtheLife.HeissalutednotonlybyMaryasRabboni,butbyThomasasmyLordandmyGod.Thewriterclaimsan
exceptionalandintimateknowledgeofChrist.HetellsuswhatHefelt,asin11:33and13:21thereasonsforHisactions,asin6:6andheisboldtodescribethe
Lordssecretthoughtsandpurposes(6:61,64,18:4,19:28).Morethanthis,inthePrologueofaGospelwhichdescribesthehumanityoftheSonofMan,Heisset
forthasthe
onlySonofGod,theWordmadeflesh,theWordwhointhebeginningwaswithGodandwasGod,CreatorandSustainerofallthatis.Thismarkedcharacteristic
oftheGospelhasindeedbeenmadeagroundofobjectiontoit.Wecannotconceive,itissaid,thatonewhohadmovedinthecircleoftheImmediatecompanions
ofJesusofNazarethcouldhavespokenofHiminthisfashion.Thereplyisobvious.Whatkindofaportraitisactuallypresented?Ifitbeanentirelyincredible
picture,anextravagantattempttoportrayamoralandspiritualprodigyormonstrosity,animpossiblecombinationofthehumanandtheDivine,thenwemaywell
supposethathumanimaginationhasbeenatwork.Butifauniquelyimpressiveimageissetforthinthesepages,whichhascommandedthehomageofsaintsand
scholarsforcenturies,andwontheheartsofmillionsofthosesimplesoulstowhomthehighestspiritualtruthsaresooftenrevealed,thenitmaybesurmisedthatthe
FourthGospelisnotduetothefancyofanunknownartistofgeniusinthe2ndcent.,butitisduetoonewhoreflected,asinamirror,fromalivingrealitythe
splendourofHimwhowastheonlybegottenoftheFather,fullofgraceandtruth.
3.ScopeoftheGospelanditsrelationtotheSynoptics.Itcannotbedeniedthattherearegravedifficultiesinthewayofouracceptingtheconclusionto
whichweareirresistiblyledbytheabovearguments.Someofthesewerefeltasearlyasthe2ndand3rdcents.,andhavealwaysbeenmoreorlesspresenttothe
mindsofChristians.OthershavebeenmoreclearlybroughtoutbythecontroversyconcerningthegenuinenessoftheGospelwhichhasbeenwagedthroughthe
lasthalfcentury.Inthissectionitwillbeconvenienttotrytoanswerthequestions,HowdoesthisGospel,ifwrittenbytheApostleJohn,standrelatedtotheother
three?,howcantheobviousdiscrepanciesbereconciled?,andhowfardothewritersobjectandmethodandpointofviewaccountfortheuniquecharacterofthe
narrativehehaspresented?
Itisclear,tobeginwith,thattheplanoftheFourthGospeldiffersessentiallyfromthatoftheSynoptics.Thewriterhimselfmakesthisplaininhisownaccount
ofhisbook(20:30,31).HedidnotundertaketowriteabiographyofChrist,eveninthelimitedsenseinwhichthatmaybesaidofMatthew,Mark,andLukehe
selectedcertainsignificantpartsandaspectsofChristswork,forthepurposeofwinningorconservingfaithinHim,presumablyunderspecialdifficultiesor
dangers.Wearethereforepreparedforadifferenceintheveryframeworkandstructureofthebook,andthisweassuredlyfind.
TheFourthGospelopenswithanintroductiontowhichthereisnoparallelintheNT.ThecircumstancesofChristsbirthandchildhood,Hisbaptismand
temptation,areentirelypassedby.HisrelationtoJohntheBaptistisdealtwithfromalater,doctrinalpointofview,ratherthanfromthatofthechroniclerdescribing
eventsintheirhistoricaldevelopment.Onlytypicalincidentsfromtheministryareselected,andonlysuchaspectsoftheseaslendthemselvestodidactictreatment.
ItwillbeconvenientheretogiveabriefoutlineoftheplanandcontentsoftheGospel.
T HEPROLOGUE:1:118.TheWordinEternity,inCreation,inHistoryandIncarnate.
PARTi.:1:1912:50.ChristsmanifestationofHimselfinaMinistryofLifeandLove.
1. TheproclamationofHismessage,thetestimonyoftheBaptist,ofHisworks,andofHisdisciples.Thebeginningsoffaithandunbelief,1:194:54.
2. TheperiodofControversyandConflictChristsvindicationofHimselfagainstadversaries,partlyindiscourse,partlyinmightyworks,5:112:50.
PARTii.:13:120:31.ChristsmanifestationofHimselfinSuffering,inDeath,andinVictoryoverDeath.
1. Hislastacts,discourses,andprayer,13:117:26.
2. Hisbetrayal,trial,death,andburial,18:119:42.
3. HisResurrectionandAppearancestoHisdisciples,ch.20.
T HEE PILOGUE:21:123.FurtherAppearancesandLastWords.Notesappendedbyotherhands:21:24,25.
Thefollowingaresomedetaileddifferencesofimportance.TheexactdurationofChristsministrycannotbedeterminedeitherbytheSynopticnarrativesorby
St.Johnsbutitwouldappearthatintheformeritmighthecompressedwithinthecompassofoneyear,whilstthelatterinitsmentionofPassoversandFestivals
wouldrequiremorethanthree.Again,theSynopticGospelsdescribeaministryexercisedalmostentirelyinGalileeuptotheclosingscenesinJerusalemSt.John
haslittletosayofGalilee,buthedoesmentionanimportantvisittoSamaria,andnarratesatlengtheventsandcontroversiesinJerusalemofwhichtheother
Evangelistssaynothing.Onthesepoints,however,itmayberemarkedthatnoneoftheGospelsprofessestohecompletethatanexactchronologicaloutlinecan
withdifficultybeconstructedfromanyofthemandthateachgivespassinghintsofeventsofwhichthewriterhadcognisance,thoughitdoesnotcomewithinhis85/124
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withdifficultybeconstructedfromanyofthemandthateachgivespassinghintsofeventsofwhichthewriterhadcognisance,thoughitdoesnotcomewithinhis
purposetodescribethem.
Minutedifficultiesofdetailcannothediscussedhere.ButthedifferencebetweentheSynoptistsandSt.JohnwithregardtothedateoftheLastSupperandChristsdeathhasa
specialimportanceofitsown.ThefirstthreeGospelsrepresentJesusaspartakingoftheregularPassoverwithHisdisciples,andasbeingcrucifiedonthe15thofNisanSt.John
describestheLastSupperasonthedayofpreparation,andthecrucifixionastakingplaceonthe14thNisan,thegreatdayofthePassover.Variousmodesofreconciliationhave
beenproposed,turninguponthemeaningofthephraseeatingthePassoverandontheJewishmodeofreckoningdaysfromsunsettosunset.Ithasbeenfurthersuggestedthatthe
termPassoverwasappliedtotheeatingofthesacrificecalledChagigah,whichwasofferedonthefirstPaschaldayimmediatelyafterthemorningservice.Theexplanations
offeredofthediscrepancyareingenious,andoneorotherofthemmaybecorrect.Butitcanhardlybesaidthatanyhascommandedgeneralacceptanceamongcritics,and
meanwhilethedifferenceremains.Itmustnotbesupposed,however,thatthisnecessarilyimpliesanerroronthepartoftheFourthGospel.ManycriticscontendearnestlythatSt.
JohngivesthemoreconsistentandintelligibleaccountoftheLastSupper,thetrialandthedeathofJesusinrelationtotheJewishfestival,andthatthephraseologyoftheSynoptists
maybemoreeasilyandsatisfactorilyexplainedintermsofSt.Johnsnarrativethanviceversa.TheobjectionthatthewriteroftheFourthGospelhadadogmaticreasonfor
changingthedayandrepresentingChristasthetruePassoverSacrificeofferedforthesinsoftheworld,isnotborneoutbyfacts.ThewriternowherespeaksofChristasthePaschal
Lamb(notevenin19:36),andhisallusiontothedateistooslightandcasualtowarrantthesuppositionthathewishestopresshometheteachingof1Co5:7.Further,ifthe
Synoptictraditionofthedatehadbeenestablished,itismostunlikelythatananonymouswriterofthe2ndcent.wouldhavesethimselfinoppositiontoit.IfSt.Johnwroteofhis
ownsuperiorknowledge,adiscrepancyisintelligible,andthecorrectionofapreviousmisapprehensionmayhavebeenintentional.Itmaybesaidinpassingthattheargumentdrawn
fromtheQuartodecimancontroversywhetherChristiansoughttokeepthePassoveratthesametimeastheJews,i.e.alwayson14thNisan,whateverdayoftheweekitmightbe,
oralwaysonSundayasthefirstdayoftheweek,onwhateverdayofthemonthitmightfallcannotlegitimatelybemadetotellagainstthehistoricityoftheFourthGospel.The
controversyconcernedtherelationbetweenChristiansandJewsassuch,ratherthantheexactdateofChristsdeathanditsmeaningasaPassoversacrifice.
Wereachthecentreofdifficulty,however,whenwetrytounderstandthemarkeddifferencebetweenthebodyoftheSynopticnarrativeontheonebandandSt.
Johnsontheother.St.Johnsomissionsaresostriking.HeneverreferstothemiraculousbirthofChristhegivesnoaccountoftheTransfiguration,theinstitution
oftheEucharist,ortheAgonyintheGardenalargenumberofmiraclesarenotdescribed,noristheiroccurrencehintedatnoparablesarerecorded,thoughthe
SynopticsmakethemachieffeatureofChriststeaching,andtheverywordforparableinitsstrictsensedoesnotoccurinthebook.Ontheotherhand,his
additionsarenotable.HowisitthattheSynoptistshavenothingtosayofthechangingofWaterintoWine,oftheFeetwashing,andespeciallyoftheRaisingof
Lazarus?IsitconceivablethatifsuchamiraclewasactuallyworkeditcouldhavehadnoplaceinanyofthegreattraditionalaccountsofHisministry?Areweto
understandthattheSynoptistsarecorrectwhentheyplacetheCleansingoftheTempleattheendofChristsministry,orSt.Johnwhenhedescribesitatthe
beginning?Otherapparentdiscrepanciesareoflessimportance.TheyconcerntheAnointingofJn12ascomparedwiththenarrativesofMt26,Mk14,andLk7
theaccountsofthetrialofJesusgivenintheSynopticsintheirrelationtothatofJn.andtheappearancesoftheLordafterHisResurrectionasrecordedbySt.John
inthe20thand21stchapters.
Further,themostsuperficialreadercannotbutbestruckbythedifferentrepresentationsofChristsministryinitsmainfeatures.TheSynopticGospelsdonot
containthelongdiscourseswhicharereportedinSt.John,alwayscouchedinapeculiarandcharacteristicdiction,nordotheymentionthefrequentcontroversies
withtheJews,whoarerepresentedintheFourthGospelasfrequentlyinterruptingChristsaddresseswithquestionsandobjectionstowhichtheSynoptists
presentnoparallel.TheverymentionoftheJews,sooftenandsounfavourablyreferredto,is,itissaid,asignofalaterhand.ThewriteroftheFourthGospel
usesthesamesomewhatpeculiarstyle,whetherheisreportingChristswordsoraddinghisowncomments,anditissometimesdifficulttodistinguishbetweenthe
two.Indoctrinealso,itiscontended,thereareirreconcilabledifferencesbetweentheThreeEvangelistsandtheFourth.JudgmentisviewedbytheSynoptistsasa
greateschatologicaleventinthefuture,butbySt.JohnasapresentspiritualfactaccomplishedevenwhilstChristwasonearth.Itissaid,further,thatGnosticand
otherheresiesofvariouskindsbelongingtothe2ndcent.arealludedtointheGospel,andthattheJohannineauthorshipisthereforeuntenable.Last,butbyno
meansleast,theuseofthewordLogostodescribetheEternalWord,andthedoctrinesassociatedwiththenamethatarefoundinthePrologue,point,itissaid,
conclusivelytoanAlexandrianorigin,andarepracticallyirreconcilablewiththeauthorshipofthesonofZebedee.
Anadequatesolutionoftheseacknowledgeddifficultiescanbefoundonlyinafullconsiderationofthecircumstancesunderwhich,andtheobjectsforwhich,
theGospelwaswritten.ItisanessentialpartofthehypothesisofJohannineauthorshipthatthebookwasnotcomposedtillagenerationafterthedeathofSt.Paul,
inacommunitywhereChristianityhadbeenestablishedfornearlyhalfacentury.Suchaninterval,atsucharapidlyadvancingperiodofChristianhistory,implied
changesofadeepandfarreachingkind.AnadvancedChristologythatistosay,afullerdevelopmentofthedoctrinesimpliedinthefundamentalChristian
beliefthatGodwasinChrist,andthatChristwastheSonofthelivingGodwastobeexpected.Thehearingofthistruthuponcurrentreligiousideasamong
bothJewsandGentilesbecamemoreclearlyseenineverysucceedingdecade.Nowriter,beheagedApostleorEphesianelder,couldwriteinA.D.100ashewould
havewrittenfiftyyearsbefore.TheverypointofviewfromwhichthewonderfulLifeofliveswasconsideredandestimatedhadchanged.Withithadchangedalso
theproportionatesignificanceofthedetailsofthatlifeandwork.Thecentralfigurewasthesame.Hiswordsanddeedsremained,indeliblyimprinteduponthemind
ofonewhohadlivedwhentherewasmidseaandthemightythings.Butifanartistatthesametimeknowshisworkandistruetotherealitieshepaints,his
perspectivechanges,thelightsandshadowsofhispicturealter,andtherelativesizeofobjectsdepictedisaltered,whenanewpointofviewistakenup.
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IftheApostleJohnwrotetheFourthGospelatall,itmusthavebeencomposedundertheseconditions,asearlytraditionassertsthatitwas.Thesametradition
declaresthatitwaswrittenunderpressurefromwithout,thatitpresupposedthefirstthreeGospels,andwasnotintendedtocoverthegroundoccupiedbythem,that
itwasaspiritualGospelwhichisonlyanotherwayofsayingwhattheauthorhimselfhastoldus,thatherecordedsomeamongthemanysignsthatJesusdid,
viewedfromthesideofaDivinemissionandpurpose,thatyemaybelievethatJesusistheChrist,theSonofGod,andthatbelievingyemayhavelifethroughhis
name(Jn20:31).Omissionsandadditions,therefore,suchasareobviousinacomparisonbetweentheSynopticsandtheFourthGospel,cannotcountas
argumentsagainsttheauthenticityofthelatter.NeithercanamorecompletelydevelopeddoctrineofthePersonofChrist,norasomewhatalteredrepresentationof
Hisministryandutterances.Wehaverathertoaskwhetherthemodificationsobservableinthelatestnarrativeofall,writtenafteralongtime,underaltered
conditions,andfromadifferentpointofview,implyanincompatibilitysomarkedthatitcannotbeascribedtoaneyewitnessandanApostle.AlltheGospelsare
confessedlyfragmentary,andifoneoftheTwelvewasinducedafterthelapseofnearlytwogenerationstosupplementtherecordsofChristslifealreadyin
existence,andtopresentaselectionofhisownreminiscencesforthepurposeofinducingandmaintainingChristianfaith,quiteaslargeameasureofdifferencein
thenarrativeasthatsketchedinapreviousparagraphmayjustlyheexpected.Someofthosediscrepancieshavebeenexaggerated.Forexample,themodeof
speakingoftheJewsIntheFourthGospelispreparedforbytheexpressionsfoundinMt28:15,Mk7:3,Lk7:3and23:51.Indeed,suchahabitofestimatingand
describingthemembersofanationwhichhadsosteadilysetitselfagainstChristandHisfollowersastohavebecometheveryembodimentofvirulentoppositionto
Christianity,wasinevitable.Again,itisundeniablethat,asSt.Johnfromhislaterpointofviewdiscernednotonlytheglorythatshouldcomeaftertheshameand
thedeathoftheSaviour,buttheglorythatwasimpliedinHissufferinganddeathonbehalfoftheworld,sohedescribednotonlythefinaljudgmentthatwasto
comeattheendofallthings,butthepresentjudging,searching,siftingpowerofChristswordsandpresenceintheearth,astheSynoptistsdonot.Hispointof
viewinthisandinotherrespectsisconfessedlymorespiritual.ButheisnotunmindfulofthataspectofjudgmentwhichpredominatesintheSynoptics.In5:21
29thetwopointsofviewareharmonized,andaverydefinitereferenceismadetoafinaljudgmentasaneschatologicalevent.Ifitistrue,aswereadin12:31,that
nowisthejudgmentofthisworld,thesamechapterremindsus(v.48)thatChristswordwilljudgemenInthelastday.Thereisnocontradiction,exceptfor
shallowinterpreters,betweenthestatementsthattheKingdomofpodisalreadycome,andthatitscomingmusthewaitedforwithpatience,perhapsduringalong
period.Abelieverinjudgmentalreadyaccomplishedissofarpreparedfortheconfidentexpectationofafinaljudgmentattheendoftheages.
Buttheexaminationofdetailsnecessarilyliesoutsidethescopeofthepresentarticle.Theonlyfurtherpointwhichcanbenoticedhereconcernsthestyleand
dictionoftheFourthGospel,andthecontrastobservablebetweenthediscoursesofJesusasreportedinitandinthethreeSynoptics.Somarkedadifferenceinthis
respectdoesobtain,thatanupholderoftheJohannineauthorshipoftheFourthGospelmustbepreparedtoadmitthattheagedApostleseesalltheobjectshe
describesthroughamediumofhisown,andcastshisrecordintoashapemouldedbythehabitandworkingofhisownmind.Thepersonalstampofthewriteris
verystronglyimpresseduponhismaterial.Inspirationisquiteconsistentwithmarkedindividualityintheprophetscharacterandwritings,andthehighestkindof
inspirationisinseparablefromthis.Theaccuracyofthechroniclerwhoregardshimselfasamererecordingpenisonething,thetruthoftheartistorhistorianwho
passesallthatheknowsthroughthealembicofhisownvigorousandactivemindisanother.Asregardstheformofthenarrative,St.John,ifhebethewriter,must
haveallowedhimselffreedomtopresenthisrecordinamoulddeterminedbythelaterworkingofhisownmindandtheconditionsofthetimesinwhichhelived.
HepresentsusnotwithanexactphotographthoughtracesofthephotographyofmemoryarefairlyabundantbutwithafreeandtruepictureofthelifeofHim
whowasandistheLifeindeed.
Differencesinthemodeofpresentationdoindeedexist,buttheyneednotheexaggerated.Forexample,asregardsthenumberandlengthofChristsdiscourses
recorded,theFourth
Gospelisnotseparatedfromtherestbysomeimpassablegulf.Dr.Drummondhascalculated
thatwhilstinMt.Christspeaks139times,inJn.Hespeaksonly122timesandthatasregardslengthofspeeches,Mt.records111utterancesnotexceeding3
versesandJn.96ofspeechesexceeding3andnotexceeding10verses,Mt.gives16andJn.20whilstofdiscoursesexceeding20verses,Mt.records4andJn.3
only.ThenasregardsthecharacterofthesayingsofJesus,itisoftenrepresentedthatthoserecordedintheSynopticsarepithy,incisive,andtelling,whereasinJn.
thestyleisprolixandmonotonous.Dr.Drummond,however,enumeratessixtydetachedlogiatakenfromtheFourthGospelquiteasaphoristicandmemorableas
anycontainedintheotherthree,whilstithasoftenbeenpointedoutthatinMt11:2527Isfoundingermthesubstance,bothinmatterandinform,ofteaching
whichisfullydevelopedbySt.John.AtthesametimeitisnotdeniedthattheFourthEvangelistallowshimselfthelibertyofblendingtextandcommentinone
narrativemarkedbythesamecharacteristicdiction,sothat,asinch.3,itisnotaltogethereasytodeterminewhetherJesusorJohntheBaptistortheEvangelistis
speakingor,asin17:3,whethertheEvangelisthasnotexpressedinhisownwordsthesubstanceofwhatfellfromtheMasterslips.Suchfreedom,however,isnot
reallymisleading.Ameasureoftranslation,ofrestatementandreproduction,wasnecessaryfromtheverynatureofthecase.HarnacksaysoftheNTgenerally,
TheGreeklanguageliesuponthesewritingsonlylikeadiaphanousveil,anditrequireshardlyanyefforttoretranslatetheircontentsintoHebreworAramaic.
Suchslight,buteasilypenetrableveils,partlyoflanguage,partlyofrepresentation,necessarilyrestoverthefournarrativesofourLordslifeandministrywhich
havebeenhandeddownthroughdifferentmediaandunderdifferentconditions.TheargumentherebrieflysketchedoutgoestoshowthattheFourthGospel
containsnorepresentationofthePerson,words,orworksofChristincompatibleorseriouslyinconsistentwiththoseoftheSynoptics,whilstatthesametimeit
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containsnorepresentationofthePerson,words,orworksofChristincompatibleorseriouslyinconsistentwiththoseoftheSynoptics,whilstatthesametimeit
bearstheindubitablemarksofasacredindividualityofitsown.
4.Alternativetheories.Aconsiderablenumberofeminentscholarsofthelasttwogenerationshavenotbeensatisfiedbythelineofargumentindicated
above,andtheydeclinetoacceptnotonlytheJohannineauthorshipoftheFourthGospel,butalsoitshistoricaltrustworthiness.Itiseasytounderstandthat
considerationswhichwouldstronglyappealtoChristianbelieversmighthavesmallweightwiththosewhorejectthesupernatural,andcannotadmittheevidenceof
anallegedeyewitnessoftheraisingofLazarus,andwhoprofesstobeabletotracethegrowthofthelegendwhichtransformedtheprophetofNazarethintothe
WordofGodIncarnate.Forthemthedocumentweareexaminingisanidealcompositionofthe2ndcent.,ofnogreaterhistoricalvaluethantheGospelof
NicodemusortheClementine
Recognitions.Others,whoareconvincedthatthebookembodiesearlyandperhapsApostolicaltraditions,haveadoptedmediatingtheoriesofdifferenttypes,
pointingtotheusebya2ndcent.writerofearliersources,muchastheLogiadocumentissupposedtohavebeenusedbytheauthorofMatthewortheMarkan
documentbySt.Luke.ThelatedateassignedbyBaurtothecompositionoftheGospelhaslongbeengivenupasimpossible,andatheoryofforgeryisnolonger
advocatedbyanyonewhosejudgmentisworthconsidering.FewresponsiblecriticsnowwouldplacethedocumentlaterthanA.D.110120,andthegoodfaithof
thewriterishardlyquestionedevenamongthosewhomoststrenuouslydenythathisfactshaveanyhistoricalbasis.
AmongpartitiontheoriesmaybeclassedthatofRenan,whoconsidersthatthehistoryoftheFourthGospelismoreaccuratethanthatoftheSynoptics,andthatitwasprobably
derivedfromtheApostleJohnbyoneofhisdisciplesbutheslightsthediscoursesastediousandalmostentirelyfictitious.Wendt,ontheotherhand,holdsthatathirdmain
originalsourceoftheGospelsinadditiontotheLogiaofMatthewandtheoriginalMarkistobefoundinthegroundworkofthediscoursesoftheFourthGospel,whilstthe
historicalframeworkcamefromanotherhandandislesstrustworthy.EwaldheldthatSt.JohncomposedtheGospelwiththeaidoffriendsanddiscipleswhosepensarediscernible
inthebodyofthework,whilstthe21stchapterisentirelytheirs,thoughwrittenwiththeApostlessanctionandbeforehisdeath.Dr.E.A.AbbottholdsthatJohnthesonofZebedee
wastheauthoroftheGospel,butnotinitspresentshape.Hesaysthatviewedashistorythedocumentmustbeanalyzedsoastoseparatefactfromnotfact,butthatithas
considerablevalueincorrectingimpressionsderivedfromtheSynopticGospels,whilstthespiritualsignificanceoftheGospelisexceedinglyhigh.Harnackattributestheauthorship
toJohntheElderofEphesus,adiscipleoftheApostle,whohasincorporatedinhisworksomeofhisteachersreminiscences,sothatitmightbestyledGospelofJohntheElder
accordingtoJohntheSonofZebedee.HeholdsthattheGospel,thethreeEpistlesandtheApocalypseinitslatest,i.e.itsChristian,form,wereallwrittenbyJohntheElderinAsia
about A. D.100.BoussetascribestheGospeltoadiscipleofthisJohn,whohadaccesstotraditionalknowledgeconcerningChristsJudgnministrywhichenabledhiminsome
respectstocorrectandtosupplementtheSynopticaccounts.Schmiedel,ontheotherhand,considersthattheGospelcannotbetheworkofanyeyewitness,Apostolicornon
Apostolic,andthatitwasnotmeanttorecordactualhistory.Theauthorisagreatandeminentsoul,inwhomthetendenciesofhistime(about A. D.120)arebroughttofocusand
hefindsintheGospeltheripestfruitofprimitive
Christianityatthesametimethefurthestremovedfromtheoriginalform.
ThementionofJohntheElderbringstoviewtheonlydefinitealternativetheoryofauthorshipthathasgainedmuchsupport.Itisbaseduponamuch
discussedpassagefromPapias,preservedforusbyEusebius(HEiii.39),ofwhichthefollowingsentenceisthemostimportant:If,then,anyonecamewhohad
beenafolloweroftheelders,IquestionedhiminregardtothewordsoftheelderswhatAndreworwhatPetersaid,orwhatwassaidbyPhilip,orbyThomas,or
byJohn,orbyMatthew,orbyanyotherofthedisciplesoftheLord,andwhatthingsAristionandthepresbyterJohn,thedisciplesoftheLord,say.Uponthis
foundationthehypothesishasbeensetupthattheJohnwhoattheendofthe1stcent.gainedsuchapositionofinfluenceinEphesuswasnottheApostle,buta
presbyterofthesamename.ItfollowsthatIrenustotallymisunderstoodPolycarpwhenheclaimedtohaveheardJohn,imaginingthathemeanttheApostleand
moreover,thatPolycrateswasmistakeninhisreferencetotheApostlesresidenceinEphesusandfurther,thatClementofAlexandriaandthewholeChurchofthe
2ndcent.weresimilarlymisled.JohntheElderisatbestashadowypersonage.Dr.Salmoncontendedthathehadnorealexistence,butthatPapiasintheextract
namestheApostleJohntwiceover,thoughthroughhisslovenlinessofcompositionitmightseemasiftwodistinctpersonswereintended.Itwouldappear,
however,tobefairlyestablishedthatasecondJohn,knownasthePresbyter,wasrecognizedbyPapias,andperhapsbyEusebius,butheisanobscurefigure
historyisalmostentirelysilentabouthim,andthereisnoproofthathewaseverinAsiaatall.Itishardtobelievethatsuchapersonwasreallytheauthorofabook
whichsoboldlychallengedandsoseriouslymodifiedevangelicaltradition,andthat,byaninexplicablemistakewhicharosewithinthelivingmemoryofpersons
actuallyconcerned,hispersonalitywasconfusedwiththatofoneoftheinnercircleofthetwelveApostlesoftheLord.
5.SummaryandConclusion.Itwillbeseenthatsomeapproximationhastakenplacebetweentheviewsofthosewhohavedefendedandthosewhohave
assailedthetraditionalviewoftheauthorshipoftheGospel,sincethemiddleofthelastcentury.Itisfairlyagreedthatthedateofitscompositionmustbefixed
somewherebetweenA.D.90and110.ItisfurtheragreedbyalargemajorityofmoderatecriticsthattheGospelcontainshistoricalelementsofgreatvalue,which
musthavecomefromaneyewitness.TheseareindependentofallthesourcesuponwhichtheSynoptistshaddrawn,andtheyenableusinmanyimportant
particularstosupplementtheearliernarratives.Itisadmitted,further,thatthediscoursesatleastcontainvaluableoriginalmaterialwhichmayhavecomefromJohn
theApostle,thoughmanycontendthatthishasbeen
soworkedoverbyalaterhandthatitsgeneralcomplexionhasbeenaltered.Ontheotherhand,itisadmittedbymanywhomaintaintheJohannineauthorship, 88/124
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soworkedoverbyalaterhandthatitsgeneralcomplexionhasbeenaltered.Ontheotherhand,itisadmittedbymanywhomaintaintheJohannineauthorship,
thattheApostlemusthavewrittentheGospelinadvancedage,thathemayhavebeenaidedbyothers,thathehascasthisreminiscencesintoacharacteristicform
determinedbytheworkingofamindsaturatedwiththeteachingofChristbutretainingitsownindividuality,andthathewasofnecessitylargelyinfluencedbythe
conditionsofthetimeinwhichhewrote.
Itisnotpretendedthatthemeasureofapproximationthusreachedamountstoagreement.ThedifferenceintimebetweenA.D.90and110mayappearslight,but
theearlierdateadmitsthepossibilityofApostolicauthorship,andthelaterdoesnot.Theagreementtorecognizeelementsofvalueinthehistoricalportionofthe
Gospelisimportant,butitdoesnotextendtotheadmissionofthepossibilitythatonewhohadhimselfwitnessedwithhisowneyesthesignsandmightyworksthat
Jesuswrought,didalsoatthecloseofhisliferecordwithsubstantialaccuracywhathehadheardandseen,sothatreadersoftodaymaybeassuredthattheyare
studyinghistoryandnotaworkofpiousImagination.Thedeepchasmremainspracticallyunbridgedwhichseparatesthose,ontheonehand,whoholdthatthe
viewofthePersonandworkofChristtakenintheFourthGospelcanclaimtheauthorityofaneyewitness,oneofthemenwhocompaniedwithusallthetimethat
theLordJesuswentinandwentoutamongus,and,ontheother,thosewhoholdthatthedocumentcontainsadevelopedandpracticallyunhistorical
representationoffacts,devisedtosupportadoctrinalpositionwhichbelongsessentiallynottothefirst,buttothefourthgenerationofprimitiveChristians.
Thisdistinctionisdeepandvital.Itneednotbeexaggerated,asifsuchrepresentativescholarsasHarnackandSchrerononeside,andSandayandDrummond
ontheother,arefundamentallyantagonisticintheirviewsofChristianity.Butthedistinctionshouldnotbeminimized,foradeepdoctrinaldifferenceisoftentacitly
impliedbyit.JohnthePresbytermayseemtoberemovedbybutahairsbreadthfromJohntheApostleatwhosefeethesat,butitisaquestionofvitalimportance
totheChristianfaithoftodaywhether,whenwereadthefirstandtheeighthandthefourteenthchaptersoftheFourthGospel,wearelisteningtothevoiceofan
Apostlerecallingthememoriesofyearslongpastandrecordingtheminaformsuitedtostrengthenthebeliefofhisownandsucceedingtimes,ortoadeveloped
doctrinalmanifestooftheearly2ndcent.,inwhichareincludedafewreminiscencesderivedfromthelipsofanagedApostlebeforehepassedawayfromearth.
Thedifferencethusindicatedcanwithdifficultyberemoved,becauseitdependsuponastilldeeperdifferenceinthemodeofviewingChristianorigins.Thepoint
reallyatissuebetweentwoclassesofscholarsandcriticsisthisDidthefactsandevents,aselectedrecordofwhichiscontainedintheFourthGospel,takeplace
substantiallyasdescribed,orhasareconstructionoftheoriginaltraditionbeeneffected,inallgoodfaith,fordogmaticpurposes?IsthepictureoftheuniquePerson
heredescribedafaithfulreflexionofaDivineReality,orhasthecomparativelydistantremembranceofatrueprophetbeensublimatedintotheportrayalofsucha
Beingasneveractuallylivedandspokeonearth?
AspiritualGospelmustbespirituallydiscerned.Externalevidenceismostimportantinitsplace,andinthisinstancethetestimonywhichassignstheGospelto
theApostleJohnisearly,widespread,explicit,andpracticallyunchallengedintheearlyChurch.Internalevidences,again,aremostvaluable,andtheclaims
directlyandindirectlymadebythewriterhavebeenbrieflydescribedinthisarticle,andthelinesalongwhichavindicationofthoseclaimsmaybeestablishedhave
beenindicated.Also,indeterminingadisputedquestionofauthorship,alternativetheoriesshouldbecomparedandtheirrelativeprobabilityestimated.Accordingly,
ithasherebeencontendedthatthebalanceofprobabilityisdecidedlyinfavourofJohannineauthorship,thoughsomedifficultiesinvolvedinthathypothesishave
notbeendenied,andthepossibilityofcooperationonthepartofJohnsdisciplesinEphesushasnotbeenexcluded.Butevidencescannotprovespiritualtruth,
andtheultimatecriterionbetweendifferentviewsofthisGospelispracticallyfurnishedbythewritersownwords,Thesearewritten,thatyemaybelievethatJesus
istheChrist,theSonofGod.ThosewhoholdsuchviewsofGod,ofJesusChrist,ofhistory,andoftheChristianreligion,astobeabletoaccepttheviewthatJesus
ofNazarethwasindeedtheSonofGod,theWordofGodIncarnate,whowroughtworksthatnevermanwroughtandspokewordssuchasmeremanneverspake,
whodiedforoursinsandroseagainfromthedeadandlivesnowtoimpartthegiftofthatSpiritwhomHepromisedwillfindlittledifficultyinacceptingthe
statementthatJohntheApostlewhosawthethingsrecordedintheGospelhathbornewitness,andhiswitnessistrue.Thosetowhomsuchstatementsareonother
groundsquiteincredible,andwhoascribethemnottothereligionofJesusandHisfirstdisciples,buttothedogmaofaperiodwhichhadadvancedbeyondthe
teachingofPaultoapointwhichischaracteristicofthe2ndcent.,willnaturallyadoptanytheoryofauthorshipthatthecaseallowsratherthanadmitthattheFourth
GospelwaswrittenbythesonofZebedee.Absolutedemonstrationisfromthenatureofthecaseimpossible,butitmayfairlybesaidthattheexternalandinternal
evidencescombinedaresuchaswouldinanyordinarycase,andapartfromalldoctrinalprepossessions,beconsideredstrong,ifnotconclusive,infavourofthe
JohannineauthorshipoftheGospel.Itmaybesaidinclosingthattheconditionsofcurrentopinionhavemadeitnecessarytodevotethisarticlealmostentirelyto
thediscussionofthequestionofauthorship.ButthecontentsandnatureoftheGospelhaveincidentallybeenbroughtsomewhatfullyintoview,andanoutlineofits
theologicalteachingwillbefoundinasubsequentarticle.JOHNTHEOLOGYOF].
W.T.DAVISON.
JOHN,EPISTLESOF.ThethreeEpistlesknownbythisnamehavefromthebeginningbeenattributedtotheApostleJohn,andwereadmittedas
canonicalinthe3rdcentury.Somepointsofobvioussimilarityinstyleanddictionindicateaconnexionbetweenthem,buttheirinternalcharacterandthe
externalevidenceintheirfavouraresodifferentthatitwillbeconvenienttodealwiththemseparately.I.FIRSTEPISTLE
1.Authorship,Genuineness,etc.TheEpistlerankedfromthefirstamongthe
Homologoumena,andthetestimonyinfavourofitsauthenticityisearly,varied,andexplicit.ItsgreatsimilaritytotheFourthGospelinphraseologyandgeneral
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Homologoumena,andthetestimonyinfavourofitsauthenticityisearly,varied,andexplicit.ItsgreatsimilaritytotheFourthGospelinphraseologyandgeneral
characteristicsmadeitnaturaltoattributethetwodocumentstothesameauthorandfewquestions,ornone,wereraiseduponthesubjecttillcomparativelyrecent
years.Averysmallnumberofeminentcriticsatpresentdisputetheidentityofauthorship.
(1)Sofarasexternalevidenceisconcerned,Polycarp,writingaboutA.D.115tothePhilippians,quotesthewords,ForwhosoeverdoesnotconfessthatJesus
Christiscomeinthefleshisantichrist,withevidentallusionto1Jn4:3,thoughtheauthorisnotnamed.PolycarpwasadiscipleofJohn,ashisowndisciple
Irenusinformsus.EusebiusseveraltimesreferstothisEpistle,saying(HEv.20)thatPapiasuseditand(v.8)thatIrenusmadefreeuseofit.Thepassages1Jn
2:18and5:1areexpresslyattributedbyIrenustotheApostle.AccordingtotheMuratorianCanon,EpistleandGospelwerecloselyassociated:Whatwonderthat
JohnmakessomanyreferencestotheFourthGospelinhisEpistle,sayingofhimselfandthenfollowsaquotationof1Jn1:1.ClementofAlexandriaattheclose
ofthe2ndcent.quotes516asthewordsofJohninhislargerEpistle.Tertullianquotesthelanguageof1:1asthatoftheApostleJohn,andOrigendefinitelyrefers
thewordsof3:8toJohninhiscatholicEpistle.AlltheancientversionsincludetheEpistleamongthosecanonicallyrecognized,includingthePeshittaandtheOld
Latin.TheonlyexceptionstothispracticallyuniversalrecognitionofitsgenuinenessandauthenticityaretheunbelieversvaguelycalledAlogi,becausethey
rejectedthedoctrineoftheLogos,andMarcion,whoacceptednobooksofNTexceptSt.LukesGospelandSt.PaulsEpistles.Sofarasexternaltestimonyis
concerned,theearlyrecognitionoftheEpistleaswrittenbySt.Johnisconclusivelyestablished.
(2)ThesimilarilyofdictionbetweenGospelandEpistleissoclosethatitcannotbeaccidental,anditcannotescapethenoticeofthemostsuperficialreader.The
repeateduse,inacharacteristicway,ofsuchcardinalwordsasLife,Love,Truth,Light,andDarknesstherecurrenceofphraseswhichinbothdocumentsfigureas
watchwords,tobeofthetruth,ofthedevil,oftheworldtheonlybegottenSon,theWord,knowingGod,walkinginthelight,overcomingtheworld,
andthespecialuseofthewordbelieve,speakforthemselves.Theuseofliteraryparallelsalwaysrequirescarebutinthiscasethesimilarityissocloseas
incontestablytoestablishaconnexionbetweenthetwodocuments,whilstthehandlingofthesamevocabularyissofreeasirresistiblytosuggest,notthatthewriter
oftheGospelborrowedfromtheEpistle,orviceversa,butthatthetwowritingsproceedfromthesamehand.Ifthisisso,thegenuinenessofeachisdoubly
attested.
Jos.Scaligerinthe16thcent.waspracticallythefirsttochallengethegenuinenessofallthreeEpistles,butnotuntilthetimeofBaurandtheTbingenschoolof
criticsinthelastcenturywasasustainedattackmadeuponthem.SincethattimetherehaveneverbeenwantingcriticswhohavedeniedtheJohannineauthorshipof
theFirstEpistle.SomecontendthatGospelandEpistleproceedfromthesameauthor,who,however,wasnottheApostleJohn,butJohnthePresbyterorsomelater
writer.TheviewtakenbyHoltzmann,Schmiedel,andsomeothersisthatthetwodocumentscomefromdifferentwriterswhobelongtothesamegeneralschoolof
thought.
ThechiefgroundoftheobjectionsraisedagainsttheJohannineauthorshipoftheFirstEpistleistheallegedpresenceofreferencestohereticalmodesofthought
whichbelongtoalaterage.Docetism,Gnosticism,andevenMontanismare,itissaid,directlyorindirectlyrebuked,andtheseformsoferrordonotbelongtothe
Apostolicperiod.Thereplyisthreefold,(a)ThosewhoascribetheEpistletoJohntheApostledonotdateitbeforethelastdecadeofthe1stcent.,whenthe
ApostolicagewaspassingintothesubApostolic.(b)Noreferencestofullgrown
Gnosticismandothererrorsastheywereknowninthemiddleofthe2ndcent.canherebefound.But(c)itcanbeshownfromothersourcesthatthegermsofthese
heresies,thegeneraltendencieswhichresultedafterwardsinfullydevelopedsystems,existedintheChurchforatleastagenerationbeforetheperiodinquestion,
andatthetimenamedwerebothrifeandmischievous.
Thepointschieflyinsistedonare:thedoctrineoftheLagostheformoftherebukegiventotheantichriststhereferencestoknowledgeandanointingtheinsistenceupon
thecomingofChristintheflesh,incondemnationofDoceticerrorthedistinctionbetweenmortalandvenialsinsandsomeminorobjections.Inreply,itmayhesaidthatnoneof
theseisdefiniteorexplicitenoughtorequirealaterdatethan A. D.100.TheEpistleisindeedindirectlypolemicinitscharacter.Whileconstructiveinthought,thepassingreferences
madeinittoopponentsofthetrutharestrongenoughtomakeitclearthattheoppositionwasactiveanddangerous.Butthereisnothingtoshowthatanyofthosecondemnedas
enemiesofChristhadmorefullydevelopedtendenciesthan,forexample,CerinthusisknowntohavemanifestedinhisChristologyattheendofthe1stcentury.Judaizing
Gnosticismhadappearedmuchearlierthanthis,asisevidencedbytheEpistlestotheColossiansandthePastoralEpistles.TheuseofthewordsParaclete(2:1)andpropitiation
(2:2),andthewayinwhichthecomingofChristismentionedin2:28,havealsobeenbroughtforwardasproofsofdivergencefromtheteachingoftheGospel,onveryslenderand
unconvincinggrounds.
2.PlaceandDate.Whilstverylittleevidenceisforthcomingtoenableustofixexactlyeitherofthese,thegeneralconsensusoftestimonypointsvery
decidedlytoEphesusduringthelastfewyearsofthe1stcentury.Irenus(adv.Hr.iii.1)testifiestotheproductionoftheGospelbySt.Johnduringhisresidence
inAsia,andtheprobabilityisthattheEpistlewaswrittenaftertheGospel,andis.chronologicallyperhapstheverylatestofthebooksoftheNT.If,assome
maintain,itwaswrittenbeforetheGospel.itcannotbeplacedmuchearlier.Thedeterminationofthisquestionisboundupwiththeauthorshipanddateofthe
Apocalypse,asubjectwhichisdiscussedelsewhere.(SeeREVELATION[BOOKOF]).
3. FormandDestinationThisdocumenthassomeofthecharacteristicsofaletter,andinsomerespectsitismorelikeatheologicaltreatiseorhomiletical 90/124
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3.FormandDestinationThisdocumenthassomeofthecharacteristicsofaletter,andinsomerespectsitismorelikeatheologicaltreatiseorhomiletical
essay.ItmaybestbedescribedasanEncyclicalorPastoralEpistle.Itwasaddressedtoacircleofreaders,asisshownbythewords,Iwriteuntoyou,beloved,
andlittlechildren,butitwasnotrestrictedtoanyparticularchurch,nordoesitcontainanyspecificpersonalmessages.Thetermcatholicepistlewasusedfrom
veryearlytimestoindicatethisformofcomposition,butinallprobabilitythechurchesofAsiaMinorwerekeptmoreespeciallyinviewbythewriterwhenhe
pennedwordswhichwereinmanyrespectssuitablefortheChurchofChristatlarge.AreferenceinAugustineto3:2astakenfromJohnsEpistletotheParthians
hasgivenrisetomuchconjecture,butthetitlehasseldombeentakenseriouslyinitsliteralmeaning.Itisquitepossiblethatthereissomemistakeinthetextofthe
passage(Qus.Evang.ii.39).
4.OutlineandContents.WhetherGospelorEpistlewaswrittenfirst,therelationbetweenthetwoisperfectlyclear.InboththeApostlewritesfor
edification,butintheGospelthefoundationsofChristianfaithanddoctrineareshowntolieinhistoryintheEpistletheeffectsofbeliefaretracedoutinpractice.
Inboththesamegreatcentraltruthsareexhibited,inthesameformandalmostinthesamewordsbutintheGospeltheyaretracedtotheirfountandorigininthe
EpistletheyarefollowedouttotheironlylegitimateissuesinthespiritandconductofChristiansintheworld.Sofarasthereisadifferenceinthepresentationof
truth,itmayperhapsbeexpressedinBishopWestcottswords:ThethemeoftheEpistleis,theChristisJesusthethemeoftheGospelis,JesusistheChrist.Or,as
hesaysinanotherplace:ThesubstanceoftheGospelisacommentaryontheEpistle:theEpistleis(sotospeak)thecondensedmoralandpracticalapplicationof
theGospel.
Thestyleissimple,butbafflinginitsverysimplicity.Thesentencesareeasyforachildtoread,theirmeaningisdifficultforawisemanfullytoanalyze.Sowith
thesequenceofthought.Eachstatementfollowsverynaturallyuponthepreceding,butwhentherelationofparagraphsistobeexplained,andtheplanorstructure
ofthewholecompositionistobedescribed,systematizationbecomesdifficult,ifnotimpossible.Logicalanalysisisnot.however,alwaysthebestmodeof
exposition,andifthewriterhasnotconsciouslymappedoutintoexactsubdivisionsthegroundhecovers,hefollowsouttotheirissuestwoorthreeleading
thoughtswhichhekeepsconsistentlyinviewthroughout.ThethemeisfellowshipwiththeFatherandtheSon,realizedinloveofthebrethren.Farrardividesthe
wholeintothreesections,withtheheadings,Godislight,Godisrighteous,Godislove.Plummerreducesthesetotwo,omittingthesecond.Withsomesuch
generalcluetoguidehim,thereaderwillnotgofarastrayininterpretingthethoughtoftheEpistle,anditsoutlinemightbearrangedasfollows:
Introduction:Thelifeoffellowshipthatissuesfromknowledgeofthegospel(1:14).
i.GODISL IGHT.ThebelieverswalkwithGodinlight(1:510)sinanditsremedy(2:16)thelife
ofobedience(2:717):fidelityamidstdefection(2:1829).
ii.GODISRIGHTEOUSL OVE.TruesonshipofGodmanifestedinbrotherlylove(3:112).Brotherhood
inChristatestofallegianceandagroundofassurance(3:1324).ThespiritsofTruthandError(4:16).ThemanifestationofGodasLovethesourceandinspirationofallloving
service(4:721).ThevictoryoffaithinLoveIncarnate(5:112).
Conclusion:TheassuredenjoymentofLifeEternal(5:1321).
Suchanoutlineisnot,however,asufficientguidetothecontentsoftheEpistle,andaverydifferentarrangementmightbejustified.Thewriterdoesnot,
however,ashasbeenasserted,ramblewithoutmethod,noristheEpistleashapelessmass.Theprogressdiscernibleinitisnotthestraightforwardmarchofthe
logicianwhoproceedsbyorderedstepsfrompremisestoaforeseenconclusion:itisrathertheascentbyspiralcurvesofthemeditativethinker.St.Johnishereno
dreamermorepracticalinstructionisnottobefoundinSt.PaulorSt.James.Buthisexhortationsdonotenterintodetails:heisconcernedwithprinciplesof
conduct,theminuteapplicationofwhichheleavestotheindividualconscience.Theenunciationofprinciples,however,isuncompromisingandverysearching.His
standpointisthatoftheidealChristianlife,notoftheefforttoattainit.OnewhoisbornofGodcannotsintheloveofGodisperfectedinthebeliever,and
perfectlovecastsoutfear.TheassuredtoneoftheEpistleallowsnoroomfordoubtorhesitationorconflictonewhoisguidedbyitsteachinghasnoneedtopray.
Helpthoumyunbelief.Thespiritoftruthandthespiritoferrorareinsharpantagonismandthetouchstonewhichdistinguishesthemmustberesolutelyapplied.
Theworld,theevilone,andantichristaretoberepelledabsolutelyandtotheuttermostthewriterandthosewhomherepresentscansay,Weknowthatweare
ofGod,andthewholeworldliethintheevilone.Brightlightcastsdeepshadows,andthetrueChristianofthisEpistlewalksintheblazeofgospelday.Onewho
knowsthetrueGodandhaseternallifecannotbutguardhimselffromidols.
ThewriterofsuchanEpistleisappropriatelycalledtheApostleoflove.Yetthetitletakenbyitselfismisleading.HeistheApostleequallyofrighteousnessand
offaith.Helovedwellbecausehehatedhatedthewickednesswhichhindersloving.Thereisasternring,implyinghowevernoharshness,aboutthevery
exhortationstolove,whichshowshowindissolublyitistobeidentifiedwithimmutableandinviolablerighteousness.IftothisEpistleweowethegreatutterance,
GodisLoveheretwicerepeated,butfoundnowhereelseinScripturetoitweowealsothesublimedeclaration,GodisLight,andinhimisnodarknessatall.
AndtheEpistle,aswellastheGospel,makesitabundantlyclearthatthespringofChristianloveandthesecretofChristianvictoryoverevilarealiketobefoundin
believing:intheimmovableandineradicablefaiththatJesusChrist,theSonofGod,iscomeintheflesh,andthatinHimtheloveofGodtomanissomanifested
andassuredthatthosewhotrustHimalreadypossesseternallife,togetherwithallthatitimpliesofstrengthandjoy,andallthatflowsfromitofobedienceand
lovingservice.
Textualquestionscanhardlybetoucheduponinthisarticle.ButitisperhapsworthpointingoutthatwhilstthecorrectedtextrestorestheUtterhalfof2:23,whichinAVis
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Textualquestionscanhardlybetoucheduponinthisarticle.ButitisperhapsworthpointingoutthatwhilstthecorrectedtextrestorestheUtterhalfof2:23,whichinAVis
printedinitalicsasdoubtful,therecannowbenoquestionthatthepassage(5:7,8)referringtothethreewitnessesinheaven,asreadinAV.doesnotformpartoftheEpistle.The
wordsarewantinginallGreekMSSexceptafewofexceedinglylatedatenoraretheyfoundinthemajorityoftheGreekFathers,orinanyancientversionexcepttheLatin.They
undoubtedlyformaglosswhichfounditswayintothetextfromLatinsourcesandtheinsertionreallybreakstheconnexionofthoughtintheparagraph.
II.THES ECONDEPISTLE.TheSecondandThirdEpistlesofSt.JohnaredistinguishedfromtheFirstbytheirbrevity,theabsenceofdogmaticteaching,and
theirprivateandpersonalcharacter.TheyarefoundamongtheAntilegomenaoftheearlyChurchintheirrelationtotheCanon:apparentlynotbecausetheywere
unknown,orbecausetheirauthorshipwasquestioned,butbecausetheirnaturemadethemunsuitableforuseinthepublicworshipoftheChurch.TheMuratorian
Canon(A.D.180)referstotwoEpistlesofJohnasreceivedintheCatholicChurch,andIrenusaboutthesamedatespecificallyquotes2Jn10f.ascomingfrom
JohnthediscipleoftheLord.Healsoquotesv.7apparentlyasoccurringintheFirstEpistle.ClementofAlexandriabyamentionofJohnslargerEpistleshows
thathewasacquaintedwithatleastoneothershorterletter.Origenstatesthatthetwoshorterletterswerenotacceptedbyallasgenuine,butheaddsthatboth
togetherdonotcontainahundredlines.DionysiusofAlexandriaappealstothem,addingthatJohnsnamewasnotaffixedtothem,butthattheyweresignedthe
presbyter.TheyareomittedfromthePeshittaVersion,andEusebiusdescribesthemasdisputedbysome,butinthelater4thcent.theywerefullyacknowledged
andreceivedintotheCanon.TheSecondEpistle,therefore,thoughnotuniversallyacceptedfromthefirst,waswidelyrecognizedasApostolic,andsoshortaletter
ofsodistinctlypersonalacharactercouldneverhavebeenrankedbytheChurchamonghersacredwritingsexceptupontheunderstandingthatitborewithitthe
authorityoftheApostleJohn.ThetitletheElderdoesnotmilitateagainstthis,butrathersupportsit.Noordinarypresbyterwouldassumethestyleoftheelderand
writeinsuchatoneofabsolutecommand,whilstananonymouswriter,wishingtoclaimthesanctionoftheApostle,wouldhaveinsertedhisname.Butnomotive
foranythinglikeforgerycaninthiscasebealleged.ThesimilarityinstyletotheFirstEpistleisverymarked.JeromeamongtheFathers,Erasmusatthetimeofthe
Reformation,andmanymoderncriticshaveascribedtheEpistletoJohnthePresbyterofEphesus,butthereisnoearlyreferencetosuchapersonexceptthe
statementofPapiasquotedbyEusebiusandreferredtoinapreviousarticle.
Muchdiscussionhasarisenconcerningthepersonaddressed.Thetwoleadingopinionsare(1)thatthewordselectladyandherchildrenaretobeunderstoodliterallyofa
ChristianmatroninEphesusandherfamilyand(2)thatachurchpersonified,withitsconstituentmembers,wasintended.Jeromeinancienttimestookthelatterview,andinour
owndayithasbeensupportedbyscholarssodifferentfromoneanotherasLightfoot,Wordsworth,Hilgenfeld,andSchmiedel.Itisclaimedonthissidethattheexhortationsgiven
aremoresuitedtoacommunity,thatthechildrenofthineelectsistercanbeunderstoodonlyofasisterchurch,andthatthismodeofdescribingachurchpersonifiedisnot
unusual,asin1P5:13,ShethatisinBabylon,electtogetherwithyou,salutethyou.Ontheotherhand,itisurgedthatthismysticalinterpretationdestroysthesimplicityand
naturalmeaningoftheletter(seeespeciallyvv.5,10),thatthechurchbeingconstitutedofmembers,thedistinctionbetweentheladyandherchildrenwoulddisappear,andthat
iftheladybeaprivatepersonofinfluencetheparallelwiththeformofsalutationtoanotherprivatepersonintheThirdEpistleiscomplete.Thishypothesisstillleavesdifficultyin
theexactinterpretationofthewordsEklektKyria.Somewouldtakeboththeseasthepropernamesofthepersonaddressedotherstaketheformerashername,sothatshewould
betheladyEklekt,otherswouldrendertotheelectKyria,whilstthemajorityaccept,inspiteofitsindefiniteness,thetranslationofAVandRV.Onthewhole,thiscourseisto
bepreferred,thoughtheviewthatachurchisintendednotonlyistenablebuthasmuchinitsfavour.Thefactthattheearlychurchessooftengatheredinahouse,andthattherewas
sostrongapersonalandindividualelementintheircommunitylife,makestheanalogybetweenaprimitivechurchandalargeandinfluentialfamilytobeveryclose.Thusan
ambiguitymayarisewhichwouldnotbepossibletoday.
Itremainsonlytosaythat,asinstyle,soinspirit,thesimilarityto1Jn.isverynoticeable.
Thesameemphasisislaidonlove,onobedience,onfellowshipwiththeFatherandtheSon,andtheinestimableimportanceofmaintainingandabidinginthetruth.
Thesamestrongresentmentismanifestedagainstdeceiversandtheantichrist,andthesameintensityoffeelingagainstunbelieversorfalseteachers,whoarenotto
be received into the house of a believer, or to have any kindly greeting accorded them. Whether the Epistle was actually addressed to a private person or to a
Christiancommunity,itfurnishesamostinterestingpictureofthelife,thefaith,andthedangersandtemptationsoftheprimitiveChristiansinAsiaMinor,andit
containswholesomeanduncompromising,notharshandintolerant,exhortation,suchasChristianChurchesinallagesmaynotunprofitablylaytoheart.
III.THIRDEPISTLE.ThetwoshorterEpistlesofSt.JohnwerecalledbyJerometwinsisters.Theyappeartohavebeenrecognizedtogetheratleastfromthe
timeofDionysiusofAlexandria,andtheyarementionedtogetherbyEusebius(HEiii.25),whoreferstotheEpistlescalledthesecondandthirdofJohn,whether
theybelongtotheEvangelistortoanotherpersonofthesamename.TheyarefoundtogetherintheOldLatinVersion,arebothomittedfromthePesh.,andthey
wereincludedtogetherinthelistsofcanonicalbooksattheendofthe4thcent.bytheCouncilofLaodiceaandtheThirdCouncilofCarthage.Referencestothe
ThirdEpistleandquotationsfromitarenaturallyveryfew.Itisshort,itwaswrittentoaprivateperson,itdoesnotdiscussdoctrine,anditscounselsandmessages
arealmostentirelypersonal.ButitscloserelationshiptotheSecondEpistleisveryobvious,andthetwoformcompanionpicturesofvaluefromthepointofviewof
historyandSt.JohnsThirdEpistle,likeSt.PaulspersonallettertoPhilemon,isnotwithoutuseforgeneraledification.
Thepersontowhomitisaddressedisquiteunknown.ThenameGaius(Lat.Caius)isverycommon,andthreeotherpersonssocalledarementionedinNT,
viz.,GalusofCorinth(1Co1:14cf.Ro16:23)GaiusofDerbe(Ac20:4)andGalusofMacedonia(Ac19:29).AbishopofPergamos,appointedbytheApostle
JohnandmentionedintheApostolicConstitutions,wasalsocalledGaius,andsomecriticsaredisposedtoidentifyhimwithSt.Johnscorrespondent.Thisis,
however,amereconjecture,andtheletterisaddressed,nottoachurchofficial,buttoaprivatelayman,apparentlyofsomewealthandinfluence.Itiswrittenina
freeandnaturalstyle,anddealswiththecaseofsomeofthosetravellingevangelistswhofiguredsoprominentlyintheprimitiveChurch,andtowhomreferenceis92/124
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freeandnaturalstyle,anddealswiththecaseofsomeofthosetravellingevangelistswhofiguredsoprominentlyintheprimitiveChurch,andtowhomreferenceis
madeintheDidacheandelsewhere.Someofthese,perhapscommissionedbyJohnhimself,hadvisitedtheChurchtowhichGaiusbelonged,hadbeenhospitably
entertainedbyhim,andhelpedforwardontheirjourney,probablywithmaterialassistance.ButDiotrephesanofficialofthechurch,perhapsitsbishopora
leadingelderwholovedpower,assertedhimselfarrogantly,andwasdisposedtoresisttheApostlesauthority.Hedeclinedtoreceivetheseworthymenwhoat
theirownchargeswerepreachingthegospelinthedistrict.Healsostirredupfeelingagainstthem,andatleastthreatenedtoexcommunicateanymembersofthe
churchwhoentertainedthem.TheevilexampleofDiotrephesisheldupforcondemnation,whilstincontrasttohim,acertainDemetriusispraised,whose
reputationintheChurchwasexcellent,whohadwontheconfidenceoftheApostle,andhighercommendationstillhadthewitnessofthetruthitself.Triedby
thestrictestandmostsearchingtestofall,thesterlingmetalofDemetriuscharacterrangtrue.Fullinformationisnotgivenusastoallthecircumstancesofthecase.
ProbablyDiotrepheswasnotwhollytobeblamed.Itwasquitenecessary,astheDidacheshowsus,toinquirecarefullyintothecharacteroftheseitinerant
preachers.Someofthemweremercenaryintheiraims,andtheconflictofopinioninthisinstancemayhavehadsomeconnexionwiththecurrentcontroversies
betweenJewishandGentileChristians.ButitisthespiritofDiotrephesthatisblameworthy,andthelittlepictureheredrawnofprimitiveecclesiasticalcommunities
withtheirflawsandtheirexcellences,theirworthymembersandambitiousofficers,theirgeneroushostsandkindlyhelpers,andtheabsentApostlewhobearsthe
careofallthechurchesandisabouttopaytothisoneavisitoffatherlyandfriendlyinspection,isfullofinterestandinstruction.
Wehavenoinformationastothetimeatwhich,ortheplacesfromandtowhich,thesebriefletterswerewritten.Theyrank,withtheGospelandtheFirstEpistle
ofSt.John,asamongthelatestdocumentsintheNT.
W.T.DAVISON.
JOHN,THEOLOGYOF.ItistheobjectofthisarticletogiveabriefaccountofSt.JohnsteachingascontainedinhisGospelandEpistles.Without
prejudginginanywaytheauthorshipoftheApocalypse,itwillbemoreconvenientthatthedoctrineofthatbookshouldbeconsideredseparately.Enoughifitbe
saidherethat,despitetheobviousandverystrikingdifferenceintheformandstyleofthebook,theunderlyingsimilaritiesbetweenitandthosetobenow
consideredarenolessremarkable.Carefulstudents,notblindedbythesymbolismandotherpeculiaritiesoftheRevelation,whohaveconcentratedattentionupon
itsmainideasandprinciples,havecometotheconclusionthatifitdidnotproceedfromthesamepenthatwrotetheGospelandEpistles,itbelongstothesame
schoolofChristianthought.SeeREVELATION
[BOOKOF].
1.SomegeneralcharacteristicsoftheteachingofSt.John.(1)Itwasnotinvainthatthedesignationthetheologianwasgiventohim,asinthetitleof
theApocalypseandelsewhere.ThewordmeansinthisconnexionthatitwasSt.JohnshabittoconsidereverysubjectfromthepointofviewoftheDivine.Notonly
isGodtohimthemostrealofallbeingsthatshouldbetrueofeveryreligiousmanbutallthedetailsofhisverypracticalteachingaretraceduptotheiroriginin
thenatureandwillofGod.TheopeningofhisGospelischaracteristic.Historyisviewedfromthestandpointofeternity,thelifeofJesusistobenarratednotfrom
thepointofviewofmerehumanobservation,butasatemporalmanifestationofeternalrealities.(2)Butitmustnotforamomentbeunderstoodthatthetreatment
ofhumanaffairsisvague,abstract,unreal.St.Johnhasafirmholdupontheconcrete,andhisinsightintotheactuallifeandneedsofmenispenetratingand
profound.HeisnotanalyticalasSt.Paulis,nordoeshedealwithindividualvirtuesandvicesasdoesSt.James.Butintheunityandsimplicityofafewgreat
principleshereachestotheveryheartofthings.Hismethodisoftendescribedasintuitive,contemplative,mystical.Theuseoftheseepithetsmaybejustified,butit
wouldbemisleadingtosupposethatateacherwhoviewslifefromsohighavantagegroundseeslessthanothers.Thehigheryouclimbupthemountainthefarther
youcansee.Thosewhocontrastthespiritualwiththepracticalcreateafalseantithesis.Thespiritualteacher,andhealone,canperceiveanddealwithhuman
nature,notaccordingtoitssuperficialappearances,butasitreallyisatitsverycore.(3)Onlyitmustnotbeforgottenthattheviewthustakenofnatureand
conductisideal,absolute,uncompromising.ThemoraldualismwhichischaracteristicofSt.JohnisinaccordancewiththesentencefromthegreatJudgmentseat.
Lightanddarknessgoodandeviltruthandfalsehoodlifeanddeaththesearebroughtintosharpandrelentlesscontrast.Halftones,delicatedistinctions,the
subtleandgradualfiningdownofprinciplesinthecomplexworkingofmotivesinhumanlife,disappearintheblazeoflightwhichSt.Johncausestostreamin
fromanotherworld.HethatisbegottenofGodcannotsin(1Jn3:9)hethatdenieththeSonhathnottheFather(2:23)weareofGod,thewholeworldliethin
theevilone(5:19).Suchamodeofregardinglifeisnotunreal,ifonlyitspointofviewbeborneinmind.Inthedramaofhumansocietythesuddenintroductionof
theseabsoluteandirreconcilableprinciplesofjudgmentwouldbedestructiveofdistinctionswhichhaveanimportanceoftheirown,buttheforces,asSt.John
describesthem,areactuallyatwork,andonedaytheirfundamentalandinalienablecharacterwillbemadeplain.(4)AnotherfeatureofSt.Johnsstyleand
methodwhicharrestsattentionatonceishischaracteristicuseofcertainwordsandphraseswitness(47times),truth,signs,world(78times),eternallife,
know(55),believe(98),glory,judgment,arebutspecimensofmany.Theyindicateaunityofthoughtandsysteminthewriterwhichfindsnopreciseparallel
elsewhereinScripture,thenearestapproach,perhaps,beinginthecharacteristicphraseologyofDeuteronomyintheOT.St.Johnisnotsystematicinthesenseof
presentinghisreaderswithcarefullyorderedreasoningaprogressiveargumentcompactedbylinksoflogicaldemonstration.Heseeslifewhole,andpresentsitas
awhole.Butallthatbelongstohumanlifefallswithincategorieswhich,fromtheoutset,areveryclearanddefinitetohisownmind.TheGospeliscarefully
constructedasanartisticwhole,theFirstEpistleisnot.Butallthethoughtsinbotharepresentedinasettingpreparedbythedefiniteideasofthewriter.Themolten
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constructedasanartisticwhole,theFirstEpistleisnot.Butallthethoughtsinbotharepresentedinasettingpreparedbythedefiniteideasofthewriter.Themolten
metalofChristianthoughtandfeelinghastakenshapeinthemouldofastrikinglyindividualmind:thecrystallizationoftheideasishiswork,andthereis
consequentlyaunityandsystemabouthispresentationofthemwhichmaybedescribedasdistinctlyJohannine.Thetruthhetaughtwasgaineddirectfromthe
Master,anditsformlargelyso.Butindescribingtheteachingweshallusethenameofthedisciple.
2.ThedoctrineofGodwhichunderliesthesebooksisassublimeinitsloftymonotheismasitisdistinctivelyChristianinitsmanifestationandunfolding.
NowriterofScriptureinsistsmorestronglyupontheunityandabsolutenessoftheonlyGod(Jn5:44),theonlytrueGod(17:3),whomnomanhathseenatany
time(1:18)yetnonemorecompletelyrecognizestheeternalSonshipoftheSon,thefulnessoftheGodheadseeninChrist,thepersonalityandDivineofficesof
theHolySpirit.ItistoSt.Johnthatweowethethreegreatutterances,GodisSpirit(Jn4:24),GodisLight(1Jn1:5),GodisLove(1Jn4:8,16).
ThedeductionsdrawnfromthedoctrineofthespiritualityofGodshowtheimportanceofitspracticalaspects.GodasSpiritisnotremotefrommen,butthisconceptionofHis
essencebringsHim,thoughinvisible,nearertomenthanever.GodasLightexhibitsHimselftousastruth,holiness,andrighteousness.Someinterpretersunderstandthephraseas
designatingthemetaphysicalbeingofGod,othersHisselfrevelationandselfimpartation.Thecontext,however,pointsrathertotheineffablepurityofHisnatureandtheneedof
holinessinthosewhoprofesstoholdfellowshipwithHim.ThatGodislovinguntoeveryman,oratleasttoIsrael,wasnonewdoctrinewhenJohntaughtbutuptothattimenone
hadeverpronouncedthewordsintheirprofoundsimplicityGodisLove.JohnhimselfcouldneverhaveconceivedthethoughthelearneditfromhisMaster.Butiftheformin
whichheexpresseditisaccurateandwhatChristiancanquestionit?,itmakesonethingofalltheology.LoveisnotsomuchanattributeofGodasanameforHimselfinthe
intimateandchangelessessenceofHisbeing.ThatthereistheslightestinconsistencybetweentheDivineloveandtheDivinerighteousnessisincrediblebutifGodislove,no
manifestationofGodsjusticecanevercontradictthisquintessentialprincipleofHisinmostnature.Again,thewordsthatfollowthestatementshowthatintheApostlesmindthe
practicalaspectsofthedoctrinewereprominent.Contemplationwithhimdoesnotmeanspeculation.AbstractapriorideductionsfromatheologonmenonarenotinSt.Johns
thought:hisconclusionsare,HethatlovethnotknowethnotGod(1Jn4:8),Wealsooughttoloveoneanother(v.11).Nordoesthishighteachingexcludecareful
discrimination.TheloveoftheFathertotheSon,Hislovetotheworldasthebasisofallsalvation,theclosersympathyandfellowshipwhichHegrantstobelieversasHisown
children,arenotconfusedwithoneanother.ButthestatementthatGodislovegoesbehindalltheseforthemoment,andteachesthattheprincipleofselfimpartationisessential,
energetic,andeveroperatingintheDivinenature,andthatitisinitselfthesourceofalllife,allpurifyingenergy,andallthatlovewhichconstitutesatthesametimethebinding
andthemotivepowerofthewholeuniverse.
3.TheLogos.TheobjectforwhichtheGospelwaswritten,wearetold,wasthatmenmightbelievethatJesuswasnotonlytheChrist,butalsotheSonof
God.TheformerbeliefwouldnotnecessarilychangetheirviewsoftheGodheadthelatter,ifintelligentlyheldandinterpretedinthelightofThomasconfession
(forinstance),wouldundoubtedlyaffectinsomedirectiontheintensemonotheismofonewhowasbornandbredaJew.WasitpossibletobelievethatinJesusGod
Himselfwasincarnate,andatthesametimetobelievecompletelyandardentlyintheunityofGod?TheanswerofthewriterisgivensubstantiallyinthePrologue,
inthedoctrineoftheEternalWord.ItisunnecessarytodiscussindetailwhenceJohnderivedtheword
Logos:thedoctrinewaspracticallyhisown.TherecanbelittlequestionthattheMemraoftheTargums,basedontheusageofsuchpassagesasPs33:6,147:15,
andIs55:11,formedthefoundationoftheidea,anditistolerablycertainthattheconnotationattachingtothewordhadbeenmodifiedbyPhilosuseofit.Itdoes
notfollow,however,thatSt.JohnusesthewordeitherasthePsalmistdid,orastheparaphrastortheAlexandrianphilosopheremployedit.Takingawordwhichhis
hearersandreadersunderstood,heputhisownstampuponit.PhiloandSt.JohnbothdrewfromHebrewsources.Philoemployedanexpressionwhichsuitedhis
philosophybecauseofitsmeaningreason,anditwasemployedbyhimmainlyinametaphysicalsense.St.John,however,availedhimselfofanothermeaningof
theGreekwordLogos,andheemphasizestheDivineutterance,whichrevealsthemindandwillofGodHimself,givingapersonalandhistoricalinterpretationto
thephrase.TheWord,accordingtotheteachingofthePrologue,isEternal,Divine,theMediatorofcreation,theLightofmankindthroughouthistoryandinthe
latterdaystheWordmadeflesh,tabernaclingamongstmen,istheOnlybegottenfromtheFatherfullofgraceandtruth.Thiscardinaldoctrineoncelaiddown,there
isnofurtherreferencetoitintheGospel,andintheonlyotherplacesinNTwhereasimilarexpressionisused(1Jn1:1andRev19:13)itisemployedwitha
difference.EvenintheProloguetheconceptionoftheWordisnotabstractandphilosophical,butwhentheintroductiontotheGospelisfinished,theideanever
appearsagainthenarrativeoftheonlySon,revealingforthefirsttimetheFatherinallHisfulness,proceedsasifnoaccountoftheLogoshadbeengiven.When
thebasisoftheGospelstoryhasbeenlaidinadeepdoctrineoftheEternalGodhead,theideahasdoneitswork,andintheactualnarrativeitisdiscarded
accordingly.TheChristologyofSt.JohnwouldbequiteincompletewithouthisdoctrineoftheLogos,butitisnotdependentonthis.ChristsuniquePersonalityas
SonofGodmaybefullyknownfromHislifeonearth,buttheProloguegivestothenarrativeofHisministryinthefleshabackgroundofhistoryandofeternity.In
allagestheLogoswasthemediumofDivinerevelation,asHehadbeenofcreationitself,andoftheGodheadbeforetheworldwas.Pretemporalexistenceand
preincarnateoperationhavingbeendescribedwithsublimebrevity,theEvangelistproceedscalmlywiththestorytowhichthisformsanaugustintroduction.See
alsoart.LOGOS.
4.TheFatherhoodofGod,andthedoctrineoftheHolySpirit.ItisunnecessarytopointouthowinfluentialtheProloguehasbeeninthehistoryof
Christianthought,butitiswelltorememberalsothattoSt.JohnmorethantoanyotherwriterweowethedevelopmentoftheChristiandoctrineoftheGodhead,as
modifiedbytheabovecardinalconceptions.ThedoctrinesoftheFatherhoodofGodandoftheHolySpiritasaDivinePersondonotindeeddependuponthe
witnessofSt.John.TheSynoptistsandSt.Paul,nottospeakofotherNTwriters,wouldfurnishaperfectlyadequatebasisforthesevitaltruthsofChristianfaith.
ButneitherwouldhaveinfluencedChristianthoughtsoprofoundly,andneitherwouldhavebeensoclearlyunderstood,withoutSt.JohnsteachingandChrists 94/124
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ButneitherwouldhaveinfluencedChristianthoughtsoprofoundly,andneitherwouldhavebeensoclearlyunderstood,withoutSt.JohnsteachingandChrists
wordsasreportedbyhim.ThemeaningofthetermSonofGodasappliedtoJesusisbroughttolightbytheFourthGospel.Withoutitwemightwellhavefailed
togainanadequateconceptionofFatherhoodandSonshipaseternalelementsintheDivinenature,andtheuniquerelationshipbetweentheFatherandtheSon
IncarnateisbroughtoutinthefifthandotherchaptersoftheGospelasnowhereelse.SowiththeChristiandoctrineoftheHolySpirit.ThewholeofScripturebears
itstestimony.EvenintheOTmoreissaidoftheSpiritofGodthanisoftenrecognized,andtheteachingofSt.PaulandSt.Lukeisfullofinstruction.Butwithout
thefarewelldiscoursesofChristtoHisApostlesasrecordedinJn1416,ourideasofHisPersonandofficewouldbecomparativelymeagre.Theveryterm
Paraclete,notfoundoutsidetheGospeland1Ep.,isitselfarevelation.ThepersonalityoftheSpiritandHisdistinctnessfromtheFatherandtheSon,whilst
Himselfonewiththem,areelucidatedwithgreatclearnessinthesechapters.Ontheotherhand,inhisEpistle,St.JohnhasmuchlesstosaythanSt.Paulofthe
Spiritinrelationtothelifeofthebeliever.
5.Onthesubjectsofsinandsalvation,St.Johnsteachingharmonizesfullywiththatofthe
NTgenerally,whilsthemaintainsanindividualnoteofhisown,andbringsoutcertainaspectsofChriststeachingasnoneoftheSynoptistsdoes.Tohimweowe
thedefinition,sinislawlessness(1Jn3:4).Hedescribessininthesingularasaprinciple,ratherthanactualsinsintheconcrete.Nodarklistsenumeratingthe
Proteanformsofsin,suchasarefoundinSt.Paul,occurinSt.John,butheemphasizeswithtremendouspowerthecontrastbetweenfleshandspirit,betweenlight
anddarkness.TheperennialconflictbetweentheseishintedatinthePrologue,anditisterriblymanifestalikeintheministryoftheSaviourandinthelifeofthe
Christianintheworld.ToSt.Johnswritingschieflyweowetheideaoftheworldasadarkanddireenemy,vagueandshadowyinoutline,butmostformidablein
itsoppositiontotheloveoftheFatherandthelightofthelifeofsonship.Theshadesofmeaninginwhichworldisemployedvary(see8:23,12:31,17:14,25,
18:36and1Jn2:15,16).TheexistenceofevilspiritsandtheirconnexionwiththesinofmanaredweltonbySt.Johninhisownway.Hedoesnotdwellonthe
phenomenaofdemoniacalpossession,buthehasmuchtosayofthedevilortheeviloneasapersonalembodimentoftheprincipleandpowerofevil.Uponhis
doctrineofAntichristandthesinuntodeathwecannotnowdwell.
Potentasaretheforcesofevil,perfectconquestoverthemmaybegained.ThevictoryhasalreadybeenvirtuallywonbyChristastheallsufficientSaviour,
whoasSonofGodwasmanifestedthatHemightundoorannultheworksofthedevil(1Jn3:8).Hisobjectwasnottocondemntheworld,buttosaveit(3:17).
ThattheCrossofChristwasthecentreofHiswork,andHisdeaththemeansthroughwhicheternallifewasobtainedformen,ismadeabundantlyclearfromseveral
differentpointsofview.JohntheBaptistpointstotheLambofGod,whotakesawaythesinoftheworld(1:29).TheSonofManistobeliftedupliketheserpent
inthewilderness(3:14),andwilldrawallmenuntoHimself(12:32).HegivesHisfleshforthelifeoftheworld(6:51).Onlythosewhoeathisfleshanddrinkhis
bloodhaveeternallife(6:5356).Heisthepropitiationforthesinsoftheworld(1Jn2:2,4:10),anditisHisbloodthatcleansesfromallsinthosewhowalkinthe
lightandhavefellowshipwiththeFatherandtheSon(1Jn1:7).St.Johndwellsbutlittleonthelegalaspectsofsinandatonementhisdoctrineonthesemattersis
characteristic,confirming,whilstinsupplements,thedoctrinesofSt.Paulconcerningjustificationandsanctification.WhatPauldescribesasentiresanctification
Johneulogizesasperfectlovetwonamesforthesamefullsalvation,twopathstothesameconsummategoal.
ItismostinstructivetocompareSt.PaulandSt.Johnintheirreferencestofaithandlove.NostudentofthesetwogreattwinbrethreninChristcoulddecidewhichofthem
deservestobecalledtheApostleoffaith,orwhichtheApostleoflove.St.Johnusesthewordfaithonlyonce(1Jn5:4),buttheverbbelieveoccursnearly200timesinhis
writings,andhisusageofitismoreplasticandversatilethanthatofSt.PaulorthewriterofHebrews.Again,ifthewordloveoccursmuchmorefrequentlyinSt.John,hehas
composednosuchhymninitshonourasisfoundin1Co13.ThelightheexhibitsasasimplewhiteraySt.Pauldispersesintoallthecoloursoftherainbow.Theshadesofmeaning
inSt.JohnsuseofthewordbelieveandhisdelicatedistinctionbetweentwoGreekwordsforlovedeservecarefulstudy.
6.ThetruebelieverinChristentersuponanewlife.ThenatureofthislifeisfullyunfoldedinSt.Johnswritings,intermswhichshowanessentialagreement
withotherpartsofNT,butwhichareatthesametimedistinctivelyhisown.ThedoctrineoftheNewBirthisoneexampleofthis.TheGospelgivesafullaccountof
thediscourseofChristwithNicodemusonthissubject,butbothGospelandEpistlecontainmanyoftheApostlesownstatements,whichshownoslavishimitation
onhisparteitherofthewordsoftheMasterorofPaul,butpresenthisownviewsasaChristianteacherconsistentlyworkedout.IntheProloguethecontrast
betweennaturalbirthofblood,ofthewilloftheflesh,ofthewillofman,andthebeingspirituallybornofGod,isverymarked.Thosewhoselifehasbeenthus
renewedaredescribedashavingtherighttobecomechildrenofGod,andtheconditionisthereceivingorbelievingonthenameofHimwho,asWordofGod,
hadcomeintotheworld.ThephraseusedforthemostpartinJn3andin1Jn.isbegottenagainoraneworfromabove.Thewordbegotten,notemployed
thusbyotherNTwriters,laysstressontheprimaryoriginofthenewlife,notsomuchonitschangedcharacter.TwoparticiplesareemployedinGreek,oneof
whichemphasizestheinitialact,theothertheresultingstate.Butallthepassages,includingespecially1Jn2:29,3:9,5:1,18,drawaverysharpcontrastbetween
thenewlifewhichthebelieverinChristenjoysandthenaturallifeoftheordinaryman.Hetowhomthenewlifehasbeenimpartedisanewbeing.Hedoeth
righteousness,hedoesnotcommitsin,hecannotsin,becausehehasbeenbegottenofGodandhisseedabidethinhim.Loveandknowledgearemarksofthis
newbegetting,andthenewlifeisgiventowhosoeverbelieveththatJesusistheChrist.Somedifficultyattachestotheinterpretationofoneclausein1Jn5:18,but
itisclearfromthatversethathewhoenjoysthenewlifedothnotsin,andthattheevilonetouchethhimnot.Thechangeismysterious,butveryreal,andthe
termusedbySt.Johntoindicatethisrelationchildren,insteadofsonsasisusualwithSt.Paullaysstressuponthecloseandintimatepersonalbondthus
created,ratherthanuponthestatusandprivilegesofsonship.St.John,aswemightexpect,emphasizesthevital,notthelegal,elementbelieversarenotmerely 95/124
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created,ratherthanuponthestatusandprivilegesofsonship.St.John,aswemightexpect,emphasizesthevital,notthelegal,elementbelieversarenotmerely
calledchildren,suchweare(1Jn3:1,2)andcannotbeotherwise.Whennewlifehasactuallybeeninfused,itmustmanifestitscharacteristicqualities.
ThenatureoftheChristiansvitalunionwithGodinChristisillustratedfromdifferentpointsofview.OurLordsallegorynotparableoftheVineandthe
Branchesisfullofinstruction,butnoanalogydrawnfromvegetablelifesufficesadequatelytodescribethefellowshipbetweenChristandHisdisciplesthisisrather
tobemouldedafterthepatternofthespiritualfellowshipbetweentheFatherandtheSon(Jn15:9,17:2123)andtheterms
communionandabidingarestronglycharacteristicoftheFirstEpistle(1:3,2:6,27,28,3:24,4:12etc.).ThestrongphrasesofJn6,eatingthefleshand
drinkingthebloodofChrist,areemployed,partlytoexpresstheextremeclosenessoftheappropriationofChristHimselfbythebeliever,partlytoemphasizethe
benefitsofHissacrificialwork,asthefaithfulreceiveintheLordsSupperthesymbolsofHisbrokenbodyandbloodpouredoutformen.
Lest,however,whatmightbecalledthemysticalelementinJohnstheologyshouldbeexaggerated,itiswelltonotethatthebalanceisredressedbythestress
laiduponloveinitsmostpracticalforms.Loveoftheworldthatis,thebestowalofsupremeregarduponthepassingattractionsofthingsoutwardandvisibleis
absolutelyinconsistentwithreallovetotheFatherandreallifeinChrist(1Jn2:1517).Similarlystronglanguageisusedasregardssocialrelationshipsandthe
loveofothersforthewordbrothermustnotbenarroweddowntomeanexclusivelythosewhobelongtotheChristiancommunion.Nomanwhoselifeinrelation
tomenisnotactuatedbylovecanbesaidtowalkinthelight(1Jn2:9,10)hatredismurder(3:12,15)willingnesstohelpanotherinneedisatestoftruelove,
nominalandprofessedaffectionwillnotsuffice(3:17,18)amanwhoprofessestoloveGodanddoesnotmanifestaspiritoflovinghelpfulnessaddsfalsehoodto
hisothersinsheisaliar(4:20).Thefrequentrepetitionofsomeofthesephrasesandtheirinterchangewithothers,suchasdoingrighteousness,walkinginthe
truth,beinginthelight,abidinginhim,Godabidinginus,andthelike,showthatSt.Johnisdealingwiththeverycentralcoreofspirituallife,andthatfor
him,asforSt.Paul,itistruethathethatlovethhisneighbourhathfulfilledthelawforloveisthefulfilmentofthelaw.
Nomorecomprehensivephrase,however,todescribeinbrieftheblessingsofthegospelistobefoundinSt.Johnstheologythaneternallife.Itoccurs17
timesintheGospeland6timesintheFirstEpistle,whilelifewithsubstantiallythesamemeaningisfoundmuchmorefrequently.LifemeansforSt.Johnthat
fulnessofpossessionandenjoymentwhichalonerealizesthegreatendsforwhichexistencehasbeengiventomen,anditistoberealizedonlyinthefulfilmentof
thehighesthumanidealsthroughunionwithGodinChrist.Eternallifemeansthisrichexistenceinperpetuitysometimesitincludesimmortality,sometimesit
distinctlyreferstothatwhichmaybeenjoyedhereandnow.Inthelattercaseitisnotunlikewhatiscalledin1Ti6:19thelifewhichislifeindeed.Itisdefinedin
Jn17:3asconsistingintheknowledgeofGodandChrist,whereknowledgemustcertainlyimplynotamereintellectualacquaintance,butapracticalattainmentin
experience,includingastateofheartandwillaswellasofmind,whichmakesGodinChristtobeatruepossessionofthesoulthatfellowshipwithGodwhich
constitutesthesupremepossessionformanupontheearth.Butacontrastisdrawn,e.g.in3:16and10:28,betweeneternallifeandperishingormoralruinand
inoneofSt.Johnssharpandstartlingcontrasts,thechoiceopentomanisdescribedasincludingonlythesetwosolemnalternativesHethatbelievethontheSon
hatheternallifebuthethatbelievethnottheSonshallnotseelife,butthewrathofGodabidethonhim(3:36).Theideathusbroachedcarriesusbeyondthe
boundariesofearthlyexistenceaccordingtoChriststeaching,whoeverkeepsHiswordshallnevertasteofdeath(8:52),andthoughhedie,yetshallhelive
(11:25).KnowledgeofGodandunionwithChristimparttothebelieveratypeofbeingwhichisnotsubjecttothechancesandchangesoftemporalexistence,but
isinitselfunending,imperishable,sothatincomparisonwithitnootherkindoflifedeservesthename.
7.ThisopensupnaturallythequestionofSt.JohnsEschatology.Ithasalreadybeensaid(seep.482a)thatsomecriticsfindaninherentcontradictionbetween
St.JohnsviewofjudgmentandthatsetforthbytheSynoptists,andithasbeenpointedoutinreplythatherecognizesjudgmentnotmerelyashereandnow
presentinhistory,butasstilltobeanticipatedinitsfinalforminthelifebeyondthegrave.SimilarstatementshavebeenmadeinreferencetoChristscomingand
theresurrection.Thateachofthesethreeeventsisrecognizedasstillinthefuture,tobeanticipatedascomingtopassattheendoftheworld,oratthelastday,is
clearfromsuchpassagesasthefollowing:judgmentinJn12:48and1Jn4:17cominginJn14:3and1Jn2:18,28resurrectioninJn5:28,29,6:39,40,11:24
etc.ButitcannotbequestionedthatSt.John,muchmorethanSt.PaulortheSynoptists,usesthesewordsinaspiritualsensetoindicateacomingtoearthinthe
courseofhistory,aspiritualvisitationwhichmaybecalledacomingofChrist(seeJn14:18,23,28andperhaps21:22),aswellasajudgmentwhichwasvirtually
pronouncedinChristslifetime(12:31etc.).Similarly,in5:21itissaidthattheSonquickenethwhomhewill,wherethereferencecannotbetolifebeyondthe
graveaview
whichisconfirmedbyvv.22,23,wherewearetoldthathewhohearsChristswordhaspassedfromdeathtolife,doesnotcomeintojudgment,andthatthehour
nowisinwhichthedeadshallhearHisvoiceandlive.Thereisnothinginthesedescriptionsofpresentspiritualblessingtointerferewiththeexplicitstatementthat
afterdeaththereshallbearesurrectionoflifeandaresurrectionofjudgment(5:29),anymorethanourSaviourintendedtodenyMarthasstatementconcerningthe
resurrectionatthelastday,whenHesaidtoher,Iamtheresurrectionandthelife(11:25).
ItmayperhapsbefairlysaidthatSt.JohnintheGospelandEpistleslaysemphasisuponthepresentspiritualblessingsofsalvationratherthanuponfuture
eschatologicaleventsdescribedbymeansofthesensuousandmaterialsymbolismcharacteristicoftheApocalypse.Butthetwoideas,sofarfrombeing
inconsistent,confirmoneanother.ThemanwhobelievesinthepresentmoralgovernmentofGodintheworldisassuredthattheremustbeagreatdayof
consummationhereafterwhilehewhoisassuredthatGodwillvindicateHimselfbysomeGreatAssizeinthefuturelifecannotsurelyimaginethatmeantimeHe
hasleftthehistoryoftheworldinmoralconfusion.Thespiritualmanknowsthatthefuturelieshidinthehintsandsuggestionsofthepresentheiscertainalsothat
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consummationhereafterwhilehewhoisassuredthatGodwillvindicateHimselfbysomeGreatAssizeinthefuturelifecannotsurelyimaginethatmeantimeHe
hasleftthehistoryoftheworldinmoralconfusion.Thespiritualmanknowsthatthefuturelieshidinthehintsandsuggestionsofthepresentheiscertainalsothat
suchhintsandsuggestionsmustfindtheirperfectrealizationandissueinaconsummationyettocome.NoChristianteacherhasunderstoodthedeeplyingunity
betweenthematerialandthespiritual,thepresentandthefuture,thetemporalandtheeternal,morecompletelythanSt.Johnthedivine.
W.T.DAVISON.
JOIADA.1.Oneofthetwowhorepairedtheoldgate(Neh3:6).2.Highpriest,sonofEliashib(Neh12:10,11,22).Oneofhissonsmarriedthedaughter
ofSanballattheHoronite(Neh13:28f.).
JOIAKIM.Ahighpriest,sonofJeshua(Neh12:10,12,26).
JOIARIB.1.Ezr8:16,oneofthetwoteacherssentbyEzratoIddotoaskforministersfortheTemple.2.Neh11:5,oneofthechiefsoftheprovincethat
dweltinJerusaleminNehemiahstime.SeealsoJEHOIARIB.
JOKDEAM.AcityofJudah(Jos15:58),whosesitehasnotbeenidentified.SeeJORKEAM.
JOKIM.AJudahite(1Ch4:22).
JOKMEAM.AtowninEphraimgiventotheLevites,nearBethhoron(1Ch6:68).InJos21:22itiscalledKibzaim.Nositeansweringtoeitherofthese
namesisknown.Jokmeamismentionedalsoin1K4:12,whereAVhasincorrectlyJokneam.
JOKNEAM.AroyalCanaanitecityinCarmel(Jos13:22),ontheboundaryofZebulun
(19:11),thebrookbeforeitbeingtheKishon.ItwasassignedtotheMerariteLevites(Jos
21:34).ItisprobablyidenticalwithCyamonofJth7:5.TheOnomasticonplacesCimona6RomanmilesN.ofLegio,ontheroadtoPtolemais.Thispoints
definitelytoTellKaimn,astrikingmoundabout7milesN.W.ofelLejjn,withremainsofancientbuildings.
W.EWING.
JOKSHAN.SonofAbrahamandKeturah,andfatherofSheba(Saba)andDedan(Gn25:2,1Ch1:32).Thenameseemsquiteunknown,andthesuggestion
thatitisidenticalwithJoktanseemsthemostplausible.
JOKTAN,accordingtothegenealogicaltablesinGenesisand1Chron.,wasoneofthetwosonsofEber,andthefatherofthirteensonsorraces(Gn10:2530,
1Ch1:1923)InthefirsttableitisaddedthathisdescendantsdweltfromMeshatoSephar.Thoughthenamesofthemajorityofhissonshavenotbeen
satisfactorilyidentified,itisclearthatheisrepresentedastheancestoroftheolderArabiantribes.Thelistofhissonsisprobablynottobetakenasascientificor
geographicalclassificationofthetribesordistrictsofArabia,butratherasanattemptonthepartofthewritertoincorporateinthetablessuchnamesofArabian
racesaswerefamiliartohimandtohisreaders.ItwillbenotedthatSebaandHavilahoccuralsoasthesonsofCush(Gn10:7),thepeculiarinterestattachingto
themhavingdoubtlessgivenrisetoavarietyoftraditionswithregardtotheiroriginandracialaffinities.ThenameofJoktanhimself,likethenamesofmanyofhis
sons,hasnotyetbeenidentifiedorexplained.ItsidentificationbythenativeArabgenealogistswithKahtn,thenameofanArabiantribeordistrict,iswithout
foundationthereappearstohavebeennorealconnexionbetweenthenames,theirslightsimilarityinsoundhavingprobablysuggestedtheiridentification.The
suppositionthatJoktanwasapurelyartificialnamedevisedfortheyoungersonofEber,inordertoserveasalinkbetweentheHebrewandArabstocks,amountsto
littlemorethanaconfessionthattheoriginofthenameisunknown.
L.W.KING.
JOKTHEEL.1.Acitydescribed(Jos15:3338)aslyingintheShephlah.ItcameintopossessionofthetribeofJudah.Itssitehasnotbeenrecovered.2.
Thename(whichsomehavesoughttoexplainfromtheArab.,protectionofGod)given(2K14:7)toSela,theancientcapitaloftheEdomites,afteritscaptureby
AmaziahkingofJudah.
JONADAB.SeeJEHONADAB.
JONAH
1. ThemanJonah.Jonah(dove)isfoundintheBibleasthenameofonlyoneperson,theIsraelitishprophetof2K14:25andtheBookofJonah.
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1.ThemanJonah.Jonah(dove)isfoundintheBibleasthenameofonlyoneperson,theIsraelitishprophetof2K14:25andtheBookofJonah.
Allthatisreallyknownabouthimisfoundinthosetwosources.Accordingtoboth,hewasthesonofAmittai(LXXandVulg.Amathi),andtheformer
connectshimwithGathhepher,aplacenamedinJos19:13,intheterritoryofZebulun,nowprobablyrepresentedbyelMeshhed,2milestotheE.of
Sepphoris,andnotfarfromKefrKennandNazareth,intheneighbourhoodofwhichisagraveofNebiYnusorYnis.Ifthisidentificationisright,Jonahwas
notonlyIsraelitishinthenarrowersense,butGalian.Heseemstohavelivedandworkedinthelatterpartofthe9thcent.B.C.orintheearlierpartofthe8th.
Hisoneprediction,recordedinKings,oftheextensionofthekingdomofSamariafromtheOrontestotheDeadSea,issaidtohavebeenfulfilledinthereignof
JeroboamII.(B.C.790to749or782741).Ithasgenerallybeeninferredthatthepredictionwasalsoutteredinthatreign,buttheinferenceisuncertain.Itmay
havebeendeliveredunderJehoash(B.C.802790or798782),orevenunderJehoahaz(815802or798).Still,Jonahmaybereasonablyregardedastosome
extentacontemporaryofJeroboamII.ThereisnomentioninKingsofanyconnexionofJonahwithAssyria,butitisquitepossiblethatthememoryofavisitto
Ninevehwaspreservedbytraditionorinsomelosthistoricalwork.FromB.C.782745,Assyriawascomparativelyweak,andwasgovernedbyrelatively
insignificantkings.
ThattheJonahofKingsisidenticalwiththeJonahofthebookwasquestionedbyWincklerin1900,buttheobjectionwaswithdrawnin1903.TheidentificationofJonahwith
thesonofthewidowofZarephath,whichismentionedbyJerome,andotherassertionsofJewishorigin,havenohistoricalvalue.
2.BookofJonah
(1)Analysis
Jonah,thesonofAmittai,iscommandedbyJahwehtogotoNinevehandannouncethereimpendingjudgment(1:1f.).Forareasonnotmentioneduntilneartheendofthebook
(4:2f.)thefearthatJahwehwillrepentofHispurpose,andsparetheNinevitesherefusestoobey,andinordertoescapefrom.Jahwehsimmediatejurisdictiongoesdownto
Joppa,andbookshimselfinashipmannedbyheathen,almostcertainlyPhnicians,forTarshish,probablythePhniciancolonyintheS.W.ofSpain,calledbytheGreeks
Tartessus,andnowrepresentedbyCadizandthecountryround(1:3f.).Whenaviolentstormcomeson,andtheprayersofthemarinerstotheirgodsareofnoavail,theyconclude
thatthereissomeoneonboardwhohasoffendedsomedeity,andcastlotstodiscovertheculprit.ThelotfallsonJonah(1:47),whoacknowledgeshisguiltandadvisesthemto
casthimoverboard(1:812).Aftermakingfutileeffortstobringthevesseltoland(1:13),thesailorsreluctantlycasthimintothesea,withtheresultthatthestormatoncesubsides
andthewonderingheathenadoretheGodoftheHebrews(1:1416).JonahisswallowedbyafishappointedforthepurposebyJ,andremainsinitsbelly3daysand3nights
(1:17),duringwhichtimeheprays(2:1).Hisprayer,whichfillsthegreaterpartofthechapter,isratherapsalmofpraise(2:29).Heisthencastbythefishonthelandataplace
notspecified(2:10),iscommandedtodischargetheneglectedduty,goestoNinevehanddelivershismessageoverathirdofthecity(3:14).Kingandpeoplerepent,andshowtheir
repentanceinapublicfast(whichincludeseventhedomesticanimals),andpray(3:59).Theirpenitenceandprayerareaccepted,totheprophetsdisgust(3:104:4).Ashesulksin
aboothoutsidethecity,waitingtoseetheissue,aremarkableseriesofexperiencesisarrangedforhisinstruction(4:58):theshootingupofacastoroilplant(or,assomethink,a
bottlegourd)appointedbyJahweh,whichdelightshimbyitswelcomeshadethekillingoftheplantbyaworm,alsoappointedbyJahwehandthespringingupofahotwind
whichalsoblowsbyDivineappointment,sothatthenowunshadedprophetissotormentedbytheheat,that,likeElijah(1K19:4),helongsfordeath.Whenhestillsulks,itis
pointedouttohimthatifhe,aman,caresfortheplantwhichsprangupandperishedsoquickly,andwhichwasinnowaytheproductofhistoil,howmuchmoremustGodcarefor
thegreatcity,whichhasinitsomanythousandsoflittlechildrenandmuchcattle(4:911).
(2)Integrity.Mostrecentcriticsascribe1,2:110,3and4,withtheexceptionofafewglosses,toonewriter.Aboutthehymnorpsalmin2:29thereis
diversityofopinion.Therearethreeviews:(1)thatitisbythesamewriter(G.A.Smith)(2)thatitwasusedbyhimbutnotwrittenbyhim(Baudissin)(3)thatit
wasinsertedbyaneditorwhomissedtheprayerreferredtoin2:1(Nowack,Marti,Cheyne,Kautzsch,andperhapsHorton).Thelastviewisonthewholethemost
probable,forthefollowingamongotherreasons.(a)Thepsalmfitsinwiththeexperienceofashipwreckedmarinerwhohasreachedtheshore,ratherthanwiththe
situationascribedtoJonah(2:36)(b)ithasbeenaptlydescribedasacentoofpassagesfromthepsalms(thereareechoesofpassagesinPs3,18,30,31,42,50,
116,120,142),whichimpliesthatthewriterhadaconsiderablepartofourpresentPsalterbeforehim,andsopointstothestudyratherthanthebellyofafish.
(3)DateandAuthorship.ThebookusedtoberegardedasJonahscomposition,butthatbeliefisnowgenerallyabandonedexceptintheRomanCatholic
Church.SinceNinevehisclearlyreferredtoasnolongerstanding:NowNinevehwasanexceedinggreatcity(3:3),theterminusaquocannotbeplacedearlier
thanaboutB.C.600(fallofNinevehB.C.606).TheterminusadquemisfixedbythementionoftheTwelveProphetsinSirach(49:10),c.B.C.200.Thedate
thereforeliesbetween600and200.Forcloserdefinitionthefollowingfactsarehelpful.
TheanonymousreferencetotheAssyrianking,andperhapsthedescriptionofhimastheking
ofNineveh(3:6),suggestsaconsiderableintervalbetweenAssyriantimesandthecompositionofthebook.TheHeb.isdistinctlylate.Thereareseveralindications
ofAramaicinfluence:sephnhshipawordcommontoAramaicandArabic,foundhereonlyintheOTshthaqbecalmtaamdecreehithashshthinthe
senseofthinkminnhprepare,appoint,etc.Haditbeenpossibletoassignthebooktothe8thorthe9thcent. B.C.,thesephenomenamighthavebeen
accountedforontheassumptionofAramaicinfluenceonaGalilandialect,butasthatdateisoutofthequestion,theypointtoamuchlaterperiod,the4thor5th
cent.(Knig,Driver,E.Kautzsch,Budde,Cheyne),c.B.C.300(Marti).CheyneputsthepsalmaslateastheprayerintheappendixtoSirach.Ithasbeensuggested
thatthebookisanextractfromalargerwork,e.g.thecommentaryofthebookofthekingsreferredtoin2Ch24:27,asitbegins:Now(Heb.wa)thewordof
theLordcametoJonahbutotherhistoricalHeb.writingsbegininthesameabruptmanner.
(4) Interpretation.TheancientJewsseemtohaveregardedthebookashistorical(3Mac6:8,To14:48Jos.Ant.IX.x.2),andwerefollowedbyChristian 98/124
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(4)Interpretation.TheancientJewsseemtohaveregardedthebookashistorical(3Mac6:8,To14:48Jos.Ant.IX.x.2),andwerefollowedbyChristian
interpreters.Modernscholarsaregreatlydivided.ArchdeaconPerowne,J.Kennedy,andClayTrumbullhavedefendedtheoldview.Kleinert,Knig,C.H.H.
Wright,G.A.Smith,andCheynetreatthebookasanallegoryofthefortunesofthepeople.Jonah,thedove,representsIsrael.JonahtheprophetstandsforIsrael,
whichwastoprophesyamongstthenations.TheseafiguresthedestructionwhichrepeatedlyfellonIsrael.Cheynesupplementsthesymbolicalkeybythe
mythological.Thefish(thatisthedragon,thesubterraneansea)referstoBabylon,whichswallowedIsrael,nottodestroyitbuttogiveroomforrepentanceandthe
linkbetweenJonahandtheoriginalmythisfoundinJer51:3444.E.Kautzsch,Driver,Nowack,andMartiseeinthestoryadidacticnarrativefoundedonan
ancienttradition.
(5)Teaching.TheprominencegivenbyChristianexpositorstotheincidentofthefishhastendedtoobscurethechiefaimofthewritingtoprotestagainst
thenarrownessofthoughtandsympathywhichprevailedamongtheJewsofthetime,andwasdailygrowinginintensity.Whoevertheauthorwas,hehadhigher
thoughtsaboutGodthanmostofhiscontemporaries,perhapsitmayevenbesaidthananyotherofthewritersoftheOT,andentertainedmorecharitablefeelings
towardstheGentileworldthanmostofhispeople.TheGodofIsrael,hebelieved,caredforallmen.PenitentGentiles,andmanyinGentilecircles,werereadyto
repentifonlytheyweretaughtcouldobtainpardonasreadilyaspenitentJews.Nay,Jahwebsoughttheirrepentance.NowhereinpreChristianliteraturecanbe
foundabroader,purer,loftier,tendererconceptionofGodthaninthislittleanonymousHeb.tract.Cornilldescribesitasoneofthedeepestandgrandestthings
everwritten.Ishouldlike,headds,toexclaimtoanyonewhoapproachesit:Putthyshoesfromoffthyfeet,fortheplacewhereonthoustandestisholy
ground.HowhightheteachingofthebookroseabovelaterJudaism,saytheJudaismofthetimeofChrist,andthefollowinggeneration,isstrikinglyshownby
thewayinwhichitissummarizedbyJosephus(Ant.IX.x.2).ThereisnotawordthereaboutthepenitenceoftheNinevites,orGodsremonstrancewithJonah.
ThemainlessonofthebookisabsolutelyignoredbytheproudPharisaicpriest.AnotherleadingthoughtofthebookisthedutyofIsraeltomakeitsGodknownto
theGentiles.
(6)ThebookintheSynagogueandtheChurch.ItissaidintheMishna(Taanith,ii.1)thattheritualofapublicfastintimeofdroughtincludedreferenceby
theleaderofthecongregationtotheBookofJonah,andithasbeenusedfromancienttimestothepresentdayintheceremonialoftheDayofAtonement.
ChristianswereearlyattractedtoitbytheremarkableallusionsintheGospels:Mt12:32ff.,16:4,Lk11:29f32.Thereferencetotheentombmentinthefishisin
Mt.only.TheallusiontotherepentanceoftheNinevitesisinbothMt.andLk.Thesignificanceoftheformerhasbeenmuchdebated,andsomehaveregardeditas
aproofofthehistoricityoftheOTnarrative.Thatinnowayfollows.OurLordfoundthestoryinthe
Scriptures,andappealedtoitassomethinggenerallyknowntoHishearers.HisuseofitfastenedontheimaginationoftheearlyChristians,andledthemtotake
greatinterestinthewholeBookofJonah.TheremainsofearlyChristianartincatacombpaintings,onsarcophagi,lamps,glasses,etc.,includeaverylargenumber
ofpictureswhichhavesomepartofthestoryofJonahfortheirtheme.Dr.OttoMitius,whopublishedamonographonthesubjectin1897,hasnoted177
examples.Theoldest,intheCatacombofS.Callisto,maydatefromthe1stcentury.
(7)ParallelstoJonah.AttentionhasoftenbeencalledtotheclassicalmythsofAndromedaandHesione,thesceneoftheformerofwhichislaidintheneighbourhoodof
Joppa,butreferencetothem,evenindirectly,isimprobable.NorisitlikelythattheHeb.writerhadinmindadragonmythof
Babylonia.Areallystrikingparalleltopartofthefirstchapter(1:715)wasnotedbyaGermanscholarin1896inBuddhisticliterature.AyoungmanofBenaresnamed
Mittavindaka,thesonofamerchant,wenttoseaindefianceofhismothersobjection.Whenafteratimethevesselwasunabletoproceedonitscourse,owingtosomemysterious
impediment,thesailorsconcludedthatitmustbethroughthesinofsomeoneonboard,andthereforecastlotstodiscovertheoffender.Thelotswerecastthreetimes,andeachtime
thelotfelltoMittavindaka.Ashewasclearlytheculprit,theyturnedhimoutoftheship,andplacedhimonaraft.Theirshipwasthenabletocontinuethevoyage.Theclose
correspondenceofthisIndianstorywiththepartoftheBiblicalstoryreferredtoisveryremarkable,butneednotpointtoanyconnexionbetweenthetwobeyondcommunityof
feelingandaction,undersimilarcircumstances,ofIndianandPhnicianmariners.
W.TAYLORS MITH.
JONAM.AnancestorofJesus(Lk3:30).
JONAS.1.1Es9:1=Ezr10:6Jehohanan,Neh12:23Johanan.2.1Es9:23=Ezr10:23Eliezer.3.2Es1:39theprophetJonah.4.SeeJOHN,No.6.
JONATHAN(Jhathgiven).1.ALevite,thesonofGershom(wh.see)accordingtoJg18:30heandhissonswereprieststothetribeofDanuptothe
Captivity.JonathanwastakenintotheserviceofMicahasfatherandpriest(Jg17:10)but,notlongafterhehadtakenuphisabodethere,sixhundredDanites
camethatwayandinducedJonathantoleaveMicahandjointhemastheirpriest(18:1131).2.TheeldestsonofSaulheappears,inthefirstinstance,asabrave
andsuccessfulleaderinbattle.1S13,14containagraphicaccountofthewayinwhichtheIsraelitesthrewoffthePhilistineyokeinthiscampaignJonathantooka
leadingpart.Hefirstofall,attheheadofathousandmen,smotethePhilistinegarrisoninGebathiswasthesignalfortheoutbreakofwar.ThePhilistinearmy
gatheredtogetherandencampedinMichmash.Jonathan,accompaniedonlybyhisarmourbearer,atgreatrisksurprisedanadvancedpostofthe
Philistines,andslewabouttwentymenthesuddennessandsuccessofthiscoupsoterrifiedthePhilistinesthatthewholehostofthemfledinpanic.Thepopularity99/124
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Philistines,andslewabouttwentymenthesuddennessandsuccessofthiscoupsoterrifiedthePhilistinesthatthewholehostofthemfledinpanic.Thepopularity
ofJonathaniswellillustratedbythefactthatthepeoplepreventedSaulfromcarryingoutavowwhichwouldhavecostJonathanhislife(1S14:2446).The
implicittrustwhichSaulplacedinJonathanisseeninthewordsofthelatterin1S20:2:Beholdmyfatherdoethnothingeithergreatorsmall,butthathediscloseth
ituntome.ThefaithfulnessandtrustworthinessofJonathanashereshowngivesaninsightintowhatmusthavebeenthatfriendshipforDavidwhichhasbecome
proverbial.AllthecharacteristicsoftruestfriendshipareseeninJonathanintheirfullbeautylove(1S18:1),faithfulness(20:2ff).disinterestedness(20:12).and
selfsacrifice(20:2434).ThelastwehearofJonathanishisdeathuponthebattlefield,fightingthefoesofhiscountry.InDavidslamentthespiritofthedeparted
herospeaksinunisonwithhisfriend:Thylovetomewaswonderful,passingtheloveofwomen(2S1:26).
3.ThesonofthepriestMattathiastheyoungestofthefourMaccabanbrothers(2Mac
8:22),whoplayedanimportantpartduringtheMaccabsanrevolt(seeMACCABEES).4.AnephewofDavid(2S21:21cf.prob.1Ch27:32).5.AsonofAbiathar
thepriest(2S15:27ff.,17:1720,1K1:42).6.AscribeinwhosehouseJeremiahwasimprisoned(Jer37:152038:26).7.Ahighpriest(Neh12:11):calledinv.
22f.Johanan.8.OneofDavidsheroes(2S23:32,1Ch11:34).9.ALevite(Neh12:35).10.ThesonofKareah(Jer40:8).11.ThefatherofPelethandZaza(1Ch
2:32f.).12.OneofDavidstreasurers(1Ch27:25).13.FatherofEbed(Ezr8:6).14.Oneofthosewhoopposed(RV)orassisted(AV)Ezrainthematterofthe
foreignmarriages
(Ezr10:15).15.Apriest(Neh12:14).16.SonofAbsalom,inthetimeofSimontheMaccabee(1Mac13:11).17.Apriestwholedtheprayeratthefirstsacrifice
aftertheReturn(2Mac1:23).W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
JONATHELEMREHOKIM.SeeP SALMS,p.772a.
JOPPA.TheprincipalseaportofS.Palestineaplaceofhighantiquity,beingmentionedinthetributelistsofThothmesIII.,butneverbeforetheExilein
Israelitehands,beinginPhilistineterritory.ItwastheoreticallyassignedtothetribeofDan(Jos19:46),andisspokenofasaseaportin2Ch2:16andEzr3:7
[whereRVreadstothesea,untoJoppainplaceofAVtotheseaofJoppa]:these,anditswellknownconnexionwiththestoryofJonah(1:3),aretheonly
referencestothecitytobefoundintheOT.TheMaccabeeswresteditmorethanoncefromthehandsoftheirSyrianoppressors(1Mac10:75,12:33,13:11)itwas
restoredtothelatterbyPompey(Jos.Ant.XIV.iv.4),butagaingivenbacktotheJews(ib.XIV.x.6)someyearslater.
HereSt.Peterforawhilelodged,restoredTabithatolife,andhadhisfamousvisionofthesheet(Ac9,10).ThetraditionalsitesofTabithastombandSimonthe
tannershouseareshowntotouristsandtopilgrims,butareofcoursewithoutauthority.ThecitywasdestroyedbyVespasian(A.D.68).IntheCrusaderperiodthe
citypassedfromtheSaracenstotheFranksandbackmorethanonce:itwascapturedfirstin1126,retakenbySaladin1187,againconqueredbyRichardCurde
Lionin1191,andlostfinallyin1196.InrecentyearsitisremarkableforNapoleonssuccessfulstormingofitswallsin1799.Itisnowaflourishingseaport,though
itsharbourlittlemorethanabreakwaterofreefsisnotoriouslybadanddangerous.ArailwayconnectsitwithJerusalem.Itisalsooneofthechiefcentresofthe
fruitgrowingindustryinPalestine,anditsorangegardensareworldfamed.TraditionplacesherethestoryofAndromedaandtheseamonster.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
JORAH.ThenameofafamilywhichreturnedwithZerubbabel(Ezr2:18)calledinNeh7:24Hariph,whichisprobablythetrueform.1Es5:16reads
Arsiphurith.
JORAI.AGaditechief(1Ch5:13).
JORAM.1.2.SeeJEHORAM(1and2).3.SonofToi(2S8:10)(in1Ch18:10calledHadoram).4.ALevite(1Ch26:25).5.1Es1:9=2Ch35:9Jozabad.
JORDAN.ThelongestandmostimportantriverinPalestine.
1.Name.ThenameJordanisbestderivedfromHeb.yradtodescend,thenoun
Yardnformedfromitsignifyingthedescenderitisusedalmostinvariablywiththearticle.In
ArabicthenameiseshSheriah,orthewateringplace,thoughArabicwritersbeforetheCrusadescalleditelUrdun.QuitefancifulisJeromesderivationofthe
namefromJorandDan,thetwomainsourcesoftheriver,asnosourcebythenameofJorisknown.
2.Geology.ThegeologyoftheJordanisunique.RisinghighupamongthefoothillsofMt.
Hermon,itflowsalmostduesouthbyamosttortuouscourse,throughthetwolakesofHulehandGalilee,followingthebottomofarapidlydescendingandmost
remarkablegeologicalfissure,andfinallyemptyingitselfintotheDeadSea,whichis1292feetbelowtheleveloftheMediterranean.Initsshortcourseofalittle
morethan100milesitfallsabout3000feet,andforthegreaterportionofthejourneyrunsbelowtheleveloftheocean.Nootherpartoftheearthssurface,
uncoveredbywater,sinkstoadepthofeven300feetbelowsealevel,exceptthegreatSahara.ProfessorHull,theeminentIrishgeologist,accountsforthisgreat100/124
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uncoveredbywater,sinkstoadepthofeven300feetbelowsealevel,exceptthegreatSahara.ProfessorHull,theeminentIrishgeologist,accountsforthisgreat
naturalcleftbysupposingthattowardstheendoftheEoceneperiodagreatfaultorfracturewascausedbythecontractionfromeasttowestofthelimestonecrust
oftheearth.Later,duringthePlioceneperiod,thewholeJordanvalleyprobablyformedaninlandlakemorethan200mileslong,butatthecloseoftheGlacial
periodthewatersdecreaseduntiltheyreachedtheirpresentstate.Tracesofwater,atheights1180feetabovetheDeadSeaspresentlevel,arefoundonthelateral
slopesoftheJordanvalley.
3.Sources.TheprincipalsourcesoftheJordanarethree:(1)theriverHasbani,whichrisesinalargefountainonthewesternslopesofMt.Hermon,near
Hasbeiya,atanaltitudeof1700feet(2)theLeddan,whichgushesforthfromthecelebratedfountainunderTellelQadl,orDan,atanaltitudeof1500feetthe
mostcopioussourceoftheJordanand(3)theriverBanias,whichissuesfromanimmensecavernbelowBaniasorCsareaPhilippi,havinganaltitudeof1200
feet.Theselasttwomeetaboutfivemilesbelowtheirfountainheadsatanaltitudeof148feet,andarejoinedaboutahalfmilefartheronbytheHasbani.Their
commingledwatersflowonacrossadismalmarshofpapyrus,and,aftersevenmiles,emptyintoLakeHuleh,whichisidentifiedbysomewiththewatersof
Merom(Jos11:5,7).Thelakeisfourmileslong,itssurfacebeingbut7feetabovesealevel.
4.TheUpperJordanisaconvenientdesignationforthatportionoftheriverbetweenLakeHulehandtheSeaofGalilee.EmergingfromLakeHuleh,the
riverflowsplacidlyforaspaceoftwomiles,andthendashesdownoverarockyandtortuousbeduntilitenterstheSeaofGalilee,whosealtitudeis682feetbelow
theleveloftheMediterranean.Itfalls,inthisshortstretchof101/2miles,689feet.Atcertainseasonsitsturbidwaterscanbetracedforquiteaconsiderabledistance
intothesea,whichis121/2mileslong.
5.TheLowerJordanisanappropriatedesignationforthatportionoftheriverbetweentheSeaofGalileeandtheDeadSea.Thedistanceinastraightline
betweenthesetwoseasisbut65miles,yetitisestimatedthattheriversactualcoursecoversnotlessthan200,duetoitssinuosity.Inthisstretchitfalls610feet,
therateatfirstbeing40feetpermile.Itswidthvariesfrom90to200feet.Alongitsbanksgrowthicketsoftamarisks,poplars,oleanders,andbushesofdifferent
varieties,whicharedescribedbytheprophetsoftheOTastheprideofJordan(Jer12:5,49:19,50:44,Zec11:3).Numerousrapids,whirlpools,andislets
characterizethisportionoftheJordan.TheriversentirelengthfromBaniastotheDeadSeais104miles,measuredinastraightline.
6.Tributaries.ItsmostimportanttributariesflowintotheLowerJordanandfromtheEast.ThelargestistheYarmukoftheRabbis,theHieromaxofthe
Greeks,andtheSheriatelManadirehoftheArabs,whichdrainsGileadandBashaninpart.ItenterstheJordan5milessouthoftheSeaofGalilee.TheBiblenever
mentionsit.TheonlyothertributaryofconsiderableimportanceistheJabbokoftheOT,calledbythenativesNahrezZerkaorWadyelArab.Itrisesnear
Amman(Philadelphia),describesasemicircle,andflowsintotheJordanatapointaboutequidistantfromthetwoseas.OnthewestaretheNahrelJatd,which
risesinthespringofHarodatthebaseofMt.GilboaanddrainsthevalleyofJezreelWadyFrah,whichrisesnearMt.EbalanddrainsthedistricteastofShechem
andtheWadyelKelt,byJericho,whichissometimesidentifiedwiththebrookCherith.
7.Fords.ThefordsoftheJordanarenumerous.ThemostcelebratedisthatoppositeJerichoknownasMakhadetelHajlah,wheremodernpilgrimsare
accustomedtobathe.ThereisanothercalledelGhranyehnearthemouthofWadyNimrin.NorthoftheJabbokthereareatleastascore.Inancienttimesthe
Jordanseemstohavebeencrossedalmostexclusivelybyfords(1S13:7,2S10:17)butDavidandhishouseholdwerepossiblyconveyedacrossinaferryboat
(2S19:18therenderingisdoubtful).
8.BridgesarenotmentionedintheBible.ThosewhichoncespannedtheJordanwerebuiltbytheRomans,orbytheirsuccessors.Theruinsofone,witha
singlearch,maybeseenatJisredDamiehnearthemouthoftheJabbok.Sinceitsconstructiontheriverbedhaschangedsothatitnolongerspansthereal
channel.ThisbridgeisonthedirectroutefromShechemtoRamothgilead.ThereisanothercalledJisrelMujamyeh,closebythatofthenewrailroadfromHaifato
Damascus,orabout7milessouthoftheSeaofGalilee.Athird,builtofblackbasaltandhavingthreearches,isknownastheJisrBenatYgub,orbridgeofthe
daughtersofJacob,situatedabouttwomilessouthofLakeHulehonthedirectcaravanroutefromAcretoDamascus.Atemporarywoodenbridge,erectedbythe
Arabs,standsoppositeJericho.
9.TheJordanvalley.ThebroadandeverdescendingvalleythroughwhichtheJordanflowsiscalledbytheArabstheGhrorbottomtotheHebrewsit
wasknownastheArabah.Itisalongplain,slopinguniformlyattherateof9feettothemile,beingatthenorthernend3,andatthesouthernend12milesbroad.
Forthemostpartthevalleyisfertile,especiallyinthevicinityofBeisan,wherethegrassandgraingrowfreely.NeartheDeadSea,however,thesoilissalineand
barren.Theruinsofancientaqueductshereandthereallovertheplaingiveevidenceofitshavingbeenatonetimehighlycultivated.Byirrigationtheentireregion
couldeasilybebroughtundercultivationoncemoreandconvertedintoaveritablegarden.InthevicinityofJericho,oncethecityofpalms,alargevarietyof
fruits,vegetables,andotherproductsisgrown.Themostfertileportionundercultivationatthepresenttimeisthecomparativelynarrowfloorbedoftheriver
knownastheZr,varyingfromaquartertotwomilesinwidth,andfrom20to200feetindepthbelowtheGhrproper.Thisistheareawhichwasoverflowed
everyyearallthetimeofharvest(Jos3:15).Ithasbeenformed,doubtless,bythechangingoftheriverbedfromonesideofthevalleytotheother.
10. TheclimateoftheJordanvalleyishot.TheLowerJordaninparticular,beingshutinbytwogreatwallsofmountain,theoneontheeast,andtheotheron101/124
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10.TheclimateoftheJordanvalleyishot.TheLowerJordaninparticular,beingshutinbytwogreatwallsofmountain,theoneontheeast,andtheotheron
thewest,isdecidedlytropical.Eveninwinterthedaysareuncomfortablywarm,thoughthenightsarecoolinsummerbothdaysandnightsaretorrid,especiallyat
Jericho,wherethethermometerhasbeenknowntoregister130Fahr.byday,and110aftersunset.ThisaccountslargelyfortheunpeopledconditionoftheLower
Jordanvalleybothtodayandinformertimes.
11.Floraandfauna.ThetreesandshrubsoftheJordanvalleyarebothnumerousandvaried.Theretemorbroomplant,thorns,oleanders,flowering
bamboos,castoroilplants,tamarisks,poplars,acacias,DeadSeaapplesofSodom,andmanyotherspeciesofbush,allgrowinthevalley.Thepapyrusis
especiallyluxuriantaboutLakeHuleh.
Animalssuchastheleopard,jackal,boar,hyna,ibex,porcupine,andfoxliveinthethicketswhichborderthebanks.Thelionhascompletelydisappeared.The
riveraboundsinfishofnumerousspecies,manyofthemresemblingthosefoundintheNileandthelakesoftropicalAfrica.Ofthe35species,however,knownto
exist,16arepeculiartotheJordan.
12.TheJordanasaboundary.Inviewofwhathasbeensaid,itisobviousthattheJordanformsanaturalboundarytoPalestineproper.Intheearlierbooks
oftheOTwefrequentlymeetwiththeexpressionsonthissideJordan,andontheothersideoftheJordan,whichsuggestthattheJordanwasadividinglineand
anaturalboundary.InNu34:12,indeed,itistreatedastheoriginaleasternboundaryofthePromisedLand(cf.Jos22:25).Yet,asLucienGautiersuggests(art.
JordaninHastingsDCG),itwasnotsomuchtheJordanthatconstitutedtheboundaryasthedepressedGhrvalleyasawhole.
13.Scripturereferences.TheJordanisfrequentlymentionedinboththeOTandtheNT.Lot,forexample,issaidtohavechosenallthecircleoftheJordan
becauseitwaswellwateredeverywhere(Gn13:10)JoshuaandallIsraelcrossedovertheJordanondryground(Jos3:17)EhudseizedthefordsoftheJordan
againsttheMoabites,cuttingofftheirretreat(Jg3:28)Gideon,Jephthah,David,Elijah,andElishawereallwellacquaintedwiththeJordanNaamantheSyrian
wasdirectedtogowashintheJordanseventimes,thathisleprosymightdepartfromhim(2K5:10).AnditwasattheJordanthatJohntheBaptistpreachedand
baptized,ourLordbeingamongthosewhowereheresacramentallyconsecrated(Mt3andparallels).Todaythousandsofpilgrimsfromallpartsofthecivilized
worldvisittheJordansothat,asG.A.Smith(HGHL,p.496)remindsus,whatwasneveragreatJewishriverhasbecomeaverygreatChristianone.
GEORGEL.ROBINSON.
JORIBUS.1.(AVJoribas)1Es8:44=Jarib,Ezr8:16.2.1Es9:19=Jarib,Ezr10:18.
JORIM.AnancestorofJesus(Lk3:29).
JORKEAM.AJudahitefamilyname(1Ch2:44).WeshouldperhapsreadJokdeam,thenameofanunidentifiedplaceintheNegebofJudah(Jos15:56).
JOSABDUS(1Es8:63)=Jozabad,No.6.
JOSAPHIAS(1Es8:36)=Ezr8:10Josiphiah.
JOSECH(AVJoseph).AnancestorofJesus(Lk3:26).
JOSEDEK.SeeJEHOZADAK.
JOSEPH(inOTandApocr.).1.Thepatriarch.Seenextarticle.2.AmanofIssachar(Nu13:7).3.AsonofAsaph(1Ch25:2,9).4.OneofthesonsofBani
whohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:42)calledin1Es9:34Josephus.5.Apriest(Neh12:14).6.AnancestorofJudith(Jth8:1).7.AnofficerofJudas
Maccabus(1Mac5:18,56,60).8.In2Mac.8:22,andprobablyalso10:19,JosephisreadbymistakeforJohn,oneofthebrothersofJudasMaccabus.
JOSEPH.Jacobseleventhson,theelderofthetwosonsofRachelborninHaran.ThenameisprobablycontractedfromJehoseph(Ps81:5),MayGodadd
(cf.Gn30:23f.,whereetymologiesfromtwosourcesaregiven).JosephistheprincipalheroofthelaterchaptersofGenesis,whicharecomposedmainlyofextracts
fromthreedocuments.JandEsupplythebulkofthenarrative,andasarulearecitedalternately,thecompileroftenmodifyingaquotationfromonedocumentwith
notesderivedfromtheother.FromPsomesixorsevenshortexcerptsaremade,thelongestbeingGn46:627,wheretheobjectandtheparentheticqualityare
evident.Forthedetailsofanalysis,seeDriverLOT6,17ff.Theoccasionaldifferencesoftraditionareanevidenceoforiginalindependence,andtheirimperfect
harmonizationinthejointnarrativeisfavourabletoitssubstantialhistoricity.
AtpresentthedateofJosephcanbeonlyprovisionallyfixed,astheaccountofhislifeneithermentionsthenameoftherulingPharaohnorreferstodistinctive
Egyptianmannersorcustomsinsuchawayastoyieldacluetotheexactperiod.ThePharaohoftheoppressionisnowgenerallytakentobeRamesesII.ofthe
19thdynasty(c. . .12751208)andifthisbecorrect,theadditionoftheyearsofresidenceinEgypt(Ex12:41)wouldbringJosephstermofofficeintothereign
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19thdynasty(c.B.C.12751208)andifthisbecorrect,theadditionoftheyearsofresidenceinEgypt(Ex12:41)wouldbringJosephstermofofficeintothereign
ofthelaterHyksoskings(c.B.C.20981587fordatesandparticulars,seePetrie,HistoryofEgypt).
WiththereturnofJacobtoHebron(Gn35:27)heceasestobethecentralfigureofthestory,andJosephtakeshisplace.Ofhislifetotheageof17(Gn37:2)
nothingistold,exceptthathewashisfathersfavourite,andrathertoofreeincarryingcomplaintsofhisbrothersandtellingthemofhisboyishdreams.Sentto
Shechem,hefoundthathisbrothershadtakentheirflocksnorthwardsfifteenmiles,tothericherpasturageofDothan.Assoonashecamewithinsight,their
resentmentperceiveditsopportunity,andtheyarrangedtogetridofhimandhisdreamsbutthetwotraditionsarenotcompletelyharmonized.JrepresentsJudahas
inducinghisbrotherstosellJosephtoacompanyofIshmaelitesbutEmakesReubenamediator,whoseplanswerefrustratedbyabandofMidianites,whohadin
theintervalkidnappedJosephandstolenhimaway(40:15).Thephraseologyisagainsttheidentificationofthetwocompaniesandthedivergenttraditionspointto
anaturalabsenceofrealagreementamongthebrothers,withafrustrationoftheirpurposesbymeansofwhichtheywereignorant.WhatbecameofJosephtheydid
notreallyknowandtoprotectthemselvestheymanufacturedtheevidenceofthebloodstainedcoat.
InEgypt,JosephwasboughtbyPotiphar,acourtofficial,whosetitlemakeshimchiefoftheroyalbutchersandhenceofthebodyguardandthealertnessand
trustworthinessoftheslaveledquicklytohisappointmentasmajordomo(Egyp.merper),afunctionaryoftenmentionedonthemonuments(Erman,LifeinAnc.
Egypt,187f.).EverythingprosperedunderJosephsmanagementbuthiscomelinessandcourtesyattractedthenoticeofhismasterswife,whoseadvances,being
repelled,weretransformedintoaresentmentthatknewnoscruples.BymeansofanentirelyfalsechargeshesecuredtheremovalofJosephtotheStateprison,
whichwasunderthecontrolofPotiphar(40:3),andwhereagainhewassoonraisedtothepositionofoverseerorunderkeeper.Underhischargewereplacedin
duecoursethechiefofthePharaohsbutlersandthechiefofhisbakers,whohadforsomeunstatedreasonincurredtheroyaldispleasure.Bothwereperplexedwith
dreams,whichJosephinterpretedtothemcorrectly.TwoyearslaterthePharaohhimselfhadhisduplicateddreamofthefatandleankineandofthefullandthin
earsandasmuchsignificancewasattachedinEgypttodreams,thekingwasdistressedbyhisinabilitytofindaninterpreter,andhisspiritwastroubled.
ThereuponthechiefbutlerrecalledJosephsskillandhisownindebtednesstohim,andmentionedhimtothePharaoh,whosentforhim,andwassoimpressedby
hissagacityandforesightthatexaltationtotherankofkeeperoftheroyalsealfollowed,withadegreeofauthoritythatwassecondonlytothatofthethrone.The
EgyptiannameofZaphenathpaneah(ofwhichthemeaningisperhapsTheGodspakeandhecameintolife,suggestingthatthebearerofthenameowedhis
promotiontotheDivineuseofhimasrevealeroftheDivinewill)wasconferreduponhim,andhemarriedAsenath,daughterofoneofthemostimportant
dignitariesintherealm,thepriestofthegreatnationaltempleofthesunatOnorHeliopolis,sevenmilesnortheastofthemodernCairo.
SofarasEgyptwasconcerned,Josephspolicywastostorethesurpluscornoftheyearsofplentyingranaries,andafterwardssotodisposeofitastochange
thesystemoflandtenure.FaminesinthatcountryareduegenerallytofailureordeficiencyintheannualinundationoftheNile,andseveraloflongendurancehave
beenrecorded.Brugsch(Hist.2i.304)reportsaninscription,coincidinginageapproximatelywiththatofJoseph,andreferringtoafaminelastingmanyyears,
duringwhichadistributionofcornwasmade.ThishasbeendoubtfullyidentifiedwithJosephsfamine.Otherinscriptionsofthekindoccur,andaresufficientto
authenticatethefactofprolongedfamines,thoughnottoyieldfurtherparticularsoftheonewithwhichJosephhadtodeal.Hismethodwastosellcornfirstfor
money(ringsofgold,whoseweightwascertifiedbyspecialofficials),andwhenallthiswasexhausted(47:15),cornwasgiveninexchangeforcattleofeverykind,
andfinallyfortheland.Themoralityofappropriatingthesurplusproduceandthencompellingthepeopletobuyitback,mustnotbejudgedbymodernstandards
ofjustice,butisdefensible,ifatall,onlyinaneconomicconditionwherethecentralgovernmentwasresponsibleforthecontrolofasystemofirrigationupon
whichthefertilityofthesoilandtheproduceofitscultivationdirectlydepended,andwheretheprivatebenefitoftheindividualhadtobeignoredinviewofaperil
threateningthecommunity.Insteadofregardingthearrangementasaprecedenttobefollowedindifferentstatesofcivilization,groundhasbeenfoundinitfor
chargingJosephwithturningtheneedsofthepeopleintoanoccasionforoppressingthemandcertainlytheeffectuponthecharacterandsubsequentconditionof
thepeoplewasnotfavourable.Thesystemoftenureinexistencebefore,bywhichlargelandedestateswereheldbyprivateproprietors,waschangedintooneby
whichallthelandbecamethepropertyofthecrown,theactualcultivatorspayingarentalofonefifthoftheproduce(47:24).Thatsomesuchchangetookplaceis
clearfromthemonuments(cf.Erman,LifeinAnc.Egypt,102),thoughtheyhavenotyieldedthenameoftheauthorortheexactdateofthechange.Anexception
wasmadeinfavourofthepriests(47:22),whoweresupportedbyafixedincomeinkindfromthePharaoh,andthereforehadnoneedtopartwiththeirland.In
latertimes(cf.DiodorusSiculus,i.73f.)thelandwasownedbythekings,thepriests,andthemembersofamilitarycasteanditisnotlikelythatthesystem
introducedbyJosephlastedlongafterhisdeath.Theneedofrewardingtheservicesofsuccessfulgeneralsorpartisanswouldbeastrongtemptationtothe
expropriationofsomeoftheroyallands.
Thepeculiarityofthefaminewasthatitextendedovertheneighbouringcountries(41:56f.)andthatisthefactofsignificanceinregardtothehistoryofIsrael,
withwhichthenarrativeinconsequenceresumescontact.TheseverityofthefamineinCanaanledJacobtosendallhissonsexceptBenjamin(42:4)tobuycornin
Egypt.OntheirarrivaltheysecuredaninterviewwithJoseph,andprostratedthemselvesbeforehim(37:7,42:6)butinthegrownman,withhisshavenface[onthe
monumentsonlyforeignersandnativesofinferiorrankarerepresentedaswearingbeards]andEgyptiandress,theyentirelyfailedtorecognizetheirbrother.The
roughaccusationthattheywerespiesinsearchofundefendedwaysbywhichthecountrymightbeinvadedfromtheeast,onwhichsidelinesofpostsandgarrisons
weremaintainedundertwoatleastofthedynasties,arousedtheirfears,andanattemptwasmadetoallayJosephssuspicionsbydetailedinformation.Joseph
catchesattheopportunityofdiscoveringthetruthconcerningBenjamin,and,afterfurtherconfirminginseveralwaystheapprehensionsofhisbrothers,retainsone
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catchesattheopportunityofdiscoveringthetruthconcerningBenjamin,and,afterfurtherconfirminginseveralwaystheapprehensionsofhisbrothers,retainsone
asahostageinwardandsendstheothershome.Ontheirreturn(42:35E),oratthefirstlodgingplace(42:27J)ontheway,thediscoveryoftheirmoneyintheir
sacksincreasedtheiranxiety,andforatimetheirfatherpositivelyrefusedtoconsenttofurtherdealingswithEgypt.Atlengthhisresolutionbroksdownunderthe
pressureofthefamine(43:11ff.).InEgyptthesonswerereceivedcourteously,andinvitedtoafeastinJosephshouse,wheretheywereseatedaccordingtotheir
age(43:33),andBenjaminwassingledoutforthehonourofaspecialmess(cf.2S11:8)asamarkofdistinction.Theysetouthomewardsinhighspirits,unaware
thatJosephhaddirectedthateachmansmoneyshouldbeplacedinhissack,andhisowndiviningcupofsilver(44:5themethodofdivinationwashydromancy
anarticlewasthrownintoavesselofwater,andthemovementsofthewaterwerethoughttorevealtheunknown)inthatofBenjamin.Overtakenatalmosttheirfirst
haltingplace,theywerechargedwiththeft,andreturnedinabodytoJosephshouse.HisreproacheselicitedafrankandpatheticspeechfromJudah,afterwhich
Josephcouldnolongermaintainhisincognito.HeallayedthefearsofhisconsciencestrickenbrothersbytheassurancethattheyhadbeentheagentsofProvidence
topreservelife(45:5cf.Ps105:17ff.)andinthenameofthePharaohheinvitedthemwiththeirfathertosettleinEgypt,withthepromiseofsupportduringthe
fiveyearsoffaminethatremained.
Goshen,apastoraldistrictintheDeltaaboutfortymilesnortheastofCairo,wasselectedforthenewhomeofJacob.Thedistrictwaslongafterwardsknownas
thelandofRameses(47:11)fromthecarespentuponitbythesecondkingofthatname,whooftenresidedthere,andfoundedseveralcitiesinthe
neighbourhood.InEgyptswineherdsandcowherdswereanabominationtothepeople(46:34cf.Hdt.ii.47,andErman,op.cit.439f.),butthereisno
independentevidencethatshepherdswere,andthecontemptmustberegardedasconfinedtothosewhosedutiesbroughtthemintoclosecontactwithcattle,forthe
rearingofcattlereceivedmuchattention,thesuperintendentoftheroyalherdsbeingfrequentlymentionedintheinscriptions.Josephshouseholdandbrothers
flourishedduringtheseventeenyears(47:27f.)JacoblivedinEgypt.BeforehisdeathheblessedJosephstwosons,givingpreferencetotheyoungerinviewofthe
greatnessofthetribetobederivedfromhim,andleavingtoJosephhimselfoneportionabovehisbrethren,viz.Shechem(48:22RVm).Aftermourningforthe
royalperiodofseventydays(50:3cf.Diod.Sic.i.72),JosephburiedhisfatherwithgreatpompinthecaveofMachpelah,andcheeredhisbrothersbyarenewed
promisetonourishandhelpthem.Heissaidtohavesurvivedtotheageof110(50:22),andtohaveleftinjunctionsthathisbodyshouldbeconveyedtoCanaan
whenIsraelwasrestored.Thebodywascarefullyembalmed(50:26),andenclosedinamummycaseorsarcophagus.Induecourseitwastakenchargeofby
Moses(Ex13:19),andeventuallyburiedatShechem(Jos24:32).
OfthegeneralhistoricityofthestoryofJosephthereneedbenodoubt.Allowancemaybemadefortheplayofimaginationinthelongperiodthatelapsed
beforethetraditionswerereducedtowritingintheirpresentform,andforthetendencytoprojectthecharacteristicsofatribebackwardsuponsomelegendaryhero.
ButtheincidentsaretoonaturalandtoocloselyrelatedtobeentirelyaproductoffictionandtheEgyptiancolouring,whichiscommontobothoftheprincipal
documents,isfataltoanytheorythatresolvestheaccountintoamereelaborationinadistantlandofracialpride.Josephsowncharacter,asdepicted,showsno
tracesofconstructiveart,butisconsistentandsingularlyattractive.Dutifulness(1Mac2:53)isperhapsitskeynote,manifestedalikeintheresistanceoftemptation,
inuncomplainingpatienceinmisfortune,andinthemodestywithwhichheborehiselevationtorankandpower.Insteadofusingopportunitiesfortheindulgence
ofresentment,herecognizestheactionofProvidence,andnourishesthebrothers(Sir49:15)whohadlostallbrotherlyaffectionforhim.Ontheotherhand,there
areblemisheswhichshouldbeneitherexaggeratednoroverlooked.Inhisyouththerewasadegreeofvanitythatmadehimratherunpleasantcompany.Thathis
fatherwasleftsolonginignoranceofhissafetyinEgyptmayhavebeenunavoidable,butleavesasuspicionofinconsiderateness.Wheninvestedwithauthorityhe
treatedthepeopleinawaythatwouldnowbepronouncedtyrannicalandunjust,enrichingandstrengtheningthethroneattheexpenseoftheirwoethough,judged
bythestandardsofhisownday,thechargemaynotequallylie.Onthewhole,averyhighplacemustbegivenhimamongtheearlyfoundersofhisrace.In
strengthofrightpurposehewassecondtonone,whilstinthegracesofreverenceandkindness,ofinsightandassurance,hebecamethetypeofafaiththatisat
oncepersonalandnational(He11:22),andallowsneithermiserynoracareeroftriumphtoeclipsethesenseofDivinedestiny.
R.W.MOSS.
JOSEPH(inNT).1.2.TwoancestorsofourLord,Lk3:24,30.
3.ThehusbandofMaryandfatherofJesus.EveryJewkeptarecordofhislineage,andwasveryproudifhecouldclaimroyalorpriestlydescentand
JosephcouldboasthimselfasonofDavid(Mt1:20).HisfamilybelongedtoBethlehem,Davidscity,buthehadmigratedto
Nazareth(Lk2:4),wherehefollowedthetradeofcarpenter(Mt13:55).HewasbetrothedtoMary,amaidenofNazareth,beingprobablymuchhersenior,though
thetraditionoftheapocryphalHistoryofJosephthathewasinhisninetythirdyearandsheinherfifteenthisamerefable.Thetraditionthathewasawidowerand
hadchildrenbyhisformerwifeprobablyaroseintheinterestofthedogmaofMarysperpetualvirginity.TheEvangeliststelluslittleabouthim,butwhattheydo
tellredoundstohiscredit.(1)HewasapiousIsraelite,faithfulinhisobservanceoftheJewishordinances(Lk2:2124)andfeasts(Lk2:41,42).(2)Hewasa
kindlyman.Whenhediscoveredtheconditionofhisbetrothed,hedrewthenaturalinferenceanddecidedtodisownher,buthewoulddoitasquietlyaspossible,
and,sofarashemight,spareherdisgrace.And,whenhewasapprisedofthetruth,hewasverykindtoMary.OnbeingsummonedtoBethlehembythe
requirementsofthecensus,hewouldnotleaveherathometosuffertheslandersofmisjudgingneighbours,buttookherwithhimandtreatedherverygentlyinher
timeofneed(Lk2:17).(3)HeexhibitedthisdispositionalsoinhisnurtureoftheChildsowondrouslyentrustedtohiscare,takingHimtohisheartandwell 104/124
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timeofneed(Lk2:17).(3)HeexhibitedthisdispositionalsoinhisnurtureoftheChildsowondrouslyentrustedtohiscare,takingHimtohisheartandwell
deservingtobecalledHisfather(Lk2:33,41,48,Mt13:55,Jn1:45,6:42).JosephneverappearsintheGospelstoryafterthevisittoJerusalemwhenJesushad
attainedtheageoftwelveyearsandbecomeasonoftheLaw(Lk2:4151)andsinceMaryalwaysappearsaloneinthenarrativesofthepublicministry,itisa
reasonableinferencethathehaddiedduringtheinterval.Traditionsaysthathediedattheageofonehundredandelevenyears,whenJesuswaseighteen.
4.OneoftheLordsbrethren,Mt13:55,whereAVreadsJoses,theGreekformofthename.Cf.Mk6:3.
5.JosephofArimatha.AwealthyanddevoutIsraeliteandamemberoftheSanhedrim.HewasadiscipleofJesus,but,dreadingthehostilityofhis
colleagues,hekepthisfaithsecret.HetooknopartinthecondemnationofJesus,butneitherdidheprotestagainstitandthelikelihoodisthatheprudently
absentedhimselffromthemeeting.Whenallwasover,herealizedhowcowardlyaparthehadplayed,and,strickenwithshameandremorse,pluckedupcourage
andwentinuntoPilateandaskedforthebodyofJesus(Mk15:43).Itwascommonforfriendsofthecrucifiedtopurchasetheirbodies,whichwouldelsehave
beencastoutasrefuse,apreytocarrionbirdsandbeasts,andgivethemdecentburialandJosephwouldofferPilatehispriceinanycaseheobtainedthebody
(Mk15:45).JosephhadagardenclosetoCalvary,wherehehadhewnasepulchreintherockforhisownlastrestingplaceandthere,aidedbyNicodemus,helaid
thebodyswathedincleanlinen(Mt27:5761=Mk15:4247=Lk23:5056=Jn19:38
42).
6.JosephBarsabbas,thedisciplewhowasnominatedagainstMatthiasassuccessortoJudasintheApostolate.Hewassurnamed,likeJamestheLords
brother,Justus(Ac1:23).TraditionsaysthathewasoneoftheSeventy(Lk10:1).7.SeeBARNABAS.
DAVIDS MITH.
JOSEPHUS(1Es9:34)=Joseph,Ezr10:42.
JOSEPHUS,FLAVIUS.Jewishhistorianandgeneral,bornaboutA.D.37or38,anddiedinthefirstyearsofthe2ndcentury.
1.Life.AccordingtohisLife,JosephuswasdescendedfromaMaccabanhouse,andwasthusofbothroyalandpriestlylineage.Hestatesthatheshowed
greatprecocity,andthatthelearnedmenofhisraceusedtoconsulthimwhenhewasfourteenyearsofage.HestudiedsuccessivelywiththeEssenesandthe
Pharisees,aswellaswiththeSadducees.ForthreeyearshewasastudentwithahermitnamedBanusveryprobablyoneoftheEssenesalthoughJosephusdoes
notseemtohavebeenadmittedtothehighergradesoftheorder.Attheageof26hewenttoRometobringabouttheacquittalofcertainpriestswhohadbeen
arrestedandsenttoRomefortrialbyFelix.Inthishewassuccessful,andevengainedthefavouroftheEmpressPoppa.
NotlongafterhisreturnfromRometherevolutionofA.D.66brokeout,andhewasatoncesweptintoitscurrent.Oftheeventswhichfollowhehasgivenus
twoaccounts,theearlierintheJewishWar[BJ],thelaterinhisLife,writtenshortlybeforehisdeath.Theseaccountsarenotalwaysconsistent,thelattershowing
moresubserviencetotheRomans.Inparticular,heattemptstojustifyhimself,andthePhariseeswithwhomhewasassociated,forparticipationintherevolt,by
declaringthattheyjudgeditbetterformoderatementhanforradicalstodirectthecourseofevents.TheBJ,however,doesnotsuggestthisquestionableproceeding
onthepartoftheJewishauthorities.
ThecourseofthewarinGalilee,andparticularlyhisownrelationstherewith,areminutelynarratedbyJosephus.Hispositionwasoneofgreatdifficulty.The
Galilansweregroupedinvariousparties,rangingfromthosewhoopposedwarwithRometoradicalslikethosewhofollowedJohnofGiscala.Theplansof
JosephusandhisfellowcommissionersfromJerusalemwerefurthercomplicatedbyjealousiesbetweenthevariouscities,particularlySepphoris,Tiberias,and
Tariche.Nonetheless,Josephusseemstohavegoneabouttheworkoforganizingtherevolutionenergetically.Hefortifiedthecitiesaswellashecould,and
attemptedtointroduceRomanmilitarymethodsamongthetroopshewasgathering.Whetherhewas,asheclaims,toostrictinthematterofbooty,or,ashis
enemiesclaimed,toolukewarminthecauseoftherevolution,complaintswerelodgedagainsthimatJerusalem,andaninvestigatingcommitteewassentinto
Galilee.Variousadventuresthenfollowed,butintheendJosephusseemstohavebeenacquittedandtohavegainedacompleteascendencyoverhislocalenemies.
JohnofGiscala,however,subsequentlywenttoJerusalem,andprovedapersistentenemy,whiletheZealotpartyasawholeseemsnevertohavebeensatisfiedwith
theattitudeofJosephus.
TheapproachofVespasianfromthenorthatonceshowedhowhalfheartedhadbeentherevolutionarysympathiesofmanyoftheGalilancities.Severalof
themsurrenderedwithoutseriousfighting,andVespasian,afteroneortwodesperatebattles,wassooninpossessionofallGalileeexceptingJotapataontheeastof
theSeaofGalilee,whereJosephusandhissurvivingtroopswereentrenched.ReinforcementstheSanhedrincouldnotsend,andforfortysevendaystheRomans
besiegedthecity.DuringthattimeJosephus,ifhisownaccountistobebelieved,performedmarvellousdeedsofstrategyandvalour.Butalltonopurpose.Thecity
fell,andwasrazedtotheground.Josephuswastakenprisoner,afterhavingbyatrickescapedbeingkilledbyhisownsoldiers.OnbeingbroughttoVespasianhe
claimedpropheticability,andsalutedthegeneralasEmperor.ForthisandotherreasonshewonfavourwithVespasian,wasgivenhisfreedom,andtookhis
benefactorsfamilyname,Flavius.
WhenTitusundertookthesiegeofJerusalem,Josephusaccompaniedhimasinterpreterorherald.Bythistime,however,hehadbecomehatefultotheJews,and
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WhenTitusundertookthesiegeofJerusalem,Josephusaccompaniedhimasinterpreterorherald.Bythistime,however,hehadbecomehatefultotheJews,and
couldaccomplishnothinginthewayofinducingthemtomaketermswiththeRomans.Whenthecitywascaptured,hewasabletorendersomeservicetothe
unfortunateJewsbecauseofthefavourinwhichhestoodwithTitus.HewassubsequentlygivenestatesinJuda,andwasthusenabledtoliveduringtheremainder
ofhislonglifeasagentlemanofleisure,devotedtothepursuitofliterature.HeenjoyedthefriendshipofTitusandofkingAgrippaII.Hewasseveraltimesmarried,
andleftseveralchildren.
2.Writings.ThechiefimportanceofJosephusliesnotinhiscareerasaleaderoftheJewishrevolution,butintheworkswhichhavecomedowntous.
Generallyspeaking,hiswritingsareintendedtodisabusehisGreekandRomancontemporariesofsomeofthemisconceptionsthatthenexistedconcerningthe
Jews.Tothatendhedoesnothesitatetoemployvariousingeniousinterpretationsofhistoricalevents,aswellaslegends,andeventohintthattheJewishrecords
whichhequoteshavecertainallegoricalmeaningstobedisclosedinasubsequentwork,which,however,heneverwrote.
(1)TheearliestofthesewritingsisthatConcerningtheJewishWar,aworkinsevenbooks.
ItcoversbrieflytheperiodfromthetimeofAntiochusEpiphanestotheoutbreakofthewarofA.D.6670,andthennarratestheeventsofthewarindetail.Itwas
originallywritteninAramaic,butwasrewrittenbyJosephusinGreek.Itwasprobablyissuedbefore79,asitwaspresentedtoVespasian.Becauseofthereference
totheTempleofPeaceasfinished(BJVII.v.7),itmusthavebeenwrittenafter75.Thework,whileinaccurateatmanypoints,andfullofatendencytopresentthe
actionsoftheJewsinasfavourablealightaspossible,isofinestimablevaluesofarasitsrecordoffactsisconcerned,andparticularlyforthelightitthrowsonthe
stateofsocietyinthemidstofwhichJesuslaboured.ThebookfoundfavourwithVespasianandTitusandAgrippa
II.
(2)TheAntiquitiesoftheJews.Thisgreatworkintwentybooksisoneofthemostimportantmonumentswhichhavecomedowntousfromantiquity.Itwas
publishedintheyear93.ItcoversthehistoryoftheJewsfromtheearliestBiblicaltimestotheoutbreakoftherevolutionofA.D.66.Itisparticularlyinterestingas
anillustrationofthemethodbywhichthefactsofHebrewhistorycouldberewrittenfortheedificationoftheGreeksandRomans.Itaboundsinlegendsand
curiousinterpretations.JosephuswasbynomeansdependentupontheOTexclusively.HeconstantlyreferstononBiblicalwriters,mentioningbynamemostofthe
GreekandRomanhistorians.HeusedconstantlytheworksofAlexanderPolyhistor,NicholasofDamascus,andStrabo.HeprobablyalsousedHerodotus.The
workaboundsincollectionsofdecreesandinscriptionswhichmakeitofgreatvaluetosecularaswellastoBiblicalhistorians.Thelaterbooksgiveveryfull
accountsofthelifeofHerodI.,forwhichJosephusislargelydependentuponNicholasofDamascus,thehistoriographerofHerod.Inhistreatmentofthe
MaccabeesheislargelydependentuponFirstMaccabees.HisaccountofthesuccessorsofHerodishardlymorethanasketch,butthatoftheeventsleadingupto
therevolutionismorecomplete.
(3)TheLife.ThisworkwaswritteninreplytoJustusofTiberias,bywhomJosephuswasaccusedofcausingtherevolt.InhisLifeJosephusrepresentshimself
asafriendoftheRomans,butmanystatementsaredisprovedbyhisearlierwork,theBJ.ThisLifeappearedafterthedeathofAgrippaII.,thatis,inthebeginning
ofthe2ndcentury.
(4)AgainstApion.ThisisadefenceoftheJewishpeopleagainsttheattacksoftheirenemiesandcalumniators,chiefamongwhomwasApion,agrammarian
ofAlexandria,whowroteduringthefirsthalfofthe1stcent.A.D.ItwaswrittenprobablyaboutthesametimeastheLife,andisparticularlyvaluableasanarrative
ofthechargesbroughtagainsttheJewishreligionbytheGreeks.ItalsoservesasanexpositionofthecustomsandviewsoftheJewsofthe1stcentury,notonlyin
JudabutthroughouttheDispersion.
3.TheimportanceofJosephustotheBiblicalstudent.AsacontemporaryoftheNTwriters,JosephusdescribestheJewishbackgroundofChristianhistory
asdoesnootherwriterofantiquity.TheBookofActsisparticularlyilluminatedbyhiswritings,whilethechronologyoftheApostolicperiodisgivenitsfixeddates
byhisreferencestoJewishandRomanrulers.Josephus,itistrue,doesnotaddtoourknowledgeofthelifeofChrist.WhilehisreferencetoJohntheBaptistis
possiblyauthentic,andwhileitisnotimpossiblethathementionsJesus,theentirepassage(Ant.XVIII.iii.3)canhardlyhavecomefromJosephusinitspresent
form.Atthesametime,hisnarrativeoftheeventsoftheGospelperiodandhisdescriptionofthecharacterofthevariousrulersofJudaservetocorroboratethe
accuracyofboththeGospelsandActs.AsfurnishingdataforourknowledgeofJewishlegends,parties,practices,andliterature,hisimportanceisexceptional.
EvenifwedidnothavetheMishna,itwouldbepossiblefromhispassagestoreconstructasatisfactorypictureoftheJewishlifeofNTtimes.Hisfewreferencesto
thecurrentMessianicexpectationsofhisdayareparticularlyvaluable.Ontheotherhand,hiscommentsuponandexplanationsoftheOTareofcomparatively
smallvalue.
S HAILERMATHEWS.
JOSES.1.OneofthebrethrenoftheLord(Mk6:3,15:40,47,Mt27:56).InMt13:55AVhasJoses,butRVcorrectlyJoseph.2.Thenatalname(Ac4:36
AV)ofBarnabasRVcorrectlyhasJoseph.
JOSHAH.ASimeonitechief(1Ch4:34).
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/j.htm JOSHAPHAT.1.OneofDavidsheroes(1Ch11:43).2.ApriestinDavidstime(1Ch 106/124
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JOSHAPHAT.1.OneofDavidsheroes(1Ch11:43).2.ApriestinDavidstime(1Ch
15:24).
JOSHAVIAH.OneofDavidsheroes(1Ch11:46).
JOSHBEKASHAH.AsonofHeman(1Ch25:4,24).Thereisreasontobelievethatthisandfiveofthenamesassociatedwithitarereallyafragmentofa
hymnorprayer.
JOSHEBBASSHEBETHoccursinRVof2S23:8asapropernameinplaceofthemeaninglessthatsatintheseatoftheAV.Butthetextiscorrupt,andthe
originalnameJashobeammustberestoredfromtheparallelpassage,2Ch11:11,justastheHachmonitemustbesubstitutedfortheTahchemonite.
JOSHIBIAH.ASimeonitechief(1Ch4:35).
JOSHUA(onformsandmeaningofthenameseenextart.).1.ThesuccessorofMoses.Seenextarticle.2.TheBethshemiteinwhosefieldwasthestoneon
whichthearkwasset,onitsreturnfromthelandofthePhilistines(1S6:14,18).3.ThegovernorofJerusaleminthetimeofJosiah(2K23:8).4.Thehighpriest
whoalongwithZerub.directedaffairsatJerusalemaftertherestoration(Hag1:1,12,14etc.,Zec3:1,3,6etc.).InthebooksofHag.andZec.heiscalledJoshua,
inEzr.andNehJeshua(wh.see).SeealsoJESUS,2.
JOSHUA(cf.JESUS,1).ThesuccessorofMosesasleaderofIsrael.HeiscalledHosheainDt32:44,Nu13:8andinNu13:16thisisrepresentedashis
originalname.ButNu13islate,andtheversionsinDt.showthatJoshuawasprobablytheoriginalreading.ThemostlikelyrenderingofthenameisJahwehis
salvation.ThesonofNunandofthetribeofEphraim,hecommandedthearmyinthebattlewithAmalek(Ex17:816),attendedonMosesatMt.Sinai(32:17f.),
andattheTentofMeeting(33:11allthesepassagesarefromE)actedasoneofthetwelvespies(Nu13:8,14:69),wassparedalongwithCaleb(14:30,38allP).
HissubsequenthistorybelongstothestoryoftheconquestofCanaan(seefollowingarticle).HewasburiedinTimnathserah(Jos19:50,24:30)orTimnathheres
(Jg2:9),inthehillcountryofEphraim.
TheviewiswidelyheldthatJoshuahasnohistoricalrealityasaperson,thathisnameismerelythenameofaclaninEphraim,andthathisleadershipinIsraelrepresents,and
putsbackintotheperiodoftheconquestthecommandingpositionwhichEphraimhadcometoholdintheIsraeliteconfederation.Andtheeffortismadetoshowthathemakeshis
appearancefirstinE,theN.IsraeliteorEphraimitesource.ButtheoldpoeticfragmentJos10:12f.representshimasspeakinginthenameofunitedIsrael,andJos17:1418brings
himintoviewinhisdealingswithhisowntribeashavingmorethantheirinterestsinhismind,asbeinginsomesensethearbiteroftheconfederacy.Andwhileitisdifficultonany
readingofthehistorytounderstandwhyalloursourcessaynothingabouttheconquestofCentralPalestine,thisbecomesdoublydifficultiforiginallythiswasthesceneofJoshuas
firstactivityandinfluence.ThehistoricalfoundationformakingtheheroofEphraimintotheconquerorofallCanaanisabsent.
ItseemsmoreprobablethatJoshualedthenationintheirfirstassaultonPalestine,thatunderhisleadershiptheentrybyJerichowaswon,andawedgethrustintothelandbythe
captureofBethelandAi.Afterthisearlyandunitedvictory,thetribesmayhavedividedfortheirfuturesettlements,andtheseparateconquestsmayhavebeencarriedout,asthe
traditionsinJg.representthem,inamorepiecemealandimperfectfashion.ButthisisnotincompatiblewiththefactthatJoshuamayhaveretainedsuchapositionofarbiteras,e.g.,
Jos17giveshim.Thelooseconfederacy,whichstillrecognizeditsunityagainstitsenemies,mayhaveturnednaturallyforguidancetoonewholeditsearlyefforts.Inourlater
sourcestheconquestwasconceivedinadifferentfashion.Itwasrepresentedasthorough,andascarriedoutbyaunitedpeople.Thewritersnaturallygroupedallthisroundthename
ofonewhohadbeenable,thoughonlyforashorttime,togivethetribesasenseofunityandtobegintheirassaultontheirnewland.Theyidealizedbothhispersonandhiswork.
Butonlyonthesuppositionthattherewassomethingtoidealizeisitpossibletounderstandwhyaman,whobelongstoaclaninEphraimwhichisotherwiseunknown,cametobe
setupastheherounderwhomtheywontheirfootholdamongthenations,andpassedfromwanderingtribesintoapeople.
A.C.WELCH.
JOSHUA
1.PlaceintheCanon.ThebookwasplacedbytheJewsamongtheEarlyProphets,i.e.Joshua,Judges,Samuel,Kings.Thereasongenerallyacceptedfor
thisisthatJoshua,unlikeExodusorLeviticus,doesnotcontainTorahorlaw.ButGenesis,whichrecountsonlytheoriginsofthenationtowhichtheTorahwas
delivered,wasincludedinthePentateuchJoshua,whichrelatestheconquestofthelandwheretheTorahwastobepractised,wasexcluded.Jewishtradition
workedwithcriteriaofwhichweareignorant,butinseparatingJoshuafromthePentateuchitmayhaverecognizedthepresenceofdifferentdocuments.
ModerncriticismhasinsistedonconnectingthebookmorecloselywiththePentateuch,onthegroundthat,sinceallthePentateuchdocumentslookforwardtothefulfilmentof
JahwehspromiseofPalestine,Joshua,whichrelatestheconquest,isanecessarysequel.This,however,forgets(a)thatallHebrewhistoryisaunityinwhichtheconquestof
Palestineismerelyanincident(b)thatDeuteronomylooksforwardbeyondtheconquesttotheerectionofanationalsanctuary,forwhichJoshuaprovidesnomorethanthe
foundation.AndthereareotherevidencesthatJoshuaformedpartofahistorywhichextendedthroughtheperiodoftheJudgestotheestablishmentofthekingdominJerusalem.It
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foundation.AndthereareotherevidencesthatJoshuaformedpartofahistorywhichextendedthroughtheperiodoftheJudgestotheestablishmentofthekingdominJerusalem.It
ispossiblethatawiderrecognitionofthisfactmayhelptoclearupsomeofthedifficultquestionsastothecompositionofthebook.
2.Structureandcontents.Thebookfallsintothreeparts:(a)theconquest,chs.112(b)thedivisionoftheland,chs.1321(c)aconclusion,chs.2224.
Itisconvenienttodiscusstheseseparately.
(a)Inchs.112,anaccount,closelyakintoJE,suppliesthefoundation.ItrelatesthemissionofthespiestoJericho(2:19,1224),andtheconsequentpassage
ofJordan(3:1,5,1017,4:111a,1518,20).Inthelatterstoryadifferenceinsubstanceprovesthepresenceoftwoaccounts,buteveryefforttoidentifyoneof
thesewithJ,theotherwithE,failsfrominsufficientcriteria.ItrecountsthecircumcisionatGilgal,whichitviewsasanovelty(thesecondtimeof5:2isabsent
fromtheLXX),sincebythismeansthereproachofthecircumcisedEgyptiansisremovedfromthepeople(5:2f.,8f.).ThestoryofthecaptureofJerichoandAi(in
bothofwhichthepresenceoftwoaccountsisclear)follows(5:136:27,7:226,8:129),withthetrespassofAchan.Joshuathenmakesacompactwiththe
Gibeonites(9:39a,1115a,16,22f.,26,27a),andadvancestothevictoryatBethhoron(10:17,911,12b14a),totheexecutionatMakkedah(10:1524,26f.),
andtothevictoryattheWatersofMerom(11:19[inpart]).
ThisaccounthasbeenthoroughlyrevisedbyaneditorwhoiscloselyakininspiritandlanguagetotheauthoroftheframeworkofDeuteronomy.Headdedan
introductionintowhichhehasfusedearliermaterial(ch.1).HebroughtoutcertainfeaturesinconnexionwiththepassageofJordanthefearinspiredinthe
Canaanites,thepresenceofthe21/2tribes,theexaltationofJoshuabyJahweh(2:10f.,3:24,69,4:11b,12,14,2124,5:1).Hegaveadifferentreasonforthe
circumcisionatGilgal(5:47),andaddedsomedetailstothefraudoftheGibeonites(9:1f.,9b,10,24f.,27b.),andtothestoryofBethhoron(9:8,12a,14b,25).
HeconcludedtheconquestoftheSouth(10:2843)andthevictoryatMerom(11:1023),withasummaryoftheresultandheaddedareviewoftheentire
conquestinch.12.Inhisworkhedoesnotaddindependentmaterialtohisoriginal,butbyhisarrangementandomissionsgivesanewaspecttotheaccount.Thus
severalindicationspointtohishavingomittedmuchfromhisdocuments.ItissufficienttomentiononetheabsenceofanyaccountoftheconquestofCentral
Palestine.Thisisthemoreremarkablesinceat8:3035wehaveastatementofhowJoshuabuiltanaltaratEbal,beforethecountrybetweenGilgalandMount
Ephraimwassubdued.ProbablythisformedtheconclusiontoJEsnarrativeoftheconquestofCentralPalestinepossiblyitwasderivedfromE,asourcewhich
wasspeciallyinterestedinNorthIsraelitesanctuaries,andwhich(seeDEUTERONOMY)wasafavouritesourcewithD.Further,theconquestofSouthPalestineinits
presentformdoesnotagreewithJos15:1419=Jg1:1015.ThelatterpassagesrepresentSouthPalestineasconquered,notinonesweepingrush,butgradually
notbytheactionoftheunitedtribesunderonehead,butbytheeffortofonetribeorofseveralincombination.Again,11:21f.assignstoJoshuathevictoryoverthe
Anakim,whichin14:12,15:15ff.andJg1:1015isattributedtoJudah,andespeciallytoCaleb.Evidentlytheeditorhassoughttogrouproundonerepresentative
figure,andassigntoaspecificperiod,theconquestwhichcoveredaconsiderabletimeandengagedmanyleaders.Hischiefinterestinthedetailsofhistorycentres
roundtheircapacitytobeusedtopointamoral.Thusitisnoteworthybowfewchronologicaldataappearinthechaptersincomparisonwithearlierbooks.Hegives
prominencetothemotiveswhichgovernedJoshua,andtotheDivinesupportpromisedtoandreceivedbyhim.Hemagnifiestheleaderssuccesses,andconsiders
himtherepresentativeofthenationandthesuccessorofMoses.
Afewversesinthissection,4:13,19,5:1012,7:1,9:15b,1721,aregenerallyassignedtoP,buttheyaresoisolatedandsovaguethatnothingcanbedonewiththemexcept
cataloguethem,andexpressthedoubtwhethertheyeverbelongedtoaseparatework.
(b)Inchs.1321thesituationisdifferent,andthecriticalresultsmoreuncertain.Thesamethreesourcescanbetracedasintheearliersectionbut,ontheone
hand,theportionsassignedtoPtakeacharacterandrangewhollyunlikethosewhichcharacterizethisdocumentthroughoutthePentateuchontheother,itisstilla
subjectofdebatewhetherthesectionowesitsfinalformtoaDeuteronomicoraPriestlyeditor,DorP.ThepresentwritersviewisthatDeditedthissectionalso,
usingashissourcesJEandwhatiscalledP.(Theotherviewisheld,e.g.,byDriver.)
(1)P(socalled),asthemorecomplete,isgivenfirst.ItbeganwiththeassemblyofthetribesatShilohforthedivision(18:1),andastatementastothelot
assignedtothe21/2tribes(13:1532).Itthenproceededtothedivision(14:15).ThelotofJudahisfirstdescribed(15:113,2044,4862).Thenfollowsthelot
ofthechildrenofJoseph(16:48,17:1a,3f.,7,9a,9c,10a),whoarecountedastwo,andofwhomManaseeh,asfirstborn,isnamedfirst.ThelotsofBenjamin
(18:1128),Simeon(19:18),Zebulun(vv.1016),Issachar(vv.1723),Asher(vv.
2431),Naphtali(vv.3239),Dan(vv.4046,48)aredescribed,andthencomesaconclusion(v.51)correspondingwiththeopening(18:1).Onthisfollowedthe
lawandlistofthecitiesofrefuge(20:13,6a,79),andalistoftheLeviticalcities(21:142).
(2)Dincorporatedwiththis,materialdrawnfromJE.Heintroducedthedivisionofthelandwithareviewoftheundividedland,andastatementofthelot
assignedtothe21/2tribes(13:114).Hethereforedislodgedtheintroduction(18:1).IntothelotofJudahheinsertedtheaccountofCalebssettlementthere(14:6
15,15:1419),andofJerusalem(v.63).[Vv.4547maybealateaddition,written,afterthePhilistineshaddisappeared,toconformJudahsboundarytotheideal
ofv.12].IntothelotofthechildrenofJosephheinsertedmaterialfromtheoldersource(16:13,9f.,17:1b,2,5,8,9b,10b18),whichrepresentedthelotofthe108/124
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ofv.12].IntothelotofthechildrenofJosephheinsertedmaterialfromtheoldersource(16:13,9f.,17:1b,2,5,8,9b,10b18),whichrepresentedthelotofthe
sonsasone(17:1418).BeforethelotofBenjaminheplacedthestatementofasurveymadeforthesevenremainingtribes(18:26,810[fromJEv.7isfrom
D]).ThismayrepresentthehistoricalfactthatthetwostrongclansofJudahandEphraimwerethefirsttobesettled.Butthebreakatthispointintheoriginalsource
gaveoccasiontoinsert18:1here.Inthedescriptionoftheremainingsevenlotsonlyafewverses(19:9,47,49f.)comefromJE,butthelistofNaphtaliscities(vv.
3239),whichisentirelydifferentincharacterfromthedescriptionoftheotherlots,maybefromJE,accordingtowhich(18:9)thecountrywasdistributedby
cities.ThisisoneofthefactswhichsupportthosewhoholdthatPeditedJE.
ItdeservesnoticethattheaccountofJudah,Benjamin,andSimeonthedistrictswhichwereinhabitedaftertheExileismoreexhaustivethanthatoftheothers.Thefact
suggeststhattheeditor,whogavethebookitsfinalform,wroteatalatedate,oratleastthatlatehandsretouchedthebook.
Intheaccountofthecitiesofrefuge(ch.20),vv.4f.,6b,whichhavebeenaddedtotheearliersource,areabsentfromtheLXX.Theymusthavebeenaddedatalatedateto
bringthesectionintoagreementwiththeDeuteronomiclaw.
(3)Dconcludedthesectiononthedivisionofthelandwithhisformalclose,21:4345.
(c)Inchs.2224Dtooktheaccountofthedismissalofthe21/2tribes(22:934)fromP,providingitwithhisownintroduction(vv.16).Theaccountislate,
sinceitviewstheconquestassimultaneous,complete,andnational.Hetookch.24therenewalofthecovenantfromJE(probablyE),andaddedonlyafew
verses(11b,13,31).TotheseheattachedJoshuaspartingcounsels(ch.23).
ThesourcenamedPtakesmuchthesamepositionabouttheconquestasthefinaleditor.ThechiefdifferenceliesinthefactthatitassociatesEleazarwith
Joshua,butthesetwoformallydividetheconqueredterritory.
ItseemsprobablethattheBookofJoshuaonceformedpartofagreaterwholeahistorywrittenintheDeuteronomicspiritandbasedonearliersources,which
coveredtheperiodfromtheconquesttothekingdom.ThisviewistenablealongwiththeopinionthatPwasthefinaleditor,who,addingsomesectionsonthe
divisionwhichheextractedfromoldersources,broughtthebooktoitspresentform.
A.C.WELCH.
JOSIAH.1.KingofJudah,whosucceededhisfatherAmonwhenonlyeightyearsold(2K22:1).Thereligiousconditionofthepeople,whichwasbadunder
Amon,continuedwithoutessentialimprovement,sofarasweknow,untiltheeighteenthyearofJosiah.Thesuddenchangethenmaderesultedfromthefindingof
theBookofInstructionintheTemple(v.8ff.)butitispossiblethatthemindsofkingandpeoplewerepreparedforitbytheScythianinvasion.Thedemandofthe
bookforathoroughreformationpowerfullyaffectedthekingandhisofficers.Thebookwasreadpublicly,andkingandpeopleenteredintoasolemncovenantto
actaccordingtoitsinjunctions.ItscentraldemandwastheremovalofallaltarsinthecountryexcepttheoneatJerusalem.Thiswashenceforthtobetheonly
sanctuaryinJudah.Thecarryingoutofthisprogrammeisrelatedindetail,andwelearnthattheconclusionoftheworkwasmarkedbythecelebrationofthe
Passoverinanewmannerandwithunusualsolemnity(23:21ff.).
Josiahsreignwascharacterizedbyjustice,aswelearnfromJeremiah,butweknownomoreofituntiltheendofthekingslife.TheAssyrianempirewas
totteringtoitsfall,andPharaohnechothoughttoseizetheprovincesnearesthimandattachthemtoEgypt.HethereforeinvadedPalestinewithanarmy.Josiahwas
illadvisedenoughtoattemptresistance.Inthebattlewhichensuedhewasslain(23:29).Hismotiveinundertakingthisexpeditionhasbeenmuchdiscussed.
ProbablyhehopedtorestoretherealindependenceofJudah.Thathewasbelovedbyhispeopleisindicatedbytheirdeepandlongcontinuedmourning.
2.SonofZephaniah(Zec6:10).
H.P.S MITH.
JOSIAS=Josiah,kingofJudah(1Es1:1,7,18,2123,25,28,29,3234,Bar1:8)in1Es8:36Josaphias.
JOSIPHIAH.ThefatherofoneofEzrascompanions(Ezr8:10)in1Es8:36Josaphias.
JOTANDTITTLE.InMt5:18Jesussays,Tillheavenandearthpass,onejotoronetittleshallinnowisepassfromthelaw,tillallbefulfilled(||Lk16:17).
TheGreekwordsitaandkeraia(WHkerea)weretranslatedbyTindaleiottandtytle,andtheseformswereretainedinalltheversions.The1611ed.ofAVhas
iote(onesyllable)andtitle,butmodernprintershaveturnedioteintojot,andtitleintotittle.TheiotaisthesmallestletteroftheGreekalphabet,asistheyod
inthelaterHebrew.Thekeraia(literallylittlehorn)isanysmallmarkdistinguishingoneletterfromanother,likethestrokeofat.
JOTBAH.Namedonlyin2K21:19.ItwasprobablyinJudah,butthesiteisunknown.
JOTBATHAH.AstationinthejourneyingsoftheIsraelites(Nu33:33f.,Dt10:7),describedasalandofbrooksofwaters.Itspositionisunknown.
JOTHAM(judge).TheyoungestsonofJerubbaal,who,byhidinghimself,escapedthemassacreofhisbrethrenbyAbimelech(Jg9:5).WhenAbimelech 109/124
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JOTHAM(judge).TheyoungestsonofJerubbaal,who,byhidinghimself,escapedthemassacreofhisbrethrenbyAbimelech(Jg9:5).WhenAbimelech
hadbeenproclaimedkingbytheShechemites,Jothamappeared,closetowheretheywereassembled,onMt.Gerizim,andaddressedtothemtheParableofthe
Trees(9:820).Theparable,whichissomewhatincongruousinparts,isintendedasanappealtotheconscienceoftheShechemitesincasetheappealshouldturn
outtobefruitless(whichindeedprovedtobethecase),Jothamuttersacurse(v.20)againstbothAbimelechandtheShechemitesthiscurseisshortlyafterwards
fulfilled.Afterhisaddress,JothamfleestoBeer,fearingthevengeanceofAbimelech,andwehearofhimnomore.
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
JOTHAM.1.AkingofJudahinthetimeofIsaiah.Hisfatherwasafflictedwithleprosy,andJothamhadsomesortofregencybeforebecomingsoleruler(2
K15:5).WeknownothingofhimexceptthatherebuiltorornamentedoneofthegatesoftheTemple(v.35),andthatthehostilitieswhichlaterculminatedinthe
invasionofJudahbeganbeforehisdeath(vv.37,38).
2.ACalebite(1Ch2:47).
H.P.S MITH.
JOY.
Thenounjoyanditssynonyms,rejoicing,gladness,mirth,theverbjoymoreusuallyrejoice,alsobe(andmake)joyful,be(andmake)gladormerrywiththecorresponding
adjectives,representintheOTarichvarietyofHeb.synonymsnoteasilydistinguishable.NTGreekexpressestheemotionbythreeleadingwords:(a)theordinarychara(vb.
chaircf.charis,grace)(b)atermsignifyingexcited,demonstrativejoy,exultationasnounrenderedgladness(Lk1:14,Ac2:46,He1:9exceedingjoyinJude24),asvb.
beexceedingglad(Mt5:12,Rev19:7),orrejoicegreatly(Ac16:34,1P1:6,8,
4:13)neverfoundinPaul(c)almostpeculiartoPaul(whousesnounandvb.34timesin1and2Cor.,8timesinRo.,and8timeselsewhere),denotingjoyoversomepersonal
distinctionorpossession,andmostlyrenderedgloryingorboastingbyAV,byRVuniformlyglorying,exceptinRo5:2f.whereitappearstwiceasrejoicing.(d)InLk12:19,
15:23etc.,2Co2:2,wefindafamiliarGr.wordforfestive,socialjoy(e)inAc27:22etc.,Ja5:13,asimilartermsignifyingcheerfulnessorhighspirits.TheBeatitudesofOT
(undertheformulaBlessed!,orHappy,istheman,etc.,asinPs1:1,127:5)andoftheNT(Mt5:3ff.etc.)comeunderthishead,astheysetforththeobjectiveconditions,
spiritualormaterial,ofreligioushappinesswhilepeacedesignatesthecorrespondinginwardstateformingthesubstratumofjoy,whichishappinessinitslivelierbutfluctuating
emotionalmoods.Joyistopeaceasthesunshineandbrightcoloursaretothecalmlightandsweetairofasummerday:ontherelationsofthetwo,seeJn14:1,27f.,15:11,16:19
33,Ro14:17,15:13,32f.,Gal5:22,Ph4:17etc.).
JoyismoreconspicuousinChristianitythaninanyotherreligion,andintheBiblethaninanyotherliterature.Psychologically,joyistheindexofhealth,
resultingfromtheadequateengagementoftheaffectionsandthevigorousandharmoniousexerciseofthepowersitisthesignthatthesoulhasfounditsobject.In
theOT,asbetweenJandIsrael,joyismutual.Its
ascriptiontoJindicatestherealismoftheHeb.conceptionoftheDivinepersonality:J
rejoicesinhisworks(Gn1:31etc.,Ps104:31),andrejoicesoverHispeopleforgood(Dt
30:9,Zeph3:17etc.cf.Lk15:7,10).TherighteousinturnrejoiceinJ,(Ps97:12,149:2etc.),inthefactthattheyhavesuchaGodandknowHim(Ps4:6f.,
16:11f.,100etc.)thisisthesupremehappinessoflife,itislifeinthefullsense(Ps36:9,63:17etc.)particularlyinHismercyandfaithfulnessand
salvation(Ps21:17,51:717,85,89:18,Is25:9,Hab3:17ff.),inHiswiseandholystatutes(Dt4:7f.,Ps119)theyrejoicebeforeJ,expressingtheirjoyby
sacrificeandfeast(Dt12:1012etc.),theyrejoiceinthenaturalboonsoflife,intheguidanceofProvidence(Ps103,116,118etc.),innationalblessingsand
success(Ex15,1K8:66,Is55,Neh
12:43etc.),inJsjudgmentsonwrongdoers(1S2:110,Ps48:4ff.,68:16etc.),andinHispromises,whichbringhopeandlightintothedarkestdays(Ps
27:16,Jer15:16,Zec2:10,9:9etc.).
TheOTjoyinGodbreaksoutagainintheCanticlesoftheNT(Lk1:46ff.,68ff.,2:28ff.),beingallthewhilesustainedonthehopeofIsrael,andgatheringin
thehiddenreservoirofpiousJewishhearts.ThisjoyinGodwasstronginJesustheintimationsgivenbyMk2:1822,Mt5:1012,6:16ff.,2534,11:1619,Lk
10:21and15(thewholech.),Jn2:111,15:11,17:13,shouldcorrecttheonesidedimpressionthatinHisordinarytemperourLordwasthemanofsorrowsthe
glowofhappinessfeltinHiscompanyformedanelementinthecharmofJesus.Christianjoyisassociatedwiththefindingoflifestreasureintruereligion(Mt
13:44etc.),withthereceivingofsalvationthroughChrist(Ac2:46,16:34,1Th1:6),withtheinfluenceoftheHolySpiritonthesoul(Ro14:17,Gal5:22,Eph
5:1820),withsuccessinworkforGodandman,andhopeofheavenlyreward(Lk10:20f.,Jn4:36,Ro12:12,Ph1:18,1P4:13cf.Ps17:14f.,126:5),andwith
spiritualfellowshipandfriendship(Ro12:15,2Co7:716,Ph2:1ff.,2Jn4etc.)thefruitoftheSpiritislove,joy,etc.,aninseparablepair(seeJn15:914).The
adversitieswhichdestroyearthlyhappiness,likeobstructionscrossingastreamthatrisesfromsomedeepspring,gotoswellthetideofjoyinthebreastofthe
childrenofGodsee,e.g.,Mt5:10ff.,Jn16:33,Ac5:41,Ro5:311,8:3139,1P1:612,Rev7:1417,Is35.
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G.G.F INDLAY.
JOZABAD.1.2.3.ThreeofDavidsheroes(1Ch12:4,20bis).4.Theeponymofa
Leviticalfamily(2Ch31:13,35:9[1Es1:9Joram]).5.Apriestwhohadmarriedaforeignwife
(Ezr10:22[1Es9:22Ocidelus]).6.ALevite(Ezr8:33[1Es8:63Josabdus]10:23[1Es9:23Jozabdus]).7.AnexpounderoftheLaw(Neh8:7[1Es9:48
Jozabdus]).8.AninhabitantofJerusalem(Neh11:16).
JOZABDUS.1.1Es9:23=Ezr10:23Jozabad.2.1Es9:29=Ezr10:28Zabbai.3.1Es9:48=Neh8:7Jozabad.
JOZACAR.In2K12:21itissaidthatJozacarbenShimeathandJehozabadbenShomermurderedJoash.Theparallel2Ch24:26makesitclearthatthere
wasbutonemurderernamed,andthathisnamehasbeenduplicated.JozacarandZechariahhavethesamemeaning,Jahwebremembers.
W.F.COBB.
JOZADAK.SeeJEHOZADAK.
JUBAL.AsonofLamechbyAdah,andinventorofmusicalinstruments,Gn4:21(J).Thenameprob.containsanallusiontoybl,ramshorn.
JUBILEE.SeeS ABBATICALYEAR.
JUBILEES,BOOKOF.SeeAPOCALYPTICLITERATURE,2.
JUCAL.SeeJEHUCAL.
JUDA.AnamefirstappearinginTo1:18asappliedtotheoldkingdomofJudah(ofwhichJudaismerelytheGrcoRomanequivalent),asitwas
reoccupiedaftertheCaptivitybythereturneddescendantsofsubjectsoftheSouthernKingdom.Thoughsometimes(asinLk23:5,andmoredefinitelyinAc10:37,
26:10)looselyemployedtodenotethewholeofWesternPalestine,thenamewasproperlyconfinedtothesouthernmostofthethreedistrictsintowhichtheRoman
provinceofWesternPalestinewasdividedtheothertwobeingGalileeandSamaria.ItlaybetweenSamariaonthenorthandthedesertofArabiaPetraonthe
southbutitsexactboundariescannotbestatedmoredefinitely.AfterthedeathofHerod,ArchelausbecameethnarchofJuda,andafterhisdepositionitwas
addedtotheprovinceofSyria,andgovernedbyaprocuratorwithhisheadquartersinCsarea.
ItwasinthewildernessofJudathatJohntheBaptistcameforwardastheforerunnerof
Christ(Mt3:1cf.Mk1:4andLk3:2,thewilderness).Itisprobablythesameasthe
wildernessofJudah(Jg1:16,Ps63:1[title],thedeserttracttotheW.oftheDeadSea.R.A.S.MACALISTER.
JUDAH(heistobepraisedthepopularetymologiesseemtoregardthenameasanunabbreviatedHoph.impf.ofjdh,topraise).Judahisrepresentedas
thefourthsonofLeahbyJacob(Gn29:35[J]35:23(P]).Thoughhewasoflatebirth,theJudandocument(J)neverthelessgiveshimprecedenceoverReuben,
thefirstborn,whoisfavouredbythelaterEphraimitedocumentE.AccordingtoJ,itwasJudahwhoproposedtosellJosephinordertoavertthedangerwhich
threatenedhimatthehandsofhisbrethren(Gn37:26ff.).Similarly,whentheyreturntoJosephshousewiththesilvercup,JgivesthepreeminencetoJudah,and
makeshimspokesmanforallinhispatheticappealtoJoseph(44:1434).Reuben,becauseofhislusttowardsBilhah(Gn49:4,cf.35:22),andSimeonandLevi,
becauseoftheirbarbarousconducttowardstheShechemites,fallbeforetheirenemiesandintodisfavourwiththeirbrethren,andJudahsucceedstothe
primogenitureship.
AtraditionispreservedinGn38whichisgenerallysupposedtobeofgreatvalueasbearingupontheearlydevelopmentofthetribe.Judahistheresaidtohave
withdrawnhimselffromhisbrethrenandtohavegonedowntoacertainAdullamitewhosenamewasHirah.TherehemetwithBathshua,aCanaanitess,whomhe
tooktowife.Sheborehimthreesons,Er,Onan,andShelah.ErandOnanwereslainbyJahwehfortheirwickedness.Erswidow,Tamar,aCanaanitessalso,it
seems,posingbythewaysideasahierodule,enticedJudahtointercoursewithher,andofherthetwinsonsPerezandZerahwereborntoJudah.Thisstoryis
usuallyheldtobebaseduponfactsoftribalhistory,thoughcastintheformofpersonalnarrative,andalsotoproveclearlythatJudah,likeothertribalnames,isbut
theeponymousheadofthetribe.ItpointstothesettlementofJudahintheregionofAdullamanditsunionwithforeignstock.HirahisaCanaaniteclanErand
OnanstandfortwootherclanswhichbecameunitedtoJudah,butearlydisappearedtheotherthreecontinuedtoexistasconstituentsofJudah.Besidestheseit
wouldappearthatinthetimeofDavidtheCalebiteandJerahmeelitetribes,mentionedin1Ch2asdescendantsofPerez,wereincorporatedintothetribe.In1S
27:10,30:14theystillappeartobeindependent,thoughtheChroniclermakesbothCalebandJerahmeeldescendantsofJudahthroughPerezandHezron,towhom
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27:10,30:14theystillappeartobeindependent,thoughtheChroniclermakesbothCalebandJerahmeeldescendantsofJudahthroughPerezandHezron,towhom
alsohetracesDavid.InNu13(P)Caleb,whoissentbyMosesasoneofthespies,belongstoJudahbutinNu32:12,Jos14:6,14(R),Jg3etc.,heisa
Kenizzite,thesonofKenaz.FromthelastpassageweseethatOthniel,whosechiefcentrewas
Kiriathsepher(Debir),wasanothercloselyrelatedtribe,andbothappearfromGn36:16,42(P)
tohavebeenEdomites.Kenites,commonlysupposedtobeofMidianiteorigin,wearetoldinJg1:16,alsowentupfromJerichowithJudahintotheWilderness.
OfalltheseforeignelementsbywhichthetribeofJudahwasincreased,theCalebitewasthemostimportant.InfacttheChroniclermakestheJudahitestock
consistlargelyofthe
descendantsofHezron.ItwastheCalebitecapital,Hebron,thatunderDavid(himselfsaidtobeHezronite)becamethecapitalofJudah.Afterthistimethehistoryof
thetribebecomesthehistoryoftheSouthernKingdom.
PsSinaicensus(Nu1:27)gives74,600,andthatoftheWilderness76,500(Nu26:22).
TheterritoryofthetribeisdescribedinJos15:1ff.(P)butthisislateandanidealapportionment.IntheSongofDeborahJudahisnotevenmentioned,because
itwasnotyetmadeupbythefusionofIsraelite,Canaanite,Edomite,andArabicelements,asStade(GVI113)putsit.TheBlessingofJacob(Gn49:8ff.)andthat
ofMoses(Dt33:7)reflectconditionsduringthemonarchy.HowthetribeenteredW.CanaanandobtaineditsearlyseataroundBethlehemitisimpossibletosay.
SeealsoTRIBESOFISRAEL.
JAMESA.CRAIG.
JUDAH.1.Seepreced.article.2.Ezr3:9(cf.Neh12:8)=1Es5:58Joda.3.ALevite,Ezr10:23=1Es9:23Judas.4.Anoverseer,Neh11:9.5.Apriests
son,Neh12:36.6.Lk1:39seeJutah.7.Seenextarticle.
JUDAHupon(AV)orat(RV)Jordan(Jos19:34)isaverydoubtfulsite.Itisthegeneralopinionthatthetextofthispassagemustbecorrupt,andthatthe
nameofsomeplacenearJordan,perhapsChinneroth,mayhavebeenlost.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
JUDAISM.SeeISRAEL,II.5,6.
JUDAS(inApocr.),theGr.equivalentoftheHeb.nameJudah.1.Thethirdsonof
Mattathias,calledMaccahus(1Mac2:4etc.).SeeMACCABEES,2.2.OneoftwocaptainswhostoodbyJonathanatHazor(1Mac11:70).3.AJewholding
someimportantpositionatJerusalemheisnamedinthetitleofalettersentfromtheJewsofJerusalemandJudaandtheJewishSenatetotheirbrethreninEgypt,
andtoacertainAristobulus(2Mac1:10).4.Ason,probablytheeldest,ofSimontheMaccabee(1Mac16:2).InB.C.135,he,withhisfatherandanotherbrother
namedMattathias,wasmurderedatDokbyPtolemy,thesonofAbubus(16:1117).5.1Es9:23=JudahofEzr10:23.
JUDAS(inNT)
1.JudasIscariot.Seefollowingarticle.
2.Judas,thesonofJames(seeJAMES,4).oneofthetwelveApostles(Lk6:16),calledby
Mt.(10:3)LebbusandbyMk.(3:18)Thaddus.Theonlythingrecordedofhimisthat,whenJesuspromisedintheUpperRoomtomanifestHimselftotheman
thatlovedHim,heinquired:
Lord,whatiscometopassthatthouwiltmanifestthyselfuntous,andnotuntotheworld?(Jn14:22RV)showingthathesharedthecommonidealofthe
MessianicKingdom.Hepictureditasaworldlykingdom,andwasexpectingthatJesuswouldpresentlyflashforthinmajestybeforeanastonishedworldand
ascendthethroneofDavidandhewonderedwhatcouldhavehappenedtopreventthisconsummation.
3.Judas,theLordsbrother(Mt13:55=Mk6:3).SeeBRETHRENOFTHELORD.HewastheauthoroftheShortEpistleofJude(i.e.Judas),wherehestyles
himselftheservantofJesusChristandbrotherofJames(v.1),and,likeJames,exhibitsasternzealformorality.
4.Judas,theGalilan.HeissocalledbothintheNT(Ac5:37)andinJosephus,thoughhebelongedtoGamalainGaulanitisontheeasternsideofthe
LakeofGalileeperhapsbecauseGalileewasthesceneofhispatrioticenterprise.AttheenrolmentorcensusunderQuiriniusinA.D.7,Judasraisedaninsurrection.
Heperished,andhisfollowerswerescattered,buttheirspiritdidnotdie.Theybandedthemselvesintoapatrioticfraternityunderthesignificantnameofthe
Zealots,pledgedtoundyinghostilityagainsttheRomantyrannyandevereagerforanopportunitytothrowoffitsyoke.
5.Judas,aJewofDamascus(Ac9:11).HishousewasintheStraightStreet,andSaulofTarsuslodgedthereafterhisconversion.
6. JudasBarsabbas,oneoftwodeputiesSilasbeingtheotherwhowerechosenbytherulersoftheChurchatJerusalemtoaccompanyPaulandBarnabas
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6.JudasBarsabbas,oneoftwodeputiesSilasbeingtheotherwhowerechosenbytherulersoftheChurchatJerusalemtoaccompanyPaulandBarnabas
toAntioch,andreporttothebelieverstheretheCouncilsdecisiononthequestiononwhattermstheGentilesshouldbeadmittedintotheChristianChurch(Ac
15:2233).JudasandSilasaredescribedaschiefmenamongthebrethren(v.22)andprophets(v.32).Sincetheyborethesamepatronymic,Judasmayhave
beenabrotherofJosephBarsabbas(Ac1:23).7.AnancestorofJesus(Lk3:30).
DAVIDS MITH.
JUDASISCARIOT.OneoftheTwelve,sonofSimonIscariot(Jn6:71,13:26RV).Iscariot(morecorrectlyIscarioth)meansthemanofKerioth.Kerioth
wasatowninthesouthofJuda,andJudaswastheonlyoneoftheTwelvewhowasnotaGalilan.Hehadanaptitudeforbusiness,andactedastreasurerofthe
Apostleband(Jn12:6,13:29).
Judasturnedtraitor,andsoldtheLordtothehighpriestsforthirtypiecesofsilver,thepriceofaslave(Ex21:32)andthisdiretreacheryconstitutesoneofthe
hardestproblemsoftheGospelhistory.Itseemstopresentaninevitabledilemma:eitherJesusdidnotknowwhatwouldhappen,thusfailinginforesightand
discernmentor,asSt.Johnexpresslydeclares(6:64),Hedidknow,andyetnotonlyadmittedJudastotheApostolate,butappointedhimtoanofficewhich,by
excitinghiscupidity,facilitatedhiscrime.AsolutionoftheproblemhasbeensoughtbymakingoutinvariouswaysthatJudaswasnotreallyacriminal.
(1)InearlydaysitwasheldbytheCainites,aGnosticsect,thatJudashadattainedahigherdegreeofspiritualenlightenmentthanhisfellows,andcompassedthedeathofJesus
becauseheknewthatitwouldbreakthepoweroftheevilspirits,therulersofthisworld.(2)AnotherancienttheoryisthathewasindeedacovetousmanandsoldtheMasterfor
greedofthepiecesofsilver,butneverthoughtthatHewouldbeslain.HeanticipatedthatHewould,asonpreviousoccasions,extricateHimselffromthehandsofHisenemiesand
whenhesawHimcondemned,hewasoverwhelmedwithremorse.Hereckoned,thoughtPaulusinmorerecenttimes,onthemultituderisingandrescuingtheirherofromtherulers.
(3)HesharedthegeneralwondermentofthedisciplesattheLordsprocrastinationincomingforwardastheKingofIsraelandclaimingthethroneofDavid,andthoughttoforce
Hishandandprecipitatethedesiredconsummation.Hishopewas,saysDeQuincey,thatChristwouldnolongervacillatehewouldbeforcedintogivingthesignaltothe
populaceofJerusalem,whowouldthenriseunanimously.Cf.Rosegger,INRI,Eng.tr.p.263.(4)HisfaithinhisMastersMessiahship,thoughtNeander,waswavering.IfHewere
reallytheMessiah,nothingcouldharmHimifHewerenot,Hewouldperish,anditwouldberightthatHeshould.
SuchattemptstojustifyJudasmustbedismissed.TheyarecontrarytotheGospelnarrative,whichrepresentstheBetrayalasahorrible,indeeddiabolical,crime
(cf.Jn6:70,Lk22:3,4).IftheLordchoseJudaswithclearforeknowledgeoftheissue,then,darkasthemysterymaybe,itaccordswiththeprovidentialordering
ofhumanaffairs,beinginfactaninstanceofanancientandabidingproblem,theirreconcilableantinomyofDivineforeknowledgeandhumanfreewill.Itisno
whitagreatermysterythatJesusshouldhavechosenJudaswithclearprescienceoftheissue,thanthatGodshouldhavemadeSaulking,knowingwhattheend
wouldbe.
OfcourseJudaswasnotchosenbecausehewouldturntraitor,butbecauseattheoutsethehadinhimthepossibilityofbetterthingsandthisisthetragedyof
hiscareer,thatheobeyedhisbaserimpulsesandsurrenderedtotheirdomination.Covetousnesswashisbesettingsin,andheattachedhimselftoJesusbecause,like
therestofthedisciples,heexpectedarichrewardwhenhisMasterwasseatedonthethroneofDavid.Hisdiscipleshipwasaprocessofdisillusionment.Hesawhis
worldlydreamfading,and,whenthetoilsclosedabouthisMaster,hedecidedtomakethebestofthesituation.Sincehecouldnothaveaplacebythethrone,he
wouldatleasthavethethirtyshekels.
Hisresolutionlastedlongenoughtocarrythroughthecrime.Hemadehisbargainwiththehighpriests(Mt26:1416=Mk14:10,11=Lk22:36)evidentlyon
theWednesdayafternoon,whenJesus,aftertheGreatIndictment(Mt23),wasoccupiedwiththeGreekswhohadcomecravinganinterview(Jn12:2022)and
promisedtowatchforanopportunitytobetrayHimintotheirhands.HefounditnexteveningwhenhewasdismissedfromtheUpperRoom(Jn13:2730).He
knewthataftertheSupperJesuswouldrepairtoGethsemane,andthitherheconductedtherulerswiththeirbandofsoldiers.Hethought,nodoubt,thathiswork
wasnowdone,buthehadyettocrownhisignominy.Adifficultyarose.Itlaywiththesoldierstomakethearrest,and,seeingnotonemanbuttwelve,theyknew
notwhichtotakeandJudashadtocometotheirassistance.Hegavethematoken:TheonewhomIshallkissisheand,advancingtoJesus,hegreetedHimwith
customaryreverenceandkissedHimeffusively(Mt26:4750=Mk14:4346=Lk22:4749).
ItmusthavebeenaterribleordealforJudas,andinthathourhisbetternaturereasserteditself.Herealizedtheenormityofwhathehaddoneandhefollowed
hisMasterand,inanagonyofremorse,watchedthetragedyofHistrialandcondemnationbytheSanhedrin.Itmaddenedhimandasthehighpriestswereleaving
theHallofHewnStone,theSanhedrinsmeetingplace,heaccostedthem,clutchingtheaccursedshekelsinhiswildhands.Ihavesinned,hecried,inthatI
betrayedinnocentblood.Hethoughtevennowtoannulthebargain,buttheyspurnedhimandpassedtotheSanctuary.Hefollowed,and,eretheycouldclosethe
entrance,hurledthecoinsafterthemintotheHolyPlacethenrushedawayandhangedhimself(Mt27:35).
SuchisSt.Matthewsaccount.ThetragedywassoappallingthatlegendsgrewapaceintheprimitiveChurch,andSt.Lukehaspreservedoneoftheseina
parenthesisinSt.PetersspeechattheelectionofMatthias(Ac1:18,19).OneisgladtothinkthatSt.Matthewsistheactualhistory.Judassinnedterribly,buthe
terriblyrepented,andonewishesthat,insteadofdestroyinghismiserablelife,hehadratherfledtotheCrossandsoughtmercyatthefeetofhisgraciousLord.
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terriblyrepented,andonewishesthat,insteadofdestroyinghismiserablelife,hehadratherfledtotheCrossandsoughtmercyatthefeetofhisgraciousLord.
TherewasmercyintheheartofJesusevenforJudas.
WasJudaspresentattheEucharistintheUpperRoom?St.JohnalonementionshisdepartureandsincehedoesnotrecordtheinstitutionoftheSupper,itis
opentoquestionwhetherthetraitorwentoutafteritorbeforeit.FromLk22:1721ithasbeenarguedthathewaspresent,butSt.Lukesarrangementisdifferent
fromthatofSt.MatthewandSt.Mark,whoputtheinstitutionaftertheannouncementoftheBetrayal(Mt26:2129=Mk14:1825).
AccordingtoSt.Johnsaccount,Judasseemstohavegoneoutimmediatelyaftertheannouncement,theinstitutionfollowing13:38,andch.14beingthe
CommunionAddress.
DAVIDS MITH.
JUDE,EPISTLEOF.Thisshortepistleisanearnestwarningandappeal,couchedinvividandpicturesquelanguage,addressedtoachurchoracircleof
churcheswhichhavebecomesuddenlyexposedtoamischievousattackoffalseteaching.
1.Contents
(1)Text.ForitslengthJudeoffersanunusualnumberoftextualproblems,thetwomostimportantofwhichareinv.5andvv.22,23.ThoughtheRV
isprobablyrightintranslatingLordinv.5,manyancientauthoritiesreadJesus.Also,thepositionofonceisdoubtful,someplacingitinthefollowing
clause.Invv.22,23editorsdifferastowhethertherearetwoclausesorthree.TheRV,followingtheSinaitic,hasthreeandWeymouthalso,who,however,
followsAinhisresultanttextbasedonaconsensusofeditorialopinion.Butthereismuchinfavourofatwoclausedsentencebeginningwitheitherhave
mercyorrefute.
(2)Outline
(i.)Salutation,vv.1,2.Theletteropensmoatappropriatelywiththeprayerthatmercy,peace,andlovemayincreaseamongthereaders,whoareguardedbytheloveofGod
untothedaywhenJesusChristwillappear.
(ii.)OccasionoftheEpistle,vv.3,4.WithaffectionategreetingJudeinformshisreadersthathewasengageduponanepistlesettingforththesalvationheldbyallChristians
JewsandGentileswhenhewassurprisedbynewswhichshowedhimthattheirprimaryneedwaswarningandexhortationfortheonegospelwhichhasbeenentrustedtothe
keepingofthesaintshadbeenendangeredintheircasebyasurreptitiousinvasionoffalseteachers,whoturnedthegospelofgraceintoapleaforlust,therebypracticallydenying
thelordshipofJesusChrist.IthadlongbeenforetoldthattheChurchwouldbefacedbythiscrisisthroughthesepersons.(ThiswasacommonexpectationintheApostolicagesee
2Th2:3,1
Ti4:1,2Ti3:1f.,4:3,2P3:3,Mt24:11,12.)
(iii.)Warningsfromhistory,vv.57.VersedastheyareinScripture,theyshouldtakewarningfromthejudgmentsofGodundertheOldCovenant.Hispeopleweredestroyed
forapostasy,thoughtheyhadlatelybeensavedfromEgypt.Evenangelswerevisitedwitheternalpunishmentforbreakingbounds,andforfornicationlikethatforwhich
afterwardsthecitiesoftheplainperished.Theseareallawfulexamplesofthedoomthatawaitsthoseguiltyofapostasyandsensuality.
(iv.)Descriptionoftheinvaders,vv.816.Boastingoftheirownknowledgethroughvisions,thesefalseteachersabandonthemselvestosensuality,denyretribution,andscoffat
thepowerofaspiritualworld.YetevenMichaelthearchangel,whencontendingwithSatanforthebodyofMoses,didnotventuretodisputehisfunctionasAccuser,butlefthim
andhisblasphemiestoahighertribunal.Butthesepersons,professingaknowledgeofthespiritualrealmofwhichtheyarereallyignorant,havenootherknowledgethanthatof
sensualpassionlikethebeasts,andareontheirwaytoruin.ScepticallikeCain,greedyinciterstolustlikeBalaam,rebelliouslikeKorah,theyareplungingintodestruction.Would
beshepherds,theysacrilegiouslypollutethelovefeastsdelusiveprophets,hopelesslydeadinsin,shamelessintheirapostasy,theirsisthedoomforetoldbyEnochonthegodless.
Theymurmuragainsttheirfate,whichtheyhavebroughtuponthemselvesbylewdness,andtheybluster,thoughonoccasiontheycringefortheirownadvantage.
(v.)TheconductoftheChristianinthiscrisis,vv.1723.TheChurchneednotbesurprisedbythisattack,sinceitwasforetoldbytheApostlesasasignoftheend,butshould
resistthedisintegratinginfluenceoftheseessentiallyunspiritualpersons.TheunityoftheChurchistobepreservedbymutualedificationinDivinetruth,byprayerthroughthe
indwellingSpirit,bykeepingwithintherangeofDivinelove,andbywatchingforthedaywhenChristwillcomeinmercyasJudge.Waverersmustbemercifullydealtwitheven
thesensualarenotpasthope,thoughtheworkofrescueisverydangerous.
(vi.)Doxology,vv.24,25.Godalone,whocanguardthewavererfromstumbling,andcanremovethestainsofsinandperfectoursalvationthroughJesusChrist,isworthyof
allglory.
2.Situationofthereaders.TherecipientsofJudemayhavebelongedtoonechurchortoacircleofchurchesinonedistrict.TheywereevidentlyGentiles,
andofcomestanding(vv.3,5).TheEpistleaffordsverylittleevidenceforthelocalityofthereaders,butSyriaortheHellenisticcitiesofPalestineseemtosuitthe
conditions.SyriawouldbealikelyfieldforadistortionofthePaulinegospelofgrace(v.4).Also,ifJudewasthebrotherofJamesofJerusalem,whoseinfluences
extendedthroughoutPalestineandprobablySyria(Gal2:9,12),theaddressinv.1isexplained.Syriawasabreedinggroundforthosetendencieswhichdeveloped
intotheGnosticsystemsofthe2ndcentury.Evenasearlyas1Cor.ideassimilartotheseweretroublingtheChurch(1Co5:10,11:17ff.),andwhentheApocalypse
waswrittenthechurchesofAsiaweredistressedbytheNicolaitansandthosewho,likeBalaam,ledtheIsraelitesintoidolatrousfornication(Rev2:2,6,14,15).In
3Jn.thereisfurtherevidenceofinsubordinationtoApostolicauthority.Newesotericdoctrine,fornication,andtheassumptionofpropheticpowerwithinthe
Churchforthesakeofpersonalaggrandizement,arefeaturescommontoall.Judediffersinnotmentioningidolatry.Possiblymagicplayednoinconsiderablepart114/124
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Churchforthesakeofpersonalaggrandizement,arefeaturescommontoall.Judediffersinnotmentioningidolatry.Possiblymagicplayednoinconsiderablepart
inthepracticeoftheselibertines.Weknowthatitmetthegospelearlyinitsprogress(Ac8:924,13:612,19:18,19).Thereis,however,notraceinJudeofa
highlyelaboratedspeculativesystemlikethoseofthe2ndcent.Gnosticism.Thesepersonsdenythegospelbytheirlives,apracticalratherthananintellectual
revoltagainstthetruth.Theinferencefromvv.57isthattheseerroristswouldnotrefusetoacknowledgetheOTasasourceofinstructionbeinginthisalsounlike
Gnosticsofthe2ndcentury.Thephenomenon,asitisfoundinJude,isquiteexplicableinthelastquarterofthe1stcentury.
3.Authorship.TheauthorofthisEpistleisverysusceptibletoliteraryinfluence,especiallythatofPaul.CompareJude1with1Th1:4,2Th2:13Jude10,
19with1Co2:14Jude20,21withRo5:5,8:26,Col2:7Jude24,25withRo16:2527,Col1:22andwiththe
PastoralEpistlesfrequently,e.g.,1Ti1:3,17,5:24,6:5,2Ti3:6,8,13,4:3f.Hisrelationto2Peterissoclosethatoneprobablyborrowedfromtheother,though
thereisgreatdiversityofopinionastowhich.SeeP ETER[S ECONDEP.OF],4.(e).BiggsuggeststhattheerrorsdenouncedinbothEpistlestooktheiroriginfrom
Corinth,thatthedisorderwasspreading,thatSt.PetertookalarmandwrotehisSecondEpistle,sendingacopytoSt.Judewithawarningoftheurgencyofthe
danger,andthatSt.JudeatonceIssuedasimilarlettertothechurchesinwhichhewaspersonallyinterested.JudeisalsouniqueintheNTinhisuseofapocryphal
writingstheAssumptionofMosesinv.9,andtheBookofEnochinvv.6,14,15almostinthesamewayasScripture.
TheJudewhowritescannotbetheApostleJudas(Lk6:16,Ac1:13),nordoesheeverassumeApostolicauthority.James(v.1)mustbetheheadofthe
JerusalemChurch,andthebrotherofourLord.JudeprobablycalledhimselfservantandnotbrotherofJesusChrist(Mt13:55,Mk6:3),becausehefeltthathis
unbeliefinJesusinthedaysofHisfleshdidnotmakethattermatitleofhonour,andhemayhavecometounderstandthetruththatfaith,notblood,constitutestrue
kinshipwithChrist.Thedifficultyofaccountingforthechoiceofsuchapseudonym,andtheabsencefromtheletterofanysubstantialimprobabilityagainstthe
traditionalview,makeitreasonabletoholdthatJudethebrotherofourLordwastheauthor.HemayhavewrittenitbetweenA.D.75and80,probablybefore81,for
Hegesippus(170)statesthatJudesgrandsonsweresmallfarmersinPalestine,andwerebroughtbeforeDomitian(8196)andcontemptuouslydismissed.
4.Externaltestimony.IntheageoftheApostolicFatherstheonlywitnesstoJudeistheDidache,andthatissofaintastocountforlittle.Bythebeginning
ofthe3rdcent.itwaswellknowninthewest,beingincludedintheMuratorianFragment(c.200),commenteduponby
ClementofAlexandria,andacceptedbyOrigenandbyTertullian.Ensebiusplacesitamongthedisputedbooks,sayingthatithadlittleearlyrecognition.Itis
absentfromthePeshittaversion.Thequotationsfromapocryphalwritingshindereditsacceptance,buttheearlysilence,ontheassumptionofitsgenuineness,isto
beaccountedforchieflybyitsbrevityanditscomparativeunimportance.
R.A.F ALCONER.
JUDGES.AnexaminationofEx18showsthattheHebrewwordfortojudgemeansoriginallytopronouncetheoraclethus,whenwereadofMosessitting
tojudgethepeople(v.13),areferencetovv.15,16showsthatwhatismeantisthegivingofDivinedecisions:thepeoplecomeuntometoinquireofGod:
whentheyhaveamattertheycomeuntomeandIjudgebetweenamanandhisneighbour,andImakethemknowthestatutesofGod,andhislaws(cf.vv.19,
20).Inthenextplace,thesamechaptershowsthewordinprocessofreceivingawiderapplicationowingtotheincreasingnumberofthosewhocometoseek
counsel,onlyspeciallydifficultcasesaredealtwithbyMoses,whiletheordinaryonesaredeputedtotheheadsofthefamilies,etc.,tosettle(vv.25,26).Ajudge
wasthereforeoriginallyapriestwhopronouncedoraclesthentheeldersofthepeoplebecamejudges.Butatanearlyperiodthefunctionsofthejudges,atany
ratethemoreimportantofthem,wereexercisedbyachief,chosenfromamongtheeldersprobablyonaccountofsuperiorskillinwarfare,anhereditary
successionwould,however,naturallytendtoarisewhowastoallintentsandpurposesaking.Sotheprobabilityisthatthosewhoareknownasthejudgesin
popularparlancewereinrealitykingsintheordinarysenseoftheword.Inconnexionwiththisitisinterestingtonotethatinsomewhatlatertimesthanthoseofthe
judgesoneofthemaindutiesofthekingwastojudge,seee.g.2S15:16,thereisnomandeputedofthekingtohearthee.Absalomsaidmoreover,OhthatI
weremadejudgeintheland.AndonthismannerdidAbsalomtoallIsraelthatcametothekingforjudgment(cf.,further,1K3:9,2K15:5)moreover,judge
andkingseemtobeusedsynonymouslyinAm2:3,Hos7:7,Ps2:10.Theofferofthekingship(hereditary)tothejudge
Gideon(Jg8:22ff.)fullybearsoutwhathasbeensaid.Thefactprobablyisthatthe
Deuteronomiclegislators,ontheocraticgrounds,calledthoserulersjudgeswhowereactuallykingsinthesamesenseasSaulwasfundamentallytherewasno
differencebetweenthetwo,butnominallyadifferencewasimplied.
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
JUDGES(Bookof)
1.Name.TheHeb.titleShphetm(Judges)isparalleltoMelkhm(Kings)bothareabbreviations,thefulltitlerequiringineachcasetheprefixingof
theBookofthisfulltitleisfoundforJudgesintheSyriacVersion,forKingsin,e.g.,2Ch20:34(whereofIsraelisadded)24:27.JustasthetitieKings
denotesthatthebookcontainsanaccountofthedoingsofthevariouskingswhoruledoverIsraelandJudah,sothetitleJudgesisgiventothebookbecauseit
describestheexploitsofthedifferentchampionswhowerethechieftainsofvarioussectionsofIsraelitesfromthetimeoftheentryintoCanaanuptothetimeof 115/124
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describestheexploitsofthedifferentchampionswhowerethechieftainsofvarioussectionsofIsraelitesfromthetimeoftheentryintoCanaanuptothetimeof
Samuel.ItmaywellbequestionedwhetherthetitleofthisbookwasoriginallyJudges,foritisdifficulttoseewherethedifferencelies,fundamentally,between
thejudgesontheonehand,andJoshuaandSaulontheotherinthecaseofeachthemainandcentraldutyistoactasleaderagainstthefoesofcertaintribes.The
titlejudgeisnotappliedtothreeofthesechieftains,namely,Ehud,Barak,andGideon,andseemsnottohavebeenfoundintheoldestoftheauthorssources(
Moore,Judges,p.xii.).InthethreedivisionsofwhichtheHebrewCanonismadeup,theBookof
Judgescomesinthefirstsectionoftheseconddivision,beingreckonedamongtheFormerProphets(Joshua,Judges,1and2Sam.,1and2Kings),thesecond
sectionofthedivisioncomprisingthepropheticalbooksproper.IntheLXXtheBookofRuthissometimes,insomeMSS,includedinthatofJudges,otherMSS
treatthePentateuchandJos.,Jg.,Ruthasonewhole.[Forthemeaningofthewordjudgesseeprecedingarticle.]
2.Contents.ThebookopenswithanaccountofthevictoriesgainedbyJudahandSimeonCalebappearsastheleaderofthetribeofJudah,thoughheis
notspokenofasoneofthejudges.TherefollowsthenanenumerationofthedistrictswhichtheIsraeliteswereunabletoconquerthereasonforthisisrevealedby
themessengerofJahwehitisbecausetheyhadnotobeyedthevoiceofJahweh,buthadmadecovenantswiththepeopleoftheland,andhadrefrainedfrom
breakingdowntheiraltars.Thepeoplethereuponliftuptheirvoicesandweep(whencethenameoftheplace,Bochim),andsacrificetoJahweh.Thenarrativethen
abrnptlybreaksoff.Thissection(1:12:5)servesasakindofIntroductiontothebook,andcertainlycannothavebelongedoriginallytoitthewholecharacterof
Jg1:12:5givesevidencethatitwasnotcomposedfortheplace,butisanextractfromanolderhistoryoftheIsraeliteoccupationofCanaan(Moore,p.4).Asthis
introductionmustbecutawayasnotbelongingtoourbook,asimilarcoursemustbefollowedwithchs.1721theseformanappendixwhichdoesnotbelongto
thebook.Itwillbebesttodealwiththecontentsofthesefivechaptersbeforecomingtothebookitself.Thechapterscontaintwodistinctnarratives,andare,intheir
originalform,veryancientineachnarrativethereoccurstwicetheredactionalnote,InthosedaystherewasnokinginIsrael(17:6,18:1,19:1,21:25),showing
thattheperiodoftheJudgesisimplied.Chs.17,18tellthestoryoftheEphraimiteMicah,whomadeanephodandteraphimforhimself,andgotaLevitetobea
fatherandapriesttohimbutheispersuadedby600DanitestogowiththemandbetheirpriesttheythenconquerLaishandfoundasanctuarythere,inwhicha
gravenimage(whichhadbeentakenfromMicah)issetup.Thenarrative,therefore,purportstogiveanaccountoftheoriginofthesanctuaryofDan,anditseems
morethanprobablethattwotraditionsofthishavebeeninterwoveninthesetwochapters.Inchs.1921thestoryistoldofhowaconcubineofacertainLeviteleft
himandreturnedtoherfathertheLevitegoesafterherandbringsherback.OntheirreturntheyremainforanightinGibeah,whichbelongedtotheBenjamites
herethemenofthecitysomaltreattheconcubinethatsheisleftdeadonthethresholdofthehouseinwhichherlordisstayingtheLevitetakesupthedeadbody,
bringsithome,and,afterhavingcutitup,sendsthepiecesbythehandsofmessengersthroughoutthebordersofIsrael,asacalltoavengetheoutrage.Thereupon
theIsraelitesassemble,andresolvetopunishtheBenjamitesasaresult,theentiretribe,withtheexceptionofsixhundredmenwhomanagetoescapetothe
wilderness,isannihilated.Althoughsixhundredmenhavesurvived,itappearsinevitablethatthetribeofBenjaminmustdieout,fortheIsraeliteshadswornnotto
lettheirdaughtersmarryBenjamitesthiscausesgreatdistressinIsrael.However,thethreateneddisasterofthelossofatribeisavertedthroughtheIsraelites
procuringfourhundredmaidensfromJabeshinGilead,theremainingtwohundredrequiredbeingcarriedoffbytheBenjamitesduringtheannualfeastatShiloh.
ThechildrenofIsraelthendeparteverymantohishome.Thenarrativeappropriatelyendswiththewords,Everymandidthatwhichwasrightinhisowneyes.
Althoughthesechaptershavebeenveryconsiderablyworkedoverbylaterhands,itisprobablethattheyhavesomebasisinfactitisdifficulttoaccountfortheir
existenceatallonanyotherhypothesis,forinthemselvestheyarequitepurposelesstherecannotoriginallyhavebeenanyobjectinwritingsuchagruesometale,
otherthanthatofrecordingsomethingthatactuallyhappened.
TheBookofJudgesitselfiscomprisedin2:616:31andhereitistobenoticed,firstofall,thatacertainartificialityisobservableinthestructuretheexploitsof
twelvemenarerecounted,andtheideaseemstobethateachrepresentsoneofthetwelvetribesofIsrael,thus:JudahisrepresentedbyOthniel,BenjaminbyEhud,
thetwohalvesofthetribeofManassehbyGideon(West)andJair(East),IssacharbyTola,ZebulunbyElon,NaphtalibyBarak,EphralmbyAbdon,Gadby
Jephthah,andDanbySamsonbesidesthesetenthereareShamgarandIbzan,twounimportantJudges,butagainstthemtherearethetwotribesReubenand
Simeon,who,however,soondisappearwhilethetribeofLevi,asalways,occupiesanexceptionalposition.Thisgeneralcorrespondenceoftwelvejudgestothe
twelvetribesstrikesonethemoreasartificialinthatsomeofthejudgesplayaveryhumblepart,andseemtohavebeenbroughtintomakeupthenumbertwelve
ratherthanforanythingelse.Thefollowingisanoutlineofthecontentsofthesechapters:
Thereis,firstofall,anintroduction(2:63:6)whichcontainsabriefbutcomprehensiversumoftheperiodabouttobedealtwithaslongasJoshuawasalive,itsays,the
childrenofIsraelremainedfaithfultoJahwehbutafterhisdeath,andafterthegenerationthatknewhimhadpassedaway,thepeopleforsookJahweh,theGodoftheirfathers,and
servedBaalandAshtaroththeconsequencewasthattheywereoppressedbythesurroundingnations.2:1519soundwhatisthethemeofthewholebook:thenationdistressed,a
judgeraisedupwhodeliversthemfromtheiroppressors,relapseintoidolatry.TheintroductioncloseswithalistofthenationswhichhadbeenleftinthePromisedLandwiththe
expresspurposeofprovingtheIsraelites.[ForthehistoricalvalueofthisIntroduction,see5.]OfthetwelveJudgesdealtwith,sevenareofQuitesubordinateimportance,little
morethanabarementionofthembeingrecordedtheyare:Othniel(3:711),whodeliversthechildrenofIsraelfromCushanrishathaim,kingofMesopotamiaheismentioned
incidentallyin1:13asmarryingthedaughterofCalebShamgar(3:31),ofwhomnothingmoreissaidthanthathekilledsixhundredPhilistinesTola(10:12)Jair(10:35)Ibzan
(12:810)Elon(12:11,12)andAbdon(12:1315).Ofrealimportancearetheaccountswhicharegivenoftheotherfivejudges.(1)Ehud,whodeliversIsraelfromEgloa,kingof
Moab(3:1230).(2)Barak,whois,however,rathertheinstrumentofDeborahchs.4,5giveaccounts,inproseandpoetryrespectively,oftheIsraelitevictoryoverSisera.(3) 116/124
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Moab(3:1230).(2)Barak,whois,however,rathertheinstrumentofDeborahchs.4,5giveaccounts,inproseandpoetryrespectively,oftheIsraelitevictoryoverSisera.(3)
Gideon.Ofthelasttherearelikewisetwoaccounts(68:3and8:427),withalateraddition(8:2835)someintroductorywords(6:110)tellofthe
Midianiteoppression6:1124describethecallofGideon,ofwhichasecondaccountisgivenin6:25
32theinvasionoftheMidianitesandGideonspreparationstoresistthem(6:3335)followsandin6:3640thestoryofthesignofthefleeceistold.Ch.7givesadetailedaccount
ofGideonsvictoryovertheMidianites,and8:13contaiosanappendixwhichtellsofEphraimsdissatisfactionwithGideonfornotsummoningthemtorepeltheMidianites,and
theskilfulwayinwhichGideonpacifiesthem.InJg8:421comesthesecondaccountofGideonsvictory,theresultofwhichistheoffertohimofthekingshipandhisrefusal
thereof(8:2228)8:2935formsatransitiontothestoryofGideonsson,Abimelech(seebelow).(4)ThehistoryofJephthahisprefacedby10:1718,whichtellsofthe
AmmoniteoppressionJephthahsexploitsarerecountedin11:112:7abiographicalnote(11:13)introducesthehero,andalongpassage(11:429)follows,describinghowthe
conflictwiththeAmmonitesaroseitisaquestionconcerningtheownershipofthelandsbetweentheJabhokandtheArnon,whichareclaimedbytheAmmonites,butwhichthe
Israelitesmaintainhavebeenintheirpossessionforthreehundredyears.Asnoagreementisarrivedat,warbreaksout.Asection,whichisofgreatinterestarchologically(11:30
40),tellsthenofavowwhichJephthahmadetoJahweh,totheeffectthatifhereturnedvictoriousfromtheimpendingstrugglewiththeAmmonites,hewouldofferupinsacrifice
thefirstpersonwhomhemetonhisreturncomingoutofhisdwelling.Heisvictorious,andthefirsttomeethimwas,asaccordingtothecustomofthetimeshemusthaveexpected
(seeJg5:28,1S18:6,7,Ps68:11),hisdaughterthewordsinv.39,andshehadnotknownman,aresignificantinthisconnexionhisvowhethenproceedstofulfil.Thenext
passage(12:18),whichtellsofabattlebetweenJephthahandtheEphraimites,inwhichthelatterareworsted,remindsoneforciblyof8:13,andthetwopassagesareclearly
relatedinsomeway.(5)Lastly,thehistoryofSamsonandhisdoingsisrecorded,chs.1316thesechapterscontainthreedistinctstories,buttheyformaselfcontainedwhole.The
firststory(ch.13)tellsofthewonderfulexperiencesoftheparentsoftheheropriortohisbirthhowanangelforetoldthathewastobeborn,andthathewastobeaNaziriteand
howtheangelascendedinaflamefromthealtaronwhichManoahhadofferedasacrificetoJahwehvv.24,25recordhisbirthandhiegrowthtomanhood,thespiritofJahweh
beinguponhim.ThefourteenthchaptergivesanaccountofSamsonscourtshipandmarriagewiththePhilistinewomanofTimnah:vv.14hisfirstmeetingwithher,andhisdesire
thathisparentsshouldgodowntoTimnahtosecureherforhim,theyatfirstdemur,butultimatelytheyaccompanyhimthither.Hisexploitwiththelion,hisriddleduringthe
weddingfeast,thecraftofhiswifeinobtainingtheanswertotheriddlefromhim,andthewayinwhichhepaidtheforfeittotheweddingguestsforhavingfoundouttheanswerto
theriddle,allthisistoldintheremainderofthechapter(vv.520).Furtherexploitsarerecountedinch.15:SamsonsburningofthePhilistinesfieldsbysendingintothemfoxes
withburningtorchestiedtotheirtails(vv.18)thePhilistinesattackJudahinconsequence,butthemenofJudahbindSamsonwiththepurposeofdeliveringhimuphe,however,
breakshisbonds,andkillsathousandPhilistineswiththejawhoneofanass(vv.117)theremainingversesdescribethemiracleoftheoriginofthespringinEnhakkore(vv.18
20).Inch.16thereisacontinuationofSamsonsadventures:hiscarryingoffthegatesofGaza(vv.13)hisrelationshipwithDelilahandhertreachery,resultinginhisfinal
capturebythePhilistines(vv.22)theirrejoicing(vv.2325)thedestructionofthehouse,anddeathofSamson(vv.2630)hisburial(v.31).
ThesectiondealingwithAbimelech(ch.9),thoughcertainlybelongingtotheGideonchapters(68)standsonasomewhatdifferentbasis,inasmuchasAbimelechisnot
reckonedamongthejudges(seefollowingsection):AbimelechismadekingofShechem(vv.16)Jothamhisbrother,delivershisparablefromMtGenzim,andthenflees(v.7
21)thequarrelbetweenAbimelechandtheShechemites(vv.2225)GaalraisesarevoltamongtheShechemites(vv.2633)Abimelechquellstherevolt(vv.3441)Shechemis
capturedanddestroyed(vv.4245)itstowerburned(vv.4649)AbimelechsattackThehez,andhisdeath(vv.5057).Lastly,thereistheshortsection10:616,which,like1:1
2:5,partakesofthenatureofIntroduction,andisoflatedate.
3.ArrangementandSources.Thequestionofthesourcesofourhookisadifficultandcomplicatedonethedifferenthypothesesputforwardaresometimes
ofaverycontradictorycharacter,andproportionatelybewildering.Itseems,indeed,notpossibletoassign,withanyapproachtocertainty,theexactsourceofevery
passageinthehookbuttherearecertainindicationswhichcompelustoseethatthebookiscompiledfromsourcesofvaryingcharacterandofdifferentagesso
that,althoughweshallnotattempttospecifyasourceforeverypassagebelievingthistobeimpossiblewiththehookaswenowhaveityetitwillhepossibleto
pointout,broadly,themainsourcesfromwhichitiscompiled.
(1)Itmaybetakenforgrantedthattheexploitsoftribalheroeswouldbecommemoratedbytheirdescendants,andthatthenarrativeoftheseexploitswouldbe
composedverysoon,probablyimmediatelyinsomecases,aftertheoccurrences.Soingrainedisthiscustom,thatevenaslateastheMiddleAgeswefinditstillin
vogueinEurope,theTroubadoursbeingthecounterpartofthesingersoffarearlierages.Itisthereforeclearthattheremusthaveexistedamongthevarious
Israelitetribesabodyoftraditionalmatterregardingthedeedsoftribalheroeswhichoriginallyfloatedaboutorallywithinthecircumscribedareaofeachparticular
tribe.Moreover,itisalsowellknownthattheseearlytraditionsweremostlysungor,tospeakmorecorrectly,recitedinaprimitiveformofpoetry.Theearliest
sources,therefore,ofourbookmusthavebeensomethingofthischaracter.
(2)Itis,however,quitecertainthatsomeintermediatestagesweregonethroughbeforetheimmediateantecedentsofourpresentbookbecameexistent.Inthe
firstplace,theremusthavetakenplaceatsometimeorotheracollectionoftheseancientrecordswhichbelongedoriginallytodifferenttribesonemayconfidently
assumethatacollectionofthiskindwouldhavebeenputtogetherfromwrittenmaterialsthesematerialswouldnaturallyhavebeenofvaryingvalue,sothatthe
collectorwouldhavefelthimselfperfectlyjustifiedindiscriminatingbetweenwhathehadbeforehimsomerecordshewouldretain,othershewoulddiscardandif
hefoundtwoaccountsofsometraditionwhichheconsideredimportant,hewouldincorporateboth.Inthiswaytherewouldhavearisentheimmediateantecedent
totheBookofJudgesinitsoriginalform.TheSongofDeborahmaybetakenasanillustrationofwhathasbeensaid.Atsomeearlyperiodtherewasa
confederacyamongsomeofthetribesofIsrael,formedforthepurposeofcombatingtheCanaanitestheconfederatesarevictoriousthedifferenttribeswhotook
partinthebattlereturnhome,and(presumably)eachtribepreservesitsownaccountofwhathappenedforgenerationsthesedifferentaccountsarehandeddown
orallyultimatelysomearelost,othersarewrittendowntwoarefinallypreservedandincorporatedintoacollectionoftribaltraditions,i.e.intheiroriginalform 117/124
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orallyultimatelysomearelost,othersarewrittendowntwoarefinallypreservedandincorporatedintoacollectionoftribaltraditions,i.e.intheiroriginalform
theyweretheimmediateantecedentsofourpresentaccountsinJg4:4ff.and5:1ff.
(3)Wemayassume,then,asreasonablycertain,theexistenceofabodyoftraditionalmatterwhichhadbeencompiledfromdifferentsourcesthiscompilation
representsourBookofJudgesinitsoriginalformitisaptlytermedbymanyscholarsthepreDeuteronomiccollectionofthehistoriesoftheJudges.Thisnameis
givenbecausethebookinitspresentformshowsthataneditororredactortookthecollectionofnarrativesandfittedthemintoaframework,addingintroductory
andconcludingremarksandtheadditionsofthiseditorexhibitaphraseologyandcolouringdifferentfromthatoftherestofthebook,beingimbuedstronglywith
thespiritoftheDeuteronomist(Driver).Itispossible,lastly,thatsomestilllaterredactionalelementsaretobediscerned(Cornill).Speakinggenerally,then,the
variouspartsofthebookmaybeassignedasfollows:1:12:5,thoughaddedbyalatercompiler,containsfragments,probablythemselvesfromdifferentsources,of
someearlyaccountsofthefirstwarlikeencountersbetweenIsraelitetribesandCanaanites.Intheintroduction,2:63:6,tothecentralpartofthebook,thehandof
theDeuteronomiccompilerisobservable,butpartofitbelongstothepreDeuteronomicformofthebook.Themainportion,3:716,isforthemostpartancient
wherethehandofthe
Deuteronomistismostobviousisatthebeginningandendofeachnarrativethewords,AndthechildrenofIsraeldidthatwhichwasevilinthesightoftheLord
,atthebeginning,andcrieduntotheLord,andthelandhadrestsoandsomanyyears,attheend,occurwithmonotonousregularity.Itisevidentthatin
thispartofthebookaseriesofindependentnarrativeshasbeentakenbythecompilerandarrangedbyhiminaframework,designedforthepurposeofstatingthe
chronologyoftheperiod,andexhibitingatheoryoftheoccasionandnatureoftheworkwhichtheJudgesgenerallywerecalledtoundertake(Driver).Thethird
divisionofthebook,chs.1721,isancientinthenarrativesthemselvesthereisnotraceofaDeuteronomicredaction(Moore)buttheycomefromdifferent
sources,chs.17,18beingtheoldestportions.
4.Text.AglanceattheapparatuscriticusofanygoodeditionoftheMassoretictext,suchasKittels,showsatoncethat,generallyspeaking,theHebrew
texthascomedowntousinagoodstateitisbetterpreservedthanthatofanyotherofthehistoricalbooks(Moore).Anumberoferrorstherecertainlyarebut
thesecaninagoodmanycasesberectifiedbytheversions,andaboveallbytheGreekversion.Theonlypartofthebookwhichcontainsserioustextualdefectsis
theSongofDeborah,andheretherearesomepassageswhichdefyemendation.IntheGreektherearetwoindependenttranslations,oneofwhichisafaithful
reproductionoftheMassoretictext,andisthereforenotofmuchusetothetextualcritic.
5.Historicalvalue.TherearefewsubjectsintheBiblewhichoffertothestudentofhistoryamorefascinatingfieldofstudythanthatofthehistoricalvalue
oftheBookofJudges.Itwillbeclear,fromwhathasbeensaidin3,thattogaugeitshistoricalvaluethecomponentpartsofthebookmustbedealtwith
separatelyitisalsonecessarytodifferentiate,wherevernecessary,betweenthehistoricalkernelofapassageandthematterwhichhasbeensuperimposedbylater
editorsthisisnotalwayseasy,andnothingwouldbemoreunwisethantoclaiminfallibilityinaproceedingofthiskind.Atthesametime,itisimpossibletogointo
verymuchdetailhere,andonlyconclusionscanbegiven.1:12:5is,asawhole,avaluablesourceofinformationconcerningthehistoryoftheconquestand
settlementofsomeoftheIsraelitetribeswestoftheJordanfortheperiodofwhichittreatsitisoneofthemostvaluablerecordswepossess.
2:63:6,whichformstheintroductiontothemainbodyofthebook,is,withtheexceptionofisolatednotessuchas2:9,3:5,ofverylittlehistoricalvaluewhen,
everytimethepeopleareoppressed,thecalamityisstatedtobeduetoapostasyfromJahweh,onecannothelpfeelingthatthestatementisaltogetheroutof
harmonywiththespiritofthebookitselfthistheoryistoocharacteristicoftheDeuteronomicspirittobereckonedasbelongingtotheperiodoftheJudges.
3:711,thestoryofOthniel,showstooclearlythehandoftheDeuteronomicredactorforittoberegardedasauthentichistorywhetherOthnielisanhistorical
personornot,thementionofthekingofMesopotamiainthepassage,ashavingsofarconqueredCanaanastosubjugatethe
Israelitetribesinthesouth,issufficientjustificationforquestioningthehistoricityofthesection.
Ontheotherhand,thestoryofEhud,3:1230,isapieceofgenuineoldhistorysignsofredactionalworkare,Indeed,notwantingatthebeginningandend,but
thecentralfactsofthestory,suchastheMoabiteoppressionandtheconquestofJericho,therealisticdescriptionoftheassassinationofEglon,andthedefeatofthe
Moabites,allbearthestampofgenuineness.Inthesameway,thebriefreferencestotheminorjudgesShamgar(3:31),Tola(10:1,2),Jair(10:55),Ibzan
(12:810),Elon(12:11,12),andAbdon(12:1315)arehistoricalnotesofvaluetheirInterpretationisanothermatteritispossiblethatthesenamesarethenames
ofclansandnotofindividualssomeofthemcertainlyoccurasthenamesofclansinlaterbooks.
ThejudgeshipofDeborahandBarakisthemostimportanthistoricalsectioninthebookofthetwoaccountsoftheperiod,chs.4and5,thelatterranksbyfar
thehigheritisthemostimportantsourceinexistenceforthehistoryofIsraelbythevividnessofeverytouch,andespeciallybytheelevationandintensityof
feelingwhichpervadesit,itmakestheimpressionofhavingbeenwrittenbyonewhohadwitnessedthegreateventswhichitcommemorates(Moore)whetherthis
wassoornot,therecanbenodoubtofitshighhistoricalvalueapartfromthemanifestoverworkingoftheDeuteronomicredactor,itgivesawonderfulinsightinto
theconditionsofthetimes.
Chs.68,whichcombinetwoaccountsofthehistoryofGideon,haveastronghistoricalbasistheycontainmuchancientmatter,butevenintheiroriginalforms
therewereassuredlysomeportionswhichcannotberegardedashistorical,e.g.6:36ff.
Ch.9,thestoryofAbimelech,isoneoftheoldestportionsofthebook,andcontainsforthemostpartgenuinehistoryitgivesaninstructiveglimpseofthe
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Ch.9,thestoryofAbimelech,isoneoftheoldestportionsofthebook,andcontainsforthemostpartgenuinehistoryitgivesaninstructiveglimpseofthe
relationsbetweenCanaanitesand
IsraelitesnowbroughtsidebysidetheCanaanitetownShechem,subjecttoJerubbaalofOphrahhisbalfCanaanitesonAbimelech,whonaturallybelongstohis
motherspeoplethesuccessfulappealtoblood,whichisthickerthanwater,bywhichhebecomeskingofShechem,rulingovertheneighbouringIsraelitesalso
theinterloperGaal,andhiskinsmen,whosettleinShechemandInstigateinsurrectionagainstAbimelechbyskilfullyappealingtotheprideoftheShechemite
aristocracyallhelpusbetterthananythingelseinthebooktorealizethesituationinthisperiod(Moore).
Thesection10:618containsafewhistoricalnotes,butismostlyDeuteronomic.TheJephthahstory(11:112:7),again,containsagreatdealthatisofhigh
valuehistoricallythenarrativedoesnotallcomefromonesource,andtheDeuteronomistshandis,asusual,tobediscernedhereandthere,butthatitcontains
genuinehistoricaltraits(Kuenen)isuniversallyacknowledged.
Chs.1316,whichrecounttheadventuresofSamson,mustberegardedashavingacharacteroftheirown:iftheseadventureshaveanybasisinfact,theyhave
beensooverlaidwithlegendarymatterthatitwouldbeprecarioustopronouncewithanydegreeofcertaintyanypartofthemintheirpresentformtobehistorical.
Chs.17,18areamongthemostvaluable,historically,inthebooktheygiveamostinstructivepictureofthesocialandreligiousstateofthepeopleduringthe
periodoftheJudges,andbeareverymarkoftruthfulness.
Chs.1921.Ofthesechapters,19isnotunliketherestofthebookincharacteritisdistinctlyoldworld,andmustbepronouncedas,inthemain,genuinely
historical21:1924haslikewiseatrulyantiquering,buttheremainderofthissectionisdevoidofhistoricalreality.W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
JUDGING(Ethical).ThesubjectofethicaljudgingmeetsusfrequentlyintheNT.1.Itistherightanddutyofamoralbeingtojudgeofthegoodnessor
badnessofactionsandqualitiesandChristianity,byexaltingthemoralstandardandquickeningtheconscience,makesethicaljudgmentsmoreobligatorythan
before.Incaseswhereourjudgmentsareimpersonalthereisnodifficultyastotheexerciseofthisright.Aspossessedofaconscience,amaniscalledupontoview
theworldinthediscriminatinglightofthemorallaw(Ro2:14ff.,2Co4:2).AspossessedofaChristianconscience,aChristianmanmusttesteverythingbythelaw
ofChrist(Ph1:10RVm,1Th5:21).Hethatisspiritualjudgethallthings(1Co2:15).
2.Sofarallisclear.Butwhenwepasstothesphereofjudgmentsregardingpersons,thecaseisnotsosimple.ItmightseematfirstalmostasifintheNTall
judgmentofpersonswereforbidden.ThereisourLordsemphaticJudgenot(Mt7:1).ThereisSt.Paulsdemand,Whydostthoujudgethybrother?(Ro14:10),
hisinjunction,Letusnotthereforejudgeoneanother(v.13),hisboldclaimthathethatisspiritualisjudgedofnoman(1Co2:15).ThereistheassertionofSt.
Jamesthatthemanwhojudgeshisbrotherismakinghimselfajudgeofthelaw(Ja4:11),i.e.theroyallawoflove(cf.2:8).Butitisimpossibletojudgeofactions
andqualitieswithoutpassingontojudgethepersonswhoperformthemorinwhomtheyinhere.Ifanactionissinful,thepersonwhocommitsitissinfulindeed,
themoralqualityofanactionspringsfromitsassociationwithamoralpersonality.Incondemninganythingaswrong,wenecessarilycondemnthepersonwhohas
beenguiltyofit.AndwhenwelookmorecloselyattheteachingoftheNT,wefindthatitisnotjudgmentofothersthatisforbidden,butunfairjudgmenta
judgmentthatisbiassedorsuperficialornarroworcensoriousanduntouchedwithcharity.Judgenot,saidJesus,thatyebenotjudgedandthecontextshows
thatHismeaningwas,Donotjudgeotherswithoutfirstjudgingyourself.Letusnotjudgeoneanother,saysSt.Paulbutitisinthecourseofapleaforlibertyin
nonessentialsandcharityinallthings.Hethatisspiritual,hesaysagain,isjudgedofnomanbuthismeaningisthatthenaturalmanisincompetenttojudgethe
spiritualmaninregardtospiritualthings.AndwhenSt.Jamescouplesjudgingourbrotherwithspeakingagainsthim,andrepresentsbothasinfringementsofthe
royallaw,itseemsevidentthathereferstoakindofjudgingthatisnotcharitableorevenjust,butisinspiredbymaliceorspringsfromacarpinghabit.Ethical
judgmentofpersonalworthwasafunctionfreelyexercisedbyJesusChrist(e.g.Mt16:23,23:13ff.||,Mk10:21,Lk13:32,Jn1:47,6:70),anditistheprivilegeand
dutyofaChristianman.ButifourjudgmentsaretobepurereflexionsofthemindofChrist,andnottheverdictsofignorance,prejudice,orselfishness,the
followingNTrulesmustbeobserved.Wemust(1)letourjudgmentsbeginwithourselves(Mt7:3ff.||,Ro2:1)(2)notjudgebyappearances(Jn7:24cf.8:15)(3)
respectthelibertyofourbrothersconscience(Ro14,1Co10:29)(4)notseektousurptheofficeofthefinalJudge(1Co4:5,Ro14:10)(5)bewareofthe
censoriousspirit(Ja4:11).
J.C.LAMBERT.
JUDGMENT.BiblicaleschatologycentresabouttheJudgmenttowhichallhumanityistobesubjectedattheendofthisage.Astheintroductiontothe
MessianicAge,itwasexpectedtooccuratadefinitetimeinthefuture,andwouldtakeplaceintheheavens,towhichallhumanity,whetherlivingordead,would
beraisedfromSheol.ThejudgewassometimessaidtobeGod(He12:23),sometimesHisrepresentative,theChrist,assistedbytheangels(Ro2:16,Mt13:2430,
3743,4750,24:3145Cf.Eth.Enoch48).InLk22:30,1Co6:2,Christiansarealsosaidtobejudges.AttheJudgment,sentenceswouldbepronounced
determiningtheeternalstatesofindividuals,bothmenandangels.Thosewhohaddonewrongwouldbedoomedtopunishment,andthosewhohadacceptedJesus
asChrist,eitherexplicitly,asinthecaseoftheChristians,orimplicitly,asinthecaseofAbraham,wouldbeacquittedandadmittedtoheaven.Thequestionastothe
basisofthisacquittalgaverisetothegreatdiscussionbetweenSt.PaulandtheJewishChristians,andwasdevelopedinthedoctrineofjustificationbyfaith.
Byitsverynaturethethoughtofjudgmentiseschatological,andcanbetracedfromtheconceptionoftheDayofJehovahoftheancientHebrews.Whilethe 119/124
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Byitsverynaturethethoughtofjudgmentiseschatological,andcanbetracedfromtheconceptionoftheDayofJehovahoftheancientHebrews.Whilethe
Scripturewriterssometimesconceivedofdiseaseandmiseryastheresultofsin,suchsufferingwasnotidentifiedbythemwiththepenaltiesinflictedatthe
Judgment.Thesewerestrictlyeschatological,andincludednonparticipationintheresurrectionofthebody,andsufferinginhell.(SeeABYSS,DAYOFTHE
LORD,BOOKOFLIFE,GEHENNA.)
Forjudgmentinthesenseofjusticeseeart.JUSTICE.
S HAILERMATHEWS.
JUDGMENTHALL.SeeP RTORIUM.
JUDGMENTSEAT.TheusualwordemployedforthisintheNTisbma(Mt27:19,Jn19:13,Ac18:12,16f.,25:6,10,17,Ro14:10,2Co5:10),properlya
tribune.IntheNTthewordisusedoftheofficialseat(tribunal)oftheRomanjudge.ThewordkritrionusedinJa2:5occursalsoin1Co6:2,4,whereitis
translatedinRVmbytribunal.See,further,art.GABBATHA.
JUDITH.1.AwifeofEsau,daughterofBeeritheHittite(Gn26:34cf.36:2).2.DaughterofMerari,ofthetribeofSimeon(8:1[cf.Nu1:6]9:2)widowof
Manasseaofthesametribe.Forthebookofwhichsheistheheroineseeart.APOCRYPHA,9.
JUEL.1.1Es9:34=Uel,Ezr10:34.2.1Es9:35=Joel,Ezr10:43.
JULIA.AChristiangreetedbySt.PaulinRo16:15,perhapsadependentoftheCourt,andwifeorsisterofPhilologus(Lightfoot,Phitipp.p.177).
A.J.MACLEAN.
JULIUS.ForthevoyagetoRomeSt.PaulwascommittedwithotherprisonerstothechargeofacenturionnamedJulius,oftheAugustanbandorcohort
(Ac27:1).JuliusshowedmuchkindnesstotheApostle,andevidentlytreatedhimasamanofimportance,thoughhedidnottakehisadviceonamatterof
navigation(27:3,9,11,21,31,43,28:16).SirWm.Ramsaysuggests(St.Paul,p.323)that,asJuliusratherthanthecaptainorsailingmaster(notowner)had
supremecommand(27:11),theshipmusthavebeenaGovernmentvessel.Heandhissoldierswereprobablyfrumentariiorperegrini,havingacampatRomeand
engagedinthecommissariatofdistantlegions,andinbringingpoliticalprisoners.In28:16someMSS(notthebest)saythattheprisonersweredeliveredtothe
captainoftheguardinRome.This,ifagloss,isatleastprobablytruethecaptainoftheperegriniwouldbemeant.(Seealsoart.BAND.)A.J.MACLEAN.
JUNIASorJUNIA.AChristiangreetedbySt.PaulinRo16:7,butitisuncertainwhichformistobetaken,i.e.whetheramanorawomanisintended.As
JuniasandAndronicus(wh.see)wereofnoteamongtheapostles(thelastwordbeingusedinitswidestsense),theformerviewismoreprobable.Junias(short
forJunianus)wasakinsmanofSt.Paul,i.e.aJew.A.J.MACLEAN.
JUNIPER(rthem)isundoubtedlytheArab.ratam,aspeciesofbroomverycommonindesertplacesinPalestineandSinai.Thisbroom(Retamaretem)isin
manysuchplacestheonlypossibleshadeitsometimesattainsaheightof7to8feet(1K19:5).Therootisstillburnedtofurnishcharcoal(Ps120:4).InJob30:4
mentionismadeoftherootsbeingcutupforfood.Astheyarebitterandnauseousandcontainverylittlenourishment,thisvividlypicturestheseverityofthe
famineinthewilderness.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
JUPITER.ThisgodisnotreallyreferredtointheBible.TheRomangodIuppiter(FatherofLightorofthesky)wasrecognizedbytheRomansas
correspondinginattributestotheGreekgodZeus,andhenceinmoderntimesthetermZeusintheBible(2Mac6:2)hasbeenlooselytranslatedJupiter.The
nameZeusisitselfcognatewiththefirstpartofthewordJupiter,andsuggeststherulerofthefirmament,whogiveslightandsendsrain,thunder,andothernatural
phenomenafromthesky.HewasconceivedashavingusurpedtheauthorityofhisfatherKronosandbecomethechiefandrulerofalltheothergods.Assuchhe
wasworshippedallovertheGreekworldinthewidestsenseofthatterm.ThecaseofAc14:12,13isfurthercomplicated,becausethereitisnoteventheGreek
Zeuswhoisreferredto,butthenativesupremegodoftheLycaonians,whowasrecognizedbytheauthorofActstocorrespond,astheirchiefgod,totheGreek
Zeus.AllthatweknowofthisgodisthathistempleatLystrawaswithoutthecitywall(Ac14:13),andthatBarnabas,asthebigsilentman,wastakenforhim.In
Ac19:35thephrasefromJupitersimplymeansfromthesky(cf.whatissaidabove).
A.S OUTER.
JUSHABHESED.AsonofZerubbabel(1Ch3:20).
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JUSHABHESED.AsonofZerubbabel(1Ch3:20).
JUSTICE(I.).Justice,asanattributeofGod,isreferredtoinAVinJob37:23,Ps89:14(RVrighteousness),andJer50:7.InallcasestheHeb.istsedeqor
tsedqh,thewordgenerallyrepresentedbyrighteousness(seeart.).TheDivinejusticeisthatsideoftheDivinerighteousnesswhichexhibitsitasabsolute
fairness.Inonepassagethisjustice,inoperation,isrepresentedbymishpt(Job36:17).ThethoughtoftheDivinejusticeissometimesexpressedbythelatterword,
tr.inEVjudgment:Dt32:4,Ps89:14,97:2,Is30:18.Itisimpliedin
Abrahamsquestion(Gn18:25):Shallnotthejudgeofalltheearthdoright,ratherdojustice?
(Heb.mishpt).InDn4:37Hiswaysarejudgment,theoriginalisdn.InAc28:4RVhasJusticeinsteadofvengeance.AsthecapitalJisintendedtoindicate,
thewritermusthavehadinhismindthegoddeasofjusticeofGreekpoetry,Dik,thevirgindaughterofZeus,whosatbyhisside.ButthepeopleofMaltawere
largelySemites,notHellenes.Whatwastheirequivalent?Apositiveanswercannotbegiven,butitmaybenotedthatBabylonianmythologyrepresentedjustice
andrectitudeasthechildrenofShamashthesungod,thejudgeofheavenandearth,andthatthePhnicianshadintheirpantheonaDivinebeingnamedtsedeq.
W.TAYLORS MITH.
JUSTICE(II.).
1.TheadministrationofjusticeinearlyIsrael.(a)Theearliestformoftheadministrationofjusticewasthatexercisedbytheheadofthefamily.Hewasnot
onlythefinalauthoritytowhomthemembersofafamilyappealedwhenquestionsofrightandwronghadtobedecided,andtowhosesentencetheyhadtosubmit,
buthealsohadthepowerofpronouncingeventhedeathpenalty(seeGn38:24).Ontheotherhand,therightsofeachmemberofthefamilywerejealously
safeguardedbyalltherestifharmorinjuryofanykindweresustainedbyanymember,allthememberswereboundtoavengehiminthecaseofdeaththelawof
bloodrevengelaiduponallthedutyoftakingvengeancebyslayingamemberofthemurderersfamily,preferably,butnotnecessarily,themurdererhimself.
(b)Thenextstagewasthatinwhichjusticewasadministeredbytheeldersofaclanortribe(seeNu11:16).Anumberoffamilies,unitedbytiesofkinship,
became,bytheformationofaclan,aunityascloselyconnectedasthefamilyitself.Inthisstageoftheorganizationofsocietytheprocedureindecidingquestions
ofrightandwrongwasdoubtlessmuchthesameasthatwhichobtainsevenuptothepresentdayamongtheBedouinArabs.Whenaquarrelarisesbetweentwo
membersofthetribe,thematterisbroughtbeforetheacknowledgedhead,thesheik.Heseekstomakepeacebetweenthemhavingbeardbothsides,hedeclares
whoisrightandwhoiswrong,andsettlestheformofsatisfactionwhichthelattershouldmakebuthisjudgmenthasnobindingforce,nopowerotherthanthatof
moralsuasioninfluenceisbroughttobearbythemembersofthefamityoftheonedeclaredtobeinthewrong,urginghimtosubmit,theearlierrgimethus
comingintoplay,inamodifiedwaybutifheisnottobeprevailedupon,theissueisdecidedbythesword.InEx18:1327wehavewhatpurportstobethe
originalinstitutionoftheadministrationofjusticebytheeldersofclans,Moseshimselfactinginthecapacityofakindofcourtofappeal(v.26)itis,ofcourse,
quitepossiblethat,sofarasIsraelwasconcerned,thisaccountishistoricallytrue,buttheinstitutionmusthavebeenmucholderthanthetimeofMoses,andin
followingJethrosguidance,Moseswasprobablyonlyreinstitutingargimewhichhadlongexistedamonghisnomadforefathers.Itisamoredevelopedformof
tribaljusticethatwereadofinDt21:1821herethefatherofarebelliousson,findinghisauthoritysetatnought,appealstotheeldersofthecityinthecaseof
beingfoundguiltythedeathsentenceispronouncedagainsttheson,andthesentenceiscarriedoutbyrepresentativesofthecommunity.Thepassageisan
importantone,foritevidentlycontainsechoesofveryearlyusage,thementionofthemothermayimplyadistantreminiscenceofthematriarchateandthefactthat
theheadofthefamilyexerciseshispowerrecallstheearlier
rgimealreadyreferredto,whilethepresentinstitutionoftheadministrationofjusticebyeldersisalsobornewitnessto.See,further,JUDGES.
AnotherpointofimportancewhichmustbebrieflyalludedtoisthejudgmentofGod.Inthecaseofquestionsarisinginwhichthedifficultyoffindinga
solutionappearedinsuperable,recoursewashadtothejudgmentofGod(seeEx22:8,9)thejudgesreferredtohere(RVhasGodinthetext,butjudgesinthe
mg.)werethosewhowerequalifiedtoseekadecisionfromGod.See,inthisconnexion,Dt21:19.
(c)Inthemonarchicalperiodafurtherdevelopmenttakesplacetheoldersystem,wherebyjusticewasadministeredbytheeldersofthecities,isindeedstill
seentobeinvogue(cf.1K21:813)buttwootherpowershadnowarisen,andbothtendedtodiminishthepowerandmoralinfluenceoftheeldersofthecities,
sofarastheirjudicialfunctionswereconcerned.
(i)Theking.Itisprobablethatatfirsthedecidedappealsonly,butincourseoftimeallimportantmatterssofarasthiswaspossiblewereapparently
broughtbeforehim(see1S8:20,2S14:4ff.,15:26,1K3:9,2K15:5)accordingto1K7:7,Solomonhadacoveredplaceconstructed,whichwascalledthe
porchofjudgment,andwhichwasincloseproximitytohisownpalace.Butthoughthekingwassupremejudgeintheland,itwouldobviouslysoonhave
becomeimpossibleforhimtoattendtoallthemoreimportantcauseseventhenumberofthese,aswellasothercallsuponhistime,necessitatedtheappointmentof
representativeswhoshouldadministerjusticeinthekingsname.Theappointmentofthesemusthavefurthercurtailedthepowersoftheearlierrepresentativesof
justice,alreadyreferredto.Oneoftheworstresults,however,ofthiswasthatthemotivesofadministeringjusticebecamedifferentintheolddays,whenthesheik,
orthecityelder,wascalledupontodecideanissue,hediditratherinthecapacityofafriendwhodesiredpeacebetweentwootherfriendsthanasastrictlylegal
officialhisinterestinthedisputants,asbeingbothofhisownkin,oratalleventsbothmembersofthesamecommunitytowhichhebelonged,impelledhimtodo
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officialhisinterestinthedisputants,asbeingbothofhisownkin,oratalleventsbothmembersofthesamecommunitytowhichhebelonged,impelledhimtodo
hisutmosttomakepeace.Itwasotherwisewhenastrangerhadtodecidebetweentwomenofwhomheknewnothinghehadnopersonalinterestinthem,nor
wouldithavebeenhismainendeavourtotrytosecurealastingpeacebetweenthetwo,ashadbeenthecaseinearlierdaysamongthesheiksandcityeldersthetie
ofkinshipwasabsent.Theresultwasthatpersonalinterestofanotherkindasserteditself,and,asthereisabundantevidencetoshow,theadministrationofjustice
wasguidedratherbytheprospectofgainthanintheinterestsofequity.ItisaneverrecurringburdeninthePropheticalwritingsthatjusticeisthwartedthrough
bribery:Everyonelovethgiftsandfollowethafterrewards(Is1:23see,further,5:7,20,23,Mic3:11,7:3,Ezk18:8,22:12etc.,andcf.thepictureoftheideal
judgeinIs11:3,4).Averyaggravatedinstanceofthemiscarriageofjusticeisrecordedin1K21butsuchcaseswereundoubtedlyrareexceptionssofarasIsrael
andJudahwereconcerned,itwasnotfromthecentralauthoritythattheperversionofjusticeproceeded,butratherfromthekingsrepresentatives,theprinces
(srim),whomisusedtheirauthorityfornefariousends.
(ii)Thepriesthood.EvenbeforetheExiletheadministrationofjusticewastoalargeextentcentredinthehandsoftheLeviticalpriesthoodnothingcould
illustratethismorepointedlythanDt19:1521,wheretheoutlinesofaregular,formulated,judicialsystemseemtobereferredto,inwhichthefinalauthorityis
vestedinthepriesthood.Whatmusthavecontributedtothismorethananythingelsewasthefactthatfromearlytimessuchmattersasseemedtotheeldersofthe
citytodefyasatisfactorysolutionwere,aswehavealreadyseen,submittedtothejudgmentofGodtheintermediariesbetweenGodandmenwerethepriests,who
carriedthematterintothe
Divinepresence,receivedtheDivineanswer,andannouncedthatanswertothosewhocameforjudgment(seeEx22:8,9,andesp.Dt33:8ff.AndofLevihesaid,
ThyThummimandthyUrimarewithtbygodlyone.).Itiseasytoseehow,underthesecircumstances,theauthorityofthepriesthood,inallmatters,tended
constantlytoincrease(see,further,Dt17:813,19:1521).
Butinspiteoftheriseofthesetwonewfactorsthekingandthepriesthooditmustbeborneinmindthattheeldersofthecitiesstillcontinuedtocarryout
theirjudicialfunctions.
Regardingwhatwouldcorrespondtothemodernideaofalawcourt,wehavenodatatogouponsofarastheearliestperiodisconcernedbutitmaybetaken
forgrantedthat,amongthenomads,thosewhohadaquarrelwouldrepairtothetentofthesheik,inwhichaninformalcourtwouldbeheld.Fromthetimeofthe
settlementinCanaan,however,andonwards,whencitylifehaddeveloped,thereisplentyofinformationonthesubject.Theopenspaceintheimmediatevicinity
ofthecitygatewastheusualplaceforassembliesofthepeople,anditwasherethatthemoreformalcourtsoflawwereheld(seeAm5:12,15,Dt21:19,22:15,
25:7,Zec8:16theporchofjudgmentofkingSolomon[1K7:7],alreadyreferredto,wasofcourseexceptional).
2.Postexilicperiod.AtthetimeofEzrawefindthattheadministrationofjusticebytheeldersofthecity,whichhadcontinuedthroughouttheperiodofthe
monarchy,isstillinvogue(seeEzr7:25,10:14)theypresidedoverthelocalcourtsinthesmallerprovincialtowns.Thesesmallercourtsconsistedofseven
membersinthelargertownsthecorrespondingcourtsconsistedoftwentythreemembers.Intheeventoftheselowercourtsnotbeingabletocometoadecision
regardinganymatterbroughtbeforethem,thecasewascarriedtothesuperiorcourtatJerusalem,theSanhedrin(wh.see).Theprocedureinthesecourtswasofthe
simplestcharacter:theinjuredpersonbroughthiscomplaintbeforethejudges,previousnoticehavingbeengiven,andpubliclygavehisversionofthematterthe
accusedtheninhisturndefendedhimselfjudgingfromJob31:35awrittenstatementwassometimesreadoutthetestimonyoftwowitnessesatleastwas
requiredtosubstantiateanaccusationaccordingtotheTalmud,thesewitnesseshadtobemalesandofage,butthetestimonyofaslavewasnotregardedasvalid.
Beforewitnessesgavetheirtestimonytheywereadjuredtospeakthetruth,andthewholetruth.Falsewitnessesandthesewereevidentlynotunknownhadto
sufferthesamepunishmentasthevictimoftheirfalsetestimonywouldhavehadtoundergo,orhadundergone.Ifnowitnesseswereforthcoming,thetruthofa
matterhad,sofaraspossible,tobeobtainedbythecrossquestioningandacumenofthejudges.
3.IntheNT.TheadministrationofjusticeundertheRomanrgimecomesbeforeusinconnexionwithSt.Paul(Ac24ff.).AccordingtoRomanlaw,when
aRomancitizenwasaccusedofanything,themagistratecouldfixanytimethatsuitedhimforthetrialhoweverlongthetrialmightbepostponed,theaccusedwas
neverthelessimprisonedforthewholetime.ButthereweredifferentkindsofimprisonmentrecognizedbyRomanlaw,anditlaywithinthemagistratespowerto
decidewhichkindtheprisonershouldsuffer.Thesedifferentgradesofcustodywere:thepublicgaol,wheretheprisonerwasboundinchains(cf.Ac12:6,21:33)
inthecustodyofasoldier,whowasresponsiblefortheprisoner,andtowhomtheprisonerwaschainedandanaltogethermilderform,accordingtowhichthe
accusedwasincustodyonlysofarthathewasunderthesupervisionofamagistrate,whostoodsuretyforhimitwasonlythoseofhighranktowhomthis
indulgencewasaccorded.InthecaseofSt.Paulitwasthesecondofthesewhichwasputinforce.
AsregardsappealstotheEmperor(Ac25:11,12),thefollowingconditionsappliedwhenoneclaimedthisright.IntheRomanprovincesthesupremecriminal
jurisdictionwasexercisedbythegovernoroftheprovince,whetherproconsul,proprtor,orprocuratornoappealwaspermittedtoprovincialsfromagovernors
judgmentbutRomancitizenshadtherightofappealingtothetribunes,whohadthepoweroforderingthecasetobetransferredtotheordinarytribunalsatRome.
ButfromthetimeofAugustusthepowerofthetribuneswascentredinthepersonoftheEmperorandwithhimalone,therefore,laythepowerofhearingappeals.
TheformofsuchanappealwasthesimplepronunciationofthewordAppellotherewasnoneedtomakeawrittenappeal,themereutteranceofthewordincourt
suspendedallfurtherproceedingsthere.
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W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
JUSTIFICATION,JUSTIFY
VerbandnounoriginateinChristianLatin(theVulgate)Lat.analogyaffordssomeexcusefortheRomanistreadingofjustifyasmakejust,bywhichsanctificationis
includedunderjustification.NeithertheHeb.northeGreekoriginalallowsofanyotherdefinitionofjustifythancountjustitisatermofethicalrelationship,notethical
quality,andsignifiesthefootingonwhichoneissettowardsanother,notthecharacterimpartedtoone.TheHeb.verb(abstractnounwanting)deviatesfromtheabovesenseonlyin
thelateHeb.ofDn12:3(renderedinEVturntorighteousness).TheGreekequivalenthadawiderangeofmeaningdenoting(1)tosetright,correctawrongthingdone(2)
todeemright,claim,approve,consenttoanything(3)todorightbyanyone,eitherinvindicationorinpunishment(sojustifyinScottishlaw=execute).
TheusageoftheLXXandNT,applyingthewordtopersons,comesunder(3)above,butonlyastakeninbonamparteminotherwords,justificationinBiblical
speechimportsthevindicationorclearingfromchargeofthejustifiedperson,neverhischastisement.Justificationisessentiallytheactofajudge(whetherinthe
officialortheethicalsense),effectedonjustgroundsandinforo(Dei,conscienti,orreipublic,asthecasemayhe).Itmustbeborneinmindthatthecharacterof
FatherandtheofficeofJudgeinGodconsisttogetherinNTthought.Wehavetodistinguish(1)thegeneraluseofthewordasatermofmoraljudgment,inwhich
thereisnodifferencebetweenOTandNTwriters(2)itsspecificPaulineuse,esp.characteristicofRom.andGalatians.
1.Incommonparlance,oneisjustifiedwhenpronouncedjustontrial,whenclearedofblameoraspersion.SoGodisjustified,whereHischaracterordoings
havebornetheappearanceofinjusticeandhavebeen,ormightbe,arraignedbeforethehumanconscienceseeJob8:3,Ps51:4(Ro3:4)97:2,Mt11:19,Lk7:29,
35,also1Ti3:16.SimilarlyGodsservantsmaybejustifiedagainstthemisjudgmentsandwrongfulaccusationsoftheworld(Ps37:6cf.
Ex23:7,Job23:311and42:79,Ps7:810,35:1924,43:1,97:812etc.andintheNT,Mt13:43,Ro2:57,1P2:23cf.1Ti3:16,Rev11:18).Eventhe
wickedmaybe,relatively,justifiedbycomparisonwiththemorewicked(Jer3:11,Ezk16:51f.cf.Mt12:41f.).
ButOTthoughtonthissubjectarrivedatamoralimpasse,acontradictionthatseeminglyadmittedofnoescape.InthedaysofjudgmentonthenationIsraelfelt
thatshewasmorerighteousthantheheathenoppressors(Hab1:13)andthat,atacertainpoint,shehadreceivedofJshanddoubleforallhersins(Jer10:24,
Is40:2)andJscovenantpledgedHimtoherreinstatement(Is54:510).Inthissituation,towardstheendoftheExile,theSecondIsaiahwrites,Myjustifierisat
hand!mylordJwillhelpmewhoishethatcountsmewicked?
(Is50:8f.cf.Ro8:3134).ForthepeopleofJagrandvindicationiscoming:morethanthis,JsrighteousservanteithertheidealIsraelcollectively,orsome
singlerepresentativeinwhomitscharacterandsufferingsareideallyembodiedistojustifymanyinbearingtheiriniquities,thisvicariousofficeaccountingfor
theshamefuldeathinflictedonhim(Is53)hismeekobediencetoJswillintheenduranceofhumiliationandanguishwillredoundtothebenefitofsinful
humanity(cf.53:11f.with52:13f.).WhilethespiritualIsraelisthusrepresentedasperfectedthroughsufferingsandmadetheinstrumentofJsgracetowards
mankind,thedeepenedconsciousnessofindividualsinpromptedsuchexpressionsasthoseofJer17:9,Ps51:5,130:3,143:2(Ro3:23),andraisedtheproblemof
Job25:4,HowcanamanberighteouswithGod?Mic6:68revealswithperfectclearnessthewayofjustificationbymeritMic7:16showshowcompletelyit
wasmissedandMic7:1820pointstotheonedirectioninwhichhope
lay,thecovenantgraceofJ.TheseedofIsraelistobejustifiedinJandsavedwithaneverlastingsalvation(Is45:17,2225)theactualIsraelisradically
viciousandstandsselfcondemned(59:12ff.,64:6f.etc.).Suchisthefinalverdictofprophecy.
UnderthelegalrgimedominatingJudaismfromtheageofEzraonwards,theprincipleofwhichwasexpressedbyPaulinGal3:12(Hethatdoeththose
thingsshallliveinthem),thisproblemtookanotherandmostacuteform.ThepersonalfavourofGod,andtheattainmentbyIsraeloftheMessianicsalvationfor
herselfandtheworld,werestakedontheexactfulfilmentoftheMosaicLaw,andcircumcisionwasacceptedastheseal,stampeduponthebodyofeverymaleJew,
ofthecovenantbasedonthisunderstanding(seeGal5:3).Ro7:725showshowutterlythistheoryhadfailedfortheindividual,andRo9:3010:3assertsits
nationalfailure.
2.St.PaulsdoctrineofJustificationisexplainednegativelybyhisrecoilfromtheJudaismjustdescribed.InthecrossofChristtherehadbeenrevealedtohim,
afterhisabortivestruggles,Godswayofjustifyingmen(Ro7:24,8,4).Thiswasinrealitytheoldway,troddenby
Abraham(Ro4),witnessedtobythelawandtheprophetsbytheMosaicsacrificesandtheIsaianicpromises.Paultakesupagainthethreadsthatdroppedfrom
thehandsofthelaterIsaiah.HeseesinJesusChristandhimcrucifiedthemysteriousfigureofIs53anidentificationalreadymadebyJohntheBaptistandby
theLordHimselfcf.Ro5:1821withIs53:11.UponthisviewthedeathoftheMessiahonCalvary,whichsoterriblyaffrontedSaulthePharisee,isperfectly
explainedthescandalofthecrossischangedtoglory(1Co1:2331,Gal2:20f.,3:13,6:14,2Co5:21).ThesacrificeforsinmadeinthedeathofJesus
vindicatesandreinstatesmankindbeforeGod.Justificationis,inPaulinelanguage,synonymouswithreconciliation(atonement)seeRo3:23ff.,5:11and15
21,esp.2Co5:19,whereGodissaidtobe
reconcilingtheworldtohimselfinnotimputingtothemtheirtrespassesthesameactwhichisareconciliationasitconcernsthedispositionandattitudeofthe
partiesaffected,isajustificationasitconcernstheirethicalfooting,theirrelationsintheorderofmorallaw.ThegroundoftheChristianjustificationliesinthe
grace,concurrentwiththerighteousness,ofGodtheFather,whichoffersapardonwhollygratuitousasregardstheoffendersdeserts(Ro3:23f.,4:4f.,5:6,8,21,123/124
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grace,concurrentwiththerighteousness,ofGodtheFather,whichoffersapardonwhollygratuitousasregardstheoffendersdeserts(Ro3:23f.,4:4f.,5:6,8,21,
6:23etc.,He2:9).ThemeansisthevicariousexpiatorydeathofJesusChrist,ordainedbyGodforthisveryend(Ro3:24f.,4:25,5:6,9,2Co5:14,18cf.Mt
20:28,26:28,He9:12,2310:18,1P2:24,3:18,1Jn1:7,4:10,14,Rev1:5etc.).Thesoleconditionisfaith,withbaptismforitsoutwardsign,repentancebeingof
courseimplicitinboth(Ro6:3f.,Gal3:26f.Ro6:2,21,1Co6:11,Ac20:21,22:16,26:18etc.)i.e.thetrustfulacceptancebythesinconvictedmanofGodsgrace
meetinghiminChrist(Ro4:25,5:1,Gal2:20f.etc.)theclausethroughfaithinJesusChristofRo3:22isthesubjectivecounterpart(manmeetingGod)ofthe
objectiveexpressionthroughtheredemptionthatisinChristJesus(Godmeetingman)inv.24.
ThereunderliesthiswholedoctrinetheassumptionofthesolidarityofmankindwithJesusChrist:Hedidnotinterferefromtheoutside,tomakeHimselfa
substituteformantheethicalobjectiontoPaullnismbasedonthispresumptionisirrelevantbutofferedhimselfunblemishedtoGodfromwithinhumanity,
beingtheonemanwillingandabletoperformtheonejustificatoryact,torendertheobediencewhichavailedforallmenuntoalifegivingjustification(Ro
5:15,21).HencePauliscarefultoreferthejustificationofmankindtothegraceoftheonemanJesusChrist,inwhomtheracerecognizesitshighestself,sideby
sidewiththegraceofGodconveyedbyHimandlodgedinHim,theSonofGod(Ro5:15).Allgreatboonsarewonandachievementsrealizedbyindividual
leaders,captainsofsalvationfortheirfellows.Moreover,thepropitiatoryofferingwasnotthemerenegativesatisfactionofrepentance,avicariousapologyon
ChristspartfortherestofusitwasrenderedbyHispositiveobedienceuntodeath,yeathedeathofthecross,byHismeekacceptanceofthepenaltiesof
transgressionfallingonHimtheundeserving,byHisvoluntarysubmissiontothelawthatbindsdeathtosinandthatnumberedHimwiththetransgressors,since
HehadcastinHislotwiththem(Is53:12,Lk22:37cf.Gal.4:5,Ro8:24)thisiswhatwasmeantbysayingthatHebecamesinbecameacurseforus,thatwe
mightbecomearighteousnessofGodinhim(2Co5:21,Gal3:13).OurRepresentativewasdelivereduptotheexecutionofCalvarybecauseofourtrespasses
Hewasraisedfromthedead,releasedfromtheprisonhouse,becauseofourjustificationeffectedbyHissacrifice(Ro4:25)or,asthelatterclauseisoften
understood,raisedtoeffectourindividualjustification.Fundamentallythen,justificationisthesentenceofacquittalpassedbyGodupontheraceofmankindin
acceptingChristsexpiationmadeonitsbehalf,thereinstatementoftheworldintheDivinegracewhichembracesallmeninitsscope(Ro5:18):experimentally,it
takeseffectinthosewhohearthegoodnewsandbelievebythesetheuniversalamnestyispersonallyenjoyed(Ro1:17,3:22,5:1,1Co6:11etc.).
Justificationisrealizedin(a)theforgivenessofsins,and(b)adoptionintothefamilyof
God,whereoftheSpiritofGodsSon,pouredintotheheart,isthewitnessandseal(Ro8:15f.,2Co1:22,Gal4:6,Eph1:13f.,Thatpersonaljustification,
accordingtoSt.Paulsidea,embracessonshipalongwithpardonisevidentfromthecomparisonofGal3:13f.and4:5with2Co5:1921andEph1:7:ontheone
handadoptionandthepromiseoftheSpirit,ontheotherhand
forgivenessorthenonimputationoftrespasses,areimmediatelyderivedfromredemptionin
Christs blood and the reconciling of the world to God they are alike conditioned upon faith in Jesus. The two are the negative and positive parts of mans
restorationtorightrelationshipwithGod.
St.JamesteachingonJustificationin2:1426ofhisEp.,isconcernedonlywithitsconditionwiththenatureofjustifyingfaith.Heinsiststhatthisisa
practicalfaithsuchasshowsitselfaliveandgenuinebyitsworks,andnotthetheroeticalbeliefinGodwhichademonmayhaveastrulyasasaint.Onthispoint
PaulandJameswereinsubstanceagreed(see1Th1:3,2Th1:11,Gal5:6)theworksoffaithwhichJamesdemands,andtheworksofthelawwhichPaul
rejects,arequitedifferentthings.Theoppositionbetweenthetwowritersisatthebottommerelyverbal,andwasprobablyunconsciousonthepartofboth.
G.G.F INDLAY.
JUSTUS.ThissurnameisgiventothreepeopleinNT.1.JosephBarsabbas(Ac1:23).2.TitusorTitius,hostofSt.PaulatCorinth(Ac18:7RVtheMSS
varybetweenthesetwoforms,andsomeomitthefirstnamealtogether),apparentlyaRomancitizenwhowasaproselyteofthegate(ashewouldlaterhavebeen
called),andconvertedtoChristianitybytheApostle(Ramsay,St.PaultheTrav.p.256).3.AJewnamedJesusorJoshuawhowaswithSt.PaulinhisfirstRoman
imprisonment(Col4:11).
A.J.MACLEAN.
JUTAHorJUTTAH(inJos15:55AVhasJuttah,whichisreadin21:16bybothAVand
RV).AtownofJudah(Jos15:55)giventothepriestsasacityofrefugeforthemanslayer(Jos
21:16).Ithasbeenleftoutofthecatalogueofcitiesofrefugein1Ch6:59,butQPBaddsnote:
Insert,Juttahwithherpasturegrounds.IthasbeensuggestedthatJutahwastheresidenceofZachariasandElisabeth,andthebirthplaceofJohntheBaptist(Lk
1:39acityofJudah).JutahisprobablythemodernvillageofYutt,standinghighonaridge16milesfromBeitJibrn(Eleutheropolis).
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KABZEEL.AtownintheextremesouthofJudah,ontheborderofEdom(Jos15:21,2S23:20)calledinNeh11:25Jekabzeel.itssitehasnotbeen
identified.
KADESHorKADESHBARNEAwasaplaceofnoteinoldentime(Gn14:7,16:14).Thisitcouldnothavebeenwithoutasupplyofwater.TheIsraelitesmay
thereforehaveexpectedtofindwaterhere,andfindingnoneapeculiarlyexasperatingexperiencewerenaturallyembittered.Theflowofthespring,bywhatever
meansithadbeenobstructed,wasrestoredbyMoses,underDivinedirection(Nu20:2ff.),andforalongtimeitwasthecentreofthetribalencampments(Nu20:1,
Dt1:46).ItwasthesceneofKorahsrebellion(Nu16),andofMiriamsdeath(20:1).Thespiesweresenthence(Nu32:8,Dt1:20ff.,)andreturnedhither(Nu
13:26).Beforemovingfromhere,theembassywasdespatchedtothekingofEdom(Nu20:14ff.,Jg11:16).
KadeshbarnealayonthesouthboundaryoftheAmoritehighlands(Dt1:18),intheuttermostborderofEdom(Nu20:6).TheconquestofJoshuareachedthus
far(10:41):Itwasthereforeontheline,runningfromtheAscentofAkrabbimtotheBrookofEgypt,whichmarkedthesouthernfrontierofCanaan(Nu34:4,Jos
15:3).InGn20:1itisplacedeastofGerarandinEzk47:19,48:28betweenTamarandtheBrookofEgypt.Allthispointsdefinitelytotheplacediscoveredbythe
Rev.J.Rowlandsin1842.TheancientnamepersistsinthemodernAinQads,holyspring.Anabundantstreamrisesatthefootofalimestonecliff.Caughtbythe
wellsandpoolsmadeforitsreception,itcreatesinitsbriefcourse,ereitisabsorbedbythedesert,astretchofgreeneryandbeautyamidthewaste.Fromthehigh
grazinggroundsfarandnear,theflocksandherdscomehitherforthewatering.TheplacewasvisitedagainbyDr.H.ClayTrumbull,whosebook,KadeshBarnea
(1884),containsafullaccountofthespringanditssurroundings.ItliesintheterritoryoftheAzzineArabs,about50milessouthofBeersheba,tothesouthwest
ofNaqbesSafhapassopeningtowardsPalestinefromWdyelFiqra,whichmayhetheAscentofAkrabbimandeastofWdyJerr.ThenameEn
mishpat,FountainofJudgment(Gn14:7),wasdoubtlessduetothecustomofcomingherefortheauthoritativesettlementofdisputes(Driver,Genesis,adloc).
ForKadeshontheOrontesseeTAHTIMHODSHI.
W.EWING.
KADMIEL.ThenameofaLeviticalfamilywhichreturnedwithZerub.(Ezr2:40=Neh7:43cf.1Es5:26).InEzr3:9(cf.1Es5:58),inconnexionwiththe
layingofthefoundationoftheTemple,aswellasinNeh9:4f.(thedayofhumiliation)and10:9(thesealingofthecovenant),Kadmielappearstobeanindividual.
ThenameoccursfurtherinNeh12:8,24.
KADMONITES.OneofthenationswhoselandwaspromisedtoAbramsseed(Gn15:19).TheirhabitatwasprobablyintheregionoftheDeadSea.The
factthatKedemahissaidtobeasonofIshmael(Gn25:15)rendersitlikelythattheywereIshmaeliteArabs.Ewald,however,regardedQadmoniasequivalentto
BeneQedhem(SonsoftheEast)whichseemstohavebeenageneralnameappliedtotheKeturahitetribes(seeGn25:16).
W.M.NESBIT.
KAIN.1.AcityintheuplandsofJudah(Jos15:57),probablytobeidentifiedwiththemodernKhirbetYakn,onahillS.W.ofHebron,withtombs,cisterns,
andothertracesofanancienttown.AneighbouringsanctuaryispointedoutasthetombofCain.2.Aclanname=theKenites(wh.see),Nu24:22(RV),Jg4:11(
RVm).
W.EWING.
KALLAI.Theheadofapriestlyfamily(Neh12:20).
KAMON(AVCamon).TheburialplaceofJair(Jg10:5).Thesitehasnotbeenrecovered.ItwasprobablyeastoftheJordanpossiblyidenticalwiththe
KamnofPolybius(v.lxx.12).
KANAH.1.AbrookorwadyinthebordersofEphraim(Jos16:8,17:9)whichhasbeenidentified(doubtfully)withWadyKanahnearShechem(Nblus).2.
AtowninthenorthernboundaryofAsher(Jos19:28),possiblytobeidentifiedwiththemodernKana,ashortdistanceS.E.ofTyre.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
KAPH.SeeCAPH.
KAREAH(bald).FatherofJohanan,No.1.
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/k.htm 1/19
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KARIATHIARIUS.1Es5:19forKiriathJearim(wh.see).
KARKA.AnunknownplaceintheS.ofJudah(Jos15:3).
KARKOR.AplaceapparentlyinGilead(Jg8:10).Thesiteisunknown.
KARTAH.AcityofZebulun(Jos21:34)notmentionedintheparallelpassage,1Ch6:77.Thesiteisunknown.ItmightbeforKattathbyaclericalerror.
KARTAN.AcityofNaphtali(Jos21:32).Theparallelpassage,1Ch6:76,hasKiriathaim.
KATTATH.AcityofZebulun(Jos19:15),perhapstobeidentifiedwithKartahorwithKitronofJg1:30.Thesiteisunknown.
KEDAR.Thenameofanomadicpeople,livingtotheeastofPalestine,whomP(Gn25:13)regardsasadivisionoftheIshmaelites.Jeremiah(49:28)counts
themamongthesonsoftheEast,andin2:10referstothemassymbolicoftheEast,ashedoestoCitiuminCyprusassymbolicoftheWest.InIsaiah(21:17)they
aresaidtoproduceskilfularchers,toliveinvillages(42:11),and(60:7)tobedevotedtosheepbreeding.ThelatterpassagealsoassociatesthemwiththeNebaioth.
Jeremiahalludesalso(49:29)totheirnomadiclife,totheirsheep,camels,tents,andcurtains.Ezekiel(27:21)couplesthemwithArab.andspeaksoftheirtrade
withTyreinlambs,rams,andgoats.InPs120:5Kedarisusedasthetypeofbarbarousunfeelingpeople,andinCa1:5theirtentsareusedasasymbolof
blackness.TheAssyriankingAshurbanipal(B.C.668626),inhisaccountofhisArabiancampaign(cf.KIBii.223),mentionstheKedaritesinconnexionwiththe
Aribi(theArabofEzekiel)andtheNebaioth,andspeaksofthebooty,inasses,camels,andsheep,whichhetook.ItisevidentthattheywereBedouin,livingin
blacktentssuchasoneseesinthesouthernandeasternpartsofPalestinetoday,whowererichinsuchpossessionsaspertaintonomads,andalsoskilfulinwar.
GEORGEA.BARTON.
KEDEMAH.AsonofIshmael(Gn25:15=1Ch1:31).Theclanofwhichheistheeponymousheadhasnotbeenidentified.SeealsoKADMONITES.
KEDEMOTH.AplaceapparentlyontheuppercourseoftheArnon,assignedtoReuben(Jos13:18),andaLeviticalcity(21:37=1Ch6:79).Fromthe
wildernessofKedemothmessengersweresentbyMosestoSihon(Dt2:26).ThesitemaybetheruinUmmerRass,N.E.ofDibon.
KEDESH.1.AcityinthesouthofJudah(Jos15:23)whosesiteisuncertain.ItisprobablytobedistinguishedfromKadeshbarnea.2.AcityinIssachar(1
Ch6:72),where,however,KedeshisnotimprobablyatextualerrorforKishionoftheparallelpassage(Jos21:28).3.Seenextarticle.
KEDESHNAPHTALI(Jg4:6calledalsoKedeshJos12:22,19:37,Jg4:911,2K15:29andKedeshinGalileeinJos20:7,21:32,1Ch6:76).
Evidently,fromthenamemeaningholy,asacredsitefromancienttimesacityofrefuge(Jos20:7)andaLeviticalcity(21:32).ItwasthehomeofBarak(Jg4:6).
ItwascapturedbyTiglathpileser(2K15:29)inthereignofPekah.
ThesiteisthevillageofKedes,oneofthemostpicturesquespotsinGalileetotheE.ofthevillagethegroundisstrewnwithancientremains.Thereareseveral
finesarcophagiandtheruinsofalargebuilding,possiblyonceaRomantemple.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
KEHELATHAH(Nu33:22,23).OneofthestationsofthechildrenofIsrael(Nu33:22f.).Nothingisknownaboutitsposition.
KEILAH.AcityofJudahintheShephlah,namedwithNezibandAchzib(Jos15:44).
DaviddelivereditfromthemaraudingPhilistines,anditbecamehisresidenceforatime.Becomingawareofthetreacheryofitsinhabitants,heleftit(1S23:1ff.).
ItwasreoccupiedaftertheExile(Neh3:17f.,1Ch4:19).ItiscommonlyidentifiedwithKhirbetKl,about7milesE.ofBeitJibrn.Itliesveryhigh,however,fora
cityintheShephlah,beingover1500ft.abovethelevelofthesea.
W.EWING.
KELAIAH.ALevitewhohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:23),calledin1Es9:23Colius.InEzr.theglossisaddedwhichisKelita(in1Es.whowas
calledCalitas).KelitaappearsinNeh8:7asoneoftheLeviteswhoassistedEzrainexpoundingtheLaw(cf.1Es9:48Calitas),andhisnameoccursamongstthe
signatoriestothecovenant(Neh10:10).Itdoesnotfollow,however,thatbecauseKelaiahwasalsocalledKelitaheistobeidentifiedwiththisKelita.
KELITA.SeeKELAIAH.
KEMUEL.1.ThesonofNahorandfatherofAram,Gn22:21(contrast10:22,whereAramissonofShem).2.TheprinceofthetribeofEphraim,oneofthe
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KEMUEL.1.ThesonofNahorandfatherofAram,Gn22:21(contrast10:22,whereAramissonofShem).2.TheprinceofthetribeofEphraim,oneofthe
twelvecommissionersforthedividingoftheland(Nu34:24).3.ThefatherofHashabaiah,theruleroftheLevites(1Ch27:17).
KENAN.SonofEnochandfatherofMahalalel(Gn5:9,12[AVCainanbutAVm,likeRV,Kenan],1Ch1:2).ThenameKenanissimplyavariationofCain.
KENATH.AcitylyingtotheE.oftheJordan,takenbyNobah,whosenameforatimeitbore(Nu32:42).GeshurandAramreconqueredit(1Ch2:23).Itis
usuallyidentifiedwithKanawt,fully16milesN.ofBozrah,ontheW.slopeofJebetedDruze.ItoccupiesacommandingpositiononeitherbankoftheWdy
Qanawt,whichhereformsapicturesquewaterfallTherearetall,gracefulcolumns,andmassivewalls,togetherwithotherimpressiveremainsofbuildingsfrom
GrcoRomantimes.Themodernvillage,lowerdowntheslope,isnowoccupiedbyDruzes.Baedeker(Pal.8,207),statingnoreason,Moore(Judges,222),for
reasonsthatdonotappearadequate,andothersrejecttheidentification.TospeakofQanawtasintheremotenortheast(Moore),conveysawrongimpression.It
isonlysome50milesN.E.ofJerash,whichinturnisneartheS.boundaryofGilead.Nootheridentificationseemspossible.W.EWING.
KENAZ.SeeKENIZZITES.
KENITES.Anomadictribe,closelyconnectedwiththeAmalekites(wh.see),andprobablyindeedabranchofthem,buthavingfriendlyrelationswithIsrael,
andultimately,itseems,atleastinthemain,absorbedinJudah.Hobab,Mosesfatherinlaw(Jg1:16,4:11RVm),whohadbeeninvitedbyMosesandhad
doubtlessacceptedtheinvitationtoheaguidetoIsraelinthewilderness(Nu10:2932),wasaKeniteandhisdescendantscameupfromJerichowiththetribeof
JudahintotheS.partoftheirterritory(Aradisabout17milesS.ofHebron),thoughafterwards,truetotheirBedouininstincts,theyroamedbeyondtheborderand
rejoinedtheirkinsmen,theAmalekites,intheN.oftheSinaiticPeninsula(Jg1:16readinthisverse,withMSSofLXX,theAmalekiteforthepeoplethree
lettershavedroppedoutintheHeb.).WhenSaul,manyyearslater,attackedtheAmalekites,hebadetheKenitesseparatethemselvesfromthem,onthegroundthat
theyhadshownkindnesstoIsraelatthetimeoftheExodus(1S15:6,alludingdoubtlesstoHobabsguidance,Nu10:2932).InJg4:11HebertheKeniteis
mentionedashavingseparatedhimselffromthemainbodyofthetribe,andwanderednorthwardsasfarastheneighbourhoodofKedesh(neartheWatersof
Merom).From1S27:10,30:29welearnthatinthetimeofDavidtherewasadistrictintheS.ofJudahinhabitedbyKenitesitispossiblealsothatKinah,inthe
NegebofJudah(Jos15:22),andKaininthehillcountry(v.57),wereKenitesettlements.TheRechabites,withwhomthenomadiclifehadbecomeareligious
Institution(Jer35),wereKenites(1Ch2:55).InGn15:19theKenitesarementionedamongthetennationswhoselandwastobetakenpossessionofbyIsraelthe
referenceisdoubtlesstotheabsorptionoftheKenitesinJudah.InNu24:21f.Balaam,withaplayontheresemblanceofthenametotheHeb.kn,nest,declares
thatthoughtheirnestisamongtherockycrags(namely,intheS.ofJudah),theywouldintheendbecarriedawaycaptivebytheAssyrians(Kaininv.22isthe
propernameofthetribeofwhichKeniteIsthegentilicadj.cf.Jg4:11RVm.ObserveherethattheoracleontheKenitesfollowscloselyuponthatonthe
Amalekites).
ThewordkainmeansinHeb.aspear(2S21:16),andinArab.anironsmithinAram,alsothewordcorrespondingtoKenitedenotesametalworkerit
hashencebeenconjectured(Sayce)thattheKeniteswereanomadtribeofsmiths.Thereis,however,nosupportforthisconjecturebeyondtheresemblanceinthe
words.
S.R.DRIVER.
KENIZZITES.Aclannamedfromaneponymousancestor,Kenaz.AccordingtoJ(Jos15:17,Jg1:13),CalebandOthnielweredescendedfromhim.(The
Inference,sometimesmade,thatKenazwasabrotherofCaleb,arosefromamisunderstandingofthesepassages.)RinJos14:6,14definitelycallsCaleba
Kenizzite,asPdoesinNu32:12.Ralso(Gn15:1821)countstheKenizzitesamongthepreIsraelitishinhabitantsofPalestine.PinGn36:42enrolsKenazamong
thedukesofEdom,whileaPriestlysupplementercountshimbothasadukeandasagrandsonofEsau(Gn36:11,16).TheChroniclernamesKenazasa
grandsonofEsau(1Ch1:36),andalsoasadescendantofJudah(1Ch4:1315).TheprobablemeaningofallthesepassagesisthattheKenizzitesoverspreadapart
ofEdomandsouthernJudahbeforetheIsraelitishconquestandcontinuedtoabidethere,apartofthembeingabsorbedbytheEdomites,andapartbythetribeof
Judah.ThislatterportionembracedtheclansofCalebandOthniel.
GEORGEA.BARTON.
KENOSIS.Thiswordmeansemptying,andasasubstantiveitdoesnotoccurintheNT.ButthecorrespondingverbheemptiedhimselfisfoundinPh2:7.
ThispassageisveryimportantasadefinitestatementthattheIncarnationimplieslimitations,andatthesametimethattheselimitationswereundertakenasa
voluntaryactoflove.2Co8:9isasimilarstatement.Thequestionsinvolvedarenot,however,tobesolvedbytheinterpretationofisolatedtexts,but,sofarasthey
canbesolved,byourknowledgeoftheIncarnateLifeasawhole.Thequestionwhichhasbeenmostdiscussedinrecentyearsrelatestothehumanconsciousness
andknowledgeofChrist,andaskshowitispossibleforthelimitationsofhumanknowledgetocoexistwithDivineomniscience.
Thewordkenosis,andtheideaswhichitsuggests,werenotemphasizedbyearlytheologians,andthewordwasusedaslittlemorethanasynonymforthe
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Thewordkenosis,andtheideaswhichitsuggests,werenotemphasizedbyearlytheologians,andthewordwasusedaslittlemorethanasynonymforthe
Incarnation,regardedasaDivineactofvoluntarycondescension.ThespeculationswhichoccupiedtheChurchduringthefirstfivecenturieswerecausedby
questionsastothenatureandPersonofChrist,whicharoseinevitablywhenithadbeenrealizedthatHewasbothhumanandDivinebutwhiletheyestablishedthe
realityofHishumanconsciousness,theydidnotdeal,exceptincidentally,withtheconditionsunderwhichitwasexercised.ThepassageswhichspeakofourLords
humanknowledgewerediscussedexegetically,andthegeneraltendencyofmostearlyandalmostallmedivaltheologywastoexplaintheminamoreorless
doceticsense.Fromthe16thcent.onwardstherehasbeenagreatertendencytoreverttothefactsoftheGospelnarrative,consequentlyagreaterinsistenceonthe
truthofourLordsmanhood,andmorediscussionastotheextenttowhichtheSon,inbecomingincarnate,ceasedtoexerciseDivinepower,especiallyinthe
sphereofhumanknowledge.Thequestionisobviouslyonethatshouldbetreatedwithgreatreserve,andratherbyanexaminationofthewholepictureofthe
humanlifeofChristpresentedtousintheNTthanbyapriori,reasoning.ThelanguageoftheNTappearstowarranttheconclusionthattheIncarnationwasnota
mereadditionofamanhoodtotheGodhead,butthattheSonofGod,inassuminghumannature,reallylivedinitunderproperlyhumanconditions,andceased
fromtheexerciseofthoseDivinefunctions,includingtheDivineomniscience,whichwouldhavebeenincompatiblewithatrulyhumanexperience.Ithaseven
beenheldthattheSoninbecomingincarnateceasedtolivethelifeoftheGodheadaltogether,ortoexerciseHiscosmicfunctions.Butforthisthereisnosupportin
theNT,andCol1:17andHe1:3morethansuggestthecontrary.
J.H.MAUDE.
KERAS(1Es5:29)=Ezr2:44andNeh7:47Keros.
KERCHIEFS(fromtheFr.couvrechef,acoveringforthehead)arementionedonlyinEzk13:18,21,asomewhatobscurepassagehavingreferencetocertain
formsofdivinationorsorcery,whichrequiredtheheadtobecovered.Theyevidentlyvariedinlengthwiththeheightofthewearer(v.18),andperhapsresembled
thelongveilswornbythefemalecaptivesfromLachishrepresentedonanAssyr.sculpture,seeDRESS,5(b).
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
KEREorQERE.SeeTEXTOFOT.
KERENHAPPUCH(lit.hornofantimony).TheyoungestdaughterborntoJobinhissecondestateofprosperity(Job42:14).Thenameisindicativeof
beautifuleyes,fromthedyemadeofantimony,usedtotingetheeyelashes(2K9:30,Jer4:30).
KERIOTH.AcityofMoab,namedinJer48:24,41,Am2:2,andinline13oftheMoabiteStone.IthasbeenidentifiedwithAr,thecapitalcityofMoab,as
thathasbeenwithRabbahbothidentificationsbeingprecarious.MoreistobesaidforKeriothbeingthesameasKirheresofIs16:11andofJer48:31,36.The
latterisastrongholdtothisday,andfitsinwiththesuggestionofthepassagesabovethatKeriothwasacapitalcityofMoab,andtheseatoftheworshipof
Chemosh.
W.F.COBB.KERIOTHHEZRON(Jos15:25).SeeHAZOR,No.3.
KEROS.NameofafamilyofNethinimwhoreturnedwithZerubbabel(Ezr2:44=Neh7:47)in1Es5:29Keras.
KESITAHisgiveninRVmastheHeb.wordrenderedpieceofmoneyinthethreepassagesGn33:19,Jos24:32,andJob42:11.Nocluehasyetbeenfound
totheweight,andthereforethevalue,ofthekesitahbutthatitwasaningotofpreciousmetalofarecognizedvalueismoreprobablethanthetraditionrepresented
byseveralancientversions,whichrenderitbylamb.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
KETAB(1Es5:30).HeadofafamilyofTempleservantswhoreturnedwithZerubbabel.ThereisnocorrespondingnameinthelistsofEzr.andNeh.
KETHIBH.SeeTEXTOFOT.
KETTLE.1S2:14only.SeeHOUSE,9.
KETURAH.Abrahamswife(Gn25:14),orconcubine(1Ch1:32f.cf.Gn25:6),afterthedeathofSarahnamedonlybyJandtheChroniclerinthe
passagesreferredtosaidtobetheancestressofsixteentribes,severalofwhicharedistinctlyArabianMidian,Sheba,Dedan.SomeArabicwritersmentionan
ArabiantribenearMeccacalledQatr.TheoldIsraelitesevidentlyregardedsomeArabsasdistantrelatives(seeartt.A
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/k.htm ,E ,H ).Thename 4/19
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ArabiantribenearMeccacalledQatr.TheoldIsraelitesevidentlyregardedsomeArabsasdistantrelatives(seeartt.ABRAHAM,ESAU,HAGAR).Thename
Qetrh=incense,isaperfumenamelikeKeziah(Job42:14).
W.TAYLORS MITH.
KEY.SeeHOUSE,6.OfthepassageswherethiswordisusedinafigurativesensethemostimportantareIs22:22(cf.Rev3:7),wherethekeyisthesymbol
ofauthorityandruleLk11:52thekeyofknowledgeandthecruxinterpretum,Mt16:19,forwhichseeP OWEROFTHE
KEYS.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
KEZIAH(cassia).ThenameoftheseconddaughterborntoJobafterhisrestorationtoprosperity(Job42:14).
KIBROTHHATTAAVAH(gravesoflust,Nu11:34,33:16,Dt9:22).ThemarchfromTaberah(Nu11:3)isnotmentionedinNu23,butKibrothhattaavah
wasonedaysjourneyfromthewildernessofSinai.ItisplacedbytraditiontotheN.ofNaqbelHawa(mountainpathofthewind),whichleadstotheplainbelow
thetraditionalSinai.
W.EWING.
KIBZAIM.SeeJOKMEAM.
KID.SeeGOAT,and(forEx23:19)MAGIC,p.569b.
KIDNAPPING.SeeCRIMES,etc.7.
KIDNEYS
1.Literal.(1)ThechoiceportionsofanimalssacrificedtoJincludedthekidneys(Ex29:13,22,Lv3:4,10,15,4:9,7:4,8:16,25,9:10,19cf.Is34:6).The
termiseventransferred(ifthetextiscorrect)tochoicewheat(Dt32:14).(2)Limitedtopoetryistheuseofthisterminregardtohumanbeings,andtherendering
isalwaysreins(seebelow).Theyarepossessed(RVmformed)byJ(Ps139:13),andare,metaphorically,woundedbyJsarrows(Job16:13cf.19:27,La
3:13).(3)AVmofLv15:2,22:4isincorrectthereisnomentionofreinsandinIs
11:5thewordsorenderedmeansloins.
2.Figurative.HeretheEVrenderingisalwaysreins(Lat.renes,pl.theGr.equivalentbeingnephroi,whencenephritis,etc.).Theavoidanceoftheword
kidneysisdesirable,becausewedonotregardthemastheseatofemotion.ButtheBiblicalwritersdidsoregardthem.ItwasasnaturalforthemtosayThis
gladdensmyreinsasitisnaturalandincorrectforustosayThisgladdensmyheart.And,infact,inthepassagesnowcitedthetermsreinsandheartare
oftenparallel:Ps7:9,16:7,26:2,73:21,Pr23:16,Jer11:20,12:2,17:10,20:12,Wis1:6,1Mac2:24,Rev2:23.
H.F.B.COMPSTON.
KIDRON.AplacefortifiedbyCendebus(1Mac15:39,41),andthepointtowhichhewaspursuedafterhisdefeatbythesonsofSimontheMaccabee
(16:9).ItmaybethemodernKatrahnearYebna,andispossiblyidenticalwithGederothofJos15:41,2Ch28:18.
KIDRON(AVCedron),THEBROOK(nachat,torrentvalley,wady,2S15:23,1K2:37,2Ch33:14,Neh2:15etc.Gr.cheimarrous,Jn18:1).Thename
ofavalley,nearly3milesinlength,whichboundstheplateauofJerusalemontheEast.Itisalwaysdryexceptduringandimmediatelyafterheavyrainitisthe
samevalleythatisreferredtoastheValleyofJehoshaphat(wh.see).Itcommencesabout11/4milesN.oftheN.W.cornerofthecitywalls,asawide,open,
shallowvalley.AtfirstitrunsS.E.,receivingtributariesfromtheW.andN.,butwhereitisnowcrossedbythemoderncarriageroadtotheMt.ofOlives,itturns
South.Nearthisspot(aswellashigherup)thereareanumberofancienttombsamongthemontheW.sideofthevalleyarethesocalledTombsoftheKings,
andontheEastthereputedtombofSimontheJust,muchveneratedbytheJews.ThewholeofthisfirstopensectionofthevalleyistodayknownasWadyelJoz
(ValleyoftheNuts):itisfulloffertilesoil,andinagreatpartofitsextentissownwithcornorplantedwitholivesoralmonds.AsthevalleyapproachestheEast
wallofthecityitrapidlydeepens,androckyscarpsappearoneachsideitnowreceivesthenameWadySittiMiriam,i.e.ValleyoftheLadyMary.Oppositethe
Templeareathebottomofthevalley,now40feetbelowthepresentsurface,isabout400feetbelowtheTempleplatform.S.ofthisitcontinuestonarrowand
deepen,runningbetweenthevillageofSilwn(seeS ILOAM)ontheE.andthehillOphelontheWest.HereliestheVirginsFount,ancientGihon(wh.see),whose
waterstodayrisedeepunderthesurface,thoughoncetheyrandownthevalleyitself.Alittlefartheronthevalleyagainexpandsintoaconsiderableopenarea,
wherevegetablesarenowcultivated,andwhichperhapswasoncetheKingsGarden(wh.see).TheTyroponValley,knownnowaselWd,joinstheKidron 5/19
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waterstodayrisedeepunderthesurface,thoughoncetheyrandownthevalleyitself.Alittlefartheronthevalleyagainexpandsintoaconsiderableopenarea,
wherevegetablesarenowcultivated,andwhichperhapswasoncetheKingsGarden(wh.see).TheTyroponValley,knownnowaselWd,joinstheKidron
ValleyfromtheN.,andfartherontheWadyerRabbitraditionallyHinnom(wh.see),runsinfromtheWest.TheareaagainnarrowsatBrEyyb,theancientEn
rogel(wh.see),andthevalleycontinuesalongwindingcourseunderthenameofWadyenNr(ValleyofFire)tillitreachestheDeadSea.
ThereisnodoubtwhateverthatthisistheKidronoftheOTandNT.ItisinterestingthatthecustomofburyingIsraelitesthere,whichisobservedtoday(see
JEHOSHAPHAT[VALLEYOF]),isreferredtoin2K23:4,6,12,and2Ch34:5.Itisprobablethattheplaceofthegravesofthecommonpeople(Jer26:23)wasalso
here,andithasbeensuggested,fromacomparisonwithJer31:40,withlessplausibility,thatthismayhavebeenthesceneofEzekielsvisionofthedrybones(Ezk
37).ThefieldsofKidron(2K23:4),thoughgenerallyidentifiedwiththeopenpartofthevalleywhenitisjoinedbytheTyroponValley,aremorelikelytohave
beentheopenupperreachesofthevalleyreferredtoaboveasWadyelJoz,whichwereonthewaytoBethel.
TheValleyoftheKidronismentionedfirstandlastintheBibleattwomomentoushistoricalcrises,whenDavidcrossedit(2S15:23)amidthelamentationsof
hispeopleashefledbeforeAbsalom,andwhenJesuswentforthwithHisdisciplesoverthebrookKidron(Jn18:1)forHisgreatandterribleagonybeforeHis
crucifixion.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
KILAN.SixtysevensonsofKilanandAzetasreturnedwithZerub.(1Es5:15)inthelistsofEzr2andNeh7thenamesareomitted.
KIN(NEXTOF),KINSMAN,AVENGEROFBLOOD,GOEL.1.Nextofkinisthe
nearestequivalentinmodernjurisprudenceoftheHeb.gl,itselftheparticipleofaverboriginallysignifyingtoclaim(vindicare),thentobuyback.Theduties
devolvingonthegoelbelongedtothedomainbothofcivilandofcriminallaw.IfaHebrew,forexample,werereducedtosellingapart,orthewhole,ofhis
property,itwasthedutyofhisnextofkintopurchasetheproperty,ifitwasinhispowertodoso.Theclassicalinstanceoftheexerciseofthisrightofredemption
isthecaseoftheprophetJeremiah,whopurchasedthepropertyofhiscousinHanamelinAnathoth,onbeingaskedtodosoinvirtueofhisrelationship(Jer32:8ff.
).Similarly,shouldasalehaveactuallytakenplace,therightofredemptionfelltohiskinsmanthatisnexttohim(Lv25:25).ThecaseofNaomiandtheparcelof
landbelongingtoherdeceasedhusbandwascomplicatedbythepresenceofRuth,whowentwiththeproperty,forRu4:5mustreadthoumustbuyalsoRuththe
Moabitess,thewifeofthedead.ThetruegoelaccordinglytransferredhisrightstoBoaz,whocamenexttohiminthedegreeofrelationship.Inallthesecasesthe
underlyingideaisthatthelandistheinalienablepropertyoftheclanorfamily(Ru2:1)inthewidersense.
Thedutiesofthegoel,however,extendednotmerelytothepropertybutalsotothepersonofarelative.Shouldthelatterhavebeencompelledbymisfortuneto
sellhimselfasaslave,itfelltohisnextofkintoredeemhim.Hencearoseanextensiveuseoftheverbanditsparticipleinafigurativesense,bywhichJis
representedasagoel(EVredeemer),andIsraelasHisredeemed(soesp.inIs41:14,43:14andoft.).
2.Themostseriousofallthedutiesincumbentonthegoel,inearliertimesmoreparticularly,wasthatofavengingthemurderofarelative.Inthiscapacityhe
wasknownastheavengerofblood(glhaddm).Thepracticeofbloodrevengeisoneofthemostwidelyspreadcustomsofhumansociety,andisbyno
meansconfinedtotheSemiticraces,althoughitisstillfoundinfullvigouramongthemodernArabs.BytheBedouinoftheSinaiticpeninsula,forinstance,the
hereditaryvendettaiskeptuptothefifthgeneration(seetheinterestingdetailsgiveninLordCromersReportonEgypt,1906,13ff.).
Inprimitivetimes,therefore,ifaHebrewwasslain,itwasthesacreddutyofhisnextofkintoavengehisbloodbyprocuringthedeathofhisslayer.This,itmust
beemphasized,wasinnosenseamatterofprivatevengeance.Itwastheaffairofthewholeclan,andeventribe,ofthemurderedman(2S14:7),theformer,asit
were,delegatingitsrightstothenearestrelatives.Hebrewlegislationsoughttolimittheapplication,andgenerallytoregulatetheexercise,ofthisprincipleofalife
foralife.ThustheBookoftheCovenantremovesfromitsapplicationthecaseofaccidentalhomicide(Ex21:13cf.Dt19:113,Nu35:934),whilethelegislation
ofDt.furtherrestrictsthesphereofthevendettatotheactualcriminal(Dt24:16).Intheolderlegislationthelocalhighplacesappearasasylumsforthemanslayer,
untilhiscaseshouldbeprovedtobeoneofwilfulmurder,whenhewashandedovertotherelativesofthemanhehadslain(Ex21:13,14).Withtheabolitionof
thelocalsanctuariesbythereformsofJosiahitwasnecessarytoappointcertainspecialsanctuaries,whichareknownascitiesofrefuge(seeREFUGE
[CITIESOF]).
AninterestingfeatureoftheregulationsconcerningbloodrevengeamongtheHebrewsisthealmosttotalabsence(cf.Ex21:30)ofanylegalprovisionfor
compoundingwiththerelativesofthemurderedmanbymeansofamoneypayment,thepoinoftheGreeks(seeButcherandLangstr.oftheOdyssey,408ff.)
andthewergeldofSaxonandOldEnglishlaw.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
KINAH.AtownintheextremesouthofJudah(Jos15:22).Thesiteisunknown.Cf.KENITES.
KINDNESS.ThepatternofallkindnessissetbeforeusintheBibleinthebehaviourofGodtoourrace.Hegivesthesunshineandtherain,andfruitful
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KINDNESS.ThepatternofallkindnessissetbeforeusintheBibleinthebehaviourofGodtoourrace.Hegivesthesunshineandtherain,andfruitful
seasonsandgladhearts,foodandallthegoodtheyhavetothejustandtheunjustalike(Mt5:45,7:11,Ac14:17).ButtheexceedingwealthofHisgraceisshown
untousinkindnesstowardusinChristJesus(Eph2:7).Godsglorynomancanlookuponandlive.Itisalightthatnomancanapproachunto.Itisinconceivably
great,incomprehensiblygrand,unimaginablyexaltedabovethegraspofmansmind.ButthekindnessofGodisGodsglorystoopingtomansneed.ItisGods
powerbroughtwithinmansreach.ItisGodsmercyandGodsloveandGodsgraceflowingthroughtimeandthrougheternity,asbroadastherace,asdeepas
mansneed,aslongasmansimmortality.TheBiblerevealsit.Jesusincarnatedit.InHislifethekindnessofGodfounditssuprememanifestation(Tit3:47).All
thechildrenofGodaretobeliketheFatherinthisregard(Mt5:48,Ro12:10,Col3:1214).ThephilanthropyofGod(Tit3:4)istobereproducedinthe
philanthropyofmen(2P1:7).
D.A.HAYES.
KING
1.Etymologyanduseoftheterm.TheHeb.nameforking(melek)isconnectedwithanAssyr.rootmeaningadvise,counsel,rule,andit
seemstohavefirstsignifiedthewiseman,thecounsellor,andthentheruler.TherootoccursinthenamesofseveralSemiticdeities,e.g.Molech,thetribal
godoftheAmmonites,andthePhn.Melkarth.InthedaysofAbrahamwefindthetitlekingappliedtotherulersofthecityStatesofPalestine,e.g.Sodom,
Gomorrah,etc.(Gn14:2).WealsofindreferencestokingsinallthecountriesborderingonCanaanSyria,Moab,Ammon,Egypt,etc.,andinlatertimes
Assyria,BabyloniaandPersia.IntheNTthetitlekingisappliedtothevassalkingHerod(Mt2:1,Lk1:5)andtoAgrippa(Ac25:13).InthePsalmsandthe
ProphetsGodHimselfisconstantlydesignatedKingofIsraelormyKing(e.g.Is43:15,44:6,Ps10:16,24:7,9,9,10,44:4,74:12,84:3etc.),andthe
MessianicadventofthetrueKingoftheKingdomofGodispredicted(Zec9:9,Is32:1etc.).IntheNTChristisrepresentedasthefulfilmentofthisprophecy
andasthetrueKingofGodsKingdom(cf.Jn18:33,37,1Ti6:15,Rev17:14).
2.TheofficeofkinginIsrael
(1)Institution.ThesettlementofthepeopleofIsraelinCanaan,andthechangefromanomadictoanagriculturallife,laidtheincomersopentoeverfresh
attacksfromnewadventurers.ThusinthetimeofthejudgeswefindIsraeleverliabletohostileinvasion.Inordertopreservethenationfromextermination,it
becamenecessarythatacloserconnexionandamoreintimatebondofunionshouldexistbetweenthedifferenttribes.Thejudgesintheperiodsubsequenttothe
settlementseem,withthepossibleexceptionofGideon(Jg8:22),tohavebeenlittlemorethanlocalortribalheroes,carryingonguerillawarfareagainsttheir
neighbours.ThesuccessesofthewarlikePhilistinesmadeitcleartopatrioticmindsthatthetribesmustbemorecloselyconnected,andthatapermanentleaderin
warwasanecessity.AccordinglySaultheBenjamitewasanointedbySamuel(1S10:1),andappointedbypopularacclamation(10:24,
11:14).TheexploitsofSaulandhissonsagainsttheAmmonites(11:11ff.),againstthe
Amalekites(15:7),andagainstthePhilistines(14:1ff.)showedthevalueofthekinglyofficeandwhenSaulandhissonsfellonMt.Gilboa,itwasnotlongtill
DavidtheoutlawchiefofJudahwasinvitedtofillhisplace.
(2)Thedutiesofthekingarepartlyindicatedbythehistoryoftheriseofthekingship.Thekingwas(a)leaderinwar.Heactedasgeneral,andinpersonledthe
troopstobattle(cf.SaulonMt.Gilboa,1S31:2AhabatRamothgilead,1K22:29ff.),Byandbyastandingarmygrewup,andfortresseswereplacedonthe
frontiers(cf.1K12:21f.,2Ch17:2).(b)Besidesbeingleaderofthearmyinwar,thekingwasthesupremeJudge(cf.2S14:5,15:2,1K3:15).Beforethe
institutionofthemonarchyjudicialfunctionswereexercisedbytheheadsofthevarioushousestheelders.Theseeldersweregraduallyreplacedbyofficials
appointedbytheking(2Ch19:511),andthefinalappealwastothekinghimself,whoinAm2:3iscalledthejudge.(c)Further,accordingtotheusualSemitic
conception,thekingwasalsothechiefpersonfromareligiouspointofview.ThisideahasbeenlostsightofbylaterJewishwriters,butthereislittledoubtthatin
earlytimesthekingregardedhimselfasthesupremereligiousdirector,thechiefpriest.ThusSaulsacrificesinSamuelsabsence(1S13:911,14:33ff.),soalso
David(2S6:13,17,24:25)whilebothDavidandSolomonseemtoappointanddismissthechiefpriestatpleasure(cf.2S8:17,1K2:26,27,35),andbothbless
thepeople(2S6:18,1K8:14).JeroboamsacrificesinpersonbeforethealtarinBethel(1K12:32,33),andAhazordersaspecialaltartobemade,andoffersin
persononit(2K16:12).Inlatertimes,however,thepriestlyfunctionsofthekingswerelessfrequentlyexercised,priestsbeingappointed,whoareusually
regardedasroyalofficialsandnumberedamongothercivilservants(2S20:23ff.).
(3)Thekingshiphereditary.ItwasafixedideainancientIsraelthattheofficeofthekingshippassedfromfathertoson,asthejudgeshippassedfromGideonto
hissons(Jg9:2),orfromSamueltohissons(1S8:1).AlthoughSaulwaschosenbythepeopleandDavidinvitedbytheeldersofJudahtobeking,yetSaul
himselfregardeditasthenaturalthingthatJonathanshouldsucceedhim(1S20:30ff.).Adonijahassumedthat,asDavidsson,hehadarighttothethrone
(1K2:15),andeventhesuccessionofhisyoungerhalfbrotherSolomonwassecuredwithoutanypopularelection.Itisimpossibletospeakofanelective
monarchyinIsrael.ThesuccessioninJudahremainedallalonginthehouseofDavid,andinthekingdomoftheTenTribesfatheralwayssucceededson,unless
violenceandrevolutiondestroyedtheroyalhouseandbroughtanewadventurertothethrone.
(4) Poweroftheking.WhilethemonarchyinIsraeldifferedconsiderablyfromotherOrientaldespotisms,itcouldnotbecalledalimitedmonarchyinoursense7/19
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(4)Poweroftheking.WhilethemonarchyinIsraeldifferedconsiderablyfromotherOrientaldespotisms,itcouldnotbecalledalimitedmonarchyinoursense
oftheterm.Thekingspowerwaslimitedbythefactthat,tobeginwith,theroyalhousedifferedlittlefromotherchiefhousesofthenation.Saul,evenafterhis
election,residedonhisancestralestate,andcameforthonlyasnecessitycalledhim(cf.1S11:4ff.).Ontheonehand,lawandancientcustomexercised
considerablerestraintonthekingswhile,ontheotherhand,actsofdespoticviolencewereallowedtopassunquestioned.ApowerfulrulerlikeDavidorSolomon
wasabletodomuchthatwouldhavebeenimpossibleforaweaklinglikeRehoboam.SolomonwaspracticallyanOrientaldespot,whogrounddownthepeopleby
taxationandforcedlabour.DavidhadthepowertocompassthedeathofUriahandtakehiswife,butpublicopinion,asexpressedbytheprophets,exerteda
considerableinfluenceonthekings(cf.NathanandDavid,ElijahandAhab).Theideawasneverlostsightofthattheofficewasinstitutedforthegoodofthe
nation,andthatitoughttobeahelp,notaburden,tothepeopleatlarge.Lawandancientcustomwere,inthepeoplesminds,placedbeforethekinglyauthority.
NabothcanrefusetosellhisvineyardtoAhab,andthekingisunabletocompelhim,ortoappropriateittillNabothhasbeenregularlycondemnedbeforeajudicial
tribunal(1K21:1ff.).Thusthekinghimselfwasunderlaw(cf.Dt.17:1420),andhedoesnotseemtohavehadthepowertopromulgatenewenactments.Josiah
baseshisreformnotonanewlaw,butonthenewlyfoundBookoftheLaw(2K23:13),towhichheandtheeldersswearallegiance.
(5)Royalincome.Theearlykings,SaulandDavid,donotseemtohavesubjectedthepeopletoheavytaxation.Saulsprimitivecourtwouldbesupportedby
hisancestralestateandbythebootytakenfromtheenemy,perhapsalongwithpresents,moreorlesscompulsory,fromhisfriendsorsubjects(1S10:27,16:20).
ThecensustakenbyDavid(2S24:1)wasprobablyintendedasabasisfortaxation,aswasalsoSolomonsdivisionofthelandintotwelvedistricts(1K4:7).
Ezekiel(45:7,8,48:21)speaksofcrownlands,andsuchseemtohavebeenheldbyDavid(1Ch27:26ff.).ThekingsinthedaysofAmoslaidclaimtothefirst
cuttingofgrassfortheroyalhorses(Am7:1).CaravanspassingfromEgypttoDamascuspaidtoll(1K10:16),andinthedaysofSolomonforeigntradebysea
seemstohavebeenaroyalmonopoly(1K10:16).Itisnotquitecertainwhetheranythingofthenatureofalandtaxorpropertytaxexisted,thoughsomethingof
thiskindmaybereferredtointherewardpromisedbySaultotheslayerofGoliath(1S17:25)anditmayhavebeenthetenthmentionedin1S8:15,17.Special
taxesseemtohavebeenimposedtomeetspecialemergencies(cf.2K23:35),andthekingsofJudahmadefreeuseoftheTempletreasures.
(6)Royalofficialshavethegeneraltitleprinces(srm).Theseincluded(a)thecommanderinchief,thecaptainofthehost,whointheabsenceoftheking
commandedthearmy(e.g.Joab,2S12:27).(b)Theprefectoftheroyalbodyguard,theleaderofthemightymenofvalourofAV(inDavidstimetheCherethites
andPelethites,2S8:18,20:23).(c)Therecorder,lit.onewhocallstoremembrance.Hisfunctionsarenowheredefined,butheseemstohaveheldan
influentialposition,andwasprobablythechiefminister,theGrandVizierofmoderntimes(cf.2S8:16,2K18:26).(d)Thescribe(sphr)frequentlymentioned
alongwiththerecorderseemstohaveattendedtotheroyalcorrespondence,andtohavebeentheChancellororratherSecretaryofState(2K18:18,37,2Ch
34:8).(e)Theofficerwhowasoverthetribute(2S20:24)seemstohavesuperintendedtheforcedlabourandthecollectingofthetaxes,(f)Thegovernorofthe
royalhousehold,theroyalstewardorHighChamberlain,seemstohaveheldanimportantpositioninthedaysofthelatermonarchy(Is36:3,22,22:15).Mentionis
alsomadeofseveralminorofficials,suchasthekingsservant(2K22:12),thekingsfriend(1K4:5),thekingscounsellor(1Ch27:33),theheadofthe
wardrobe(2K22:14),theheadoftheeunuchs(AVofficers,1S8:15),thegovernorofthecity(1K22:26).Wehearmuchfromtheprophetsoftheoppression
andinjusticepractisedbytheseofficialsonthepooroftheland(cf.Am2:6,7,Is5:8,Jer5:28,Mic3:11etc.).
W.F.BOYD.
KINGDOMOFGOD(orHEAVEN).TheBiblicalwritersassumethattheCreatoroftheheavensandtheearthmustneedsbealsotheeverlastingRulerofthe
same.TheuniverseisGodsdominion,andeverycreaturethereinissubjecttoHispower.AndsotheHebrewpoetsconceiveGodasimmanentinallnatural
phenomena.Windandstorm,fireandearthquake,lightningsandtorrentsofwatersarebutsomanysignsoftheactivityoftheAlmightyRuleroftheworld(Ps
18:715,68:718,104).ThesameheavenlyPowerisalsothesupremeSovereignofmenandnations.ThekingdomisJehovahs,andheistheruleroverthe
nations(Ps22:28).
Jehovahiskingoveralltheearth(Zec14:9).Hesittethuponthecircleoftheearth,andtheInhabitantsthereofareasgrasshoppersHebringethprincesto
nothing(Is40:22).ThisgeneralideaofGodsdominionoverallthingsreceivesvariousformsofstatementfromthevariousBiblicalwriters,andtheentire
presentationconstitutesamostimportantportionoftherevelationofGodandofChrist.ButtheBiblicaldoctrinehasitsOTandNTsetting.
1.IntheOldTestament.ApartfromthatgeneralconceptofGodasMakerandGovernorofthewholeworld,theOTwritersemphasizetheDivinecarefor
individuals,families,tribes,andnationsofmen.ItisGodsruleoverthosecreatureswhoexistinHisownimageandlikenessthatcallsforourspecialstudy,and
thisgreattruthismanifestfromvariouspointsofview.(1)FromAm9:7welearnthatJehovahisthesupremeRulerofallthepeoples:Syrians,Philistines,
Ethiopians,aswellasthetribesofIsrael,wereledbyHimandsettledintheirseparatelands.SoHegaveallthenationstheirinheritance(Dt32:8).Butonemost
conspicuousfeatureoftheOTrevelationisGodsselectionofAbrahamandhisposteritytobemadeablessingtoallthefamiliesoftheearth.Whenthispeculiar
familyhadbecomeanumerouspeopleinthelandofEgypt,Godledthemmarvellouslyoutofthathouseofbondageandadoptedthemtobeapeopleforhisown
possessionaboveallpeoplesuponthefaceoftheearth(Dt7:6),andakingdomofpriestsandaholynation(Ex19:6).Thesubsequentfactsofthehistoryofthis
chosenpeoplerevealanoteworthyaspectoftheKingdomofGodamongmen.(2)Alongwiththisideaoftheelectionandspecialguidanceofthispeopletherewas
graduallydevelopedaloftydoctrineofthePersonandpoweroftheGodofIsrael.Outoftheuniqueandsublimemonolatry,whichworshippedJehovahasgreatest8/19
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graduallydevelopedaloftydoctrineofthePersonandpoweroftheGodofIsrael.Outoftheuniqueandsublimemonolatry,whichworshippedJehovahasgreatest
ofallthegods(Ex15:11,18:11),thereissuedthestillhigherandbroadermonotheismofthegreatprophets,whodeniedtherealexistenceofanyotherGodor
SaviourbesidestheHolyOneofIsrael.Hewasconceivedasseatedonaloftythrone,surroundedwithholyseraphsandtheinnumerablehostsofheaven.For
naturallythehighestembodimentofpersonalpowerandgloryanddominionknownamongmen,namely,thatofasplendidroyalty,wasemployedasthebest
figureofthegloryoftheheavenlyKingandsowehavetheimpressiveapocalypticportraitureofJehovahsittinguponHisthrone,highandliftedup(Is6:13,Ezk
12:2628,1K22:19).ThemightyMonarchofearthandheavenwasenthronedininexpressiblemajestyandglory,andnopoweraboveorbelowtheheavenscould
comparewithHim.(3)ThisconceptoftheheavenlyKingbecamealsoenlargedsoastoincludetheideaofarighteousJudgeofalltheearth.Thisideaappears
conspicuouslyinthevisionofDn7:912,wheretheEternalisseenuponHisthroneoffieryflames,withtenthousandtimestenthousandministeringbeforeHim.
HisexecutionofjudgmentisasastreamoffirewhichissuesfromHispresenceanddevoursHisadversaries.Zeph3:8alsorepresentsHimasgatheringthenations
andassemblingthekingdoms,inordertopouroutuponthemthefireofHisfierceanger.Andsoinprophecy,inpsalm,andinhistoricalnarrativewefind
numerousdeclarationsofJehovahaboutHisenteringintojudgmentwiththenationsandalsowithHisownpeople.TheunmistakabledoctrineofalltheseScriptures
isthatGodisthesupremeJudgeandRuleroftheworld.Hisoverthrowofmightycitiesandkingdoms,likeNinevehandBabylon,isawayofHisexecuting
judgmentintheearth,andtheprophetscallsuchanationalcatastrophea
dayofJehovah.(4)TheMessianicpropheciesthrowfurtherlightontheOTdoctrineofthe
KingdomofGod.FromthetimesofDavidandSolomononwardsthehighestidealoftheAnointedofJehovahwasthatofapowerfulandrighteouskingofIsrael.
ThenameofDavidbecameasynonymoftheidealkingandshepherdoftheChosenPeople(Hos3:5,Jer30:9,Ezk34:23,37:24).Theseidealsbecamethe
growingMessianichopeofIsrael.AccordingtoIs9:3,7,thechildofwonderfulnamesistosituponthethroneofDavid,anduponhiskingdom,toorderit,andto
establishitinjudgmentandinrighteousnessforever.InPs2wehaveadramaticpictureofJehovahestablishingHisSonasKinguponZion,andinPs110the
conqueringhero,towhomJehovahsays,SitthouatmyrighthanduntilImakethyenemiesthyfootstool.unitesinHimselfthethreefoldofficeofking,priest,and
judge.(5)InalltheseandinotherMessianicscripturesweshoudnoticethattheAnointedofJehovahisanexaltedassociateoftheMostHigh.Heexecutes
judgmentintheearth,buthehimselfpossessesnowisdomorpowertoactapartfromJehovah.WealsonotethefactthatGodsdominionovertheearthisentirely
compatiblewithdiversformsofhumanadministration.Ambitiouspotentatesmayusurpauthority,andthinktochangetimesandseasons,butsoonerorlaterthey
cometonought.ThoughNebuchadrezzar,Cyrus,orAlexanderwieldforatimethesceptreoftheworld,itisstilltruethattheMostHighrulethinthekingdomof
men,andgivethittowhomsoeverhewill(Dn4:32).Heremovethkingsandsettethupkings(Dn2:21).WhenIsraeldesiredakinglikeothernations,Samuel
chargedthemwithrejectingGodastheirKing(1S8:7)butsuchrejectionofGodandtheanointingofSaulfortheirkingdidnotremoveJehovahfromactual
dominionoverthemandtheprophethimselfadmonishedallIsraeltofearandobeyJehovahlestHeshouldconsumeboththemandtheirking(1S12:1525).And
when,accordingtotheapocalypticimageryofDn7:13,14,theonelikeuntoasonofmanreceivesthekingdomfromtheAncientofdays,itisnottobe
supposedthattheMostHighHimselfisforamomenttoabdicateHisthroneintheheavens,orceasetoruleoverallthekingdomsofmen.(6)Itisnotgivenusto
determinehowfullyorhowclearlyanyOTprophetorpsalmistconceivedtherealnatureofthefutureMessianicKingdom.Itisnotusuallygiventotheprophetsof
greatoraclestoknowthetimeandmannerofthefulfilment,andsuchidealsasthoseofMic4:15andIs11:110mayhavebeenvariouslyunderstood.Theadvent
oftheMessianicSonofDavid,expectedamongtheseedofAbraham,wouldnaturallybeconceivedasintroducinganewerainthehistoryofthepeopleofGod.
HewouldnotruleapartfromJehovah,orexerciseadifferentauthorityfortheKingdomofMessiahwouldalsohetheKingdomofGod.Butitwouldnaturallyhe
expectedthattheMessiahwouldintroducenewpowers,newagencies,andnewenlightenmentforablessingtoallthefamiliesoftheearth.AccordingtoIs65:17,
66:22,thenewerawasconceivedasthecreationofanewheavensandanewearth,butthepropheticlanguageanditscontextdonotjustifytheopinion
thatthedawnoftheneweramustneedsbeusheredinalongwithphysicalchangesintheearthandtheheavens,orinvolveanyphysicalchangeinthenatural
constitutionofmanontheearth.
2.IntheNewTestament.InpresentingtheNTdoctrineoftheKingdomof.Godweshouldnotice(1)theprevalentexpectationoftheMessiahatthetime
Jesuswasborn.Therewasnoexactuniformityofbelieforofexpectation.Someenthusiastslookedforawarlikechieftain,giftedwithanabilityofleadership,to
castofftheRomanyokeandrestorethekingdomofIsraeltosomesuchsplendourasithadinthedaysofSolomon.Othersseemtohaveentertainedamore
spiritualview,asZacharias,Simeon,andAnna(Lk1:6779,2:2538),andtohaveunitedthegeneralhopeoftheredemptionofJerusalemwiththeblessedthought
ofconfirmingtheancientcovenantsofpromise,obtainingremissionofsins,personalconsolation,andalifeofholiness.Betweenthesetwoextremestherewere
probablyvariousotherformsofexpectation,butthemorepopularonewasthatofatemporalprince.JohntheBaptistsharedsomewhatinthiscurrentbelief,and
seemstohavebeendisappointedinthefailureofJesustofulfilhisconceptoftheMessianichope(Mt11:26).Nevertheless,Johnsministryandpreachingevinced
muchspiritualpenetration,andhisbaptismofrepentancewasaDivinelyappointedpreparationfortheKingdomofheavenwhichhedeclaredwascloseatband.
(2)ThechiefsourceoftheNTdoctrineistheteachingofJesusChristHimself.HispreachingandthatofHisfirstdisciplesannouncedtheKingdomofheavenas
athand(Mt4:17,Mk1:16).SuchaproclamationcouldhavemeanttothehearersonlythatthereignoftheMessiah,ofwhomtheprophetshadspoken,wasabout
tobegin.TherealnatureofthisKingdom,however,istobelearnedonlybyacarefulstudyofthevarioussayingsofJesusuponthesubject,(a)Itshouldfirstbe
observedthatourLordgavenosanctiontothecurrentJewishexpectationofatemporalprince,whowouldfightfordominionandexerciseworldlyformsofpower.9/19
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observedthatourLordgavenosanctiontothecurrentJewishexpectationofatemporalprince,whowouldfightfordominionandexerciseworldlyformsofpower.
Hedidnotdirectlyopposetheprevalentbelief,soastoprovokeopposition,butsoughtrathertoinculcateamorespiritualandheavenlyconceptionoftheKingdom.
HisviewswereevidentlydifferentfromthoseofJohn,forwhileHeextolledhimasHisimmediateforerunner,muchmorethanaprophet,andgreatestamong
themthatarebornofwomen,Hedeclaredthatanyonewhoisbutlittleinthekingdomofheavenisgreaterthanhe(Mt11:11).WithallhisgreatnessJohnwas
butaJewishprophet,andneverpassedbeyondthenecessarylimitationsofthepreMessianicage.(b)ThespiritualandheavenlycharacteroftheKingdomis
indicated,andindeedemphasized,bythephrasekingdomofheaven.ThisaccordswiththestatementthattheKingdomisnotofthisworld(Jn18:36),andcometh
notwithobservation(Lk17:20).Itbelongs,therefore,totheunseenandthespiritual.Itisthespecialboonofthepoorinspirit,persecutedforrighteousness
sake,andwhoserighteousnessshallexceedthatofthescribesandPharisees(Mt5:3,10,20).ThegreatonesinthisKingdomaresuchasbecomelikelittle
children(Mt18:3),andastorulershipandauthority,thegreatestishewhoactsastheministerandbondservantofall(Mk10:43,44).
Itmaybenoticedthatthephrasekingdomofheaven(oroftheheavens)ispeculiartotheGospelofMatthew,inwhichitoccursaboutthirtytimes.In2Ti4:18wereadof
hisheavenlykingdom,butelsewherethetermemployediskingdomofGod.ThereisnogoodreasontodoubtthatJesusHimselfmadeuseofalltheseexpressions,andweshould
notlooktofindanyreconditeorpeculiarsignificanceinanyoneofthem.ThephrasekingdomofGodoccursalsofourtimesinMt.,andoftenintheotherGospelsandintheActs
andEpistles.Wemayalsocompare,forillustrationandsuggestion,myFatherskingdom(Mt26:29),myheavenlyFather(Mt15:13),andobserveintheparalleltextsofMt
26:29,Mk14:25,Lk22:20,theinterchangeableuseofmyFatherskingdom,mykingdom,andthekingdomofGod.AllthesedesignationsindicatethattheKingdomis
heavenlyinitsoriginandnature.
(c)TheparablesofJesusareespeciallyimportantforlearningthenatureandmysteriesoftheKingdomofheaven.Theyshowinmanywaysthattheheavenly
Kingdomhastodowiththespiritualnatureandpossibilitiesofman,andis,infact,thedominionofJesusChristovertheheartsofmen.Theyshowalsothatthe
Kingdomhasitsnecessarycollectiveandcommunalrelations,forthesameethicalprincipleswhicharetogovernanindividuallifehavealsotheirmanifold
applicationtothelifeofacommunityandofallorganizedsocietiesofmen.SeveralofourLordsparablesindicateaJudicialtransferoftheKingdomofheaven
fromtheJewstotheGentiles(Mt21:43,22:114,Lk14:1024).TheparableoftheTwoSonswarnedtheJewishpriestsandeldersthatpublicansandharlotsmight
gointotheKingdomofGodbeforethem(Mt21:2832).FromallthisitisevidentthattheKingdomofheavenincludesthedispensationofheavenlygraceand
redemptionwhichwasinauguratedandisnowcontinuouslycarriedforwardbytheLordJesus.Itisessentiallyspiritual,anditsholymysteriesofregenerationand
therighteousnessoffaithcanbeonlyspirituallydiscerned,(d)TheimportantpetitionsintheLordsprayer,ThykingdomcomeThywillbedone,asinheaven,so
onearth,areofgreatvalueindeterminingthenatureoftheKingdom.Thisprayerassumesbyitsverytermsamoralandspiritualrelationshipandtheidealofa
moralorderintheuniverseofGod.Asthewordkingdomimpliesanorganizedcommunity,sothewillofGodimpliesinthosewhodoitaconformitytoGodin
spiritualnatureandaction.ThecomingKingdomisnotamaterialworldlyestablishment,butithasitsfoundationsintheunseenandeternal,anditspowerand
growthwillbecomemanifestamongmenandnationsaccordingasthewillofGodisdoneonearthasitisinheaven.TheperformanceofallthatthewillofGod
requiresinmoralbeingsmayvaryindegreesofperfectobservanceinheavenandinearthwenaturallypredicateofheavenlythingsameasureofperfectionfar
abovethatofearthlythings.ButthemembersoftheKingdomofGod,whetheronearthorinheaven,havethisincommon,thattheyalldothewilloftheheavenly
Father,(e)SofarastheGospelofJohnsuppliesadditionalteachingsofJesusconcerningtheKingdomofGod,itisinessentialharmonywithwhatwefindinthe
Synoptics,butithasitsownpeculiarmethodsofstatement.Wereadin3:3,5,Exceptamanbebornfromabove,hecannotseethekingdomofGod.The
Kingdom,then,isnotaspectacleofworldlyvision,buthastodofirstofallwiththeinnerlifeofman.Itaccordswiththis,thatin8:23and18:36,37Jesussays,I
amfromaboveIamnotofthisworld:Mykingdomisnotofthisworldifmykingdomwereofthisworld,thenwouldmyservantsfight,thatIshouldnotbe
deliveredtotheJews.TooneofPilatesquestionsJesusanswered,IamakingtothisendhaveIbeenborn,andtothisendamIcomeintotheworld,thatI
shouldbearwitnesstothetruth.Everyonethatisofthetruthhearethmyvoice(18:37).SoChristsKingdomcomesnotforthoutoftheworld,butisofheavenly
origin.Itmakesnodisplayofmilitaryforcesorcarnalweaponsforestablishingitsdominionintheworld.ItisespeciallyremarkableinbeingaKingdomoftruth.
ThisconceptionispeculiarlyJohannine,forinthefirstEpistlealsoJesusChristissetforthastheembodimentandrevelationofthetruthofGod(1Jn3:18,19,5:20
cf.Jn1:17,8:32,14:6,17:17).JesusChrististheheavenlyKingwhowitnessestothetruth,andwhoseservantsknow,love,andobeythetruthofGod.
3.InthePaulineEpistlestheKingdomofGodisrepresentedastheblessedspiritualinheritanceofallwhoenjoylifeinGodthroughfaithinJesusChrist.Its
spiritualcharacterisobviousfromRo14:17,where,indiscussingquestionsofconsciencetouchingmeatsanddrinks,itissaidthatthekingdomofGodisnot
eatinganddrinking,butrighteousnessandpeaceandjoyintheHolySpirit.Soitisnotadominionthatconcernsitselfaboutceremonialpollutionsitgraspsrather
aftertheattainmentofallspiritualblessings.Itisimpossiblefortheunrighteousandidolaters,andthievesandextortioners,andsuchlike,toinheritthisKingdom(1
Co6:9,10,Gal5:21,Eph5:5).
4.OtherportionsoftheNTaddsomewhattothisdoctrineoftheKingdom,butoffernoessentiallydifferentideal.InHe12:28mentionismadeofour
receivingakingdomthatcannotbeshaken.Thecontextspeaksoftheremovalofsomethingsthatwereofanaturetobeshaken,andtheallusionistotheold
fabricofdefunctJudaism,whichwasacultofburdensomeritual,andhadbecomeoldandagedandnighuntovanishingaway(8:13).Thesetemporarythingsand
theirsanctuaryofthisworld,whichwereatthemostonlyacopyandshadowoftheheavenlythings,mustneedsbeshakendownandpassawayinorderthatthe
immovableKingdomofheavenmightberevealedandabideasaneternalinheritance.TheoldJerusalemanditstemporarycultmustpassawayandgiveplaceto10/19
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immovableKingdomofheavenmightberevealedandabideasaneternalinheritance.TheoldJerusalemanditstemporarycultmustpassawayandgiveplaceto
theheavenlyJerusalem,whichaffordspersonalcommunionandfellowshipwithGodandChrist,andinnumerablehostsofangels,andthespiritsofjustmenmade
perfect(12:2224).
5.EschatologicalelementsoftheNTdoctrine.QuestionsofthetimeandmannerofthecomingoftheKingdomarisefromthevarioussayingsofJesusandof
theNTwriters,whichhaveseemeddifficulttoharmonize.FromthepointofviewbothofJesusandofthefirstApostles,theKingdomofheavenwasnighathand,
butnotyetcome.ThecomingoftheKingdomisalsoassociatedwiththeParousia,orcomingoftheSonofManinthecloudsofheaven,theresurrection,andthe
finaljudgmentofallmenandnations.Jesusspokeoftheregeneration,whentheSonofmanshallsitonthethroneofhisglory(Mt19:28).Hisgreat
eschatologicaldiscourse,reportedinalltheSynoptics(Mt24,Mk13,Lk21),representsHiscomingandtheendoftheageasinthenearfuture,beforethat
generationshouldpass.ItalsoclearlymakesthesublimeParousiafollowimmediatelyafterthewoesattendingtheruinofthecityandTempleofJerusalem.Alsoin
Mt16:28andtheparallelsinMk.andLk.Jesusdeclaresemphatically,Therearesomeofthemthatstandherewhoshallinnowisetasteofdeathtilltheyseethe
Sonofmancominginhiskingdom.Theexegeticalproblemistoshowhowthesestatementsmaybeadjustedtotheideaofagraduallygrowingpowerand
dominionwhichappearsinDanielsvisionofthestonewhichbecameagreatmountainandfilledthewholeearth(2:35),andisalsoimpliedinJesusparablesof
theMustardSeed,theLeaven,andtheSeedGrowingSecretly,firsttheblade,thentheear,thenthefullgrainintheear(Mk4:2629).Theproblemisalso
complicatedbythefactthatnearlytwothousandyearshavepassedsincethesewordsofJesuswerespoken,andtheendoftheworldisnotyet.Ofthemany
attemptsattheexplanationofthesedifficultiesweherementiononlythree.
(a)AconsiderablenumberofmoderncriticsadoptthehypothesisthatthesevarioussayingsofJesusweremisunderstoodbythosewhoheardHim,andhavebeenreportedina
confusedandselfcontradictorymanner.ThedisciplesconfoundedthefalloftheTemplewiththeendofallthings,butJesusprobablydistinguishedthetwoeventsinawaythatdoes
notnowappearintherecords.SomecriticssupposethatfragmentsofasmallJewishapocalypsehavebeenincorporatedinMt24.Thishypothesismakesitthechiefworkofthe
expositortoanalyzethedifferentelementsoftheEvangelicaltraditionandreconstructthesayingsofJesuswhicharesupposedtobegenuine.Theresultofsuchaprocessnaturally
includesaconsiderableamountofconjecture,andleavesthevariouseschatologicalsayingsofJesusinaveryuntrustworthycondition.
(b)Accordingtoanotherclassofexpositors,thepropheciesofMt24containadoublesense,theprimaryreferencebeingtothefallofJerusalem,whereastheultimate
fulfilment,ofwhichthefirstisasortoftype,istotakeplaceattheSecondComingofChristandtheendoftheworld.Itisconcededthatthetwoeventsarecloselyconjoined,butit
isthoughtthatvv.428dealmainlywiththeformerevent,andfromv.29onwardsthelessersubjectisswallowedupbythegreater,andthestatementsmaderefermainlytothestill
futurecomingoftheLord.Butscarcelyanytwointerpreters,whoadoptthedoublesensetheory,agreeintheirexpositionofthedifferentpartsofthechapter.
(c)AnothermethodofexplainingandadjustingtheteachingofJesusandofalltheNTstatementsaboutthecomingofChrist,theresurrectionandthejudgment,isto
understandalltheserelatedeventsaspartandparcelofanagelongprocess.Theendoftheage,accordingtothisview,isnotthecloseoftheChristianera,buttheendor
consummationofthepreMessianicage.ThecomingoftheKingdomofGod,accordingtoJesus(Lk17:20),isnotamatterofphysicalobservation,sothatonecouldpointitout
andsay,Lo,itishere!or,Lo,itisthere!Likethelightningitmayappearintheeastorinthewest,oranywhereunderthewholeheaven,atoneandthesamemomentoftime.
Nevertheless,noreportedsayingsofChristaremorepositiveormorenotablyreiteratedthanHisdeclarationsthatsomeofHiscontemporarieswouldlivetoseethekingdomofGod
comewithpower,andthatthisgenerationshallnotpassawaytillallthesethingsbefulfilled.Thedecisiveendofaneraordispensationoraparticularcultmaybeseentobenear
athand,suretocomewithinageneration,forthatwhichisbecomingoldandwaxethagedisnighuntovanishingaway(He8:13)butthecomingofakingdomandpowerand
glorywhichbelongstothethingsunseen,heavenlyandeternal,isnotofanaturetobelimitedtoagivendayorhour.Thereneedbe,then,nocontradictionorinconsistencyinthe
sayingsofJesusastheynowstandintheGospels.NogreatandnoteworthyeventcouldmoredecisivelyhavemarkedtheendofthepreMessianicageandtheJewishcultthanthe
destructionoftheTemple.Butthepowersoftheagetocomeweremanifestbeforethathistoriccrisis,andthetimesandtheseasonsofsuchspiritual,unseenthingsarenot
mattersformenorangelsoreventheSonofGodtotell.ButthefalloftheTempleandtheestablishmentoftheNewCovenantandtheKingdomofGodweresocoincidentthatthe
twoeventsmightwellhavebeenthoughtandspokenofasessentiallysimultaneous.Accordingly,theregeneration(Mt19:28)andtherestorationofallthings(Ac3:21)arenow
inactualprocess.TheSonofManisnowsittingonthethroneofHisglory,attherighthandofGod,andhemustreignuntilhehasputallhisenemiesunderhisfeet(1Co15:25).
SuchaKingdomisessentiallymillennial,andhasitsagesofagesformakingallthingsnew.Itscrisesandtriumphsareportrayedintermsofapocalypticprophecy,andsothe
languageofJesusinMt24:2931andsimilarpassagesinotherpartsoftheNTistobeinterpretedasweinterpretthesameformsofspeechintheOTprophets(cf.Is13:9,10,19:1,
2,34:4,5,Dn7:13,14).
Accordingtothislastinterpretation,theApocalypseofJohnisbutanenlargementofJesusdiscourseontheMountofOlives,andthedescentoftheNew
JerusalemoutofheavenisavisionalsymbolofthecomingoftheKingdomofGod,andthecontinuousanswertotheprayer,Thywillbedone,asinheaven,soon
earth.TheApostles,liketheirLord,thoughtandspokeofthingssupernaturalandinvisibleafterthemanneroftheHebrewprophets.St.PaulspictureoftheLords
comingfromheaven(1Th4:1418)isinstrikingaccordwiththelanguageofMt24:2931,andyethasitsownpeculiarpointsofdifference.InRo16:20hespeaks
oftheGodofpeacebruisingSatanunderyourfeetshortly,andin2Th2:112heteachesthatthe
Antichrist,themanofsin,isdestinedtobedestroyedbythemanifestationofthecomingoftheLordJesus.ItwasprobablynotgiventotheApostletounderstand
thatwhathesawinthevisionofamomentwouldoccupymillenniums.InhisformsofstatementwemaydiscernsurvivalsofhisJewishmodesofthought,anda
failuretodistinguishthetimesandseasonsandmethodsinwhichtheKingdomofheavenisultimatelytoovercometheprinceofthepowersofwickednessinhigh
places.ButinallessentialsofcontenthispropheticpictureofthecomingandtriumphistruetofactandtotheteachingoftheLordHimself.St.Paulalsospeaksof
theKingdomofGodasaninheritance.Itisinpartapresentpossession,butitcontemplatesalsoafutureeternalblessedness.Theredeemedshallreigninlife
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theKingdomofGodasaninheritance.Itisinpartapresentpossession,butitcontemplatesalsoafutureeternalblessedness.Theredeemedshallreigninlife
throughJesusChrist.OurheavenlyFathermakesusmeettobepartakersoftheinheritanceofthesaintsinlight,deliversusoutofthepowerofdarknessand
translatesusintothekingdomoftheSonofhislove(Col1:12,13).SuchheirsofGodaresealedwiththatHolySpiritofpromise,whichistheearnestofour
inheritance,untotheredemptionofGodsownpossession(Eph1:14).AccordingtothisconceptionoftheheavenlyKingdom,ChristisnowuponHisthroneand
continuouslymakingallthingsnew.HisParousiaismillennial.HeisdrawingallmenuntoHimself,andtheresurrectionofthedeadisascontinuousasHisown
heavenlyreign.WhenevertheearthlyhouseofanyoneofHisservantsisdissolved,hehasanewhabitationfromGod,ahousenotmadewithhands,eternalin
theheavens(2Co5:110).Eachmanmusthavehisownlastday,andeachonebemademanifestandanswerforhimselfbeforethejudgmentseatofChrist.And
whenallthingsareultimatelyputinsubjectionuntotheChrist,thenalsoshalltheSonofGodHimselfhaveperfectedHisredemptivereign,andGodshallbeallin
all.SeeAUTHORITY,DOMINION,P AROUSIA,P OWER.
M.S.TERRY.
KINGS,BOOKSOF
1.Title,etc.ThisisthenameoftwowellknownnarrativebooksoftheOT.InHeb.MSSandearlyprintededitionstheyappearasonebook,andeventothe
presentdaytheMassoreticnoteappearsattheendofthesecondbookonly.ThedivisionintotwowasmadefortheconvenienceofGreekreaders,andpassedfrom
theLXXtotheVulgate,andsototheChurch.Infact,thedivisionbetweenthepartsofthegreatBiblicalnarrativewhichextendsfromGenesisto2Kingsismoreor
lessarbitrary,thereisnoclearlineofdemarcationbetween2Samueland1Kings,anymorethanbetween1and2Kings.
2.Methodandsources.WhatwehavejustsaiddoesnotimplythattheBooksofKingsareexactlyliketheotherhistoricalbooks.Theydifferintheir
method,andinthewayinwhichthenarrativeispresented.Themoststrikingfeatureistheattempttodatetheeventsrecorded,andtokeeptwoparallellinesof
historybeforethereader.Theperiodoftimetheycoverissomethingover400years,andwhenitisrememberedthatthesebooksgiveusalmosttheonlylightwe
haveoneventsinIsraelforthisperiod,theirhistoricalvaluewillbeevident.Atthesametime,thelighttheythrowonthemethodbywhichtheBiblicalauthors
workedisalmostequallygreat.Toestimatethehistoricalvalue,itwillbenecessarytolookattheliterarymethod.Thephenomenonwhichfirststrikesthereaders
attentionistheunevennessofthenarrative.Insomecaseswehaveanextendedanddetailedstoryinothersalongperiodoftimeisdismissedinafewwords.The
reignofSolomonoccupieselevenchaptersaboutafourthpartoftheworkwhilethelongerreignofManassehisdisposedofinsixteenverses.Fromourpointof
viewthereisreasontothinkthatthereignofManassehwasquiteasinterestingandquiteasimportantastheother.
Stillcloserexaminationshowsthattherearewellmarkedcharacteristicsofstyleincertainsectionswhicharereplacedbyequallymarkedbuttotallydifferent
onesinothersections.Moreover,thereareseeminglycontradictoryassertionswhichcanhardlyhavecomefromthesamepen,thoughtheymighthaveoccurredin
differentdocuments,andhavebeenretainedbyacompilerwhodidnotfullyrealizetheirforce.ThustheaccountofSolomonsforcedlabourraisedoutofall
IsraelseemsinconsistentwiththeotherdeclarationthatSolomonmadenobondservantsofIsrael(1K5:13ff.,cf.11:28and9:22).Onepassagesayswithout
qualificationthattherewaswarbetweenRehoboamandJeroboamalltheirdaysanothertellsushowRehoboamgatheredamightyarmy,butdismisseditatthe
wordofaprophetwithoutmakingwar(1K12:2124and14:30).Theseindicationsofacompilatoryactivity,suchaswefindalsoinotherpartsoftheOT,are
confirmedbytheauthorsreferencetosomeofthebooksfromwhichhehasdrawn.Twoofthesearementionedsooftenthattheyattracttheattentionofevery
reader.TheyaretheBooksofAnnals(inourversionbooksofchronicles)ofthekingsofIsraelandofthekingsofJudah.Tothesewemayaddthereferencesto
theBookoftheActsofSolomon.Theauthorhadthesethreebooksinhishand,and,whatisofmoreimportance,hethoughthisreaderswerelikelytohavethemat
theircommand.Thisisthereasonwhyhereferstothemthatthosereaderswhoarecuriousforfurtherdetailsmayfindtheminthesebooks.Itfollowsthatthese
sourcesofhisarenotthearchivesofthetwokingdoms,butregularbookscirculatedandreadamongthepeopleatlarge.Butitisclearthatothersourceswere
drawnupon.
Someofthematerialcannothavecomefromeitherofthebooksnamed.ThedescriptionoftheTemplemightsupposedlyhavebeenembodiedintheActsof
Solomon,thoughthisseemsimprobable.ButitisquitecertainthattheextendedlifeofElijahandtheequallydiffuselifeofElishaneverhadaplaceinthehistoryof
thekings.TheremusthavebeenaLifeofElijahcirculatedbysomeofhisdisciplesoradmirersafterhisdeath,andtheprobabilityisstrongthattherewasalsoa
separateLifeofElisha.WhetherthesetwomaynothavebeenembodiedinageneralworkontheLivesoftheProphets,whencethesectionswhichinterestedhim
weretakenbyourauthor,wemaynotbeabletodetermine.Thatthesesectionsdidnotcomefromthesourcewithwhichtheyaremostnearlycombinedisevident
fromthedifferenceintoneandpointofview.AhabappearsverydifferentlyintheElijahsectionsandinthechapterswhichtreatoftheSyrianwars.
ThenarrativeswhichdealwithIsaiahsuggestreflexionssimilartothosewhichcometousinlookingatElijahandElisha.Theylooklikeportionsofabiography
ofIsaiah.ThisbiographywasnotourBookofIsaiah,inwhichsomesectionsareduplicatesofwhatwefindintheSecondBookofKings.Butotherportionsofthe
BookofIsaiahseemtohavebeendrawnfromthesameLifeofIsaiahwhichfurnishedtheduplicatematerialofwhichwehavespoken.
Althoughsomeofthepointsthathavebeentoucheduponaremoreorlessobscure,wearejustifiedinsayingthattheBooksofKingsareacompilationfromat
leastfiveseparatesourcesthreewhichtheauthorcitesbyname,aTemplechronicle,andaHistoryoftheProphets.Thehypothesisofcompilationexplainssome
ofthediscrepanciesalreadynoted,anditalsoexplainssomeoftheviolenttransitionsinthenarrative.Ch.20of1Kingsisinsertedbetweentwopassageswhich 12/19
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ofthediscrepanciesalreadynoted,anditalsoexplainssomeoftheviolenttransitionsinthenarrative.Ch.20of1Kingsisinsertedbetweentwopassageswhich
belongtogether,andwhichwereoncecontinuous.ThischapterintroducesBenhadadasthoughweknewhim,wheninfactwehavenotheardofhim.Inlike
mannerElijahappearssuddenlyinthenarrative,withouttheslightestintimationastowhoheisorwhathehasbeendoing.Theseindicationsconfirmthetheoryof
compilation,andtheyshowalsothattheauthorhasinnocase(sofaraswecandiscover)embodiedthewholeofanyoneofhissourcesinhiswork.Heusedhis
freedomaccordingtohismainpurpose,takingoutwhatsuitedthatpurposeandleavingtherestbehind.
3.Purpose.Thenextinquiryis,Whatwasthepurposewhichexplainsthebook?Inanswertothisitisatonceseenthatthepurposewasareligiousone.The
authorwasnottryingtowritehistoryhewastryingtoenforcealesson.Forthosewhowereinterestedinthehistoryashistoryhegavereferencestothebooksin
whichthehistorycouldbefound.Forhimself,therewassomethingmoreimportantthiswastopointamoralsoplainlythathispeoplewouldtakeheedtoitand
actaccordingly.Thiscomestoviewplainlyintherecurringsentenceswhichmakeupwhathasbeencalledtheframeworkofthebook.Thesearenotalwaysexactly
alikesometimestheyarescantier,sometimestheyarefuller.Buttheyarethesameinpurport.Acompleteexampleisthefollowing:Jehoshaphatreignedover
JudahinthefourthyearofAhab,kingofIsrael.ThirtyfiveyearsoldwasJehoshaphatwhenhebegantoreignandtwentyfiveyearshereignedinJerusalemand
hismothersnamewasAzubah,daughterofShilhi.HewalkedinallthewayofAsa,hisfatherheturnednotfromit,doingrightintheeyesofJahweh.Onlythe
highplaceswerenotremoved,thepeoplecontinuedsacrificingandofferingatthehighplaces.AndtherestoftheactsofJehoshaphatandthemightydeeds
whichhedidaretheynotwrittenintheBookofAnnalsofthekingsofJudah?AndJehoshaphatsleptwithhisfathers,andwasburiedinthecityofDavid,and
Jehoramhissonreignedinhisstead(1K22:4143,45,50).Thefirstpartofthisformulaisfoundatthebeginningofareign,therestattheend.Sometimesthere
issolittlerecordedaboutakingthatthetwopartscomeinimmediatesequence.Butusuallytheyareseparatedbyanarrative,longerorshorteraccordingtowhat
theauthorthinksfittogiveus.Theframeworkitselfshowsthattheauthordesirestopreservethenameoftheking,hisageataccession,thelengthofhisreign,the
nameofhismother,whowasofcoursethefirstladyoftheland.Theseitemshewasinterestedin,justbecausehisworkwouldnothavebeenahistorywithout
them.Butwhatmostinterestedhimwasthejudgmentwhichhefeltjustifiedinpronouncingonthecharacterofthemonarch.Theveryfactthathegivessucha
judgmentineverycaseshowsthathehadbeforehimmorematerialthanhehashandeddowntous,foritwouldhavebeenobviouslyunjusttopronounceso
positivelyifhehadaslittlegroundforhisopinionasinmanycaseshegivestous.
Itisimportanttonoticethereferencetothehighplaceswhichcomesinimmediatesequencetothejudgmentonthecharacteroftheking.Thehighplacesinthe
opinionoflatertimeswereillegitimateplacesofworship.Theirtolerationcastsashadowonthepietyevenofkingsotherwisecommendable,whiletheirdestruction
isregardedasaproofofreligiouszeal.Whatlightthisthrowsonthedateofthebookwillappearlater.Forthepresentitissufficientthatthetreatmentofthehigh
placesfurnishesthegroundonwhichthekingsaregradedinexcellence.ThefirstplaceisgiventoHezekiahandJosiah(whoareclassedwithDavid),justbecause
theydidawaywiththeseancientsanctuaries.ThenextrankisaccordedtoAsa,Jehoshaphat,JehoashofJudah,Amaziah,Uzziah,andJotham,andwenoticethat
theyalleffectedcertainreformsintheTemple.Withreferencetoeachofthese,thecommendationistemperedbythestatementthatthehighplaceswerenottaken
away.InthethirdclasswefindtheremainingkingsofJudah,andallthekingsofIsrael,whoarecondemnedasbad.TheformulaforthekingsofIsraelisnotquite
thesameastheonejustnoticed.Foronething,thenameofthequeenmotherisnotgivenwhetherbecausethenameshadnotbeenhandeddown,orbecause
theywerethoughttobeofminorimportanceafterthedestructionofthekingdom,isnotclear.TheformulamaybeillustratedbytheoneusedforBaasha,Inthe
thirdyearofAsakingofJudah,BaashasonofAhijahbecamekingoverIsraelinTirzah,(andreigned)twentyfouryears.HedidevilintheeyesofJahweh,andhe
walkedinthewaysofJeroboam,andinhissinbywhichhemadeIsraelsin.AndtherestoftheaffairsofBaasha,andwhathedid,andhispower,aretheynot
writtenintheBookofAnnalsofthekingsofIsrael?AndBaashasleptwithhisfathersandwasburiedinTirzah,andElahhissonreignedinhisstead(1K15:33f.,
16:5f.).ThereasongivenforthecondemnationwhichisvisitedonallthekingsoftheNorthernKingdomisthattheywalkedinthewaysofJeroboamI.,thatis,
theyfosteredtheworshipofthegoldenbulls(calvestheyarecalledinderision)atBethelandDan.Thisis,intheeyesoftheauthor,distinctrebellionagainstthe
GodwhoselegitimatesanctuaryisatJerusalem.
Whilethelongerquotationsfromhissourcesusuallyshowthecompilersreligiousintent,yetheoftenpresentsuswithbriefnoticesforwhichheisprobably
indebtedtotheBooksofAnnals,butwhichhavenoverydirectbearingonhismainobject.ThusinthecaseofJehoshaphatheinsertsinhisframeworkabrief
noticetotheeffectthatthiskingmadepeacewithIsrael.InthethreememberedcontestbetweenZimri,Tibni,andOmri(1K16:1522)hecompressesthestoryofa
prolongedcivilwarintoafewlines.InthecaseofOmriwefindabriefnoticetotheeffectthatthiskingbuiltthecityofSamaria,havingboughtthelandfroma
mannamedShemer(1K16:24).SuchanoticeprobablycompressesadetailedaccountinwhichOmriwasglorifiedasthefounderofthecapital.
Assomeoftheseshorternoticesduplicatewhatwefindelsewhere,itseemsasifthecompilermadeouthisframeworkorepitomefirstandfilleditinwithhis
excerptsafterwards.Intheinsertionoftheselongerpassagesthereligiousmotiveisalwaysapparent.Thematterofsupremeimportancetohimistheworshipofthe
GodofIsraelascarriedonattheTempleinJerusalem.HeisundertheinfluenceknownasDeuteronomistic.Thisisseenfirstinthephraseswhichrecurinthose
sectionswhichwesuspecttobehisowncomposition.Inmanycasesitisnotpossibletosaywhetherthesesectionscomefromthehandofthecompilerorwhether
theywereinsertedbyoneofhisfollowers.Thisis,infact,ofminorimportance,ifvarioushandshavebeenconcernedtheyworkedunderthesamebias.The
attitudetakentowardsthehighplacesisdistinctlyDeuteronomistic,forthedemandthatthesesanctuariesshouldbeabolishedwasfirstformulatedbyDeuteronomy.
Josiahsreforms,asiswellknown,werethedirectresultofthefindingofthisbookintheTemple.Hencethestrong,wemightsayextravagant,commendationof 13/19
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Josiahsreforms,asiswellknown,werethedirectresultofthefindingofthisbookintheTemple.Hencethestrong,wemightsayextravagant,commendationof
thisking.
Moreover,itwaslaiddownbythewriterofDeuteronomythatobediencetothelawwhichheformulateswillbefollowedbytemporalwellbeing,andthat
disobediencewillbepunishedbycalamity.Now,oneobjectofthewriterorcompileroftheBookofKingsistoshowhowthishasprovedtrueinthepast.Heisless
thoroughintheapplicationofthistheorythantheauthoroftheBookofChronicles,butthathehasitatheartwillbeevidentonexamination.TheNorthern
Kingdomhadperishedwhy?BecausekingsandpeoplehadfromthefirstbeendisobedienttoJahweh,revoltingfromHislegitimatesanctuaryatJerusalem,and
provokingHiswrathbythehullsofBethel.InJudahthesamelessonistaught.David,wholaidthefoundationsofthekingdom,wasofunusualpiety,andwas
favouredbyunusualprosperity.SolomonwasthebuilderoftheTemple,andtothisextentanexampleofpietyhisprosperitywasinproportion.Buttherewere
shadowsinthepictureofSolomonwhichourauthorwastoohonesttoignore.Ithadnotbeenforgottenthatthiskingbuiltaltarstoforeigngods.Historyalsotold
thathehadsufferedbytherevoltofEdomandDamascus.Itwaseasytoseeinthisthepunishmentforthekingssins.Thehistoricfactseemstobethattherevolt
precededthedefection,sothatthepunishmentcamebeforethecrime.Inanycase,thecompilerhasdealtfreelywithhismaterial,datingboththedefectionandthe
revoltlateinthekingsreign,atatimewhensenileweaknesswouldexcusethewisemanforyieldingtohiswives.
ThemostdistinctinstanceinwhichtheauthorteacheshislessonistheprayerofSolomonatthededicationoftheTemple.Itwasthecustomwithancient
historians,asweknow,tocomposespeechesfortheirheroeswhichtelluswhatoughttohavebeensaidratherthanwhatwasactuallysaid.Ourauthormakesuseof
thisperfectlylegitimateliterarydevice.AreadingoftheprayershowsthatitisDeuteronomisticinwordandthoughtthroughout.Morethanonehandhasbeen
concernedinit,butthetoneisthatoftheDeuteronomisticschool.Itconfirmswhathasbeensaidaboutthepurposeofthebook.Itfollowsthatthehistoricalvalue
oftheworkmustbeestimatedwithdueallowanceforthismainpurpose.
4.Date.ThedateoftheBookofKingsinitspresentformcannotbeearlierthantheBabylonianexile.Thelatesteventwhichitmentionsisthereleaseof
kingJehoiachinfromconfinement,whichtookplaceintheyearB.C.561andastheauthorspeaksoftheallowancemadetothekingallhislife(2K25:30),we
concludethathewroteafterhisdeath.Itwillnotbefaroutoftheway,therefore,tosaythattheworkwascompletedaboutB.C.550.Someminorinsertionsmay
havebeenmadelater.Whilethisisso,therearesomethingswhichpointtoanearlierdateforthegreaterpartofthework.Thepurposeoftheauthortokeephis
peoplefromthemistakesofthepastisintelligibleonlyatatimewhentheavoidanceofthemistakeswasstillpossible,thatis,beforethefallofJerusalem.Wefind
alsosomephraseswhichindicatethatthefinalcatastrophehadnotyetcome.Therecurrenceofthephraseuntilthisday(1K8:8cf.9:21,12:19,2K2:22,8:22,
16:6)isoneoftheseindications.Itis,ofcourse,possiblethatallthesebelongtotheoldersourcesfromwhichtheauthordrew,butthishardlyseemsprobable.On
thesegroundsitisnowgenerallyheldthatthesubstanceofthebookwascompiledaboutB.C.600,byawriterwhowasanxioustoenforcethelessonofthe
Deuteronomicreformwhiletherewasyethope.Thisfirsteditionextendedto2K23:25or28.AboutfiftyyearslateranauthorlivingintheExile,andwho
sympathizedwiththemainpurposeofthebook,completeditinsubstantiallyitspresentform.Thetheoryreceivessomeconfirmationfromthedoubleschemeof
chronologywhichrunsthroughthebook.Ashasbeenshownintheformulaquotedabove,thereisaseriesofdataconcerningthelengthofeachkingsreign,and
alsoaseriesofsynchronisms,accordingtowhicheachkingsaccessionisbroughtintorelationwiththeeraofhiscontemporaryintheotherkingdom.Thetwo
seriesarenotalwaysconsistentastateofthingswhichisbestaccountedforonthetheorythatonewastheworkofoneauthor,theothertheworkoftheother.
5.Text.ThetextoftheBooksofKingshasnotbeentransmittedwiththecarewhichhasbeenshowninsomepartsoftheOT.TheLXXshowsthatearly
copiesdidnotalwaysagreeintheirwordingorintheorderoftheparagraphs.InsomecasestheLXXhasabetterreading.Butthedifferencesarenotsuchasto
affectthemeaninginanyessentialpoint.
H.P.S MITH.
KINGSGARDEN(2K25:4,Jer39:452:7,Neh3:16).ThisgardenwasclearlynearthegateofthetwowallswhichwasnearthePoolofSiloam,andit
wasinallprobabilityjustoutsidethewalls,beingirrigatedbyoverflowwaterfromtheSiloamtunnelandpool,justasthelandinthissituationistreatedtoday.
Indeed,thegardenmayhavecoveredmuchthesameareaasisnowcultivatedasirrigatedvegetablegardenbythewomenofSilwn.SeeKIDRON[BROOK
OF],S ILOAM
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
KINGSPOOL.Neh2:14,prob.identicalwithPoolofSiloam.SeeS ILOAM.
KINGSVALE.Gn14:17(AVkingsdale).SeeS HAVEH.
KIR.Anunidentifiedplace,subjectinthe8thand7thcents.toAssyria.Amos(1:5),accordingtothepresentHebrewtext,predictedthattheAramans
shouldbecarriedcaptivetoKir.In9:7hedeclaresthatJahwehbroughtthemfromKir.Itissaidin2K16:9thatTiglathpilesercarriedthepeopleofDamascus
captivetoKir,whileinIs22:6KirismentionedinconnexionwithElamasfurnishingsoldierstotheAssyrianarmywhichfoughtagainstIsrael.Ithasbeen
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captivetoKir,whileinIs22:6KirismentionedinconnexionwithElamasfurnishingsoldierstotheAssyrianarmywhichfoughtagainstIsrael.Ithasbeen
identifiedwithKur,ariverflowingintotheCaspianSeawithCyropoliswiththeSyrianprovinceofCyrrhesticawithCyrenewithKureniainMediawithKuris,
northof
AleppowithKoaofEzk23:23,whichhasbeensupposedtobethesameastheGutiumoftheBab.Assyr.inscriptions,whichpossessedahighcivilizationasearly
asB.C.3000.InrealitynothingcertainisknownofthelocalityofKir.
GEORGEA.BARTON.
KIR(ofMoab).CoupledwithArofMoab(Is15:1),possiblyidenticalwithit.FollowingtheTargum,KirofMoabhaslongbeenidentifiedwiththemodern
Kerak,aplaceofgreatimportanceinthetimesoftheCrusades.KerakissituatedonaloftyspurbetweentheWadyelKerakandtheWadyAinFranji,about4000
feetabovetheDeadSealevel.Thehillsbehindrisemuchhigher,sothatitiscommandedoneverysidebyhigherground,whichexplains2K3:2527.Itwas
surroundedbyawallofgreatthickness,andthereareremainsofancientrockhewncisterns.Thegatesweretobereachedonlythroughlongtunnelsinthesolid
rock.
C.H.W.JOHNS.
KIRAMA(1Es5:20)=Ezr2:25Ramah.
KIRHARESETH(Is16:7),Kirharaseth(2K3:25AV[pausalform]),Kirheres(Jer48:31,36),Kirharesh(Is16:11AV[pausalform]).Aplaceofgreat
strengthandimportanceinMoabgenerallyregardedasidenticalwithKirofMoab(wh.see).TheLXXandVulg.takethesenamesasphrases,andtranslatethem
onsomemoreorlessfancifulHebrewetymology.TheTargumonIsaiahrendersKeraktokpehon,whichsuggeststhatharasethmaybeconnectedwiththeAssyrian
hurshu,acliff,etc.,butthewordmaybeMoabiteorCanaanite,andseemstooccurinHaroshethoftheGentiles(Jg4:2,13,16).ThemodernKasrharasha,35
minuteswalkaboveDeraa,preservesasimilartitle.
C.H.W.JOHNS.
KIRIATHisthest.constr.ofKiriah,thecomplementofwhich,jearim,seemstohavefallenoutinJos18:28,fromitsresemblancetothewordforcities
whichfollows.ThereforeweoughtprobablytoreadKiriathjearim,areadingsupportedbytheLXX.
W.EWING.
KIRIATHAIM.1.AtownE.oftheJordan,inthedisputedterritorybetweenMoabandReuben,placedbytheOnomasticon10RomanmilesW.ofMadeba
(Gn14:5,Nu32:37,Jos13:19,Jer48:23,Ezk25:9)unidentified.2.AtowninNaphtali(1Ch6:76),calledKartaninJos21:32.
W.EWING.
KIRIATHARBAisusedasanameforHebron(wh.see)inGn23:2etc.OnlyinGn35:27andNeh11:25isArbawrittenwiththearticle.Thecitymayhave
beensocalledastheseatofaconfederacybetweenfourmenortribes,orthenamemaybe=Tetrapolis,thecityoffourquarters.TheHeb.textexplainsitasthe
cityofArba,thegreatestmanamongtheAnakim(Jos14:16RV),orthefatherofAnak(15:13,21:11).InthefirstpassageLXXreadsthecityArgob,the
metropolisoftheAnakim:inthesecondthecityArbok,metropolis,etc.Perhapsinthelasttwo,therefore,weshouldreadm,mother,i.e.mothercity,instead
ofabi,father.W.EWING.
KIRIATHARIM(Ezr2:25).SeeKIRIATHJEARIM.
KIRIATHBAAL.SeeKIRIATHJEARIM.
KIRIATHHUZOTH.Aspotunidentified,apparentlybetweenArmoabandBamothbaal(Nu22:39,cf.vv.38,41).ItmaybeKureit,S.ofJebelAttrs.
W.EWING.
KIRIATHJEARIM(cityofforests).OneofthecitiesoftheGibeonites(Jos9:17),occupiedbytheDanites(Jg18:12),ontheborderbetweenJudahand
Benjamin(Jos15:9,18:14).FromthereDavidbroughtuptheark(2S6:2,1Ch13:5,2Ch1:4).ItsoldernameappearstohavebeenKiriathbaal(Jos15:60)or
Baalah.(Jos15:9,10,1Ch13:6).ItisalsomentionedasBaaleJudah(2S6:2),andthroughatextualerrorasKiriatharim(Ezr2:25cf.Neh7:29).Itwas
probably,likeKedesh,Gezer,etc.,anoldCanaanitehighplace.InJer26:20itismentionedasthehomeofUriahtheprophet,thesonofShemaiah.Seealso1Ch
2:50,53and1Es5:19[inthislastpassageitiscalledKariathiarius].Thesiteofthisimportantancientsanctuaryandfrontiertownhasbeenverygenerally
accepted,sincethe5thcent.A.D.,asclosetothatofthemodernKurietelEnab,aflourishinglittlevillageonthehighroadfromJaffatoJerusalem,about9miles 15/19
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accepted,sincethe5thcent.A.D.,asclosetothatofthemodernKurietelEnab,aflourishinglittlevillageonthehighroadfromJaffatoJerusalem,about9miles
fromthelatter.TheancientremainsaretotheW.ofthevillage,butahandsomeCrusadingChurchinthevillageitselfhasrecentlybeenrestored.KurietelEnabis
generallyknownasAbuGhosh,afterafamilyofsemihrigandsofthatnamewhoestablishedthemselvestherenearlyacenturyago,andforlongheldthewhole
surroundingcountryattheirmercy.Anothersite,whichhasbeenpowerfullyadvocatedbyConder,isKhurbetErma,ontheS.oftheValeofSorek,justwherethe
narrowvalleyopensintotheplain.Thesimilarityofarim(Ezr2:25)anderma,andthenearnessofthesitetoZorahandEshtaol,areinitsfavour.There,too,are
ancientremains,andagreatrockplatformwhichwouldappeartomarkanancienthighplace.Ontheotherhand,itisfarfromtheothercitiesoftheGibeonltes
(Jos9:17).Thequestioncannotheconsideredassettled.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
KIRIATHSANNAH,KIRIATHSEPHER.SeeDEBIR,No.1.
KISEUS.TheforminAd.Est11:2ofKish(Est2:5),thenameofthegreatgrandfatherofMordecai.SeeKISH,No.4.
KISH.1.ThefatherofSaulthefirstkingofIsrael(1S9:1,10:21,14:51,Ac13:21).HishomewasatGibeah(renderedthehillofGodandthehillinboth
AVandRVof1S10:5and10:10).2.Theuncleoftheforegoing(1Ch8:30,9:36).3.TheeponymofafamilyofMerariteLevites(1Ch23:21,22,24:29,2Ch
29:12).4.ABenjamiteancestorofMordecai(Est2:5).
KISHI.AMerariteLevite,ancestorofEthan(1Ch6:44theparallelpassage,1Ch15:17,hasKushaiah,prohablythecorrectformofthename).
KISHION.AtownallottedtoIssachar(Jos19:20),giventotheLevites(21:28).Theparallelpassage,1Ch6:72,readsKedesh,whichisperhapsatextual
errorforKishion.Thelatternamehasnotbeenrecovered.
KISHON(Jg4:7,5:21,1K18:40,Ps83:9).TheancientnameofthestreamnowcalledNahrelMukatta,whichdrainsalmostthewholeareaofthegreat
PlainofEsdraelon.ThemainchannelmaybeconsideredasrisingneartheW.footofMt.Tahor,andrunningW.throughthecentreoftheplainuntilitentersthe
narrowvalleybetweentheS.extensionoftheGalilanhillsandtheE.endofCarmel.AfteremergingfromthisitentersthePlainofAkka,runningalittleN.ofthe
wholelengthofCarmel,andenterstheseaaboutamileE.ofHaifa.Thetotallengthisabout23miles.Inthefirstpartofitscourseitisinwinterasluggishstream
withabottomofdeepmud,andinsummerbutachainofsmallmarshesfromjustbelowwherethechanneliscrossedbytheNazarethroadnearCarmelitusually
hasacertainamountofwateralltheyearround,andinpartsthewater,whichisbrackish,is10or12feetdeep.Atitsmouth,however,itisalmostalwaysfordable.
NumeroussmallwatercoursesfromtheGalilanhillsontheN.andmoreimportanttributariesfromLittleHermon,theMountainsofGilboa,andthewhole
southernrangeofSamariaandCarmelontheE.andS.,contributetheirwaterstothemainstream.Thegreaternumberofthesechannels,inplaces10or15feet
deepwithprecipitoussides,areperfectlydrytwothirdsoftheyear,butduringthewintersrainsarefilledwithragingtorrents.Anumberofcopiousspringsarise
alongtheedgeofthehillstotheS.oftheplain.AtJeninthereareplentifulfountains,buttheyare,duringthesummer,entirelyusedupinirrigationatTaanak,at
Lejjn,nearTellelKass,attheE.endofCarmel,andattheAynelSadi,perennialfountainspourtheirwaterintothemainstream.Thosewhohaveseenthe
streamonlyinlatespringorsummercanhardlypicturehowtreacherousanddangerousitmaybecomewhenthewintersrainfillseverychannelwithatumultuous
floodofchocolatebrownwateroverabottomofstickymudoftenitselfseveralfeetdeep.Bothanimalsandbaggagehavenotinfrequentlybeenlostatsuchtimes.
Undersuchconditions,theKishon,withitssteep,uncertainbanks,itsextremelycrookedcourse,anditstreacherousfords,musthavebeenverydangeroustoa
flyingarmyofhorsesandchariots(Jg5:21,22).OfallpartsthesectionoftheriverfromMegiddo(wh.see)toHaroshethoftheGentiles(nowelHarithyeh),
wherethefiercestofthebattleagainstSiserawasfought(cf.Jg5:10and4:16),musthavebeenthemostdangerous.TheotherOTincidentconnectedwiththisriver
istheslaughterthereoftheprophetsofBaalafterElijahsvindicationofJehovahontheheightsofCarmel(1K18:40).
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
KISS(Heb.nshqah,Gr.Philma).Kissingisamarkofaffectionbetweenparentsandchildren(Gn27:26f.,Ru1:9,1K19:20etc.),membersofafamily,or
nearconnexions(Gn29:13,45:15),andequalsinrank(2S20:9,Ac20:37).Guestsarereceivedwithakiss(Lk7:45).Akissfromasuperiormarkscondescension
(2S15:5,19:39).Thesekissesmayheonthelips,butareusuallyonthecheekorneck.Thekisswasatokenoflove(Ca1:2,8:1),ofhomageandsubmission(Gn
41:40,Job31:27,Ps2:12),andwasalsoanactofidolatrousworship(1K19:18,Hos13:2).TheMoslemskisstheblackstoneatMecca.Juniorsandinferiorskiss
thehandsofseniorsandsuperiors.Awifekissesthehandorbeardofherhusband.Thehand,garments,eventhefeetofoneappealedtomayhekissed.Prohably
Judaspresumedtosalutewiththekissofanequal(Mt26:49etc.).Akissonthehandwouldhavebeennatural.Theholykiss,orkissoflove(1Co16:20,1P
5:14),markedthetiethatunitedChristiansinaholybrotherhood.
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W.EWING.
KITE.1.ayyh.InLv11:14,Dt14:13AVrendersthiswordbykiteinjob28:7by
vultureRVhasuniformlyfalcon.2.dh:Lv11:14(AVvultureRVkite).3.dayyhDt14:13(EVglede[OldEng.kite,theblackkite,andthe
EgyptiankiteareallfoundinPalestine,butitisimpossibletosaywhichbirdsaredenotedbythedifferentwords.
W.EWING.
KITRON.ACanaanitetownintheterritoryofZebulun(Jg1:30).SeeKATTATH.
KITTIM(AVChittim,whichisretainedbyRVin1Mac1:1,8:5)designatesproperlytheislandofCyprus,andistohesounderstoodinthegeographicallist
ofthedescendantsofJavan(wh.see),thatis,theIonians,inGn10:4.Thenameisbasedonthatofthesettlementonthesoutheastoftheisland,calledKitionby
theGreeks,themodernLarnaka.ThiswasthefirsttradingpostofthePhniciansontheMediterranean,henceitisvaguelyusedinEzk27:8asthemothercityof
allthemaritimesettlementswestward.TheconnexionwiththeIoniansorGreeksisnotquiteclear,sincethesewerenotthefirstsettlersontheisland.Therewere,
however,undoubtedlyGreekcoloniststhereinthe8thcent.B.C.,aswelearnfromtheinscriptionoftheAssyrianSargonof720,pointingtoasettlementofIonian
CypriansinAshdod.Auseoftheword,stillmorevague,isfoundinDn11:30,whereitreferstotheRomans,whileinNu24:24(asin1Mac1:1,8:5)itisapplied
apparentlytotheMacedonians.
J.F.MCURDY.
KNEADINGTROUGH.OnlyEx8:3,12:34andRVofDt28:5,17(AVstore).SeeBREAD,HOUSE,9.
KNEE,KNEEL.ThekneesareoftenreferredtoinScriptureastheplacewhereweaknessofthebody,fromwhatevercause,readilymanifestsitself:e.g.from
terror(Job4:4,Dn5:8),orfasting(Ps109:24).ThereferenceinDt28:35seemstobetojointleprosy,inwhich,afterthetoesandfingers,thejointsofthelarger
limbsareattacked(Driver,Deut.inloc.).Thelayingofchildrenonthekneesoffatherorgrandfatherseemstohaveinvolvedrecognitionofthemaslegitimate
membersofthefamily(Gn30:8,50:23).InmanypassagesofScripturekneelingisspokenofastheattitudeassumedinprayer(1K8:54,Ps95:8,Dn6:10,Ac
20:36etc.).Tobowthekneeisequivalenttoworship(1K19:18,ls45:23,Ro14:11etc.).Tofalluponthekneesbeforeasuperiorisanactatonceofreverence
andofentreaty(2K1:13,Mt17:14,Lk5:8etc.).InthecourtofanEasternjudgethewriterhasoftenseenmenprostratethemselves,andthenmaketheirplea,
restingupontheirknees.
W.EWING.
KNIFE.OfthevarioussortsofknivesnoticedintheOTmentionmaybemadeoftheflintknivesusedfortheriteofcircumcision(Jos5:2f.,cf.Ex4:25)an
instanceofconservatisminritual,towhichparallelsmaybefoundinallreligions.Theknivesforordinarypurposesunderthemonarchyweremostlyofbronze,of
which,asoftheearlierflintknives,therecentexcavationshavefurnishedmanyvarieties.Wealsoreadofsacrificialknives(Gn22:6,10,Ezr1:9),ofabarbers
knifeorrazor(Ezk5:1),andofascribesknife(Jer36:23EVpenknife,),usedforsharpeninghisreedpenandmakingthenecessaryerasures.Cf.HOUSE,9.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
KNOP.Anotherformofknob,isusedtorendertwodifferentwordsinEV.1.Theknopsofthestemandarmsofthegoldencandlestick,orratherlampstand,
oftheTabernacle(Ex25:31etc.)werethespheroidalornamentsstillrecognizableintherepresentationontheArchofTitus.2.Knopsalsodenotecertainornaments,
probablyeggorgourdshaped,carvedonthecedarliningofthewallsofSolomonsTemple(1K6:18noteRVm),andsimilarornamentsonthebrazensea
(7:24).
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
KNOWLEDGE
I.HUMANKNOWLEDGE
1.IntheOT.Knowledge,sofarasithasatheologicaluse,ismoralratherthanintellectual.ItisassumedthataknowledgeofGodispossible,butthisisthe
resultofarevelationofHimselfbyGod,andnotaspeculativeknowledgeachievedbyman.Soknowledgebecomespracticallyequivalenttoreligion(Ps25:14,Is
11:2),andignorancetoirreligion(1S2:12,Hos4:1,6:6).TheMessianicageistobringknowledge,butthiswillbetaughtofGod(Is
54:13).ThisknowledgeofGodisthereforequiteconsistentwithspeculativeignoranceabouttheuniverse(Job38,39).PerhapssomeexpressionsintheNTwhich
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54:13).ThisknowledgeofGodisthereforequiteconsistentwithspeculativeignoranceabouttheuniverse(Job38,39).PerhapssomeexpressionsintheNTwhich
seemtorefertoGnosticideasmaybeexplainedbythisviewofknowledge.
2.IntheNT.(a)IntheGospelsknowledgeisspokenofinthesamesenseasintheOT.ChristalonepossessestheknowledgeofGod(Mt11:2527).This
knowledgegivesanewrelationtoGod,andwithoutitmanisstillindarkness(Mt5:8,Jn7:17,17:3).(b)InSt.PaulsEpistles.IntheearlierEpistlesknowledgeis
spokenofasagiftoftheSpirit(1Co1:30,2,
12:8),althoughGodcantoacertainextentbeknownthroughnature(Ac14:7,Ro1:19,20).1Cor.especiallyurgesthesubordinationofknowledgetocharity.In
Col2and1Ti6:20awrongkindofknowledgeisspokenofperhapsanearlyformofGnosticism.Trueknowledge,however,centresinChrist,whoisthemystery
ofGod(Col2:2).InHimallquestionsfindtheiranswer,andthisknowledgeisnot,likeGnosticism,thepropertyofafew,butisintendedforallmen(Col1:28).In
thePastoralEpp.knowledgeisspokenofwithreferencetoadefinitebodyofacceptedteaching,whichisrepeatedlyalludedtoitis,however,notmerely
intellectualbutmoral(Tit1:1).(c)IntheotherNTbooksknowledgeisnotprominent,exceptin2Peter,where,however,thereisnothingspeciallycharacteristic.In
Hebrewstheordinarywordforknowledgedoesnotoccuratall,butthemainobjectoftheEpistleistocreateandconfirmacertainkindofChristianknowledge.
AlthoughknowledgeinbothOTandNTisalmostalwaysmoral,thereisnotraceoftheSocraticdoctrinethatvirtueisknowledge.
II.DIVINEKNOWLEDGE.ItisnotnecessarytoshowthatperfectknowledgeisascribedtoGodthroughouttheScriptures.InsomeOTbooksJobandsome
PsalmstheignoranceofmanisemphasizedinordertobringGodsomniscienceintorelief(cf.alsothepersonificationoftheDivineWisdomintheBooksof
ProverbsandWisdom).
III.DIVINEANDHUMANKNOWLEDGEINCHRIST.ThequestionhasbeenmuchdebatedhowDivineandhumanknowledgecouldcoexistinChrist,andwhether
inHishumannatureHewascapableofignorance.Itisaquestionthathasoftenbeenarguedonapriorigrounds,butitshouldratherbeconsideredwithreference
totheevidenceintherecordsofHislife.TheGospelscertainlyattributetoChristanextraordinaryandapparentlyasupernaturalknowledge.Butevensupernatural
illuminationisnotnecessarilyDivineconsciousness,andtheGospelrecordsalsoseemtoattributetoourLordsuchlimitationsofknowledgeasmaybesupposedto
makepossibleareallyhumanexperience.1.Therearedirectindicationsofordinarylimitations.Headvancedinwisdom(Lk2:52)Heaskedforinformation(Mk
6:38,8:5,9:21,Lk8:30,Jn11:34)Heexpressedsurprise(Mk6:38,8:5,9:21,Jn11:34).Hisuseofprayer,andespeciallytheprayerinthegarden(Mt26:39)and
thewordsuponthecross(Mk15:34),pointinthesamedirection.2.WithregardtoonepointourLordexpresslydisclaimedDivineknowledge(Mk13:32).3.In
theFourthGospel,whileclaimingunitywiththeFather,HespeaksofHisteachingasderivedfromtheFatherunderthelimitationsofahumanstate(Jn3:34,5:19,
20,8:28,12:49,50).4.Whilespeakingwithauthority,andinawaywhichprecludesthepossibilityoffallibilityinthedeliveranceoftheDivinemessage,Henever
enlargedourstoreofnaturalknowledge,physicalorhistorical.IfitbetruethatChristlivedunderlimitationsinrespectoftheuseofHisDivineomniscience,thisis
apartoftheselfemptyingwhichHeundertookforusmenandforoursalvation(seeKENOSIS).
J.H.MAUDE.
KOA.ApeopleassociatedwithPekodandShoa(Ezk23:23),probably,therefore,abyformofKut(alsoGutium),oftenmentionedinAssyr.inscriptionsin
thesamecompany.TheirseatlayN.E.ofBabylonia,inthemountainsbetweentheupperAdhemandtheDijl.Cf.KIR.C.H.W.JOHNS.
KOHATH,KOHATHITES.AlthoughtheoriginofthenameLeviisdoubtful,andscholarsarestilluncertainwhetherornotitwasthenameofatribebefore
Levitewasadescriptivetermdenotingonewhowastrainedinpriestlyduties,thereisnodoubtthatthetermLevitehadthismeaningasearlyastheperiodofthe
Judges(seeJg17:7,8,13).AndinprocessoftimeeverymemberoftheLeviticalorpriestlycastetracedhisdescentthroughonelineoranothertoLevi.These
genealogiesmusthavebeeninthemakingbeforetheExile,butwereafterwardsstereotypedandreducedtosystembythepriestlyschool.ThenameKohathis
foundnowhereexceptinPandChronicles.ThethreemaindivisionsofLevitesborethenamesofGershon,Kohath,andMerari,andtheseareaccordinglygivenas
thenamesofthesonsofLevi
(Gn46:11,Ex6:16,Nu3:17,1Ch6:1,16,23:6).Theseconddivisionisdescribedeitherasthe
Kohathites(Nu3:27,30,4:18,34,37,10:21,26:57,Jos21:4,11,1Ch6:33,54,9:32,2Ch
20:18,29:12)orthesonsofKohath(Ex6:18,Nu3:19,29,4:2,4,15,7:9,Jos21:5,20,26,1Ch6:2,18,22,61,66,70,15:5,23:12).Theseweresubdivided
intofourgroups,theAmramites,theIzharites,theHebronites,andtheUzzielites(Nu3:27),eachbeingtracedtoasonofKohath(Ex6:18,Nu3:19,1Ch6:2,18,
23:12).Fromthesefamiliesfragmentsofgenealogiesremain.
Amramisofpeculiarimportance,becausehischildrenwereAaronandMoses(Ex6:20,1Ch23:1317)andKorah,asonofIzhar,wasnotoriousinpriestly
tradition(Nu16).SeeKORAH,
DATHAN,ABIRAM.
TheimportanceofthesefamiliesaftertheExilewassmall,withtheexceptionofthepriestswhotracedtheirdescentfromAaron.SomeKohathitesarenamedas
appointedtohumbleoffices(1Ch9:10,8f.,Ezr2:42,Neh12:25).ButthetendencyoftheperiodtoidealizeancienthistoryledthePrlestlywriters,includingthe
Chronicler,toconstructnarrativesinwhichtheeponymousancestorsoftheLeviticalfamiliesplayedaprominentpartsee1Ch9:19.(1)Duringthedesert
wanderingstheKohathiteswereonthesouthsideoftheTent(Nu3:30),andtheycarriedthescreenofthesanctuaryanditsfurniture,afterithadbeenpreparedfor18/19
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Chronicler,toconstructnarrativesinwhichtheeponymousancestorsoftheLeviticalfamiliesplayedaprominentpartsee1Ch9:19.(1)Duringthedesert
wanderingstheKohathiteswereonthesouthsideoftheTent(Nu3:30),andtheycarriedthescreenofthesanctuaryanditsfurniture,afterithadbeenpreparedfor
travelbythegreatestofallthedescendantsofKohathAaronandhissons(3:31,4:418,10:21)theywereprivilegedtocarrytheirburdenupontheirshoulders
(7:9),insteadofinwaggons,astheGershonitesandMeraritestheyweresuperintendedbyEleazar,Aaronsson(4:16).(2)Afterthesettlementin
Palestine,23citieswereassignedtothem(Jos21:4f.,1826=1Ch6:5761,6770).(3)In
DavidsreigntheChroniclerrelatesthattheTemplemusicwasmanagedpartlybyHeman,a
Kohathite,andhisfamily(1Ch6:3138,16:41f.,25:1,45,13,16,18,20,22f.,2531andsee
15:8,810,17,19).DaviddividedtheLevitesintocoursesaccordingtothesonsofLevi(23:6
Kohathitesvv.1220,24:2025)andparticularofficesofKohathitesarestatedin26:19,1215,1719,2331.(4)UnderJehoshaphattheyledthesongofpraise
atthebattleofEngedi(2Ch20:19).(5)UnderHezekiahtheytookpartinthecleansingoftheTemple(29:12,14).
A.H.MNEILE.
KOHELETH.SeeECCLESIASTES.
KOLAIAH.1.ThefatherofthefalseprophetAhab(Jer29:21).2.ThenameofaBenjamitefamilywhichsettledinJerusalemaftertheCaptivity(Neh11:7).
KON(Jth4:4).AnunknowntownofPalestine(AV,followingadifferentreading,thevillages).
KOPH.ThenineteenthletteroftheHebrewalphabet,andassuchemployedinthe119thPsalmtodesignatethe19thpart,eachverseofwhichbeginswith
thisletter.
KORAH,KORAHITES.1.Korahisthenameofaduke,sonofEsauandAbolibamah,namedinGn36:5,14,18,andthereforeanEdomite.2.AKorahalso
appearsin1Ch2:43asasonofHebronanddescendantofCaleb,theKenizzite,i.e.Edomite.3.In1Ch9:19,31.wehearofabenKorahandofaKorahite,the
Korahitesbeingfurtherdesignatedasdoorkeepers.Combiningthevariousnotes,wegatherthatthesonsofKorahwereofEdomiteextraction,wereincorporated
amongtheLevites,andformedaTempleguild.Moreover,Pss4249and84,85,87,88bearthesuperscriptiontothesonsofKorah.Theyshare,therefore,
withthesonsofAsaphthehonourofformingtheTemplechoir.Butwhethertheyrose(orfell)frombeingdoorkeeperstobeingsingers,orviceversa,itis,inour
ignoranceofmostofthedetailsoftheworshipofthefirstTemple,impossibletosay.NorcanwesayhowitwasthattheguildsofAsaphandKorahcametobe
transformedintotheguildsofHeman,Asaph,andEthan.Seealsonextarticle.W.F.COBB.
KORAH,DATHAN,ABIRAM.ThestoryoftherebellionofKorah,ascontainedinNu16:17,isnowcombinedwithwhatwasoriginallyanentirelydifferent
narrativethatoftheresistanceofDathanandAbiram,whowerelaymen,tothecivilauthorityofMoses.RefusingtoobeyMosessummonstoappearbefore
him,DathanandAbiram,alongwiththeirhouseholds,wereswallowedupbytheearth(Nu16:1b,2b7a,1215,25f.,27b34[JE]).ThestoryofKorahproper
containstwostrata,theworkofPriestlywritersofdifferentages.Thefirstofthese(Nu16:1a,2b7a,1824,27a,32b,35,4150ch.17)describesarevoltof
Korah,attheheadof250princesofthecongregation,againstMosesandAaron,intheinterestsofthepeopleallargeasagainstthetribeofLevi.Thematteris
decidedbythetestofthecensers,therebelsbeingconsumedbyfirefromtheLord.Thesequelisfoundinch.17theblossomingofAaronsrod.Thelatest
narrative(Nu16:7b11,16f.,3640)representsKorahattheheadof250Levites,opposing,intheinterestsofthetribeofLevi,themonopolyofthepriesthood
claimedbyAaron.Theselasttwonarrativesarememorialsofthestrugglesthattookplace,andthevariousstagesthatwerepassedthrough,beforetheprerogatives
ofLeviwereadmittedbytheothertribes,andthoseofthehouseofAaronbytheotherLeviticalfamilies.[InSir45:18andJude11AVhasCoreforKorah].
KORE.1.TheeponymofaKorahiteguildofdoorkeepers(1Ch9:19).2.Sonoflmnah,aLeviteinthetimeofHezekiah(2Ch31:14).
KUSHAIAH.SeeKISHI.
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LAADAH.AJudahite(1Ch4:21).
LABAN.1.SonofNahor(Gn29:5cf.24:47,whereBethuel,sonof,isapparentlyaninterpolation).HewasthehrotherofRebekah(24:29),fatherofLeah
andRachel(29),andthroughthemancestortothreefourthsoftheJewishnation.Hehadseveralsons(30:35,31:1),andwasfatherinlawanduncleofJacob.He
appearsfirstinScriptureasengagedinbetrothinghissisterRebekahtoIsaac(24:2830).WemeethimnextatHaranentertainingJacob(29:13,14),whohad
escapedfromhisbrotherEsau.ThedetailsofthetransactionsbetweenLabanandJacobforthefourteenyearswhilethenephewservedtheuncleforhistwo
daughtersneednotberecountedhere(seechs.29and30).AttheendoftheperiodJacobwasnotonlyhusbandofLeahandRachelandfatherofelevensons,but
alsotheownerofverymanyflocksandherds.AsLabanwasreluctanttopartwithJacob,regardinghispresenceasanassuranceofDivineblessing,thedeparture
tookplacesecretly,whileLabanwasabsentshearinghissheep.JacobremovedhispropertyacrosstheEuphrates,whileRacheltookwithhertheteraphimor
householdgodsofthefamily.WhenLabanpursuedafterthemandovertookthematMountGilead(31:32),hedidnomorethanreproachJacobforhisstealthy
flightandforhisremovaloftheteraphim,andfinallymadeacovenantofpeacebysettingupacairnofstonesandapillartheseservedasaboundarystone
betweentheAramansandtheHebrews,whichneitherweretopasswithhostileintenttotheother.
IncharacterLabanisnotpleasing,andseemstoreflectinanexaggeratedformthemorerepulsivetraitsinthecharacterofhisnephewJacobyetbeshowssigns
ofgenerousimpulsesonmorethanoneoccasion,andespeciallyatthefinalpartingwithJacob.
2.AnunknownplacementionedinDt.1:1.
T.A.MOXON.
LABANA(1Es5:29)=Ezr2:48andNeh7:48Lebana(h).
LACCUNUS(1Es9:31)=Ezr10:30Chelal.
LACE.TheEng.wordlacecomesfromLat.laqueus,asnare,andisusedinthatsenseinOldEng.Itisthenemployedforanycordorhand,andthatisits
meaninginEx28:28,37,39:2f.,31,Sir6:30.
LACEDMONIANS.In2Mac5:9wereadthatJasonfledforrefugetothe
Lacedmoniansbecausetheywerenearofkin.Thisclaimisfurthersetforthin1Mac12:2ff.cf.14:16,20f.,15:23,wherewereadofSpartaandanalliance
withtheSpartans.Itwas,ofcourse,entirelyfanciful,theHellenesandtheJewsbelongingrespectivelytotheIndoEuropeanandSemiticbranchesofthehuman
race.
A.E.HILLARD.
LACHISH.AtowninthesouthcountryofJudahreferredtoseveraltimesintheTellelAmarnatablets.IntheBiblicalrecordsitfirstappearsasjoiningthe
coalitionheadedbythekingofJerusalemagainsttheGibeonites(Jos10:3),andasbeinginconsequencereducedbyJoshua(v.31)inspiteoftheassistancegiven
toitbythekingofGezer(v.33).ItisenumeratedamongthecitiesofthetribeofJudah(15:39).Rehoboamfortifiedit(2Ch11:9).HitherAmaziah,kingofJudah,
fledfromconspirators,andherehewasmurdered(2K14:19).InthereignofHezekiah,SennacheribtookLachish,andwhilehewasquarteredthereHezekiahsent
messengerstohimtomaketerms(18:1317).SennacheribsLachishcampaigniscommemoratedbyasculpturefromNineveh,nowintheBritishMuseum.Lachish
andAzekahwerethelastcitiestostandagainstthekingofBabylon(Jer34:7).LachishwasoneofthetownssettledbythechildrenofJudahaftertheExile(Neh
11:30).MicahsdenunciationofLachishasthebeginningofsintothedaughterofZion(1:13)doubtlessreferstoincidentsofwhichwearequiteignorant.
LachishwasidentifiedbyConderwithTellelHesy,animportantmoundintheGazadistrict,whichwaspartiallyexcavatedwithsuccessbyFlindersPetrieand
BlissforthePalestineExplorationFund(18901893).Anothersiteintheneighbourhood,ofRomandate,calledUmmLakis,probablyrepresentsalaterdwellingof
therepresentativesoftheancientLachishites,andpreservesthenameofthecity.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
LADAN.1.AnameoccurringinthegenealogyofJoshua(1Ch7:26).2.AGershonitefamilyname(1Ch23:7,8,9,26:21ter.In6:17itappearsasLibni
(wh.see).
LADANUM.SeeMYRRH.
LADDER.Inancienttimesladderswereusedchieflyforscalingthewallsofabesiegedcity,asfrequentlyshownontheEgyptianandAssyrianmonuments
(Wilkinson,Anc.Egyp.i.243Layard,Nineveh,ii.372).AlthoughthisuseofthemisprobablyimpliedinPr21:22,scalingladdersarefirstexpresslymentionedin
thetimeoftheMaccabees(1Mac5:30).See
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thetimeoftheMaccabees(1Mac5:30).See
F ORTIFICATION,3,6.
Jacobsladder(Gn28:12)seemstohavebeenratheraflightofstonesteps,risinguptoheaven(Driver,Com.inloc.).
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
LAEL.AGershoniteLevite(Nu3:24).
LAHAD.AJudahitefamilyname(1Ch4:2).
LAHAIROI.SeeBEERLAHAIROI.
LAHMAM(RVmLahmas).AtownofJudah(Jos15:40),possiblymod.elLahm,near
BeitJibrn.
LAHMI.ThebrotherofGoliaththeGittite,slainbyElhananthesonofJair(1Ch20:5).Thereisadiscrepancybetweenthispassageandtheparallelpassage
in2S21:19,wherewereadthatElhanan[wh.see]theBethlehemiteslewGoliaththeGittite.IfthetextofChroniclesisthemorecorrect,thedesignation
BethlehemiteofSamuelissimplyacorruptionofthenameLahmi,buttheconversemightalsobethecase.
T.A.MOXON.
LAISH.1.TheoriginalnameofthetownofDan(Jg18:7,14,27,29).ThevariationLeshemoccursinJos19:47bis2.ThefatherofPaltiorPaltiel,towhom
Michael,Davidswife,wasgivenbySaul(1S25:44,2S3:15).
LAISHAH(Is10:30).ThenameofaplaceconnectedwithGallim,andmentionedherealongwithotherlocalitiesinBenjaminandJudah.IfGallimbeBeit
JlanearBethlehem,Laishahwouldalsobeinthatneighbourhood.
LAKKUM.AnunknowntownofNaphtali(Jos19:38).
LAMA.SeeELOI,ELOI,LAMAS ABACHTHANI.
LAMB.SeeS HEEP,andnextarticle.
LAMBOFGOD.TheIambwasthemostcommonvictimintheJewishsacrifices,andthemostfamiliartypetoaJewofanofferingtoGod.Thetitlethelamb
ofGod(i.e.thelambgivenorprovidedbyGodcf.Gn22:8)isappliedbyJohntheBaptisttoJesusinJn1:29,38.ThesymbolismwhichtheBaptistintendedcan
beinferredfromthesymbolicallusionstothelambintheOT.ThusinJer11:19theprophetcompareshimselftoalamb,asthetypeofguilelessnessandinnocence.
Again,inIs53:7(apassagewhichexercisedgreatinfluenceontheMessianichopeoftheJews,andisdefinitelyreferredtoChristinAc8:32)thelambisusedas
thetypeofvicarioussuffering.ItseemsbeyonddoubtthatthesetwoideasmusthavebeenintheBaptistsmind.Itisalsoquitepossibletoseeinthephrasea
referencetothelambwhichformedpartofthedailysacrificeintheTempleandalso,perhaps,anallusiontothePaschallambwhichwouldsoonbeofferedatthe
approachingPassover(Jn2:18),andwhichwasthesymbolofGodsdeliverance.CertainlythisistheideaunderlyingtheexpressionsinJn19:36and1P1:19.
ThusallthesestrataofthoughtmaybetracedintheBaptiststitle,viz.innocence,vicarioussuffering,sacrifice,redemption.
Thelambisused27timesintheApocalypseasthesymbolofChrist,andonthefirstintroductionoftheterminRev5:6thewriterspeaksspecificallyofaIamb
asthoughithadbeenslain.ThetermusedintheGreekoriginalisnotthesameasthatfoundintheBaptistsphrase,buttheconnexionisprobablysimilar.Itseems
mostlikelythatthesacrificialandredemptivesignificanceofthelambisthatespeciallyintendedbytheApocalypticauthor.
ThespecifictitletheIambofGodmaybeaninventionoftheBaptistsown,whichheusedtopointanaspectoftheMessianicmissionforhishearersbenefit,
oritmayhavebeenawellknownphrasecurrentlyemployedtodesignatetheMessiahwehavenotraceofsuchanearlieruse,butitmayhaveexisted(seeWestcott
onJn1:29).
A.W.F.BLUNT.
LAME,LAMENESS.SeeMEDICINE,p.599b.
LAMECH.Thenameapparentlyoftwopeopleintheantediluvianperiod,theonebelongingtotheCainiteandtheothertotheSethitegenealogy.1.Thefifth
descendantfromCain(Gn4:1824).Heseemstohavebeenamanofimportanceintheearlylegend,asthenamesofhistwowives(AdahandZillah),histhree
sons(Jabal,Jubal,andTubalcain),andhisdaughter(Naamah)areallmentioned.Specialinterestisattachedtohimonaccountofhissong
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sons(Jabal,Jubal,andTubalcain),andhisdaughter(Naamah)areallmentioned.Specialinterestisattachedtohimonaccountofhissong
AdahandZillah,hearmyvoice
YewivesofLamech,hearkenuntomyspeech:ForIhaveslainamanforwoundingme,Andayoungmanfor
bruisingme:
IfCainshallbeavengedsevenfold,
TrulyLamechseventyandsevenfold.
Themeaningofthissonghasbeenthesubjectofmuchconjecture.Thesongisclearlyoneofexultation,andithasnotunnaturallybeenassociatedwiththefact
thatTubalcainhissonisspeciallymentionedastheforgerofeverycuttinginstrument.JeromerelatestheJewishlegendthatLamechaccidentallyslewCain,but
forthis,ofcourse,thereisnofoundation.Ithasbeensuggested(Lightfoot,DecasChorogr.Marc,praem.iv.)thatthereferenceistothefactthatLamech,asthe
firstpolygamist,introducedgreaterdestructionintotheworldthanCain.R.H.KennettseesinthesongadeprecationofbloodguiltinessIncurredbythefactthat
Lamech,asatribalchieftain,hasavengedaninsultofaboybyslayinghim.
Apossiblevariantrenderingmightbementioned:Iwouldhaveslain(orIwillslay)anymanwhowoundsme.ifthisisaccepted,itmateriallyaltersthesense.
2.ThefatherofNoah(Gn5:29).Itisnowcommonlybelieved,owingtotheidentityofsomenamesandthesimilarityofothersinthetwogenealogies,thatthey
aremerelydifferentversionsofoneoriginallist.
T.A.MOXON.
LAMENTATIONS,BOOKOF
1.Occasion.InB.C.586NebuchadnezzarcapturedJerusalem,putouttheeyesofZedekiah,slewtheprinces,burnedtheTempleandpalaces,razedthe
walls,anddeportedtheinhabitants(savesomeofthepoorestsort)toforcedlabourinBabylon(2K25).Theseeventsandtheirreligiousmeaningarethethemeof
thefivecompletehymnsintheBookofLamentations.ThepoetlookedonthesecalamitiesasthedeathoftheJewishpeopleandhepreparesanelegyforthe
nationalfuneral.
2.Date.ItneednotbesupposedthatJeremiahwentaboutcomposingacrosticswhile
Jerusalemwasburningontheotherhand,thelanguageofthepoemsisnotthatofsomeRabbinicalversifierafterNehemiahstime.BetweenthedesolationofB.C.
586andtherestorationofB.C.536isthetimelimitfortheproductionofthisbook.
3.Form.TheformoftheseelegieshasbeenrecognizedtobethetypeofHebrewpoetrywhichispeculiartothrenody.Itsmetricalcharacterdependsonthe
structureofthesingleline.ThelinehasnottheexactmeasureofaLatinhexameterorpentameter,butconsistsoffivetosevenwords,makingonanaverageeleven
syllables.Thelineisdividedbysenseandgrammarintotwounequalparts,as6:5or4:3thefirstpartbeingmoreemphaticinsense,andthesecondformingan
antiphonalsupplementtothefirst.Thus1:1
Ahnow!shesitsalonethepopulouscity,
Husbandlessdoomedtobetheforemostofpeoples.
Oncetheprincessoverstatesaserfinagang.
Suchistheqnhmetre,foundalsoinpartsofAmos,Isaiah,andEzekiel.
4.Arrangement.TheseHebrewelegiacsmaystandsingly,asinLa3,orintwolinedstanzas,asinch.4,orinthreelinedstanzas,asinchs.1and2.But
thereisalsoinLam.amoreartificialembellishment.The22stanzasofchs.1,2,and4areintroducedbythe22lettersoftheHebrewalphabetinregularorder,
exceptthat2and4placetheletterPebeforetheletterAyin.Thisinexplicablevariationintheorderofthelettershasbeenheldtoimplyadifferenceinauthorship.
Againch.3has66verses,thelinesbeginningaaabbb,etc.Ch.5has22verses,butnoacrosticanditslinesareofaslightlydifferentstructure.Asthischapterisa
prayer,theseexternalmarksmayhavebeenfelttobeinappropriate.ThepoeticformofLam.isthustheresultofelaborateeffortbutthisneednotimplythe
absenceofgenuinefeeling.Thecalamityinremembranceseemedtocallforanadequateformofexpression,andtoinvitetheresourcesoftechnicalskill.
5.Contents.Thecontentsofthefivehymnsarenotpervadedbyclearlinesofthoughtbutthenatureofthesubjectforbidsustolookfortheconsistencyof
ageometricaltheorem.Thecruelscenes,thepityandhorrortheyoccasioned,thereligiousperplexityatthecourseofevents,aredepictedsometimesbythepoet
himself,againbyJerusalem,orbythepersonifiedcommunity.Ch.1describestheruinofJerusalemandthehumiliationoftheexilesvv.111inthewordsofthe
poet,whilethecityitselfspeaksinvv.1222.ThesecondhymnfindsthestingoftheirsufferingsinthefactthattheyareinflictedbyJehovah,theirancient
defender.Ch.3,thetriumphsongofethicaloptimism,recountsthenationalmisery(vv.118),perceivesthepurposeofJehovahintheircalamities(vv.1947),
andcallsthepeopletopenitence(vv.4866).Ch.4contraststhepasthistoryofZionwithitspresentcondition,andch.5isaprayerformercyandrenewalof
ancientblessings.ThehopeforJudahwasthecompassionoftheLordthereforeletussearchandtryourwaysandturnagaintotheLord(3:40).Itformsa
curiouscontrasttotheconsolationofferedtoAthensinherdeclineandfallthroughthecomediesofAristophanes.
6. Authorship.NoauthorisnamedinLam.itself.In2Ch35:25wereadthatJeremiahlamentedforJosiah,andallthesingingmenandsingingwomen 3/48
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/l.htm
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6.Authorship.NoauthorisnamedinLam.itself.In2Ch35:25wereadthatJeremiahlamentedforJosiah,andallthesingingmenandsingingwomen
spakeofJosiahuntothisdayandtheymadethemanordinanceinIsrael:andbeholdtheyarewritteninthelamentations.Thisstatementis300yearslaterthanthe
fallofJerusalemandLam.hasnothingtodowithJosiah.ButitascribesstandardelegiestoJeremiah.TheLXX,followedbytheVulgateandotherversions,names
JeremiahtheprophetastheauthorofLam.andthisviewprevaileduniversallytillrecenttimes.InternalevidencehasbeenconsideredunfavourabletoJeremiahs
authorship.Thealphabeticform,afewpeculiarwords,anaffinityinchs.2and4withEzekiel,inchs.1and5withtheyoungerIsaiah,andinch.3withlatePsalms,
theaccumulationofpictorialmetaphors,thedenialofvisiontoprophets,therelianceonEgypt(4:17),aregiven(Lhr,Com.)asconclusiveobjectionstoJeremiahs
beingthewriter.Buttheacrosticformwouldthenhavethecharmofnovelty,andwouldbeusefulasamnemonicforprofessionalmournersanditisnotprophecy
towhichitishereattached.Theaffinitieswithlaterbooksarenotverymarked,andmayheduetoderivationfromtheelegies.Andthereisavowedlymuch
resemblanceinvocabularyandthoughtbetweenJeremiahandLamentations.Bothtracedisastertothesinofthenation,bothdeprecatetrustinalliances,andboth
inculcatepenitenceandhope.ProbablytheinternalevidenceoriginatedthetraditionalviewthatJeremiahwastheauthorandthenewerscrutinyoftheevidence
seemshardlysufficienttodisprovetheverdictoftheancients.
Againitisasked,Wouldoneauthormakefiveindependentpoemsononeandthesamesubject?Ifseveralauthorstreatedthethemeindependently,itisnot
likelythattheirworkwouldhearjuxtapositionsowellasthecollectioninLamentations.Jeremiahslifeendedsome6or7yearsaftertheCaptivitybeganand5:20
impliesalongerintervalsincethedevastation.Ifweassign,withThenius,chs.2and4toJeremiah,andsupposethatsomedisciplesoftheprophetimitatedhis
modelin1,3,and5,thenperhapsthedifferencesandsimilaritiesintheseveralhymnsmaybeaccountedfor.WhenJerusalemwasdestroyedbyTitusinA.D.70,
therewasnonewqnhtheelegiesseemtopresupposeapersonalityofJeremiahstypeastheiroriginator.
7.Names.TheHebrewnameofLam.isEkhh(Howl),thefirstwordinthebook.ItisalsocalledQnthorElegies.TheLXXhasThrenoi(Ieremiou)
Vulg.,Threni,idestlamentationesJeremiprophet,andthisisthesourceoftheEnglishtitle.
8.PositionintheCanon.InHebrewBiblesLam.isplacedinthethirddivisionoftheOTCanon.ItsplaceisgenerallyinthemiddleofthefiveMegilloth,
betweenRuthandEcclesiastes.
TheJewsrecitethebookontheBlackFast(9thofAb)theanniversaryofthedestructionofJerusalem.IntheGreekOTandtheotherversionsLam.isattachedto
thepropheciesofJeremiah,inaccordancewiththecurrentbeliefinhisauthorship.
D.M.KAY.
LAMP.1.Theearliestilluminanteverywherewassuppliedbypiecesofresinouswood.SuchprobablywerethetorchesofGideonsadventure(Jg7:16,20
RVforAVlamps)andotherpassages.Thereisnoevidenceofanythingofthenatureofourcandles,whichisafrequentAVrenderingoftheordinaryHeb.word
(nr)forlamp,nowintroducedthroughoutbyRVexceptinZeph1:12(butAmer.RVherealsolamp).Theunearthingofthousandsoflampsinthecourseof
recentPalestineexploration,sometimesasmanyastwoorthreehundredfromasinglegrave,hasmadeitpossibletotracethedevelopmentofthelampfromearly
preIsraelitetoByzantinetimes.Onlythebarestoutlinecanbeattemptedhere.
2.Twomainstagesinthisdevelopmenthavetoberecognized,thefirstthatoftheopen,thesecondthatoftheclosed,lamp.(a)Theearliestformfoundinpre
Israelitestrataisthatoftheplainopenclaylampintheshapeofashell,orshallowbowl,withroundedbottom.Itisdistinguishedfromthelaterformofopenlamp
byhavingtherimonlyslightlypinchedalongaboutonethirdofitscircumference,tokeepthewickinposition.(b)Inthelaterformsjustreferredto,whichare
thoseofthelateCanaaniteandearlyHebrewperiods,thelipsaredrawnmuchmorecloselytogether,soastoformanelongatedspout,asmaybeseenintheillust.
inHastingsDBiii.24,fig.1BlissandMacalister,ExcavationsinPalestine(inthesequelcitedas
BMExc.),plate66Bliss,MoundofManyCities,87.Fortypesof(a)and(b)sidebyside,seePEFSt,1904,327.(c)Thenextstepapparentlywastosubstituteaflat
basefortheroundedformsof(a)and(b).ThistypeofopenlamphascontinuedinusetothepresentdayincertainpartsofSyria.
3.Theintroductionoftheclosedlampcannotasyetbedatedwithcertainty,butisprobablyduetoWesterninfluence.AccordingtoBliss(BMExc.130),by
Seleucidantimestheopenlampappearslargelytohavegivenwaytotheclosedlamp.(a)Theearlierspecimensofthistypeconsistofacircularbowlclosedatthe
top,withtheexceptionofaroundopeningforpouringintheoil,withaflatorconcavebase.Theyarefurthercharacterizedbytheirlongtapering,andsometimes
straight,spout,whichformsadistinctanglewiththebowl.Theselampsareentirelywithoutornament,and,likealltheothers,withouthandles.(b)Thelaterclosed
lamps,ontheotherhand,havetheiruppersurfaceornamentedwithanendlessvarietyofdesign,rangingfromsimplelinesthroughchevrons,spirals,etc.,toanimal
forms.Numerousspecimensof(a)and(b)areillustratedinBMExc.pl.62,63.ForatypicallampoftheMaccabanperiod,seePEFSt,1904,348,pl.iii.No.5.
ThismaybeassumedtohavebeentheprevailingtypeoflampinNTtimes.
4.ManyofthespecimenshithertogivenasillustrationsofthelampsofOTarereallyofearlyChristianorevenByzantinedate.AtypicalByzantineformis
giveninBMExc.pl.66,No.6.Thistypeisdistinguishedfromthepreviousclosedtypebythefactthatthecurveofthebodyiscontinuouswiththetopofthe
spout,givingagenerallyovalshape.SeethecollectionsillustratedPEFSt,1892,1251904,plateiii1905,150.
5.Inadditiontothenormallampwithasinglewick,theexcavationsinnorthernandsouthernPalestinehavebroughttolightnumerousspecimensofmultiple
lamps,afavouriteformofwhichconsistedofabowl,havingitsrimpinchedintothree,four,orsevenspouts(seeBMExc.pl.66).Asinotherlands,thePalestinian
pottersometimesgavehislamptheshapeofananimal,suchastheremarkableclayduckfromGezerdescribedandillustratedinPEFSt,1903,40.
Thefavouritematerialinallageswasclay.Agoodspecimenofabronzelampwithahandle,fromtheGreekperiod,isshowninBMExc.60.Silverlampsare
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Thefavouritematerialinallageswasclay.Agoodspecimenofabronzelampwithahandle,fromtheGreekperiod,isshowninBMExc.60.Silverlampsare
mentionedinJth10:22.ThoseoftheTabernacleandTemplewereofgold.Theusualilluminantwastheoiloftheoliveotheroils,includingnaphtha,arenamedin
theMishna(Shabbath,ii.1ff.),wheremaybefound,also,alistofthesubstancesforwicksinadditiontotheordinarywickoftwistedflax(Is42:3RVm),andother
detailsregardingthehouseholdlamp.
6.Inthepoorerhousesthelampwasplaced,asitstillis,inanicheinthewall.Itisinthecaseofagreatwomanthatwefirsthearofalampstandinaprivate
house.Lampstandsofstone,about30inchesinheight,havebeenfoundintherecentexcavationsinCreteoneoflimestoneisfiguredinBliss,Mound,etc.104,
fromLachish.ThecandlestickofAV,which,strangelyenough,isretainedinRV(exceptinMt5:15,wherestandissubstituted),isofcoursealampstand.Forthe
elaboratelampstandsorcandlesticksoftheTabernacleandtheTempleseethosearticles.Aninterestingspecimenofalampwithsevenspoutsandstandinone
piecewasfoundbySellinatTaanach(illust.inhisEineNachlese,etc.22Benzinger,Heb.Arch.2[1907]99).
Inancienttimes,asatthepresentday,itwascustomarytokeepthehouseholdlampcontinuallyalight,hencethefigurein1K11:36,2K8:19conversely,the
puttingoutofthelampofthewicked(Job18:8[AVcandle],Pr13:9)denotestheirutterextinction.
Forarecentlydiscovered,andstillobscure,earlyriteinwhichlampsandbowlsplayedanessentialpart,seeHouse,3andforalaterrite,seeDEDICATION
[F EASTOF].
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
LAMPSACUS(1Mac15:23RVm).SeeS AMPSAMES.
LANCE,LANCET.TheformeronlyJer50,52,RVspear,butHeb.iskdn,henceratherjavelinthelatteronly1K18:28,RVlance,Heb.rmach.For
boththeseweapons,seeARMOURANDARMS,1.
LANDCROCODILE(Lv11:30RV).SeeCHAMELEONandLIZARD.
LANDMARK.Theword(gebl)sorenderedmustnotbeidentifiedoffhand,asisusuallydone,withthekudurruorboundarystoneoftheBabylonians,for
thefundamentalpassage,Dt19:14,Thoushaltnotremovethyneighbourslandmark,whichtheyofoldtimehaveset,shouldratherberendered:Thoushaltnot
remove(orsetback)thyneighboursboundary,whichtheyhavedrawn.UndertheoldHebrewsystemofthecultivationincommonofthevillageland,the
boundariesoftheplotsmayhavebeenindicatedasatthepresentdaybyafurrowdoubleinwidthtotheordinaryone,ateachendofwhichastoneissetup,
calledtheboundarystone(PEFSt,1894,p.195f.).TheformoflandgrabbingbysettingbackaneighboursboundarylinemusthavebeencommoninOTtimes,
tojudgebythefrequentreferencesto,andcondemnationsof,thepractice(Dt19:14,27:17,Hos5:10,Pr22:28,23:10,Job24:2).
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
LANGUAGEOFOTANDAPOCRYPHA.SeeTEXTVERSIONSANDLANGUAGESOFOT.
LANGUAGEOFTHENT.TheobjectofthisarticleistogiveageneralnontechnicalaccountoftheGreekinwhichtheNTiswritten.Itshouldbestatedat
theoutsetthatthestandpointofscholarshipinregardtothissubjecthasmateriallyalteredsinceProf.Thayerwrotehisexcellentarticleinvol.iii.oftheDB.Weshall
thereforebrieflystatethenatureofourchangeinview,andthendescribetheNTGreekaswenowregardit,withoutfurtherreferencetooldertheories.
1.Theoldview.IneveryageofNTstudy,scholarshavebeenstruckbythefactthatitsGreektoalargeextentstandsalone.Itdiffersimmenselyfromthe
languageofthegreatclassicsoftheperiodwhichwasclosedsomefourcenturiesearlier,andnotmuchlessfromthatofpostclassicalwritersofitsowntime,even
whenthosewriterswerePalestinianJews,aswasJosephus.Duringthe17thcent.thePuristschoolsoughttominimizethesedifferences,holdingthatdeviation
fromthepurityofclassicstandardswasaflawintheperfectionoftheinspiredBook,whichmustatallcostsbeclearedaway.But,exceptforsucheccentricitiesof
learning,theeffortsofscholarsingeneralweresteadilydirectedtowardstheestablishmentofsomerationaleforthisisolationofwhatRothecalledthelanguageof
theHolyGhost.TwoexcellentreasonswerefoundforthepeculiaritiesofNTGreek.(1)NTwritersweresteepedinthelanguageoftheGreekOT,atranslation
whichlargelyfollowedtheHebreworiginalwithslavishliteralness.Aspecialreligiousphraseologywasthuscreated,whichnotonlycontributedalargenumberof
formsfordirectquotation,butalsosuppliedmodelsforthegeneralstyleofreligiouswriting,muchasthestyleofmodernsermonsordevotionalbooksismodelled
upontheEnglishoftheBible.(2)ThewritersweremostlyJewswhousedAramaic(alanguagecloselyrelatedtoHebrew)intheirdailylife.When,therefore,they
thoughtandwroteinGreek,theywerepronetotranslateliterallyfromtheirnativetongueandAramaismsthusinfectedtheGreek,sidebysidewiththe
HebraismswhichcamefromtheLXX.ThedegreetowhicheitheroftheseclassesofSemitismwasadmittedtoaffectparticularwordsorgrammatical
constructionsintheGreekNTnaturallydifferedinthejudgmentofdifferentwritersbutevenThayer,whowroteafterthenewlightshadalreadybeguntoappear,
showsnoreadinesstoabandonthegeneralthesisthattheNTGreekliesoutsidethestreamofprogressinthedevelopmentoftheGreeklanguage,andmustbe
judgedbyprinciplesofitsown.
2. Newerviews.Thecreditofinitiatingamostfarreachingchangeofview,thefullconsequencesofwhichareonlybeginningtoberealized,belongstoa
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2.Newerviews.Thecreditofinitiatingamostfarreachingchangeofview,thefullconsequencesofwhichareonlybeginningtoberealized,belongstoa
brilliantGermantheologian,AdolfDeissmann.HisattentionhavingbeenaccidentallycalledtoavolumeoftranscriptsfromtheEgyptianpapyrirecentlyaddedto
theBerlinMuseum,hewasimmediatelystruckbytheirfrequentpointsofcontactwiththevocabularyofNTGreek.Hereadthroughseveralcollectionsofpapyri,
andofcontemporaryGreekinscriptions,andin1895and1897publishedthetwovolumesofhisBibleStudies(Eng.tr.inonevolume,1901).Mainlyonthe
groundofvocabulary,butnotwithoutreferencetogrammarandstyle,heshowedthattheisolationofNTGreekcouldnolongerbemaintained.Furtherstudyofthe
papyriheused,andoftheimmensemassesofsimilardocumentswhichhavebeenpublishedsince,especiallybytheexplorersofOxfordandBerlin,confirmshis
thesisandextendsittothewholefieldofgrammar.Toputthenewviewsintotwostatements(1)TheNTiswritteninthespokenGreekofdailylife,whichcanbe
provedfrominscriptionstohavedifferedbutlittle,asfoundinnearlyeverycorneroftheRomanEmpireinthefirstcentury.(2)WhatispeculiarinBiblicalGreek
liesinthepresenceofboldlyliteraltranslationsfromHebrewOTorAramaicsources:eventhis,however,seldomgoesbeyondclumsyandunidiomatic,but
perfectlypossible,Greek,andisgenerallyrestrictedtotheinordinateuseofcorrectlocutionswhichwererareintheordinaryspokendialect.TheEgyptiannon
literarypapyriofthethreecenturiesbeforeandafterChrist,withtheinscriptionsofAsiaMinor,theganislandsandGreeceduringthesameperiod,though
thesemustbeusedwithcautionbecauseoftheliteraryelementwhichofteninvadesthem,supplyusthereforewiththelongdesideratedparallelforthelanguage
oftheNT,bywhichwemustcontinuallytestanexegesistoomuchdominatedhithertobythethoughtofclassicalGreekorSemiticidiom.
3.HistoryanddiffusionoftheGreeklanguage.Atthispoint,then,weshouldgiveahistoryoftheworldGreekofNTtimes.AsisterlanguageofSanskrit,
Latin,Slavonic,German,andEnglish,andmostotherdialectsofmodernEurope,GreekcomesbeforeusearliestintheHomericpoems,theoldestpartsofwhich
maygohacktothe10thcent.B.C.Smallthoughthecountrywas,thelanguageofGreecewasdividedintomoredialects,anddialectsperhapsmorewidely
differing,thanEnglishinthereignofAlfred.FewofthesedialectsgavebirthtoanyliteratureandtheintellectualprimacyofAthensbytheendoftheclassical
period(4thcent.B.C.)wassofarabovedisputethatitsdialect,theAttic,becameforallfuturetimetheonlypermittedmodelforliteraryprose.WhenAtticasa
spokenlanguagewasdead,itwasenforcedbyrigidgrammariansastheonlycorrectspeechforeducatedpeople.Postclassicalproseaccordingly,whilevarying
intheextenttowhichcolloquialelementsinvadethepurityofitsartificialidiom,isalwaysmoreorlessdominatedbytheefforttoavoidtheGreekofdailylife
whileintheNT,onthecontrary,itisonlytwoorthreewriterswhoadmiteventoasmallextentastyledifferingfromthatusedincommonspeech.Meanwhilethe
historyofGreece,withitsendlesspoliticalindependenceandvariationofdialectbetweenneighbouringtowns,hadenteredanewphase.ThestronghandofPhilip
ofMacedonbroughtHellasunderonerulehisson,thegreatAlexander,carriedvictoriousHellenismfaroutintotheworldbeyond.Unificationofspeechwasa
naturalresult,whenGreeksfromdifferentcitiesbecamefellowsoldiersinAlexandersarmy,orfellowcolonistsinhisnewtowns.Withinaboutonegenerationwe
suddenlyfindthatacompromisedialect,whichwasbasedmainlyonAttic,butcontainedelementsfromalltheolddialects,cametobeestablishedasthelanguage
ofthenewGreekworld.ThisCommonGreek,orHellenistic,oncebroughtintobeing,remainedforcenturiesaremarkablyhomogeneousandslowlychanging
speechoverthelargerpartoftheRomanEmpire.InRomeitselfitwassowidelyspokenandreadthatSt.Paulsletterneedednotranslating,anda
LatinBiblewasfirstdemandedfarawayfromLatium.InPalestineandinLycaoniatheBookofActsgivesusclearevidenceofbilingualconditions.TheJerusalem
mob(Ac21:40,22:2)expectedSt.PaultoaddresstheminGreekthatatLystra(14:11)similarlyrevertedwithpleasuretotheirlocalpatois,buthadbeenfollowing
withoutdifficultyaddressesdeliveredinGreek.ItwastheoneperiodinthehistoryoftheEmpirewhenthegospelcouldhepreachedthroughouttheRomanworld
bythesamemissionarywithoutinterpreterortheneedoflearningforeigntongues.TheconditionsofPalestinedemandafewmorewords.Itseemsfairlyclearthat
GreekwasunderstoodandusedtheremuchasEnglishisinWalestoday.JesusandtheApostleswoulduseAramaicamongthemselves,andinaddressingthe
peopleinJudaorGalilee,butGreekwouldoftenheneededinconversationwithstrangers.TheProcuratorwouldcertainlyuse
Greek(rarelyLatin)inhisofficialdealingswiththeJews.ThereisnoreasontobelievethatanyNTwriterwhoeverlivedinPalestinelearnedGreekonlyasa
foreignlanguagewhenhewentabroad.Thedegreeofcultureingrammarandidiomwouldvary,butthelanguageitselfwasalwaysentirelyatcommand.
4.NTGreek.Wefind,aswemightexpect,thatNTGreekisageneraltermcoveringalargerangeofindividualdivergence.TheauthorofHebrewswrites
onalevelwhichwemightbestcharacterizebycomparingthepulpitstyleofaculturedextemporepreacherinthiscountryaspokenstyle,freefromartificiality
andarchaisms,butfreefromanythingreallycolloquial.ThetwoLukanbooksshowsimilarcultureintheirauthor,whousessomedistinctivelyliteraryidioms.But
St.Lukesfaithfulreproductionofhisvarioussourcesmakeshisworkuneveninthisrespect.St.PaulhandlesGreekwiththefreedomandmasteryofonewho
probablyuseditregularlyallhislife,exceptduringactualresidenceinJerusalem.Heseemsabsolutelyuninfluencedbyliterarystyle,andappliestheGreekof
commonintercoursetohishighthemes,withoutstoppingamomenttopolishadictiontheeloquenceofwhichiswhollyunstudied.Recentattemptstotraceformal
rhetoricandlawsofrhythminhiswritingshavecompletelyfailed.Attheotherendofthescale,asjudgedbyGreekculture,standstheauthoroftheApocalypse,
whosegrammarisveryincorrect,despitehiscopiousvocabularyandruggedvigourofstyle.NearlyasunschooledisSt.Mark,whooftengivesusveryliteral
translationsoftheAramaicinwhichhisstorywasfirstwonttobetoldthereseemssomereasontosuspectthatintheoldestformofhistextthisoccurredmore
frequentlystill.TheothermainGospelsource,theSayingsofJesus,showslikewisethetracesofprocessesoftranslation.Spaceforbidsanyattemptto
distinguishthepositionofalltheNTwriters,butwemaynotethatthepapyrisupplyparallelsindegreesofculturetocomparewiththeminturn,exceptsofaras
sheertranslationcomesin.
5.HelpderivedfromModernGreek,andfromreconstructedAramaicoriginals.WemustnowreturntothedevelopmenthistoryofGreektoobserve
thatitslaterstages,evenuptothepresentday,arefullofimportantcontributionstoourstudyoftheNT.TheCommonorHellenisticGreek,describedabove,is
thedirectancestorofthevernacularofmodernGreeceandtheGreekspeakingdistrictsofTurkey.Wearedailylearningmoreoftheimmensesignificanceofthis
despisedpatoisforinterpretingthesacredlanguage.HerethestudentmustcarefullyeliminatetheartificialModernGreekofAtheniannewspapersandbooks,
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despisedpatoisforinterpretingthesacredlanguage.HerethestudentmustcarefullyeliminatetheartificialModernGreekofAtheniannewspapersandbooks,
whichisuntrustworthyforthispurpose,justasistheGreekofPlutarchorJosephus.Thegenuinevernacularwithitsdialects,basedoninconsiderablelocal
variationsinHellenistic,whichmayhavenosmallweighterelongeveninourNTcriticismmaybeplacedbythesideofmodernfolkballadsandmedival
popularstoriesandsaintlegends,totakeusbacktothepapyriandinscriptions,asourlatestfoundtoolsforNTstudy.Theliterature,classicalandpostclassical,will
ofcourseretaintheplaceithasalwaysheld,whenmodernmethodshavetaughtushowtocheckitstestimony.AndComparativePhilology,withlightsonthe
meaningofcasesandtensesandmoods,maybeaddedtotheequipmentwithwhichpurelylinguisticsciencemaynowhelpforwardtheinterpretationofScripture.
AllthisisonthesideofthestudentofGreekitself.ButtheothersideofNTlanguagemustnaturallynotbeforgotten.Contributionsofgreatvaluehaverecently
beenmadetoourknowledgeoftheAramaic,inwhichnearlyallthesayingsofChristmusthavebeenuttered,andinwhichPapias(asusuallyunderstood)shows
theywerefirstwrittendown.ThepossibilityofreconstructingtosomeextenttheoriginalofourGreekGospelsourcesisdrawingnearerandthecooperationof
GreekandSemiticscholarspromisesmarkedadvancesinourknowledgeoftheverykerneloftheNT(cf.nextart.).
6.CharacteristicsofNTGreek.Afewconcludingwordsmaybegiventothegeneralcharacteristicsofthelanguagewhichhadsoprovidentiallybecome
thelanguageofthecivilizedworldjustatthetimewhenthegospelbeganitsadvance.ItusedtobefrequentlycontrastedunfavourablywiththeclassicalAttic,
whichisundeniablythemostperfectlanguagetheworldhaseverseen,fortheclearness,subtlety,andbeautywithwhichitcanexpressthought.InHellenistic
Greekthesubtlety,thesenseofrhythm,andtheliterarydelicacyhavelargelydisappeared.Buttheoldclearnessisonlyenhancedbyagreatersimplicityandthe
boundlessresourcefulnessofthelanguageimpressesuspowerfullywhenintheNTforthefirstand(practically)lasttimethecolloquialdialectofthepeoplewas
enshrinedinliterature,theauthorsofwhichwerenearlyalwaysunconsciousthattheywerecreatingliteratureatall.ThepresentationofChristianitytotheWestern
worldasasystemofthoughtcouldneverhavebeenaccomplishedinHebrew,evenifthatlanguagehadattaineduniversalcurrency.InGreekwearealways
consciousofawealthofsuggestivenesswhichnotranslationcanconvey,anaccuracyandprecisionofthoughtwhichrepaytheutmostexactnessofstudy.Thisisin
nosenselostevenwhenthesimplergrammarofthelaterlanguagebecomesthetoolofmenwhohadnoinheritanceofGreekculture.Acomparativelyelementary
knowledgeofthissimplerGreek,whichcanbeattainedwithouttouchingthecomplexstructureoftheclassicallanguage,willconstantlyrevealimportantelements
inthewritersmeaningthatarebeyondthereachofourlanguagetoconveydirectly.Inourowntimeatlastthislanguageisbeingstudiedforitsownsakeand
evenclassicalscholarsarebeginningtoallowthattherenewedyouthofGreek,underconditionswhichmakeitlargelyanewlanguage,producedaliteraturewhich
thephilologist,andnotmerelythetheologian,canadmire.
JAMESHOPEMOULTON.
LANGUAGEOFCHRIST.TherecordsofourLordswordsanddiscourseshavedescendedtousinfourGreekGospels.SomeearlyChristianwritersassert
thatSt.MatthewwroteinHebrewbuttheGreekSt.Matthewhasuniversally,andfromthefirst,beenacceptedasanauthoritativeandinspireddocument.Itisnot
improbablethatthewriterpublishedhisbookinthetwolanguages,andthattheGreekeditionalonehassurvived.Josephus,whowroteinGreek,preparedaSemitic
editionofhisWarsforthebenefitofthosewhounderstoodonlytheirvernacular.
Atthepresentday,perhaps,mostscholarswouldadmitthatthevernacularofPalestineinthetimeofourLordwasSemitic,andnotGreekbutadifferenceis
observedbetweentheirtheoryandtheirpracticeforinallkindsoftheologicalwritings,criticalaswellasdevotional,thereferencestothetextoftheGospels
constantlyassumethattheGreekwordsarethoseactuallyutteredbyourLord.ButifGreekwasnotcommonlyspokenintheHolyLand,itisimprobablethatHe
whoministeredtothecommonpeoplewouldhaveemployedanuncommontongue.ItfollowsthattheGreekwordsrecordedbytheEvangelistsarenottheactual
wordsChristspoke.WemaythinkwehavegoodgroundsforbelievingthattheyaccuratelyrepresentHisutterancesbuttoheartheoriginalsoundswemust
recover,ifthatbepossible,theSemiticvernacularwhichunderliesthetraditionalGreek.
TheevidenceastothenatureofthePalestinianvernacularmaybethusstated.InthefirstcenturyoftheChristianeratheHolyLandwaspeopledbymenof
morethanoneraceandnationality,butthereisnoreasontosupposetheyhadbeenfusedintoonepeople,withGreekfortheircommontongue.Mostofthe
inhabitantsofJudawereJews,beingdescendantsofthereturnedexiles.InGalileetherewasamixtureofracesbutthenameGalileeoftheGentileswasa
survivalofthedescriptionofanearliercondition.TheSyrianandAssyrianinvadersoftheNorthernKingdomhadpassed,thoughleavingtheirmark,andaperiod
ofJewishascendencyhadfollowed,createdbythevictoriesoftheMaccabees.TheIdumanprinces,thoughInclinedtoalliancewithRome,soughttoposeas
Judaizers.HerodtheGreat,whileinsympathywithHellenism,wasfamousasthebuilderofthethirdTemple.Thestrict,orthodoxJews,whowereopposedto
Hellenism,andcompassedseaandlandtomakeoneproselyte,wouldlosenoopportunityofreoccupyingtheirfatherland,fromJerusaleminthesouthtothenorth
ofGalilee,andwouldtakewiththemtheancientcustomsandtheancestraltongue.Samaria,however,preserveditsintegrityasaforeigncolony,withitsown
Semiticdialect.BeyondtheJordan,andintheborderlandsofthesouth,therewassomeminglingwiththeneighbouringMoabite,Iduman,andArabtribes,and
probablymanydialectswerespoken,therecordsofwhichhaveperishedforever.YettheHebrewoftheJerusalemPharisee,thelanguageoftheSamaritans,the
speechofthemenofGalilee,andthepatoisoftheborderers,wereallSemiticdialects.NoplaceisfoundforthealienspeechofGreece.Yetitmustnotbeforgotten
thatGreekwasthelanguageoftradeandliterature.Itwouldbeheardintheseaports,andintheneighbourhoodofthegreatroadsbywhichcommunicationwas
keptupthroughPalestinebetweenAsiaMinor,
Mesopotamia,andEgypt.ItwasspokenbymanyintheRomangarrisons,andwastheadoptedtongueoftheJewsoftheDispersion,whocultivatedHellenism,and
broughttheirforeigncustomstoJerusalem,whentheycametoworshiporfortemporaryresidence(seeAc6:1).ButthelanguageofthePalestinianhome,ofthe
Palestiniansynagogue,offarmers,artisans,andlabourers,aswellasofeducatedJews,whocultivatedtheancientways,wasHebrew,usingthat,termforthe
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Palestiniansynagogue,offarmers,artisans,andlabourers,aswellasofeducatedJews,whocultivatedtheancientways,wasHebrew,usingthat,termforthe
momentinasomewhatextendedsense.VerysignificantisthereferencetothevernacularinAc1:19,andtheobviousinferenceisconfirmedbythedescriptionof
thetitleonthecross.BesidestheofficialnoticeinLtin,whichprobablyfewcouldread,theaccusationwaswritteninGreekandinHebrew.Ifthemajorityofthe
passersbywouldunderstandtheformer,thelatterwassuperfluous.EveniftheHebrewwasaddedonlytopleasethemob,thisfactwouldprovethatthelower
classeswerepartialtotheirvernacular,andwereatleastbilinguists,andnotinthehabitofusingGreekexclusively(cf.Ac22:2).
ThestoryofPetersdenialincidentallyaddsanotherconfirmation.Heconversedinalanguagewhichwasunderstoodbytheservantsandothersofthesame
classassembledroundthefire,buthewasrecognizedasanorthernerbyhisaccent.ThereisnoevidencethattheGalilanspronouncedGreekdifferentlyfromthe
Judans,butitisknownthattheirpronunciationofsomeoftheHebrewlettersdifferedfromthatofthesoutherners.PeterandtheservantshadaSemiticvernacular
incommon,thoughwithdialecticdifferencesofpronunciation,andpossiblyofvocabulary.
IntheSyrianChurchhistoricaldocumentshavebeenhandeddownwhich,whateverbethedatesoftheexistingworks,undoubtedlyrepresentveryancienttraditions,anddepend
ondocumentssuchaswouldhavebeenpreservedamongstthearchivesofEdessa.IntheDoctrineofAddaithisremarkablestatementoccurs:HimwhoseGospelhasbeenspread
abroadbythesignswhichhisdisciplesdo,whoareHebrews,andonlyknowthetongueoftheHebrews,inwhichtheywereborn.InthesameChurchtherewasatraditionthat
theirnationalversionoftheNTwasratherasecondrecordthanatranslation,anddatedfromApostolictimes.Suchaview(whethertrueorfalsemattersnotnow)dependsonan
assumptionthatsomelanguagerelatedtoSyriac,ifnotSyriacitself,wasthevernacularoftheApostles.ThegreaterpartoftheNTconsistsofwritingsintendedforthebenefitof
JewswhoresidedoutsidePalestine,andofconvertsfromheathenism.ForsuchreadersthevernacularofPalestinewouldhavebeenunsuitableandthoseofthewriterswhowerenot
familiarwithGreekcouldemployatranslator.St.PeterissaidtohavebeenattendedbyMarkinthiscapacity.WehavealreadyreferredtothetraditionthatMatthew,whowrotefor
thebenefitofhiscountrymen,composedaGospelinHebrew.Thatsomeoneshouldhaveundertakenaworkofthatnatureishighlyprobablebutthecirculationwouldbelimited,
forthenativeJewishChurchdidnotlongretainthepositionofimportanceitpossessedatfirst(Ac21:20),andthecollectionofsacredwritingsintoaCanonwastheworkof
GreekspeakingChristians.TheEpistleofSt.JamesisoneoftheearliestbooksoftheNT,butthoughintendedforJewishChristiansitwaswritteninGreek,asaliteraryvehicle.An
apparent,thoughnotareal,difficultyispresentedbythestyleofcertainpiecesincludedinthesacrednarratives.TheMagnificat,NuncDimittis,andLordsPrayer,forexample,
whichmustbetranslations,inaccordancewithourviewoftheuseofaSemiticvernacular,arethoughttosavourratheroforiginalcompositionthanoftranslation.Butitshouldbe
rememberedthattheancientideaofaversionwasdifferentfromours.Literalrenderingoften(thoughnotalways)yieldedtothedemandsofcommentary.Perhaps(totakeanother,
and,assomethink,crucialinstance),theangelcouldnothavesalutedMaryinthenativedialectwiththefamousalliterationChairekecharitmenandyettheEvangelistmay
haverecordedtheHail!highlyfavouredinthatform,influencedbythestyleofOTdiction,inwhichplayonwordsisamarkedfeature.
ThemajorityofthequotationsintheGospelsappeartobederivedfromsomeformoftheSeptuagintGreektextoftheOT.Itdoesnotfollowthatthespeakershabituallyused
Greek.AllwecansafelyinferisthattheEvangelists,whenwritinginGreek,employedaversionwhichhadacquiredconsiderableauthoritybyusage,toexpressthequotationsthey
recorded.
IthasbeenthoughtthattheconversationsbetweenourLordandthewomanofSamariaandtheSyrophnicianwomanmusthavebeencarriedoninGreekasa
commonlanguage.ItisforgottenthatSyriac,Samaritan,andthesocalledHebrewofPalestine,werenearlyrelated.Manytowhomoneorotherofthesewasthe
vernacular,wouldhavesomeslightacquaintancewiththeothers.However,theobjectofthisarticleisnottodenythatChristknew,andsometimesspoke,Greek,
buttoreinforcetheargumentsbywhichweconcludethatthevernacularofPalestinewasSemitic,andthatthereforeChriststeachingswere,forthemostpart,
deliveredinadifferenttonguefromthatinwhichtheyhavecometousintheGreekGospels.
ByfarthegreaternumberofpersonalandplacenamesconnectedwithPalestineintheNTareofSemiticderivation,buttheyaffordnoevidenceinrelationto
ourinquiry.Thepreservationanduseofsuchnameswouldbeconsistentwithachangeinthevernacular.Placenamesarepracticallypermanentpersonalnames
areoftensentimentallyborrowedfromadeadancestraltongue.NorwouldwelaystressontheoccurrenceofSemiticwords,asrabbi,korban,pascha(passover),
intheGreektext.ThemenofourLordsday,whateverdialecttheyspoke,weretheheirsofareligiousandsocialsystemwhichhaditsrootsinHebraism,andof
whichtherewereconstantreminiscencesinthedailyuseofwordsbelongingtotheancientterminology.ButothernonGreekexpressionsarerecordedin
connexionswhichlendthemamuchgreatersignificance.InAc1:19weareinformedthattheSemiticnameAkeldama,whichwasgiventoacertainfield,wasin
thepropertongueofthedwellersatJerusalem.OurLordswordsontwooccasionsaregiveninSemitic,Talthakmi(Mk5:41),andEphphatha(7:34).Onthe
crossHeutteredacrywhichmighthavebeenaquotationfromPs22:1buttheformpreservedinMk15:34variesdialecticallyfromtheHebrewoftheopening
wordsofthatpsalm.
TheseandotherSemiticremainspreservedinthepagesoftheNT,evenwhenaccounthasbeentakenofallplaceandpersonalnamesandsinglewords,aswell
asofthefewphrases,affordbutlimitedevidence,andareonlyafewspecimensofthePalestinianvernacular.Yettheysufficetoshowthatthedialectwasneither
ancientHebrewnortheclassicalSyriac.Ithadarisenthroughcorruptionoftheancestraltongue,undertheinfluenceofsurroundinglanguages,especiallyAramaic.
ProbablyitvariedconsiderablyindifferentpartsoftheHolyLand,andthereweredialectsratherthanadialectofPalestine.Butalltheevidencetendstothe
convictionthatChristhabituallyemployedsomeformofthevernacularinHisdiscourses,andnotthealienlanguageofGreece.
G.H.GWILLIAM.
LANTERN.OnlyJn18:3,wheresomeformoftorchismoreprobablyintended.TheGreekisphanos,awordnotfoundelsewhereinBiblicalGreek.
LAODICEAwassituatedinthevalleyoftheLycus,atributaryoftheManderinAsiaMinor.ItwasfoundedbyAntiochusII.aboutthemiddleofthe3rdcent.8/48
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LAODICEAwassituatedinthevalleyoftheLycus,atributaryoftheManderinAsiaMinor.ItwasfoundedbyAntiochusII.aboutthemiddleofthe3rdcent.
B.C.ItwasplantedinthelowerLycusglen,Colossbeingsituatedintheupper.TheLycusglenwasthemostfrequentedpathoftradefromtheinteriorofthe
countrytothewest,andthegreatroadpassedrightthroughLaodicea.Thecitywasnearlysquare,andstronglyfortified,butdependentforitswatersupplyonan
acqueduct6mileslong.ItplayedacomparativelysmallpartinthedisseminationofGreekculture.ItsprosperityadvancedgreatlyundertheRomans.Itwasan
importantmanufacturingcentre,forinstance,forasoftglossyblackwool,whichwasmadeintogarmentsofvariouskinds(cf.Rev3:18).Inconnexionwiththe
templeofthePhrygiangodMenKarou(13milesW.ofLaodicea),theregrewupacelebratedschoolofmedicine.Itsmostfamousmedicineswereanointment
madefromspicenard,whichstrengthenedtheears,andPhrygianpowder,obtainedbycrushingPhrygianstone,whichwasusedfortheeyes(Rev3:18).There
weremanyJewishinhabitantsofLaodicea,andthepopulationasawholewasofverymixedrace.ThereisawantofIndividualityaboutthelifeofthiscity,which
hasbeencalledthecityofcompromise.ThechurchtherewasnotfoundedbySt.Paul,butprobablybyoneofhiscoadjutors,perhapsEpaphras(cf.Col4:13).It
wasnodoubtoneofthecitieswhichreceivedtheEpistletotheEphesians(Col4:16),aswellastheEpistletotheColossians(Col4:16).Itwasoneoftheseven
churchesoftheApocalypse(3:1422).Itscondemnationisperhapstheseverestofall.
A.S OUTER.
LAPPIDOTH(torchesorlightningflashes).ThehusbandofDeborahtheprophetess(Jg4:4).Somecommentatorstakethetermtobedescriptiveofthe
characterofDeborah,awomanoflightningflashes.Infavourofthistheyurgethefeminineterminationoth,butthesameterminationisfoundelsewheretomens
names,e.g.Meremoth.
T.A.MOXON.
LAPWING.SeeHOOPOE.
LASCIVIOUSNESS.TheGreekwordsotranslatedinMk7:22etc.istranslatedwantonnessinRo13:13.ThisisthetranslationintheVSSbeforeAVin
nearlyallthepassageswhereAVhaslasciviousness.TheideaoftheGr.wordisshamelessconductofanykind.
LASEAismentionedbySt.Luke(Ac27:8),butbynootherancientauthor.ItwasthenearesttowntoFairHavensinCrete,butitwas5milesaway,andthis,
apartfromtheinconvenienceoftheroadstead,wouldexplainthereluctanceofthecaptainofSt.Paulsshiptowinterthere.TheruinsofLaseawereexaminedin
1856,thesitestillbearstheancientname.A.E.HILLARD.
LASHA(Gn10:19markedtheS.E.boundaryofthelandoftheCanaanites.JeromeidentifieditwiththehotspringsofCallirrho,intheWdyZerqMan.
WellhausenwouldidentifyitwithLaish,ontheN.frontier.Thereisnothingtosupportthisbuttheresemblanceinthename.Againstitistheorderinwhichthe
namesoccur.Itcannotnowbeidentified.
W.EWING.
LASSHARON.AtowntakenbyJoshua(12:18).LXXBreadsherethekingofAphekinSharon.TheOnomasticongivesthenameofSharontoasecond
district,viz.thatbetweenMountTaborandTiberias.ThenameSarnaattachestoanancientsiteontheplateau,61/2milesS.W.ofTiberias,whichmaypossibly
representLassharon(Conder).
W.EWING.
LASTHENES.Anofficerofhighrank,kinsman(1Mac11:31)andfather(v.32)ofDemetriusII.HeraisedabodyofCretanmercenaries,andenabled
DemetriustolandinCilicia,andwrestthethroneofSyriafromAlexanderBalas(Jos.Ant.XIII.iv.3cf.1Mac10:67).WhenDemetriuswasendeavouringtomake
termswithJonathantheMaccaban,hewrotetoLasthenesinfavouroftheJews,andforwardedacopyofhislettertotheJewishprince(1Mac11:2937).
LATCHET.SeeDRESS,6.
LATIN.InsuchprovincesasJudatheLatinlanguagealonehadplaceinofficialactsandRomancourts.WhereGreekwasallowedincourtpleadings,itwas,
sotospeak,anactofgraceonthejudgespart,andtherecanbelittledoubtthat,e.g.,thespeechofTertullusinAc24wasinLatin.TheLatinwordsusedinaGreek
formintheNTaremainlyadministrative,legal,ormilitary(e.g.census,custodia,prtorium,colonia,libertinus,centurio,legio),ornamesofRomancoins
(denarius,quadrans),butthetotalnumberofsuchLatinwordsoccurringisonlyabout25.TheGentilenamesadoptedbyJewsweregenerallyofGreekform(e.g.
Philip)aLatinformlikethenameofSt.Paulwasanexception(tobeexpectedperhapswithonesoproudofRomancitizenship).ThroughoutPalestine,while
Latinwasthelanguageoftheadministration,Greekwasthemainlanguageofcommerce,andAramaicthelanguageofcommonintercourseamongJews.Hencewe
findallthreelanguagesusedforthesuperscriptiononthecross(Lk23:38).
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A.E.HILLARD.
LATINVERSIONS.SeeTEXT(ofOTandNT)andVULGATE.
LATTICE.SeeHOUSE,7.
LAUD.InRo15:11theAVhasPraisetheLord,allyeGentilesandlaudhim,allyepeople.TheGr.vbs.beingdifferent,twodifferentEng.vbs.areused.
ButtheRVturnslaudintopraise.IntheOT,however,laudandpraisearebothusedinordertodistinguishtwoHeb.vbs.,asinPs117:1,145:4,thoughnot
quiteconsistently.InPs147:12thedifferencebetweentheverbsisignored.
LAUGHTER.LaughterisusedintheBibleinthreeways.(1)Itisopposedtoweeping,asEc3:4,7:3,Job8:21,Ps126:2,Lk6:21.(2)Itexpressesincredulity,
asGn17:17,18:12.(3)Itsignifiesderision,asPs2:14,Bel18.
LAVER.SeeTABERNACLE,4,TEMPLE,6(d).
LAW(INOT).1.ThatthelawwasgivenbyMoses(Jn1:17)representstheunanimousbeliefbothoftheearlyChristiansandoftheChosenNation.Hewas
theirfirstaswellastheirgreatestlawgiverandinthismatterreligioustraditionissupportedbyallthehistoricalprobabilitiesofthecase.TheExodusandthe
subsequentwanderingsconstitutetheformativeepochofIsraelscareer:itwastheperiodofcombinationandadjustmentbetweenthevarioustribestowards
effectinganationalunity.Suchperiodsnecessitatesocialexperiments,fornosocietycanholdtogetherwithoutsomebasisofpermanentsecuritynonationcould
beweldedtogether,leastofallanationinancienttimes,withoutsomestrongsenseofcorporateresponsibilitiesandcorporatereligion.Itthereforenaturally
devolveduponMosestoestablishacentralauthorityfortheadministrationofjustice,whichshouldbeuniversallyaccessibleanduniversallyrecognized.Therewas
onlyonemethodbywhichanysuchuniversalrecognitioncouldbeattainedandthatwasbyplacingthelegalandjudicialsystemuponthebasisofanappealtothat
religion,whichhadalreadybeensuccessfulinrousingthetwelvetribestoasenseoftheirunity,andwhich,moreover,wastheoneforcewhichcouldanddid
effectuallypreventthedisintegrationoftheheterogeneouselementsofwhichthenationwascomposed.
2.WeseethebeginningandcharacteroftheselegislativefunctionsinEx18:16,whereMosesexplainshowthepeoplecomeuntometoinquireofGod:when
theyhaveamattertheycomeuntomeandIjudgebetweenamanandhisneighbour,andmakethemknowthestatutesofGod,andhislaws(trth).Originally
trah(theusualwordintheOTforlaw)meant,asinthispassage,oralinstructionordirection.ThiskindoftrahsurvivedforlonginIsrael.Itwasamethod
strictlypracticalandinpreciseconformitywiththegeniusandrequirementsofprimitivenations,W.R.Smith(OTJC2339).Casesofexceptionaldifficultywere
broughttothesanctuary,andthedecisionstheregivenwereacceptedasemanatingfromtheDivineJudgeofIsrael(cf.1S2:25and,fortheuseofElohimto
signifythejudgesspeakinginJehovahsname,cf.Ex21:6,22:7).ThecasesthusbroughtbeforeGodmaybedividedintothreeclasses,astheydealtrespectively
with(1)mattersofmoralobligation,(2)civilsuits,(3)ritualdifficulties.WereadthatMosesfounditnecessarytodevolvesomeofthisadministrativeworkupon
variouselders,whomheassociatedwithhimselfinthecapacityoflawgivers.
Inthisconnexionitisimportanttorememberthat
(a)Thesedecisionswereorallygiven.(b)Althoughbindingonlyonthepartiesconcerned,andintheircaseonlysofarastheychosetosubmittotherulingofthejudge,oras
thelattercouldenforcehisauthority,yetwiththeincreasingpoweroftheexecutivegovernmentsuchdecisionssoonacquiredtheforceofconsuetudinarylawforawidercircle,until
theyaffectedthewholenation.(c)Suchoraldirectioninnosenseexcludestheideaofanypreviouslaws,orevenofawrittencode.Thetaskofthejudgeswasnotsomuchtocreate
astointerpret.Theexistenceandauthorityofalawwouldstillleaveroomfordoubtinmattersofindividualapplication,(d)Associallifebecamemorecomplex,thethreedivisions
ofthetrahbecamemorespecializedcivilsuitsweretriedbythejudgetheprophetsalmostconfinedthemselvestogivingoraldirectiononmoraldutiesthepriestswereconcerned
mainlywiththesolutionofritualdifficulties.Cf.JUSTICE(II.).
Here,then,wecantracethecharacterofHebrewlegislationinitsearlieststages.Law(trah)meansoraldirection,graduallycrystallizingintoconsuetudinary
law,which,sofarfromexcluding,mayalmostbesaidtodemand,theideaofadefinitecodeasthebasisofitsinterpretativefunction.Finally,whenthesedirections
wereclassifiedandreducedtowriting(cf.Hos8:12),trahcametosignifysuchacollectionandultimatelythesamewordwasusedasaconvenientand
comprehensivetermforthewholePentateuch,inwhichallthemostimportantlegalcollectionswerecarefullyincluded.
3.ThetrahoftheProphetswasmoral,notceremonial.Thepriests,whilebytheirofficenecessarilymuchengagedinceremonialandritualactions,
neverthelesshadboundlessopportunitiesforgivingtheworshipperstruedirectionontheprinciplesunderlyingtheirreligionsobservancesanditisfortheirneglect
ofsuchopportunities,andnot,asisoftencrudelymaintained,onaccountofanyinherentlynecessaryantagonismbetweenpriestlyandpropheticalideals,thatthe
prophetssofrequentlyrebukethepriests,notbecauseofthefulfilmentoftheirpriestly(i.e.ceremonial)duties,butbecauseofthenonfulfilmentoftheir
prophetical(i.e.moral)opportunities.ForthepriestsclaimedDivinesanctionfortheirworship,andtraditionascribedtheoriginofallpriestlyinstitutionstoMosaic
(orAaronic)authorship.ThistheprophetsdonotdenybuttheydodenythatthedistinctivefeatureoftheSinaiticlegislationlayinanythingbut
itsmoralexcellence.InthisconnexionthewordsofJeremiahcannotbequotedtoooften:Ispakenotuntoyourfathers,norcommandedtheminthedaythatI
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itsmoralexcellence.InthisconnexionthewordsofJeremiahcannotbequotedtoooften:Ispakenotuntoyourfathers,norcommandedtheminthedaythatI
broughtthemoutofthelandofEgypt,concerningburntofferingsorsacrificesbutthisthingIcommandedthem,sayingHearmyvoice,andwalkyeinthe
waythatIcommandyou(Jer7:21,22).ThecorrectinterpretationofAm5:2426corroboratesJeremiahscontention.Itiswhollyunwarrantabletosaythatthe
prophetscondemnedthesacrificialsystem,ordenieditsworthandDivinesanctionbut,ontheotherhand,wearejustifiedinassertingthatthetrahofJehovah,
thelawoftheLord,meanttotheprophetssomethingwhollydifferentfromthepunctiliousobservanceoftraditionalceremoniesandwhatismore,theyappeal
withoutfearofcontradictiontothecontentsoftheMosaiclegislationascompletelyestablishingtheirconvictionthatitwasinthesphereofmorality,ratherthanin
theorganizingofworship,thattheessenceofJehovahslawwastobefound.
4.Withthistest(aswellaswiththeconsiderationsproposedin1)thecharacteroftheDecalogueisfoundtobeincompleteagreement.ItsMosaicoriginhas
indeedbeenquestioned,onthegroundthatsuchanethicalstandardiswhollyatvariancewiththeessentiallyritualisticcharacterofprimitivereligions.Tothisit
maybereplied:wecannotcalltheprophetsaswitnessesforthetruthoftwomutuallycontradictorypropositions.Havingalreadycitedtheprophetsindisproofof
theMosaicauthorshipoftheLeviticallegislation,onthegroundthatthelatterisessentiallyritualistic(andthereforedoesnotcorrespondtotheprophetsviewofthe
LawofMoses),itismonstrouslyunfairtodenytheSinaiticoriginofwhatisleftinconformitywiththepropheticalstandard,onthegroundthatitoughttobe
essentiallyritualisticalso,andisnot.Wehaverightlyhadourattentioncalledtothewitnessoftheprophets.Buttheweightoftheirevidenceagainsttheearly
elaborationoftheceremoniallawisexactlyproportionedtotheweightattachedtotheirevidencefortheexistenceandauthenticityofthemoralcode.
Amoreseriousdifficulty,however,arisesfromthefactthatwehaveapparentlythreeaccountsoftheDecalogue,exhibitingpositivelyastoundingdivergences
(Ex20,Dt5,andEx34).ThedifferencesbetweenEx20andDt5arenothardtoexplain,astheTenWordsthemselvesareineachcaseidentical,anditisonlyin
theexplanatorycommentsthatthedifferencesaremarked.Stylisticpeculiarities,aswellasotherconsiderations,seemtoshowthattheselatteraresubsequent
editorialadditions,andthatoriginallytheDecaloguecontainednomorethantheactualcommandments,withoutnoteorexplanation.Itis,however,mostinstructive
toobservethatnotheoryofinspirationorliteraryscruplespreventedtheeditorsfromincorporatingintotheiraccountoftheTenWordsofGodtoMoses,thebasis
ofallHebrewlegislation,suchcommentsandexhortationsastheyconsideredsuitabletotheneedsoftheirowntimes.ThedifficultywithregardtoEx34,wherea
whollydifferentsetoflawsseemstobecalledTheTenWords,hasnotbeensolved.Hypothesesoftextualdisplacementabound(cf.OTJC2336),others
confidentlyassertthattheauthormanifestlyintendstoalludetotheDecalogue(Driver,LOT 639),whilesomescholarshavesuggested,withmuchforceand
ingenuity,thatwehaveinEx2023and34aseriesofabbreviations,rearrangements,andexpansionsoftengroupsoftenlawseach.Nofinalsolutionhasyetbeen
reachedbutwemayholdwithconfidencethatthetraditionalaccountoftheDecalogueiscorrect,andthattheTenCommandmentsintheiroriginalandshorterform
werepromulgatedbyMoseshimself.OnthisbasisthelawofIsraelrests,andinthePentateuchwecandistinguishtheattemptsmadefromtimetotimetoapply
theirprinciplestothelifeofthepeople.
5.TheBookoftheCovenant(Ex20:2223:33)isacollectionofwordsandjudgmentsarisingoutoftheneedsofaverysimplecommunity.Thefrequent
mentionoftheox,theass,andthesheepprovesthatthiscodeoflawwasdesignedforanagriculturalpeople.Thestateofcivilizationmaybeinferredfromthefact
thattheprinciplesofcivilandcriminaljusticeareallcomprehendedunderthetwoheadsofretaliationandpecuniarycompensation(cf.OTJC2340).Religious
institutionsalsoareinanundevelopedandarchaicstage.Thelaws,however,recognize,andeveninsistupon,theclaimsofhumanityandjustice.Itispossiblethat
theoriginalcodemayhavebeenpromulgatedatSinaibutifso,ithasreceivedconsiderableexpansionstosuittheagriculturalrequirements,whichfirstbecame
partofIsraelsdailylifeintheearlyyearsoftheoccupationofCanaan.
6.TheLawofDeuteronomyshowsacivilizationfarinadvanceofthatcontemplatedintheprecedingcode.Lifeismorecomplexandreligiousproblems
unknowntoanearliergenerationdemandandreceivefulltreatment.Itisnotdifficulttofixitsapproximatedate.IntheyearB.C.621,kingJosiahinaugurateda
nationalreformationresultingfromthediscoveryofaBookofthe
LawintheTemple.AlltheevidencepointstothisbookbeingpracticallyidenticalwithDeuteronomyallthereformswhichJosiahinauguratedwerebasedupon
lawspracticallyindistinguishablefromthosewenowpossessintheDeuteronomicCodeinfact,noconclusionofhistoricalorliterarycriticismhasbeenreached
morenearlyapproachingtoabsolutecertaintythanthattheBookoftheLawbroughttolightin621wasnoneotherthanthefifthbookofthePentateuch.
ButwasitwrittenbyMoses?(i.)Thebookitselfnowheremakessuchaclaim,(ii.)Thehistoricalsituation(suitingthetimesofthelatermonarchy)isnotmerelyanticipated,
butactuallypresupposed,(iii.)Thelinguisticevidencepointstoalongdevelopmentoftheartofpublicoratory.(iv.)Thereligiousstandpointisthatof,e.g.,Jeremiahratherthan
Isaiah.(v.)Someofitschiefprovisionsappeartohavebeenentirelyunknownbefore600eventhemostfervidchampionsofprophetismbeforethatdateseemtohave
systematicallyviolatedthecentrallawoftheonesanctuary,(vi.)WhilesubsequentwritersshowabundanttracesofDeuteronomicinfluence,wesearchinvainforanysuchtracesin
earlierliterature.Onthecontrary,Deut.isitselfseentobeanattempttorealizeinalegalcodethosegreatprincipleswhichhadbeensoemphaticallyenunciatedbyHoseaandIsaiah.
ThelawsofDeuteronomyare,however,inmanyinstancesmuchearlierthanthe7thcentury.TheBookoftheCovenantsuppliesmuchofthegroundworkand
theantiquityofothersisindependentlyattested.Itisnotsomuchthesubstance(withperhapstheexceptionof(a)below)astheexpansionsandexplanationsthat
arenew.Alawbookmustbekeptuptodateifitistohaveanypracticalvalue,andinDeuteronomywehaveapropheticreformulationandadaptationtonew
needsofanolderlegislation(LOT 691).
ThemaincharacteristicsofDeut.aretobefoundin
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ThemaincharacteristicsofDeut.aretobefoundin
(a)TheLawoftheoneSanctuary,whichaimedatthetotalextinctionoftheworshipofthehighplaces.Byconfiningthecentralactofworship,i.e.theriteofsacrifice,to
Jerusalem,thislawcertainlyhadputanendtothesyncretistictendencieswhichconstitutedaperpetualdangertoIsraelitishreligionbutwhileestablishingmonotheism,italso
somewhatimpoverishedthefreereligiouslifeofthecommonpeople,whohadaforetimelearnedatalltimesandinallplacestodosacrificeandholdcommunionwiththeirGod.
(b)Thewonderfulhumanitywhichissostrikingafeatureoftheselaws.ThereligionofJehovahisnotconfinedtoworship,butistobemanifestedindailylife:andasGods
loveisthegreatoutstandingfactinIsraelshistory,sothetrueIsraelitemustshowloveforGod,whomhehasnotseen,bylovinghisneighbour,whomhehasseen.Eventhe
animalsaretobetreatedwithconsiderationandkindness.
(c)TheevangelicalfervourwithwhichtheclaimsofJehovahuponIsraelsdevotionareurged.Heissoutterlydifferentfromthedeadheathendivinities.Heisaliving,loving
God,whocannotbesatisfiedwithanythinglessthantheundividedheartserviceofHischildren.
ItisnotsurprisingthatDeuteronomyshouldhavebeenespeciallydeartoourLord(cf.Mt4),orthatHeshouldhaveproclaimeditshighestwordasthefirst
lawnolongerforJudah,butfortheworld(Mt12:2830,Dt6:45)[Carpenter,quotedbyDriver,Deut.p.xxxiv.].
7.TheLawofHoliness(Lv1726)isashortcollectionoflawsembeddedinLeviticus.Thepreceptsofthiscodedealmainlywithmoralandceremonial
matters,andhardlytouchquestionsofcivilandcriminallaw.Weshouldnoticeespeciallytheprominenceofagriculturalallusions,themultiplicationofritual
regulations,theconceptionofsinasimpurity,and,again,thepredominanceofhumanitarianprinciples.
8.ThePriestlyCode,comprisingtheconcludingchaptersofExodus,thewholeofLeviticus,andotherportionsoftheHexateuch,probablyrepresentsa
determinedattempttogivepracticaleffecttotheteachingofEzekiel.Wemayapproximatelyfixitsdatebyobservingthatsomeofitsfundamentalinstitututionsare
unknownto,andevencontradictedby,theDeuteronomiclegislation.Ontheotherhand,theinfluenceofEzekielisprominent.ThePriestlyeditor,orschool,lays
specialstressontheceremonialinstitutionsofIsraeliteworship.Wemustnot,however,concludethattheyarethereforeallpostexilic.Onthecontrary,theoriginof
agreatnumberisdemonstrablyofhighantiquitybuttheirelaborationisofafarmoremoderndate.ItissometimescustomarytosneeratthePriestlyCodeasa
massofLeviticaldeterioration.ItwouldbeasjustifiabletoquotetherubricsofthePrayerBookasafairrepresentationofthemoralteachingoftheChurchof
England.Asamatteroffact,Pdoesnotprofesstosupplant,oreventosupplement,allotherlaws.Theeditorhassimplycollectedthedetailsofceremonial
legislation,andtherubricsofTempleworship,withsomeaccountoftheiroriginandpurpose.Inlaterhistory,theexpressionofIsraelsreligionthroughTemple
servicesacquiredanincreasedsignificance.Ifthenationallifeandfaithweretobepreserved,itwasabsolutelyessentialthattheceremoniallawshouldbe
developedinordertomarkthedistinctivefeaturesoftheJewishcreed.Itisarguedthatsuchapolicyisindirectcontradictiontotheuniversalisticteachingofthe
earlierprophets.Thatmaybeso,butcosmopolitanismatthisstagewouldhavemeantnotthediffusionbutthedestructionofJewishreligion.Itwasonlyby
emphasizingtheirnationalpeculiaritiesthattheywereabletoconcentratetheirattention,andconsequentlytoretainafirmhold,upontheirdistinctivetruths.
EzekielsidealcitywasnamedJehovahisthere(48:35).Pseekstorealizethisideal.Allthelaws,alltheceremonies,areintendedtostampthisconviction
indeliblyuponIsraelsimagination,Jehovahisthere.Thereforethesenseofsinmustbedeepened,thatsinmayberemoved:thereforetheneedofpurification
mustbeconstantlyproclaimed,thatthecorruptinganddisintegratinginfluencesofsurroundingheathenismmaynotprevailagainsttheremnantoftheholypeople:
thereforetheidealofnationalholinessmustbesacramentallysymbolized,and,throughthesymbol,actuallyattained.
9.Itmustbeplainthatsuchstressonritualenactmentsinevitablyfacilitatedthegrowthofformalismandhypocrisy.WeknowthatinourLordstimethe
weightiermattersofthelawweresystematicallyneglected,whilethetithingofmint,anise,andcummin,togetherwithsimilarsubtletiesandrefinements,occupied
theattentionofthelawyerandexhaustedtheenergiesofthezealous.ButourLorddidnotabrogatethelaweitherinitsceremonialorinitsmoralinjunctions.He
cametofulfilit,thatis,tofillitfull,togivethesubstance,wherethelawwasonlyashadowofgoodthingstocome.Hedeclaredthatnotonejotortittleshould
passawaytillallthingswereaccomplishedthatistosay,untiltheendforwhichthelawhadbeenordainedshouldbe
reached.IttookpeoplesometimetoseethatbyHisIncarnationandthefoundationoftheChristianChurchthatendhadbeengainedandthatbyHisfulfilmentHe
hadmadethelawofnoneeffectnotmerelyabrogatingdistinctionsbetweenmeats,buttransferringmanswholerelationtoGodintoanotherregionthanthatof
law.
10.ThelawwasgivenbyMoses,butgraceandtruthcamebyJesusChrist.Theimpossibilityofeverfulfillingitsmultitudinousrequirementshadfilledthe
moreearnestwithdespair.ThereitremainedconfrontingthesinnerwithhissinbutitspitilessThoushaltandThoushaltnotgavehimnocomfortandnopower
ofresistance.Thelawwasascoldandhardasthetablesonwhichitwasinscribed.Ittaughtthemeaningofsin,butgavenohelpastohowsinwastobeovercome.
Thesacrificialsystemattemptedtosupplythewantbutitwasplainthatthebloodofbullsandgoatscouldnevertakeawaysin.Indesperationthelawconvicted
sinnerlookedforaSaviourtodeliverhimfromthisbodyofdeath,andthatSaviourhefoundinChrist.Thelawhadbeenhispedagogue,andhadbroughthimto
theMasterfromwhomhecouldreceivethathelpandgraceithadbeenpowerlesstobestow.ButChristianitynotmerelygavepoweritalteredmanswholeoutlook
ontheworld.TheJewslivedunderthelaw:theyweretheunwillingsubjectsofaninexorabledespotismthelawwasexcellentinitself,buttothemitremained
somethingexternalobediencewasnotfarremovedfrombondageandfear.Theprophetsrealizedtheinadequacyofthislegalsystem:itwasnorealappealtomans
highestnatureitdidnotspringfromthemansownheartandsotheyprophesiedoftheNewCovenantwhenJehovahslawsshouldbewrittenintheheart,andHis
sinforgivinggraceshouldremoveallelementsofservilefear(cf.esp.Jer31:3134)butitwasonlytheharddisciplineofthelawthatmadethemrealizethe
necessityandsuperiorityofamorespiritualcovenantbetweenmanandhisGod.
11. Awordmaybesaidaboutthegivingofthelaw.Whateverphysicaldisturbancesmayhaveaccompanieditsoriginalproclamation,itisnotuponsuchnaturalphenomenathat
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11.Awordmaybesaidaboutthegivingofthelaw.Whateverphysicaldisturbancesmayhaveaccompanieditsoriginalproclamation,itisnotuponsuchnaturalphenomenathat
itsclaimstothehomageofmankindarebased.Itis,inamanner,farmoremiraculousthatGodshouldatthatearlyage,amongthosehalfcivilizedtribes,havewrittentheselawsby
Hisspiritonmansconscienceandunderstanding,thanthatamidthunderandflameHeshouldhaveinscribedthemwithHisownfingersupontwotablesofstone.TheOld
TestamentitselfteachesusthatwemaylookinvainforGodamongthemostorthodoxmanifestationsofathenphany,andyethearHimspeakinginthestill,smallvoice.Miracleis
nottheessenceofGodsrevelationtous,thoughitmayaccompanyandauthenticateHismessage.ThelawstandsbecausetheSaviour,inlayingdownforusthecorrectlinesofits
interpretationhassealeditwiththestampofDivineapproval,butalsobecausetheconscienceandreasonofmankindhaverecognizedinitssimplicityandcomprehensivenessa
sublimeexpositionofmansdutytohisGodandtohisneighbourbecausebymanifestationofthetruthithascommendeditselftoeverymansconscienceinthesightofGod(cf.
2Co4:2).
ERNESTARTHURENGHILL.
LAW(INNT).Thissubjectwillbetreatedasfollows:(1)therelationofJesusChristtotheOTLaw(2)thedoctrineoflawinSt.PaulsEpistles(3)the
complementaryteachingofHebrews(4)theattitudeofSt.JamesrepresentingprimitiveJewishChristianity.
1.OurLordstatedHispositioninthesayingofMt5:17:Ididnotcometodestroythelawortheprophets,buttofulfil.Theexpressioncoversthewhole
contentsofDivineScripture(sometimes,forbrevity,spokenofsimplyasthelawseeJn10:34,12:34,15:25),whichHedoesnotmeantoinvalidateintheleast
(Mt5:18),asthenoveltyofHisteachingledsometosuppose(see7:28f.),butwillvindicateandcomplete.ButHisfulfilmentwasthatoftheMaster,whoknows
theinnermindandrealintentoftheScriptureHeexpounds.Itwasnotthefulfilmentofonewhorehearsesaprescribedlessonortracksoutapathmarkedforhim
bypredecessors,butthecrowningofanedificealreadyfounded,thecarryingforwardtotheirissueofthelinesprojectedinIsraeliterevelation,thefulfilmentofthe
bladeandearinthefullcorn.JesuspenetratedtheshelltoreachthekernelofOTrepresentationsandHeregardedHimselfHisPerson,sacrifice,salvation,
Kingdomasthefocusofmanifoldpreviousrevelations(seeLk4:1721,16:16,24:27,Jn1:17,6:45).ThewarningofMt5:1720wasaimedattheJewishlegists,
whodissolvedtheauthorityofthelaw,whilejealouslyguardingitsletter,bycasuisticalcommentsandsmotheringtraditions,whoputlightandgraveonalike
footing,andbluntedthesharpnessofGodscommandsinfavourofmanscorruptinclinations.TheCorbanformula,exposedinMk7:713,wasanotorious
instanceoftheRabbinicalquibblingthatourLorddenounced.ItisaseverernotalaxerethicsthatJesusintroduces,asearchinginplaceofasuperficialdiscipline
Yourrighteousness,Hesays,mustexceedthatofthescribesandPharisees.
OurLordsfulfilmentofthelawi.e.inthestrictersense,thebodyofMosaicstatutesregulatingIsraelitelifeandworshipincluded(a)thepersonalandfree
submissiontoit,duetoHisbirthandcircumcisionasasonofIsrael(Gal4:4cf.Mt3:15,8:4,15:24,17:27,Lk2:21ff.).
Hisfulfilmentincluded(b)thedevelopmentofitsunrecognizedorpartiallydisclosedprinciples.ThusJesusasserted,inaccordancewithviewsalready
advancedamongthescribes,thatthewholelawandtheprophetshangonthetwocommandmentsoflovetoGodandtoourneighbour(Mt22:3440,Lk10:25
37)theparableoftheGoodSamaritangivestothesecondcommandanunprecedentedscope.Hisdistinctionbetweentheweightiermattersofjustice,mercy,
fidelity,andthelighteroftithesandwashings,wascalculatedtorevolutionizecurrentJudaism.
(c)AlargepartoftheSermonontheMount(Mt5:2148)isdevotedtoclearingthelawfromerroneousglossesandfalseapplications:oneachpointJesussets
HisIsayuntoyouagainstwhatwassaidtotheancientsmereantiquitygoesfornothingnorisHecarefultodistinguishherebetweenthetextofthewritten
lawanditstraditionalmodifications.WitheachcorrectionthelawinHishandsgrowsmorestringentitsobservanceismadeamatterofinoerdisposition,ofintrinsic
loyalty,notofformalconductthecriterionappliedtoalllawkeepingisthatitshallproceedoutoftheheart.
(d)Further,ourLordsfulfilmentofthelawnecessitatedtheabrogationoftemporaryanddefectivestatutes.Insuchinstancestheletteroftheoldpreceptstood
onlytillitshouldbetranslatedintoaworthierformandraisedtoahigherpotency(Mt5:18),bythesweepingawayoflimitingexceptions(aswiththecompromise
inthematterofwedlockallowedtothehardheartednessofIsraelites,Mt19:39),orbythetranslationofthesymbolicintothespiritual,aswhencleansingof
handsandvesselsisdisplacedbyinnerpurification(Mk7:1423,Lk11:3741cf.Col2:18f.,He9:9f.).OurLordsreformationofthemarriagelawisalsoacase
for(b)above:HerectifiesthelawbytheaidofthelawinmanscreationHefindsaprinciplewhichnullifiestheprovisionsthatfacilitateddivorce.Theabolitionof
thedistinctionofmeats(Mk7:19),makingariftinJewishdailyhabitsandinthewholeLeviticalschemeoflife,istheoneinstanceinwhichJesuslaiddownwhat
seemedtobeanewprincipleofethics.Themaximthatwhatentersintothemanfromwithoutcannotdefile,butonlythethingsthatissueoutoftheman,wasof
farreachingapplication,andsuppliedafterwardsthecharterofGentile
Christianity.Itsunderlyingprinciplewas,however,implicitinOTteaching,andbelongedtotheessenceofthedoctrineofJesus.Hecouldnotconsistentlyvindicate
heartreligionwithoutcombatingJudaisminthematterofitsablutionsandfoodregulationsandSabbathkeeping.
(e)OverthelastquestionJesuscameintotheseverestconflictwithJewishorthodoxyandinthisstruggleHerevealedtheconsciousness,latentthroughoutHis
dealingswithOTlegislation,ofbeingthesovereign,andnotasubjectlikeothers,inthisrealm.OurLordfulfilledthelawbysealingitwithHisownfinal
authority.HisIsayuntoyou,spokeninatoneneverassumedbyMosesortheprophets,impliedsomuchandwassounderstoodbyHisApostles(1Co7:10,Gal
6:2,1Jn2:3f.etc.).Christarrogatestherleofasonoverhishouse,whereasMoseswasaservantinthehouse(He3:5f.).Assumingtobegreaterthan
Solomon,thanAbraham,thanthetemple(Mt12:6,42,Jn8:53),HeactedasonegreaterthanMoses!TheSabbathlawwasthechosenbattlegroundbetween
HimandtheestablishedmastersinIsrael(Mk2:2328,3:2ff.,Lk13:1617,Jn5:916).InthepublicSabbathassembliesJesuswasoftenestconfrontedwithcases
ofdiseaseanddemoniacalpossessionHemustdoHisworkasGodssentphysician.TheSabbathruleswereclearandfamiliarHisinfractionoftheminactsof
healingwasflagrant,repeated,defiantpopularreverenceforthedaymadeaccusationsonthiscountparticularlydangerous.Menwereplacedinadilemma:the
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healingwasflagrant,repeated,defiantpopularreverenceforthedaymadeaccusationsonthiscountparticularlydangerous.Menwereplacedinadilemma:the
Sabbathbreakerisipsofactoasinnerontheotherhand,howcanasinnerdosuchsigns?(Jn9:16,24ff.).Jesusarguesthematteronlegalgrounds,showing
fromrecognizedpracticethatthe4thCommandmentmustbeconstruedwithcommonsense,andthatitislawfultodogoodontheSabbathdayandtoworkinthe
serviceofGod(Mt12:5,11f.).Hegoesbehindthoseexamplestothegoverningprinciple(see(b)above),thattheSabbathwasmadeforman,andnotmanforthe
Sabbath(Mk2:27f.):theinstitutionisdesignedforhumanbenefit,anditsusagesshouldhedeterminedbyitsobject.ButHeisnotcontentwithsavingthis:thewar
againstHimwasdrivenontheSabbathquestionoutranceJesusdrawstheswordofHisreservedauthority.Heclaims,assovereigninhumanaffairs,todecide
whatisrightinthematterTheSonofManislordoftheSabbathmorethanthis,HeprofessestohavewroughtHisSabbathworksasGodtheFatherdoes,to
whomalldaysarealikeinHisbeneficence,andthroughtheinsightofaSonwatchingtheFatheratHislabour(Jn5:17
20)apretension,toJewishears,ofblasphemousarrogance:Hemakethhimselfequalwith
God!OnthisgroundJesuswascondemnedbytheSanhedrin(cf.Jn19:7),becauseHeset
HimselfabovetheSabbath,onthestrengthofbeingonewithGod.ThusthelawofMosesputJesusChristtodeathitwastoosmalltoholdHimitsadministrators
thoughtthemselvesboundtoinflictthecapitalsentenceonOnewhosaid,IamtheSonoftheBlessed(Mk14:61ff.).
(f)Atthesametime,Caiaphas,theofficialheadofthesystem,gaveanotherexplanation,fardeeperthanheguessed,oftheexecution:ThatJesusshoulddie
forthenation,andnotforthenationonly(Jn11:49ff.).Virtually,HewasofferingHimselfforthelambofthePaschalFeast,readytobeslaininsacrifice,thatHe
mighttakeawaythesinoftheworld.ThismysteriousrelationofthedeathofJesustoDivinelawHehadhintedathereandthere(Mt20:28,26:28,Lk22:37,Jn
3:14,6:51,12:24)itsexpositionwasreservedforHisApostlesspeakinginthelightofthisgrandestofallfulfilments.Jesusmadegoodtheimplicitpromiseofthe
sacrificialinstitutionsofIsrael.
2.Thewordlawoccurs118timesinSt.PaulsEpistles,103timesinRomansandGalatiansalone.Itismanifesthowabsorbinganinterestthesubjecthadfor
thisApostle,andwherethatinterestmainlylay.Gal2:19putsusatthecentreofSt.Paulsposition:Ithroughlawdiedtolaw,thatImightlivetoGod.From
legalism,asfromahouseofbondage,hehadescapedintothefreedomofthesonsofGod.(a)Pauldiedtothelaw,ashehadunderstoodandserveditwhena
Pharisee,regardingobediencetoitspreceptsasthesolegroundofacceptancewithGod.Hehadsoughttherearighteousnessofhisown,eventhatwhichisofthe
law(Ph3:9),tobegainedbyworks,bywhichhestrovetomeritsalvationasadebtduefromGodforservicerendered,arighteousnesssuchasitspossessor
couldboastof,ashisown(Ro4:15,9:3110:3).Pursuingthispath,IsraelhadfailedtowintherighteousnessofGod,suchasisvalidbeforeGodthe
methodwasimpracticablejustificationonthetermsofthelawofMosesisunattainable(Ac13:38f.,Ro8:3).Insteadofdestroyingsin,thelawarousesittonew
vigour,multiplyingwhereitaimedatsuppressingthetrespass(Ro5:20,7:713,1Co15:56).Notthelawinitself,butthecarnalsinboundnatureoftheman,
istoblameforthisarrayedagainstthelawofGod,towhichreasonbows,isanotherlawsuccessfullyoppugningit,thatofsinwhichoccupiesmymembers
(Ro7:1223),andwhichis,ineffect,alawofdeath
(8:2).
(b)ButSt.PaulsJudaisticexperiencehadapositiveaswellasanegativeresult:ifhediedtolaw,itwasthroughlawthelawhasprovedourpdagogus
[forleadingus]toChrist(Gal3:24).LawawakenedconscienceanddisciplinedthemoralfacultiestheJewishpeoplewerelikeanheirplacedunderguardians
andstewardsuntiltheappointedtimes,andtrainedinbondservicewithaviewtotheiradoption(Gal4:15).Eventheaggravationsofsincausedbythelawhad
theirbenefit,astheybroughtthediseasetoaheadandreducedthepatienttoastateinwhichhewasreadytoaccepttheprofferedremedy(Ro7:24).TheScripture
hadinthiswayshutupallthingsundersin,blockingeverydoorofescapeandblightingeveryhopeofaselfearnedrighteousness(Gal3:21f.),thatthesinner
mightacceptunconditionallytherighteousnesswhichisthroughfaithinChrist(Ph3:9).
(c)ContactwithGentilelifehadwidenedSt.PaulsconceptionofmorallawitwastouchedbytheinfluencesofGreekphilosophyandRomangovernment.He
discernedalawestablishedbynature,andinscribedintheheartsofmenignorantoftheMosaicCodeandcountingwithJewsaslawless.ThisDivinejus(and
fas)gentiumserved,inalessdistinctbutveryrealsense,thepurposeofthewrittenlawinIsraelitimpressedontheheathenmoralresponsibilityandthe
consciousnessofsin(Ro2:616).TheruleofrightandwrongPaulregardsasauniversalhumaninstitute,operatingsoastobringthewholeworldunder
judgmentbeforeGod(Ro3:919)itsactionismanifestedbytheuniversalincidenceofdeath:inthissense,andinthelightof2:1216,shouldbereadthe
obscureparenthesisofRo5:13f.,asstatingthatlawisconcomitantwithsintheexistenceofsin,followedbydeath,inthegenerationsbetweenAdamandMoses
provesthatlawwasthereallalong,whetherinalessoramoreexplicitformtheconnexionofsinanddeathinhumanityis,infact,afundamentallegalprinciple
(Ro8:2).
(d)Havingdiedtolawbyrenouncingthefutilesalvationitappearedtooffer,theApostlehadlearnedtolivetoitagaininabetterwayandunderanobler
form,sincehehadbeguntolivetoGodinChrist.St.PaulisatthefarthestremovefromAntinomianismthechargemadeagainsthimonthisscorewaswholly
mistaken.Whilenolongerunderlaw,heisnotlawlesstowardGod,butinlawtowardChrist(Ro6:14f.,1Co9:21).Theoldego,thefleshwithitspassionsand
lusts,hasbeencrucifiedwithChrist(Gal2:20,5:1624).Godslawceasestopressonhimasanexternalpowercounteractedbythelawofsininthemembers
thelatterhasbeenexpelledbytheSpiritofGodsSon,whichformsChristinhimthenew,ChristianmanisinlawasheisinChristheseesthelawnow
fromtheinside,initsunityandcharm,anditconstrainshimwiththeinwardforceofthelawoftheSpiritoflifeinChristJesuspossessinghisnature.Heserves
indeed,butitisinthenewlifewroughtoftheSpirit,andnotintheoldservitudetotheletter(Ro7:6).Constitutingnowonenewman,believersofeveryrace
andrankthroughloveserveoneanother,asthehandservestheeyeortheheadthefeetforthemthewholelawisfulfilledinoneword,Thoushaltlovethy
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andrankthroughloveserveoneanother,asthehandservestheeyeortheheadthefeetforthemthewholelawisfulfilledinoneword,Thoushaltlovethy
neighbourasthyself(Ro13:810,1
Co12:13,25f.,Gal5:13f.,Eph2:1618).TheChristianfulfilsthelawofChrist,asthelimbthelawofthehead.ThusSt.PaulsdoctrineoftheLawjoinshands
withthatofJesus(see1above).Thusalso,inhissystemofthought,thelawofGodrevealedintheOT,whenreceivedfromChristrevisedandspiritualized,and
plantedbyfaithalongwithHiminthebelieversheart(cf.Jer31:3134),becomesforthefirsttimereallyvalidandeffective:Dowenullifylawthroughfaith?
Godforbidnay,hecries,weestablishlaw!(Ro3:31).
(e)NeitherJesusnorPaulmakesaformaldistinctionbetweenthemoralandtheceremoniallaw(see,however,Ro9:4).St.Paulsteachingbearsmainlyonthe
former:asaPhariseehehadnoritualisticbent,andhisambitionwasforethicalperfection.Circumcisionhaslostinhiseyesallreligiousvalue,andremainsa
merenationalcustom,nowthatitceasestobethecovenantsignandisreplacedinthissensebybaptism(1Co7:18ff.,Gal6:16,Col2:11ff.).Itbecomesasnareto
Gentileswhenimposedonthemasnecessarytosalvation,oreventoadvancementinthefavourofGodforitbindsthemtokeepthewholelawofMoses,and
leadsintothefatalpathofjustificationbylaw(Gal2:25,3:2ff.,5:36).St.PaulscontentionwiththelegalistsofJerusalemonthisquestionwasalifeanddeath
struggle,touchingtheverytruthofthegospelandthefreedomoftheChurch(Ac15:111,Gal2:110,5:1).Thesameinterestswerethreatened,more
insidiously,bythesubsequentattempt,countenancedbyPeterandBarnabasatAntioch,toseparateJewishfromGentileChristiansattablethroughthereassertion
oftheMosaicdistinctionofmeatswhichhadbeenexpresslydiscardedbyJesus.TheassumptionofaprivilegedlegalstatuswithintheChurchmeantthesurrender
ofthewholeprincipleofsalvationbyfaithandofChristiansaintship(Gal2:1121,Ro14:17f.,1Co8:8cf.Mk7:1428).InsomeChurchesPaulhadtodealwith
theinculcationofJewishritualfromanotherpointofview.AtColossthedietaryrulesandsacredseasonsofMosaismwereimposedongroundsofascetic
discipline,andofreverencetowardsangelic(scil.astral)powershepronouncesthemvaluelessintheformerrespect,andinthelattertreasonoustowardsChrist,
whosuppliesthebodyofwhichthoseprescriptionswerebutashadow(Col2:1632).
3.Col2:17formsalinkbetweenthedoctrineofSt.PaulontheLawandthecomplementaryteachingofthewriterofHebrews,aJewofverydifferent
temperamentandantecedentsfromSaulofTarsus.Thisauthoremphasizestheceremonial,asPaulthemoral,factorsoftheOTthe
Temple,notthesynagogue,wasforhimthecentreofJudaism.Thefirstcovenant,hesays,hadordinancesofdivineservice,providingforandguardingmans
approachtoGodinworship(He9:1etc.)forSt.Paul,itconsistedchieflyofcommandmentsexpressedinordinances(Eph2:15),whichprescribethepathof
righteousnessindailylife.ThelawmeansforthisgreatChristianthinkertheinstitutionsoftheIsraelitepriesthood,sanctuary,sacrificesallconsummatedin
ChristandHisoneoffering,bywhichhehasperfectedforeverthemthataresanctified(He9:110:14).Inhisview,thelawissupersededastheimperfect,
provisional,andineffective,bytheperfect,permanent,andsatisfying,astheshadowyoutlinebythefullimageofthingsDivine(7:18f.,8:14,10:14)the
sanctuaryofthisworldgivesplacetoheavenitself,revealedasthetemplewherethegreathighpriestDivinehumaninperson,sinlessinnature,perfectedin
experience,andimmeasurablysuperiortotheAaronicorder(4:14ff.,7:26ff.,)appearsbeforethefaceofGodforus,havingenteredthroughthevirtueofhis
ownbloodasoursuretyandthemediatorofourcovenant,whohaswonformankindaneternalredemption(2:9,7:22,8:8,9:2428).Jesusthus
inauguratedanewandlivingwayintotheholyplace(incontrastwiththeoldanddeadwayofthelaw)asexperienceproves,Hehascleansedtheconscience
fromdeadworkstoservethelivingGod,whilethelawwithitsrepeatedanimalsacrificesservedtoremindmenoftheirsinsratherthantoremovethem(7:25,
9:14,10:14).EquallywithSt.Paul,theauctoradHebrosregardsremissionofsinsastheinitialblessingoftheChristianstate,whichhadbeenunattainable
underlaw,andthebloodofChristasthemeansofprocuringthisimmenseboon.InPaulsinterpretation,thisofferingjustifiestheunrighteousbeforeGodand
restoresthemtotheforfeitedstatusofsonshipintheinterpretationofHebrews,itcleansesworshippersandbringsthemnightoGodwithinHissanctuaryon
eitherview,thesacrificeofCalvaryremovestheharrierssetup,bymanssinunderthelaw,betweenhumanityandGod.
4.ForSt.JamesalsotheOTlawwastransformed.HeconceivesthechangeinalessradicalfashionthanPaulorthewriterofHebrewsJamesstandssturdily
ontheplatformoftheSermonontheMount.RecastbytheLordofgloryandchargedwiththewisdomthatcomethfromabove,thelawisnewandglorifiedin
hiseyeslikePaul,heknowsitasthelawofChrist.AllthedisciplesofJesuswereoneintheplacetheygavetothatwhichJamescallsthesovereignlaw,Thou
shaltlovethyneighbourasthyself(2:813cf.1Co13)deedsofpurebrotherlyloveprovefaithaliveandgenuinetheymakeitperfect,andguaranteethe
believersjustification
(ch.2).Whenhedescribesthislawasaperfectlaw,thelawofliberty,JamesideaissubstantiallythatofPaulin1Co9:21andRo8:2,4,viz.thatthelawofGod
isnoyokecompellingtheChristianmanfromwithout,butalifeactuatinghimfromwithinthebelieverbendsoveritincontemplation,tillhegrowsonewithit
(1:24cf.2Co3:18).Thetongueistheindexoftheheart,andSt.Jamesregardsitscontrolasasuresignofperfectioninlawkeeping(3:112).Jamestreatsofthe
law,not,likePaul,asitaffectsthesinnersstandingbeforeGod,nor,liketheauthorofHebrews,asitregulateshisapproachinworship,butasitgovernsthe
walkbeforeGodoftheprofessedbeliever.HisEpistleis,ineffect,acommentonthelastclauseofRo8:4,thattherighteousnessofthelawmaybefulfilledinus.
5.ThewordlawisentirelywantingintheEpistlesofSt.PeterandofSt.John.1P1:18,19,2:24,3:18manifesttheinfluenceofPaulsdoctrineofsalvation
onthewriterwhile1Jn1:7,9,indicatesaleaningtothemodeofrepresentationcharacteristicofHebrews,and1Jn2:2and4:10virtuallysustainthedoctrineof
St.Paulonlaw,sin,andsacrifice.
G.G.F INDLAY.
LAWGIVER.ThewordisfoundsixtimesintheAVoftheOT(Gn49:10,Nu21:18,Dt33:21,Ps60:7,108:8,Is33:22).TheHeb.mchqq,whichit
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LAWGIVER.ThewordisfoundsixtimesintheAVoftheOT(Gn49:10,Nu21:18,Dt33:21,Ps60:7,108:8,Is33:22).TheHeb.mchqq,whichit
translates,isfromarootmeaningtocutorengrave,andhencetoenactalaw,afterwardstobeengravedonthepublicarchives.TheHeb.wordappearstohave
twomeanings:(1)rulersoinDt33:21,whereRVmgivesruler,andinIs33:22,wheretheparallelismshowsthemeaningJehovahisourjudge,
Jehovahisourlawgiver.(2)RulersstaffsoinGn49:10,wherethewordisparalleltosceptre,andinPs60:7,108:8,wheretheRVrendersitJudahismy
sceptre.
IntheNTthewordlawgiver(Gr.nomothets)isfoundonceonly(Ja4:12)thereitisappliedtoGodasthelawgiverandjudge,whoisregardedasthe
SupremeSourceofalllaw.Otherpassages(He7:11,Ro9:4)wherekindredGr.wordsareused,haveareferencetothelawofMoses,or,tobemoreexact,thelaw
ofIsrael.
T.A.MOXON.
LAWYER.ThisterminScripturedoesnotbelongsomuchtothelegalastothereligioussphere.Thelawyersbusiedthemselveswiththestudyand
expositionoftheWrittenandtheOralLawofIsrael,andwerepracticallyidenticalwiththescribes(wh.see).
LAYINGONOFHANDS.Thisceremony,offrequentoccurrenceinbothOTandNT,isapieceofnaturalsymbolismwiththecentralideathatthrough
physicalcontactthepersonperformingitidentifieshimselfwiththeotherinthepresenceofGod.InOTthisisdonewithaviewtothetransference(a)ofaDivine
blessing(Gn48:14ff.cf.Nu27:18,23,Dt34:9)(b)ofaburdenofguilt(Lv1:4,4:3f.,24,16:21f.etc.).InNT,whileitisvariouslyemployed,thegeneralideais
alwaysthatofblessing.
1.ThesimplestcaseiswhenJesuslayshandsofblessingonthelittlechildren(Mt19:13,15||).ThefactthatthemothersdesiredHimtodososhowsthatthis
wasacustomofthetimeandpeople.ThenarrativeinMt.showsfurtherthat,asusedbyJesus,itwasnomagicalform,butthesymbolicexpressionofwhatwas
essentiallyanactofprayer(19:13).
2.InHisdeedsofhealingJesusconstantlymadeuseofthissymbol(Mk6:5,8:23,Lk4:40,
13:13cf.Mt9:18||,Mk7:32)anexamplewhichwasfollowedbytheApostolicChurch(Ac9:12,17,28:8).Inthesecases,however,besidesitsreligious
symbolism,theactmayfurtherhaveexpressedthehealerssympathy(cf.thehandlaidevenontheleper,Mk1:41,Lk5:13),orhavebeendesignedtobringa
reinforcementtofaith.
3.IntheearlyChurchtheimpositionofhandswasused,sometimesincloseassociationwiththeactofbaptism(Ac9:17,18,19:5,6cf.He6:2,which,
however,mayincludeallthevariouskindsoflayingonofhands),butsometimesquiteapartfromit(Ac8:17,19),asanaccompanimentofprayerthatbelievers
mightreceiveaspecialendowmentoftheHolyGhostincharismaticforms.Thatthisendowmentdoesnotmeantheessentialgiftofspirituallife,butsomekindof
manifestation(1Co12:7),isprovedwhenAc9:17(filledwiththeHolyGhost)iscomparedwithAc2:4,andwhen8:15,17isreadinthelightoftherequestof
SimonMagus(v.18ff.),and19:2inthelightof19:6.ThecaseofAnaniasandSaul(9:17)furtherprovesthatthelayingonofhandsforthispurposewasnota
peculiarApostolicprerogative.
4.Infourpassagesthelayingonofhandsisreferredtoinconnexionwithanactthatcorrespondstoordination(thewordinitsecclesiasticalsensedoesnot
occurinNT.OrdainedinAc14:23shouldbeelectedorappointedseeRV).TheSeven,afterbeingchosenbythemultitude,wereappointedtoofficebythe
Apostles,withprayerandthelayingonofhands(Ac6:6).TheprophetsandteachersoftheChurchatAntiochseparatedBarnabasandSaulfortheirmissionary
workbylayingtheirhandsonthemwithfastingandprayer(13:3).Timothyreceivedthegraciousgiftwhichwasinhimwiththelayingonofthehandsofabody
ofelders
(seeart.P RESBYTERY),withwhichSt.Paulhimselfwasassociated(cf.1Ti4:14with2Ti1:6).TimothysgraciousgiftprobablymeanshisspecialfitnesstobeSt.
Paulscompanionintheworkofamissionaryevangelist(seeHort,Chr.Ecclesia,p.184ff.).
5.OfthemannerinwhichdeaconsandeldersorbishopsweresetaparttoofficenoinformationisgiveninNT.Theinjunction,Layhandssuddenlyonno
man(1Ti5:22),hasoftenbeensupposedtorefertotheactofordinationbutthefactthatthewholepassage(vv.1925)dealswithoffenderspointsrathertothe
impositionofhandsintherestorationofthepenitent(cf.2Co2:6f.,Gal6:1),acustomthatcertainlyprevailedintheearlyChurchatalatertime.Thefact,however,
thatJewishRabbisemployedthisritewhenadisciplewasauthorizedtoteach,favourstheviewthatitwascommonlypractisedintheApostolicChurch,asitwas
almostuniversallyinthepostApostolic,inconsecrationtoministerialoffice.ButthesilenceoftheNTatthispointisagainstthesuppositionthattheritewas
regardedasanessentialchannelofministerialgrace,oranythingmorethantheoutwardandappropriatesymbolofanactofintercessoryprayer(seeMt19:13,Ac
6:6,13:3,28:8andcf.Augustine,deBaptismo,iii.16,Whatelseisthelayingonofhandsthanaprayeroverone?).See,further,art.BISHOP.
J.C.LAMBERT.
LAZARUS.AcommonJewishname,acolloquialabbreviationofEleazar.
1.ThebrotherofMarthaandMary,thefriendofJesus(Jn11:3,11,36,whereloveandfriendrepresentthesamerootinGreek).Thefamilylivedat
Bethany,avillagewithintwomilesofJerusalemjustoverthebrowofOlivet.LazaruswasthesubjectofthegreatestmiracleoftheGospelstory(Jn11:144).Inthe
lastyearofHisministryJesussojournedatJerusalemfromtheFeastofTabernaclesinOctobertothatoftheDedicationinDecemberand,onbeingdrivenoutby
theviolenceoftherulers(Jn10:31,39),HeretiredtoBethanybeyondJordan(10:40cf.1:28RV).AcrowdfollowedHimthither,andinthemidstofHis
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theviolenceoftherulers(Jn10:31,39),HeretiredtoBethanybeyondJordan(10:40cf.1:28RV).AcrowdfollowedHimthither,andinthemidstofHis
beneficentactivitiesofteachingandhealingtidingsreachedHimthatHisfriendhadfallensick.Hemighthaverespondedimmediatelytothesistersappealeither
byhasteningtotheirhomeandlayingHishandonthesickman,orbysendingforthHiswordofpowerandhealinghimacrosstheinterveningdistanceofsome
twentymiles(cf.Jn4:4654,Mt15:2128=Mk7:2430).ButHedidneitherHeremainedwhereHewasfortwodays,untilLazaruswasdead.Hedesirednot
onlytomanifestHispowertoHisfriends,buttomakeasignalappealtoimpenitentJerusalem,byworkingamiraclewhichwouldattestHisMessiahshipbeyondall
question.
AtlengthHesetforth.Ifthemessengerstartedinthemorning,hewouldreachJesusthesameevening.Jesusstayedtwodays,andsettingoutearlywouldarrive
ontheeveningofthefourthday.ThusonHisarrivalLazarushadbeendeadfourdays(v.39).Inthatsultryclimateburialfollowedimmediatelyondeath,andit
sometimeshappenedthataswoonwasmistakenfordeath,andtheburiedmancametolifeagain.TheJewishbeliefwasthatthesoulhoveredaboutthesepulchre
forthreedays,faintoreanimateitsclay.Onthefourthdaydecompositionsetin,andhopewasthenabandoned.Jesusarrivedonthefourthday,andtherewasno
doubtoftherealityofLazarusdeathandoftheensuingmiracle.Itwasnotarecoveryfromatrance,butaveritableresurrection.Hewenttotherockhewn
sepulchre,andinpresenceofthesistersandalargecompanyofmourners,includingmanyoftherulerswhohadcomefromtheadjacentcapitaltotestifytheir
esteemforthegoodLazarusandtheirsympathywithMarthaandMary(v.19),summonedthedeadmanforthandrestoredhim,aliveandwell,tohishome.Itwas
astartlingmiracle.Itmadeaprofoundimpressiononthemultitude,butitonlyexasperatedtherulers.TheyconvenedameetingoftheSanhedrinanddeterminedto
putJesustodeath(vv.47
53).
HeretiredtoEphraimnearthefrontierofSamaria,andstayedthereuntilthePassoverdrewnearthenHesetoutforJerusalemtokeeptheFeastandtodie.Six
daysbeforeitbegan(Jn12:1),HereachedBethany,anddespitetheSanhedrinsdecreeHereceivedagreatovation.Hewashonouredwithabanquetinthehouse
ofoneoftheleadingmenofthevillage,Simon,whohadbeenaleperandhadprobablybeenhealedbyJesus(Jn12:211=Mt26:613=Mk14:39).Lazarus
wasoneofthecompany.ThenewsofHisarrivalatBethanyreachedJerusalem,andnextdaythemultitudethrongedoutandescortedHimintriumphintothecity.
ItwastheraisingofLazarusthatexcitedtheirenthusiasm(Jn12:3,17,18).
AfterthisLazarusappearsnomoreintheGospelstory.SurelyheofallmenshouldhavestoodbyJesusatHistrialandcrucifixionandtheexplanationofhis
absenceisprobablythathehadbeenforcedtoflee.Observingthepopularenthusiasm,theinfuriatedrulershaddeterminedtoputhimalsotodeath(Jn12:10,11).
HewouldwithdrawmoreforJesussakethanforhisown.HispresenceonlyincreasedtheMastersdanger.
2.ThebeggarinourLordsparable(Lk16:1931).ThisistheonlyinstancewhereJesusgivesanametoaparaboliccharacter,andtherewasanideain
earlytimesthatitwasnotaparablebutastoryfromreallife.AnamewasfoundalsofortherichmanNinevisorPhinees.HeisoftenstyledDives,butthisis
merelyLatinfortheRichMan.Infact,however,Lazarusislessanamethanadefinition.ItmeansGodhashelpedandJesuscallsthebeggarLazarusbywayof
indicatingwhatcommendedhimtoGod.Hewasnotonlypoorbutalsodiseased.Itis,however,amistakennotionthathewasaleper(hencelazzeretto,lazar
house),forthenhemusthavekeptafaroffanddurstnothavelainattherichmansgateway.
Theparableisadramawithtwoscenes:(1)TheconditionsoftheRichManandtheBeggarheretheformerwithhismansion,hisfineclothing,hissumptuous
tableandthelatterlyingathisgateway,fullofsores,withnonetotendhim,hungrilyeyeingthefeast,andgladofanyscrapsthatwereflungtohim.(2)Their
conditionshereafterastrikingreversal:LazarusinAbrahamsbosom,i.e.theplaceofhonour(cf.Jn13:23),attheheavenlyfeasttheRichManinHades,thirsting
foradropofwater.
TheparableisclothedwithJewishimagery.Hellinv.23isHades,theGreekequivalentoftheHebrewSheol,theunseenworld,where,accordingtoJewishtheology,allsouls,
goodandbadalike,hadtheirabodeandreceivedtheirduereward.Itwasanaggravationofthemiseryofthewickedthattheyhadthefelicityoftherighteouscontinuallyinview
(cf.Rev14:10).Afeast,withAbrahamthefatherofthefaithfulpresiding,wastheJewishidealofthefelicityoftheMessianicKingdom(cf.Mt8:11).Jesus,everanxioustoappeal
toHishearers,hasclothedHisparablewiththisfamiliarimagery.
ThepurposeoftheparableisnottocondemnrichesandexaltpovertyinthespiritofEbioniticasceticism.ItisanenlargementoftheLordsadmonitioninv.9:
Maketoyourselvesfriendsbymeansofthemammonofunrighteousness,that,whenitshallfail,theymayreceiveyouintotheeternaltabernacles(RV).Themerit
ofLazaruswasnotthathewaspoor,butthathehadfoundhishelpinGodtheoffenceoftheRichManwasnotthathewasrich,butthathelivedaselfindulgent
andluxuriouslife,regardlessofthemiseryaroundhim.HadhemadefriendstohimselfofLazarusandotherslikehimbymeansofhismammonof
unrighteousness,hewouldhavehadaplaceandawelcomeamongthemwhenheenteredtheunseenworld.
DAVIDS MITH.
LEAD.SeeMININGANDMETALS.
LEAH.TheelderdaughterofLaban,marriedtoJacobbystratagem(Gn29:21ff.).JacobsloveforherwaslessthanforRachel(v.30)sometimessheissaid
tobehated(vv.31,33).ShewasthemotherofReuben,Simeon,Levi,Judah,Issachar,Zebulun,andadaughterDinah(29:3135,30:18,20,21).Shewasburied
inthecaveofMachpelahbeforeJacobwenttoEgypt
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inthecaveofMachpelahbeforeJacobwenttoEgypt
(49:31).SheismentionedinRu4:11.Hernameprobablymeansmistress,equivalenttoAssyrianliat(Haupt,GGN,1883,p.100,andothers).Thisispreferable
totheviewthatitmeanswildcow,fromtheArabic,chieflybecausethecorrespondenceinformofthewordsismoreexact.
GEORGER.BERRY.
LEASING.Aleasingisalie.Wyclifusesthewordoften.ThusJn8:44Whannehespekithalesinge,hespekitbofhisownethingisforheisalyiere,and
fadirofit.ThewordoccursinAVinPs4:2,5:6and2Es14:18.
LEATHER.SeeARTSANDCRAFTS,5.
LEAVEN.TheleavenbothofOTandofNTmaybeassumedtohavealwaysconsistedofapieceoffermenteddoughfromapreviousbaking.Thereisno
cleartrace,evenintheMishna,ofothersortsofleaven,suchastheleesofwineorthoseenumeratedbyPliny(Hist.Nat.xviii.26).Inordinarycases,inthe
preparationofthehouseholdbread,thelumpofdough,abovereferredto,waseitherbrokendownintothewaterinthekneadingtrough(seeBREAD)beforethe
freshflourwasadded,oritmightbehidinthelatterandkneadedalongwithit,asintheparable,Mt13:33.Thebreadmadefromdoughthuspreparedwas
leavenedbread(Ex12:16andoft.)cakesmadefromflourwithouttheadditionofleavenreceivedthespecialnamemazzoth,unleavenedcakes,whichgave
theirnametothefeastofunleavenedcakes(Ex23:15=etc,EVunleavenedbread).
TheprohibitionofleavenedbreadduringthecontinuanceofthisFeast,includingthe
Passover,isprobablyanotherillustrationofconservatisminritual,thenomadicancestorsoftheHebrews,liketheBedouinofthepresentday,havingmadetheir
breadwithoutleaven.ThefurtherexclusionofleavenfromtheofferingsplaceduponthealtarofJalthoughadmittedwhenthebreadwastobeeatenbythe
priests(Lv7:13,23:17)istobeexplained,likethesimilarexclusionofhoney,fromthestandpointthatfermentationimpliedaprocessofcorruptioninthedough.
Theantiquityofthisprohibitionisattestedbyitsoccurrenceintheearliestlegislation(Ex34:35,23:18).Itdoesnotseemtohavebeenobserved,however,inAmos
dayintheNorthernKingdom(seetheComm.onAm4:5).
Thisantiqueviewofleavenas(inPlutarchswords)itselftheoffspringofcorruption,andcorruptingthemassofdoughwithwhichithasbeenmixed,is
reflectedinthefigurativeuseofleaveninsuchpassagesasMt16:6||,andespeciallyintheproverbialsayingtwicequotedby
St.Paul,alittleleavenleaveneththewholelump(1Co5:8,Gal5:9cf.1Co5:7f.).InMt13:33,however,itisthesilentbutallpervadingactionofleaveninthe
massofthedoughthatisthepointofcomparison.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
LEBANA(Neh7:48)orLEBANAH(Ezr2:45).Theheadofafamilyofreturningexilescalledin1Es5:29Labana.
LEBANON,nowJebelLebnn,ismentionedmorethan60timesintheOT.Thename,fromtherootlbn(white),wasprobablygivenonaccountofthe
mountainscoveringofsnow.ThesnowofLebanonismentionedinJer18:14.Manypassagesrefertoitsbeauty,particularlyinrelationtoitscedarsandothertrees
(seePs72:16,Ca4:11,Hos14:5,7).FromLebanonwasobtainedwoodforbuildingthefirst(2Ch2:8)andthesecond(Ezr3:7)Temple.Lebanonwasfamousfor
itsfruitfulness(Ps72:16)anditswine(Hos14:7).
ThetermLebanonmaybeconsideredinmostplacesasreferringtothewholemountainmass,morecorrectlydistinguishedasLebanonandAntiLebanon
(LibanusandAntilibanusofJth1:7).ThetworangestraverseN.Syria,runningroughlyparallel,fromS.W.toN.E.,andareseparatedbyadeepvalleythe
biqahofJos11:17,12:7knowntodayaselBuqa.Thewesternrange,Lebanonproper,isnearly100mileslong,buttheeastern,ifHermonisdeductedasa
separateentity,isonly65mileslong.TheformerrangeisdividedfromthemountainsofGalileebythedeepchasmmadebytheLitniriverinitspassageseawards.
IntheN.asomewhatsimilargorgeformedbytheNahrelKebr,theancientEleutherus,dividesitfromtheJebelNusairiyeh.Thesummitsoftherangerisein
heightfromsouthtonorth.IntheS.afewpointsattaintoalmost7000feetinthecentre,E.ofBeyrout,JebelKuneisehis6960feet,andJebelSannn8554feet
furtherN.,totheS.E.ofTripoli,isagreatsemicirculargroupofmountains,sometimesknownastheCedargroup,onaccountofthefamousgroupofthesetrees
intheirmidst,wherethehighestpoint,JebelMukhmal,reaches10,207feet,andseveralotherpointsarealmostaslofty.GeologicallytheLebanonisbuiltofthree
maingroupsofstrata.Lowestcomesathicklayerofhardlimestone,namedafteritsmostcharacteristicfossil(Cidarisglandaria)Glandarialimestoneabove
thisarestrataofNubiansandstone,yellowandredincolour,andinplaces1500feetthick,overlaidandinterlacedwithstrataoflimestonecontainingfossil
echinodermsandammonitesandthirdly,abovethisgroup,andformingthebulkofthehighestpeaks,isanotherlayer,manythousandfeetthickinplaces,ofa
limestonecontainingcountlessfossilsknownashippurites,radiolites,andsuchlike.Thesandstonestrataaremostimportant,forwheretheycometothesurfaceis
therichestsoilandthemostplentifulwater,andhereflourishmostluxuriantlythepineswhicharesuchacharacteristicfeatureofW.Lebanonscenery.Agreat
contrastexistsbetweentheW.andE.slopes.Theformerarefertileandpicturesque,whiledowntheirinnumerablevalleyscoursenumberlessmountainstreamsto
feedthemanyriversflowingseawards.TheE.slopesarecomparativelybarren,and,exceptatonepoint,nearZahleh,thereisnostreamofimportance.Ofthe
LebanonriversbesidestheNahrLitni(Leontes)andtheNahrelKebr(Eleutherus),thefollowingmaybeenumeratedfromS.toN.asthemoreimportant:Nahr 18/48
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LebanonriversbesidestheNahrLitni(Leontes)andtheNahrelKebr(Eleutherus),thefollowingmaybeenumeratedfromS.toN.asthemoreimportant:Nahr
ezZaherani,NahrelAuwali(Bostrenus),NahrBeirt(Magoras),NahrelKelb(Lycus),NahrIbrahm(Adonis),andtheNahrQadshaorholyriver,nearTripoli.
TheLebanonisstillfairlywellwoodedinafewplaces,thoughveryscantilycomparedwithancienttimes,whenHiram,kingofTyre,suppliedSolomonwith
cedartrees,firtrees,andalgumtreesoutofLebanon(1K5:6,2Ch2:8).Inregardtocultivationtherehasbeenaverygreatimprovementinrecentyears,andthe
terracedlowerslopesofthemountainarenowcoveredwithmulberry,walnut,andolivetreesaswellasvines.ManyoftheviewsintheLebanonareofmost
romanticbeauty,andtheclimateofmanypartsissuperb.Wildanimalsarecertainlyscarcerthaninoldendays.InthetimeofTiglathpileser1.theelephantwas
huntedhere,butithaslongbeenextinct.Jackals,gazelles,hynas,wolves,bears,andpanthers(inorderofcommonness)arefoundand,inlandfromSidon,the
coney(Hyrax)abounds.
PoliticallytheLebanonrejoicesinafreerandbettergovernmentthananyotherpartofSyria,as,sincethemassacresof1860,aChristiangovernor,appointed
withtheapprovaloftheEuropeanPowers,rulesonbehalfoftheSultan.Thedistrict,exceptintheN.,isnowextensivelysuppliedwithexcellentcarriageroads,and
therangeiscrossedbytheFrenchrailwayfromBeyrouttoDamascus,thehighestpointtraversedbeing4880feetabovesealevel.
BetweentheLebanonandAntiLebanonisthegreathollowknowntotheGreeksasCleSyria,andtodaycalledBuqaelAzz.Consideredgeologically,this
widevalleyisaproductofthesamegreatfaultasproducedthedeepJordanvalley.Itisnowagreat,fertile,butlittlecultivated,plain,from3to6mileswide,and
initsrise,notfarfromBaalbek,twofamousrivers,theLitni(Leontes),whichflowsS.,andtheNahrelAsiorOrontes,whichflowsN.,andenterstheseanear
Antioch.Thishollowplain,besidesbeingcrossedtransverselybytheDamascusrailwayandroad,istraversedovermorethanhalfitslengthbythenewlinepast
Baalbek,Homs,andHamathtoAleppoSomepartofthisplain,thevalleyoftheLebanon,wouldappeartohavebeenconqueredbytheIsraelites(Jos11:17).
TheAntiLebanonistodayknownasJebeleshSherkiortheeastmountain,theequivalentofLebanontowardsthesunrisingofJos13:5.InCa7:4itis
referredtoasthetowerofLebanonthatlookethtowardsDamascus.InDt1:7,3:25,11:24,Jos1:4,9:1,theHeb.LebanonisintheLXXtr.AntiLebanon.Anti
LebanonissomewhatarbitrarilydividedfromHermon,whichisstructurallyitsS.extremity,bya,pass(alongwhichtheFrenchdiligenceroadruns),andespecially
bytheWadyBarada.IntheN.itterminatesintheplainaroundHoms.ItshighestpointisTlaatMsa(8755feet),butseveralotherpeaksarealmostaslofty.A
valley,liketheBuqainminiature,traversestheS.partoftherangefromN.toS.,andinthisrisestheNahrYaffeh,whichemptiesitswatersdowntheWady
YaffehtojointheLitniandtheNahrBarada,which,afterrisinginabeautifulpoolattheS.W.extremityofthisplain,runsdowntheWadyBaradatoDamascus.
TheN.partofthisrangeisverybareandwild.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
LEBAOTH.SeeBETHBIRI.
LEBBUS.SeeTHADDUS.
LEBKAMAI.InJer51:1isaphraseinthemidstofthemwhichriseupagainstme(Heb.lebqamai).Thisisgenerallyrecognizedasbeinganexampleof
theKabbalisticruleofhermeneuticswherebyacipherwordwasobtainedbytakingthelettersofthealphabetinthereverseorder,thelastforthefirst,thelastbut
oneforthesecond,andsoon.Bythisprocess(knownasAtbash),lebqamaigivesusKasdim(theChaldans).
W.F.COBB.
LEBONAH.AplacenearShilohonthewaytoShechem(Jg21:19).Itisprob.theruinKhanelLubban,about3milesW.N.W.ofSeiln(Shiloh).
LEOAH.ThesonofEr(1Ch4:21).
LEEKS,TheHeb.wordchtsr,whichiselsewheretr.grassorherb,isrenderedleeksinNu11:5,andinthispassage,owingtotheassociationwith
onionsandgarlic,thetr.isprobablycorrect,leeksbeingtheherbparexcellence.Theleek(Alliumporrum)ismuchgrowninPalestine,whereitisageneral
favourite.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
LEES.Thesedimentwhichsettledatthebottomofthewinejars,composedofmorselsofhusks,stalks,etc.inOTonlyinfigures.SeeWINEANDS TRONG
DRINK,3.
LEG.1.krayim,afem.dual,inwhichformaloneitappears(Ex12:9etc.).Itdenotesthelegsfromkneetoankle(Gesenius).2.regel(1S17:6),lit.foot.
3.shq,theleg,apparentlyincludingthethigh,forwhichitstandsinEx29:22,27,Lv7:32,33,34,8:25f.,9:21,10:14f.,Nu6:20,18:18,1S9:24,inallofwhich
AVtr.shoulder,butRV,correctly,thigh.InPs147:10shqhshmaymeanfootsoldiers.Theproverbialphrasehipandthigh,isliterallyleguponthigh
(Jg15:3),descriptiveoftheconfusionofseveredlimbs.4,shbel(Is47:2)meanstrain(RV,correctly,stripoffthetrain).5.skelos(Jn19:31ff.).Tohastenthe
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(Jg15:3),descriptiveoftheconfusionofseveredlimbs.4,shbel(Is47:2)meanstrain(RV,correctly,stripoffthetrain).5.skelos(Jn19:31ff.).Tohastenthe
deathofthecrucified,itwascustomarytobreaktheirlegs.
W.EWING.
LEGION.Thisterm,whichmeansliterallyagathering,looksbacktotheearlydaysoftheRomancitizenarmy.InthetimeoftheEmpireitindicatedaforce
ofabout6000infantry,togetherwithcomplementsofotherarms.Theinfantryproperweredividedintotencohorts(thewordistr.band[wh.see]inMt27:27,
Mk15:16,Jn18:3,12,Ac10:1,21:31,27:1),eachcontainingabout600men,andeachcommandedonoccasionbyamilitarytribune.Ofthesetribunestherewere
sixtoalegion.Acohortwasitselfsubdividedintotencenturies,eachcommandedbyacenturion.ItisnotnecessarytorememberallthesefactsinstudyingtheNT
useofthewordlegion(Mt26:53,Mk5:9,15,Lk8:30).WhatchieflyimpressedSemiteswasapparentlythesizeofthelegion,andlegionappearstohave
becomeaproverbamongthemforalargenumberofpersonsinorderlycombination.
A.S OUTER.
LEHABIM,occurringonlyinGn10:18(=1Ch1:11),aredescendantsofMizraim,theEgyptianeponym.Thegeneralopinionisthattheyarethesameasthe
Lubim(wh.see),whetherthewordisanalternativetraditionalpronunciationofthenameofthispeople,orwhether,asismoreprobable,theformheregivenisdue
totextualcorruption.ThefactthatLubimorLibyansisafairlycommonword,andthatitisnotfoundintheethnologicallistofGn10,whereitwouldnaturally
appearintheplaceofLehabim,addssomethingtotheevidenceofidentity.PerhapsLudim(wh.see)inthesameverseisanothervariant.
J.F.MCURDT.
LEHI(jawbone).ThesceneofSamsonswellknownadventurewiththejawboneofanass(Jg15:9,14,18).ThesitehasbeenplacedinJudah,betweenthe
CliffofEtamandthecountryofthePhilistines.
LEMUEL.Thenameofaking,otherwiseunknown,towhomPr31:19isaddressedbyhismother.Hisidentityhasbeenmuchdiscussedhehasbeen
identified(bytheRabbinicalcommentators)withSolomon,(byGrotius)withHezekiah.Cf.alsoMassa.Itispossiblethatthenameisafancifultitletorepresentany
virtuousking,inventedforthepurposeofconveyingcertainmaxims.
T.A.MOXON.
LENDING.SeeDEBT.
LENTILS(dshm.Gn25:34,2S17:28,23:11,Ezk4:9).Thesearewithoutdoubtthe
Arab,adasakindofsmallreddishbean,theproductofErvumlens,asmallleguminousplant6or8incheshigh,muchcultivatedinPalestine,andripeningin
JuneorJuly.Itisthebeanfromwhichthewellknownrevalenta,afoodforinvalids,ismade.InPalestineakindofpottageknownasmujedderah,universally
popular,ismadefromit.Itisofareddishbrowncolour,andiscertainlytheoriginalredpottageofEsau(Gn25:30).
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
LEOPARD(nmr).Thisanimal(Felispardus,Arab.nimr)isstillfoundattimesinthewilderpartsofPalestine.Itsbeautifulspottedskin(Jer5:6)isfromtime
totimebroughtintothetownsforsale.Somedervishesclothethemselvesinaleopardsskin.Itsfierceness(Hos13:7),itsagility(Hab1:8),anduntamableness(Is
11:6) are all mentioned. The name Nimris a favourite one with the Arabs, who admire these qualities. In the names waters of Nimrm (leopards, Is 15:6, Jer
48:34)andBethnimrah(f.leopard,Nu32:336)referencestotheleopardalsooccurcf.themountainsofnmrm(i.e.theleopards,Ca4:8).Thecheetah
(Felixjubata)isfoundalsoinGalilee,andittoomayhavebeenincludedundertheHeb.wordnmr.E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
LEPROSY.Thisterm,asusedinScripture,seemstoincludenotonlytrueleprosy(elephantiasis)probablythediseaseofJobbutalsosuchskindiseasesas
psoriasis,ringworm,andvitiligo.Forthepriestlyregulationsastothediagnosisofthediseaseandthetreatmentoflepers,seeart.CLEANANDUNCLEAN,5.The
leprosyingarments(Lv13:47ff.)seemstobeaneffectoffungusormildew,whilethatinhouses(14:34ff.)isprobablydryrot.
LESHEM.Aform,occurringonlyinJos19:47bis,ofthenameLaish(seeDAN).
LESSAU.AvillagewhereanencountertookplacebetweentheJewsandNicanor(2Mac14:16).Thesiteisunknown,andthetextisuncertain.
LET.InAngloSaxonltanmeanttopermitandlettan,tohinder.Incourseoftimebothwordswerespelledlet.ConsequentlyinAV,besidesitsmodern
meaningofpermit,thevb.letsometimeshastheoppositemeaningofhinder.Thus2Th2:7,onlyhewhonowlettethwilllet,untilhebetakenoutoftheway.
TheotherplacesareEx5:4,Nu22:16m,Is43:13,Wis7:22,Ro1:13.
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LETHECH,LETHEK.SeeWEIGHTSANDMEASURES.
LETTER.SeeWRITING.
LETUSHIM.OneoftheDedanitetribesinN.Arabia(Gn25:3),theothersbeingLeummimandAsshurim(wh.see).InthisverseLXXaddstwoothertribes
butintheparallelpassage,1Ch1:32,thesonsofDedanareomittedaltogetherbothinMTandinmostMSSofLXX.Noneofthethreetribeshasbeenidentified.
J.F.MCURDY.
LEUMMIM.AtribeoftheDedanites(Gn25:3).Cf.LETUSHIM.
LEVI.1.ThethirdsonofJacobbyLeah(Gn29:34[J]).Thegenealogicalstoryconnectsthenamewiththeverblwh,tobejoined,andP(Nu18:2,4)
playauponthesameword,sayingtoAaron:BringthetribeofLevithatitmaybejoined(yillw)untothee.Manymodernscholarsholdtothisimprobable
etymologyofthenameimprobable,amongotherreasons,because,unlikeothertribalnames,itisnotnominal,butadjectival.Itissaidtosignifytheonewho
attacheshimself.AccordinglytheLevitesarethosewhoattachedthemselvestotheSemiteswhomigratedbackfromtheDelta,therefore,Egyptians(Lagarde,Or.
ii.20,Mitt.i.54).Otherssaythosewhowereattachedtothearkaspriestlyattendants.Stillothersmakeitagentilicnoun,andconnectitwiththeSouthArabian
laviu,(f.laviat),priest.AgainstthisistheprimitiveuseofLeviteasoneofthetribeofLevi.ThewordisprobablyagentilicfromLeah(wildcow)asWellh.
(Proleg.146)suggests,andasStade(GVI152)asserts.Ifthisbecorrect,andithasthegreaterprobabilityinitsfavour,itpointstoearlytotemworship.
IntheBlessingofJacob(Gn49:57)wehaveoneofthemostimportantpassagesbearingupontheearlyhistoryofthistribeandthatofSimeon:
SimeonandLeviarebrethren
Weaponsofviolencearetheirswords.
Cursedbetheiranger,foritwasfierce
Andtheirwrath,foritwascruel
IwilldividetheminJacob,
AndscattertheminIsrael.
FromthispassageitisabundantlyevidentthatLeviwas,likealltheotherIsraelitishtribes,apurelysecularorganization.SimeonandLeviarebothsetforthas
bloodthirstycharacters,andthereisnottheslightesthintofLevibeingapriestlycaste.Thetreacherousactreferredto,whichwassoseriousaviolationoftribal
moralsthatitcostthemthesympathyoftheothertribes,isprobablyrecordedinGn34intwodifferentversions,theoldestofwhichisJa.Theothernow
interwovenwithitisprobablyPsenlargementoftheoriginal.Accordingtothestory,Shechem,thesonofHamor,becameenamouredofDinah,thesisterof
SimeonandLevi,andseducedher.Hemadeanhonourablearrangementtomarrythegirlandtodischargewhateverobligationsherfamilymightimposeuponhim.
SimeonandLevitookadvantageoftheShechemitesdisabilityandslewthem.Likeotherstories,thoughrelatedinpersonalform,itistribalinintention.Itportrays
earlyrelationsbetweentheIsraelitesandtheoriginalinhabitants.TheloveoftheShechemiteforthedaughterofJacobpointstosomesortofanallianceinwhich
therightofconnubiumwasacknowledged,andtheactofSimeonandLeviwas,therefore,abarbarousrepudiationoftherightsoftheirnativeallies.FromJg9itis
clearthatthesonsofHamorrepossessedthemselvesofthecity,theothertribeshavingwithheldtheirassistance,probablymorefromfearofCanaaniterevengethan
fromanyoverwhelmingmoraldetestationoftheact.Theresultwasfatalforthefutureofthetribes,atfirstmoreparticularlyforLevi,butlateralsoforSimeon.So
completewerethedisastrousconsequencestoLeviatthistimethatthetribalindependencewaslost,andthemembersbecameabsorbedbytheothertribes,
especiallybyJudah.ThereisnomentionofLeviandSimeoninJg5.
Some early connexion with Moses may have aided them in finding recognition about the sanctuaries in the early days. Then the altar did not call for a
consecratedservitorbut,asweseeinthecaseofMicah,whohadaprivatesanctuaryinEphraim,thereexistedapparentlyapreferenceforaLevite(Jg17).Itisnot
absolutelyclearfromthereferenceherethatLeviteisequaltopriest,asiscommonlyheld.ThiswouldimplythatbythistimeallLeviteswerepriests.Fillingup
ofthehand(translatedconsecratedinvv.6,12)mayrefertoaceremonyofinductionintothepriestlyoffice,theprincipalactofwhichwasthesolemnplacingof
the god (or other religious symbol) in the hands of the future officiant at the shrine. It is the phrase used by the Assyrian kings when they speak of the gods
bestowing upon them the kingship. It is the phrase which became the terminus technicus for consecration to the priesthood, and there is no reason for giving a
differentmeaningtoithere.InJg316thereisnomentionofapriest.Forthealtarservicealonepriestswerenotnecessary,asweseeinthecaseofGideonand
Manoah. The fact that the word levite became synonymous with priest indicates that the priesthood drew heavily from the tribe. It is not the only time that
worldlymisfortunehascontributedtoreligion.SeealsoP RIESTSANDLEVITES,TRIBESOFISRAEL.
2.SeeMATTHEW.3.4.TwoancestorsofJesus(Lk3:24,29).
JAMESA.CRAIG.
LEVIATHAN.Infourofthefivepassageswherethiswordappears,theLXXhavedragon,andtheirbeliefthatacreatureofserpentineformwasmeantis
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LEVIATHAN.Infourofthefivepassageswherethiswordappears,theLXXhavedragon,andtheirbeliefthatacreatureofserpentineformwasmeantis
coofirmedbythederivationofHeb.lavh,whichsignifiestotwistorwind.TheleviathanofJob41:134isthecrocodile,withaddedtraitsdrawnfromthe
ancientCreationmyths.OntheassumptionthatPs74:217referstotheExodus,weshouldagainfindthecrocodileinv.14.Butitisatleastequallyprobablethat
theallusionistothecreationoftheworld(vv.16,17),andtothemythologicalseamonstersthenvanquished.Leviathanherehasseveralheadsthegreatserpent
ofBabyloniantraditionhadseven.Is27:1distinguishesbetweentwoleviathans,theflyingserpent,andthecrookedorcoiledserpentsymbolsoftwoheathen
kingdoms.Theidentificationofthekingdomsdependsonthedateoftheprophecy:AssyriaandBabylon,PersiaandGreece,SyriaandParthia,arerival
suggestions.ThespeciesofseamonsterpointedtoinPs104:26isleftindefinite.Theleviathan(RVAVtheirmourning)arousedbymagicians(Job3:8)ismost
likelyadenizenoftheabysswhichthreatenstheworldwithdestruction.Many,however,takehimtobethemythicalskydragonwhichwassupposedtocause
eclipses.Itwillbenotedthatthereisacloseconnexionbetweenleviathanandthewateryworld.RobertsonSmithheldthatitisapersonificationofthewaterspout
(RS2,p.176).TheApocalypticand
Rabbinicalwritersgavefullscopetotheirfancyindealingwiththistheme.LeviathanandBehemothwerecreatedonthefifthday,andthedepthsoftheseawere
assignedtotheformerashisabodeduringthelastquarterofeachdayGodplayswithhim(astheLXXandsomerecentexpositorsinterpretPs104:26)theJordan
emptiesitselfintohismouthhisfleshwillbeforfoodtothegodlyinthedaysoftheMessiahpartofhisskinwillbemadeintoatentforthem,whilsttherestis
spreadonthewallsofJerusalem,anditsbrightnessisvisibletotheendsoftheearth(En60.7ff.,2Es6:40,Apoc.Bar29:4Abodazara,3bBababathra,74b
Targ.onNu11:26f.).
Cf.art.BEHEMOTH.
J.TAYLOR.
LEVIRATELAW.SeeMARRIAGE,4.
LEVIS.Wronglytakenin1Es9:14asapropernameinEzr10:15ShabbethaitheLevitestandsinplaceofLevisandSabbateus.
LEVITES.SeeLEVI,ANDP RIESTSANDLEVITES.
LEVITICALCITIES.SeeP RIESTSANDLEVITES,D.
LEVITICUS
1.Scope.ThebookhasreceiveditstitlefromthenametheLeviticalbook,whichwasprefixedtoitintheLXX.Since,however,thespecialfunctionsofthe
Levitesarenotreferredto,thescopeofthebookisbetterbroughtoutinthetitleLawofthePriests,whichisgiventoitintheTalmud.Assuch,Leviticus
practicallyconfinesitselftolegislation,and,exceptinthesectionchs.1726,topriestlylegislation.Eventhefewpassages,suchaschs.8and10,whicharecastin
theformofnarrative,donotaimatdescribingwhatoncehappened,butusethisforminordertoprescribewhatistocontinue.TheJEnarrative,whichwasa
history,doesnotappeartohavebeendrawnuponandLeviticus,unlikeExodusandNumbers,offersnoexactdatesofmonthandyear.Thebookdoesnotgivea
historyofIsraelspast,butchieflyembodiessomeoftherulesoftheonelivinginstitutionwhichpersistedinIsraelfromitsformationasanationtothedestruction
oftheTemple.Since,however,thisinstitutionwasmouldedtomeetthenationschangingcircumstances,thepraxiswhichregulateditsservicesrequiredand
receivedconstantmodification.SomeofthesechangescanbetracedinLeviticusbutitisimpossibletodetailtheminabriefsketchlikethepresent.Readerswho
wishmoredetailsontheritualcanfindthemandtheirjustificationintheart.inHastingsDB,orinDriversLOT.
2.SourcesThegeneraleditoristhesameastheeditorwhoarrangedExodusinitspresentform,thoughalittlehasbeenaddedbylaterhands.(1)Hetook
fromPthathistoryofthesacredinstitutionswhichappearedinEx2529(seeEXODUS):chs.8,9,with10:1215(whichsupplements9:21),10:17(:1620)16:2
4,6,12f.,24:14,59,Thesesectionsarenotallofthesameperiod.
Thusch.8,whichrelatestheanointingofthepriests,isthefulfilmentofEx29and40:1215.ItformedpartofthatexpansionofEx2529whichnowoccupiesEx3540,and
towhichalsobelong24:14ontheTabernaclelamps,vv.59ontheshewbreadsectionswhichinsomeinexplicablewayhavestrayedintotheirpresentincongruousposition.Ch.
9with10:1215,whichrecountsthesacrificesattheinaugurationoftheTabernacle,originallyformedthesequelofEx2529,andwasfollowedby10:17(thestoryofNadaband
Abihuofferingstrangefire),andwasclosedby16:24,6,12f.(theruleastothetimeandwayforAarontoapproachtheHolyPlacewhichhadthusvindicateditsawfulsanctity).
10:1620(onthegoatofthesinoffering)isalateraddition,andgivesaninterestingillustrationofthewayinwhichitwassoughttoreconciledifferencesintheolderlaws(cf.it
with9:15and6:2430).
(2)Chs.16.Intothisframeworktheeditorhasfittedlawsfromothersources.Thusheseemstohaveseparatedch.8fromitsnaturalpositionafterEx40,
becausehecounteditsuitable,aftertheTabernaclewassetupandbeforethepriestswereanointedortheTabernacleinaugurated,toinsertthelawsprescribingthe
sacrificeswhichthepriestswhenanointedweretoofferintheTabernacle.
Thislawbookhasitsownhistory,andinparticularonceexistedintwosections.Thus6:87:21,withitssubscription7:37f.,wasoriginallyacodeaddressedtothepriests,
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Thislawbookhasitsownhistory,andinparticularonceexistedintwosections.Thus6:87:21,withitssubscription7:37f.,wasoriginallyacodeaddressedtothepriests,
dealingwithmattersancillarytothesacrifices,andespeciallyconcernedwiththepriestlydues.Becauseofthisesotericcharacterofthelittlecode,6:2023(onthepriestsmeal
offering)wasinserted.Withtheexceptionofthatsection,eachoftheregulationsisintroducedbytheformulathisisthelawofandthisformulaappearsinthesubscription.
Itrepresentstheearlyrulesonthissubject.
Again,1:16:7isabookaddressedtothepeople,definingtheirsacrifices,butithasreceivedlargemodification.Fromacomparisonof1:2f.with3:1itisevidentthatch.3(the
lawofthepeaceoffering)oncefollowedimmediatelyonch.1(theburntoffering).Theseareprobablyveryold.Thedifferentformulusedinch.2(3rdpersoninvv.13,2nd
personinv.4ff.)anditsintrusivepositionprovethatthelawofthemealofferinghasbeendeveloped.Acomparisonbetweenthelawofthesinofferinginch.4andsimilarlaws
elsewhereproveshowlargelythispartoftheritualhasbeenelaborated.Thusthesinofferingforthecongregationisabullockinv.14insteadofthegoatof9:15andNu15:24and
thehighpriestssinoffering(vv.312)ismoreelaboratethanthatin9:811andEx29:1014,5:113(examplesofunintentionalsinswhichrequireasinoffering,andmitigations
forthecaseofthosewhocannotaffordalamboragoat)hassufferedchange,sincevv.2,3evidentlybreaktheconnexionbetweenv.1andv.4.Itis,however,olderthanch.4,
thoughtherelationisspeciallydifficulttodefine.5:156:7definesthecaseswhichrequireaguiltoffering,andmakesitclearthatoriginallythissacrificewasacompositionfor
fraudpractiseduponGod(5:15ff.)orman(6:17).Whenheunitedthesecodesonthesacrifices,theeditoraddedarule(7:2227)forbiddingfatandbloodmoreexpressivelythan
3:17,andarule(7:2834)givingheavelegandwavebreasttothepriest,andasubscription(v.35f.).
(3)Chs.1115.Thepriests,however,hadotherfunctionsinthelifeofthepeoplebesidesthoseimmediatelyconnectedwiththesacrifices.Itwastheir
businesstodetermineonallquestionsconnectedwithuncleanness.Assoon,therefore,astheeditorhaddescribedtheinaugurationoftheTabernacleandthe
priesthood,hegroupedtogetheraseriesofregulationsbearingonthissideofthepriestlyduties.
Chs.1115dealwiththismorecivilyetpriestlyfunction.Therulesinch.11oncleananduncleananimals(vv.223,4145,withtheirsubscriptionv.46f.)appearinamore
primitiveforminDt14:420,andhaveprobablybeentakenfromtheLawofHoliness(seebelow).Thelawofdefilementfromtouchinguncleananimalsandallcarcases(vv.24
40),whichprescribesalsothepurificationrequiredincaseofneglectoftheregulations,isignoredinthesubscriptionv.46f.andmustbeaninsertion.Chs.12,15prescribethe
formsofpurificationafterchildbirthandaftercertainphysicalsecretions.Intheirbasistheserulesareveryold,butthecarefuldetailofderivativeuncleanness(cf.esp.15:112,19
27)showswhereaslowelaborationhasbeenatwork.Chs.13,14containaseriesofdirectionsforthediagnosisofleprosyinhumanbeings,clothing,leather,andhouses,andfor
themethodofpurification.Theprimitivecharacteroftheprescribedpurification(14:28),alongwiththefactthatthiscanbecarriedoutapartfromtheTemple,provestheearly
originoftherules.Thegravityofthetaskthusimposedonthepriestandtheseriousissuesinvolvedmakeitevenprobablethatthedirectionswerenotlefttothediscretionof
individuals,butwereearlycommittedtowriting.
(4)Inch.16thesacrificialritualculminatesintheDayofAtonement.Thisembodiesveryoldelements(seeAZAZEL),buthasbeensoalteredthatitsoriginal
characterisnolongertobedistinguished.Thechapterinitspresentformcontainstwoparts.Thehistoricalintroduction(vv.14,6,12f.,onceconnectedwithch.
10)prescribeshowandwhenthehighpriestmayapproachtheHolyPlace.TheritualoftheDayofAtonement(vv.5,710,1534)wasunitedwiththis,becauseit
definesthepurposeforwhichthehighpriestmadehisannualentry.Theplacegiventothisritualafterchs.1115isappropriate,becauseinitssacrificespriestand
peopleunitedtomakeatonementforthesanctuaryandholythings,andpurgethemfromthepollutioncontractedthroughtheformsofuncleannessspecifiedin
thesechapters.
(5)LAWOFHOLINESSORH.Chs.1726formanindependentbodyoflaws,whichhavehadtheirownhistory,andwhich,afterreceivingsomethingoftheir
peculiarformfromanearliercollector,havebeenincorporated,afterconsiderablemodificationsbythegeneraleditor,intothegreaterlawbook.Thatthesewere
onceindependentisprovedby:(a)thelonghortatoryconclusioninch.26andtheopeninginstructionsastotheplaceofsacrifice(b)thepresenceinthemof
matterswhichhavealreadybeendealtwith(cf.,e.g.,17:1014with7:26f.,19:68with7:1518,20:25withch.11)(c)thefactthatthelawshaveamuchwider
scopethanthoseofchs.116.Butthisearlycodehasnotsurvivedinitsintegrity,for(i.)certainsubjectsarebrokenoffbeforecompletion(19:58,20:25)and(ii.)
thearrangementofsubjectsshowsaconsiderableconfusion(cf.19:58,2022,20:27).
Ch.17prescribesthatallanimalssuitableforsacrificemustbeslainatthesanctuary,thatsuchanimals,whensacrificed,mustbeofferedtoJahwehalone,thatbloodandthe
fleshofcarcasesmustnotbeeaten.Ifvv.16wereeverinforcewhiletheIsraelitesinhabitedPalestine,theorderrequiringeverygoat,sheep,oroxwhichwasslaughteredtobe
broughttotheJerusalemTemplepracticallymadeitillegaltokilltheseanimals.P,whichrequiredallsacrificestobebroughttotheJerusalemTempleastheonlysanctuary,
permittedallanimalstobefreelyslaughtered,butforbadetheeatingoffatandblood.Probablythecode,initsearlyform,recognizedthelocalsanctuaries,andrequiredthe
slaughterofanimalssuitableforsacrificetotakeplacebeforetheLord,i.e.atooeoftheseaccessibleshrines.Thechangeisduetothedesiretodiscredittheseshrines.
Ch.18isaseriesoflawsonincest(andMolechworship),withadmonitoryintroductionandconclusion.Ch.19containsagroupofmiscellaneouslaws,withintroductionand
conclusion.Theselaws,whicharecurtanddirect,giveaninterestingviewofthemoralsofearlyIsrael,andshouldbecomparedandcontrastedwiththerelativesectionsinEx20
23,Dt2225.Ch.20,whichisdifferentincharacterfromtheprecedingchapters,prescribesingeneralpenaltiesforcertainoffencesalreadyspecified.Initvv.1021(withthe
penaltiesforincest)maybetheconclusionofch.18.Thefact,however,thatitisfollowedbyaconclusion(vv.2224),whilech.18isprovidedwithitsown,hasledsometocount
thetwosectionsindependent.Again,vv.25f.showwherelawscorrespondingwithch.11,ifnotthatcollectionitself,originallystoodinHvv.26(againstMolechworship),vv.6,
2(againsttrafficwithfamiliarspirits),v.9(againstcursingfatherormother)mayhavebeenbroughttogetherhere,because,likemostofthelawsinvv.1021,theyprescribethe
deathpenalty.
Chs.21,22dealwithpriestsandofferings.Theystatetheceremonialrestraintsrequiredofthepriestsintheirdomesticlife(21:115),demandbodilyperfectioninevery
officiatingpriest(vv.1624),ordainthatsacrificialfoodmaybeeatenonlybythosewhoareceremoniallycleanandwhocanclaimmembershipinapriestlyfamily(22:116),and
requirethesacrificialanimalstobeperfect(vv.1725).Threeminorregulationsastothesacrifices(vv.2630)arefollowedbyanexhortation(vv.3133).Notonlytherecurrent
formula,IamtheLord,buttheinsistenceonaceremonialholiness,whichcharacterizestheearlycode,provesthatthebasisofthesechaptersisold.Thematerialhasbeenlargely23/48
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requirethesacrificialanimalstobeperfect(vv.1725).Threeminorregulationsastothesacrifices(vv.2630)arefollowedbyanexhortation(vv.3133).Notonlytherecurrent
formula,IamtheLord,buttheinsistenceonaceremonialholiness,whichcharacterizestheearlycode,provesthatthebasisofthesechaptersisold.Thematerialhasbeenlargely
revisedbyP,buttheelaborateanalysiscannotbeenteredintohere.
Ch.23isacalendarofthesacredseasons,whichhasnecessarilyreceivedmuchchange.Ingeneral,itmaybesaidthatvv.820,22,39b,4043,thoughnotleftwithoutminor
modifications,belongtotheearlycode.Herethefestivalsstillrepresentthereligiouslifeofapeoplewhichissettledonthelandandengagedinagriculture.Nomoreprecisedate
than,e.g.,whenyereaptheharvestofyourland,islaiddownforafestival,becausenootherwaspracticable.Thepeoplecelebratedtheharvestwhentheharvestwasgathered.
Theothersections(vv.18,21,2338,39ac,44)giverigiddatesandbetraythechangewhichbecamenecessary,assoonasmanyoftheworshipperswerenolongeragriculturists
andwerescatteredbeyondthelimitsofPalestine.Thedefinitedatesprescribedbyacentralizedpriesthoodbecameanecessityofthenationalandreligiouslife.Theselatersections
comefromP.
Ch.24(onvv.19seeabove)dealswithblasphemy(v.15f.)andinjuriestomenandcattle(vv.1722).Theseearlysectionscloselyresemblech.20,andmayoncehavestood
incloserconnexionwithit.ThepenaltypronouncedonblasphemywasspeciallyinterestingtoP,andwasillustratedbyanincidenttakenfromthedesertwanderings(vv.1014,23
cf.Nu15:3235).
Ch.25containstherulesfortheSabbaticalyear(vv.17,2022)andthosefortheyearofJubilee(vv.819,2355).Thesection,vv.2022,hasbeenseparatedfromits
originalcontextinordertomaketheregulationscontainedinitapplytotheJubileeaswellastheSabbaticalyear.Theanalysisofthechapterisveryuncertain.Hseemstohave
containedtheruleastotheSabbaticalyear(cf.vv.17withEx23:10f.andnotetheprominentinterestinagriculture).InconnexionwiththeJubilee,itorderedthatlandmustnot
bealienatedabsolutely,butmustreverttoitsoriginalownersattheJubilee(vv.1315).ItalsoprovidedforthereliefofanimpoverishedIsraelitebyordering:(a)thathisland
mightberedeemedbyakinsman(v.25)(b)thatusurywasnottobeexactedfromhim(vv.3538)(c)that,whenhewasinbondage,hemustbetreatedhumanely(vv.39,40a,
43,47,53,55).Ptookoverthisearlylawwithanumberofmodifications,addedfreshregulationsastotheredemptionofland(vv.9b,10b12,23,2534),andespecially
extendedthebenefitsoftheJubileefromlandtopersons(vv.40b42,4445,4852,54).Acomparisonofvv.4042withDt15:1218suggeststhatinthecourseoftimethelatter
rulehadprovedimpracticable,andthatthisrelaxationwasdesignedtotakeitsplace.
Ch.26,aftertwofragments,ofwhichv.1isparallelto19:4,andv.2identicalwith19:30,containsthehortatoryconclusion(vv.345),whichthecollectorofHappendedto
hislawbook.Itcloseswiththesubscription(v.46),whichtheeditorofLeviticusaddedwhenheinsertedthecollectioninispresentposition.Theresemblancesbetweenvv.345
andtheBookofEzekielaretoonumeroustobecataloguedhere,buttheydeservespecialattention.
AsHisevidentlyincompleteanditscharacterisstronglymarked,effortshavebeenmadetodetectfragmentsofitslegislationinotherpartsofthePentateuch.In
particular,Ex31:13,14a,LV11:123,4147,Nu15:3741havebeenasignedtoit.Itisnecessary,however,torememberthatunduestressshouldnotbelaidon
theappearanceofsuchcharacteristicformulasIamtheLord,IamtheLordwhichsanctifyyou,since,whenoncesomelawshadbeencountersignedbythese
formul,itwasnaturaltointroducethemintoothers.EveninthecaseofLv11:123,allthatcanbesaidisthatsimilarlegislationmusthavebeeninHitisunwise
tosupposethatthissectionbelongedtoH,forlawsofthistypemusthaveappearedinseveralofthecodes,andinthenatureofthecasethelanguageusedcouldnot
greatlyvary.
Thelawbookwhichisobtainedaftertheexcisionofthelaterelementsisavaluablesurvivalofoneofthecodeswhichrepresentedandguidedthelifeofearly
Israelunderthemonarchy.Toestimateit,bothinitsuniquenessandinitscommoncharacteristics,itisusefulbrieflytocompareHwiththeothercodeswhichhave
comedown.ThusitagreeswithDeut.andtheBookoftheCovenant(Ex2023)intheprominencegiventothesocialaswellastotheceremoniallifeofthepeople,
andintherecognitionthatthislifeisstilllargelyanagriculturallife.ItscloseraffinitytotheBookoftheCovenantisfoundintheconciseformulintowhichits
lawsarecast,asthoughtheyweremeantfordirectpopularuse,andinthefactthattheselawsareaddressedtothepeople,nottothepriest.ItresemblesDeut.very
closelyinforbiddingcertainformsofidolatryandsemiheathenpracticeswhichwerecommoninPalestine.Thetwocodesarepenetratedthroughoutbythesense
thatwhatgivesIsraelitsdistinctivecharacterisitsreligion,thoughtheyexpressthisindifferentwaysHdogmaticallyforbidding(forIamtheLord),Deut.
developingthereasonwhysomethingsareforbidden.Ontheotherhand,Dent.betraystheexistenceofamorecomplexanddevelopedsociallifethanH,though
thebasisforbothisstilltheland.ThusHleavesthegreatfestivalsconnectedwiththeagriculturallife,whileDeut.seekstoaddhistoricalmotivestothem,andthus
preparesforthetimewhenthepeople,eventhoughtornfromtheland,canfindabondofnationalandreligiouslifeinthesefestivals.Again,toHthecentralized
priesthoodanddevelopedritualofDeut.areunknown:itignoresthecentralsanctuaryandtheLevites.ThechiefdistinctionbetweenHandtheBookofthe
CovenantisthatHismoredetailedandshowsalargerinterestintheceremonialsideofIsraelslife.Thelatterpointmustnot,however,bepressedtoofar,sinceH
hasnotsurvivedinitsentirety,and,havingpassedthroughthehandsofaPriestlyeditor,mayhaveretainedmoreparticularlythosesectionswhichinterestedhim,
andwhichthereforemayhavebeenmadetoappearrelativelymoreconspicuous.
Further,whencomparedwithP,HdoesnotconceiveofIsraelasgroupedroundthesanctuary,butregardsthelocalsanctuariesasforminganelementinthe
popularlife.Itknowsnothingofthecentralizedandhierarchicalpriesthood,andthepriesthooditknowsisonesideofalargerlife,notitscontrollingfactor.Its
sacrificesaretheolderandsimplerburntofferingandthankoffering,withoutthedevelopmentofguiltandsinofferings.Though6:27betakentorepresentthe
earlysinofferingrequiredbythiscode,itsplaceisverysecondarycomparedwithP.ThelawsofHaregenerallycastintoconciseformultomeetpracticalneeds.
Theyarebackedcontinuallybyreligion,butthereligionsuppliesasanctionandacommandratherthanareasonandamotive.Thebookisspeciallyconsciousof
Israelsreligionasonewhichrequiresseparationfromallheathenpollution.Holinessisseparateness,forIJahwehsanctifyyou.Theperiodatwhichthelawswere
compiledisstilldebated,buttheaffinitybetweenHandEzekielissoclosethatadirectconnexionmustbepresumed.Thisaffinitydoesnotconsistincommon
phrases,norcanitbemeasuredbyidentityoflanguageitshowsitselfinthecommonpointofviewwhichjustifiedEzekielinborrowingphrases,becausenoothers
couldbefoundwhichweresoadequatetoembodyhismeaning.TobothholinessisthestampofIsraelsreligion,andthisholinessislargelyconstruedasabsence 24/48
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couldbefoundwhichweresoadequatetoembodyhismeaning.TobothholinessisthestampofIsraelsreligion,andthisholinessislargelyconstruedasabsence
ofceremonialpollutionapollutionwhichincludesmorethanethicalelements.Thelawbookprobablyaroseatsomesanctuaryotherthan
Jerusalem,andexpressedanddeterminedthereligiouslifewhichcentredthere.Assuch,itoffersawelcomeandpleasantsketchofpreexilicIsraelitishlife.It
probablyoweditssurvivalthroughtheExile,inspiteofthesuperiorinfluenceofDeut.,tothefactthatitdeeplyinfluencedthethoughtofEzekiel.Thepriest
prophetpreservedabooktowhichheowedsomuchanditisnotimpossiblethatcertainfeaturesintheconclusion(26:446)whichhaveseemedtoseveraltopoint
totheExile,maybeduetoEzekielhimselfortoamemberofhisschool.
Ch.27containsrulesonthecommutationofvowsandtithes.ItbelongstoP,andowesitspresentpositiontothefactthatitpresupposestheyearofJubilee(ch.25).
A.C.WELCH.
LEWD.IntheAVlewddoesnotalwaysmeanlustful,asitdoesnow.Thatmeaning,indeed,isnotfoundintheApocr.orNT.Therethemeaningissimply
wicked,asAc17:5
certainlewdfellowsofthebasersort.Solewdnessisusuallysimplywickedness.LIBANUS.The(Greek)formofthe(Heb.)nameLebanon(wh.see),1Es
4:48,5:65,2Es15:20,Jth1:7,Sir24:13,50:12[all].
LIBERTINES.Ac7:8bringstheLibertinesforwardasagrouporsynagogueamongsttheHellenisticJewsconcernedintheprosecutionofStephen.Thereis
nosufficientreasonforemendingthetext.And,thetextstandingasitis,theconclusionatoncefollowsthatthemeninquestioncamefromRome.TheLibertines,
orFreedmenofRome,wereaconsiderableclass.Amongthevastbodiesofslavescomposingtheimperialandaristocratichouseholds,emancipationwasa
commonoccurrence.TheFreedmenfrequentlyheldpositionsofgreatinfluence,andsometimesplayedanoble,ofteneranignoble,part.AmongsttheLibertines
werefoundmanyJews,notafewofthembeingthedescendantsoftheJerusalemites,carriedawaybyPompey.Someoftheselatter,havingboughttheirfreedom
andreturnedtotheHolyCity,wouldprobablybemenofmorethanaverageforceandearnestness.HencetheywerenaturalleadersintheoppositiontoStephens
destructivecriticismofJewishinstitutionalism.
HENRYS.NASH.
LIBERTY.Moralistsareaccustomedtodistinguishbetweenformalfreedom,ormansnaturalpowerofchoice,andrealfreedom,orpowertoacthabituallyin
accordancewiththetrueandgood.Scripturehaslittletosayonthemerepowerofchoice,whileeverywhererecognizingthispowerastheconditionofmorallife,
andseesreallibertyonlyinthepossessionandexerciseofwisdom,godliness,andvirtue.Wherethereisignoranceanderror,especiallywhenthisarisesfrommoral
causes(Ro1:21,Eph4:18,1Jn2:11etc.)subjectiontosinfullusts(Ro7:1423,Eph2:8,1P1:14,4:2,3cf.2:16etc.),fearanddistrustofGod(Ro8:15,He
12:1821etc.),bondagetotheletterofthelaw(Gal4:24,25)therecannotbeliberty.Sin,initsnature,isastateofservitude(Jn8:34).Spirituallibertyisthe
introductionintotheconditionwhichistheoppositeofthisintotheknowledgeandfriendshipofGod,theconsciousnessofcleansingfromguilt,deliverancefrom
sinstyranny,thepossessionofanewlifeintheSpirit,etc.EvenundertheLaw,saintscouldboastofameasureoflibertyGodscommandmentwasfoundbythem
tobeexceedingbroad(Ps119:46,96,cf.Ps51:11,12).Butthegospelgiveslibertyinadegree,andwithacompleteness,unknownundertheLawandunthought
ofinanyotherreligion.Itdoesthisbecauseitisthereligionofreconciliation,oftheSpirit,ofsonship,oflove.JesusalreadyteachesthatHisyokeiseasyandHis
burdenlightthisbecauseHeinculcatesmeeknessandlowlinessofheartaspiritlikeHisown(Mt11:29,30).HisreligionistoSt.Jamestheperfectlaw,thelaw
ofliberty(1:25).Theinstrumentinfreeingfrombondageisthetruth(Jn8:32)theagentistheSpiritofGod.WheretheSpiritoftheLordis,there,ofnecessity,
isliberty(2Co3:17).Astheresultofthereceptionofthetruthofthegospel,thebelieverknowshimselfjustifiedandsaved(Ro6:7),knowsGodasFather,andis
assuredofHislove(1Jn4:1416)receivesthespiritofadoption,inwhichisliberty(Ro8:15,16)experiencesdeliverancefromthedominionofsin(6:17,18,
7:25,8:2)issetfreefromtheyokeofoutwardobservances(Gal4:9,cf.5:1withfreedomdidChristsetusfreestandfast,therefore,etc.)hasvictoryoverthe
world(Gal4:14,1Jn5:4)livesinthepoweroftheSpirit(Gal5:1618,2225)hasreleasefromfearofdeath(He2:15),etc.Onthefreedomofmanswill,see
P REDESTINATION,p.749a.
JAMESORR.
LIBNAH.1.Anunidentifiedstationinthedesertwanderings(Nu33:20).2.ACanaanitecitytakenbyJoshuaafterMakkedahandbeforeLachish(Jos10:29
etc.),namedbetweenAradandAdullam(12:16),andbetweenMakkedahandEtherintheShephlah(15:42).ItwasgiventotheLevites(21:18,1Ch6:67).Taking
advantageofanEdomiterevolt,itroseagainstJudahunderJoram(2K8:22).ItwasbesiegedbySennacherib(2K19:8=Is37:8).Hamutal,motherofJehoahaz
andZedekiah,wasanativeofLibnah(2K23:31,24:18,Jer52:1).Thedistrictisclearlyindicated,butthesiteisstillunknown.Conder(PEFSt,1897,p.69)
suggestselBenawy,10milesS.E.ofLachish(TellelHesy).
W.EWING.
LIBNI.TheeldestsonofGershon,thatistosay,theeponymofaprincipalfamilyofGershoniteLevites,Ex6:17,Nu3:18,1Ch6:17,20.In1Ch6:29[Heb.25/48
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LIBNI.TheeldestsonofGershon,thatistosay,theeponymofaprincipalfamilyofGershoniteLevites,Ex6:17,Nu3:18,1Ch6:17,20.In1Ch6:29[Heb.
14],perhapsowingtosomedislocationofthetext,thenameappearsasthatoftheeponymofafamilyofMerarites.ThepatronymicLibnitesoccursinNu3:21,
26:58.Cf.LADAN.
LIBRARY.SeeWRITING,5.
LIBYA,LIBYANS.SeeLUBIM.
LICE(kinnm,Ex8:1618,Ps105:31cf.kn,Is51:6,seeGNAT).RVmsuggests
sandfliesorfleasinsteadoflice.AlltheinsectsnamedareonlytoocommoninPalestineandEgypt.Thethreewellknownvarietiesofpediculiorliceare
perpetuallyprevalentamongthedirty,andaplagueofthemwouldcertainlybemuchmoreterriblethanoneoftheharmless,thoughirritatingsandfly(Simulium),
andfarmoredisgustingthanoneoftheflea(Pulex).Cf.p.733b.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
LIDEBIR.SeeDEBIR,No.3,andLODEBAR.
LIE,LYING
1.IntheOT.Thesimplelie,whichisadeliberatesuppressionofthetruthinconversation,wascondemnedbytheLeviticalcodeascontrarytothecharacter
ofholinessdemandedby,andbecomingto,thepeopleofIsraelsholyGod(Lv19:11f.,cf.6:2f.).Perjury,asanaggravationoftheordinarysin,wasemphatically
condemned,andstringentlypunishedinthelegislativeenactmentsofIsrael(Ex23:1,Dt19:1620).Therecanbenodoubtthatthemoralconsciousnessofthe
Hebrewswasalivetothesinfulnessofdeceit(Pr19:22,21:28,24:28,25:18,30:5,6cf.Is58:11AVm).ThelyingselfishnessofCain,andthereprehensible
deceptionpractisedby
Abraham,arerecordedbythehistorianinatonewhichrevealshisattitudetowardssuchacts(Gn4:9,20:216,12:1120cf.2K5:2027whereGehazis
punishmentistherewardofhisthoughtlesslevityatatimeofnationalgloom,aswellasofhisdeceitfulconductandwords).Themoralreprobationoffalsehood
reachesitsclimaxintheutterancesoftheprophets.Accordingtotheseteachers,itisatthefoundationofallhumandepravity(Hos7:13,12:1,Mic6:11f.).Truth
canbearrivedatandspokenonlybythosewhoareinpersonaltouchwiththesacredFountainoftruth(cf.Is6:58).Indeed,someofthemostemphatic
declarationsastothemoralattributesofJehovaharebasedonthebeliefthatHeisaboveallelsetheGodoftruth(Nu23:19,1S15:28cf.Ps89:35,Ezk24:14,
Mal3:6f.see2Ti2:13,Tit1:2).HencetheenormityoftheguiltofthoseteacherswhohadnotJehovahasthesourceoftheirinspiration,thoughtheymightspeak
inHisname,whopanderedtotheprevailingmoraldegeneracy(Jer5:31,6:13,29:9,Ezk13:6cf.Wis14:28ff.etc.),orwhoencouragedtheirhearersinidolatry
withitsdebasingritual(Jer16:19,Jon2:8cf.Ps31:6).
AcuriousphenomenonintheOTistheboldspeculationwhichsoughttoexplaintheauthorshipofthelyinginstructionbywhichJehovahsenemieswereseducedtotheirown
destruction.ThefatuityofAhabsconduct,anditsfatalconsequences,aredetailedinthelightofthisconception(1K22),while,withastillmoreunequivocaldirectness,Samuelis
saidtohavebeencounselledbyGodtodeceiveSaul(1S16:1f.).Inbothinstancesthehistorianisevidentlyinterpretingeventsbytheideascurrentinhisday.
2.IntheNT.Falsehoodisheretracedbacktoitssourceintheprincipleofevil.JesusattributesitsorigintoSatan(Jn8:44cf.Ac5:3,Rev12:9).Membership
intheChristianbodypostulatedanewcreationinrighteousnessandholinessoftruth(Eph4:24f.)andforbadeonemembertolietoanother(Col3:9).
ThedenialoftheMessiahshipofJesusischaracterizedbytheJohannineauthorasalie(1Jn2:22),whilethesamewritermakesselfdeceitthecauseofthat
Pharisaiccomplacencywhichhesounsparinglycondemns(1Jn1:8ff.).ThePaulinerepresentationofpaganismbasesitsdegradingmoralInfluenceonthefactthat
itisfoundedessentiallyonalie(Ro1:22).
Theawfulfatewhichawaitsallliars(Rev21:8)istheoutcomeanddirectdevelopmentoftheOTjudgmentofthissin,foritfundamentallyestrangestheguilty
fromHimwhosewordistruth(Jn17:17cf.Rev21:27,22:16,andseePs51:6,24:4,119:160).Cf.alsoTRUTH.
J.R.WILLIS.
LIEUTENANT.SeeS ATRAP.
LIFE
I.INTHEOT
ThetermlifeinEVisused,withafewunimportantexceptions,astheequivalentofoneorotheroftwoHeb.expressions:(1)chai,ormostlyinplur.chayyim(2)nephesh.
TheLXXmakesageneraldistinctionbetweenthesetwo,byusuallyrenderingtheformeraszandthelatteraspsych.Theformertermoccursmorefrequentlythanthelatter.The
notionoflifeandthetermsusedtodenoteitbelong,likedeath,totheprimitiveelementsinhumanthoughtandspeech.Roughlyspeaking,wemayexplain(1)asprimarily=what
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notionoflifeandthetermsusedtodenoteitbelong,likedeath,totheprimitiveelementsinhumanthoughtandspeech.Roughlyspeaking,wemayexplain(1)asprimarily=what
isfresh,new,inactiveexistenceand(2)asprimarily=breath.
1.Selforiginatedmovement,especiallyasseeninlocomotionandbreathing,werenaturallytheearliestcriteriaoflife.Sostill,scientistsareinvestigatinglifeas
merelyamodeofmotion.Life,however,hasnotyetyieldedupitssecrettohumaninquirynotyethaslife,byanyexperiment,beenproducedfrompurely
inorganicorigins.MeantimethosewhodonotstumbleatatheisticviewofcreationholdanentirelyworthyandsatisfactorypositioninfollowingtheGenesis
Creationnarratives,andascribingtheoriginofalllifetoGod,whogivethtoalllifeandbreathandallthings(Ac17:25).Themysteryoflifeabides,butitisnotin
theleastlikelythatanyresultsofscientificinvestigationwilleverreallyconflictwiththisposition.
Lifeasaphysicalphenomenonispreeminentlyassociatedwithanimalsthelivingcreaturesofthesea,theland,andtheair(Gn1:21ff.).Plantlifeishardly
recognizedassuch.OTwritersdonotgosofarastopredicatelifeoftreesinmuchthesamewayasofanimals,asisthecasewithsomeoftheearlyGreek
philosophers(e.g.Aristotle,Eth.Nic.i.7,12).Stillgreenanddry,asappliedtoplants,correspondtolivinganddead.Thereisthefeelingthattreespossessa
sortoflifeandsuchreferencestotreesasthatconcerningthefreshsproutingofastockorroot(Job14:7ff.,Is11:1)areverysignificant.Noticealsothewayin
whichtheprosperityofmanislikenedtothatofaflourishingtree(Ps1:3etc.),andotherfrequentillustrativeuses.
Physicallifeisnotonlyprimitivelyconnectedwiththebreath,butalsowiththeblood.Theeffectofthedrainingawayoftheblood(asfromawound)inthe
lesseningvitalityofthebodyandfinallydeathamatterofearlyobservationnaturallyexplainsthis.Acertainsacrednessthusattachestotheblood(1S14:33ff.),
anddefiniteprohibitivelegislationrelatingtotheeatingoffleshwiththebloodbecomesincorporatedinthelawsofIsrael(Lv3:17,7:25etc.).Thisprimitive
conceptionofbloodastheseatoflifeliesattherootofthewholeOTsystemofsacrificesandofalltheScriptureIdeasandteachingsbasedthereupon.
Thesacrednessoflifeassuchisstronglyemphasized.Thegreatvalueascribedtohumanlifeisindicatedbythenumerouslawsrelatingtomanslaughterandto
offenceswhichinterfereinanywaywithamansrighttoliveandwithhisreasonableuseandenjoymentoflife.Thefeelingextendstoothercreatures.Seethe
suggestivewordsandalsomuchcattleinJon4:11.Thebeastsareassociatedwithmanshumiliationsandprivations(Jon3:7f.,Jl1:18,20)theirlifeisathingto
beconsidered.WefindthegroundofthisfeelingintheviewthatGodisnotonlytheoriginalCreatororSourceoflife,butdirectlyitsSustainerinallitsforms(Ps
36:6,Pss104,145passim).ThisseemsalsotobethefundamentalsignificanceoftheverycommonexpressionthelivingGod(lit.Godoflife).
2.Lifeispredominantlysetforthasmanssummumbonum.Lifeanddeatharerespectivelytheblessingandthecurse,andthatuniquely(Dt30:19).Choose
lifeistheappealpointingtotheonedesirableboon.EverymanshouldanswertothedescriptioninPs34:12.Thelanguagewhichdisparageslifeandpraisesdeath
(e.g.Job7:16,Ec4:1ff.etc.)istheexpressionofanabnormalstateoffeeling,theoutcomeofmansexperienceofmiseryinoneformandanother.Butitisnot
mereexistencethatisinitselfdesirable.AsOrrpointsout,lifeinitsScriptureusehasamoralandspiritualconnotation(ChristianView[1893],p.393)anditis
onlythegodlyandrighteouslifethatisaboonfromtheScripturepointofview.SuchistheburdenoftheWisdombooks,whentheyspeakoffindinglife,and
describewisdomasatreeoflife(Pr3:18,8:35).
3.TheideaofalifetocomeisinmanyportionsoftheOTconspicuousbyitsabsence.ThereisnothinganywherethatwillcomparewiththeNTconceptionof
eternallife.Thelatterexpression,itistrue,isfoundintheOT,butonlyonce,andthatinthelateHebrewBookofDaniel(12:2).Itistoberememberedthat,
thoughthisbookisinEVnumberedamongtheMajorProphets,itsaffinitiesarenotwiththatgroupbutratherwithlaterpostBiblicalJewishwritings.Inthese
writingstheuseofthisexpressionisbestillustrated.Enoch,Ps.Sol.,4Mac.furnishexamples.SeealsoinApocrypha,2Mac7:9,36.Lifealoneinthislateruse
comestobeusedas=lifeeternal.(See,e.g.,2Mac7:14cf.inNT,Mt7:14,19:17).LaterJewishuse,however,preferstheclearerphrase,lifeoftheageto
come:andalongthislinethegenesisofthetermeternallifemustbeexplained.(Cf.thelastclauseintheNiceneCreed:thelifeoftheworldtocome).Jewish
eschatologicalhopes,firstforthenationandafterwardsfortheindividual,contributedlargelytothedevelopmentofthisidea.
Atthesametime,thoughinsomepartsoftheOTthehopeoflifehereafterseemsexpresslyexcluded(see,e.g.,Is38:11,18,Ec9:5,10[Ec12:7isnotin
conflict,foritembodiestheideaofreabsorption,andisnottobereadinthelightofChristianhopeandteaching]),andthisworldaloneisknownasthelandof
theliving,theveryaskingofthequestioninJob14:14issignificant,andthelanguageofPs16concerningthepathoflifelendsitselfreadilytoaninterpretation
lookingtolifebeyonddeath.
II.INTHEAPOCRYPHA.Chs.15ofWis.yieldmuchthatisofinterestrelatingtocontemporaryJewishthoughte.g.Godistheauthoroflifebutnotof
death(1:13f.,2:23f.).Thewickedliveinharmonywiththesaying,Letuseatanddrink,fortomorrowwedie(ch.2).Therighteoushaveimmortalityastheir
inheritance,whilstthewickedshallbebroughttojudgmentandshallbedestroyed(chs.35).Foranimpressivepresentmentofafoolishappreciationoflife,
seealso15:7ff.InSir15:17Beforemanislifeanddeath,wehaveanechoofDt30:19.Theconceptionoflife(soul)asaloanthatcanberecalledisfoundin
Wis15:8,18,acloseparallelwithLk12:20.Suchphrasesasthefountainoflife(Sir21:13)andthetreeoflife(2Es2:12,8:52)recalltheiruseinbothOT
andNT.Fortheformer,seePs36:8,Pr10:11,Jn4:10,14forthelatterGn2:9,Rev2:7,22:2etc.2Es7furnishesanotableandpicturesqueviewoflife
beyonddeath,withthejudgmentoftherighteousandtheunrighteous.Seeespeciallythelongpassagebeginningatv.75.Thereturnofthespirittohimwho
gaveit,v.78,hasnoneofthelimitationsthatattendasimilarreferencetodeathinEc12:7.(Seeabove.)
III.INNT
ThetermlifeistheEng.equivalentofthreetermsusedintheoriginal(1)z.ThisisofmostfrequentoccurrencegenerallycorrespondingtochayyiminOT=lifeinthe
absolute:vitality:full,activeexistence.Itisthetermcapableofembodyingallprogressiveconceptionsastowhatconstituteslife,andsoregularlyoccurringinthephraseeternal
life.(2)psych,generally=OTnephesh,butthefluctuationbetweenlifeandsoul(see,e.g.,thewellknownpassageMt16:25f.)asitsrenderinginEnglishissignificant.The 27/48
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life.(2)psych,generally=OTnephesh,butthefluctuationbetweenlifeandsoul(see,e.g.,thewellknownpassageMt16:25f.)asitsrenderinginEnglishissignificant.The
primarynotionisthatoftheanimatingprinciple(incontrasttothebody).Itfurtherdenotesthespecificlifeorexistenceofanyindividual.Byaneasytransitionitcomestostand
foramansself(roughlysoul).(3)bios,occurringonlyafewtimes.=thepresentstateofexistence,thislifeasin
Lk8:14,1Ti2:2,2Ti2:4,1Jn2:16,3:17(z,however,issometimesusedinthissense,withthisorthepresentqualifyingit, e.g.1Co15:19)also=meansofsubsistence
andso=living(Lk8:43,15:12etc.).
1.TheteachingofJesus.AsregardsthepresentlifewegatherfromtheGospelsthatJesusneverbewaileditsbrevityandvanity.Themournfulnotesofsome
oftheOTScriptures,thepensivecommonplacesofsomuchofmansthoughtsandmoralizings,findnoechohere.Onthecontrary,inHisownlifeHegraciously
exemplifiesthejoiedevivre.ThisinonerespectwasmadeevenagroundofcomplaintagainstHim(Mt11:19).Thesacrednessoflifeisinsistedon,andtheSixth
Commandmentisaccentuated(Mt5:21).Thepreciousnessoflife,eveninitshumblestforms(sparrows,Mt10:29||Lk12:6),appearsinconnexionwithourLords
arrestingdoctrineofDivineProvidence,whichstandsinsuchunhesitatingdefianceofthesternerfeaturesoftheworldoflife(InMemoriam,lv.f.).
VeryconspicuouslyJesuscondemnsoveranxietyaboutthislifeanditsgoods.Simplicityanddetachmentinregardtothesethingsarerepeatedlyinsistedon
(see,e.g.,Mt6:19,31,Lk12:15).Certainlytheaccumulationofasuperabundanceofthegoodsoflifeattheexpenseofothersdeprivationandwantisindirect
oppositiontothespiritofHisteaching.Thedeep,paradoxicalsaying(Mt16:25f.)aboutlosingandfindingoneslifeisofsignificancehereasayingfoundnot
onlyinthethreeSynoptics(seeMk8:35,Lk9:24),butalsoinitssubstanceinJn12:25.
EternallifefiguresconspicuouslyintheteachingofJesus.Hedidnotoriginatetheexpression:itwasalreadyestablishedintheRabbinicalvocabulary.The
subjectwas,andcontinuedtobe,onegreatlydiscussedamongtheJews.ThephrasingofJesusaswhenHespeaksofinheriting(Mt19:29),having(Jn.
passim),receiving(Mk10:30),enteringinto,orattaining(Mt19:17),eternallife,orlifesimplyisalsothatoftheJewishteachersofHisownandalaterday.
(NoteeventhesignificanceofthewordinginMk10:17||).Lifealoneas=eternallifeisusedinMt7:14,Mk9:43etc.alsoinJohnsGospel(as3:36,10:10
etc.).(Seeabove.)
TheJohannineGospelconspicuouslygiveseternallifeasachieftopicofChriststeachingwhilstintheSynopticsthekingdomofGodholdsthe
correspondingplace.Theconnexionbetweenthetwoconceptionsisintimateandvital.Theprimarycharacteristicofeternallifeisthatitislifelivedundertherule
ofGod.ThedefinitionfoundinJn17:3(withwhichWis15:3invitescomparison)showshowessentiallyitisamatterofmoralandspiritualinterests.Thenotionof
everlastingnessratherfollowsfromthis:thefeelingthatdeathcannotdestroywhatispreciousinGodssight.Cf.Tennyson:
Transplantedhumanworth
Shallbloomtoprofitotherwhere.
Butthelifeisapresentpossession,anactualfactofexperience(Jn3:35,5:24,6:47etc.).Wehave,however,theindicationofaspecialassociationofeternallife
withthehereafterinMk10:30(intheworldtocome)Mt25:40.Cf.alsop.490a.
ItistheteachingofChristthathascausedthewordseternallifetobewritten,asitwere,acrossthefaceoftheNT.Stillmorearewetonoticetheuniqueclaim
madeastoHisrelationtothatlife.ThekeynoteoftheJohanninepresentationisinhimwaslife(Jn1:4),andthroughoutHeisconsistentlyrepresentedasgiving
andimpartingthislifetoHispeople.Notealso,itiseternallifeaspredicatedofthesethatisprincipally,ifnotexclusively,inviewintheEvangelicalteachingthere
islittleornothingonhumanimmortalityinthewidestsense.
2.TherestoftheNT.Theleadingthemeof.lJn.iseternallife,anditishandledincompleteaccordwiththeFourthGospel.St.Paulisinagreementwith
theJohannineteachingonthecardinaltopicofeternallife.HisEpistlesthrobwiththistheme,andheconspicuouslypresentsChristasthesourceofthislifeinits
fullestconception,ortheOnethroughwhomitismediated.SeeRo6:23,andnotehisstrongwayofidentifyingChristwiththislife,asinGal2:20,Ph1:21,Col
3:3,4.Christisalsopresentedasauthorormediatoroflifeinthewidestsense,thelifethatmovesinallcreatedthings(Col1:16,17cf.Jn1:3).St.Paul,again,uses
lifealoneascontainingalltheimplicatesofeternallife(Ro5:17,2Co5:4,Ph2:16).Thesupremelyethicalvalueassociatedwithlifeisseeninthedefinition
giveninRo8:6,withwhichcf.Jn17:3.ThenewlifeoftheSpiritasadynamicinthepresentandashavingthepromiseoffullfruitionineternity,iscentralinthe
ApostlesexpositionofChristianity.Fortherest,the
Apocalypseshouldbenoticedforitsuseofsuchimagesascrownoflife,bookoflife,fountain,river,andwateroflife,andthebookoflife(whichwealso
meetwithelsewhere)allembodyingtheChristianhopeofimmortality.
J.S.CLEMENS.
LIGHT.Totheancientmindlightwasaholything,andtheScripturesassociateitwithGod.Hedwellsinlight(Ex24:10,1Ti6:16)Heisclothedwithlight
(Ps104:2)Heislight,andinHimisnodarknessatall(1Jn1:5)HisgloryistheeffulgenceofHislight(Rev21:23).Cf.theancientGreekEveningHymnrendered
byKeble:Hail,gladdeningLight,ofHispureglorypoured,etc.HenceJesus,GodIncarnate,iscalledtheLightoftheworld(Jn1:4,5,9,18:12),aneffulgence
ofthegloryofGod(He1:3)andsalvationisdefinedaswalkinginHislightandbeingenlightenedbyit(Jn8:12,12:36,38,1Jn1:7,2Co4:6,Eph5:8,14,1Th
5:5,1P2:3).AndChristiansasHisrepresentativesandwitnessesarethelightoftheworld(Mt5:14,16,Ph2:15).Onthecontrary,agodlesslifeisdarkness(Jn
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5:5,1P2:3).AndChristiansasHisrepresentativesandwitnessesarethelightoftheworld(Mt5:14,16,Ph2:15).Onthecontrary,agodlesslifeisdarkness(Jn
3:10,8:12,12:46,1Jn2:11).
DAVIDS MITH.
LIGHTNING.OurcolloquialuseoffireforlightninghaditscounterpartinHeb.,e.g.insuchaphraseasfire(sh)andhail(Ex9:23etc.cf.Gn19:24,1
K18:38etc.).TheHeb.r(Job37:3)islit.lightbzq(Ezk1:14)shouldprobablyreadbrqlappd,lit.torch,isusedintheplur.forlightnings(Ex20:18)
awordofuncertainmeaning,chzz(Job28:26,38:35,Zec10:1),isevidentlyrelatedtothunder,andshouldprobablyineachcasebetr.thundercloud.The
usualHeb.wordisbrq,Gr.astrap(2S22:16etc.,Mt24:27etc.).Itisusedfig.fortheglitterofbrightmetal(Dt32:41,lit.thelightningofmyswordcf.Ezk
21:10,Nah3:3,Hab3:11),andfortheglitteringweaponitself(Job20:25).Itissuggested,eitherbytheflashofpolishedmetal,orbythespeedofthechariot(Nah
2:4).LightningisassociatedwiththeappearanceofGod(Ex19:16etc.),andHealonecancontrolit(Job38:33,Ps18:14).Withlightningsaswitharrows,God
scattersHisenemies(Ps144:5etc.).Aradiantface(Dn10:8),andgleaminggarments(Mt28:3),arelikelightning.Thereisvividsuggestivenessinthecomparison
ofSatansoverthrowwiththedescentoflightning(Lk10:18).Cf.thenameBarak(Jg4:6),withtheCarthaginianBarca.
W.EWING.
LIGNALOES.SeeALOES.
LIGURE.SeeJEWELSANDP RECIOUSS TONES.
LIKHI.TheeponymofaManassitefamily(1Ch7:18).
LIKING.InolderEnglishlikingwasusedfortheoutwardappearance,qualifiedbygoodorill.SoJob39:4Theiryoungonesareingoodliking.
LILITH.ThewordoccursonlyinIs34:14,andisrenderedinAVbyscreechowlandinRVbynightmonster.Belongingtothepostexilictime,itis
connectedwithJewishideasondemonswhich,asforeigninfluencebecamefelt,weredevelopedonthelinesofBabylonianandPersianmyths.TheLilithis
mentionedinconnexionwiththedesolationwhichwouldhauntEdomitwasahairymonster,andspeciallydangeroustoInfants(cf.Lamia).Strangestoriesare
toldaboutLilithbytheRabbins.Itwasanocturnalspectrewhoassumedtheformofabeautifulwomaninordertobeguileanddestroyyoungchildren.Inthe
TalmudsheisassociatedwiththelegendsofAdam,whosewifeshewasbeforeEvewascreated,andsobecamethemotherofthedemons.
T.A.MOXON.
LILY(shshan,1K7:10shshannah,2Ch4:5,Ca2:1,Hos14:5).TheHeb.wordisprobablyaloanwordfromtheEgyptianforthelotus.InArab,itis
ssan,whichincludesagreatnumberofalliedflowerslilies,irises,gladioli,etc.NodoubttheHeb.wordwasequallycomprehensive.Flowersofthisgroupare
veryplentifulinPalestine,theirisesbeingpreeminentfortheirhandsomeappearance.Thelilywork(1K7:19,22,26)islikelytohavebeenmodelledafterthe
lotus(Nymphalotus)itself:lotuslikeflowersappearonsomeJewishcoins.TheGr.krinonofMt6:28,Lk12:27probablyhadaswideasignificanceasshshan,
andincludedmuchmorethanactuallilies.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
LIME(sdh,LXXkonia)ismentionedbynameinEVonlyinIs33:12,Am2:1,Is33:12thepeoplesshallbeastheburningsoflime,i.e.theyshallheso
utterlyconsumedastobecomparabletotheheapofquicklimethatisleftafterlimestonehasbeenburnedinafurnace.InAm2:1theprophetdenouncesMoab
becausetheyburnedthebonesofthekingofEdomintolimephosphateoflimebeingthechiefingredientoftheashofwellburnedbones.InDt27:2,
4sdhoccursbothasvb.andnoun,butisrenderedplaister.ForIs27:9seeCHALKSTONES.
ThewhitedsepulchresofMt23:27andthewhitedwallofAc23:3areallusionstothewhitewashingoftombswithdilutedquicklimesoastorenderthem
conspicuous,andofwallsforpurposesofembellishment.
J.C.LAMBERT.
LINE.1.qaw,whichisofmostfrequentoccurrence,isproperlyameasuringline(e.g.Jer31:39,Ezk47:3,Zec1:16).Figurativelyitdenotesaruleoflife(cf.
preceptuponprecept,lineuponlineofIsaiahsteaching,Is28:10).Ps19:4theirlineisgoneoutthroughalltheearthhasbeenvariouslyinterpreted.TheLXX,
takingthelinetobearesonantcord,renderedbyphthonggosamusicalsound,andSt.PaulquotesthatversioninRo10:18(EVsound).Moreprobably,
however,theideaisstillthatofameasuringline.Cf.Perowne(Psalms,intoc.),whogiveslineorboundaryastheheavensseemstomeasureandmarkoutthe
earth(whencethetermhorizonorboundary).2.hebhel,aropeorcord,esp.ameasuringcordusedinmeasuringanddividingland(cf.Ps78:55,Am7:17,Zec
2:1).Thelinesarefallenuntomeinpleasantplaces(Ps16:6)alludestothemarkingoutofplotsoflandwithameasuringcord.3.tiqwh(fr.thesamerootasqaw)
isusedofthecordofscarletthreadthatRahabboundinthewindow(Jos2:18,21).4.cht,properlyasewingthread,onlyin1K7:15,5.pthl,astringorcord, 29/48
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2:1).Thelinesarefallenuntomeinpleasantplaces(Ps16:6)alludestothemarkingoutofplotsoflandwithameasuringcord.3.tiqwh(fr.thesamerootasqaw)
isusedofthecordofscarletthreadthatRahabboundinthewindow(Jos2:18,21).4.cht,properlyasewingthread,onlyin1K7:15,5.pthl,astringorcord,
onlyinEzk40:3,6.seredhinIs44:13ismisrenderedline,forwhichRVgivespencil,RVmredochre.7.InNTlineoccursonlyinAVof2Co10:18.TheGr.
wordiskann,ameasuringrod(AVmrule,RVprovince,RVmlimit),andso,figuratively,arule.ProbablytheApostlesideaisthatofameasuringline,as
definingtheboundarybetweenhisownprovinceandanothers.
J.C.LAMBERT.
LINENisclothmadefromthepreparedfibreofflax.InancientEgyptgreatproficiencywasattainedinitsmanufacture(Pliny,HNvii.56Strabo,xxvii.41
Herod.ii.182),andaflourishingtradewascarriedon(Pr7:16,Ezk27:7).AsmaterialofwearingapparelithasalwaysbeenesteemedintheEast.Inahotclimateit
tendstogreaterfreshnessandcleanlinessthancottonorwool.TheEgyptianpriestswereobligedtowearlinen(Herod.ii.37Wilk.Anc.Egyp.iii.117).Thecotton
garmentsmentionedontheRosettastonewereprobablywornoverthelinen,andleftoutsidewhenthepriestsenteredatemple.Theembalmedbodiesofmenand
animalswerewrappedinstripsoflinen.Noothermaterialwasusedforthispurpose(Wilk.ib.iii.115,116,484).PerhapswemaytraceEgyptianinfluenceinthe
placegiventolineninthehangings,etc.,oftheTabernacle,andinthegarmentsofthepriests(Ex25:4,26:1etc.,28:15etc.).Itformedpartoftheusualclothingof
royalty,andofthewealthyclasses(Gn41:42,Est8:15,Lk16:19).Itisthedresswornbypersonsengagedinreligiousservice.Thepriestsarethosewhoweara
linenephod(1S22:18).ThechildSamuelinShiloh(1S2:18),andDavid,bringingbacktheark(2S6:14etc.),alsowearthelinenephodcf.Ezk9:2,10:2,Dn
10:5.ItformedthegarmentoftheLevitesingers(2Ch5:12).ItwasthefittingraimentoftheLambswife,therighteousnessofthesaints(Rev19:3)
presumptuouslyassumedbythegreatcityBabylon(18:16)initarealsoarrayedthearmiesthatareinheaven(19:14).
NoclearanduniformdistinctioncanbedrawnbetweenseveralHeb.wordstr.linen.badappearstobealwaysusedofgarments(Gn41:42etc.),whileshshmayperhapsmean
thethread,asinthephrasebadoffinetwinedshsh(Ex39:28),theclothmadefromit(Ex25:4,26:1,Ezk27:7etc.),andalsogarments(Ex28:5etc.).Wecannot,indeed,be
certainthatlinenisalwaysintended(Guthe,Bib.Wrterbuch,s.v.).ThemodernArab.shashmeanscottongauze.btsisawordofAramanorigin,occurringonlyinlater
books(Ezk27:16,1Ch4:21,Est1:6),whencecomestheGr.byssos.whichcoveredbothbadandshsh(Jos.Ant.III.vi.1f.).Bylaterwritersitwastakentorepresentcotton(
LiddellandScott,s.v.).pishtmisageneralterm,denotingtheflax,oranythingmadefromit(Jos2:5,Jg15:14,Jer13:1etc.).sdnwasasheetinwhichthewholebodymightbe
wrapped(Jg14:12f.,Pr31:24etc.).ItprobablycorrespondedtothesindnlinenclothofMk14:51,andtheshroudofMt27:59etc.tm(Pr7:16)isprobablyfineEgyptian
thread,withwhichclothsandhaogiogswereornamented,othon(Ac10:11)isalargesheet:othonia(Jn19:40etc.)arestripsforbandages,molinon(Sir40:4)wasclothof
unbleachedflax,shaatnz(Lv19:19)wasprobablyclothcomposedoflinenandcotton.
Linenyarn(1K10:28,2Ch1:15,miqweh)shouldalmostcertainlyberenderedwithRV
drove.
W.EWING.
LINTEL.SeeHOUSE,6.
LINUS.OneoftheChristiansatRomefromwhomSt.PaulsendsgreetingsattheendoftheSecondEpistletoTimothy(4:21).Allwritersagreethatheis
identicalwiththefirstBishopofRome.ThusIrenus:PeterandPaul,whentheyfoundedandbuiltuptheChurchofRome,committedtheofficeofitsepiscopate
toLinus.AndEusebius:OftheChurchoftheRomansafterthemartyrdomofPaulandPeter,thefirsttobeappointedtotheofficeofBishopwasLinus,ofwhom
PaulmakesmentionattheendofhislettertoTimothy.Hisepiscopatelastedabouttwelveyears,butthereisconsiderabledifferenceofopinionastoitsdate.
MORLEYS TEVENSON.
LION
(1)ri,aryeh,fullgrownlion(Gn49:9,Jg14:8,2etc.).
(2)kphr,ayoungstronglion(Jg14:6,Job4:10,Ezk19:2etc.).
(3)lb(cf.Arab,labwah),speciallylioness(Gn49:9,Nu23:24,Job4:11etc.)andlbyyah(Ezk19:2).
(4)laysh,particularlyinpoetry(Job4:11,Pr30:30,Is30:6etc.).
(5)shachal,poetically,lit.theroarer(Job4:1010:18,28:8,Hos5:14,Ps91:13).
(6)benshachatsistr.inAVofJob28:8lionswhelps,butoughttobe,asinRVm,sonsofpride.
LionshavebeenextinctinPalestinesincethetimeoftheCrusades,butevidentlywereonceplentiful,especiallyinthethicketsalongtheJordan(Jer49:19,
50:44,Zec11:3).Theywereasourceofdangertomen(1K13:24f.,20:35,2K17:25),andespeciallytoshepherdsflocks(1S17:34,Is31:4,Am3:12,Mic5:8).
TheterrifyingroarofthelionisreferredtoinPr19:12,20:2etc.,anditiscomparedtothevoiceofGod(Jer25:30,Jl3:16,Am3:8).Metaphorically,Judahis
describedasalioninGn49:9,DaninDt33:22,andIsraelinNu23:24,24:9butintheNTthelionisusuallytypicalofSatan(1P5:8ct.Lionofthetribeof
Judah,Rev5:5).
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
LIP(Heb.sphh,sphmGr.cheitos).1.sphh,theusualOTword,andofveryfrequentoccurrence.Onlyrarelyarethelipsreferredtofromthepointof
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LIP(Heb.sphh,sphmGr.cheitos).1.sphh,theusualOTword,andofveryfrequentoccurrence.Onlyrarelyarethelipsreferredtofromthepointof
viewofdescriptionofphysicalbeautyandcharm(Ca4:3,11,5:13).Oncetheyareassociatedwithkissing(Pr24:26),oncewithdrinking(Ca7:9,withwhichcf.Ps
45:2),once(anthropomorphicallyofJ)asthesourcefromwhichthebreathissues(Is11:4)oncetheprotrusionofthelipsoccursasagestureofmockingcontempt
(Ps22:7).Twice(2K19:28,Is37:29)wehaveanallusiontothecruelAssyriancustomofpassingaringthroughthelipsofcaptivesandleadingthemaboutwitha
ropeorthong.Butinthegreatmajorityofcasesthelipsarereferredtoasorgansofspeech(Job27:4,Ps119:171,Pr15:7,24:2).Hence,accordingtothekindof
wordstheyutterandthequalityoftheheartfromwhichthewordscome,theyaredescribedfigurativelyasuncircumcised(Ex6:12,30),flattering(Ps12:2,8),
feigned(17:1),lying(31:18),joyful(63:5),perverse(Pr4:24),righteous(16:13),false(17:4),burning(26:23),unclean(Is6:5).Byanintensificationorextension
ofthisfigurativeuse,swordsaresaidtobeinthelips(Ps59:7),adderspoisontobeunderthem(140:3),orinthemaburningfire(Pr16:27).InIs57:18thefruit
ofthelips=praise.ForHos14:2seeCALVESOFTHELIPS.2.sphm(Ezk24:17,22,Mic3:7,onlyinthephrasecoverthelips),whoseequivalentismoustache,
itbeingtheEasterncustomtocoverthisasasignofstrickensorrow.3.cheitosoccurs6timesinNT,alwaysinquotationsfromLXX:Mt15:8andMk7:6=Is
29:18Ro3:13=Ps140:3[139:4]1Co14:21=Is28:11He13:15=Hos14:21P3:10=Ps34:18[33:14].
J.C.LAMBERT.
LIST.TheOldEng.vb.tolistoccursinMt17:12,Mk9:13,Jn3:8,Ja3:4.Itmeanstodesireorchoose.
LITTLEOWL.SeeOWL.
LIVELY.InAVlivelysometimesmeansliving.Thusin1P2:5Christiansarelivelystones,whileinthepreviousverseChristisalivingstone,though
theGr.wordisthesameinbothverses.TheotherpassagesareAc7:38livelyoraclesand1P1:3livelyhope.
LIVER(kbdh).1.Inthegreatmajorityofcaseswheretheliverismentioned,itisinconnexionwiththelawofsacrificeasprescribedinP(Ex29:13,22,Lv
3:4,10,16etc.),andalwaysinassociationwiththecaul(ythereth).TheLXX,followedbyJosephus(Ant.III.ix.2),takesytherethtobealobeoftheliverbutit
isnowagreedthatitdenotesthefattymassattheopeningofthatorgan.AccordingtoSemiticideas,apeculiarholinessbelongedtotheliverandkidneys(wh.see),
togetherwiththefatattachedtothemthereasonbeingthattheywereregardedasthespecialseatsnotonlyofemotionbutoflifeitself.Becauseofitssacredness
theliverwithitsfatwasnottobeeaten,butwastobeofferedinsacrificetoJ.2.Pr7:23tilladartstrikethroughhisliver,La2:11myliverispoureduponthe
earth(cf.Job16:13hepourethoutmygallupontheground)arefurtherillustrationsofthephysiologicalideasreferredtoabove.Eithertheyarestrong
expressionsforadeadlydisease,ortheydenotesorrowfulemotionofthemostpoignantkind.3.InEzk21:21thekingofBabylon,atthepartingoftheway,
lookedintheliverasoneofthethreeformsofdivinationheemployed.4.InTo6:416,8:2theliverofafishisusedforthepurposeofexorcism.See,further,art.
MAGICDIVINATIONANDS ORCERY,p.568b.
J.C.LAMBERT.
LIVINGCREATURES.SeeBEAST,No.2.
LIZARD
(1)lth,agenericnameforlizard.
(2)tsb(cf.Arab,dabb),tr.AVtortoise,RVgreatlizard.
(3)nqh,tr.AVferret,RVgecko.
(4)kach,tr.AVchameleon,RVlandcrocodile.
(5)chmet,tr.AVsnail,RVsandlizard.
(6)tinshemeth,tr.AVmole,RVchameleon(wh.see).
AllthesenamesoccurinLv11:2930,asuncleananimalsmostofthemareveryuncertain.
(7)smmth(Pr30:28),tr.AVspider,RVlizard.
LizardsareubiquitousandexceedinglyplentifulinPalestine:over40specieshavebeenidentified.Themostcommonisthegreenlizard(Lacertaviridis).The
Palestiniangecko(PtyodactylusHasselquistii)iscommoninallnativehousesitisabletowalkupthewallsandalongtheceilingsbymeansofthedisclikesuckers
attheendsofitstoes.Ifsmmthwas,asmanyscholarsclaim,alizard,thenprobablythegeckoisthespecialspeciesindicated.Thedabbisalargelizard
(Uromastixspinipes),withalongspinytail.Thesandlizardsorskinksarecommononsoft,sandysoilsevenspeciesarefoundinPalestine.Thelandcrocodile,
knowntotheArabsasthewarrel,isalargelizard,sometimesfivefeetlongtwospecieshavebeenfoundintheJordanvalleythePsammosaurusscineusandthe
Monitorniloticus.Thechameleonisdealtwithinaseparatearticle.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
LOAF.SeeBREAD.
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LOAF.SeeBREAD.
LOAMMI.AsymbolicalnamegiventoHoseasson(Hos1:9),signifyingnotmypeople,asLoruhamah,thenameofhisdaughter,signifiesnotpitied.
Opinionsaredividedastowhetherthesenamesareofactualpersonsusedsymbolically,orarepurelyallegorical.Seeart.HOSEA.
W.F.COBB.
LOAN.SeeDEBT.
LOCK.SeeHOUSE,6.
LOCUST
(1)arbeh(root=tomultiply)occursmorethan20timesinJg6:5,7:12,Job39:20,andJer46:23itis,however,tr.grasshopperinAV.
(2)chgb(tr.AVandRVlocustin2Ch7:13,elsewheregrasshopper),possiblyasmalllocust:seeLv11:22,Nu13:33,Ec12:5,is40:22.
(3)gbm(pl.),Am7:1,AVgrasshoppers,RVlocusts,AVmgreenwormsgbai,Nah3:17,AVgreatgrasshoppers,RVswarmsofgrasshoppers.
Theremainingwordsareveryuncertain.(4)gzm,tr.palmerworm(i.e.caterpillar).(5)yeleq,tr.(RV)cankerworm.(6) chsl,tr.caterpillar.(Jl1:4,2:25etc.)may
allbestagesinthedevelopmentofthelocust,ortheymay,moreprobably,besomevarietiesofgrasshoppers.(7)chargl,Lv11:22(mistranslatedinAVbeetleRVcricket),
and(8)Solm,Lv11:22.(tr.AVandRVbaldlocust),arealsosomevarietiesoflocustorgrasshopper(itisimpossibletobecertainofthevarietiesspecified).(9)tsltsal,Dt
28:42,fromarootmeaningwhirring,mayrefertothecicada,whichfillsthecountrysidewithitsstridentnoiseallthroughthehotsummer.
LocustsandgrasshoppersareincludedinthefamilyAcridid.Thelatterarealwaysplentiful,butthelocustsfortunatelydonotappearinswarms,exceptat
intervalsofyears.ThemostdestructivekindsareAcridiumperegrinumanddipodamigratoria.Whentheyarriveintheircountlessmillions,theydarkenthesky
(Ex10:15).ThepoeticaldescriptioninJl2:111isfulloffaithfultouchesparticularlytheextraordinarynoisetheymake(v.5)whentheyareallfeedingtogether.
TheirvoraciousonslaughtisreferredtoinIs33:4,andtheirsuddendisappearancewhentheyriseincloudstoseeknewfieldsfordestructionismentionedinNah
3:17.Theycleareverygreenthingintheirpath(Ex10:15).Nomoresuitablefigurecanbeconceivedforaninvadingarmy(Jg6:5,7:12,Jer46:23).When,some
fortyyearsago,theAneziBedouinfromE.oftheJordanswarmedontothePlainofEsdraelon,aneyewitnesslookingfromNazarethdescribedtheplainas
strippedutterlybare,justasifthelocustshadbeenoverit.Whenlocustsareblownseaward,theyfallintothewaterinvastnumbers(Ex10:19).Thepresentwriter
hasseenalongtheN.shoreoftheDeadSeaacontinuousridgeofdeadlocustswashedup.Thesmellofpilesofrottinglocustsisintolerable.Thefeeblenessand
insignificanceoftheselittleinsects,asviewedindividually,arereferredtoinNu13:33,Ps109:23,Is40:22.Locustsarestilleaten(cf.Mt3:4).SeeF OOD,8.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
LOD,LYDDA.AtownintheterritoryofBenjamin,notapparentlyofpreIsraeliteorigin,butbuilt(1Ch8:12),alongwithOne,bytheBenjamiteShemed(but
LuthenandAuanauoccursidebysideinthelistsofThothmes III.).ElsewhereitismentionedonlyinthepostCaptivitylists(Ezr2:33,Neh7:37,11:35)andin
connexionwiththehealingofneasatthisplace(Ac9:32).ItsinhabitantswereenslavedbyCassius,andfreedbyAntony(Jos.Ant.XIV.xi.2,xii.2).Cestius
Gallusburnedit,anditafterwardssurrenderedtoVespasian(BJ.II.xix.1,IV.viii.1).IntheMiddleAgesitwastheseatofabishopric.Itisacentreofthecultusof
thatstrangebeingcalledbytheChristiansSaintGeorge(towhomthechurchisdedicated),andbytheMuslimselKhudrprobablyanancientspiritofvegetation.It
wasknownasDiospolisintheByzantineperiod,butthedirtymoderntownwhichrepresentstheancientsiteretainstheoldnameLudd.R.A.S.MACALISTER.
LODDEUS(1Es8:45,46).Thecaptainintheplaceofthetreasury(orattheplaceCasiphia,Ezr8:17)towhomEzrasentforLevitescalledIddoinEzr
8:17.
LODEBAR.AplaceinGilead,nearto,andapparentlyeastfrom,Mahanaim.ItwastheretreatofMephiboshethtillhewassummonedtocourtbyDavid(2S
9:4,5).ItismentionedalsoupontheoccasionofDavidsflighttotheeastoftheJordan(17:27).Thesitehasnotbeenrecovered.ItisperhapsthesameasLidebir
ofJos13:26.
LODGE.SeeCUCUMBERS.
LOFT.SeeHOUSE,5.
LOG.SeeWEIGHTSANDMEASURES.
LOGIA.SeeGOSPELS,2(c).
LOGOS.InclassicalGreeklogossignifiesbothwordandreason,butintheLXXandtheNTitisused,withfewexceptions,intheformersenseonly.
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LOGOS.InclassicalGreeklogossignifiesbothwordandreason,butintheLXXandtheNTitisused,withfewexceptions,intheformersenseonly.
WhenitisGodswordthatisspokenof,itdenotesthedeclarationorrevelationoftheDivinewill,andspecificallytheChristiangospelastheutteranceoftheDivine
planofsalvation(e.g.Mt13:1923||,Ph1:14).ButintheProloguetotheFourthGospel(1:1[3times]14,withwhichcf.1Jn1:1[5:7ofAVisspuriousseeRV]
andRev19:13)Logos(EVWord)isappliedtoJesusChrist,andisusedtosetforthHispeculiargloryastheonlybegottenSonofGod,whoisalsotheLifeand
Lightofmen.ItiswiththisJohannineLogosthatwehavenowtodeal,andindoingsoitseemsnecessarytoconsider(1)thecontentofJohnsLogosdoctrine(2)
itssources(3)itsplaceintheFourthGospel(4)itstheologicalsignificance.
1.Content.ThreestagesappearintheexpositionoftheLogosdoctrinegiveninthePrologue.(a)First(vv.15),thenatureandfunctionsoftheLogosare
setforthinHisrelationstoGod,theworld,andman.HewaswithGodinthebeginning,i.e.HeeternallyheldarelationofcommunionwithHimasaseparate
personalityapersonalityitselfDivine,fortheWordwasGod.Astotheworld,itwasmadebyHim(v.3,cf.v.10),perhapswiththefurthersuggestionthatfrom
Himitdrawscontinuallythelifebywhichitissustained(v.4).ButfromHimthereflowsalsothehigherlifeofmanasaspiritualbeingpossessedofreasonand
conscience,forHislifebecomestheuniversallightofhumansouls(v.4,cf.v.9).(b)Thesecondstageoftheexposition(vv.513)isacontrastoftheLogoswith
thewordofGodthatcamebyJohntheBaptist.JohnwasnottheLighthecameonlytobearwitnessofit.TheLogosisthetrueLight,andthemediatorofDivine
lifetoallwhobelieveonHisname,(c)Finally(vv.1418),theauthordescribestheincarnationoftheLogosintheflesh,anddeclaresHisidentitywiththe
historicalJesusChrist,thebringerofgraceandtruth.Inv.18thewholePrologueissummedup.Herethewriterreturnstothepointfromwhichhesetout(cf.v.1),
buthisreadersnowunderstandthattheeternalLogosisonewithJesusChrist,theSonofGod.
2.Sources.(1)ForthesesomehavebeencontenttorefertotheOTandthepostcanonicalJewishwritings.Anditistruethataconnexionisclearlytobe
traced.WecanhardlymistakeareferenceinthePrologue(vv.1,3,4,10)tothecreativewordofGodinGn1.InthePsalmsandProphets,again,apersonification
ofthewordofJehovahiscommon(e.g.Ps33:6,Is55:11).AndintheWisdomliterature,bothcanonicalandapocryphal,thispersonifyingtendencyiscarriedstill
further(Pr8:2231,Sir24),thoughitisGodsWisdom,notHisWord,thatbecomesHisrepresentative,andafullpersonificationoftheWorddoesnotmeetustill
wehavereachedapointinJewishhistorywhereGreekinfluenceshavebeguntomakethemselvesfelt(Wis9:1,16:12).Allthis,however,isveryfarfrom
explainingtheJohannineLogosdoctrine.ThemostthatcanhesaidisthatthedoctrineoftheProloguereflectsatendencyofJewishthought,findingitsrootsinthe
OT,toconceiveoftheDivineselfrevelationasmediatedbythepersonifiedWisdomorWordofJehovah.
(2)SomehaveheldthatJohnsLogosdoctrinewasderivedentirelyfromtheJudoAlexandrianphilosophy,andspecificallyfromtheteachingofPhilo.From
earlytimestherehadgrownupamongtheGreeksaconceptionoftheLogosastheDivineReasonmanifestedintheuniverse,andexplaininghowGodcomesinto
relationwithit.TothisLogosphilosophyPlatosdoctrineofideashadcontributed,andafterwardstheStoicviewoftheLogosastherationalprincipleofthe
universe.InhiseffortstoblendJudaismwithHellenism,PhiloadoptedthetermasonefamiliaraliketoJewsandtoGreeks,andsoughttoshowbymeansof
allegoricalinterpretationsthatthetruephilosophyofGodandtheworldwasrevealedintheOT.AndSt.John,itissupposed,simplyappropriatedthisteaching,and
bymeansofanidealizingtreatmentofChristslifeconstructedinhisGospelaphilosophicaltreatiseonthedoctrineofPhilo.Thetheorybreaksdownonany
examination.ToPhilotheLogoswastheprincipleofReasontoSt.JohnHewastheDivinerevealingWord.PhilosLogosisnotreallypersonalSt.Johns
certainlyis.PhilodoesnotidentifytheLogoswiththeMessiahtoSt.JohnHeisnootherthantheChrist,theSaviouroftheworld.Philoseesintheflesha
principleopposedtotheGodheadSt.JohngloriesinthefactoftheIncarnation.WithPhilotheantithesisbetweenGodandtheworldisametaphysicalonewithSt.
Johnitisethicalandreligious.St.Johncannot,then,havederivedhisdoctrineoftheLogosfromPhilo.ButheundoubtedlyusedthetermbecausePhilohadmade
itfamiliartoGrcoJewishthoughtasameansofexpressingtheideaofamediationbetweenGodandtheuniverse,andalsobecausehehimselfhadreceived
certainformalinfluencesfromthePhilonicphilosophy(see,e.g.,thevaluebeassignstoknowledgehiscrystallizationofthegospelintosuchgeneraltermsas
light,truth,lifehisconstantantithesisoflightanddarkness).Apart,however,fromsuchformalinfluencesandtheconvenienceofafamiliarandsuggestive
term,therealsourceoftheJohanninelogosdoctrineisstilltoseek.
(3)ThatsourceisassuredlytobefoundintheactualhistoricalpersonalityofJesusHimselfaswefinditsetforthintherestofthisGospel.Moreandmoreit
becomesimpossibleforthecarefulstudentofthisbooktotreatitasaphilosophicalromanceinwhichapurelyidealizingtreatmentisgiventothefigureofJesus
moreandmorethesubstantialhistoricaltruthofthepresentationbecomesevident.And,assumingthesubstantialtruthofthenarrative,itseemsclearthatSt.John
useshisLogosconception,nottomanufacturetheLightoftheWorldoutoftheMessiahofIsrael,buttosetforth,inawaythatwouldappealtothemenofhis
ownplaceandtime,ChristsrealrelationstoGodandtheuniverseasthesehadbeenattestedbyHiswordsanddeeds,byHisdyingandrisingfromthedead,and
byallthefactsofHisselfrevelation.Wemustbearinmind,moreover,thatwhilethetermLogoswasanewonetobeappliedtoChrist,theplaceofdignityand
powerassignedtoHimbyJohnwasbynomeansnew.BothSt.PaulandtheauthorofHebrewshadtaughtthedoctrineofChristseternalSonship,andofHis
functionsasthecreatoroftheuniverseandtherevealeroftheFather(Ph2:511,Col1:1320,2:9,He1:14),andtheteachingofboth,alreadyfamiliarand
widelyacceptedintheChurch,issubsumedintheJohanninedoctrineoftheLogos.
3.PlaceintheFourthGospel.TheattempthasbeenmadetodistinguishbetweentheLogosdoctrineinthePrologueasHellenic,andtheGospelitselfas
PalestinianandithasbeenmaintainedthattheinfluenceoftheLogosideadoesnotextendbeyondthePrologue,andthatitwasmerelyintendedtointroduceto
GreekreadersthestoryoftheJewishMessiahwithaviewtomakingitmoreattractiveandintelligible.Wemayremindourselves,however,ofStraussscomparison
ofthisGospeltotheseamlessrobeofJesus,ajudgmentwhichhasbeenverifiedbynearlyeverycriticalstudentofwhateverschool.Itistruethatwhenwepass
beyondtheProloguethewordLogosisnotrepeated.TheauthornowhereputsitintothemouthofJesus,oneevidencesurelyofhishistoricalfidelity.But,all
thesame,thedoctrineoftheProloguemanifestlyworksrightthroughthenarrativefrombeginningtoend(seesuchpassagesas3:1321,6:5358,7:28,29,8:12,33/48
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thesame,thedoctrineoftheProloguemanifestlyworksrightthroughthenarrativefrombeginningtoend(seesuchpassagesas3:1321,6:5358,7:28,29,8:12,
14,16,10:29ff.,12:4450,14:611,17:5,8,24etc.).Itisverynoticeablethatin20:31,where,beforelayingdownhispen,thewriterrevealsthemotiveofhis
work,hereallysumsupthegreatideasofthePrologueashedeclaresthatJesusistheChrist,theSonofGod,andthatbelievingwemayhavelifethroughHis
name.TheLogos,then,isnotamerecatchword,putforthinordertoseizetheeyeandarousetheinterestoftheGreekreader.TheLogosideaunderliesthewhole
Gospel,andhasmuchtodowiththeauthorsselectionofhismaterials.InthePrologue,asinanyotherwellwrittenintroduction,theplanoftheworkissetout,and
theLogosdoctrineisstatedtherebecauseitsuppliesthekeytoarightunderstandingofthehistorythatfollows.
4.Theologicalsignificance.FromthetimeofJustin,andeversince,theLogosdoctrineofSt.JohnsProloguehasservedasthematerialofmanyaChristian
metaphysic.ItisnodoubtinevitablethatthisshouldbethecasebutwemustbecarefulnottomakeSt.Johnresponsibleforthetheologicalconstructionsthathave
beenwovenoutofhiswords.IfaninjusticeisdonehimwhenhisdoctrineoftheLogosissupposedtobenothingmorethanthefruitageofhisstudyofPhilo,
anotherinjusticeiscommittedwhenitisassumedthatheissettingforthhereeitherametaphysicoftheDivinenatureoraphilosophyoftheIncarnation.Itisplain,
onthecontrary,thatinallthathesaysitisthereligiousandethicalintereststhatareparamount.HeusestheLogosconceptionfortwogreatpurposes,tosetforth
Jesus(1)astheRevealerofGod,and(2)astheSaviourofmen.Thefirstoftheseideas,ashasbeensaid,isonethatwefindalreadyinthePaulineEpistlesandin
HebrewsbutbyhisemphasisontherelationsofFatherhoodandSonship
St.JohnimpartsapeculiarlymoralmeaningtotheessentialnatureoftheGodwhoisrevealedinChrist.Butitisaboveallforasoteriologicalpurposethatheseems
toemploytheLogosidea.TheLogos,whoisIdentifiedwithJesusChrist,comesforthfromthebosomoftheFather,bringinglifeandlighttomen.Hecomeswitha
gospelthatsupersedestheLawofMoses,foritisagospelofgraceaswellasoftruth.HimselftheSonofGod,HeofferstoallwhowillbelieveonHisnamethe
righttobecomethechildrenofGod.Andso,whiletheLogosisundoubtedlytheagentofGodscreativewill,HeisstillmoredistinctivelythemediatorofGods
redeemingpurpose.Itisthereforeasareligiouspower,notasametaphysicalmagnitude,thatSt.JohnbringsHimbeforeus.TheEvangelistshows,itistrue,asKirn
pointsout,thattheabsolutenessofChristshistoricalmissionandHisexclusivemediationoftheDivinesavinggraceareguaranteedbythefactthattherootsofHis
personal life reach Back into the eternal life of God. His Logos doctrine thus wards off every Christology that would see in Jesus no more than a prophetic
personality of the highest originality. But, while the Logos idea illuminates the history with the light of eternity, it can reveal eternity to us only in the ligbt of
history,notinitsownsupernaturallight(PRE3xi.605).
J.C.LAMBERT.
LOIS.ThegrandmotherofTimothy(2Ti1:5),andprobablythemotherofEunice,Timothysmother.ThenameisGreek.ThefamilylivedatLystra(Ac16:1),
whereSt.Paulfirstmadetheiracquaintance.LoiswasadevoutJewessbyconviction,whoinstructedherfamilydiligentlyintheHolyScriptures.
MORLEYS TEVENSON.
LONGSUFFERING.IntheOTtheRVusesthiswordonlyinJer15:15,whereitisthetranslationofaphraseusuallyrenderedslowtoanger(cf.Ex34:6,
Nu14:18,Ps86:15,inwhichpassagesAVhaslongsuffering).
IntheNTlongsufferingistheusualtr.ofmakrothumiaandthecorrespondingverb.(Theonlyexceptionsarepatience,He6:12,Ja5:10cf.vh.inMt18:25,
29,Ja5:7f.andadv.inAc26:3).TheRVimprovesonAVbyusinglongsufferinginLk18:7,1Th5:14.TheGr.wordmeansalongholdingoutofthemind
beforeitgivesroomtoactionorpassiongenerallytopassion.(Trench,SynonymsofNT,liii.)itimpliestheoppositeofshorttempercf.OldEng.longanimity.
IntheNTthelongsufferingofGodisregardedasaproofofHisgoodness(Ro
2:4hereandelsewherelongsuffering,||forbearance[aroch])andofhisfaithfulness(2P3:9,15)itismanifestedinthegraciousrestraintwhichcharacterizes
HisattitudetowardsthosewhodeserveHiswrath(Ro9:22,1P3:20).TheDivinelongsufferingisperfectlyexemplifiedinChristsdealingswithsinners(1Ti1:16).
Longsufferingis,therefore,aconspicuousgraceintheidealChristiancharacter(2Co6:5,Eph4:2,Col3:12,1Th5:14,2Ti3:10,4:2)itisviewedasanevidence
ofDivinestrengthening(Col1:11),asamanifestationoflove(1Co13:4),andasafruitoftheSpirit(Gal5:22).
J.G.TASKER.
LOOKINGGLASS.SeeGLASS.
LOOM.SeeS PINNINGANDWEAVING.
LOOPS.SeeTABERNACLE,5(a).
LORD.TheHeb.OThasthreeleadingnamesforGod:(1)thenameoffourletters(lelragrammaton)JHWH(familiartousintheincorrectformJehovah
therealvocalizationisalmostcertainlyJahweh[seeGOD,p.299b])(2)Adonai(3)Elohim.ByamisinterpretationofLv24:15theJewsshrankfromutteringthe
firstofthese,andaddedtoitsfourconsonants,intheirreadingoftheOT,thevowelsofeitherAdonaiorElohim.Whenthevowelsoftheformerwereadded,theAV
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firstofthese,andaddedtoitsfourconsonants,intheirreadingoftheOT,thevowelsofeitherAdonaiorElohim.Whenthevowelsoftheformerwereadded,theAV
andRVgenerallytranslatethewordbyLORDwhenthoseofthelatter,byGODusingsmallcapitalsineachcase.If,however,Adonaiisoriginallyinthetext,
theyrepresentitbyLord,usinganinitialcapitalonly.ThusintheOTLORDrepresentsJahwehwhenitwasreadasAdonaiandLordrepresentsAdonaiwhenit
standsintheoriginaltext.ThisdistinctiveprintingisnotobservedintheNT.ThereareseveralotherHebrewwordsintheOTexpressingthegeneralIdeaof
lordship,whicharerenderedbylord(Gn45:8,Jos13:3,Ezr8:25etc.).
IntheNTLordisusedonceastr.ofRabboni(Mk10:51),andfivetimesofdespots(Lk2:29,Ac4:24,2P2:1,Jude4,Rev6:10)inallthelattercasesthe
RVhasmasterintextormargin.Elsewhereitrepresentskyrios,applyingthetitle(1)toGod(Mt1:20,Ac5:19etc.)(2)toChrist(Lk6:46,Jn20:28etc.).Indeed,
asappliedtoChrist,itisthehighestconfessionofHisPerson(1Co12:3,Ro10:9,Rev19:16).TheformlordInNTindicatesmerepossessionofauthority(Mt
18:25,Lk16:8etc.).
CHARLEST.P.GRIERSON.
LORDOFHOSTS(Jahwehlsbth)appearsintheOTasatitleofGod282times,ofwhichallbut36arefoundinthePropheticalwritings.Thereis
considerableuncertaintyastowhatthetermhostssignifies,anditseemsbesttosupposethatitsmeaningunderwentmodificationsinthecourseoftime.Wecan,
perhaps,distinguishthreestages.
1.ItispossiblethatatonetimethetitlesuggestedtheideaofJahwehastheleaderoftheIsraeliteforces.Infavourofthisviewisthefactthattheword
tsbthoutsidethisphrasealwaysreferstobodiesofmen,andusuallytoIsraeliteforces.Thereisnodoubtthatintheearlystagesofthehistoryofthenationthe
popularviewofthefunctionsofJahwehwasconcentratedtoalargeextentonthispointthatHewastheguiderandcommanderofthearmiesinwarfareandthe
sameidealingeredlate,andliesatthebottomoftheobjectiontotheinstitutionofthemonarchywhichisputinSamuelsmouth(cf.1S8:20with1S12:12).Inthe
sameway,David,ashetauntsGoliath,saystohim,IcomeinthenameoftheLordofhosts,theGodofthearmiesofIsrael(1S17:45).Andoncemorethereis
evidentlyaspecialconnexionbetweenthetitleLordofhostsandtheArkwhichisregardedasthehabitationofJahwehinHiscapacityasWarGod(cf.1S4:3,6
8,5,6).Butthisexplanationoftheoriginofthetitle,asDelitzschpointedout,isgreatlyinvalidatedbythefactthatwedonotfinditintheperiodinwhichwe
shouldexpectittobemostcommon,thatis,inthewarsoftheWanderingintheWilderness.
2.Sowearebroughttoanotherview,whichmaymerelymarkalaterstage:thehostsarethespiritualforceswhichstandatGodsdisposal.SoinJos5:13,
14,whenJoshuaaskstheunknownwarriorwhetherheisontheirsideoronthatoftheirenemies,theimpliedansweroftheDivinestrangeristhathebelongsto
neitherside,butiscomeascaptainoftheLordshosttosuccourHispeople.FortheideaoftheangelichostengagedintheserviceofGod,cf.2S24:16,1K
22:19,2K6:17andintheNTMt26:52,Lk2:13,He1:14.
3.Thethirdstageisreachedintheprophets,esp.Isaiah,Jeremiah,Zechariah,andMalachi,wherethetitleassumesafarwidermeaningandembracesallthe
forcesoftheuniverse.Thetermhostofheaveniscommonlyusedoftheheavenlybodiestowhichthelaterkingspaididolatrousworship(cf.alsoGn2:1,Ps
33:6).AstheIdeaoftheomnipotenceofGodgrewloftierandwider,theelementalforcesofnaturewereregardedasperformingservicetotheirCreator.Sothesun
isGodsminister(Ps19:4,5),andevensoearlyastheSongofDeborahthestarsarerepresentedasjoiningbyGodsbehestinthebattleagainsttheinvader(Jg
5:20).HencethetermLordofhostsbecomeswiththeprophetsthehighestandmosttranscendentaltitleofGod,andisevenrenderedbytheLXXinacertain
numberofpassagesLordoftheforces(ofnature).ItservesasaconstantreminderoftheillimitablewidthofGodssway,andassuchitacquiresacloseconnexion
withtheothergreatattributeofGod,Hisholiness.HencewegetthesummitoftheOTcreedintheangelicsongofpraise,Is6:3,Holy,holy,holyistheLordof
hosts:thefulnessofthewholeearthishisglory.
IntheNT,withtheexceptionofaquotationfromIs1:9inRo9:29,thetermoccursonlyinJa5:4(inbothpassagesEVhastheformLordofSabaoth),where
itissingularlyappropriateinthepassionatedenunciationoftheoppressionpractisedbytheunscrupulouslandowners,recallingasitdoesthespiritoftheHebrew
prophets.
H.C.O.LANCHESTER.
LORDSDAY
1.Nameandorigin.ThetitleusedbySt.John(Rev1:10),probablytodescribethedayuponwhichtheChristianChurchinApostolicdaysassembledfor
worship.TheActsoftheApostlesshowsusthedisciplesofChristimmediatelyafterPentecostasacloselyunitedbody,ofoneheartandsoul,supportedbydaily
gatheringstogetherandtheEucharist(4:32,2:42,46).TheirnewfaithdidnotatfirstleadthemtocutthemselvesofffromtheiroldJewishworship,fortheirbeliefin
JesusasMessiahseemedtothemtoaddtoandfulfil,ratherthantoabolish,thereligionoftheirchildhood.ThisworshipofChristianswiththeirJewishfellow
countrymensecuredthecontinuationoftheChurchofGodfromonedispensationtoanotherwhiletheirexclusivelyChristianEucharistsconsolidatedtheChurch
andenabledittodiscoveritself.
ThedaityworshipoftheChristianChurchwouldnodoubtsoonproveimpracticable,andaweeklygatheringbecomecustomary.Forthisweeklygatheringthe
Sabbathwasunsuitable,asbeingthenobservedinaspiritradicallydifferentfromthejoyandlibertyofthenewfaithdoubtlessalsotherestrictionsastolengthof
aSabbathdaysjourneywouldproveabartothegatheringtogetherofthelittlebody.Oftheothersixdaysnonesonaturallysuggesteditselfasthefirst.Toitour
LordhadgrantedacertainapprovalforonitHerosefromthegraveandappearedtoHisdisciples,andonthefollowingSundayrepeatedHisvisitationwhile,if 35/48
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LordhadgrantedacertainapprovalforonitHerosefromthegraveandappearedtoHisdisciples,andonthefollowingSundayrepeatedHisvisitationwhile,if
Pentecostthatyearfellonthefirstdayoftheweek(whichitdidifthechronologyofSt.Johnbefollowed),itreceivedafinalsealasthespecialdayofgrace.
ThatthisdaywasactuallychosenisseenintheNT(Ac20:7,1Co16:2).AndmentionofitisfoundintheliteratureimmediatelyfollowingtheApostolic
writings.
NottheleastinterestingevidenceisfoundinareporttotheEmperorTrajanwrittenbyPliny,aheathenmagistrate,notlongafterthedeathofSt.John,whichmentionsthatthe
customoftheChristianswastomeettogetherearlyinthemorningonacertainfixeddayandsinghymnstoChristasagod,andbindthemselvesbyasacramentumtocommitno
crime.Ignatius,theearliestofpostApostolicChristianwriters,alsospeaksofit,tellingtheMagnesianstoleadalifecomformabletotheLordsDay.
AndfromthentonowacontinuousstreamofevidenceshowsthattheChurchhasfaithfullyobservedthecustomeversince.
ThetitlebywhichearlyChristianwritersusuallycalledthefestivalwastheLordsDaybutbeforelongtheChurchfeltnodifficultyinadoptingtheheathen
titleofSunday,realizingthatasonthatdaylightwascreated,andtheSunofRighteousnessaroseonit,therewastothemapeculiarfitnessinthename.
ThemostvaluableevidenceastothemethodbywhichtheearlyChurchobservedthedayisfoundinJustinMartyrsApotogy(i.67,A.D.120),whereweread
thatonthedaycalledSundaytheChristiansmettogether,outofbothcityandcountry,andheldareligiousserviceatwhichfirstthewritingsofApostlesand
Prophetswerereadthenthepresidentpreachedafterwhichcommonprayersweresaidandwhenthesewereended,breadandwinewerebroughttothepresident,
whoutteredprayersandthanksgivings,towhichthepeoplesaid,AmenallpresentthenparticipatedintheEucharist,thedeaconscarryingittotheabsent.Thusit
isclearthattheearlyChurchcontinuedtheApostoliccustom(Ac20:7)ofcelebratingtheLordsSuppereveryLordsDayacustomsowidespreadastoenable
ChrysostomtocallSundaydiespanis,orthedayofbread.
2.RelationtotheSabbath.TherelationoftheLordsDaytotheSabbathisbestdefinedasoneofcloseaffinityratherthanofidentity.TheSabbathwas
originallyinstitutedasaprovisionfordeepphysicalandspiritualneedsofhumannature.ItsprangfromtheloveofGodforman,providingbyreligioussanctionfor
thedefinitesettingapartoftheseventhdayasatimeforrestfromlabourandforcommunionwithGod.OurLordfoundtheoriginalinstitutionalmosthidden
beneathamassoftraditionalregulations.ThushisactiontowardstheSabbathasHefoundit,wastobringmenbacktoitsfirstideal.ThisHedidbyshowingthat
theirtraditiontoldhowDavidbroketheletterofitsregulationandyetwasguiltless(Lk6:3)howcharityandcommonsenseledmentobreaktheirownrules
(13:15)howtheSabbathwasgrantedtomanasablessingandnotlaidonhimasaburden(Mk2:27)andhowHeasSonofMan,fulfillingidealmanhood,wasits
Lord(2:28)butwhileourLordthuspurifiedtheSabbath,thereisnoproofthatHeabolishedit.Heforeknewitsultimateabolition,asHeforeknewtheultimate
destructionoftheTempleandHecleanseditasHecleansedtheTemple.
WecanbestseeChristswillregardingtheSabbathandtheLordsDayinwhatactuallyhappened.ForwhathappenedhaditsriseinApostolictimes,andhas
beenadoptedbytheChurchuniversaleversince,andisthusassuredlyHiswillaswroughtbytheSpirit.TheActsshowsusthattheChristianswhowereoriginally
JewsobservedboththeSabbathandtheChristianLordsDay(Ac21:20f.)andthisdoubleobservancelastedamongthematleastuntilthedestructionofthe
Temple.TheJewishmembersoftheChurchweresoonoutnumberedbytheGentile,andtheselatterwouldfeelinnowaydrawntocontinuingtheobservanceofthe
JewishSabbathaswellastheirownLordsDayandthisthemoresothattheyhadreceivedthegospelunderthewiderteachingofSt.Paul,whohademphasized
thedangerofanundueobservanceofdays,andhadspokenoftheSabbathasashadowofthethingstocome(i.e.theChristiandispensationcf.Col2:16f.,Gal
4:911,Ro14:5f.).ButiftheGentileChristiandidnotobservetheJewishSabbath,yethecouldnotbeignorantofitsdeepermeaning,forhesawtheSabbath
observedbyhisJewishneighbours,andreadintheOTofitsinstitutionandusesandthusimperceptiblytheessentialprinciplesoftheSabbathwouldpassintothe
Christianideaoftheirownsacreddayofrestandworship.Christsintention,then,seemstohavebeentoallowtheSabbathtodieslowly,butbyHisSpirittoteach
theChurchtoperpetuateformankindinherLordsDayallthatwasofeternalmomentintheSabbath.Thuswasavoidedthedangerofpouringthenewwineof
ChristiantruthandlibertyintotheoldbottlesofJewishtraditionalobservances.
LORDSPRAYER
Mt6:913.
v.8Thusthereforeprayye:
(1)OurFatherwhichartintheheavens
(2)Hallowedbethyname.
v.10(3)Thykingdomcome.
(4)Thywillbedone,asinheaven,soon[the]earth.
v.11(5)Ourdaily(?)breadgiveustoday.
v.12(6)Andforgiveusourdebts,aswealso[forgive]ourdebtors.
v.13(7)Andbringusnotintotemptation
(8)Butdeliverusfromtheevil(one?).
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(8)Butdeliverusfromtheevil(one?).
Forthineisthekingdom,andthepower,andtheglory,untotheages.Amen.Lk11:24.
v.2Whensoeveryepray,say,
(1)[Our]Father[whichartintheheavens]
(2)Hallowedbethyname.
(3)Thykingdomcome.
(4)[Thywillbedone,asinheaven,soontheearth.]
v.3(5)Ourdaily(?)breadgiveusdaybyday.
v.4(6)Andforgiveusoursins,forweourselvesalsoforgiveeveryonethatisindebtedtous.
(7)Andbringusnotintotemptation(8)[Butdeliverusfromtheevil(one?)].
TherequestofoneofthedisciplesLord,teachustopray(Lk11:1)expressesadesirewhichdoubtlessfoundaplaceintheheartsofall.Greatteachers
wereexpectedtogivetheirdisciplesaformofprayer.BecauseJohnhadtaughthisdisciplestopray,ChristwaspetitionedtodothesameforHisfollowers.
TheLordsPrayerhasbeendeliveredtousintwoforms,onebyMt.,anotherbyLk.ineachcaseinadifferentcontext.Theformsaresetoutabovefor
comparison,inaliteraltranslation,asapreliminarytotheconsiderationofquestionsconnectedwiththetextsandthecontexts.Theplacesinwhichthereisa
differenceofreading,orwherewordsareomittedbysomeauthorities,areenclosedinbrackets.TheforminMt.consistsofeightclauses,whichcorrespond,clause
byclause,toanequalnumberinLk.,accordingtothelongertext.TheshorterLukantextomitsclauses4and8.TheDoxologyisfoundonlyinMSSofMt.,and
notintheoldestofthese.
Thus,afterthismanner(Mt6:9)introducestheprayerasamodelofacceptabledevotion.Whensoever(Lk11:2)enjoinstheuseofthewordswhichfollow,
andimpliesthattheprayersofChristsdisciplesshouldbeconceivedinthespiritoftheformHewasgivingthem.
Inclause4(Mt.)thearticlebeforeearthisomittedinsomeMSSbutas,byawellknownrule,thearticleinGreekisoftenimplied,butnotexpressed,aftera
preposition,theomissiondoesnotdemandachangeinthetranslation.
Inclause6(Mt.)afewoldauthoritiesreadtheperfecthaveforgiven.
InLk.,clause1,thewordsOurandwhichartintheheavens,andthewholeofclauses4and8,areomittedbyafewancientauthorities,and,inconsequence,
havebeenrejectedbytheRV.YettheTRofLk.isattestedbythemajorityoftheMSS.Ifwegobehindthesewitnesses,and,inspiteoftheirevidence,acceptthe
shorterLukanform,itwillperhapsfollowthattherejectedclauseswereneverpartsofthePrayer,astaughtbyChrist,butarelateramplifications,whichobtaineda
placeinMt.,andthencewerecopiedintotheLukantext.
Clause6inLk.explainsthecorrespondingwordsinMt.Inthelatterasisnotofstrictproportion,butofgeneralcondition.Itcannotbe,asissometimesstated
indevotionalexegesis,thatwearetoprayGodtomeasureHisboundlesspitybyourimperfectattemptstoforgivebutwepleadthatwehaveendeavouredto
removewhatwouldbeabartoHisgrantofpardonandthisisexpressedclearlyinLk.,forweourselvesalsoforgive.
TheDoxology,whichisnotfoundintheoldestMSS,iscontainedinthemajorityofcopies.Theevidenceoftheancientversionsisdivided.Someofthe
Fathers,incommentingontheLordsPrayer,takenoaccountofaDoxologybutChrysostomandothersrecognizeit,andnoteitsconnexionwiththepreceding
petitions.IftheDoxologybenotanintegralpartoftheMatthantext,itiscertainlyofverygreatantiquity.ItmayhavebeeninterpolatedfromaLiturgyforitis
nowadmittedthatliturgicalformsexistedintheearliestdaysofChristianity,althoughperhapsatfirsttheywereunwritten,andweretransmittedorally.
Thewordinclause5whichwehaveprovisionallyrendereddailywasofdoubtfulimportinearlytimes,fordifferentinterpretationshavebeengivenbythe
ancients.
Origen(3rdcent.),thegreatesttextualcriticofprimitivedayssaysthattheword(epiousios)wascoinedbytheEvangelists,andisnotfoundinearlierGreekwriters.Amongthe
Syrians,oneVersion(Curetonian)hasinMt.breadconstantoftheday,inLk.breadconstantofeverydayinLk.theLewisVersion(notextantinMt.)hasthesameasthe
CuretonianinMt.thePesh.hasbreadofourneedtoday,inLk.breadofourneeddaily.TheancientLatinrenderingof epiousioswasdaily.ThisisreadnowintheVulgatein
Lk.,butinMt.wasalteredbyJerometosupersubstantial.Thetermisderivedeitherfrom epiandienai,tocomeupon,i.e.succeed,becontinualorfromepiandousia,
uponsubstance,i.e.addedto,oradaptedto,substance.TheSyriacrenderingconstantcomesfromthefirstderivationthesecondderivationpermitstheirotherrenderingofour
need,breadadaptedtoourhumansubstance.JeromesrenderinginMt.takesepiousiosinaspiritualsense,somethingaddedtonaturalsubstance.Ineithercasebreadmaybe
takeninanearthlyoraheavenlysense.ThefulnessofScripturallanguagejustifiesthewidestapplicationoftheterm.Ifweadoptthederivationfromienaitocome,thebread
epiousioswillbe(i)whatsoeverisneededforthecomingday,tobesoughtindailymorningprayergiveustoday(ii)whatsoeverisneededforthecomingdaysoflife.The
petitionbecomesaprayerforthepresenceofHimwhohasrevealedHimselfastheBread.Anotherapplication,thecomingfeastintheKingdomofGod(cf.Lk14:15),seems
excludedbythereferencetothepresenttimeinbothEvangelists.
Inclause8theGreekmaybethegenitivecaseofhoponros,theevilone,oroftoponron,wherethearticletoisgeneric,theevil,whatsoeverisevil.The
Greekisindefinite,andcommentatorshavetakenthewordsinbothapplications.
WehavealreadyobservedthatthelongerreadingsintheLukanformofthePrayermaybeduetotheattemptsofcopyiststoharmonizethetextwiththeformfoundintheir
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WehavealreadyobservedthatthelongerreadingsintheLukanformofthePrayermaybeduetotheattemptsofcopyiststoharmonizethetextwiththeformfoundintheir
daysinMt.Somemayfurtherarguethatthetwoformsaredifferentreminiscencesofthesameinstruction.IfitbeheldthattheGospelsarelatecompositions,inwhich,longafter
theeventsrecorded,certainunknownwritersgatheredtogether,withoutmethod,oraccurateknowledge,suchtraditionsashadreachedthem,itwillbeasjustifiableasitis
convenienttotreatallrelatedpassagesasmerevaryingtraditionsofthesameoriginal.ButifitbeadmittedthattheEvangelistswereaccurateandwellinformedhistorians,thereis
nogroundforidentifyingthePrayerinLk.withthatinMt.Theyoccupydifferentplacesinthehistory.Mt.recordsthePrayeraspartofadiscourse.Itwasdeliveredunasked,asa
specimenofrightprayer,incontrasttothehypocriticalandsuperstitioushabitswhichtheMastercondemnedanditisfollowedbyaninstructiononforgiveness.TheoccasioninLk.
isaltogetherdifferent.Christhadbeenengagedinprayerthen,inresponsetoarequest,HedeliveredaformfortheuseofHisdisciples,andenforcedtheinstructionbyaparable
andexhortationsteachingthepowerofearnestnessinprayer.Thedifferencesoftext,especiallyiftheshorterreadingsinLk.beadopted,distinguishtheoneformfromtheother
anditisunreasonabletodenythattheMasterwould,ifnecessary,repeatinstructionsonanimportantsubject.
ThePrayerisrightlynamedtheLords,becauseitowestotheMasteritsformandarrangementbutmanyofthesentimentsmaybeparalleledinJewish
writings,andareultimatelybasedontheteachingsoftheOT.
Inaworkaccessibletotheordinaryreader,SayingsoftheJewishFathers(ed.C.Taylor),weread(ch.5:30):R.JehudahbenThemasaid,Bestrongasalion,todothewillof
thyFatherwhichisinheaven.Inch.4:7(n.8)examplesaregivenoftheuseoftheNameasasubstitutefortitlesoftheAlmighty,andincludingallthattheyimply.The
RabbinicaldoctrineofthecorrespondenceoftheupperwiththelowerworldisexemplifiedbyTaylor,ch.3:15n.Hillelsaidofaskullfloatingonthewater(2:7),Becausethou
drownedst,theydrownedthee,andintheendtheythatdrownedtheeshallbedrownedwhichillustratesclause6ofthePrayer.FromTalmudicprayersarequoted(p.128)the
petitions:Mayitbethywilltodeliverusfromevilman,evilchance,etc.andBringmenotintothehandsofsin,norintothehandsoftemptation.IntheOTwemaycompare
withclause1,Is63:16clause2,Ex20:7clauses2,3,Zec.14:9clause4,Ps103:20,135:6clause5,Ex16:4,Pr30:8clause6,Ob15.TheDoxologymaybecomparedwith1
Ch29:11.
ItisremarkablethatthereisnoinstanceintheNToftheuseofthePrayerbythedisciplesbutthescantinessoftherecordsforbidsanadverseconclusion.There
isin2Ti4:18whatseemstobeanallusiontoclause8,andtotheDoxology,inrelationtoSt.Paulsexperience.ThefirstwordofthePrayerinourLords
vernacularandintheEvangeliststranslationisalludedtoinRo8:15,Gal4:6.ItisdoubtfulwhetheranOrientalwouldconsiderthathehadsatisfiedthe
requirementsofthethusandthewhensoeverbyextemporeorotherdevotions,whichmerelyexpressedthesentimentsofthePrayer.Inanycase,fromearly
daystheopinionhasprevailedintheChurchthattheuseoftheactualwordsisanessentialpartofeveryactofworship.
G.H.GWILLIAM.
LORDSSUPPER.SeeEUCHARIST.
LORDSOFTHEPHILISTINES.ThechieftainsortyrantsofthefivePhilistinecities,
Gaza,Ashkelon,Ashdod,Ekron,andGath.Wherevertheyarementioned(Jos13:3,Jg3:3,16:5,8,18,27,30,1S5:8,11,6:4,12,16,18,7:7,29:2,8,7,1Ch
12:19)thewordtranslatedlordisapeculiarone,beingidenticalwiththeHeb.wordforaxle.Once(1S18:30)theHeb.wordforprincesisappliedtothem.
ProbablythepeculiarwordisanativePhilistinetitle.Theirfunctions,sofarascanbegatheredfromtheOT,werethesameasthoseofpettykings.
GEORGEA.BARTON.
LORUHAMAH.SeeHOSEA,LOAMMI.
LOT.ThesonofHaran,brotherofAbraham.Hisnameseemsclearlyderivedfromarootmeaningtowrapclosely.TheaccountofhislifeiscontainedinGn
11:2714:16,19.HewasborninUr,andwentwithAbrahamtoHaran,andthencetoCanaan.HeaccompaniedAbrahaminmuchofhiswandering.Theseparation
betweenthem(ch.13)wasduetoaquarrelbetweentheirherdsmen,eachhavinggreatpossessionsofcattle.Asaresult,Lotdweltinthecitiesoftheplain,making
hishomeinSodom.DuringtheexpeditionofChedorlaomer(ch.14)hewascarriedawaycaptive,andrescuedbyAbraham.Inch.19isnarratedtheescapeofLot
andhisdaughtersfromSodom,withthesubsequentincidents.ThecityofZoar,wheretheydweltforatime,ispossiblytheZoaraorZorofJosephus,attheS.E.
extremityoftheDeadSea,inthemodernGhresSfieh,awellwateredregion.Themountaintowhichhefinallywentisdoubtlessthemountainousregionlater
knownasMoab.ThestoryofthedaughtersofLot(19:3038)isnowusuallyconsideredtobenothistory,butatraditionalaccountoftheoriginofthetwonations,
MoabandAmmon.Thebasisofthestoryispartlypopularetymologyofthetwonameswhileitispromptedchieflybynationalrivalryandhostility.ThatLotwasa
righteousman(2P2:7,8)maybegrantedinarelativesense,incomparisonwiththeSodomitesbutheshowsnogreatstrengthofcharacter.
Lotswife.ThehistoricalcharacterofthestoryofLotswifeandhertransformationintoapillarofsaltisdoubtful:itmayhavearisenfromthepeculiaritiesof
thecliffsinthevicinityoftheDeadSea.AtitsS.W.extremityisarangeofcliffs6mileslongand600feethigh,calledJebelUsdum,themountainofSodom.
Theseconsistofcrystallizedrocksalt,coveredwithchalkylimestoneandgypsum,andcuriouslyfurrowedandworn,soassometimestoresembleahumanfigure.
GEORGER.BERRY.
LOTAN.AHoriteclan(Gn36:20,22,29=1Ch1:38,39).
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LOTAN.AHoriteclan(Gn36:20,22,29=1Ch1:38,39).
LOTHASUBUS(1Es9:44).AcorruptionofHashuminNeh8:4.
LOTS.SeeMAGIC(567f.),URIMANDTHUMMIM,P URIM.
LOTUSTREES.Thecorrect(RV)tr.oftselim(Job40:21f.,AVshadytrees),thehauntofBehemoth(i.e.thehippopotamus).Thetreeisprobably=the
Arab,dl,thedomtree,andmustnotheconfusedwiththeEgyptianwaterlilies.ItisapricklyshrubfoundinN.AfricaandS.Europe.
W.EWING.
LOVE,LOVER,LOVELY,BELOVED
1.Love(nounandverb,nativeEng.)representsasingleHeb.word,whichranged,liketheEng.term,from(1)sensuous,andoften(thoughnotnecessarily)evil,desire(asin
Gn25:28,2S13:4,Jer2:33),through(2)familyaffectionandnaturalfriendship(Gn22:2,Ex21:5,1S18:16,2S1:26),upto
(3)thehighestspiritualpassion.Under(3)comes(a)JslovetoIsrael,totherighteous,etc.(Dt4:37,7:7f.,1K10:9,Hos3:1,9:5,11:4,14:4,Zeph3:17,Jer2:2,Is43:4,48:14,
63:9,Mal1:2,Ps11:1,47:4,78:68,87:2,146:8,Pr3:12,8:17,2Ch2:11,9:8)and(b)IsraelslovetoJ,Hisname,word,ways,etc.
(e.g.inEx20:6,Dt6:5etc.,Neh1:51K3:3sameverbasin11:1Ps5:11,31:23,116:1,119:97etc.
Mic6:8).UnderastrongsynonymmeaningtocleavetoorhanguponJissaid(Dt7:7)tohavesethisloveuponIsrael,andthesaint(Ps91:14)tohavesethisloveuponJ.
Passagescomingunder(b)arerelativelynumerous,anddatefromtheredemptionoftheExodus.Theinstancesof(a)wehaveenumeratedinfullnoneoftheseiscertainlyearlier
thanHosea,whofirstrepresentedthecovenantofJehovahasaspousalcontract.Insimilarconnexion,JslovetoHispeopleispoeticallyexpressedbyaword,oftwofoldform,
signifyingdarling(beloved,etc.),inDt33:12,Is5:1,Ps60:5,127:2thistermfiguresmuchinCanticles.LovedoesnotappearwiththisassociationinGn.butthephrass
walkedwithGod,of5:22,24,6:9(alsoMic6:8,Mal2:6),conveystheideaofcompanionship.SeveralotherHeb.synonymsoccur,oflimiteduseandslightsignificance.Lover
(OT)isusedintheevilmeaningof(1)=paramour,andinsense(2)aboveaderivative(inHeb.)fromthemainstemfirstreferredto.Lovelyin2S1:23=lovable.Forgreatly
belovedinDn9:23etc.,seeRVm.
Love,likejoy(wh.see),holdsauniqueplaceintheIsraeliteascomparedwithotherreligions,asitsignifiesthereciprocalaffectionofGodandpeople.
AccordingtoGreekphilosophy,thegodsareasmuchabovehumanaffectionasinanimatethingsarebelowit:forfriendshipdemandsreciprocitybutrelationship
withGodadmitsofnoreturnoflove,andthereforeofnoloveinthepropersense,foritwouldbepreposterousifanyonesaidthathelovesZeus!(Magna
Moralia).ThesentimentoftheOTisjusttheoppositeofthisJcallsIsraeltheseedofAbraham,myfriend(Is41:8cf.Pss91,116etc.).Inseveralofthetexts
referredtounder(3)above,usages(a)and(b)arecorrelativethepeopleslovetoJpresupposesandgrowsoutofJslovetoit.Thefactthattheworddenoting
thisaffectioncomesfromthesphereofconjugalloveandoffriendshipimportsreciprocitysee,inillustration,Ex33:11,Hos2:1423,11:14,Is62:35,63:710.
TheDivineWisdomsays,inPr8:17,Ilovethemthatloveme,conditioningJsaffectiononthereturnmadetoit(cf.Jn14:28,15:4,10).Yetitwasnotbecauseof
thegreatnessortheworthofthispeoplethatJchosethemthecasewasquiteotherwisebutoutofHisunmeritedgoodnessandHisfaithfulregardfortheir
forefathers(Dt7:7ff.,9:4ff.,Ezk16:34cf.Ro5:7f.thecharacteristicsayingof1Jn4:19,Welove,becausehefirstlovedus,equallyappliestotheOT
redemption.TheunionofaffectionbetweenJandIsrael,groundedonthecovenantwiththefathersandtheredemptionfromEgypt,isthedistinctiveandvital
elementintheOTdoctrineoflove.LovebecomesincreasinglyprominentinthepropheticspeechastherelationsbetweenGodandpeoplebecomeincreasingly
strained,duringthenationaldownfallandexileseeesp.HoseaandDeuteroIsaiah.
ThecharacterofJ,theHolyOneofIsrael,givestoHisloveitsqualitiespurity,intensity,selflessness,fidelityreciprocallovecallsforthlikequalitiesinHis
people(seetherelevant
expressionsoflovetoJinthePsalms).IsraelssinisthebaserequitalithasrenderedseeDt
32:46,Is5:14,63:710,Mic6:3f.,Jer2:5,31,Mal1:2,6,Neh9:717.Godsloveiskindness,lovingkindness(seeartt.:veryfrequent)tothoseinanydegree
worthyandapproved,becomingdelight,joy,inspecialcases,itismercy(wh.see)towardtheweak,sinful,needymercyismoreconspicuousthanloveinthe
OT,andlooksbeyondthecovenantbond.Godslovebreaksintogrief,anger,wrath,threatening(thereactionofaffrontedlove)againstthefaithlessandwanton
(Dt7:711,Ps78:40,Is63:9f.,Am3:1f.etc.)itburnswithjealousy,whenitschosenareseducedintoidolatryandviceJsloathingofIsraelscorruptionreveals
atoncethepurityofHisnatureandthezealofHisaffection(Ex20:5,Nu25:11,Dt29:1821,Zeph1:18,Jer44:4etc.).Forthesamereason,thereisinHima
jealousyoverZion,etc.,whenHisbelovedisinjuredorwronged(Jl2:18,Zec1:14etc.).Is19:25,42:15etc.,adumbratetheinclusionofthenationsinthe
covenantandPs100,103:1315,145:812,Jon4:11revealauniversalandtrulyhumaneloveinJ(cf.Lk2:2932,Tit3:4).
2.TheGreeklanguagediscriminatedinexpressinglove:itdistinguished(1)sexuallove.ers(2)familylove,naturalaffection,storg(3)sociallove,friendship,philia(4)
sometimes,inabroaderethicalsense,philanthropia,humanity,kindness.TheLXXtranslators,thoughnotconsistentintheirusage,enlisted(5)agaptodenotereligiouslove,the
loveofGodtomanormantoGod,orofmantomanunderGodscovenant(Lv19:18)i.e.lovesuffusedwithreligion.Thelowerkindsoflove,(1)and(2),theyexpressbyphilia
ersisavoidedagap,however,encroacheshereuponphilia.Theverbagapa(oraznounagaprareoutsideofScripture)wasusedinallperiodsofGreeksynonymously
withphile,implyingindistinctiontherefromaffectionratherthanpassion,andpracticalaffection,loveshownbysigns,ratherthansentiment.TheAV,aftertheLatincaritas
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ersisavoidedagap,however,encroacheshereuponphilia.Theverbagapa(oraznounagaprareoutsideofScripture)wasusedinallperiodsofGreeksynonymously
withphile,implyingindistinctiontherefromaffectionratherthanpassion,andpracticalaffection,loveshownbysigns,ratherthansentiment.TheAV,aftertheLatincaritas
(charitas),renderedagapinNT30timesbycharity,whichRVhascorrectedtolove.Beingatermoftheheart,freefromdebasingandnarrowassociations,agapwassuitable
forBiblicaluse.IntheNTvocabularyoflove,(1)neveroccurslustrepresentstheevilersagapandphiliaaretheprevailingsynonyms(verbsagapaandphile),thelatter
sometimesreplacingtheformerinapplicationtothehigherlove,withtheconnotationofendearmentorintimacyseeJn5:20and16:27,(aquasifamilyaffection),11:3,36
spokenaboutJesus(agapainv.5),20:2(agapa,inparallels),21:15ff.(noidlevariation)andin1Co16:22,wherethenegativecoalesceswiththeverb(Ifanyoneisnofriend
oftheLord),storg(2)isfoundinitsnegativeinRo1:31,2Ti3:3andinthepeculiarcompoundofRo12:10,theadjectivetenderlyaffectioned.InTit3:4Paulspeaksofthe
philanthropy(4)ofGod.Beloved(well.dearly)representsaderivativeofagapa,usedofChrist,orChristiansasdeartoGodandofChristians,asdeartofellowbelievers.
Itissynonymouswithbrethrenthisusageisfrequentinsalutationsandapostrophes.LovelyinPh4:8reproducesanadjectiveakintophilia(3)=amiableoraffectionate.
ThereareseveralNTGr.compoundsofphil,renderedloveofandlover(s)of. agap(agapa),signifyingprimarilyavoluntary,activeaffection,hasbroughtfrom
theLXXintotheNTthedeepersenseofspiritualaffection,thelovethatlinksGodandmanandunitessoulandsoulintheDivinecommunion.Likephilia,it
impliesreciprocity,fellowship,ifnotexisting,thendesiredandsought.
TheApostleJohngivesthefinalandcompleteNTdoctrineoflove.(a)TheloveofGodJohnseesperfectedinthosewholoveoneanotherandthuskeep
Godscommands,fromwhosesoulsaccordinglyfeariscastout,whoabidewhollyintherealmoflovethatisconstitutedbytheoneSpiritdwellingintheir
hearts(1Jn2:5,3:24,4:11f.,1521)bysuchlovemenareperfectedintoone,evenasChristisonewiththeFatherbyvirtueofthelovesubsistingeternally
betweenthem(Jn17:2126:cf.Mt3:17,17:5)thereislovesprimefountain.Gradually,almosttimidly,OTsaintshadlearnedtospeakofJslovetomen
Christbuildseverythinguponthis.ComingfromHisbosom(Jn1:18),HeknowstheFatherslove,andseekstoconveyittoandshareitwithHisbrethren.His
missionistoshowtheFather,todeclarehowmuch,andtowhateffect,Godlovestheworld(Jn3:16f.,17:25f.etc.),thanklessandevilthoughitis(Lk6:35).
Inlovewhichheapskindnessontheworstandseeksoutthemostalienated,liestheperfectionofGodinHischaracterofFather(Mt5:48,Lk15etc.cf.Ro2:4,
Col1:21f.).ThebestowmentoftheSonofhislove,theonlybegotten,onourrace,andthesacrificeofthatSonslifeformansredemption,displaywithinfinite
forceandeffecttheloveoftheFathertowardsHisunworthychildrenseeJn1:14,3:1419,Ro5:58(loveofGod,orofChrist,meansalwaysinPaulGods,or
Christs,lovetoman)8:32,1Jn4:9f.,14,Col1:13.ThelovewhichGodthuscommendssubsistedinHimapartfromandanteriortothisproofitactuatesall
Godsdealingswithmankind,increation,providence,andmoraldiscipline(Mt5:45,6:2633,10:29ff.,Ja1:17f.,1P4:18).LoveisofGod,sinceGodislove
itcomesfromHim,beingabsolutelyinHimlovegivesthebestconceptionwecanformofGodsnature.Sinceitsobjectsarepitiable,Godsredeemingloveis
mercy(Lk1:50,Eph2:4,Tit3:6,1P1:3lovepredominatesintheNT,asmercyintheOT)andasmenaresinfulandundeserving,lovewearstheformof
grace(wh.see:Paulsfavouriteterm,asloveisJohns).Godsgoodwill(orpleasure)isHislovetakingdeterminateexpression(Lk2:14,12:32,1Co
1:21,Eph1:5ff.etc.)Hiskindnessisloveinitsconsideratenessorbounty(Lk6:35,Ro2:4)
Hislongsufferingisloveinitspatience.restrainingangeranddelayingchastisement(Ro2:4,9:22,1Ti1:16,1P3:20).JesusChristisnotthemerechannelof
theFathersgoodwillHesharesinitinfinitelytheloveofGodisseenintheloveofChrist(Ro8:35,39,2Co5:14,Gal2:20,Eph3:19cf.Jn10:1115,
13:1,34,14:21,Rev1:5etc.).Ja4:5testifiestoajealousyearningintheHolySpirit,overChristiansinfectedwithloveoftheworldcf.Eph4:13,Is63:10.
(b)TheloveofChristianstowardsGodandChrististheheartsresponsetotheFathersloveexhibitedinChrist(1Jn4:18).Thisisnotspontaneousonmans
part,butcomesbyknowingtheloveofChristthatsurpassesknowledge(Eph3:19,Ro5:17f.,Eph2:35,3:1719,Jn15:16,17:23).Gratefulandobedientlove
toGodresultsfromfaith(wh.see:faithandlove,alsofaith,hope,love,arecompanions1Co13:13,1Th1:3,1Ti1:14,Philem5etc.)inJesusChristHis
missionandsacrificeforsin,HisPersonrecognizedasthefullrepresentationofthemindofGod(2Co4:46,Gal5:5,Eph5:1f.cf.2:8,1P1:8f.,1Jn4:16,19)it
isthefruitandevidenceoftheHolySpiritsindwelling,whoistheFathersgiftoflovetoHisreconciledchildren(Gal5:22,1Co2:12,Ro5:5,1Jn4:13f.).
Abba,Father!wasthecryofthisnewhornfiliallove(Ro
8:15,Gal4:5).Itsantithesisisfoundintheloveoftheworld,ofself,pleasure,money(1Jn2:15ff.,Ja4:4,2Ti3:25,Lk16:13f.,Jn15:1924).Love
towardsGodisthefundamentallawofmansnature,brokenbyhistransgressionalawproclaimedincomprehensivetermsintheOT,recalledbyJesusand
recognizedbythetrueIsraelite(Mt22:37)thefalseprofessorsofJudaismhadnottheloveofGodinthem,forindeedtheyhadnotknownHimortheywould
havereceivedHismessenger,theywouldhavelovedHisSon(Lk11:42,Jn5:33,42f.,8:42,55).TheworldsradicalhostilitytowardsGodshowsitselfin
unbelieftowardsChrist,andconsequentpersecutionofChristians(Jn15:1916:3,Ro8:7,38,Gal4:29,1Jn3:12f.).LovetowardsGod(andChrist)renovatesand
purifiestheheart,inspiresaconstantselfdevotion,andmakestheperfectvisionofGodtheobjectofferventanticipation(1P1:39,1823,Eph4:31,5:5,Col
3:1215,1Jn3:13,4:11,Rev21:7,22:3f.,Jn14:23,17:24).TocherishthislovetotheFatheristoliveasonewhohaslearntChristitistofollowinHissteps,
withthecertaintyofarrivingwhereHeis(Jn17:24ff.,15:8ff.,14:2ff.,Eph4:2024).Thusonewinsthecrownoflife(Ja1:12,Rev2:10,Ro8:2830)hencethe
couplingofloveandhope(wh.see).
(c)IflovetoGodisrekindledbytheknowledgeofGodslovetomaninChrist,thisholdsnolessofmanslovetoman,towhichmostNTinstancesoftheword
refer.ThiswasthematterofthesecondcommandmentofJesus,whichislikeuntothefirstandgreatcommandment,andisgroundedequallywithitupon
creationandthetrueorderoftheworld(Mt22:38ff.).Sin,broughtinbythewickedone,confoundedthisorder,plantinghate,lust,deceit,thedestroyersoflove
andlife,inhumannature(Jn8:44,1Jn3:12,Ja1:14f.,4:1f.,11)thiswholeevilbroodPaultracestowilfulignoranceofGod(Ro1:1932,Eph4:1719).In
layingdownhislifeforusJesusChristhaslaidthefoundationofanewempireoflove,aregimeandfashionoflifetheoppositeofthatinauguratedbyCain(1Jn
3:12cf.1P2:21ff.,2Co5:15f.,Eph4:315:5,Col1:13,Tit3:37).Thenewcommandmentis,afterall,theoldcommandmentwhichmenhadfromthe
beginning(1Jn2:7f.)GodsFatherlylovemanifestintheunstintedbountiesofnature,whichvisitjustandunjusteveryday,dictatestoHischildrenloveto
enemiesandkindnesstotheevil(Mt5:4348).TheloveofChrist,reaffirmingandimmenselyreinforcingtheprimevallaw,constrainsustolivenolongerto40/48
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enemiesandkindnesstotheevil(Mt5:4348).TheloveofChrist,reaffirmingandimmenselyreinforcingtheprimevallaw,constrainsustolivenolongerto
ourselvesbuttohim(2Co5:1419)inlivingtoHimonelivesforHisChurchandforhumanity(Eph5:25ff.,Mt25:3445,1Co8:11f.,Ro1:14f.,1Jn3:16,Eph
3:39,Col1:2429).Ifamansay,IloveGod,andhatethhisbrother,heisaliar(1Jn2:9,4:20f.cf.Tit1:15)trueloveeverspeaksinbeneficentdeed(Ja1:27,
2:15f.,1Jn3:17ff.).ThetermsofChristsredemptionbindHisredeemedtohumanservicetheyhavebecomebothwitnessesandengagedpartiestoGods
covenantofgraceinChristmadewithmankind(Jn1:29,6:33,51,Mt10:8,26:28,Mk16:15,Lk24:45ff.,Ac1:8,Ro5:1221,Col1:23,1Jn2:2,Rev5:9,etc.).
ThegiftoftheSpiritisbestowedexpresslywiththisworldaiminviewthesalvationofeachsinnerisasteptowardsandanearnestoftheworldssalvation(Mt
5:13f.,13:33,Ja1:18,1P2:9,Eph3:7ff.,Gal3:14).TheloveofGodmustreachtheworldandruletheworldthroughthosewhoknowitinknowingthegraceof
ourLordJesusChrist.
G.G.F INDLAY.
LOVEFEAST(Agape).TheLoveFeastoftheChristianChurchinApostolictimeswasacommonmealofwhichallthebrethrenpartook,andwasstill
connectedwiththeEucharist.Thebreakingofbreadfromhousetohouse(Ac2:46)probablyincludedbothunderthetitletheLordsSupper(1Co11:20).
FromAc20:7wegatherthatthereligiousexercisesoftheLove
Feastwereprolongedtilldawn,andendedwiththeEucharist.Thescandalousbehaviour,whichSt.PaulwasconstrainedtorebukeatCorinthinA.D.5758(1Co
11:1734),showsthatnotallwhocametotheLoveFeastwereinafitconditiontocommunicate.Moreseriousevilsstillwereintroducedbyfalseteachers
describedbyJude12:theywhoarehiddenrocksatyourlovefeastswhentheyfeastwithyou,shepherdsthatwithoutfearfeedthemselves.Thewriteris
dependenton2P2:13:spotsaretheyandblemishes,revellingintheirlovefeasts,whiletheyfeastwithyou.
Inspiteofthedisorders,whichmarredthereligiousvalueofthesesocialclubfeastsandledintheendtotheirsuppression,theylastedforaconsiderableperiod.
IgnatiusofAntiochwrotetotheSmyrnans(c.8):Itisnotlawfulapartfromthebishopeithertobaptizeortoholdalovefeast,inacontextwhichprovesthatthe
AgapeincludedtheEucharist.Tertullian(Apol.c.xxxix.)givesavividdescriptionofthefeastexplainedbyitsownname.
Theparticipants,beforereclining,tastefirstofprayertoGod.Asmuchiseatenassatisfiesthecravingsofhunger:asmuchisdrunkasbefitsthechaste.Theysayitisenough,
asthosewhorememberthatevenduringthenighttheyhavetoworshipGodtheytalkasthosewhoknowthattheLordisoneoftheirauditors.Aftermanualablutionandthe
bringinginoflights,eachisaskedtostandforthandsing,ashecan,ahymntoGod,eitheronefromtheHolyScripturesoroneofhisowncomposing.Thisisaproofofthe
measureofourdrinking.Asthefeastcommencedwithprayer,soitisclosedwithprayer.
Thefoodconsistedofbread,fish,andvegetables.ThepicturesoftheLoveFeastsinthecatacombsgivefishaprominentplace.Interestingspecimensofprayers
usedatthemarefoundintheDidache.ThedirectiontogivethanksafteryearesatisfiedplainlyassociatestheprayerwiththeLoveFeastratherthantheEucharist
(c.10):
WegiveTheethanks,HolyFather,forThyHolyNamewhichThouhastmadetotabernacleinourhearts,andfortheknowledgeandfaithandimmortality,whichThouhast
madeknownuntousthroughThyServantJesusThineisthegloryforeverandever.Thou,AlmightyMaster,didstcreateallthingsfor
ThyNamessake,anddidstgivefoodanddrinkuntomenforenjoyment,thattheymightrenderthankstoTheebutdidstbestowuponusspiritualfoodanddrinkandeternallife
throughThyServant.
TheseparationoftheLoveFeastfromtheEucharistseemstohavebeendue,inthefirstinstance,totheactionoftheRomanGovernment,alwaysjealousof
secretsocieties.PlinyslettertoTrajanspeaksofthecelebrationoftheEucharistintheearlymorningasfollowedbyasimplemeal,whichhadbeenleftoffsincethe
issueoftheedictforhiddingclubs.Ontheotherhand,fearofcalumniesregardinganymoreorlesssecretfeast,andexperienceofdisorderslikethosewhich
prevailedatCorinth,weremotiveswhichfromtimetotimehinderedthepracticeincertaindistricts,andfinallyextinguishedit.
A.E.BURN.
LOVINGKINDNESS.Twoideasareblendedinthisexpressiveworditdenoteskindnesswhichspringsfromtheloyaltyoflove.Itisthefrequenttr.(30times
intheAV,42timesintheRV)oftheHeb.wordchesedh,whichG.A.Smithrendersleallove(BookoftheTwelve
Prophets,i.243n).TheEVmostfrequentlytr.chesedhmercyandnotseldomkindness.TheAmer.RVgiveslovingkindnessuniformlywhenthereferenceis
toGodslovetoman.TheadoptionofthishelpfulsuggestionwouldbringouttheconnexionbetweenlovingkindnessasafundamentalattributeoftheDivine
nature(Ex34:6f.etc.),itspoeticpersonification(Ps42:8,57:3,89:14),andtheappealtoGodtobetruetoHimself,tosaveandtoredeemforHis
lovingkindnesssake(Ps6:4,44:26,115:1).ForthecombinationoflovingkindnesswithfaithfulnessseePs89,whereeachwordoccursseventimes,andcf.La
3:22f.,Is55:3.Cf.also
LOVE.
J.G.TASKER.
LOZON(1Es5:33)=Darkon,Ezr2:56,Neh7:58.
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LOZON(1Es5:33)=Darkon,Ezr2:56,Neh7:58.
LUBIM.Thenameofapeople,standinginEVfortheLibyansinNah3:9,2Ch12:3,16:8,andreplacedbythewordLibyansitselfinDn11:43.These
wereaveryancientpeoplelivingwestofEgypt,whoweresubduedbytheEgyptiansatanearlydateandlongfurnishedmercenarysoldierstotheirarmies.At
lengththeyinvadedEgypt,subdueditinthe10thcent.B.C.,andestablishedapowerfuldynasty,ofwhichtheBiblicalShishakwasthefounder.ProbablyLubim
shouldbereadforLudim(wh.see)incertainpassages.Cf.LEHABIM.
J.F.MCURDY.
LUCAS,Philem24(AV),forLuke(wh.see).
LUCIFER.InIs14:12occursthephrasehell(hell)benshachar,commonlybutincorrectlyrenderedLucifersonofthemorning,asiftheexpression
hell(hell)mustmeanthemorningstar(cf.AVmandRVdaystar).Inthisconnexion,hell(hell)candenoteonlythewaningofsomeluminary,asitis
forciblycomparedwiththeimpendingfateofthethenkingofBabylon,whoseutterdestructiontheprophetisengagedinforetelling,Thewaningluminaryintended
bytheauthormayprobablyhavebeenonlytheoldmooncrescentseenatdawn,justabouttodisappear.Itcouldscarcelyhavebeenamorningstar,whosechief
pointwouldbeitsbrightness.ThisallusiontoawaningluminarypossiblyreflectssomemythsimilartotheGreek
Phaethonlegend(Gunkel,SchpfungundChaos,132134).FromasupposedreferenceinLk10:18andRev9:111tothispassageinIsaiah,thenameLucifer
cametobeusedsynonymouslywithSatan.
N.A.KOENIG.
LUCIUS.1.AconsuloftheRomans(1Mac15:16ff.),whotransmittedthedecreeofthesenateinfavouroftheJews.ProbablythereferenceistoLucius
CalpurniusPiso,consulinB.C.139.2.OfCyrene,oneofcertainprophetsandteachersatAntiochinSyria,mentionedinActs13:1,towhomitwasrevealedthat
PaulandBarnabasshouldbeseparatedfortheworktowhichtheyhadbeencalled.ThesuggestionthathewasthesamepersonasSt.Luke,theEvangelist,has
nothingtosupportit.3.MentionedinRo16:21,assendinggreetingstothebrethrenatRome.Possiblythesamepersonas2,butofthisthereisnocertainproof.
MORLEYS TEVENSON.
LUCRE.TheEng.wordlucreisinAValwaysqualifiedbytheadj.filthy,becausetheworditselfhadnotthentheoffensivemeaningithasnow.Erasmus
speaksofGodturningmenswickednessintothelucreandencreaceofgodlynesse.Itsimplymeantgain.Filthylucremeanssordidgain.
LUD,LUDIM.UsuallysupposedtostandforthecountryandpeopleofLydia(wh.see).
InGn10:22(1Ch1:17)LudisnamedasoneofthesonsofShem,alongwiththewellknown
Elam,Asshur,andAram,andtheuncertainArpachshad.InthislisttheElamitesatleastarenotSemitic,butareregardedassuchbyreasonofassociationwiththe
Babylonians.InasimilarwaytheLydiansmaybeassociatedherewiththeSemiticAssyrians,whoseruleonceextendedtothebordersoftheLydianempire.No
betterexplanationhasbeengiven,andtheyareatanyrateanAsiaticpeople.
Ontheotherhand,LudimisgivenasthenameofoneofthedescendantsofMizraim(Egypt)inGn10:13(1Ch1:11)inalistofpeoplesallundoubtedly
African.HeretherecanbenoquestionofAsiaticLydians,andexpertsaredividedastowhetheranunknownAfricanpeopleisreferredto,orwhetherwearetoread
Lubim(wh.see).ThisreadingwouldsuitequallywellJer46:9,andeventhesingularformLudmightwithadvantagebeemendedintoLubinEzk27:10,30:5,Is
66:19.
J.F.MCURDY.
LUHITH.TheascentofLuhith(Is15:5)isprobablythepathcalledthedescentorgoingdownofHoronaim,thelatterlying,probably,higherthanLuhith
(cf.Jer48:5).ThewayleadingthroughWdyBeneHammd,fromthedistrictofZoartotheeasternplateau,maybeintended.TheOnomasticonplacesLuhith
betweenAreopolisandZoar.Itisnotnowknown.
W.EWING.
LUKE(EVANGELIST).Luke,acompanionofSt.Paul,ismentionedinCol4:14,Philem24,2Ti4:11,inallthreeplacesinconnexionwithMark.Heis
generallybelievedtobetheauthoroftheThirdGospelandActs,andthereforeafrequentfellowtravellerwiththeApostleoftheGentiles.(Seeart.ACTSOFTHE
APOSTLESforproofs,andforhisplaceoforigin.)Hehasbeenidentified,butwithoutprobability,withLuciusofCyrene(Ac13:1).Hemayhavebeenconvertedby
St.Paul,possiblyatTarsus,wherehecouldhavestudiedmedicine.TertulliancallsSt.Paulhisilluminatorandmaster(adv.Marc.iv.2),whichperhapshasthis
meaningbutitmaybeamereconjecture.LukejoinedSt.PaulonhisSecondMissionaryJourney,apparentlyforthefirsttime,atTroas.Hewasnotaneyewitness
oftheGospelevents(Lk1:2),buthadamplemeansofgettinginformationfromthosewhohadbeen.HewasaGentile(cf.Col4:10f.andv.14)thushecouldnot
havebeenoftheSeventy,orthecompanionofCleopas(Lk24:13,18),assomehavethought.Hewasadoctor(Col4:14),andperhapshadattendedSt.Paulinhis
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oftheGospelevents(Lk1:2),buthadamplemeansofgettinginformationfromthosewhohadbeen.HewasaGentile(cf.Col4:10f.andv.14)thushecouldnot
havebeenoftheSeventy,orthecompanionofCleopas(Lk24:13,18),assomehavethought.Hewasadoctor(Col4:14),andperhapshadattendedSt.Paulinhis
illnesses.Atradition,perhapsofthe6thcent.,makeshimapainter,whohadmadeapictureoftheVirgin.Hewaspossiblyofservileoriginhisname,whichseems
tobeanabbreviationofLucanus,Lucius,Lucilius,orLucianus,maywellhavebeenaslavesnameandphysicianswereoftenslaves.ChrysostomandJerometake
himforthebrotherwhosepraiseinthegospelisspreadabroad(2Co8:18seeart.GOSPEL).OthertraditionsconnecthimwithAchaia,Bithynia,orAlexandria
someassigntohimamartyrscrown.
A.J.MACLEAN.
LUKE,GOSPELACCORDINGTO
1.TheThirdGospelintheEarlyChurchOf2ndcent.writersthefollowingcanwithoutdoubtbesaidtohaveknowntheGospelortoimplyitsprevious
composition:JustinMartyr(c.150A.D.),whogivesparticularsfoundinLk.onlyTatian,hispupil,whoincludeditinhisHarmony(theDiatessaron)Celsus(c.
A.D.160orc.177),whoreferstothegenealogyofJesusfromAdamtheClementineHomities(2ndcent.)theGospelofpseudoPeter,aDoceticwork(c.A.D.165?
Swete)theTestamentoftheTwelvePatriarchs,aJewishChristianwork(beforeA.D.
135,SinkerinSmithsDict.ofChrist.Biog.)theEpistleoftheChurchofLyonsandVienne(A.D.177)Marcion,whobasedhisGospeluponLk.andabbreviatedit
[thisiscertainasagainstthehypothesisthatLk.islaterthan,andanexpansionof,Marcion,astheTbingenschoolmaintainedfromtheevidenceofIrenus,
Tertullian,andEpiphaniusfromtheexactsimilarityofstylebetweentheportionswhicharenotinMarcionandthosewhichareandforotherreasons]the
ValentiniansandHeracleon,whowroteacommentaryuponit.ThefirstwriterswhonameLukeinconnexionwithitareIrenusandtheauthoroftheMuratorian
Fragment(perhapsHippolytus),Tertullian,andClementofAlexandriaallattheendofthe2ndcentury.Ifwegobackearlierthananyofthewritersnamedabove,
wenotethatClementofRome,Ignatius,Polycarp,andtheDidachewriterperhapsknewLk.butwecannotbecertainiftheirquotationsarefromMt.orfromLk.or
fromsomethirddocumentnowlost,orevenfromoraltradition.YetClementofRome,Ignatius,andPolycarpprobablyquoteActs,andthetitleoftheDidache
seemstocomefromAc2:42,andthispresupposesthecirculationofLuke.ItwillbeobservedthattheecclesiasticaltestimonyshowstheexistenceofLk.beforethe
secondquarterofthe2ndcent.,butwehavenot,asinthecaseofMt.andMk.,anyguidancefromthatearlyperiodastothemethodofitscompositionorastoits
author.
2.ContentsoftheGospel.Thepreface(1:14)andtheBirthandChildhoodnarratives(1:52:52)arepeculiartoLuke.TheEvangelistthenfollowsMk.(up
to6:19)astotheBaptiststeachingandtheearlyministry,inserting,however,sectionscommontohimandMt.ontheBaptistandontheTemptation,andalsothe
genealogy,themiraculousdraughtoffishes,theanointingbythesinfulwoman,andsomesayings(especiallythoseatNazareth)peculiartohimself.From6:29to
8:3Lk.entirelydesertsMk.TheinterveningportioncontainspartoftheSermonontheMount(notintheorderofMt.),themessageoftheBaptist,andthehealing
ofthecenturionsservant(soMt.)andsomefragmentspeculiartohimself,especiallytheraisingofthewidowssonatNain(Lk.practicallyomitsthesectionMk
6:458:26=Mt14:2216:12).TheMarkannarrative,containingtherestoftheGalilanministry,thechargetotheTwelve,theTransfiguration,etc.,isthen
resumed,nearlyinthesameorderasMk.,butwithsomeomissions,to9:50(=Mk9:40),wherealonginsertionoccurs(9:5118:14).AfterthisLuketakesupMk.
almostwhereheleftit(Lk18:15=Mk10:13).TheinsertiondealslargelywiththePeranministryandthejourneystowardsJerusalem,andcontainsmanyparables
peculiartoLk(theGoodSamaritan,theImportunateFriend,theRichFool,theBarrenFigtree,theLostSheep,the
LostPieceofMoney,theProdigalSon,theUnjustSteward,theRichManandLazarus,theTenLepers,theUnjustJudge,thePhariseeandthePublican),andalso
severalincidentsandsayingspeculiartoLk.,e.g.theMissionoftheSeventythissectionalsohasportionsoftheSermonontheMountandsomeparablesand
sayingscommontoMt.andLk.,afewalsowhicharefoundinotherpartsofMk.From18:15totheendtheMarkannarrativeisfollowed(from19:45to22:14very
closely)withfewomissions,butwithsomeinsertions,e.g.theparableofthePounds,thenarrativeofZacchus,ofthePenitentRobber,ofthetwodisciplesonthe
Emmausroad,andotherincidentspeculiartoLk.InthePassionandResurrectionnarrativeLukehastreatedMk.
veryfreely,addingtoitlargely,andinseveralcasesfollowingothersourcesinpreference.
ViewingtheThirdGospelasawhole,wemaywithDr.Plummerdivideitthus:Preface,1:14GospeloftheInfancy,1:52:52Ministry,mainlyinGalilee,
3:19:60JourueyingstowardsJerusalem,andtheMinistryoutsideGalilee,9:5119:28theMinistryinJerusaleminthelastdays,19:2921:28thePassionand
Resurrection,2224.
3.TheSources.Thepreface(1:14),theonlycontemporaryevidenceofthemannerinwhichGospelswerewritten,tellsusthattheEvangelistknewof
writtenEvangelicnarratives,andhadaccesstoeyewitnesses,thoughhehimselfhadnotseentheeventswhichhechronicles.Oftheformersources(documents),
theprecedingsectionwillleadustonametwo(seealsoart.
GOSPELS),namelythePetrinetradition(seeart.MARK[GOSPELACC.TO]),whichisourMk.orelsesomethingverylikeit,andwhichtheFirstEvangelistalsoused
andanother,whichisoftencalledtheLogia,butwhichitissafertocallthenonMarkandocument,whichisacommonsourceofMt.andLk.,butwhichisnow
lost(seeart.MATTHEW[GOSPELACC.TO]).IntheuseofthelattertheorderofLk.differsgreatlyfromthatofMt.,andthequestionariseswhichofthetwo
Evangelistshasfollowedthissourcethemoreclosely.Nowwehaveseen(2)thatLukehasfollowedtheorderofhisMarkansourceverycloselyitistherefore
probablethathedidthesamewiththenonMarkandocument.WemaythenpresumethattheorderofthelatterismorefaithfullyreproducedinLk.thaninMt.
WithregardtothesectionspeculiartoLk.wemustprobablyseparate1:52:52fromtherest.ThissectionhasastrongAramaictingeitisanepisodeoffamily
historyofthemostprivatecharacter(Ramsay)itistoldfromthepointofviewofawoman,andisfullofwomanlytouchesitrepresentstheMarysideofthestory,
whilethenarrativeinMt.representstheJosephside.Itisthereforehighlyprobablethattheultimate,ifnottheimmediate,sourcewastheVirginMother,andthatthe
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whilethenarrativeinMt.representstheJosephside.Itisthereforehighlyprobablethattheultimate,ifnottheimmediate,sourcewastheVirginMother,andthatthe
storyhadnotpassedthroughmanyhands.SomepostulateanAramaicwrittensourceforthissection(Plummer).ButitisbynomeanscertainthatLuketheGentile
understoodAramaicandthecharacterofthenarrativeratherpointstoanoralsource(Ramsay).TheintroductionoftheAramaicstyle(whichbeginsabruptlyat1:5
aftertheveryGreekpreface)mayprobablybeanintentionalchangeontheauthorspart,andbeduetoadiligentstudyoftheLXX.Fortherestofthematter
peculiartoLk.,itisusual,perhapsrightly,toassumeaspecialsource,oralorwrittenbutitmustbeobservedthatthesilenceofMt.doesnotnegativethe
suppositionthatmuchormostofthismatterwascontainedinthenonMarkandocument.Silencedoesnotnecessarilymeanignorance.
Assumingnow(see5)thattheauthorwasLuke,Paulscompanion,wecanseeatoncethathewasinapositiontogathertogethernotonlywrittenmaterials,
butalsofirsthandoralreports.ThetwoyearsatCsarea(Ac24:27)wouldgivehimgoodopportunitiesforcollectingmaterialsbothfortheGospelandforActs.
Marymaywellhavebeenaliveatthetime(c.A.D.57),oratleastLukemayhavemetseveralofthewomenbestknowntoher.AndbothinPalestineatthistime
andlateratRome,hewouldhavedirectaccesstoApostolicinformation:intheformercase,ofseveraloftheTwelveinthelatter,ofSt.Peter.AtRomehewould
probablyreadthewrittenPetrinetradition,hisMarkansource.
WemustnoticethatLk.isnotthePaulineGospelinthesamesensethatMk.isthePetrine.St.PaulcouldnotbeasourceasSt.PeterwasandindeedtheprefacetoLk.
contradictssuchanidea.YetthePaulineinfluenceonLukeisverygreat,notonlyinhisideasbutinhislanguage.ManywordsandphrasesarepeculiarinNTtoLukeandPaul.
AmongothertopicsinsistedonbybothmaybementionedtheuniversalityoftheGospel(Lk3:5f.,4:24ff.,10:29ff.,13:29etc.).
AsadetailintheconsiderationofthetreatmentofhissourcesbyLuke,wemaynoticetheLordsPrayer,whichismuchshorterinLk.thaninMt.(seeRV).Doesthismeanthat
thePrayerwasdeliveredtwice,intwodifferentforms,orthatLukeabbreviatedtheoriginal,orthatMatthewenlargedit?Thefirsthypothesisisaprioriquiteprobablebutifwe
havetochoosebetweenthetwoothers,thepresenceoftheLukanphrasedaybyday(11:3,so19:47,Ac17:11,notelsewhereinNT),andofotherswhichseemtobe
simplifications(asweforgiveforwehaveforgivenofMt.RV,orsinsfordebtsofMt.),pointstotheMatthanprayerbeingtheoriginal.Butitisdifficulttobelievethat
eitherEvangelistwoulddeliberatelyaltertheLordsPrayerasfoundinhissourcesthecaseisnotparallelwithotheralterations.IfweholdthePrayertohavebeengivenonlyonce,
themostprobableexplanationofthedifferenceswouldseemtobethat,ourLordnothayinglaiddownfixedrulesforworship,butonlygeneralprinciples,thefirstChristiansdid
notfeelboundtouse,ordidnotknow,HisipsissimaverbahencetheliturgicalusagewithregardtothePrayerwouldvary.TheFirstandThirdEvangelistsmightwellincorporate
intheirGospelsthatformtowhichtheywereaccustomedinworship.WemustnotforgetalsothatasoriginallydeliveredthePrayerwas,doubtless,inAramaic,andsoinanycase
wehavenotJesusexactwords.
4.ThewritersstyleandinterestsTheThirdEvangelistisatoncethemostliteraryandthemostversatileofthefour.Thesuddenchangefromaclassicalto
anAramaicstyleat1:5hasbeennoticedin3whenthewriterisworkingonthePetrinetradition,andthenonMarkandocument,theAramaictingeismuch
lessmarked.ThesamethingisseeninActs,wheretheearlychaptershaveastrongAramaictingewhichisabsentfromtherest.Yetthespecialcharacteristicsof
languagerunthroughboththebooks,andtheirintegrityandcommonauthorship,isbecomingmoreandmorecertain.Thewriterhasakeensenseofeffective
composition,asweseebythewayinwhichhenarrateshisincidents(e.g.thatofthesinfulwoman,7:36ff.).Yethisdescriptionsarenotthoseofaneyewitnessthe
autoptictoucheswhichwefindintheSecondGospel(seeMARK[GOSPELACC.TO])areabsenthere.Theauthorsinterestsaremanyhissympathywithwomen,
hisdomestictoneshownbythesocialsceneswhichhedescribes,hismedicallanguageanddescriptionsofcures(alargenumberoftechnicalphrasesusedby
GreekmedicalwritersandbyLukehavebeencollected),andhisfrequentreferencestoangels,areclearlymarkedinbothbooks.IthasbeensaidthatinhisGospel
heavoidsduplicatesbutthisstatementcanhardlystandexamination(cf.thetwosongs(1:45,68),thetwofeasts(5:29,19:5),themissionoftheTwelveandofthe
Seventy(9:1,10:1),thetwodisputesastowhoisthegreatest(9:45,22:24),etc.).
TheEvangelicsymbolusuallyascribedbytheFatherstoLukeisthecalf,thoughpseudoAthanasiusgiveshimthelionanditissaidthattheGospelhasasacrificialaspect,the
calfbeingtheanimalmostcommonlyusedforsacrifice.Butthisappearstobeveryfanciful,anditisnoteasytoseewhyLk.ismoresacrificialthantheotherGospels.
5.Authorshipanddate.(a)TheThirdGospelandActshavethesameauthor.Bothbooksareaddressedtothesameperson,Theophilusthestyleofbothis
identical,notonlyinbroadfeatures,butindetail(see4),andAc1:1referstoaformer(orfirst)treatise.Thus,iftheauthorisnotthesameinbothcases,the
laterwriterhasdeliberatelyinterwovenintohisbookthewholestyleofhispredecessor,inamannerthatabsolutelydefiesdetection.Thatthisshouldhave
happenedisagrossImprobability.(b)WehavenoexternalevidenceofauthorshipbeforeIrenus,whonamesLuke(1).ButtheinternalevidenceofActsisvery
strongthatthewriterwasLuke,thecompanionofSt.Paul(seeart.ACTSOFTHEAPOSTLES).WemustthereforeconcludeeitherthattheauthorwasLuke,orthathe
wishedtopassforhim.ThelatterhypothesisismaintainedbysomeonthegroundthatthewriterisindebtedtoJosephus,whowrotehisAntiquitiesc.A.D.94.It
mayberemarkedthatthisfact,ifproved,wouldnotprecludetheLukanauthorship,forifLukewasayoungmanwhentravellingwithSt.Paul,hemightwellhave
beenaliveandactiveinaliterarysensec.A.D.100(soBurkitt).ButitisextremelyimprobablethathehadeverreadJosephus.Thecrucialcasesarethoseofthe
taxinginLk2:2andofTheudasinAc5:36,discussedin7below,andinart.THEUDAS,wheredependenceisshowntobemostunlikely(seealsoart.EGYPTIAN
[THE]).Otherthingspointtoanabsenceofliteraryconnexione.g.ActsdescribesAgrippasdeathquiteindependentlyofJosephus.Theargumentfromlanguage,
ontheotherside,scarcelydeservesseriousrefutationthecommonuseoftheLXXaccountsformostoftheresemblances(see,further,Plummer,St.Luke,p.XXX
theconnexionbetweenLk.andJosephusisdeniedbySchrer,Harnack,Zabn,andbymostEnglishwriters).
Forthereasons,then,whicharestatedinart.ACTSOFTHEAPOSTLES,weconcludethatLukewastheauthor.Itmaybeaddedthatitisdifficulttoconceiveany
reasonwhichtheauthor,ifnotLuke,couldhavehadforthepretence.Lukewasnotsufficientlywellknownforaforgertousehisname.
(b)Date.ForthereasonsjuststatedwemustprobablychooseadateimmediatelyafterAc28:30(Blass,Headlam,Salmon,etc.),orelsebetweenA.D.70and 44/48
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(b)Date.ForthereasonsjuststatedwemustprobablychooseadateimmediatelyafterAc28:30(Blass,Headlam,Salmon,etc.),orelsebetweenA.D.70and
80(Sanday,Plummer,Ramsay,etc.).TothepresentwritertheearlierdateforActs,andthereforeforLk.,seemsonthewholemorelikely(seeart.ACTSOFTHE
APOSTLES),andthisprobabilityisnotdiminishedbyLk1:1,21:20,thechiefpassagesadducedforthelaterdate.SandayandPlummerthinkthattheearlierdate
doesnotallowenoughtimefordrawingupthenarrativesspokenofin1:1butitisnotobviouswhywrittenGospelsshouldnothavebeenattemptedatanearly
stage.Thepassage21:20,whereJerusalemcompassedwitharmiesreplacestheabominationofdesolationofMk13:14,issaidtobetokenadatelaterthanthe
destructionofJerusalem,andtodescribewhathadactuallyhappened.ButifthechangebeduetoLuke,itisjustwhatweshouldexpectaHebraisminterpretedfor
Gentilereaders(see6)inanycaseitscarcelygoesfurtherthanDn9:26.SirJ.Hawkins(HorSynoptic)thinksthattheremusthavebeenaconsiderableinterval
betweenLk.andActs.Thewholequestionofdateisfarfromcertain.
6.PurposeoftheGospel.St.LukeclearlywritesfortheGentiles,beingaGentilehimself
(seeart.ACTSOFTHEAPOSTLES,2),andundertakeshistaskbecausetheworksofhispredecessorswereincomplete,probablyasnotbeginningwithourLords
birth,andbecausehewasinpossessionofgoodinformation.HewritestoTheophilus,thoughtbyOrigenandAmbrosetobeanimaginaryChristian,butmore
probablyarealperson,perhaps,asRamsaydeducesfromtheepithetmostexcellent(Lk1:3),aRomancitizenofrank[thisisdeniedbyBlassandPlummer].He
hasalsoinview,however,otherGentileconverts.HeexplainsJewishcustoms(22:1),substitutesGreeknamesforHebrew(ZelotesforCananan6:15,Ac1:13,
theSkullforGolgotha23:33,MasterforRabbioften),issparingofOTquotationsandofreferencestoprophecy,usesJudaforthewholeofPalestine(1:5,
7:17,23:5,Ac2:9,10:37,11:29butinLk4:44RVmandAc11:1themorerestrictedsenseisprobable),andinsistsontheuniversalityoftheGospel(see3).An
InterestingdetailwhichshowsthereaderstowhomthebookisaddressedispointedoutbySirWm.Ramsay(WasChristbornatBethlehemp.63).In5:19Luke
altersthedescriptionofthebreakingupofthemudroofthroughwhichtheparalyticwasletdown(Mk2:4)adescriptionwhichwouldbeunintelligibletoa
Westernandspeaksofthemanbeingletdownthroughthetiles.
7.AccuracyofLukeVerydifferentestimateshavebeenmadeastothetrustworthinessofLukeasahistorian.HeistheonlyEvangelistwhoconnectshis
narrativewithcontemporaryeventsintheworldatlarge(2:1f.,3:1,Ac11:28,18:2,24:27,etc.),andwhothusgivesussomeopportunitiesoftestinghisaccuracy.
Hisaccuracyhasbeenassailedbyalargenumberofscholars,andasstronglydefendedbyothers.Theformerfixespeciallyontwopoints:(a)Gamalielsspeech
aboutTheudas(Ac5:36f.)issaidtobeabsolutelyunhistorical,andtobeaninventionofthewriter,whohadreadandmisreadJosephus(see5andart.
THEUDAS).(b)Thereferencetotheenrolment(AVtaxing)inLk2:1ff.issaidtobealsounhistorical.ItisobjectedthatAugustusdidnotorderageneralenrolment,
thatifhedid,theorderdidnotapplytoHerodskingdom,andthat,evenifitdidsoapply,therewasnoreasonwhyJosephandMaryshouldgotoBethlehemthat
nocensushadbeenmadeinJudatillA.D.67,whenQuiriniuswasgovernorofSyria(thecensusAc5:37,Josephus)andthatQuiriniuswasnevergovernor
ofSyriainHerodslifetime(hediedB.C.4).Asagainsttheseobjectionsitusedtobeurgedthat
Lukewasaccurateinmostparticulars,butthathemadeamistakeaboutQuiriniusonly.NowLukedoesnotsaythataRomancensuswasbeingmadeinPalestine
whenJesuswasborntheenrolmentissaidbyhimtohavebeentribalandaccordingtolineage,notaccordingtotheplacewherepersonshappenedtobeatthe
time,aswastheRomancustom.Hesaysthatthiswasthefirstofaseriesofenrolments,andthatAugustusinstitutedtheruleofenrolmentsforthe[Roman]world
thisistheforceoftheGreekphraseused.AremarkableconfirmationofLk.hasrecentlycometolight,bythediscoveryinEgyptofsomepapyriwhichshowthat
periodicenrolmentsbyhouseholdsinacycleof14yearsdidasamatteroffacttakeplaceinthatcountry.
Manyactualcensuspapers,beginningA.D.20,havebeenfound.Thisfactisconfirmedby
ClementofAlexandria.SirWm.Ramsay,inhisfascinatingwork(WasChristbornat
Bethlehem?1sted.1898),argueswithmuchprobabilitythatthefirstenrolmentinSyriawasinB.C.8,andthatthe14yearscyclewasused.Thesecondenrolment
wouldbethatofAc5:37,whichledtogreatriotsinPalestine,becausetheRomansystem,sooffensivetoJewishpatriotism,wasthenfirstintroduced.Nosuchriots
aresaidbyLuketohaveoccurredatthecensuswhenJesuswasborn.RamsaygivesreasonsforthinkingthatthiswasbecauseHerod,rulingasemiindependent
kingdom,thoughhecouldnotfromfearoflosingAugustusfavourforegothecensus(thisagreeswithJosephusaccountofhisrelationswithRome),yet
conducteditinJewishfashion,andpostponeditforayearortwo.ThiswouldgiveB.C.6(summer)forourLordsbirth.AllthisfitsinwellwithLuke.Thedifficulty
ofQuiriniusaloneremains.AninscriptionfoundnearTiburmakesitprobablethathewasforthesecondtimegovernorofSyriaA.D.69.HewasconsulB.C.12
andhisformergovernorshipmustthereforehavefallenbetweenthesedates.InatechnicalargumentRamsayurgesthatQuirinius,duringatimeofwar,heldinB.C.
6aspecialofficeinSyriaastheEmperorsdeputy,withcommandoftheforces,whileanotherwascivilgovernorandthatLukesphrase(lit.whileQuiriniuswas
rulingSyria)suitsthisstateofaffairs.ThiswouldcompletelyvindicateLukesaccuracy.Cf.QUIRINIUS.
TheaccuracyoftheGospelisreallyvouchedforbytheremarkableaccuracyofActs,whichgivessomanyopportunitiesoftestingit(seeart.ACTSOFTHE
APOSTLES,12,andalsoart.LYSANIAS).ButitmaybeaskedwhetherLukewasagoodchronologer.Didhereallywriteinorder(Lk1:3)?Thisphrasedoesnot
necessarilyimplychronologicalorderitmaymerelyimplymethod.Yetthechronologicalnotein3:1leadsustothinkthatLukemeanttheformer,thoughhe
certainlyislessdefiniteastodatesthanJosephusorTacitus,whowereabletoconsultpublicrecords.SirWm.Ramsaydecidesthathehadlittleofthesensefor
chronology.Itmaybesaid,however,thathehadmoreofthischaracteristicthanhispredecessors.Thesourcesusedbyhimhadprobablyfew,ifany,marksof
time.Theearliestgenerationofdisciplesdidnotwritehistoriesforposterity,butreligiousnarrativestoteachtheircontemporariesfaith.Luke,however,doesinsert
somedefinitechronologicallandmarkswemaybecertainthattheycomefromhimandnotfromhissources.Heshowshistrustworthinessingivingdateswhenhe
candosoandwhenhehasnoinformationhedoesnotpretendtoguideus.
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A.J.MACLEAN.
LUNATIC.SeeMOON,P OSSESSION.
LUST.TheEng.wordlust,whichisnowrestrictedtosexualdesire,formerlyexpressedstrongdesireofanykind.Andso,asThomasAdamssays,therecan
bealustingoftheSpirit,fortheSpiritlustethagainsttheflesh(Gal5:17).
LUTE.SeeMUSICANDMUSICALINSTRUMENTS,4(1)(b).
LUZ.1.Gn28:19,35:6,48:3,Jos16:2,18:13,Jg1:2326.Theexactlocalityisuncertain,andacomparisonoftheabovepassageswillshowthatitisalso
uncertainwhetherLuzandBethelwereoneortwosites.InGn28:19itisstatedthatJacobchangedthenameoftheplaceofhisvisionfromLuztoBethel(cf.also
Gn35:6,Jg1:23).ThetwopassagesinJoshua,however,seemtocontradictthisbothofthemspeakofLuzandBethelastwodistinctplaces.Apossiblesolutionis
thatLuzwasthenameoftheoldCanaanitecity,andBethelthepillarandaltarofJacoboutsidethecity.2.LuzisalsothenameofacitybuiltonHittiteterritoryafter
thedestructionoftheoriginalCanaanitecity(Jg1:26).
T.A.MOXON.
LYCAONIAmeantoriginallythecountryinhabitedbytheLycaones,acentraltribeofAsiaMinor.Itisforthemostpartalevelplain,whichismergedonthe
northandeastintheplainsofGalatiaandCappadocia,andisboundedonthewestandsouthbyhills.Itwasandisanexcellentcountryforpasturage.Itsexact
boundariesvariedatdifferenttimes.AtsomeuncertaindateapartofLycaonia,containingfourteencities,ofwhichIconiumwasone,wastransferredtoGalatia.
(SeeICONIUM.)LycaoniawaspartoftheSeleucidEmpireuntilB.C.190.LaterthewholeorpartofitbelongedsuccessivelytothePergameniankings,theGalatians,
Cappadocia,andPontus.AtthesettlementofB.C.64byPompey,thenorthpartwasaddedtoGalatia,thesoutheasttoCappadocia,andthewestwasaddedtothe
RomanEmpire,tobeadministeredbythegovernoroftheRomanprovinceCilicia.InB.C.39MarkAntonygavethewesternpart(includingLystraandIconium)to
Polemon,butinB.C.36itwastransferredtoAmyntasalongwithGalatiaproper.(SeeGALATIA.)AmyntasconqueredDerbeandLaranda,whichwereincorporated
intheRomanEmpirewhenAmyntaskingdomwasmadeintotheprovinceGalatiainB.C.25.InA.D.37EasternLycaonia,whichuptothattimehadcontinued
undertheweakCappadocianrule,wasplacedunderAntiochusofCommagene,alongwithmostofCiliciaTracheia,andgotthenameLycaoniaAntiochiana.
UnderClaudiusandNero,whenSt.PaulvisitedthechurchesofSouthGalatia,Lycaoniaincludedthetwoparts,theRomanandAntiochian.Theformerpart
includedLystraandDerbeandanumberofsmallerplaces,anditiscorrectlydescribedinAc14:6.TheApostles,whenpersecutedatIconiuminPhrygia(orthe
PhrygiandistrictofthevastprovinceGalatia),crossedintoLycaonia(anotherdistrictofthesameprovince).InAc16:14thisterritoryisnotexplicitlynamed,but
itstwocitiesarementionedbyname.InAc18:23thesamecitiesareincludedintheexpressionused.
BothpartsofLycaoniawerecomprisedintheunitedprovinceofGalatiaCappadociaunderVespasianandhissons(A.D.70onwards).Theywereagaindivided
byTrajanin106.AboutA.D.137thetripleeparchywasformed,consistingofCilicia,Lycaonia,andIsauria.
ThenameoftheLycaoninsisnotmentionedintheBible,buttheirlanguageisinAc14:11:itwasnodoubtprevalentinthevillagesandsmallertowns.
AcollectionofChristianinscriptions(of3rdcent.A.D.andlater)hasbeendiscoveredinLycaonia,whichfornumberscannotbematchedinanyotherEastern
province.TheyshowthewidediffusionofChristianityinthisdistrictevangelizedbySt.Paul.
A.S OUTER.
LYCIAwasamountainouscountryintheS.W.ofAsiaMinor,whichplayedverylittlepartintheearlyhistoryofChristianity.Initweresituatedmanygreat
cities,suchasPatara(Ac21:1)andMyra(Ac27:5,cf.21:1).TheformerwasacelebratedseatoftheworshipofApollo,thelatteranimportantharbour,between
whichandAlexandriatherewasconstanttrafficinancienttimes.LyciawasruledbythePersians,andconqueredbyAlexandertheGreat.Afterhisdeathitbelonged
totheSeleucidEmpire,wasthentakenfromAntiochusbytheRomansinB.C.188,andgiventoRhodesatfirst,butafterwardsfreedinB.C.168.Itwasoneofthe
selfgoverningstates,towhichtheRomanssentlettersinfavouroftheJewsinB.C.1387(1Mac15:22)seeCARIA,DELOS.ThisprovesthattherewereJewsthere.
LyciawasmadeaRomanprovincebyClaudiusinA.D.43onaccountofdissensionsbetweenitscities,andinA.D.74wasformedintoadoubleprovincealongwith
Pamphylia.
A.S OUTER.
LYDDA.SeeLOD.
LYDIAwasthenameforthecentralpartofthecoastlandonthewestofAsiaMinorinancienttimes,havingbeensocalledfromtheracewhichinhabitedit,the
Lydians.Attheearliesttimeofwhichwehaveanyknowledgeitwasaprosperouskingdom,andthenameofthelastking,Crsus,hasbecomeproverbialfor
wealth.ThePersiansseizedthekingdomfromhimaboutB.C.546(LydiainEzk30:5AViscorrectedtoLudinRV).AlexandertheGreatconquereditinB.C.
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wealth.ThePersiansseizedthekingdomfromhimaboutB.C.546(LydiainEzk30:5AViscorrectedtoLudinRV).AlexandertheGreatconquereditinB.C.
334.ThepossessionofitwasdisputedbythePergameniansandSeleucidstillB.C.190,inwhichyearitbecamedefinitelyPergamenian(cf.1Mac8:8).InB.C.133
itpassedbywillwiththerestofthePergameniankingdomintotheRomanEmpire,andthewholekingdomwashenceforthknownastheprovinceAsia,bywhich
namealoneitisindicatedintheNT(seeASIA).Aftertheformationofthisprovince,thetermLydiahadonlyanethnologicalsignificance.Thechiefinterestof
Lydiaforusisthatitcontainedseveralveryancientandimportantgreatcities(oftheIonianbranch),Smyrna,Ephesus,Sardis,Colophon,etc.,someofwhichwere
amongthechurchesofAsia.TheevangelizationofthecountryisconnectedwithSt.PaulslongresidenceinEphesus(Ac19:1ff.).
A.S OUTER.
LYDIA.AsellerofpurpledyedgarmentsatPhilippi,probablyawidowandaproselyteofthegate(seeart.NICOLAS),whomSt.Paulconvertedonhisfirst
visittothatcity,togetherwithherhousehold,andwithwhomheandhiscompanionslodged(Ac16:14f.,40).ShewasofThyatirainthedistrictofLydia,theW.
centralportionoftheprovinceAsia,adistrictfamedforitspurpledyesbutwasdoubtlessstayingatPhilippiforthepurposeofhertrade.Shewasapparently
prosperous,dealingasshedidinveryfinewares.IthasbeenheldthatLydiaisthepropernameofthiswomanbutitseemsmorelikelythatitmerelymeansthe
Lydian,andthatitwasthedesignationbywhichshewasordinarilyknownatPhilippi.Sheisnotmentioned(atleast,bythatname)inSt.PaulsEpistletothe
Philippians,andunlessweidentifyherwithEuodiaorSyntyche,shehadprobablyleftthecitywhentheApostlewroteforaconjectureofRenans,seeart.
S YNZYGUS.TheincidentinAc16isoneexampleoutofmanyofthecomparativelyIndependentpositionofwomeninAsiaMinorandMacedonia.
A.J.MACLEAN.
LYE.SeeNITREandS OAP.
LYRE.SeeMUSICANDMUSICALINSTRUMENTS,4(1)(a).
LYSANIAS.ThistetrarchofAbileneismentionedonlyinLk3:1.St.Lukehasbeenaccusedofgrossinaccuracyhere,andissaidtohereferringtoaLysanias
whodiedB.C.36.ButthatLysaniaswasking(nottetrarch)ofchalcis(notAbilene).JosephusspeaksofAhilaofLysaniasandofatetrarchyofLysaniasheis
confirmedonthelatterpointbyamedalandaninscription.ThusLukesstatementismadeatleastquiteprobable.PerhapsLysaniaswasadynasticnameofthe
rulersofAbilene.AhilawasthecapitalofAbilene,andlayontheN.sideofMountHermon.SeealsoABILENE.
A.J.MACLEAN.
LYSIAS.1.AgeneralofAntiochusEpiphanes,chargedwithawarofexterminationagainsttheJews(1Mac3:32ff.,cf.2Mac10:11,11:1ff.)defeatedat
Bethsura(1Mac4:34ff.)afterthedeathofEpiphaneshechampionedthecauseofEupator,andfinallysuffereddeathalongwiththelatteratthehandsof
Demetrius(6:14ff.,63,7:24,2Mac14:2).Cf.art.MACCABEES,2.
2.Seenextarticle.
LYSIAS,CLAUDIUS.AchiliarchofacohortinJerusalemwhorescuedSt.Paulfromthe
JewsintheTempleandtookhimtotheCastle,thefortressAntoniawhichcommandedtheTemple.HissecondnameshowshimtohavebeenaGreek,buthe
hadboughttheRomancitizenship(Ac22:28)andtakenthenameClaudius.OnaccountofaplothesentSt.PaulguardedtoFelixatCsarea,andwrotealetterof
whichtheversioninAc23:26,althoughdoubtlessonlyaparaphrase,yetclearlyrepresentsthetruesense.ItisjustwhatweshouldexpectfromLysias,beingmuch
morefavourabletohiscourseofactionthantherealfactswarranted.
(Seeart.EGYPTIAN[THE]).
A.J.MACLEAN.
LYSIMACHUS.1.ThetranslatoroftheGreekeditionofEstherintoGreek(Ad.Est11:1).2.ThebrotherofthehighpriestMenelaus.Heexcitedthehatredof
thepopulacebyhissystematicplunderingoftheTempletreasures,andwasfinallykilledinariot(2Mac4:28,3942).
LYSTRA(modernKhatynSerai).Acitysituatedabout18milesS.S.W.ofIconiuminthesouthoftheRomanprovinceGalatiaandintheLycaonianpartof
thatprovince,connectedwithPisidianAntiochbythedirectmilitaryImperialroad,whichdidnotpassthroughIconium(RamsayinStudiesintheHistoryandArt
oftheEasternProvincesoftheRomanEmpire,p.
241ff.).BothPisidianAntiochandLystrawerecolonies(seeCOLONY)establishedbytheEmperorAugustusinA.D.6tomaketheRomanoccupationmore
effective,andtheofficiallanguageofthesewasLatin.Hardlyanyremainsofthecityexistaboveground.NotraceofthetempleofZeusbeforetheCity(Ac14:13)
hasbeenfound,butitisprobablethatacollegeofpriestswasattachedtoit.ThesacrificetoBarnabasandPaulasZeusandHermes(orratherthenational
Lycaoniangodscorrespondingtothese)tookplaceattheentrancetoit.ThetownappearsnottohavebeenmuchGrecized,andtheuncultivatedpopulace
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Lycaoniangodscorrespondingtothese)tookplaceattheentrancetoit.ThetownappearsnottohavebeenmuchGrecized,andtheuncultivatedpopulace
expressedthemselvesinLycaonian.TherewereJewsinLystra(Ac16:1),buttherewasevidentlynosynagogue.TimothywasanativeofLystra,whichwasvisited
bySt.Paulfourtimesinall(Ac14:6,21,16:1,18:23),andaddressedbyhimintheEpistletotheGalatians.
A.S OUTER.
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M
MAACAH.1.AsonofNahor(Gn22:24).2.ThedaughterofTalmai,wifeofDavid,andmotherofAbsalom(2S3:5etc.).3.ThefatherofAchish,kingof
Gath(1K2:39),possiblythesameasMaoch(1S27:2).4.WifeofRehoboam,andmotherofAhijah(2Ch11:20).WhensheiscalleddaughterofAbsalom(1K
15:2,10,2Ch11:20f.),granddaughtermaybeintended,asAhsalomhadbutonedaughter,Tamar,whomayhavemarriedUrielofGibeah(2Ch13:2,wherethe
nameisgivenasMicaiahcf.Jos.Ant.VII.x.1).Maacahfellunderthespellofloathsomeidolatry,forwhichAsadeposedherfromthepositionofqueenmother,
whichsheappearstohaveheldtillthen(1K15:18,2Ch15:16).5.AconcubineofCaleb(1Ch2:48).6.WifeofMachir(1Ch7:15f.).7.WifeofJehiel,thefather
ofGibeon(1Ch8:28,9:35).8.OneofDavidswarriors,fatherofHanan(1Ch11:43).9.ThefatherofShephatiah,thecaptainoftheSimeonites(1Ch27:18).
W.EWING.
MAACAH.AsmallkingdomoutofwhichtheAraman(1Ch19:6)inhabitantswerenotdriven(Jos13:13).Itprobablylayinwhatisnowknownasthe
Jautn,E.oftheSeaofGalileeandtheUpperJordan(Dt3:14,Jos12:6,13:11),butitsborderscannotnowbedetermined.Itskingandarmywerehiredagainst
DavidbytheAmmonites,andsharedtheiroverthrowinthebattlefoughtnearMedeba(2S10,1Ch19).TheinhabitantswerecalledMaacathites(2S23:34etc.).
W.EWING.
MAADAI.OneofthesonsofBani,whohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:34)1Es9:34Momdis.
MAADIAH.ApriestlyfamilywhichreturnedwithZerubbabel(Neh12:5)calledinv.17Moadiah.
MAAI.OneofthesonsofAsaphwhotookpartinthededicationofthewalls(Neh12:35).
MAALEHACRABBIM.Jos15:3AV(ascentofAkrabhim,RV).SeeAKRABBIM.
MAANI(1Es5:31)=Meunim,Ezr2:50,Neh7:52.
MAARATH.AtownofJudah(Jos15:59).PossiblythenamesurvivesinBeitUmmr,westofTekoa.
MAAREHGEBA(AVthemeadowsofGiheah,RVmthemeadowofGeba).Theplacefromwhichthemenplacedinambushrushedforthtoattackthe
Benjamites(Jg20:33).
TherecanbelittledoubtthatweoughttoemendMTtotothewestofGeba(betterGibeah).
MAASAI.Thenameofapriestlyfamily(1Ch9:12).
MAASEAS.ThegrandfatherofBaruch(Bar1:1)=MahseiahofJer32:12,51:59.
MAASEIAH.1.Apriest,ofthesonsofJeshua,whohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:18
[1Es9:19Mathelas]).2.Apriest,ofthesonsofHarim,whohadcommittedthesameoffence(Ezr10:21[1Es9:21Manes]).Foreignwiveshadbeentakenalso
by3.and4.Apriest,ofthesonsofPashbur(Ezr10:22[1Es9:22Massias]),andalayman,ofthesonsofPahathmoab(v.30[1Es9:31Moossias]).5.Awall
builder(Neh3:23).6.OneofthosewhostoodupontherighthandofEzraatthereadingoftheLaw(Neh8:4)calledin1Es9:43Baalsamus.7.Oneofthosewho
expoundedtheLawtothepeople(Neh8:7)calledin1Es9:48Maiannas.Heisperhapsthesameasthepreceding.8.Oneofthosewhosealedthecovenant(Neh
10:26).9.AJudahite(Neh11:5)in1Ch9:5Asaiah.10.ABenjamite(Neh11:7).11.12.Twopriests(Neh12:41f.).13.ApriestinthetimeofZedekiah(Jer21:1,
29:25,35:4,37:3).14.ThefatherofthefalseprophetZedekiah(Jer29:21).15.ALeviticalsinger(1Ch15:18,20).16.OneofthecaptainswhoassistedJehoiadain
theoverthrowofAthaliah(2Ch23:1).17.AnofficerofUzziah(2Ch26:11).18.AsonofAhazslainbyZichritheEphraimite(2Ch28:7).19.Governorof
JerusalemunderJosiah(2Ch34:8).20.In1Ch6:40BaaseiahappearstobeatextualerrorforMaaseiah.
MAASMAS(1Es8:43)=Shemaiah.Ezr8:16.
MAATH.AnancestorofJesus(Lk3:26).
MAAZ.AJerahmeelite(1Ch2:27).
MAAZIAH.Apriestlyfamilywhichconstitutedthe24thcourse(Neh10:8,1Ch24:18).
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MAAZIAH.Apriestlyfamilywhichconstitutedthe24thcourse(Neh10:8,1Ch24:18).
MACALON(1Es5:21).ThesameasMichmashcf.Ezr2:27.
MACCABEES.ThenamecommonlygiventotheJewishfamilyotherwiseknownasHasmonans,wholedtherevoltagainstSyriaunderAntiochusIV.,and
furnishedthedynastyofleadersandrulersintheStatethusformed.ThefamilyissaidtohavederiveditsnamefromamoreorlessmythicalancestorHasmonus.
Thechiefmembersofthehousewere:
1.Mattathias(B.C.167166),acitizenofModin,andofpriestlydescent.When,inaccordancewiththepolicyofAntiochusIV.,theroyalofficerattemptedto
establishheathensacrificesinthattown,Mattathiasrefusedtoconform,killedtheofficerandaJewabouttooffersacrifices,levelledtheheathenaltartotheground,
andfledwithhisfivesonstothemountains.
TherehewasjoinedbyanumberofotherpatriotsandbythePious(seeHASIDANS).AfterafewmonthsofvigorousfightinginbehalfoftheTorah,Mattathias
died,leavingtheconductoftherevolttohisfivesons.Ofthese,EleazarandJohnwerekilledinthesucceedingstrugglewithouthavingattainedofficialstanding.
Theotherthreewerehissuccessors(1Mac2).
2.Judas(B.C.166161),calledMaccabee,ortheHammerer,fromwhichsurnametheentirefamilycametobeknown.Judaswasessentiallyawarrior,
whoseplansinvolvednotonlythereestablishmentoftheTorah,butalso,inallprobability,thereestablishmentoftheJewishStateinatleastasemiindependent
position.HedefeatedsuccessivelytheSyriangeneralsApolloniusandSeron.AntiochusIV.thensentLysias,theImperialchancellor,toputdowntherevolt,andhe
inturnsentalargebodyoftroopsagainstJudas,underthreegeneralsPtolemy,Nicanor,andGorgias.JudascalledthefightingmenofGalileetogetheratMizpah,
organizedthem,andatEmmaussurprisedandutterlydefeatedtheforcesofGorgias(B.C.166165).Intheautumnof165,LysiashimselfcameagainstJudasatthe
headofagreatarmy,butwasdefeatedatBethzur.Thereupon,inDecember165,JudascleansedtheTempleoftheSyrianpollutionsandinauguratedthere
establishedworshipwithagreatfeast.ForayearandahalfhewagedwaronhisenemiesontheeastoftheJordan,whilehisbrotherSimonbroughttheJews
scatteredthroughoutGalileebacktoJudaforsafety.Hisvigorouscampaign,however,seemstohavealienatedthePious,whohadseentheirambitionrealizedin
thereestablishmentoftheTempleworship.Lysiasreturnedwithagreatarmy,andatBethzachariascompletelydefeatedJudas.HethenlaidsiegetoJerusalem,
wherethecitadelwasstillinSyrianhands.Jerusalemsurrendered,butLysiasdidnotattemptagaintodisestablishtheJewishfaith.HeappointedAlcimusashigh
priest,whowasreceivedbythePiousaslegitimate,althoughhefavouredtheGreeks.Judasandhisparty,however,remainedinrevolt,andwhenLysiasreturned
toSyria,undertookwaragainstAlcimushimself.Demetriusr.,whohadsucceededAntiochusIV.,sentNicanortoputanendtotherebellion.Hewasdefeatedby
JudasatCapharsalama,andretreatedtoJerusalem,wherehethreatenedtoburntheTempleifJudaswerenotdeliveredup.ThisoncemorebroughtthePiousto
thesupportofJudas,whodecisivelydefeatedtheSyriansatAdasa,Nicanorhimselfbeingkilled.JosephusstatesthatatthistimeAlcimusdiedandJudaswasmade
highpriest.Althoughthisisprobablyanerror,JudaswasnowattheheadoftheState.HesentambassadorstoRomeaskingforassistance,whichwasgrantedtothe
extentthattheSenatesentwordtoDemetriusI.todesistfromfightingtheJews,thealliesoftheRomans.ThisinternationalpolicyofJudasdispleasedthePious,
however,andtheydesertedhimandbeforethemessageoftheSenatecouldreachDemetrius,JudashadbeendefeatedbytheSyriangeneralBacchides,atElasa,
andkilled(1Mac39:22).
3.Jonathan(B.C.161143)undertooktheleadershipoftherevolt,onlytosufferseriousdefeateastoftheJordan,wherehehadgonetoavengethekillingof
hisbrotherJohnbythesonsofJambri.ForatimeitlookedasifSyriawouldagainestablishitscompletecontroloverthecountry.ThehighpriestAlcimusdied,
andBacchides,believingthesubjectionofJudacomplete,returnedtoSyria(B.C.160).Theland,however,wasnotatpeace,andintheinterestsoforder
BacchidesgaveJonathantherighttomaintainanarmedforceatMichmash.ThefortunesoftheMaccabanhousenowrosesteadily.Asasortoflicensed
revolutionist,JonathanwassoughtasanallybythetworivalsfortheSyrianthrone,AlexanderBalasandDemetriusI.Eachmadehimextravagantoffers,but
JonathanpreferredAlexanderBalasandwhenthelatterdefeatedhisrival,Jonathanfoundhimselfahighpriest,aprinceofSyria,andmilitaryandcivilgovernorof
Juda(B.C.150).WhenAlexanderBalaswasconqueredbyDemetriusII.,JonathanlaidsiegetothecitadelofJerusalem,whichwasstillinthehandsoftheSyrians.
DemetriusdidnotfindhimselfstrongenoughtopunishtheJews,butapparentlyboughtoffthesiegebyaddingtoJudathreesectionsofSamaria,andgranting
remissionoftribute.JonathanthereuponbecameasupporterofDemetriusII.,andfurnishedhimauxiliarytroopsatcriticaltimes.Thankstothedisturbanceinthe
SyrianEmpire,JonathanconqueredvariouscitiesintheMaritimePlainandtothesouthofJuda,reestablishedtreatieswithRomeandSparta,andstrengthened
thefortificationsofJerusalem,cuttingofftheSyriangarrisonwithahighwall.JoppawasgarrisonedandvariousstrategicpointsthroughoutJudafortified.This
steadyadvancetowardsindependencewaschecked,however,bythetreacherousseizureofJonathanbyTrypho,theguardianandcommandinggeneralofthe
youngAntiochusV.,bywhomhewassubsequently(B.C.142)executed(1Mac9:2812).
4.Simon(B.C.143135),anothersonofMattathias,succeededJonathanwhentheaffairsoftheStatewereinacriticalposition.Amanofextraordinaryability,
hewassosuccessfulindiplomacyasseldomtobecompelledtocarryonwar.ItwasgreatlytohisadvantagethattheSyrianStatewastornbythestrugglesbetween
theaspirantstothethrone.SimonsfirststepwastomaketherecognitionoftheindependenceofJudaaconditionofanalliancewithDemetriusII.Theneedof
thatmonarchwastoogreattowarranthisrefusalofSimonshardterms,andthepoliticalindependenceofJudawasachieved(B.C.143142).InMay142Simon
wasabletoseizethecitadel,andinSeptember141,atagreatassemblyofpriestsandpeople,andprincesofthepeople,andeldersoftheland,hewaselectedtobe
highpriestandmilitarycommanderandcivilgovernoroftheJews,foreveruntilthereshouldariseafaithfulprophet.Thatistosay,thehighpriestlyoffice
becamehereditaryinSimonsfamily.Followingthepolicyofhishouse,SimonreestablishedthetreatywithRome,althoughhebecameinvolvedinastrenuous
strugglewithSyria,inwhichtheSyriangeneralwasdefeatedbyhisson,JohnHyrcanus.Likehisbrothers,however,Simonmetaviolentdeath,beingkilledbyhis2/102
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strugglewithSyria,inwhichtheSyriangeneralwasdefeatedbyhisson,JohnHyrcanus.Likehisbrothers,however,Simonmetaviolentdeath,beingkilledbyhis
soninlawatabanquet(1Mac1316:16).
5.JohnHyrcanus(B. C.135105).UnderthissonofSimon,theJewishStatereacheditsgreatestprosperity.Josephusdescribeshimashighpriest,king,andprophet,but
strangelyenoughtherecordsofhisreignarescanty.Attheopeningofhisreign,Johnsposition,likethatofhisfatheranduncle,wascritical.Antiochus VII.(Sidetes),thelast
energetickingofSyria,forashorttimethreatenedtoreduceJudaagaintopoliticaldependence.HebesiegedJerusalemandstarveditintosurrender.Forsomereason,however,
probablybecauseoftheinterferenceoftheRomanshedidnotdestroythecity,but,exactingsevereterms,leftitunderthecontrolofHyrcanus.Antiochuswaspresentlykilledina
campaignagainsttheParthians,andwassucceededbytheweakDemetrius II.,whohadbeenreleasedfromimprisonmentbythesamenation.JohnHyrcanusfromthistimeonwards
paidsmallattentiontoSyrianpower,andbeganacareerofconquestoftheterritoryonbothsidesoftheJordanandinSamaria.TheaffairsofSyriagrowingevermoredesperate
underthesuccessionoffeeblekings,JohnceasedpaymentofthetributewhichhadbeenexactedbyAntiochus,andestablishedabrilliantcourt,issuingcoinsashighpriestandhead
oftheCongregationoftheJews.Hedidnot,however,takethetitleofking.HislongreignwasmarkedbyabreakwiththePharisees,who,assuccessorsofthePious,hadbeen
thetraditionalpartyofthegovernment,andtheestablishmentoffriendshipwiththeSadducees,therebyfixingthehighpriesthoodasoneoftheperquisitesofthatparty.Johndiedin
peace,bequeathingtohisfamilyawellroundedoutterritoryandanindependentgovernment(Jos.Ant.XIII.viiix.BJ I.ii.).
6.AristobulusI.(B. C.105104).AccordingtothewillofJohnHyrcanus,thegovernmentwasplacedinhiswidowshands,whilethehighpriesthoodwasgiventotheoldest
ofhisfivesons,Aristobulus.Thelatter,however,puthismotherinprison,whereshestarvedtodeath,establishedhisbrotherAntigonusasjointruler,andthrewhisotherthree
brothersintoprison.Inashorttime,urgedonbysuspicion,hehadhisbrotherAntigonuskilled,andhehimselftookthetitleofking.Ofhisshortreignweknowlittleexceptthat
hewasregardedasafriendoftheGreeks,andconqueredandcircumcisedtheIturans,whoprobablylivedinGalilee.AtthistimethefinalJudaizingofGalileebegan(Jos.Ant.
XIII.xi.BJ I.iii.).
7.AlexanderJannus(B. C.10478).AfterthedeathofAristobulus,hiswidowAlexandra(Salome)releasedhisthreebrothersfromprison,andmarriedtheoldestofthem,
AlexanderJannus(orJonathan),makinghimkingandhighpriest.AlexandercarriedonstillmorevigorouslythemonarchicalpolicyofAristobulus,andundertooktheextensionof
Judabytheconquestofthesurroundingcities,includingthoseofUpperGalilee.Hewasessentiallyawarrior,butinhisearlycampaignswasdefeatedbytheEgyptians.Juda
mightthenhavebecomeaprovinceofEgypthadnottheJewishcounsellorsof
Cleopatraadvisedagainstthesubjectionoftheland.TheEgyptianarmywaswithdrawn,andAlexanderJannuswasleftincontrolofthecountry.Hismonarchicalambitions,
however,arousedthehostilityofthePharisees,andJudawasrentbycivilwar.Forsixyearsthewarraged,anditissaidthat50,000Jewsperished.ThePhariseesaskedaidfrom
Demetrius III.,andsucceededindefeatingAlexander.Thereupon,however,feelingthattheywereindangeroffallingagainintosubjectiontoSyria,manyoftheJewswentoverto
Alexanderandassistedhiminputtingdowntherebellion.TheconsequentsuccessofAlexanderwasmarkedbyaseriesofterriblepunishmentsinflicteduponthosewhohadrebelled
againsthim.DuringthelatterpartofhisreignhewasengagedinstruggleswiththeGreekcitiesofPalestine,inthesiegeofoneofwhichhedied,bequeathinghiskingdomtohis
wifeAlexandra,withtheadvicethatsheshouldmakefriendswiththePharisees(JosAnt. XIII.xiixv.BJ I.iv.).
8.Alexandra(B. C.7869)wasawomanofextraordinaryability,andherreignwasoneofgreatprosperity,accordingtothePharisees,whoseleaderswereherchiefadvisers.
Shemaintainedthegeneralforeignpolicyofherhouse,defendingherkingdomagainstvariousforeignenemies,butparticularlydevotedherself,undertheguidanceofherbrother
SimonbenShetach,totheinnerdevelopmentofJudaalonglinesofPharisaicpolicy.TheSadduceanleadersweretosomeextentpersecuted,butseemtohavebeenabletobring
abouttheirappointmenttothechargeofvariousfrontierfortresses.ThedeathofAlexandraalonepreventedherbeinginvolvedinacivilwar(Jos.Ant. XIII.xvi.BJ I.v.).
9.AristohulusII.(B. C.6963).AfterthedeathofAlexandracivilwarbrokeout.Accordingtothequeensprovision,hereldestson,Hyrcanus II.,whowasalreadyhigh
priest,wastohavebeenhersuccessor.Infact,hedidundertaketoadministertheState,buthisyoungerandmoreenergeticbrotherAristobulusorganizedtherebellion,defeated
Hyrcanus,andcompelledhimtosurrender.Bytheagreementthatfollowed,Hyrcanuswasreducedtoprivatelifeintheenjoymentofalargerevenue.Itwasatthistimethat
Antipater,thefatherofHerod I.,appearedonthescene.HewasanIdumanofboundlessambitionandmuchexperience.HeundertooktoreplaceHyrcanusonthethrone.Withthe
assistanceofAretas,kingofArabia,heorganizedanarmyandbesiegedAristobulusintheTempleMount.Asthewarwasproceeding,PompeysentScaurustoSyria(B. C.65).
ScaurusproceededtowardsJudatotakeadvantageofthestrugglebetweenthetwobrothers.BeforehereachedJuda,however,bothAristobulusandHyrcanusreferredtheir
quarreltohim.ScaurusfavouredAristobulus,andorderedAretastoreturntoArabia.Thisdecision,however,didnotendthecontroversybetweenthebrothers,andtheyappealedto
Pompeyhimself,whomeantimehadarrivedatDamascus.Thetwobrotherspleadedtheircause,asdidalsoanembassyoftheJewishpeople,whichaskedthatthemonarchybe
abolished,andthegovernmentbythehighpriesthereestablished.Pompeydeferredhisdecision,andorderedthetwobrotherstomaintainpeace.Aristobulus,however,undertook
tocontinuetherevolt,fleeingtoAlexandrium,afortressontheSamaritanhills,abovetheJordanValley.AtthecommandofPompeyhesurrenderedthefortress,butfledto
Jerusalem,wherehepreparedtostandasiege.Pompeyfollowedhim,andAristobuluspromisedtosurrender.When,however,Gabinius,theRomangeneral,wenttotakepossession
ofthecity,hefoundthegatesclosedagainsthim.ThereuponPompeyproceededtobesiegethecity.ThevariousdivisionsofJerusalemsurrenderedtohimexcepttheTempleMount.
Thiswascapturedafteralongsiege,andatterriblecost(B. C.63).PompeywentintotheHolyofHolies,butdidnottouchtheTempletreasures.Hedid,however,makeJuda
tributarytoRomeandgreatlyreduceditsterritory.Aristobuluswastakenprisoner,andHyrcanuswasreestablishedashighpriest,butwithoutthetitleofking.Greatnumbersof
JewsweretakenbyPompeytoRomeatthistime,togetherwithAristobulus,andbecamethenucleusoftheJewishcommunityinthecapital.WiththisconquestofPompey,the
MaccabanStatereallycametoanendandJudabecametributarytoRome(Jos.Ant. XIV.iiv,BJ I.vi.andvii.).
10. HyrcanusII.wasaweakman,buthadforhisadviserandmajordomoAntipater,anexceedinglyableman.TheState,asreorganizedbyGabinius,wasattachedtoSyria 3/102

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10.HyrcanusII.wasaweakman,buthadforhisadviserandmajordomoAntipater,anexceedinglyableman.TheState,asreorganizedbyGabinius,wasattachedtoSyria
andHyrcanusexercisedthefunctionofhighpriest(6340).DuringthistimeJudawassweptmorecompletelyintothecurrentofRomanhistory,becauseoftheassistancerendered
byAntipaterandHyrcanustoCsarinhisstrugglewiththepartyofPompeyinEgypt.IngratitudeCsargavemanyrightsandprivilegestotheJewsthroughouttheRomanworld.
Hyrcanuswas,however,notappointedking,butethnarch,andAntipaterwasmadeprocurator.ThewallsofJerusalem,whichhadbeenbrokendownbyPompey,werenowrebuilt,
andvariouscitiestakenawaybyPompeywererestoredtotheJudanterritory.Hyrcanus,completelyunderthecontrolofAntipater,supportedCassiusinthestrugglewhich
followedthedeathofCsar,butinthedisturbancesfollowingthedeathofBrutusandCassiusespousedthecauseofAntony.
AtthiscriticaljunctureAntipaterwaskilled,andhistwosons,PhasaelandHerod,wereappointedby
AntonytetrarchsofthecountryoftheJews.Antigonus,however,thesecondsonofAristobulus,withtheassistanceoftheParthians,capturedPhasael,compelledHerodtoflee,and
seizedtheState.HyrcanuswascarriedawayprisonerbytheParthians,andhisearswerecutoff,sothathecouldnolongeractashighpriest.
AfterHerodhadbeenmadeking,HyrcanuswasbroughtbacktoJuda,andbecameacentreofoneofthevariousintriguesagainstHerod,whohadmarriedHyrcanusgrand
daughterMariamme.Asaresult,Herodhadhimexecuted(B. C.30),onthechargeofconspiracywiththekingofArabia(Jos.Ant. XIV.v.xiii.BJ I.viiixiii.).
11.Alexander,theeldersonofAristobulus II.,whoescapedfromPompeyonthejourneytoRome,collectedanarmyandheadedaninsurrectioninJuda(B. C.57).Hewas
finallydefeated,andlaterduringthecivilwarswasbeheadedbyorderofPompeyasafriendofCsar.
12.Antigonus,withhisfatherAristobulus,escapedfromtheRomans,andin B. C.56headedarevoltinJuda.AristobulusretreatedtoMachrus,butaftertwoyearssiege
wascompelledtosurrender,andwentagainasprisonertoRome,wherehewaspoisoned(B. C49),justashewassettingouttotheEasttoassistCsar.Antigonusin B. C.47
attemptedunsuccessfullytoinduceCsartoestablishhimaskingof
JudainplaceofHyrcanusandAntipater.AfterthedeathofCsarandduringthesecondtriumvirate,AntigonusattemptedtogainthethroneofJudawiththeassistanceofthe
Parthians,andin4037maintainedhimselfwiththetitleofkingandhighpriest.Attheendofthatperiod,however,Herod I.,whohadbeenappointedkingbytheRomans,
conqueredAntigonuswiththeassistanceofRome.Antigonuswasbeheaded(B. C.37)byAntonyattherequestofHerod(Jos.Ant. XIV.xivxvi.BJI.xivxviii.3).
13.Alexandra,daughterofHyrcanus II.,marriedhercousinAlexander,sonofAristobulus II.Shewasawomanofgreatability,andasthemotherofMariamme,wifeofHerod
I.,wasanobjectofbitterhatredonthepartofHerodssisterSalome.ShewasexecutedbyHerodin B. C.28.
14.AristobulusIII.,sonofAlexanderandAlexandra,becameamemberofthehouseholdofHerodafterthelattersmarriagewithMariamme.LikeallHasmonans,hewas
possessedofgreatpersonalbeautyandwasafavouritewiththepeople.AttherequestofhissisterhewasmadehighpriestbyHerod(B. C.35).Onaccountofhispopularity,Herod
hadhimdrownedwhilehewasbathingatJericho,inthesameyear,whenhehadreachedtheageofseventeen.
15.Mariamme,daughterofAlexanderandAlexandra,wasreputedtobeoneofthemostbeautifulwomenofthetime.ShebecamethewifeofHerod,wholovedherjealously.
Driventomadness,however,bythescandalousreportsofhissisterSalome,Herodhadherexecutedin B. C.29.
AlthoughthedirectlineofHasmonanswasthuswipedoutbyHerod,thefamilywasperpetuatedinthesonsofHerodhimselfbyMariammeAlexanderandAristobulus.Both
thesesons,indeed,Herodcausedtobeexecutedbecauseofallegedconspiraciesagainsthim,buttheMaccabanlinestilllivedinthepersonsofHerodofChalcisandAgrippa I.and
II.(seeHEROD).
S HAILERMATHEWS.
MACCABEES,BOOKSOF.SeeAPOCRYPHA,1,2.
MACEDONIA.TheMacedonianswereapartoftheHellenicracewhosettledearlyinhistoryintheregionroundtheriverAxiusattheN.W.cornerofthe
gan.WhentheyfirstcameintoGreekpoliticstheyhaddominionfromthemountainsN.ofThessalytotheriverStrymon,exceptwheretheGreekcoloniesof
thepeninsulaofChalcidicekeptthemback.TheirracewasprobablymuchmixedwithIllyrianandThracianelementstheydidnotadvanceinculturewithSouthern
Greece,butkepttheirprimitivegovernmentunderaking,andwereregardedbytheGreeksasaliens.DowntothetimeofPhilip(B.C.359)theyplayedaminorpart
asalliesofvariousGreekcitieshavinginterestsintheN.gan.UnderPhilip,throughhisorganizationofanarmyandhisdiplomaticskill,theybecamemastersof
Greece,andunderhissonAlexanderconqueredtheEast.ThedynastieswhichtheyestablishedinSyriaandEgyptwereMacedonian,butinthesubsequent
HellenizationoftheEasttheytooknolargerpartthanotherGreekraces.Intheiroriginaldominionstheyremainedahardyandvigorousrace.Afterseveralwars
withRome,Macedoniawasdividedintofourseparatedistrictswithrepublicangovernment,butitreceivedtheregularorganizationofaprovinceinB.C.146.
MacedoniawasthesceneofSt.PaulsfirstworkinEurope.SeeP HILIPPI,THESSALONICA,BERA.TheprovinceatthattimeincludedThessaly,andstretched
acrosstotheAdriaticbut
Philippiwasacolony,notsubjecttothegovernoroftheprovince,andThessalonicawasalsoafreecity,withtherightofappointingitsownmagistrates.TheVia
EgnatiaranacrosstheprovincefromDyrrhachiumtoNeapolis,andSt.PaulsjourneywasalongthisfromNeapolisthroughPhilippi,Amphipolis,Apollonia,to
Thessalonica.AfurthervisitisrecordedinAc20:38,andthePastoralEpistlesimplyanotherafterhisfirstimprisonment(1Ti1:3).
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A.E.HILLARD.
MACHRUS.AplaceE.oftheDeadSea,fortifiedbyAlexanderJannus,andgreatlyenlargedandstrengthenedbyHerodtheGreat(Jos.BJVII.vi.1).
AccordingtoJosephus,thedaughterofAretasretiredtothisplacewhensheleftthehigamousAntipas.HedescribesitasinthebordersofthedominionsofAretas
andHerod,andthensubjecttoherfather(Ant.XVIII.
v.1).HegoesontosaythathereJohnwasimprisonedandbeheaded(Mt14:10ff.etc.).IfitwasthensubjecttoAretas,thisisatleastcurious.Thefortresswasone
ofthelasttakenbytheRomansinthewarofindependence(BJII.xviii.6,7.6.).ItisidentifiedwiththeruinofMukwer,ontheheightabouthalfwaybetween
WdyZerkaManandWdyelMjib.
W.EWING.
MACHBANNAI.AGaditewhojoinedDavidatZiklag(1Ch12:13).
MACHBENA.NamedinthegenealogicallistofJudah(1Ch2:49).MachbenaisprobablythesameasCabbonofJos15:40,whichmayperhapsbeidentified
withelKubeibeh,situatedabout3milessouthofBeitJibrn.
MACHI.ThefatherofGeuel,theGaditespy(Nu13:15).
MACHIR.1.TheeldestsonofManasseh(Jos17:1),theonlyson(Nu26:29).MachirwasalsothefatheroftheGilead.Thesenamesareethnographic,and
theirusesuggeststhattheMachiriteswereeithercoterminouswiththetribeofManasseh(wh.see)orwereitsmostwarlikepart.SettledontheW.ofJordan,they
invadedN.GileadsometimeafterthedaysofDeborah,andsobecamethefatheroftheGilead.2.SonofAmmielofLodebarontheE.ofJordan.Heclungtothe
houseofSaulaslongaspossible,andafterwardsvictualledDavidsmenwhenthatkingwasfleeingfromAhsalom(2S9:5,17:27).
W.F.COBB.
MACHNADEBAI.OneofthesonsofBani,whohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:40).
MACHPELAH.Thenameofalocalityinwhich,accordingtothePriestlynarrativeoftheHexateuch,weresituatedafieldandacavepurchasedbyAbraham
fromEphrontheHittite,toserveasaburialplaceforhimselfandhisfamily(Gn23:1718).HereSarahwasburiedbyherhusbandandsubsequentlyAbraham
himself,Isaac,Rebekah,Leah,andJacobwerelaidtorestinthesamespot(Gn49:31).TheappellationMachpelah,whichseemsinstrictnesstodesignatethesite
comprehensively,isalsoappliedtotheactualfieldandthecavewithinit,whicharerespectivelycalledthefieldofMachpelah(Gn23:19,49:30,50:18)andthe
caveof
Machpelah(Gn23:9,25:9).TheplaceisdescribedasbeingbeforeMamre(Gn25:9),beforeusuallymeaningeastof(seeGn25:18,Jos13:3,1K11:7),just
asbehindsignifieswestof(Nu3:23).Mamre,inGn23:19,isidentifiedwithHebron,whichisthemodernelKhalil(theFriend,i.e.Abraham,cf.Is41:3,Ja
2:23),atownbuiltonthesidesofanarrowvalley,themainportionofitlyingonthefaceoftheE.slope.ThetraditionalsiteofthecaveofMachpelahisontheE.
hill,sothatitwouldappearthatancientHebronwasbuilttothewestofthemoderncity,ontheW.hill,andthatithassubsequentlyextendedintothevalleyand
climbedtheoppositedeclivity.
AbovethesupposedsiteofthecavethereisnowarectangularenclosurecalledtheHaram,measuring181ft.by93ft.internally(thelongeraxisrunningfrom
N.W.toS.E.),andsurroundedbymassivewalls40ft.high,whichareconjecturedtodatefromthetimeofHerodtheGreat,thoughsomeauthoritiesinclineto
assignthemtoastillearlierperiod.AttheS.E.endofthequadrangleisamosque,onceaChristianchurch,70ft.by93ft.,partsofwhichareattributedtothe12th
century.WithinthemosquearecenotaphsofIsaacandRebekahinaporchontheN.W.sidearethoseofAbrahamandSarahwhilstattheoppositeendofthe
enclosurearethoseofJacobandLeah.TheHaramhasbeenbutrarelyenteredbyChristiansinmoderntimes.KingEdwardVII.wasadmittedtoit,whenPrinceof
Wales,in1862andthepresentPrinceofWales,withhisbrother,visiteditin1882.Thecave,whichisreputedtobetherealrestingplaceofthepatriarchsandtheir
wives,isbelowthefloorofthemosque,andisthoughttobedouble,inaccordancewithatraditionwhichperhapsisderivedfromtheLXXrenderingofMachpelah
asthedoublecave.Theentrancestoit,ofwhichtherearesaidtobethree,areintheflaggedflooringofthebuilding.ItisdoubtfulwhetheranyChristianhasbeen
allowedtoenteritinmoderntimes.
G.W.WADE.
MACRON.SurnameofPtolemy(1Mac3:38,2Mac4:45),whowasgovernorofCyprus(2Mac10:12f.)andsubsequentlyofCleSyriaandPhnicia(2
Mac8:8).
MADAI(Gn10:2=1Ch1:6).SeeMEDES.
MADMANNAH.AtownintheNegebofJudah(Jos15:31),namedwithHormahand
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MADMANNAH.AtownintheNegebofJudah(Jos15:31),namedwithHormahand
Ziklag.ItsplaceistakeninJos19:5etc.,byBethmarcaboth.Nosatisfactoryidentificationhasbeensuggested.CondermentionsUmmDeminehN.ofBeersheba,
butdoesnotthinkitsuitable.W.EWING.
MADMEN.AplaceinMoab,which,iftheMTbecorrect,hasnotbeenidentified.ThenameoccursonlyinJer48[Gr.31:2],wherethereisacharacteristic
wordplay:gamMadmntiddm,also,OMadmen,thoushaltbebroughttosilence(LXXkaipausinpausetai).Itisaverynaturalsuggestionthattheinitialmof
Madmenhasarisenbydittographyfromthefinalmoftheprecedingword,andthatforMadmenweshouldreadDimon(cf.Is15:9),i.e.Dibon(cf.Jer48:18).Cf.
art.MEDEBA.
MADMENAH.AplaceapparentlynorthofJerusalem,namedonlyintheidealdescriptionoftheAssyrianinvasion,Is10:31.Thenamehasnotbeen
recovered.
MADON.AroyalcityoftheCanaanitesinthenorth(Jos11:1,12:19).KhirbetMadinnearHattnmightsuit.If,however,MadonheascribalerrorforMaron,
thenMeirn,atthefootofJebelJermuk,maybetheplaceintended.
W.EWING.
MAELUS(1Es9:26)=Mijamin,Ezr10:25.
MAGADAN.SeeDALMANUTHA.
MAGBISH.Anunknowntown,presumablyinBenjamin,whosechildrentothenumberof156aresaidtohavereturnedfromtheExile(Ezr2:30)omitted
intheparallelpassageNeh7:33,perhapsidenticalwithMagpiashofNeh10:20.
MAGDALA,MAGDALENE.SeeMARY,No.3.
MAGDIEL.AdukeofEdom(Gn36:43=1Ch1:54).
MAGI.Thepluralofmagus,whichoccursinAc13:8(tr.sorcererseeRVm).UsedasapluralworditdenotesthewisemenofMt2(seetheRVmnoteat
v.1).Thesubjectofthisarticleistwofold(1)theelucidationofthatnarrative,andofoneortwootherBiblicalreferencestotheMagi(2)thebriefdelineationof
thereligionconnectedwiththeMagi,initsrelationtothereligioushistoryofIsrael.Thesetwopointsneednotbekeptapart.
HerodotustellsusthattheMagiformedoneofsixtribesorcastesoftheMedes.SinceanotherofthesixisexpresslynamedasAryan,itseemstofollowthat
theotherfivedidnotbelongtotheconqueringraceandtheMagiwouldaccordinglybeanaboriginalsacredcaste,liketheBrahmansinIndia.WhenCambyses,
thesonofthegreatCyrus,died,theMagiseemtohavemadeanattempttoregaincivilpower,ofwhichCyrusandhisAryanshaddeprivedthemandaMagian
pretenderGaumtaheldthethroneofPersiaforsomemonths,untildispossessedaodslainbyDariusinB.C.522.ThereisreasontobelievethattheMagi,inthe
courseofagenerationortwo,madeabidforspiritualpower:theyconformedtothereligionoftheconquerors,profoundlyalteringitscharacterastheydidso,and
thusgainedtheopportunityofreassertingtheirownsacredfunctionsamongtheirfellowcountrymen,whowerepredisposedtoaccepttheirreintroductionofthe
oldbeliefsundertheformsofthenew.WehavebutlittleevidencetoguideusinreconstructingthisprimitiveMedianreligion.Thesacredcasteitselfappearstobe
mentionedinJer39:3,13(seeRABMAG)andaritualobservance,preservedstillinParsiworship,figuresinEzk8:17,fromwhichwegatherthatsunworship,
accompaniedwiththeholdingofthebarsom(bunchoffinetamariskboughs,asthegeographerStrabodefinesit)totheface,wasacharacteristicofMagianritual
beforeitwasgraftedontoPersianreligion.
TherearethreespecialcharacteristicsofMagianismproperwhichneverobtainedanyrealholduponthereligionwithwhichtheMagisubsequentlyidentified
themselves.Theseare(1)astrology,(2)oneiromancy,ordivinationbydreams,aod(3)magic,whichwastraditionallyassociatedwiththeirname,butwasexpressly
forbiddenbythereligionofthePersians.ThefirsttwoofthesefeaturesappearinthenarrativeoftheNativity.WehaveevidencethattheMagiconnectedwiththe
starsthefravashiordoublewhichParsipsychologyassignedtoeverygoodmanapartofhispersooalitydwellinginheaven,sharinghisdevelopment,and
unitedwithhissoulatdeath.Abrilliantnewstarwouldthusberegardedbythemastheheavenlycounterpartofagreatmannewlyborn.Thatdreamsguidedthe
Magiatonepointoftheiradventureisexpresslystated(Mt2:12)anditisfairtopostulatesimilardirectionintheinitialinterpretationofthestar.Thereis,ofcourse,
nothinginthistoconvincethosewhohavedecidedthatthenarrativeoftheMagiislegendarynoristhistheplacetoexaminethedifficultiesthatremain(seeS TAR
OFTHEM AGI).ButitmayatleastbeassertedthatthestoryhascuriouslysubtlepointsofcontactwithwhatwecanreconstructofthehistoryofMagianreligionand
theinventionofallthisperhapsinvolvesasmanydifficultiesascanberecognizedintheacceptanceofthenarrativeasitstands.Thedoctrineofthefravashi,just
nowreferredto,maybeparalleledrathercloselyintheBibleanditisatleastpossiblethattheknowledgeofthisdogma,asprevailinginMedia,mayhave
stimulatedthegrowthofthecorrespondingideaamongpostexilicJews.WheninMt18:10Jesusdeclaresthattheangelsofthelittleonesareinheavennearestto
theThrone,theeasiestinterpretationisthatwhichrecognizestheseangelsasapartofthepersonality,dwellinginheaven,butsharingthefortunesofthecounterpart
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theThrone,theeasiestinterpretationisthatwhichrecognizestheseangelsasapartofthepersonality,dwellinginheaven,butsharingthefortunesofthecounterpart
onearth.ThisgivesaclearreasonwhytheangelsofthechildrenshouldbeperpetuallyinthePresencetheyrepresentthosewhohavenotyetsinned.Soagainin
Ac12:18Petersangelispresumablyhisheavenlydouble.Theconceptionwasapparentlyextendedtoincludetheheavenlyrepresentativesofcommunities,as
theprincesofIsrael,Greece,andPersiainDn10and12,andtheangelsofthechurchesofAsiainRev2and3.Ifthisdoctrinereallyowedanythingtothe
stimulusofMagianism,itisinlinewithotherfeaturesoflaterJewishangelology.Itisonlythenamingandrankingofangels,andthesymmetricalframingof
correspondingpowersofevil,thatremindusofParsidoctrine:theJewsalwayshadbothangelsanddemons,andallthatisclaimedisapossibleencouragement
fromParsitheology,whichdevelopedwhatwaslatentalready.AmoreimportantdebtofJudaismtoPersianfaithisallegedtobefoundinthedoctrineoftheFuture
Life.FromthebeginningZoroastrianism(seebelow)hadincludedimmortalityandtheresurrectionofthebodyasintegralpartsofitscreed.Itisthereforeatleasta
remarkablecoincidencethattheJewsdidnotarriveatthesedoctrinestilltheperiodimmediatelyfollowingtheircontactwiththePersians,whounderCyrushad
beentheirdeliverersfromBabyloniantyranny.Butthoughthecoincidencehasdrawnsomeeventoadoptthelinguisticallyimpossiblenotionthattheverynameof
thePhariseeswasduetotheirParsileanings,acoincidenceitremainsforthemostpart.Thetwopeoplescametothegreatideabydifferentroads.ThePersians
apparentlydevelopeditpartlyfromtheanalogyofNature,andpartlyfromtheinstinctivecravingforatheodicy.TheJewsconceivedthehopethroughtheever
increasingsenseofcommunionwithapresentGod,throughwhichtheirmostspiritualmenrealizedtheimpossibilityofdeathsseveringGodfromHispeople.But
wemaywellassumethatthegrowthofthisconfidentbeliefwasbastenedbytheknowledgethatthedoctrinewasalreadyheldbyanothernation.
HowwellthereligionoftheMagideservedthedoublehonourthusassignedtoitthatofstimulatingthegrowthofthegreatestoftruthswithinIsrael,andthat
ofofferingthefirsthomageoftheGentileworldtotheinfantRedeemermaybeseenbestbygivinginafewwordsadescriptionofthefaithingeneral.
ItsprehistoricbasiswasarelativelypureNatureworship,followedbythecommonancestorsoftheAryansinIndiaandPersia,andstillvisibletousinthenumerouselements
whichappearinbothVedaandAvestathemostsacredbooksofIndiaandIranrespectively.ToIraniantribesholdingthisfaithcameinthe7thcent. B. C.,orearlier,theprophet
Zarathushtra,calledbytheGreeksZoroaster.HeendeavouredtosupersedeNatureworshipbythepreachingofahighlyabstractmonotheism.TheWiseLord,AhuraMazda(later
Ormazd),reignedalonewithoutequalorsecondbutZoroastersurrounded
Himwithpersonifiedattributes,sixinnumber,calledAmeshaSpenta(Amshaspands),ImmortalHoly
Ones,whowerethearchangelsoftheheavenlycourt.TheproblemofEvilhesolvedbypositingaHurtfulSpirit,AngraMainyu(laterAhriman),withhisretinueofinferior
demons(seeASMONUS),whoisapowerwithoutbeginning,likeOrmazd,creatorofallthingsevil,andperpetualenemyofGodandofgoodmen.Intheend,however,heisto
bedestroyedwithhisfollowers,andGoodistotriumphforever.TruthandIndustry,especiallyinagriculture,arethepracticalvirtuesbywhichtherighteousadvancethekingdom
ofAhuraMazda.Theeschatologyisstrikingandloftyinitsconception,andthedoctrineofGodsingularlypure.Unhappily,withtheprophetsdeaththeoldpolytheismreturned,
undertheguiseofangelworship,andtheMagiwereerelongenslavingthereligiontoadullandmechanicalritual.Manyofthesedegenerateelementshave,however,beenlargely
subordinatedinmodernParsism.Thesmallcommunity,mostlyconcentratedroundBombay,whichtodaymaintainsthisancientfaith,mayassuredlychallengeanynonChristian
religionintheworldtomatcheitheritscreedoritsworks.
JAMESHOPEMOULTON.
MAGIC,DIVINATION,ANDSORCERY.Magic,divination,sorcery,andwitchcraftareallconnectedwithbeliefinsuperhumanpowers,andaremethods
wherebymenendeavourtoobtainfromthesepowersknowledgeofthefuture,orassistanceintheaffairsoflife.Beliefinmagicanddivinationismostprevalentin
thelowerstagesofcivilizationandreligion.Theartsofthemagicianandthedivinerwerefoundeduponthesamelogicalprocessesashaveissuedinthe
developmentofmodernsciencebutthelimitswithinwhichdeductionwouldbevalidweredisregarded,andthedatawerefrequentlyimperfect.Accidental
coincidencewasoftenconfusedwithcausalsequence.(SeeHastingsDB,art.Divination).Magicanddivinationwerederivedfromattemptsatreasoningwhich
wereveryoftenerroneousbutfromsuchcrudebeginningssciencehasslowlygrown.
IntheirbeginningtheseartswereassociatedwithreligionanddivinersandmagicianswerethosethoughttobemostintimatelyconnectedwiththeDeity,and,
owingtotheirsuperiorknowledgeofHimandHisways,bestabletolearnHissecretsorsecureHisaid.AmongtheArabsthepriestwasoriginallyalsothe
soothsayertheHeb.khn,priest,iscognatewiththeArab.khin,soothsayertheprimitivepriesthadchargeoftheshrineofthegod,andbothoffered
sacrificesandgaveresponses.Inthismannerclassesofprofessionaldivinersandmagiciansarose,asinEgypt(Gn41:8,Ex7:11),inBabylon(Dn2:2),in
connexionwithBaal(1K18:19),andevenamongtheIsraelitesinthelowerrankofprofessedprophets(Mic3:511seeG.A.Smith,TwelveProphets,Introd.).
Suchofficialsweresetapartfortheirofficebysomeritespeciallyconnectingthemwiththegod,astheeatingofaparticularfood,orthewearingofasacreddress
(cf.2K1:8,Zec13:4).Theanimism,inwhichmagicalartshadtheirroot,soonpassedbeyondthesimplebeliefthatNaturewaspeopledwithspirits,andbeganto
distinguishbetweengoodandevilspirits.Whenthatdistinctionhadbeenattained,theartofthemagiciananddivineralsobecamesubjecttomoraldistinctions,
accordingtothecharacterofthespiritwhoseaidwassoughtandthepurposeinview.Thisdiversityinthemoralcharacteristicsofmagicanddivinationisillustrated
inthehistoryofIsraelfordivinationisakintosomeoftheinstitutionssanctionedbyGod,suchastheUrimandThummim(Ex28:30,Lv8:8),anditincludes,at
theotherextreme,suchnecromancyasthatofthewitchofEndor.AmongSemiticracesandbytheEgyptians,magicanddivinationwereassociatedwiththe
worshipofvariousgodsandthebeliefintheexistenceofavastnumberofdemons.WiththegradualriseofreligioninIsraelundertheteachingofGod,early
modesofpryingintothefuture,andmagicalmethodsofseekingsuperhumanhelp,wereslowlyabandoned,and,asrevelationbecameclearer,theywereforbidden.
TheteachingoftheinspiredprophetsofJehovahwasverydifferentfromthatofthemerelyprofessionalprophetsandfromthereligionofthecommonpeople.
ThroughoutpreexilictimestherewasastruggleinIsraelbetweenthepureworshipofJehovahaloneasinculcatedbythegreatprophets,andtheworshipofother 7/102
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ThroughoutpreexilictimestherewasastruggleinIsraelbetweenthepureworshipofJehovahaloneasinculcatedbythegreatprophets,andtheworshipofother
gods,suchasthelocalCanaanitishBaalimandidolsinthehomesofthepeople.Inprocessoftimemagicanddivinationbecamecloselylinkedwiththeseillicit
cults,andwereconsequentlydenouncedbythegreatprophets
butatthesametimethedesireofthehumanhearttolearnthefutureandtosecureDivinehelp(whichliesattherootofmagicanddivination)wasmetbyGod,
purified,elevated,andsatisfiedbytherevelationofHiswillthroughtheprophets.Godsrevelationwassuitedtothestageofspiritualdevelopmenttowhichthe
peoplehadattained,henceHisprophetssometimesemployedmethodssimilartothoseofdivinationconsequentlysomeformsofdivinationareallowedtopass
withoutcensureinmanypassagesoftheBible,buttheseweregraduallyputasideasthepeoplewereeducatedtoamorespiritualconceptionofreligion.Onthe
otherhand,asmensoughttoprognosticatethefuturebyillicitcommercewithfalsegodsandspirits,magicanddivinationbecamegenerallydegradedanddivorced
fromallthatisrightandgood.ThisexplainstheincreasingseveritywithwhicmagicanddivinationareregardedinScriptureneverthelesswefinditrecorded,
withoutanyadversecomment,thatDanielwasmadeheadofthewisemenofBabylonalthoughtheseincludedmagicians,enchanters,sorcerers,and
Chaldans(Dn2:2,
48)andthatthewisemen(Mt2:1)weremagi.(SeeGrimmThayersLex.p.385.)Inexplanationitmaybesaidthatrelianceupondivinationisamoralevilin
proportiontothereligiouslightvouchsafedtotheindividualsconcernedandGodaccommodatedthemethodsofHisteachingtotheconditionofthosetowhomHe
revealedHimself.
GeneralcourseofthehistoryofmagicanddivinationinIsrael.SeveralsourcescanbetracedfromwhichtheIsraelitesderivedtheirmagicalarts,and
differentperiodsareapparentatwhichtheseinfluenceswerefelt.
(a)FrompatriarchattimesuptoIsraelscontactwithAssyria,mostoftheiroccultartsweretheoutcomeofthebeliefscommontoSemiticpeoples.Although
theirsojourninEgyptbroughtthemintocontactwithacivilizednationwhichgreatlypractiseddivinationandsorcery,wecannottraceanysignthattheyborrowed
manymagicalartsfromtheEgyptiansatthattime.InthisearlyperiodofIsraelitishhistorywefinddivinationbyteraphim,theinterpretationofdreams,and
necromancy,besidestheauthorizedmeansofinquiryofGod.Theveryearliestlegislationenactsthatwitchcraftshallbepunishedbydeath(Ex22:18[JE])andwe
readthatSaulputtodeaththosethathadfamiliarspiritsandthewizards(1S28:3).
(b)UndertheinfluenceoftheAssyrianadvancesouthward,thesmallStatesofPalestineweredrivenintocloserrelationswithoneanother,owingtothe
necessityofunitedoppositiontothecommonfoe.Thiswasprejudicialtoreligion,throughitsrenderingIsraelmoretoleranttowardsthegodsoftheirallies(e.g.the
worshipofthePhnicianBaal,fosteredbyAhab),andbyitsfavouringtheintroductionofmethodsofmagicanddivinationinuseamongtheirneighbours(cf.Is
2:6,Jer10:2).ThiseviltendencywasencouragedbyManasseh(2K21:6),butinthereformationofJosiah,idolatry,witchcraft,andtheuseofteraphimwere
suppressed(2K23:24)inaccordancewithDt18:1012(D).
(c)TheCaptivitybroughtIsraelintocontactwithamuchmorefullydevelopedsystemofmagicanddivinationthantheyhadknownbefore.InBabylon,not
onlywereillicitmagicalpracticeswidelyindulgedin,buttheuseofsuchartswasrecognizedbytheirbeingentrustedtoaprivilegedclass(Dn2:2).Theofficialsare
heredenominatedmagicians(chartummm,scribeswhowereacquaintedwithoccultarts),enchanters(ashshphm,prob.aBab.wordmeaningthosewho
usedconjurations,butitsderivationisuncertain),sorcerers(mkashshphm,initsrootmeaningperhapsindicatingthosewhomixedingredientsformagical
purposes[LXXpharmakoi],butthisisnotcertain),andChaldans(kasdm,anamewhich,frombeinganationaldesignation,hadcometomeanthosewho
wereskilledintheoccultloreofBabyloniaandcouldinterpretdreams).RecentdiscoverieshaverevealedthattheBabyloniansbelievedinavastnumberofdemons
whocouldbecompelledbyproperspellsalsotheypractisedastrology(Is47:12,13),auguryfromtheinspectionofvictims(Ezk21:21),thetyingofmagicknots,
andthedesignationoffortunateandunfavourabledays.
(d)Egyptianinfluenceswerestronglyfeltinthecenturybefore,andtheonefollowing,theChristianera.TheMishnashowsthepresenceofaverystrong
tendencytooccultsciences,andintheNTwefindexamplesofJewswhopractisedtheminSimonMagus(Ac8:9)andElymas(13:8).AmongtheAlexandrian
Jews,andlaterbytheAlexandrianGnostics,magicwasmuchused,andthenameofJehovahinvariousformsentitedintotheirspellsandtheinscriptionsupon
theiramulets.Booksofincantations,reputedtohavebeentheworkofSolomon,wereextant,andtheBabylonianTalmudisfullofsuperstition(Schrer,HJPII.iii.
152).SuchbooksandcharmswereburntatEphesuswhentheirownersbecameChristians(Ac19:19).SocelebratedwasEphesusforitsmagic,thatEphesian
letterswasacommonnameforamuletsmadeofleather,wood,ormetalonwhichamagicspellwaswritten(Farrar,St.Paul,ii.26).
A.Distinguishingdivination,inwhichprominenceisgiventothedesiretoknowthefuture,frommagic,whichhasforitsobjectpowertodosomethingby
supernaturalaid,wehavenowtoinquireintothemodesofdivinationandmagicwhichappearintheScriptures.
FormsofdivinationmentionedintheBible
(a)Thecastingoflots.ThecastingoflotswasfoundedonthebeliefthatGodwouldsodirecttheresultastoindicateHiswill(Pr16:33).Itwasemployed:(1)
Incrisesinnationalhistoryandinindividuallives.MostscholarsconsiderthatthephraseenquireofGodreferstotheuseofUrimandThummim,whichseems
tohavebeenofthenatureofdrawinglots.ThisoccursinthearrangementsfortheconquestofCanaan(Jg1:1),inthecampaignagainsttheBenjamites(20:27),in
DavidsuncertaintyafterthedeathofSaul(2S2:1),andinwar(5:19,23).ThePhnicianscastlotstodiscoverthecauseofthetempest(Jon1:7).(2)Incriminal
investigation.ItwasemployedtodiscoverthewrongdoerinthecasesofAchan(Jos7:14)andJonathan(1S14:41,42).(3)Inritual.Lotswerecastinreference
tothescapegoat(Lv16:8).Twogoatswerebrought,andlotswerecastonegoatwasofferedasasinoffering,andtheotherwassentawayintothewilderness.(4)
IndividingthelandofCanaan(Nu26:55,33:54,34:13,Jos21:4,6,8).(5)Inselectingmenforspecialduties:theelectionofSaul(1S10:20),thechoiceofthe8/102
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IndividingthelandofCanaan(Nu26:55,33:54,34:13,Jos21:4,6,8).(5)Inselectingmenforspecialduties:theelectionofSaul(1S10:20),thechoiceofthe
mentoattackGibeah(Jg20:9),thedivisionofdutiesamongthepriests(1Ch24:5).
Inmostcasesthemethodofcastingthelotisnotstated.SeveralwayswereinuseamongtheIsraelites,someofwhichweredirectlysanctionedbyGodasameansofDivine
guidancesuitedtothedegreeofreligiousknowledgeattainedbythepeopleatthetime.Thefollowingmethodscanbedistinguished:
(i.)ByUrimandThummim.Althoughnotcertain,itisbelievedbymostscholarsthattheUrimandThummimweretwostoneswhichwerecarriedinapouchunderthe
breastplateofthepriest,andwhichweredrawnoutaslots(seeHastingsDBs.v.UrimandThummim).Inconnexionwiththistheephodismentioned.Insomepassagesthis
evidentlymeansapriestlydress(e.g.1S2:18,22:18),butinotherreferencesitisconsideredbysometohavebeenanimageofgoldrepresentingJehovah(Jg8:25,27,18:14[see
HarpersAmosandHosea,p.221])orthegoldsheathingofanimage(Is30:22),althoughinthispassagesomeunderstanditasbeingagarment.Theuseoftheephodinconnexion
withtheUrimandThummimisnotknown.TheemploymentoftheUrimandThummimforconsultingGoddisappearedbeforetheclearerguidancereceivedthroughtheinspired
prophets.ApparentlyithadceasedbythetimeofIsraelsreturnfromtheCaptivity(Ezr2:63).Inquiryrespectingthefuturewasalsomadeofheathendeities(2K1:2f.),andtheir
responseswereprobablygivenbythedrawingoflots.
(ii.)Bybelomancyandinotherways.Thewordqsam(whichisspeciallyappliedtothedrawingoflotsaswithheadlessarrows)isusedofdivinationgenerallyandfrequently
translatedtodivine.Itisgenerallyreferredtounfavourably(exceptPr16:10).Arrowsareoncespecifiedasthemeansbywhichthelotwascast(Ezk21:21,22).Thispracticeis
foundamongtheArabs,andwasalsousedinBabylonia.Arrowswiththealternativeswrittenuponthemwereshakeninaquiveratasanctuary,andthefirsttofalloutwastakenas
conveyingthedecisionofthegod.Nebuchadnezzarisrepresentedasdecidinginthismannerhislineofmarch(Ezk21:21),and,astheresultofcastingthelot,holdinginhishand
thedivinationJerusalem,i.e.thearrowwithJerusalemwrittenuponit(seeDriver, Deut.p.224).
Withoutanyindicationofthemethodofdivination,operationsdenotedbythewordqesemappearamongtheMoabites(Balaam,Nu23:23,paymentbeingmadefortheservice,
22:7),amongthe
Philistines(1S6:2),andamongtheBabylonians(Is44:25).ItalsoappearsasamethodofthelowerrankofprophetsinIsrael(Mic3:811,Ezk13:6,9,22:28).Prophetsarenamed
inconnexionwithdiviners(qsmm,Jer27:9,29:8).Thewordisusedinrelationtonecromancyandtheconsultationofteraphim(1S15:23,28:8,2K17:17,Zec10:2).The
practiceisforbiddeninDt18:10.
(iii.)Byrhabdomancy.ThisisalludedtoinHos4:12.Probablypiecesofstickwereusedfordrawinglots,asinthecaseofdivinationbyarrows.
(b)Dreamsandvisions.NumerousinstancesoccurinwhichDivineintimationswerecommunicatedtomenbydreamsandvisions.(1)Insofarasthesewere
spontaneousandunsought,theydonotproperlybelongtothedomainofdivination.SuchoccurinGn20:8,28:12,31:10,24,37:5,1K3:5,Mt1:20,2:12,27:19.
Dreamsarespokenofasalegitimatechannelfor
GodscommunicationstoHisprophetsandothers(Nu12:6,1S28:6,Job33:15,Jl2:28).(2)ButthebeliefinDivinewarningsthroughdreamscameverynearto
divinationwhenInterpretersweresoughttomakecleartheirmeaning,asinEgypt(Gn40:5ff.,41:1Pharaohcallsthechartummmawordusedonlyinthesense
ofscribespossessedofoccultknowledge),amongtheMidianites(Jg7:13),andinBabylon(Dn2:2).(3)Dreamsweresoughtbytheprophetsofalowerorderin
Israel,anditisknownthatamongtheEgyptiansandotherancientnationsspecialmeans,suchasfastingordrugs,wereusedtoinducethem,fromthebeliefthat
theywereDivinecommunications.InEgyptitwasacommonpracticeforworshipperstosleepwithintheprecinctsofthetemplesinordertoobtainintimationsby
dreams,andsomedevoteeslivedbytherewardsreceivedbythemforrecountingthedreamswhichhadcometotheminthetemple.Referencestomisleading
divinationbydreamsoccurinDt13:15(prophetsweretohejudgedbythecharacteroftheirteachingandtobeputtodeathiftheyfavouredidolatry),Jer23:25
28,27:9,29:8,Zec10:2.
Vision(chzn,withitscognatewords)hasasimilarlywideapplication,extendingfromtheGodgivenexperiencesofthehigherprophetstothemisleading
predictionsoffalseprophets.InstancesofitshighestsignificationoccurinIs1:1,2:1,Am1:1,Mic1:1.Thewordisusedrespectingthedeceptionpractisedby
lowerprophets,asinNu24:3,16,wherereferenceisapparentlymadetotheseerreceivingtheintimationinatrance,buttheinterpretationisnotquitecertain(see
Gray,Numbers,p.361)otherphysicalphenomenaappearinconnexionwithprophesying(1S10:10,19:1824seeG.A.Smith,TwelveProphets,i.p.21).The
wordalsoappearsinconnexionwithfalseprophets(Is28:7,30:10,La2:14,Ezk12:24,13:6,16,28,21:29,22:28,Zec10:2).
(c)Observationofomens(augury).nchash,tr.todivineortouseenchantments,theagentbeingcalledanenchanter(Dt18:10),meanstolearnby
meansofomens.Veryprobablytheexpressionisderivedfromnchsh,aserpent,withtheunderlyingideathattheintimationwasobtainedbytheworshipper
throughtheassistanceoftheserpentgodanother,butlesslikely,derivationisfromthehissingorwhisperingtonesofthediviner.Thewordisveryfrequently
usedwithabadsenseattachingtoit.
Wordsweresometimestakenasomensofthefuture(1K20:33RVmtookitasanomen,also1S14:16).Themovementsofanimalsalsoconstitutedomens.It
wasconsideredbytheArabsthatsomeanimals,undertheinfluenceofahigherpower,couldseewhatwasinvisibletomen,andconsequentlytheiractionbecame
anomen.ItwouldbequiteinaccordancewiththisthatBalaamsassshouldseewhatwashiddenfromhermaster(Nu22:27)asimilarbeliefinthesignificanceof
themovementsofanimalsisshowninthelordsofthePhilistineswatchingthewaythekinetookwiththearkofGod(1S6:12).
Themethodsofdivinationbyomensareoftenunexpressed,asGn30:27,Lv19:26,2K17:17,21:8,2Ch33:6.Thefollowingpracticesindivinationbyomensappear:(i.)
Byhydromancy(Gn44:5).In
Egyptitwascommontoattempttodivinethefuturebytheappearanceoftheliquidinagobletordish.(ii.)Bytheobservationoftheclouds.Thecloudswerecarefullystudiedby
divinersamongthe
Chaldans,andthewordnnseemstoindicatethispracticeasexistingamongtheHebrewsandPhilistines(Is2:5seeCheyne,Isaiah,vol.i.p.17).Driver,however,leavesthe 9/102
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Chaldans,andthewordnnseemstoindicatethispracticeasexistingamongtheHebrewsandPhilistines(Is2:5seeCheyne,Isaiah,vol.i.p.17).Driver,however,leavesthe
kindofdivinationundecided,andsuggestsaderivationfromanArabicrootmeaningtomurmurorwhisper,thereferencebeingtothemutteringsofthesoothsayer(Deut.p.
224).Perhapsitmeantthebringingofcloudsbymagicarts,asinJer14:22(seeDelitzschonIs2:6).Ithasalsobeensuggestedthatthewordisadenominativefromayin(eye),
andmeanstoglancewithanevileye.Thisformofaugurywasforbidden(Lv19:26,Dt18:10),andthosepractisingitweredenounced(Mic5:12,Jer27:9).Manassehfosteredit
(2K21:8,2Ch33:6).(iii.)Byastrology.Thestarewereveryearlybelievedtohaveaninfluenceonthefortunesofmen(Jg5:20,Job38:33).Professionalastrologerswere
prominentamongtheAssyriansandBabylonians,amongwhomastandardastrologicalworkwasconstructedasearlyasthe16thcent. B. C.(Cheyne,Isaiah,vol.i.p.310).
Babylonianastrology,withitsannouncementofcomingeventsandnotificationoffavourableandunpropitiousdays(suchasarenowextantonBabylonianclaytablets),ismentioned
inIs47:13butastrologydoesnotseemtohavebeenpractisedbyIsraelinearlytimesJeremiahspeaksofitasthewayofthenations,andwarnsthepeopleagainstit.Inlater
timesastrologywasregardedbytheJewsinalessunfavourablelignt:e.g.Dn2:48,whereDanielismadechiefoftenwisemenwhoincludedastrologers(cf.Mt2,wherethewise
men,whoappeartohavebeenastrologers,weremetbyGodintheirdarkness,andledtotheinfantSaviour[Edersheim,LTi.202]).(iv.)Byinspectingvictims.Forecastingthe
futurefromtheappearanceoftheliversofvictimsismentionedinEzk21:21.ThiswascommoninBabylon(Diod.Sic.ii.29)andalsoamongtheRomans(Cic.deDivin.ii.12).It
doesnotappeartohavebeeninuseamongtheIsraelitesthesacrificesofBalaam(Nu23:1,14)werenotforthispurpose,buttopropitiatethedeityconsulted.
Connectedwiththeuseofomensistheappointmentofsignsbyprophetstoassisttheirconsultorsinbelievingwhattheypredicted.SignsweregivenbyGod
andHisprophetsaswellasbyfalseprophetsthesewereexhibitionsofDivinepowerinsmallermattersbywhichmenmightbeenabledtotrustGodinthingsof
greatermoment(Jg6:36)ortheywereInstancesoftruthinsmallpredictions,toawakenconfidenceingreaterpromisesorthreatenings(Ex4:8,10:2,Is7:11)or
theyweresimplytheattachmentofparticularmeaningtoordinaryfactstoremindmenofGodspromisesorthreats(Gn9:12,17:11,Is8:18,Ezk12:11,Zec3:8).In
thetimeofChristsuchsignsweredemandedbytheJews(Mt12:38,16:1,Lk11:16,Jn4:46,1Co
1:22).Cf.art.S ION.
(d)Necromancyandfamiliarspirits.Ofthesethereweretwokinds:(1)Aspirit(primarilyasubterraneanspirit,b)wasconceivedasdwellinginahuman
being(Lv20:27),mostcommonlyinawoman.Thosethuspossessedweresometimescalledbth(Is8:19),orthewomanwasdenominatedbaalathb(1S
28:7).Anotherexplanation(H.P.Smith,Samuel,p.239)makesthebasortofidol,onthegroundthatManassehmadeanb(2K21:6)andthatitisclassed
withteraphim(2K23:24).Thesenecromancersprofessedtohavethepowerofcallingupthedead(1S28:11,Is8:19).Oftheirmethodofprocedureweknow
nothing.IntheInterviewwiththewitchofEndor,itappearsthatSaulwastoldbythewitchwhatshesaw,butthekinghimselfenteredintotheconversation.
NecromancersseemtohavedeceivedtheirInquirersbyspeakinginathinweakvoicetomakeitappearthatitwasthespiritspeakingthroughthem(Is8:19,29:4).
TheLXXgenerallyrepresentsthemasventriloquists,engastrimythoi(cf.gotes,2Ti3:13).Asimilarbeliefthataspiritmightdwellinahumanbeingandgive
responsesappearsinAc16:16thisopinionwascommoninheathendom.TheJewshadsimilarviewsrespectingtheindwellingofdemonsincasesofdemoniacal
possession.
(2)Otherdivinersrepresentedthemselvesashavingfellowshipwithaspiritfromwhomtheycouldreceiveintimations.Thesespiritswerecalledyiddenm,the
meaningbeingeitherthatthespiritswerewiseandacquaintedwiththefuture,orthattheywereknowntothewizardsandhadbecomefamiliarspiritstothem.
Thewordoccursonlyinconjunctionwithb,asinLv19:31,20:5,Dt18:11.
(e)Divinationbyteraphim.Theteraphimwereimagesinhumanform(cf.Michalsstratagem,1S19:13),andtheywereworshippedasgods(Gn31:19,30,
Jg18:24),butinlatertimestheyseemtohavebeendegradedtomagicaluses.
Somesupposethemtohavebeentheremainsofaprimitiveancestorworship,andconnectthewordwithrephmwhichmeansghosts(rootrphh,tosinkdownto
relax).SomeJewishcommentators(cf.Moore,Judges,p.382)havesuggestedthattheywereoriginallythemummiedheadsofhumanbeings,andthatimagesofwoodormetal
weresubstitutedfortheseinlatertimes.
TeraphimwereusedfordivinationbyIsraelitesandAramans(Gn31:18),and
Nebuchadnezzarisrepresentedasconsultingthem(Ezk21:21).Josiahabolishedteraphimaswellasothermethodsofillicitdivination(2K23:24),butthey
subsequentlyreappeared(Zec10:2).Theuseoftheteraphimindivinationisnotstated,butitwasprobablysomewhatsimilartotheconsultingoffamiliarspirits,
namely,thedivinergavetheresponsewhichherepresentedhimselftohavereceivedfromtheteraphim.
B.Magic,likedivination,hadbothlegitimateandillicitbranches.Themoralcharacteroftheattempttoobtainsupernaturalaidwasdeterminedbythepurposein
viewandthemeansusedtoattainit.Witchcraft,whichsoughttoinjureothersbymagicalarts,hasalwaysbeenregardedasevilandworthyofpunishmentamong
allnations.Invocationofaidfromfalsegods(whowerestillregardedashavingrealexistenceandpower)andfromevilspiritshasbeengenerallydenounced.But
therewasalsoamagic,whichhasbeendenominatedwhitemagic,havingforitsobjectthedefeatofhostilewitchcraftandtheprotectionofindividualsfromevil
influences.
1.Magicemployedtocounteracttheworkofevilspiritsortheartsofmaliciousmagicians.Thiskindofmagicwasextensivelypractisedamong
theAssyriansandBabylonians,andwasthekindprofessedbythewisemenwhowereunderthepatronageofNebuchadnezzar(Dn2:2).Italsoappearsinthe
ceremonyofexorcism.InBabyloniaillnesswastracedtopossessionbyevilspirits,andexorcismwasemployedtoexpelthem(seeSayce,HibbertLecture).
ExorcismwaspractisedbythelaterJews(Ac19:13,Mt12:27).
ThemethodofaJewishexorcist,Eleazar,inthetimeofVespasianisdescribedbyJosephus(Ant.VIII.ii.5).Heplacedaringcontainingamagicalrootinthenostrilofthe
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ThemethodofaJewishexorcist,Eleazar,inthetimeofVespasianisdescribedbyJosephus(Ant.VIII.ii.5).Heplacedaringcontainingamagicalrootinthenostrilofthe
demoniacthemanfelldownimmediately,andtheexorcist,usingincantations,saidtohavebeencomposedbySolomon,adjuredthedemontoreturnnomore.
Thiskindofmagicisalsoexemplifiedintheuseofamuletsandcharms,intendedtodefendthewearerfromevilinfluences.Thesederivedtheirpowerfrom
thespellswhichhadbeenpronouncedoverthem(thuslchash,whichbeganwiththemeaningofserpentcharming,cametomeanthemutteringofaspell,and
fromthatitpassedtothemeaningofanamuletwhichhadreceiveditspowerthroughthespellpronouncedoverit),orfromthewordswhichwereinscribedupon
them,orthesymboliccharacteroftheirform.Theywereusedbyallancientpeoples,andwereopposedbytheprophetsonlywhentheyinvolvedtrustinothergods
thanJehovah.ProbablytheearringsofGn35:4andHos2:13wereamuletssoalsowerethemoonshapedornamentsofJg8:21,26andIs3:18theirshapewas
thatofthecrescentmoonwhichsymbolizedtotheArabsgrowinggoodfortune,andformedaprotectionagainsttheevileye(seeDelitzschonIs3:18).Perhapsthe
whoredomsandadulteriesofHos2:2werenosejewelsandnecklaceswhichwereheathencharms.Writtenwordswereoftenemployedtokeepawayevil.The
laterJew,understandingDt6:8,9Inaliteralsense,usedphylacteries(Mt23:5),towhichthevirtueofamuletswasattributed,althoughtheiroriginapparentlywas
mistakenexegesisratherthanmagic.TheuseofsuchcharmswasveryprevalentintheearlycenturiesoftheChristianeraamongtheAlexandrianJewsandthe
Gnostics.
2.Magicinformsgenerallydenouncedbythegreatprophets
(a)MagicwhichwasapparentlydependentupontheoccultvirtuesattributedtoplantsandothersubstancesTheHebrewtermforthiswaskesheph.Theroot
kshaphmeanstocut,andhasbeenexplainedasdenotingthecuttingwhichtheworshipperinflicteduponhimself(as1K18:28),or(byW.RobertsonSmith)as
thecuttingupofherbsshreddedintothemagicbrewthelattermeaningissupportedbytheLXXtr.ofkeshephbypharmaka,andalsobyMic5:12,where
kshphmappeartohematerialthingssuchadecoctionisperhapsreferredtoinIs65:4,andsomeJewishcommentatorsconsiderthesesthingofakidinits
mothersmilk(Ex23:19)torefertoamagicalbrothwhichwassprinkledoverthefieldstopromotetheirfertilitythiscustomisfoundamongotherEasternpeoples.
Awidersignificationis,however,possible,asin2K9:22,wherekeshphmhasthemeaningofcorruptinginfluences(AVwitchcrafts).Somederivekshaph
fromanAssyr.rootmeaningtobewitch(seeHastingsDB,art.Magic).
HebrewmagiccametoaconsiderableextentfromAssyriaandBabylonia,wheretheartwaspractisedbyaclassofmenspeciallysetapartforit(Dn2:2cf.also
Is47:8,12,Nah3:4).Egyptiansorcerersarealsonoticed(Ex7:11),butEgyptianinfluenceintheartwasmoststronglyfeltbytheJewsinpostexilictimes.The
beliefinthevirtueofmandrakesaslovephiltresappearsinGn30:14andCa7:13(ddm,fromtherootdd,tofondle).Sorcerersarefrequentlydenouncedin
theBible(Ex22:18,Dt18:10,2K9:22,2Ch33:6,Jer27:9,Gal5:20,Rev9:21,21:3).
(b)Magicbyspellsorthetyingofknots.Thetyingofknotsinarope,accompaniedbythewhisperedrepetitionofaspell,wascommoninBabylonia(cf.Is
47:9,12)andinArabia.Thispracticemayhebehindthewordchbar,Dt18:11(Driver,Deut.p.225),orthewordmayrefertothespellonlyasabindingtogether
ofwords.chbarisalsousedwiththespecialmeaningofserpentcharming(Ps58:5).Thisart,asnowfoundinIndiaandEgypt,wasalsodenominatedbytheword
lchash(Ps58:5,Ec10:11,Jer8:17)fromthemutteringofthecharm,thewordgainedthemeaningofwhispering(2S12:19,Ps41:7),anditisusedofa
whisperedprayer(Is26:16,or,assomeunderstanditinthispassage,compulsionbymagic).Magicalpowerwasalsoheldtobepresentinthereiterationofspells
orprayersasinthecaseofthepriestsofBaal(1K18:26),andthisrepetitionofthesamewordsisrebukedbyourLord(Mt6:7).
Incloseconnexionwiththepowerofspellsisthebeliefintheefficacyofcursingandblessingwhenthesewereutteredbyspeciallyendowedpersons(Nu
22:6,Jg5:23)alsothereweremagicianswhoprofessedtomakedaysunluckybycursingthem(Job3:8).
Anauthorizedceremonycloselyapproachingthemethodsofmagiciansisfoundintheritualforthetrialbyordealofawifechargedwithunfaithfulness(Nu
5:1231)thewomanbroughttheprescribedofferingsandthepriestpreparedapotionofwaterinwhichwasputdustfromtheTabernaclefloorthecurse,which
thewomanacquiescedinasherdueifguilty,waswrittenandwashedoffwiththewaterofthepotion,theideabeingthatthecursewasbythismeansputintothe
water,andthepotionwasafterwardsdrunkbythewoman.
(c)Symbolicmagic.Magiciansoftenmade,inclayorothermaterial,figuresofthosewhomtheydesiredtoinjure,and,totheaccompanimentoffittingspells,
inflicteduponthesemodelstheinjuriestheyimprecated.Theybelievedthatinthiswaytheysympatheticallyaffectedthepersonsrepresented.Atraceofthis
symbolismistobefoundintheplacingofgoldenmiceandemerodsinthearkbythePhilistineswhentheysentitbacktoIsrael(1S6:5)bythismeansthey
believedthattheywouldridthemselvesofthetroubleswhichthearkhadbroughttothem.F.E.ROBINSON.
MAGISTRATE.ThiswordisusedintheAVtorepresenteitherjudgeorrulerauthorityinthemostgeneralsense.ThelatterisitsmeaninginJg18:7
(RVnoneintheland,possessingauthorityimplyingindependenceofZidonandPhnicia).TheformerisitsmeaninginEzr7:25,whereitstandsforshphetim
(thesamewordassuftes,bywhichtheRomansdesignatedtheCarthaginianmagistrates).InLk12:11,58,Tit3:1itstandsforderivativesofthegeneralword
archo,torule,butinthepassagesfromLk.withaspecialreferencetojudges.InAc16:2038thewordisusedtotranslatetheGr.stratgoi.Thisisoftenusedas
theequivalentoftheLat.prtores,andintheolderRomancoloniesthetwosuprememagistrateswereoftenknownbythisname.Butwehavenoevidencethatthe
magistratesatPhilippiwerecalledprtors,anditprobablyrepresentsthemoreusualduumviri.
A.E.HILLARD.
MAGNIFICAL.Obsol.formagnificentretainedbyEVin1Ch22:5fromtheGenevaversionthehousemustbeexceedingmagnifical.Theadv.
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MAGNIFICAL.Obsol.formagnificentretainedbyEVin1Ch22:5fromtheGenevaversionthehousemustbeexceedingmagnifical.Theadv.
occursinRhem.NT,Lk16:19
Hefaredeverydaymagnifically.
MAGNIFICAT.ThehymnMagnificat(Lk1:4655)hasbeenwelldescribedassomethingmorethanapsalm,andsomethinglessthanacompleteChristian
hymn(Liddon).ItisthepoemofonewhofeltnearertothefulfilmentofthepromisesthananywriteroftheOT.ButnoEvangelistoftheNTcouldhavefailedto
speakofChristbyHishumanname,writingafterHisDeathandResurrection.
IntheTRthehymnisascribedtotheVirginMary,butthereisavariantreadingElisabethwhichdemandssomeexplanation.Maryisthereadingofallthe
GreekMSS,ofthegreatmajorityofLatinMSS,andofmanyEarlyFathersasfarbackasTertullian(2ndcent.).Ontheotherhand,threeOldLatinMSS(cod.
Vercellensis,cod.Veronensis,cod.RhedigeranusVratislaviensis)haveElisabeth.ThisreadingwasknowntoOrigen(Hom.5onLk5),unlesshistranslatorJerome
interpolatedthereference.NicetaofRemesiana(fl.c.400)quoteditinhistreatiseOnthegoodofPsalmody.Wecantraceitbacktothe3rdcentinthetranslation
ofIrensus.Thereisfairlygeneralagreementamongcriticsthattheoriginaltextmusthavebeensimplyandshesaid,sothatbothMaryandElisabethshould
beregardedasglosses.
Onthequestionwhichistherightgloss,opinionsaredivided.InfavourofElisabethithasbeensuggestedthattheexclamationvv.4245doesnotcoverall
thatisimpliedinv.41,andElisabethwasfilledwiththeHolyGhost.SuchwordswhenusedofZachariasinv.67arefollowedbytheBenedictus.Arewetolook
ontheMagnificatasacorrespondingprophecyonthelipsofElisabeth?Ontheotherhand,theglowingwordsofElisabeth(vv.4245)needareply.Shewhobad
answeredtheangelsohumblyandbravely(v.38)wouldsurelyspeakwhenthusaddressedbyanearrelation.Indeed,v.48,allgenerationsshallcallmeblessed,
seemslikeareplytoElisabethsBlessedisshethatbelievedinv.45.IntheOTtheformulaofreplyisfrequentlywithoutapropername,andthefirstchaptersof
Lk.haveaspecialOTcolouring.
Anotherargumenthasbeenfoundedonthereadingofv.55:Maryabodewithher,wherethePesh.andtheSinaiPalimpsestrenderwithElisabeth.Itis
suggestedthatthetelltalewithheroftheGreektextprovesthatthehymnwasascribedtoElisabeth.ButintheOTthepersonalityofthesingeris,asarule,sunk
inthesong,andthenameismentionedattheendasiftopickupthethread(cf.Balaam,Nu24:25Moses,Dt32:44,34:1[Bp.Wordsworth]).Onthewhole,the
externalevidenceisinfavouroftheglossMary.ThequestionremainswhetherthehymnismoresuitableonthelipsofElisabethasexpressingthefeelingofa
motherfromwhomthereproachofchildlessnesshasbeenremoved.Suchanideaseemstoexpressveryinadequatelythefulnessofmeaningpackedintothesefew
verses.ThefirstwordsremindusofthesongofHannahasahappymother(1S2:1),butthehymnisfoundedtoamuchgreaterextentonthePsalms,andthe
glowinganticipationoftheMessianictimetocomebefitstheLordsmother.Itischaracteristicthatsheshouldkeepherselfinthebackground.Nopersonalfearof
thereproachofshame,whichmightbe,andindeedwas,levelledagainsther,nopersonalprideinthedestinyvouchsafedtoher,marourimpressionofasoul
accustomedtocommunewithGod,andthereforeneverlackingwordsofpraise.
Thehymnhasfourstrophes.Instrophei.(vv.46,47)shepraisesGodwithallthepowersofsoulandspirit.Inil.(vv.4849)shespeaksoflivinginthememory
ofmen,notassomethingdeservedbutbecauseitisthewilloftheholyLord.Iniii.(vv.5153)sherisestoalargeviewoftheworkingoutofGodspurposesin
humanhistory,inthehumblingofprouddynasties,andthetriumphofthemeek.Iniv.(vv.54,55)shecomesbacktothefulfilmentofthepromisesinthe
Messianictime,beginningwiththeIncarnation,whichisthecrowningproofofGodsmercyandlove.
A.E.BURN.
MAGOG.Thenameofapeople,enumeratedinGn10:2amongthesonsofJapheth,betweenGomer(theCimmerians)andMadai(theMedes),and
mentionedinEzk38:2(cf.39:6)asundertheruleofGog,princeofRosh,Meshech,andTubal,whoistoleadinthefutureagreatexpeditionagainsttherestored
Israel,fromtheuttermostpartsofthenorth,andwhohasamonghisalliesGomerandTogarmah,thenationswhosenamesareitalicizedbeingalsomentionedin
Gn10:2,3ascloselyconnectedwithMagog.FromthesenoticesitisevidentthatMagogmusthavebeenthenameofapeoplelivingfarN.ofPalestine,notfar
fromMeshechand
Tubal,whosehomeisshownbyAssyriannoticestohavebeenN.E.ofCilicia.FollowingJosephus,MagoghascommonlybeenunderstoodoftheScythians,a
wildandroughpeople,whoseproperhome(Hdt.iv.1720,4758)wasontheN.oftheCrimea,butwhooftenorganizedpredatoryincursionsintoAsiaand
elsewhere:aboutB.C.630therewasinparticularagreatirruptionofScythiansintoAsia(Hdt.i.1046),whichseemstohavesuppliedEzekielwiththemodelfor
hisimaginedattackofnationsfromtheN.upontherestoredIsrael(chs.38,39).Why,however,supposingthisidentificationtobecorrect,theScythiansshouldbe
called
Magogisstillunexplained.ThenamehasnotasyetbeenfoundintheAssyr.inscriptions.InRev20:8GogandMagogareappliedfigurativelytodenotethe
nationswhoarepicturedasbroughtbySatan,attheendofthemillennium,toattackJerusalem,andasdestroyedbeforeit(see,further,GOG).
S.R.DRIVER.
MAGORMISSABIB.Anicknamegiven(Jer20:8)byJeremiahtoPashhur,chiefofficerintheTemple,whohadcausedJeremiahtobebeatenandputinthe
stocksasafalseprophet.ThenameisanetymologicalplayonthewordPashhur,anddenotesfearroundaboutbutwhetherPashhur(wh.see)wastobethatto
hissurroundings,orviceversa,doesnotappear.
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W.F.COBB.
MAGPIASH.SeeMAOBISH.
MAGUS.SeeBARJESUS,MAGI,MAGIC,andS IMONMAGUS.
MAHALALEEL.SeeMAHALALEL.
MAHALALEL.1.SonofKenanandgreatgrandsonofSeth(Gn5:12,13,15,16,17[P]=1Ch1:2,Lk3:37Mahalaleel)=MehujaelinJslist(Gn4:18).
2.ThesonofPerez,whodweltatJerusalemaftertheCaptivity(Neh11:4).
MAHALATH.1.SeeBASEMATH,No.1.2.WifeofRehoboam,2Ch11:18.3.SeeP SALMS,p.772a.
MAHALATHLEANNOTH.SeeP SALMS,p.772a.
MAHANAIM(twocampsortwohosts[iftheHeb.wordisreallyadual,whichisverydoubtful]).AnimportantcityE.ofJordanonthefrontierofGadand
Manasseh(Jos13:25,30)itwasaLeviticalcitywithintheterritoryofGad(Jos21:38,40).ItwasclearlyN.oftheJabbok,asJacobtravellingS.reacheditfirst
(Gn32:2,22).HereAbnermadeIshbosheth,sonofSaul,king(2S2:8),andhereDavidtookrefugefromhisrebelsonAbsalom(2S17:2427,19:32).Solomon
putAbinadabinauthorityinthiscity(1K4:14).ThereisapparentlyareferencetoMahanaiminCa6:13(seeRVandAVm).ThesiteofMahanaimisquite
uncertain.AtraceofthenameappearstolingerinMahneh,thenameofamassofruinsintheJebelAjlnN.W.ofthevillageAjln.Merrillsuggestsaruincalled
SuleikhatintheWadyAjln,nearitsentrancetotheJordanvalleyothersconsiderthesiteofJerash,whichisfirstmentioned,asGerasa,inthetimeofAlexander
Jannus,asalikelyspotforsoprominentand,apparently,soattractiveacity.
B.W.G.MASTERMAN.
MAHANEHDAN(Jg13:25,18:12).ThelocalityofthisspotisgiveninthesetwopassagesasbehindKiriathjearim,andasbetweenZorahandEshtaol.In
theformerpassagewearetoldthattheSpiritofJehovahbegantomoveSamsoninthecampofDanbetweenZorahandEshtaolinthelatterpassagethe
derivationofthenameisgivenastheplacewherethelastencampmentofthebandof600Danitewarriorstookplace,beforetheysetoutontheirexpeditionto
Laish.Theexactpositionofthespothasnotbeenidentified,asthesiteofEshtaol(wh.see)isnotknownwithcertainty.
T.A.MOXON.
MAHARAI.OneofDavidsthirtyheroes(2S23:28,1Ch11:30)accordingto1Ch27:13,ofthefamilyofZerah,andcaptainoftheTempleguardforthe
tenthmonthlycourse.
MAHATH.1.TheeponymofaKohathitefamily(1Ch6:35,2Ch29:12)perhapstobeidentifiedwithAhimothof1Ch6:25.2.ALeviteinthetimeof
Hezekiah(2Ch31:13).
MAHAVITE,THE.TheEVdesignations1Ch11:43ofEliel,oneofDavidsheroes.TheMTshouldprob.beemendedtoreadtheMahanaimite.
MAHAZIOTH.TheHemanitechiefofthe23rdcourseofsingers(1Ch25:4,30).
MAHERSHALALHASHBAZ(spoilspeedeth,preyhasteth),Is8:1,3.AsymbolicalnamegiventooneofIsaiahssonstosignifythespeedydestruction
ofthepowerofthealliedkingsRezinandPekahbythekingofAssyria.
MAHLAH.1.OneofthedaughtersofZelophehad(wh.see),Nu26:32,27:1,36:11,Jos17:3.2.OneofthesonsofHammolecheth,1Ch7:18.
MAHLI.InEx6:18,Nu3:20,1Ch24:25,28,itisthenameofasonofMerari,Levisyoungestson.In1Ch23:23,24:30asonofMushi,Mahlisbrother,
bearsthesamename.Ezr8:18speaksofamanofdiscretion(seeISHSECHEL),ofthesonsofMahliandSherebiah,etc.1Es8:47[Mooli]dropsand,thus
identifyingthissonofMahliwithSherebiah.InNu3:33,26:58MahlisdescendantsarecalledthefamilyoftheMahlites.Accordingto1Ch23:22,these
MahlitesweredescendedfromthedaughtersofEleazar,theeldersonoftheMahlimentionedinEx6:19.Eleazarleftnomaleoffspring.Theircousins,thesonsof
Kish,thereforetooktheminmarriage,andpreventedtheextinctionoftheirfathersname.
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MAHLON.SeeCHILION.
MAHOL.ThefatherofEthantheEzrahite,Heman,Chalcol,andDarda(1K4:31),whoarementionedasfamousfortheirwisdom,thoughsurpassedinthis
respectbySolomon.Apparently,then,Maholisapropername,butitisalsofoundinPs149:3,150:4(EVtr.dance)amongstinstrumentsofmusic,sothatthe
fourwisemenmentionedabovemayreallybedescribedassonsofmusic,inwhichcasetheirwisdommayhaveconsistedchieflyintheirskillinthecomposition
ofhymns.
T.A.MOXON.
MAHSEIAH.GrandfatherofBaruchandSeraiah(Jer32:12,51:52)calledinBar1:1Maaseas.
MAIANNAS(1Es9:48)=Maaseiah,Neh8:7.
MAIL.SeeARMOUR,2(c).
MAINSAIL.SeeS HIPSANDBOATS.
MAKAZ.AtownontheW.slopesofJudah(1K4:9).TheLXXreading,Michmash,isimpossible.Thesitehasnotbeenrecovered.
W.EWING.
MAKE.InJg18:3tomakemeanstodoWhatmakestthouinthisplace?InJn8:53
Whommakestthouthyself?,andJn19:7HemadehimselftheSonofGod,makemeanspretendtobecf.Jos8:15JoshuaandallIsraelmadeasiftheywere
beaten.Thisisthemeaningalsoin2S13:5Laytheedownonthybed,andmakethyselfsick.InEzk17:17NeithershallPharaohwithhismightyarmyand
greatcompanymakeforhiminthewar,makeformeansassist.
MAKED.AstrongandgreatcityinGilead(1Mac5:26,36).Thesiteisunknown.
MAKHELOTH(Nu33:25,26).OneofthetwelvestationsofthechildrenofIsrael(Nu33:25f.)unknown.
MAKKEDAH.ACanaaniteroyalcityintheShephlah,wherethefivekingsoftheCanaanites,defeatedbyJoshuaatGibeon,andchasedbyIsraeldownthe
valleybywayofBethhoronandAzekah,tookrefugeinacave(Jos10:10,16ff.),whence,later,byJoshuasorders,theywerebroughtforthandslain.Thecitywas
takenandtheinhabitantsputtothesword.Azekahhasnotbeenidentified,butinJos15:41itisnamedwithGederoth,Bethdagon,andNaamah,whichmaybe
identifiedwiththemodernKatrah,Dajn,andNaaneh.InthisdistrictthenameMakkedahhasnotbeenfound,butWarrenandConderagreeinsuggestingel
Mughr,thecave,asthemostlikelyspot.Therockquarryingandtombsmarkanancientsite,andcavesarefoundinnootherplacewhereMakkedahmightbe
located.ItliesontheN.ofWdySurr,about15milesS.ofJaffa.TheOnomasticonplacesitabout7milesE.ofEleutheropolis(BeitJibrn),apositionhardlyto
bereckonedwithintheShephlah.
W.EWING.
MAKTESH.ThenameofalocalitymentionedonlyinZeph1:11asthePhnicianquarter(?)ofJerusalem.Theworddenotesamortar,andpresumably
wasgiventotheplacebecauseitwasbasinshaped.Ifso,apartoftheTyroponvalleyhasasgoodaclaimasanyotherlocalitytoberegardedaswhatisreferred
to.CertainlytheMt.ofOlivesisbutaprecariousconjecture.
W.F.COBB.
MALACHI
1.Author.TheBookofMalachiraisesaquestionofauthorshipwhichcannotheansweredwithcertainty.Whowastheauthor?WashisnameMalachi?A
priori,itmighthesupposedthattheauthorofthelastbookofprophecyintheOTCanonwouldbesufficientlywellknowntohavehisnameattachedtohiswork.If
thenameappearedwiththebook(especiallyifthenamewasEzra,astheTargumasserts),itcouldscarcelyhavebeenlostorforgottenbeforetheMinorProphets
werecollected,andtheCanonoftheProphetswasclosed.
Itis,however,doubtfulwhetherMalachiisthepersonalnameoftheprophet.Theword,asitappearsinthesuperscription,meansmymessenger,andinthis
senseitisusedin3:1.Itisarguedthatthewordoughttohavethesamesignificationinbothplaces.But,whilein3:1itcanscarcelymeananythingelsethanmy
messenger,thismeaningdoesnotsuitthesuperscription,whichwouldrun,OracleofthewordofJahwehthroughmymessenger.TheobliquecaseofJahweh
withthedirectreferenceofthesuffixinmymessenger,ismorethanawkward.TheLXXrendersthesuperscriptionbythehandofhismessenger.Thechangeof
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withthedirectreferenceofthesuffixinmymessenger,ismorethanawkward.TheLXXrendersthesuperscriptionbythehandofhismessenger.Thechangeof
textisveryslight.
WhethertherewasMSauthorityforitcannotbedetermined.
TheterminationofthewordMalachimaybeadjectival.ItwouldthusbeequivalenttotheLatinAngelicus,andwouldsignifyonechargedwithamessageor
mission(amissionary).Thetermwouldthusbeanofficialtitle,andthethoughtisnotunsuitabletoonewhosemessageclosedthePropheticalCanonoftheOT,
andwhosemissioninbehalfoftheChurchwasofsosacredacharacter.Ifthisweretheexplanation,itisprobablethatgreaterdefinitenesswouldbeattachedtothe
words.Itshouldbenotedthat,whiletheLXXrenderthewordMalachibyhismessengerinthesuperscription,theyprefix,asthetitleofthebook,Malachias,asif
theHebrewshouldreadMalachiyah,i.e.messengerofJahweh.SomesuchformmustbeadoptediftheMalachiofthesuperscriptionistakenasapropernoun.
TheformwouldthuscorrespondtoZacharias,andmanyotherpropernouns(soVulg.bothinthetitleandinthesuperscription).Thisisapossiblegrammatical
explanation,andthenamemessengerofJahwehissuitabletotheconditionofJudahatthetime.TheJewshadlittleexperienceofprophetswhenthemessageof
thisbookwasdelivered.ItissignificantthatHaggai,theearliestprophetofthepostexilicperiod,isexpresslydesignatedmessengerofJahweh(Hag1:13).Hehad
alreadyreceivedtheofficialtitleofprophet(nb),(v.1).Buttherewereprophetsandprophets.FalseprophetshaddonemuchtobringabouttheExile.Ifthere
weretobeprophetsaftertheExile,itwasimportantthatthenewcommunityshouldbeinnodoubtastotheircharacter.Thiswassecuredinthecaseofthefirstof
thepostexilicprophetsbytheexpressstatementthathewasthemessengerofJahweh,andthatwhathespokewasthemessageofJahweh.Inthecaseofthelastof
theprophetsoftheOTCanon,anassuranceofasimilarcharacterwouldbefurnishedsymbolicallybythenameMalachiyah(messengerofJahweh).This,pro
tanto,favourstheformofthewordasitappearsinthetitleoftheLXXandtheVulgate.
But3:1remains.IfMalachiisapropernounthenameoftheauthorin1:1,shouldthewordnothavethesamesignificancein3:1?Theansweris,thatthere
isnoinsuperableobjectiontothetwofoldexplanation.Theformadmitsofthetwofoldreference.Thequestionisoneofprobability.Atthispoint,however,
referenceshouldbemadetotheTargum,accordingtowhichEzrawastheauthoroftheBookofMalachiandthisopinioncontinuedtoprevailamongthe
Jews.Jeromeacceptedit,anditwasfavourablyregardedbyCalvinandothers.NodoubttheTargumexpressedtheJewishopinionofthetime.Butthatdoesnot
settlethequestion.InthefourorfivecenturiesbetweentheappearanceoftheBookofMalachiandthebirthofChrist,thelifeoftheOTChurchcentredintheLaw
ofMoses.Thatlawwasgiven,mainly,byEzratothepostexilicChurch.Asyearspassed,andthetraditionsofthescribesbegantogatherabouttheLaw,thefigure
ofEzrastoodoutastheprominentoneinpostexilictimes.EverythingofimportanceconnectedwiththeLawwaswonttobeassignedtohim.Takealongwiththat
thefactthatMalachioccursasacommonnounin3:1,andtheadditionalfactthattheprophecycloseswithasolemnwarningtoremembertheLawofMoses,andit
mayappearnotimprobablethatEzrashouldhavebeenclaimedastheauthorofthisclosingpassage,andoftheprophecyinwhichitisfound.
InthesecircumstancestheauthorityoftheTargumisnotofverygreatweight.ButinonerespecttheTargumisofimportance.IfthenameofEzrawastheonly
oneassociatedwiththeBookofMalachiwhentheTargumwasprepared,itisprobablethatthebookoriginallyappearedanonymouslyatleast,thatitboreno
namewhenthevolumeoftheMinorProphetswasmadeup,andthatthecompilereitherregardedthetermMalachiin3:1asthenameoftheauthor,orattacheditto
thebookinthesuperscriptionasanofficialtitle.Itisscarcelynecessarytoobservethatthenameoftheauthorisnotrequiredfortheauthenticationofthemessage.
Thetermsofthesuperscriptionareamplysufficientforthepurposeofauthentication.ItistheOracleoftheWordofJahwehthattheprophetdelivers.Thisis
equivalenttoThewordofJahwehcameorwasto(soandso)inotherbooksofprophecy,andimpliesthefamiliarThussaithJahwehofpropheticaddress.
2.DateOpinionisgreatlydividedregardingthedateofthebook.Thatitbelongedtothe
Persianperiodappearsfromthename(pechah)giventothegovernor(cf.Hag1:1,14etc.,Neh5:14etc.).Further,itisobviousthatthestatutoryservicesofthe
TemplehadbeeninoperationforsometimebeforethemessageofMalachiwasdelivered.Abuseshadcreptinwhichcouldnotbeassociatedwiththosewhohad
returnedfromBabylonandrebuilttheTemple.ThededicationoftheSecondTempletookplaceinB.C.516,andtheconditionofreligiouslifedepictedinMalachi
musthavebeenagoodmanyyearslaterthanthatdate.Thisisverygenerallyadmitted.TwodatesaremostworthyofconsiderationthefirstshortlybeforeEzras
arrivalinJerusalem,andthesecondduringNehemiahssecondvisittotheholycity.Certainexpressionsoccurringinthebookareheldtofavourtheformer(cf.2:2,
4,5,3:5,10,22[EV4:4]).These,breathingthespiritofDeut.,aresupposedtoshowthattheauthorwasundertheinfluenceoftheDeuteronomicCode.Ifhis
activitywaslaterthan445,theinfluenceofPwouldhavebeenexpectedtoshowitself.ButtheexpressionthelawofMoses(3:22[EV4:4])findsanatural
explanationinconnexionwiththewholePentateuchallegislationreadbeforethepeoplein445(Neh8ff.).ThecovenantwithLevi(2:4,5)seemstopresupposeNu
25:1013(P).Andthereferencetothetithes(3:10)appearstorestonLv27:3033andNu18:2132(bothbelongingto
P 1).DeuteronomicexpressionsofanethicalcharacteraresuitabletoanyearnestprophetafterAmos,andarenotdeterminativeofdateasarethepassageswhich
presupposeP,ontheassumptionthatPwasfirstpromulgatedinB.C.445.Thelanguage,uponthewhole,favoursadatelaterthantheappearanceofP.The
contentsofthebookpointinthesamedirection.Ezrasreformationappearstohavebeenlimitedtothebanishingoftheforeignwives,andtheefforttoeffecta
completeseparationoftheChosenPeoplefromtheidolatroustribesroundabout.TheauthorofMalachibringsthreemainchargesagainsttheChurchofhisday:(1)
againstthepriestsfortheprofanationoftheservicesoftheTemple(2)againstthecommunity(priestsincluded)formarryingheathenwives(3)againstthepeople
generallyforimmorality,indifference,andinfidelity.AllthisagreesverycloselywiththestateofaffairswithwhichNehemiahhadtodealonhissecondvisitto
Jerusalem(Neh13:7ff.).Anduponthewhole(theconclusioncanonlybeamatterofcomparativeprobability),theperiodofthatvisitmaybeacceptedforthe
propheticactivityoftheauthorofMalachi.ThedatewouldbesomewhereaboutB.C.430.
3.ContentsThebookmaybedividedintothefollowingsections:
I. 1:1.Thesuperscription.
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I. 1:1.Thesuperscription.
II. 1:25.JahwehslovetoIsrael.ThisloveprovedbythehistoryofHisdealingswithIsraelfromthedaysoftheirgreatancestorJacob,ascontrastedwiththehistoryof
JacobsbrotherEsauandofhisdescendants.
III. 1:62:9.IsraelsforgetfulnessofJahweh,neglectandcontemptofHisofferings,throughillegalproceedingsonthepartofthepriests.
IV. 2:1015.Denunciationofdivorceandofforeignmarriages.
V. 2:173:6.DayofJahweh(i.e.Hiscomingtojudgment)againstunbelievers,scoffers,etc.,especiallywiththeviewofpurifyingthepriestsinorderthatacceptableofferings
maybepresenteduntoHim.
VI. 3:712.DroughtandlocustssentonthosewhoneglectedtobringthetithesfortheserviceoftheTempleandthesupportofthepriests.
VII. 3:1324[EV3:134:6].Thepunishmentofthewicked,andthetriumphoftherighteous,onthedayofJahweh,withaconcludingexhortationtoobeytheLawof
Moses,andapromiseofthecomingofElijahtoleadthepeopletorepentance.
4.DoctrineMalachi,initsdoctrinalcontents,isinentireharmonywiththePropheticbooksthatprecededit,andaddsitstestimonytothefactthat,while
Divinerevelationisprogressive,andthecircumstancesofthetimeaddaspecialcharacterandcolourtothedifferentPropheticbooks,thefundamentaldoctrinesare
thesameinall.ThekeynoteofMalachismessageisfoundintheopeningwordsof1:2.IsraelspositionastheChosenPeopleisfoundedintheelectingloveof
Jahweh.ThedivorcingofJewishandthemarryingofheathenwivesisacrimeagainsttheloveofJahweh.Further,JahwehasinalltheprophetsfromAmos
downwardsisaGodofrighteousness.Herewardstherighteousandpunishesthewicked.ThedayofJahweh,onwhichthewickedarepunishedandtherighteous
rewarded,isthesameasinAmosandhissuccessorsandtheclosingwordsoftheprophecy,dealingwiththisdayofJahweh,connecttheOTwiththeNT,inwhich
thedayoftheLordoccupiesapositionofequalimportancewiththatassignedtoitintheOT.Thespecialcircumstancesofthetime,whichservesofartodetermine
thedate,appearintheimportanceassignedtoritual,andtheseveritywithwhichneglectorirregularityinthispartofreligiousobservanceistreated.
5.StyleAsmightbeexpected,thestyleanddictionofabookbelongingtothelasthalfofthe5thcent.areinferiortothoseofthepreexilicprophets.The
languageismostlyplain,homelyprose.Thereare,however,poeticpassages,someofconsiderablemerit(cf.1:11,3:1ff.,10ff.,16ff.,19ff.[EV4:1ff.]).Themost
strikingfeatureofthestyleisthediscussionofanimportantsubjectbymeansofquestionandanswer,adialecticmethodwhichbecamecommonafterwards,and
whichaboutthesametimewaswellknowninAthensthroughthelaboursof
Socrates.
G.G.CAMERON.
MALACHY.2Es1:40(AVandRV)forMalachi.
MALCAM.1.OneoftheheadsofthefathersofBenjamin,andthesonofShaharaimandHodesh(1Ch8:9).2.InZeph1:6Malcamisapparentlythename
ofanidol,andmightberenderedliterallytheirking,asinthemarginofAVandRV.Quitepossibly,however,thereisanerrorinthepointingoftheHebrewword,
anditshouldberenderedMilcom(wh.see),theabominationofthechildrenofAmmon,andidenticalwithMolech(cf.Is8:21,Jer49:13,and1K11:5).See
alsoart.MOLECH.
T.A.MOXON.
MALCHIAH.1.Apriest,thefatherofPashhur(Jer21:1,38:1),sameasMalchijahof1Ch9:12,Neh11:12.2.Amemberoftheroyalfamily,towhom
belongedthepitprisonintowhichJeremiahwasletdown(Jer38:6).
MALCHIEL.TheeponymofanAsheritefamily(Gn46:17,Nu26:45,1Ch7:31).ThegentilicnameMalchielitesoccursinNu26:45.
MALCHIJAH.1.AdescendantofGershom(1Ch6:40[Heb.25]).2.Apriest,thefatherofPashhur(1Ch9:12,Neh11:12),sameasMalchiahofJer21:1,
38:1.3.Headofthe5thcourseofpriests(1Ch24:9),perhapsthesameasthepreceding.4.5.TwoofthesonsofParosh,whohadmarriedforeignwives(Ezr
10:25bis)calledin1Es9:25MalchiasandAsibiasrespectively.6.OneofthesonsofHarimwhohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:31).InNeh3:11heis
mentionedastakingpartintherepairingofthewall.Heiscalledin1Es9:32Malchias.7.MalchijahthesonofRechabrepairedthedunggate(Neh3:14).8.One
oftheguildofthegoldsmithswhohelpedtorepairthewall(Neh3:31).9.OneofthosewhostoodatEzraslefthandatthereadingoftheLaw(Neh8:4).10.One
ofthosewhosealedthecovenant(Neh10:3),probablythesameasNo.2.11.Apriestwhotookpartintheceremonyofdedicatingthewall(Neh12:42).
MALCHIRAM.SonofJeconiah(1Ch3:18).
MALCHISHUA.ThethirdsonofSaul(1S14:49)slainbythePhilistinesatMt.Gilboa(1S31:2,1Ch10:2).
MALCHUS.ThenameofthehighpriestsservantwhoseearPetercutoffintheGardenofGethsemaneatthearrestofourLord.St.Johnistheonly
Evangelistwhomentionshisname(Jn18:10),therebysubstantiatingthefactthathewasintimatelyacquaintedwiththehighpriestandhishousehold(Jn18:16).
TheincidentisrelatedintheotherthreeGospels(Mt26:61,Mk14:47,Lk22:50).Onacomparisonofthefouraccounts,itseemsthatMalchuspressedforward
eagerlytoseizeJesus,whereuponPeterstruckathimwithhissword.Theblow,missingitsmainobject,almostseveredtheear,butnotquite,asJesustoucheditand
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eagerlytoseizeJesus,whereuponPeterstruckathimwithhissword.Theblow,missingitsmainobject,almostseveredtheear,butnotquite,asJesustoucheditand
healedit.
Luke,thephysician,istheonlyEvangelistwhomentionsthehearingoftheear.
MORLEYS TEVENSON.
MALICE
1.(i)OT.AllinPr.Bk.version:Ps94:23,119:150and10:17(adj.)59:5(adj.)and55:3
(adv.).
(ii.)Apocr.AllinAV:Wis12:10,20,16:14(andRVm),*Sir27:30and28:7,*1Mac9:51and13:6,2Mac4:50.
(iii)NT.InRV:1Co5:8,14:20,Eph4:31,Col3:8,Tit3:6,Ja1:21mg.,1P2:1(AVandRVm)maliciousnessRo1:29,1P2:16(AVandRVmmalice)
malicious*3Jn10AV.
2.Discussionisneedlessasto(i.),fortheHeb.isclear.(SeeRV.)Alltheotherinstances,however,exceptthosemarked*representaGr.word(kakia)which
hasamuchwidermeaningthanmaliceasnowused.Itmaybewickedness,asAc8:22,Ja1:21orevil=trouble,Mt6:34.
3.Thepointisimportant,becausemalicehasacquireditsexclusivemeaningspitefulnessonlysincethe17thcentury.Itindicatedevilofanysort(cf.Pr.Bk.
ascitedabove,andforsomestrikingexamplesseeart.inHastingsDB).ThischangeaccountsforRVrenderingsofApocr.,andwouldperhapshavejustified
furtheremendationofAV.
4.Themodernusageisareturntotheclassicalmalitia.ItsrelationtokakiawasdiscussedbyCicero,whocoinedvitiositasasthenearestrenderingforwhereas
maliceindicatedaparticularfault,vitiositystoodforall(Tusc.Disp.iv.34).
H.F.B.COMPSTON.MALLOTHI.AsonofHeman(1Ch25:4,26).
MALLOWS(mallach,connectedwithmelachsalt),Job30:4,RVsaltwort.Almostcertainlytheseaorache(Atriplexhalimus),aperennialshrubwith
leavessomewhatliketheolive,commoninsaltishmarshes,especiallyneartheDeadSea,whereitisassociatedwiththeretem(seeJUNIPER).Thesourtastingleaves
canheeaten,butonlyindirenecessity.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
MALLUCH.1.AMerarite,ancestorofEthan(1Ch6:44).2.OneofthesonsofBaniwhohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:29)calledin1Es9:30
Mamuchus.3.OneofthesonsofHarimwhohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:32).4.5.Twoofthosewhosealedthecovenant(Neh10:4,27).No.4isprobably
identicalwithMalluchofNeh12:2,calledin12:14Malluchi.
MALLUCHI.TheeponymofapriestlyfamilywhoreturnedwithZerub.(Neh12:14)probablythesameasMalluchofNeh10:4,12:2.
MALLUS.AcityofCiliciawhichjoinedTarsusinarebellionagainstAntiochus
EpiphanesaboutB.C.171(2Mac4:30).Traditionsaidthatitwasfoundedatthetimeofthe
TrojanWar.Itscoinageshowsthatitwasanimportanttown.Itssiteisdoubtful,butasancientstatementsmakeitneartheriverPyramus,nearthesea,andalsoona
hill,ProfessorRamsayidentifiesitwithKaraTash,onacoastlineofhillsE.ofMagarsa,whichservedasitsport.TheW.branchofthePyramushasbecomealmost
completelydriedup.
A.E.HILLARD.
MALOBATHRON.RVmofCa2:17forEVBether(wh.see).ItisarguedbyPost,againstthisrendering,thatthemalobathronplant(Laurusmalabathrum)
didnotgrowwildonanyofthemountainsofPalestine.Otherswouldrender(byaslighttextualemendation)mountainsofcypresses.
MALTANNEUS(1Es9:33)=Mattenai,Ezr10:33.
MAMDAI(1Es9:34)=Benaiah,Ezr10:35.
MAMMON.ThisisaSemiticword,butofdoubtfulderivation.IthasbeenreferredtoHeb.aman,areliable(store),andtotaman(tbeingelided),hidden
treasure.Augustine(Serm.onMount)saysitwasthenameforrichesamongtheHebrews,andthatthePhenicianagrees,forgaininPhnicianiscalled
mammon.PhnicianandHebrewwerenearakin,andtheancientsoftenincludedAramaicinHebrew.MammonisnotfoundinOTHebrew,butoccursin
Rabbinical,inSyriac(WesternAramaic),andisusedintheAramaicTargumsastheequivalentofHeb.termsforgainorwealth.BeingawellknownPhn.trade
word,itisintroducedwithouttranslation(unlikecorban,etc.)intoNTGreek,wheretherightspellingismamnas(Mt6:24,Lk16:9,11,13)withthisagreesthe 17/102
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word,itisintroducedwithouttranslation(unlikecorban,etc.)intoNTGreek,wheretherightspellingismamnas(Mt6:24,Lk16:9,11,13)withthisagreesthe
Syriacformmomna.APhn.deity,Mamon,hasbeensupposed.Thoughnotimprobable,theideaseemsduetoMilton(P.L.i.679ff.).ServeGodandmammon
suggestspersonification,butcomparethephraseologyofPh3:19.
G.H.GWILLIAM.
MAMNITANEMUS(1Es9:34)correspondstothetwonamesMattaniah,MattenaiinEzr10:37,ofwhichitisacorruption.
MAMRE.AnamefoundseveraltimesinconnexionwiththehistoryofAbraham.Itoccurs(a)intheexpressionterebinthsofMamreinGn13:18,18:1
(bothJ),and14:13(fromanindependentsource)withtheadditionoftheAmorite(b)intheexpressionwhichisbeforeMamre,indescriptionsofthecaveof
Machpelah,orofthefieldinwhichitwas(Gn23:17,19,
25:9,49:30,50:13),andin35:27,whereMamreismentionedastheplaceofIsaacsdeath(c)in
Gn14:24asthenameofoneofAbrahamsallies,inhisexpeditionfortherecoveryofLot.In(b)Mamreisanoldname,eitherofHebronorofapartofHebron
(cf.23:19,35:27)inGn14:13itisthenameofalocalsheikorchief(cf.v.24),theowneroftheterebinthscalledafterhiminGn13:18,18:1itisnotclearwhether
itisthenameofapersonorofaplace.TheterebinthsofMamrearethespotatwhichAbrahampitchedhistentinHebron.Thesiteisuncertain,though,ifthe
presentmosque,ontheN.E.edgeofHebron,isreallybuiltoverthecaveofMachpelah,andifbeforehasitsusualtopographicalsenseofeastof,itwillhave
beentotheW.ofthis,andatnogreatdistancefromit(fortheterebinthsaredescribedasbeinginHebron,Gn13:18).FromJosephustime(BJ,IV.ix.7)tothe
presentday,terebinthsoroakscalledbythenameofAbrahamhavebeenshownatdifferentspotsnearHebronbutnonehasanyrealclaimtomarktheauthentic
siteoftheancientMamre.TheoakmentionedbyJosephuswas6stadiafromthecitybuthedoesnotindicateinwhichdirectionitlay.Sozomen(HEii.4),in
speakingoftheAbrahamsOakofConstantinesday(2milesN.ofHebron),statesthatitwasregardedassacred,andthatanannualfairandfeastwasheldbeside
it,atwhichsacrificeswereoffered,andlibationsandotherofferingscastintoawellcloseby.Cf.OAK.
S.R.DRIVER.
MAMUCHUS(1Es9:30)=Malluch,Ezr10:29.
MAN.TheBibleisconcernedwithmanonlyfromthereligiousstandpoint,withhisrelationtoGod.Thisarticlewilldealonlywiththereligiousestimateof
man,asothermatterswhichmighthavebeenincludedwillbefoundinotherarticles(CREATION,ESCHATOLOGY,F ALL,S IN,P SYCHOLOGY).Mansdignity,asmade
byspecialresolveanddistinctactofGodinGodsimageandlikeness(synonymousterms),withdominionovertheothercreatures,andforcommunionwithGod,
asassertedinthedoubleaccountofhisCreationinGn1and2,andmansdegradationbyhisownchoiceofevil,aspresentedfigurativelyinthestoryofhisFallin
Gn3,arethetwoaspectsofmanthatareeverywheremetwith.ThefirstisexplicitlyaffirmedinPs8,anechoofGn1thesecond,withoutanyexplicitreference
tothestoryinGn3,istakenforgrantedintheOT(seeesp.Ps51),andisstillmoreemphasizedintheNT,withdistinctallusiontotheFallanditsconsequences
(seeesp.Ro5:1221and7:725).WhiletheOTrecognizesmansrelationtotheworldaroundhim,hismaterialityandfrailtyasflesh(wh.see),anddescribeshim
asdustandashesincomparisonwithGod(Gn2:7,3:19,18:27),yetasmadeinGodsimageitendowshimwithreason,conscience,affection,freewill.Adamis
capableofrecognizingthequalitiesof,andsoofnaming,thelivingcreatures(2:19),cannotfindahelpmeetamongthem(v.20),isinnocent(v.25),andcapableof
moralobedience(v.16,17)andreligiouscommunion(3:9,10).TheSpiritofGodisinmannotonlyaslife,butalsoaswisdomandunderstanding,counseland
might,skillandcourage(seeINSPIRATION).TheDivineimmanenceinmanastheDivineprovidenceformanisaffirmed(Pr20:27).
IntheNTmansdignityisrepresentedasDivinesonship.InSt.LukesGospelAdamisdescribedassonofGod(3:38).St.Paulspeaksofmanastheimage
andgloryofGod(1Co11:7),approvesthepoetswords,wealsoarehisoffspring,assertstheunityoftherace,andGodsguidanceinitshistory(Ac17:2628).
InhisargumentinRomansregardinguniversalsinfulness,heassumesthateventheGentileshavethelawofGodwrittenintheirhearts,andthuscanexercisemoral
judgmentonthemselvesandothers(2:15).Jesustestimonytothe
FatherhoodofGod,includingthecareandbountyinProvidenceaswellasthegracein
Redemption,hasasitscounterpartHisestimateoftheabsoluteworthofthehumansoul(seeMt10:30,16:26,Lk10:20,15).WhileGodscareandbountyare
unlimited,yetJesusdoesseemtolimitthetitlechildorsonofGodtothosewhohavereligiousfellowshipandseekmoralkinshipwithGod(seeMt5:9,45cf.Jn
1:12).St.PaulsdoctrineofmansadoptionbyfaithinGodsgracedoesnotcontradicttheteachingofJesus.ThewriterofHebrewsseesthepromiseofmans
dominioninPs8fulfilledonlyinChrist(2:8,9).Manshistory,accordingtotheFourthEvangelist,isconsummatedintheIncarnation(Jn1:14).
TheBibleestimateofmansvalueisshowninitsanticipationofhisdestinynotmerelycontinuedexistence,butafuturelifeofwealorwoeaccordingtothe
moralquality,therelationtoGod,ofthepresentlife(seeESCHATOLOGY).TheBiblicalanalysisofthenatureofmanisdiscussedindetailinart.P SYCHOLOGY.
ALFREDE.GARVIE.
MANOFSIN(orlawlessness).Probablytheequivalentin2Th2:310ofAntichrist(wh.see).AccordingtothePaulineview,theParousiawouldbe
precededbyanapostasyofbelieversandtheappearanceofthemanoflawlessness,whoopposethandexaltethhimselfaboveallthatiscalledGodorthatis
worshippedsothatheasGodsittethinthetempleofGod,showinghimselfthatheisGod(v.3f.).Theappearanceofthiseviloneandhisoppressionofthe
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worshippedsothatheasGodsittethinthetempleofGod,showinghimselfthatheisGod(v.3f.).Theappearanceofthiseviloneandhisoppressionofthe
believerswerepreventedbysomeforceorperson.Incourseoftime,however,thisrestraintwastoberemoved.Thewickedonewouldexercisehispoweruntilthe
Christshouldcometodestroyhim(vv.68).
Theprecisereferencesofthisstatementarebeyondfinaldiscovery.Itis,however,commonlybelievedthatthereferenceistosomehistoricalperson,possibly
thegodemperorofRome.Suchareferenceis,however,verydifficultif2Thess.waswrittenbySt.Paul,foratthetimeofitscompositiontheRomanStatehadnot
becomeapersecutor.TheonewhorestrainsisalsodifficulttoidentifyifthemanoflawlessnessbetheRomanemperor.Forthatreasonitmaybebesttoreferthe
manoflawlessnesstotheJewishpeopleortheirexpectedMessiah,andhethatrestrainethtotheRomanpower.Thisinterpretationissupportedbythefactthatin
hisletterstotheThessalonians,St.PaulregardstheJewsaspersecutors,whilethroughoutActstheRomanStateispresentedasaprotectoroftheChristians.This
identification,however,doesnotsatisfactorilyexplainthereferencetosittinginthetemple.Itis,therefore,probablybetternottoattemptaprecisehistorical
interpretationofeitherthemanoflawlessnessorhimthatrestraineth,buttoregardtheformerasareferencetotheexpectedAntichrist,andthelattertosome
unidentifiedpersonalinfluencethatledtothepostponementofhisappearance.
S HAILERMATHEWS.
MANAEN(=Menahem).OneoftheChristianprophetsandteachersatAntioch,andfosterbrotherofHerodAntipas(Ac13:1).Althoughindividualnon
officialChristiansprophesied(Ac2:17f.,21:9,1Co14:31),yettherewasinNTaclassofofficialprophets(Eph2:20,3:5,Rev18:20,perhaps1Th2:15)andso
intheDidache(c.A.D.120?)theprophetsformedanofficialclassabovethelocalministry.ManaenwasclearlyanofficialatAntioch.Thephrasefosterbrotherof
HerodisthoughtbyDeissmanntobeameretitleofhonour,likethekingsfriendin1Ch27:33,butmoreprobablyrepresentsaliteralfact.AnolderManaenhad
beenbefriendedbyHerodtheGreatashavingforetoldhisadvancementthisonemightbehisgrandson,broughtupwithAntipas.Anotherinstanceofthecircleof
HerodbeingreachedbyChristianityisJoanna,wifeofChuza,Herodssteward(Lk8:3)andAntipashimselfwastouchedbytheBaptistspreaching(Mk6:20).
A.J.MACLEAN.
MANAHATH.1.Mentionedonlyin1Ch8:5astheplacetowhichcertainBenjamiteclanswerecarriedcaptive.Thetownisprobablyidenticalwiththat
impliedinManahathites(wh.see),withtheManochoftheGr.textofJos15:59,andifthetextinJg.iscorrect,withtheMenuhahofJg20:43RVm.2.Gn36:23
(P),1Ch1:40sonofShobal,sonofSeir,theHorite,i.e.eponymousancestorofaclanofEdom,oroftheearlierpopulationconqueredandabsorbedbyEdom.
MANAHATHITES(RVMenuhothin1Ch2:52),1Ch2:54.ThegenealogyinthesetwopassagesistobeinterpretedasmeaningthatthecityManahath,
occupiedbyportionsoftwosectionsoftheEdomiteclanCaleb,cametobereckonedtoJudah.
MANASSEAS(1Es9:31)=Manasseh,Ezr10:30.
MANASSEH.1.InMTandAVofJg18:30Manassehisascribalchangefordogmaticpurposes,theoriginalbeingMoses(seeGERSHOM,1).2.Asonof
Pahathmoab(Ezr10:30[1Es9:31Manasseas]).3.SonofHashum(Ezr10:33).4.5.Seenexttwoarticles.
MANASSEH.ThefirstbornsonofJoseph,andfullbrotherofEphraim(Gn41:51f.[E]),byAsenath,thedaughterofPotiphera,priestofOn(v.48[J]).
ThepopularetymologymakesthenameaPilptcp.oftheverbnshh,toforget.Josephus(Ant.II.vi.1)adoptsthiswithoutcriticism,asdoourHebrewLexicons.Inthe
AssyrianinscriptionsthenameappearsasMins,Menase.InIs65:11thegodMeni(RVDestiny)isassociatedwithGad,thegodofFortune.Somescholars,consequently,equate
ManassehwithMennasa=thegodMenseized.ApparentlyManassehsucceededinestablishingfriendlyrelationswiththeCanaanitesatanearlydate.Hisnamepointstosuch
influences(Niebuhr,Gesch.d.Ebr.Zeit.p.252cf.Siegfried,GadMeniu.GadManasseinZtschr.f.prot.Theol.,1875,p.366f.).Hogg,whoinEBi,s.v.,discussesthenameat
length,appearstofavourtheparticipialform,but(followingLand)connectsitwiththeArahicnas,toinflictaninjury.HethusbringsitintorelationwiththestoryofJacobs
wrestlingwiththeangel(Gn32).Itwouldappear,sorunstheconclusion,thatintheoriginalstorytheepithetManassehwasafittingtitleofJacobhimself,whichmightbeborne
byhisworshippersasinthecaseofGad.ButitisextremelyunlikelythatJacobwasoriginallyregardedasadeity,asLuther(ZATWxxi.p.68ff.)alsoholds.TheBabylonianform
YaqubilufoundinthecontracttabletsoftheperiodofHammurabi(23rdcent. B. C.)andJacdbel(orher)foundonthescarabofanEgyptiankingoftheHyksosperiod,isnotto
betranslatedYakubisgod.Asformslike Yakbarilu,Yamlikilu,etc.,renderprobable,iluissubject.Nevertheless,theremayhavebeensomeoriginalconnexionbetween
ManassehandJacob.Jacobsname,wearetold,wasafterwardschangedtoIsrael,andManassehissaidtohavebeentheelderbrotherofEphraim,thenamewhichlaterbecame
almostsynonymouswithIsrael,and,finally,inJg1:27,28ManassehandIsraelappeartobeusedasequivalents.Butwherenobetterdataareobtainable,wemustconfessignorance
asfranklyaswerejecttheetymologizingtalesofoursources.
Inouroldestsourcebearingupontheearlytribalsettlement(Jg5)thenameofManassehdoesnotappear,thoughthatofEphraimdoes.Machirthere(v.14)
seemstotaketheplaceofManasseh.InGn50:23(E)heistheonlysonofManassehsoalsoNu26:29,34(P),butinJos17:1b(perh.J)heisthefirstbornof
Manasseh.InNu32:39,41,42(v.40isnotoriginal)wehaveanexcerptfromJEaddedtoPsstoryofReubensandGadssettlementontheEastJordan,which
tellsusthatthechildrenofMachir,thesonofManasseh,wenttoGileadandtookit.Jair,itissaid,andNobah,twootherdescendantsofManasseh,alsolooktowns
inGilead,towhichtheygavetheirownnames.But,accordingtoDt3:13,Moses,aftercompletelyexterminatingtheinhabitants,gaveNorthGilead,allBashan,and
ArgobtothehalftribeofManassehcf.Jos13:29ff.etc.InPsaccountofthesettlementofReubenandGad(Nu32)therewasnothingsaidoriginallyofthishalf
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ArgobtothehalftribeofManassehcf.Jos13:29ff.etc.InPsaccountofthesettlementofReubenandGad(Nu32)therewasnothingsaidoriginallyofthishalf
tribebeingassociatedwiththem.ThewholestoryistoldbeforetheManassitesarebroughtininv.33(cf.Jos13:21ff.andch.17).Thestoryoftheirearly
settlementontheEastsideisdiscreditedbymanyscholars,whoholdthattheEastwaslaterconqueredfromtheWest.AswehaveseeninJg5:14,whereMachir
takestheplaceofManasseh,heappearstobeinpossessionontheWestandMachir,thesonofManasseh,issaidtohavegonetoGileadandtakenit(Nu32:39),
andifso,hemusthaveoperatedfromhisoriginalseat.InJos17:1418wereadofthecomplaintofthechildrenofJosephtoJoshuathathehadgiventhem(
him)onlyonelot,despitethefactthathewasagreatpeople.NothingissaidaboutanypreviousallotmentbyMosesontheEast.Further,inNu32:41Bashanis
conqueredbyJair,who,accordingtoJg10:3,wasajudgeofIsrael.Theargumentisstrongbutnotcogent.
Aswehavealreadyseen,thetribeontheWestwasrepresentedbyMachir(Jg5).J,thenextoldestdocument,includesEphraimandManassehinthephrase
sonsofJoseph(Jos16:14),houseofJoseph(17:17[Ephr.andMan.isagloss]18:5,Jg1:22,23,25).Onelotonlyisconsequentlyassignedtothem,the
limitsofwhichareroughlysketchedinJos16:13,Jos17givesGileadandBashantoMachir(makingnomentionofJairandNobah),andv.2beginstotellofthe
assignmentstotheremainderoftheManassiteclans,butfailstodoso.Buttheclannames,Abiezer,Shechem,andthenamesofthecitiesappendedshowthat
theywereontheWest.ItisclearfromwhatissaidofthecitieswhichwereinIssacharandAsher(v.11ff.)thattheywereonlyideallyinManassehsterritory,and
thatthelatterwasconfinedonthenorthtothehillcountry.Liketherestofthetribes,theywerenotabletodriveouttheCanaanites.Whentheymadetheir
complainttoJoshua(vv.1418)thattheyweretoocrampedintheirabodetobetterthemselves,hesententiouslyrepliedthatbeingagreatpeopleastheyboasted,
theycouldclearoutthemountainforestsanddevelopinthatway,andsoultimatelygettheupperhandoftheCanaanitesintheplains.Itshouldbesaidthatthe
namesoftherestofthesonsofManasseh,Abiezer,Helek,Asriel,Shechem,Hepher,Shemida,aswellasthefivedaughtersofZelophehad,thegreatgrandsonof
Machir,areprobablyallplacenames,assomeofthemcertainlyare,andnotpersonalnames.
WhetherJosephwasatribehasbeendoubted,becausethereisnomentionofitinJg5,andthefactthatthenameMachirappearstobefromtherootmchar,
tosell,hasraisedthequestionwhetherthestoryofJosephssaleintoEgyptdidnotariseinconnexionwithit.
FortheclansseeJos17:1b2(J),Nu26:2834(P),1Ch7:1419,2:2123.
Thetribe,owingtoitssituation,hadmuchtoendureduringtheSyrianwars(Am1:3,2K10:33),and,accordingto1Ch5:25,theeasternhalfwasdeported
(B.C.743)byTiglathpileser
III.(seeGAD).SeealsoTRIBESOFISRAEL.
JAMESA.CRAIG.
MANASSEH,sonofHezekiah,reignedlongerthananykingofhislinefiftyfiveyears,accordingtooursources(2K21:1).Hisreignwasremarkableforthe
religiousreactionagainstthereformswhichhadbeenmadebyHezekiah.Therecord(vv.29)isthathebuiltagainthealtarswhichHezekiahhaddestroyed,and
erectedaltarsforBaal,andmadeanashrah,asAhabkingofIsraelhaddone,andthatheworshippedthehostofheavenandservedthem.Inrestoringtheold
altarshedoubtlessthoughthewasreturningtotheearlyreligionofthenation,andtheBaalwhomheworshippedwasprobablyidentifiedinthemindsofthepeople
withthenationalGodJahweh.TheashrahwasawellknownaccompanimentofthealtarsofJahwehdowntothetimeofHezekiah.InallthisManassehs
measuresmaybecalledconservative,whilehisworshipofthehostofheavenwasnodoubtaStatenecessityowingtotheAssyrianrule.Thesacrificeofhisson
andthepracticeofwitchcraftandmagic,ofwhichheisaccused,werealsosanctionedbyancientIsraelitishcustom.Thereactionwasaccompaniedbyactive
persecutionofthepropheticparty,whichcanhardlysurpriseus,tolerationbeinganunknownvirtue.Onaccountofthesesins,Manassehisrepresentedbylater
writersasthemanwhofilledthecupofJudahsiniquitytooverflowing,andwhothusmadethefinalcatastropheofthenationinevitable.
H.P.S MITH.
MANASSES.1.1Es9:33=Manasseh,No.3(Ezr10:33).2.Judithshusband(Jth8:2).3.AnunknownpersonmentionedinthedyingwordsofTobit(To
14:10).4.ForPrayerofManassesseeAPOCRYPHA,11.
MANDRAKE(ddm,Gn30:14f.,Ca7:13RVmloveapples,cf.rootddm,love).Althoughotherplantshavebeensuggested,themandrake
(Mandragoraofficinarum),oftheSolanaceorPotatoorder,ismostprobable.ItisacommonplantinallpartsofS.Palestine.Itslongandbranchedrootisvery
deeplyimbeddedintheearth,andanoldsuperstitionsurvivestodaythathewhodigsitupwillbechildlessbutatthesametimetheeffortofpullingitupwillcure
abadlumbago.Whenthelastfibresgivewayandtherootcomesupasemihumanscreamissupposedtobeemitted(cf.alsoJos.BJVII.vi.3).Occasionallythe
rootresemblesahumanfigure,butmostofthoseexhibitedhavebeendoctoredtoheightentheresemblance.Theleavesaredarkgreen,arrangedinarosette,and
theflowersdarkpurple.Thefruit,whichripensaboutMay,aboutthetimeofthewheatharvest,issomewhatlikeasmalltomato,andorangeorreddishincolour:it
iscalledbythenativesbaideljinn,theeggsofthejinn.Ithasaheavynarcoticsmellandsweetishtaste.Itisstillusedmedicinally,butisknowntobepoisonous,
especiallytheseeds.Themandrakewasknowntotheancientsasanaphrodisiac(seep.569b).
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
MANEH.SeeWEIGHTSANDMEASURES,III.
MANES.Oneofthosewhoagreedtoputawaytheirstrangewives(1Es9:21[Ezr10:21Maaseiah]).
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MANES.Oneofthosewhoagreedtoputawaytheirstrangewives(1Es9:21[Ezr10:21Maaseiah]).
MANGER(Lk2:7,12,13,13:13RVm).EVtr.ofphatn,theLXXequivalentofHeb.bs,aplacewherecattlearefattened(Job39:9etc.).Italso
representsurwh(2Ch32:28),andrepheth(Hab3:17),EVstall.InJob39:9,Pr14:4bsmaymeanthestallorshelterinIs1:3itisprobablythecribinwhich
thefoodwasplaced.Alikeambiguityattachestourwhoruryh(2Ch32:28),lit.collectingplaceorcollectedherd.Itprobablycametomeanacertain
numberofanimals,asapairorteam(1K4:26,2Ch9:25)[Gesenius].TheHeb.repheth(Hab3:17)clearlymeansstallmarbqistheplacewherethecattle
aretiedup(1S28:24fattedcalf=calfofthestall,Jer46:21,Am6:4,Mal4:2)phatnmaythereforedenoteeitherthemangerorthestall.
Ifkatatuma(Lk2:7)meansguestchamber(seeart.HOSPITALITY,adfin.),JosephandMarymayhavemovedintothesideofthehouseoccupiedbythecattle,
fromwhichthelivingroomisdistinguishedbyahigherfloor,withalittlehollowintheedge,outofwhichthecattleeat.Thepresentwriterhasseenachildlaidin
suchamanger.Or,inthecrowdedkhn,onlytheanimalsquartersmayhaveaffordedshelter.Wedonotnowknow.AncienttraditionplacesJesusbirthinacave
nearBethlehem.CavesunderthehousesareextensivelyusedinPalestineasstables.Themidhwad,manger,cutintheside,isanexcellentcribforababy.
W.EWING.
MANI(1Es9:30)=BaniofEzr10:29and1Es5:12.
MANIUS.Accordingto2Mac11:34,TitusManiuswasoneoftwoRomanlegateswho,beingontheirwaytoAntlochafterthecampaignofLysiasagainst
JudaintheyearB.C.163,sentalettertotheJewsconfirmingtheconcessionsofLysias,andofferingtoundertakethechargeoftheirinterestsatAntiochin
concertwiththeirownenvoy.ThisactionwouldbeinaccordwiththepolicytheRomanswerefollowingtowardstheSyriankingdom,andisprobableenough.But
wehavenoknowledgefromanyothersourceofthepresenceintheEastofanylegatecalledTitusManius.
A.E.HILLARD.
MANNA.ThefoodoftheIsraelitesduringthewanderings(Ex16:1,38,Jos5:12),butnottheonlyfoodavailable.Documentsofvariousdatesspeakof(a)
cattle(Ex17:3,19:13,34:3,Nu7:3,6f.),especiallyinconnexionwithsacrifice(Ex24:5,32:8,Lv8:2,25,31,9:410:14,Nu7:15ff.)(b)flour(Nu7:13,19,25
etc.,Lv10:12,24:5)(c)foodingeneral(Dt2:3,Jos1:11).
1.Theoriginofthewordisuncertain.InEx16:13theexclamationmightberendered,Itismn!(noteRVm).Ifso,theIsraeliteswerereminded(butonly
vaguely,seev.15)ofsomeknownsubstance.ThesimilarArabicwordmeansgift.MoreprobablythewordsareaquestionWhatisit?Unawareoftheproper
term,theythusspokeofmannaasthewhatisit.
2.Themannawasflaky,small,andwhite(Ex16:14,31).Itresembledtheseed(betterfruit)ofthecorianderplant(Ex16:31,Nu11:7),andsuggested
bdellium(Nu11:7[see3]).Itcouldbeground,andwasstewedorbaked(Ex16:23,Nu11:8).Thetasteiscomparedtothatofhoneywafers(Ex16:31),oroil(Nu
11:8),itwasgatheredfresheverymorningearly(butsee4),for,ifexposedtothesun,itmelted(Ex16:21cf.Wis19:2)ifkeptovernight(see4),itwenthad
(Ex16:19f.).Eachpersonwasentitledtoameasuredomerofmanna(Ex16:19).
3.Manywouldidentifymannawiththejuiceofcertaintrees.Thefloweringash(S.Europe)exudesamanna(usedinmedicine)andaspeciesoftamarisk
foundintheSinaipeninsulayieldsasubstancecontainingsugar.Thedescriptionofmannawouldnotineverypointsupportsuchanidentification,butitisworth
notingthatmannaislikened(see2)tobdellium,whichisaresinousexudation.AmorerecenttheoryisthatmannawasanediblelichenlikethatfoundinArabia,
etc.
4.Mannawouldthuscomeunderthecategoryofspecialprovidences,notmiracles.Therecan,however,benodoubtthattheBiblicalwritersregardeditas
miraculous.(a)Thereisenoughforahostof600,000footmen.(b)Thequantitygatheredprovesexactlysuitedtotheconsumersappetite(Ex16:18).(c)The
Sabbathsupply(gatheredthepreviousday)retainsitsfreshness(Ex16:23f.).(d)Anomerofitiskeptasasacredobjectnear(Ex16:33f.)butnotwithin(1K8:9
ct.He9:4,Rev2:17)theark.(e)Allusionstoitsuggestthesupernatural(Neh9:20,Ps78:24f.,105:40,2Es1:19,Wis16:20,19:21).
5.AllthismustlendsignificancetoNTmention.Christasthelivingbreadistypifiedbymanna(Jn6:31ff.,1Co10:3cf.4)andsecretspiritualsustenanceis
therewardforhimthatovercometh(Rev2:17).
H.F.B.COMPSTON.
MANOAH.ThefatherofSamson,ofthetownofZorah,andofthefamilyoftheDanites(Jg13:123,14:2,3,5,6,9,10,16:31).Welearnbutlittleofhis
characterandoccupationfromtheBiblenarrative.HewasaworshipperofJehovah,andamanofreverentpietyhewashospitable,likehisancestorAbrahamhe
sharedthedislikeofhispeopleforthealiensurroundingtribes,andstronglydeprecatedanalliancebetweenhissonandthePhilistines.Thesecondnarrativegives
usthefollowinginformationabouthim.Hiswifewasbarren,butshewaswarnedbyaDivinemessengerthatshewasdestinedtobearasonwhowastobea
NaziriteanddedicatedtoJehovah.ThemessengerappearedagainwhenManoahalsowaspresent,andrepeatedhisprophecy(Jg13:223).WehearofManoahon
fourmoreoccasions:wefindhimremonstratingwithhissonabouttheproposedPhilistinemarriage(14:2,3)heaccompaniedhissononthepreliminaryvisitto
Timnah(vv.5,8),andagaintothemarriageitself(vv.9,10).Hedidnotsurvivehisson,whowasburiedbyhisside(16:31).Cf.art.S AMSON.
ThesescantydetailsaresomewhatamplifiedbyJosephus(Ant.V.viii.2,3),whowasapparentlyfollowingsomeancientJewishtradition.
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T.A.MOXON.
MANSION.TheEnglishwordoccursinScriptureonlyinJn14:2,InmyFathershousearemanymansioos(RVmOr,abidingplaces).Itsretentionisan
archaism,forthemodernconnotationofahouseofsomedignityisquitelackingfromthewordasusedbyTindale(1525),apparentlyfromtheVulg.mansiones,
abidingplaces.TheGr.word(mon),liketheLatin,means(1)theactofabiding,(2)aplaceofabode.IntheNTitoccursalsoinJn14:23,wheremakeour
abodeisGreekidiomforabide.HencethethoughtinJn14:2issimplythatthereisampleroomforthedisciplesintheFathershouse.IntheLXXtheGr.word
occursonlyonce,viz.1Mac7:38,givethemnoabidingplace(RVsufferthemnottoliveanylonger).
S.W.GREEN.
MANSLAYER.SeeKIN[NEXTOF]andREFUGE[CITIESOF].
MANSTEALING.SeeKidnappinginart.CRIMES,7.
MANTELET.SeeF ORTIFICATION,7.
MANTLE.SeeDRESS,4(c).
MANUSCRIPTS.SeeTEXTandWRITING.
MAOCH.ThefatherofAchishkingofGath(1S27:2).HeisprobablytobeidentifiedwithMaacahNo.3
MAON,MAONITES.1.InJg10:12theMaonitesarementionedtogetherwiththe
ZidoniansandAmalekitesashavingoppressedIsrael.TheydweltinMt.Seir,southoftheDeadSea.Accordingto1Ch4:41f.,theMaonites(calledMeuniminthis
passage)were,inthereignofHezekiah,drivenoutoftheirpasturelandbytheSimeonites.ThepassageisinterestingasshowinghowlongtheoriginalCanaanites
heldtheirowninthelandaftertheIsraeliteinvasion.In2Ch26:7theyarementionedashavingbeenovercomebyUzziah(cf.2Ch20:1,whereAmmonites
shouldprobablybeMeunim).
2.AdifferentplaceofthenameofMaonismentionedinJos15:55thiswasasmalltowninthehillcountryofJuda.ItwasinthewildernessofMaonthat
Nabaldwelt(1S25:2),andinthisdistrictDavidsojournedontwooccasionsduringtheperiodofhisoutlawlife(23:24ff.,
25:2ff.).
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
MARA.ThenamewhichNaomiclaimedforherself:CallmenotNaomi(pleasant),callmeMara(i.e.bitter):fortheAlmightyhathdealtverybitterlywith
me(Ru1:20).
MARAH.ThefirststationoftheIsraelitesaftercrossingthesea(Ex15:23,Nu33:8,9).IfthepassagewasintheneighbourhoodofSuez,WdyHawarah,
about15to16hourscamelridefromtheWellsofMoses(nearlyoppositeSuezontheE.sideoftheGulfofSuez)ontheroutetotheconventofSt.Katherine(the
traditionalSinai),isasuitableidentification.
MARALAH.AplaceonthewestborderofZebulun(Jos19:11).Thesiteisquiteuncertain.
MARANATHA.AnAram.expressionwhichoccursin1Co16:22injuxtapositionwithanathema(IfanymanlovethnottheLord,lethimbeanathema.
Maranatha[soRV]).
1.Meaningoftheterm.Theoriginalmeaningofthetermhasbeendisputed,butitisnowgenerallyagreedthatitisacomponentoftwodistinctwords(cf.
RVabove).MostmodernsfollowBickellinholdingthatthetwopartsofwhichtheexpressioniscomposedmeanOurLord,comeI(=Aram.mranth).This
seemspreferabletotheolderview,accordingtowhichthemeaningwouldbeOurLordhascomeI(=Aram.mranath).Theimperativesenseismadeprobable
byRev22:20(Amen.Come,LordJesus!),fromwhichitmayperhapsbeinferredthatsomesuchformulaasOourLord,orOLord,come!wasinuseinearly
Christiancircles.AveryearlyinstanceoftheuseofthetermoccursintheDidacheattheendoftheEucharisticprayer(ch.10).
Thepassagerunsasfollows:
Letgracecome,andthisworldpassaway.
HosannatotheGodofDavid.
Ifanyisholy,lethimcome:ifanyisnot,lethimrepent.Maranatha.Amen.
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Ifanyisholy,lethimcome:ifanyisnot,lethimrepent.Maranatha.Amen.
Herethecombinationmaranatha.Amen(=OourLord,come!Amen)isstrikinglyparallelwiththeremarkablephraseinRev22:20(Amen.Come,Lord).It
isnoticeablealsothatinbothpassagestheexpressionisusedasaconcludingformula.WhetheranysimilarformulawasinuseamongtheJewsisdisputed.Anold
Jewishacrostichymn,stillextantinalltypesoftheJewishliturgy,theinitiallettersofthelinesofwhichmaybereadAmen.Come(Heb.mnb)atleast
suggeststhepossibilityofsuchausage.
2.Originalsignificanceoftheexpression.ItisclearfromthepassageintheDidachecitedabovethatMaranathacannotberegardedasaformulaof
excommunicationsynonymouswithanathema(soCalvin,comparingAbba,Father).Itwasratherawatchwordoftheearliest
Christiancommunity,embodyingthethoughtintheformofaprayerthattheParousia,orSecondAdventoftheLord,mightsoonbeconsummated,inaccordance
withtheardentexpectationscurrentinthefirstgeneration.
3.Laterusage.Inlaterusage,undertheinfluenceoffalseexegesis,thetermacquiredanimprecatorysense.Itthusoccursinanearlysepulchralinscription
(4thor5thcent.)fromtheislandofSalamis.ItssupposedcorrespondencewiththeJewishshammatha(the3rdorhighestdegreeofexcommunication)has,of
course,nothingtosubstantiateit.FurtherdetailsofthisdevelopmentwillbefoundinHastingsDB,s.v.Mranatha.
G.H.BOX.
MARBLE.SeeMININGANDMETALS.
MARCHESHVAN.SeeTIME.
MARCUS.AVofCol4:10,Philem24,1P5:13=Mark(wh.see).
MARDOCHEUS.1.ThenameofMordecai,theuncleofEsther,appearsinthisforminAd.Est10:4,11:2,12,12:1,46,16:13,2.1Es5:8=Mordecai,Ezr
2:2,Neh7:7.
MARESHAH.1.ThefatherofHebron(1Ch2:42).2.AJudahite(1Ch4:21).Thesegenealogicaldataarereallyconcernedwith3.Animportantcityin
theShephlahofJudah(Jos15:44),fortifiedbyRehoboam(2Ch11:8seealso2Ch14:9,10,20:37,Mic1:15).Lateron,underthenameMarissa,Josephus
describes(Ant.XII.viii.6etc.)itsextremelychequeredhistory.ThesiteofMareshahhasnowwithcertaintybeenidentifiedasTellSandahanna.Thistellwas
partiallyexcavatedbyBlissandMacalister,buttheidentityofthesitewasfinallydemonstratedbythefinding,in1902,ofatombbyMessrs.PetersandTiersch,
adornedwithanumberofinterestingpicturedanimals,etc.,andabout200inscriptionsrecordingthenamesofmanyPhnicianinhabitantsofMarissa,aboutB.C.
200.ThehillonwhichtheruinsofMareshahstandisriddledwiththemostextraordinarycaves,oncehumandwellings.TheoldnameMareshahstilllingersin
KhurbetMerash,thenameofsomeruinsabouthalfamileoff.Seealso
MARISA.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
MARIMOTH(2Es1:2)=Meraioth(Ezr7:3)alsocalledMemeroth,1Es8:2.
MARISA.TheGr.formofthenameMareshah.Itoccursonlyin2Mac12:35,butshouldbereadalsoin1Mac5:66,whereallGreekMSSwronglyhave
Samaria.
MARK(JOHN).TherearethreegroupsofNTpassageswherethenameMarkoccurs.
(1)JohnMarkwasaJewandsonofMary,whowasaleadingChristianwomanatJerusalem.Atherhousethefaithfulassembledforprayer,andthitherPeter
wentonhisreleasefromimprisonment,havingperhapspreviouslylodgedthere(Ac12:12ff.).AnimprobableconjecturemakesMarkthesonofthegoodmanof
thehouseinMk14:14,andanother,notsounlikely,identifiesMarkhimselfwiththeyoungmanofMk14:51buttheMuratorianFragment(seenextart.1)
apparentlydeniedthatMarkhadeverseenourLord.ProbablyMarywasawidow.MarkwouldbeanaddednamesuchastheJewsoftentook,inRomanfashion
itwasaRomanprnomen,muchusedamongGreekspeakingpeople,butnotcommonamongtheJews.JohnMarkwaschosenascompanionofBarnahasand
SaulwhentheyleftJerusalemforAntioch(Ac12:25thereadingofRVmishardlypossible),andtakenbythemontheirfirstmissionaryjourney(13:5),notas
chosenexpresslybytheHolyGhost(ct.v.2),andnotasanequaltheyhadalsoJohnastheirattendant(AVminister).IthasbeensuggestedthatMarkwasa
Levite(seebelow),andthatthedesignationhereusedmeansasynagogueminister,asinLk4:20(Chase).Butthiswouldmakethewordstheyhadintolerably
harsh.ProbablyMarksworkwastoarrangetheApostlesjourneys,perhapsalsotobaptizeaworknotusuallyperformedbySt.Paulhimself(1Co1:14).Mark
remainedwiththeApostlesontheirjourneythroughCyprus,butleftthematPergainPamphylia(Ac13:13)eitherfromcowardice,or,moreprobably,becausethe
journeytoPisidianAntiochandbeyond,involvingworkamongdistantGentiles,wasachangeofplanwhichhedidnotapprove(Ramsay).Hehadnotyetgrasped
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journeytoPisidianAntiochandbeyond,involvingworkamongdistantGentiles,wasachangeofplanwhichhedidnotapprove(Ramsay).Hehadnotyetgrasped
theideaofaworldwideChristianity,asSt.Paulhad.HisdeparturetoJerusalemledlatertotheestrangementofPaulandBarnabasthelatterwishedtotakeMark
withthemontheSecondJourney(15:37ff.),butPaulrefused,andseparatedfromBarnabas,whothentookMarktoCyprus.
(2)TheMarkofthePaulineEpistleswascousinofBarnabas(Col4:10RV),probablyoftheJewishcolonyofCyprus,andaLevite(Ac4:36).Itistherefore
generallyagreedthathewasthesameasJohnMark.Ifso,hebecamereconciledtoSt.Paul,andwashisfellowworkerandacomforttohim(Col4:11,Philem
24),andusefultohimforministering(2Ti4:11)thiswas
Marksspecialoffice,nottobeanoriginalorganizerbutausefulassistant(Swete).WelearnthatMarkwascontemplatingavisittoColoss,andperhapsthatthe
Colossianshadhesitatedtoreceivehim(Col4:10).
(3)ThePetrineMark.St.PeterspeaksofaMarkashisson(1P5:13),andasbeingwithhimatBabylonwhenhewrotetheFirstEpistle.Itisusuallyheld
thatBabylonmeansRome,asthereseemsnottohavebeenaJewishcolonyintherealBabylonatthetime,andasallecclesiasticaltraditionconnectsSt.Peters
workwithRome.Ifthisheso,wemaysafelyidentifyallthethreeMarksasoneperson.[Ifnot,thePetrineMarkisprobablynotthesameasthePauline.]The
identificationismademorelikelybythefactthatJohnMarkisconnectedwithbothPeterandPaulinActsandif1P5:13referstoRome,thereisnoreasonwhy
thisdoubleconnexionshouldnothavecontinuedaslongasbothApostleslived.Andif,asisnotimpossible,St.PetersurvivedSt.Paulforsometime,wecanwell
understandthatMarkdevotedhimselfexclusivelytotheformerafterthedeathofthelatter,andthatinthiswaytheecclesiasticaltradition(seenextart.),which
almostunanimouslyattacheshimtoPeter,grewup.BythattraditionMarksactivityisassociatedbothwithRomeandwithAlexandriaandtheEgyptianChurch
assignsitsprincipalliturgytohisname.ButtheearlyAlexandrianFathers,ClementandOrigen,aresilentastoMarksresidenceinEgypt.TheActsofMark(5th
cent.?)makeshimamartyr.
A.J.MACLEAN.
MARK,GOSPELACCORDINGTO
1.Externaltestimony.ItispossiblethatthefirstreferencetoMk.istheprefacetoLk.(1:14),whichimpliesthatthenarrativesspokenofwere,inSt.
Lukesopinion,incompleteandnotinthebestorder.Mk.iscertainlyincompletefromthepointofviewofonewhowishedtobeginfromthebeginning.From
internalevidenceitisprobablethatSt.LukeusedMk.(see35).Papias(quotedbyEusebius,HEiii.39)givesthefollowingaccount(c.A.D.140orearlier),as
derivedfromtheElderfromwhomhegleanedtraditions:
Mark,havingbecometheinterpreterofPeter,wrotedownaccuratelyeverythingthatheremembered,without,howeverrecordinginorderwhatwaseithersaidordoneby
Christ[cf.theLukanpreface].ForneitherdidheheartheLord,nordidhefollowHim,butafterwards,asIsaid,(attended)Peter,whoadaptedhisinstructionstotheneeds(ofhis
hearers),buthadnodesignofgivingaconnectedaccountoftheLordsoracles[orwords].SothenMarkmadenomistakewhilehethuswrotedownsomethingsasheremembered
themforhemadeithisonecarenottoomitanythingthatheheard,nortosetdownanyfalsestatementtherein.
HerePapiasvindicatesMarkfrominaccuracyandfromerrorsofomissionasfarashisknowledgewent,butfindsfaultwithhischronologicalorder,whichwas
duetohisbeingdependentonlyonPetersoralteaching,HewasPetersinterpreteraphrasewhichmaymeanthathetranslatedPeterswordsintoaforeign
tongueduringtheApostleslifetime,asadragoman,orthat,beingPetersdisciple,hemadetheApostlesteachingwidelyknownthroughhiswrittenGospel.
JustinMartyr(c.A.D.150)says(Dial.106)thatChristchangedSimonsnametoPeter,andthatthisiswritteninhisMemoirs,andalsothatHechangedthename
ofthesonsofZebedeetoBoanerges,whichisSonsofThunder.ButthelastwordsoccuronlyinMk3:17,wherealsowereadofSimonsnewname.Itis
reasonable(inspiteofHarnackandSandaysopinionthatJustinisherequotingtheapocryphalGospelofpseudoPeter,which,asfarasweknow,didnotcontain
thesewordsitisonlyafragment)tosupposethatJustinbyPetersMemoirsmeansourSecondGospelheelsewherespeaksofMemoirstheMemoirs
composedby[theApostles]whicharecalledGospels(Apol.i.66,cf.alsoDial.103,whereheusesthesamenameforthenarrativeswrittenbyfollowersofthe
Apostles).TatianincludedMk.inhisDiatessaron,orHarmonyofthefourGospels.(Irenus(Hr.iii.1.1and10.6)speaksofMarkasPetersinterpreterand
disciple(cf.Papias),andsaysthathehandedontousinwritingthethingspreachedbyPeterafterthedepartureofPeterandPaul(notetheindicationofdate).
TertulliancallsMarkPetersinterpreter.TheMuratorianFragment(c.170200?)beginsinthemiddleofasentencewhichisgenerallybelievedtorefertoMk.,
andwhichmaymeanthattheEvangelistwaspresentatsomeofPetersdiscoursesonly,orperhapsthatheheardsomeofourLordsdiscoursesbutthelatter
interpretationisagainstthewordsthatfollow,whichsayofLuke:NeitherdidhehimselfseetheLordintheflesh.ThewriterprobablythereforehadsaidthatMark
hadneverseenourLord.ClementofAlexandria(c.A.D.200)saysthatwhilePeterwaspreachingtheGospelatRome(ct.Irenusabove),Markwrotedownwhat
hesaidattherequestofthehearers,Peterneitherforbiddingitnorurgingit.Origenseemstobearthisout,butintheMuratorianFragmentthereisasimilarstory
aboutJohn.OflaterwritersonlyAugustineneedbequoted.HecallsMarkMatthewsfollowerandabbreviator.Thissaying,whichisprobablywidelyremoved
fromthetruth,hashadgreatinfluenceonecclesiasticalopinion,andtoagreatextentbroughtaboutthecomparativeneglectintowhichtheSecondGospelfellfor
manycenturies.ThereareprobableallusionstoMk.inPolycarp(c.A.D.111)andpseudoClementofRome(2Clem,adCor.)andHermas,allearlyinthe2nd
cent.itwasusedbyHeracleon,theValentinians,andtheauthorsoftheGospelof(pseudo)PeterandtheClementineHomilies,andisfoundinalltheoldversions.
WeconcludethatthereisvalidevidencethatMk.wasincirculationbeforethemiddleofthe2ndcentury.ByecclesiasticalwritersMarkisconnectedalmost
uniformlywithPeter,but(seeabove)thereisadifferenceoftraditionastowhetherhewrotebeforeorafterPetersdeath.SomemakehimgofromRometo
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uniformlywithPeter,but(seeabove)thereisadifferenceoftraditionastowhetherhewrotebeforeorafterPetersdeath.SomemakehimgofromRometo
AlexandriaandtakehisGospeltherebutitisremarkablethattheAlexandrianFathersClementandOrigendonotmentionthis.
2.TheSecondGospelandthePetrinetradition.Internalevidencetoaconsiderableextentconfirms,howeverindirectly,thePatristicevidence(1)that
MarkwrotedownthepreachingofPeter.Mk.tellsusthefactsofwhichPeterwasaneyewitness.Thevividnessofdescription(especiallyinMk.)inthescenes
commontotheSynopticswhereonlyPeter,John,andJameswerepresent,suggeststhatoneofthemwastheauthorityonwhichthecommonsourcerestssuchas
theraisingofJairusdaughter(5:3743),theTransfiguration(9:213thestoryinMk.istoldfromthepointofviewofoneofthethree:cf.9:14theysaw),and
Gethsemane(14:3342).TheauthoritycouldhardlybeJames,whowasmartyredearly(Ac
12:2),orJohn,onwhomanotheraccountdepends(evenifhewerenottheauthoroftheFourthGospel,wemightprobablysaythis).Peterthereforeremains,andhe
alonewouldbelikelytoremembertheconfusedwordswhichhespokeonawakeningattheTransfiguration(9:5cf.Lk9:32f.).OtherpassagessuggestingaPetrine
sourceare:Mk1:36,11:21,13:3(thesearefoundonlyinMk.)andtheaccountsofPetersdenials(14:54,6672).AsEusebiusnoticed,Mk.issilentonmatters
whichreflectcreditonPeter.ThesefactsandtheautopticcharacteroftheGospel(4)leadustotheconclusionthatwehaveinMk.thePetrinetraditioninafar
moreexactformthanintheotherSynoptics.
3.PresentationofChristsPersonandwork.TheSecondGospeldescribesshortlytheBaptistspreachingandthebaptismofourLord,andthenrecordsat
lengththeGalilanministry.ItisnoteworthythatinthisaccounttheproclamationofJesusMessiahshipinGalileeisverygradual(seeart.GOSPELS,3).Evenin
thediscoursestotheApostlesthereisgreatreserve.AftertheTransfiguration,thefuturegloryandthePassionofourLordareunfolded(8:31,38,9:12,31etc.),but
itisonlyaftertheshortaccount(ch.10)ofthejourneysinJudaandPera,andonthefinalapproachtoJerusalem,thatthisreservepassesaway.Indescribingour
LordsPerson,theEvangelistlaysgreatemphasisonHisDivinity,butstillmoreonHistruehumanity,(a)FortheformerwenotehowinMk.Jesusclaims
superhumanauthority,especiallytoforgivesins(2:5ff.,28,8:38,12:8ff.,14:62)HeisdescribedasaSupernaturalPerson(1:11,24,3:11,5:7,9:7,15:39)He
knowsthethoughtsofman(2:8,8:17,12:15),andwhatistohappeninthefuture(2:20,8:31,38,9:31,10:39,13:2,10,14:27)Hisdeathhasanatoningefficacy
(10:45,14:24).(b)Forthelatterwenotenotonly(aswiththeotherEvangelists)thereferencestoJesushumanbodywearinessandsleep(4:33),eatingand
drinking(14:3,15:35),etc.butespeciallythedescriptionofHishumansoulandspirit(2:8,14:34,36),Hishumancompassion(1:41)andlove(10:21),andthe
morepainfulemotionswhichMk.hasinapreeminentdegree,whileintheparallelsinMt.andLk.thephrasesarealmostuniformlyalteredoromitted.Instancesare
1:43RVm(theworddenotessternness,notnecessarilyangerbutdeepfeeling),3:5,6:8,10:14noteespecially14:33f.whereSt.Markalonespeaksofthesurprise,
addedtothedistractionfromgrief,ofJesushumansoulintheAgony.St.MarkalsoreferstothesinlesslimitationsofJesushumannature.Questionsareasked,
apparentlyforinformation(5:30,8:5,9:16).St.MarkrelatestheoneperfectlycertaininstanceofJesushumanignorance,astotheDayofJudgment(13:32,so||
Mt.).ItisbecausesomuchstressislaidinMk.onthetruehumanityofourLordthatAugustineassignstotheSecondEvangelistthesymbolofthemanbyother
FatherstheotherEvangelicsymbolsareassignedtohim.TheSecondGospelrepresentsanearlystageoftheGospelnarrativeitshowsanalmostchildlikeholdness
inspeakingofourLord,withoutregardtopossiblemisconceptions.AnexampleofthisisseeninpassageswhereMarktellsusthatJesuscouldnotdoathing
(1:45,6:5,7:24).Theinabilityisdoubtlessrelativeandconditional.JesuscouldnotdothatwhichwasinconsistentwithHisplanofsalvation.Yetheretheother
Synoptists,feelingthatthephrasemighthemisunderstoodastakingfromtheMastersglory,havealteredoromittedit.
4.Autopiccharacter.WhereasMk.wasforcenturiesdepreciatedastellinguslittlethatisnotfoundintheotherGospels,wehavenowlearnedtoseeinita
pricelesspresentationofthestoryofourLordslife,inasmuchasnohistoricalnarrativeintheBible,exceptJn.,givessuchclearsignsoffirsthandknowledge.
Manyoftheinstanceslosemuchpointinatranslation,buteveninEnglishthefactisnoticeable.Aneyewitnessisbetrayedinsuchlittledetailsastheheavensin
theactofopening(1:10thepresentparticipleisused),theincoherentremarksofthecrowdatthehealingoftheCapernaumdemoniac(1:27RVtheyare
softeneddownbylaterscribesofMk.andinLk.),thebreakingupofthemudroofin2:4(seeart.LUKE[GOSPELACC.TO],6),thesinglepillow,probablya
woodenheadrest,intheboat(4:38RV),thefivethousandarrangedonthegreengrasslikegardenheds(6:40:thisistheliteraltranslationthecoloureddresseson
thegreengrassanotherautoptictouchhadtotheeyewitnesstheappearanceofflowers),thetakingofthechildrenbyJesusintoHisarms(9:36,10:16),and
Hisferventblessing(10:16:thisistheforceoftheGreek),thesearchingglanceoflovecastbyJesusontherichyoungman,andthecloudingoveroftheyoung
mansbrow(10:21f.RV).Allthesedetails,andmanyothers,arefoundinMk.onlymanyofthesignsofaneyewitnessthroughouttheGospelareremovedbythe
alterationsintroducedinMt.andLk.ForthevividnessofthescenesattheTransfiguration,theraisingofJairusdaughter,andtheAgony,see2.Noticealsothe
evidenceofexceptionalknowledgeoffactsin1:29(AndrewandPeterlivingtogether,thoughthelatterwasmarriedAndrewomittedin||Mt.Lk.),andinthe
mentionofsomenamesnotfoundelsewhere(2:14,10:45,15:21).Wehavethenaneyewitnesshereinthiscaseweneednotlookforhiminthewriter,butthe
factsshowthatthelatterwasintheclosesttouchwithonewhohadseenwhatisdescribed.
5.ComparisonwiththeotherSynoptics.ThefactswhichfollowappeartoprovethatMk.,eitherintheforminwhichwehaveit,oratleastinaformvery
closelyresemblingourpresentGospel,wasbeforetheotherSynoptistswhentheywrote,(a)Scope.Exceptabout30verses,allthenarrativeofMk.isfoundin
eitherMt.orLk.orinboth,and(especiallyasregardsLk.)innearlythesameorderthoughtheotherSynoptistsinterpolatematterfromothersources.(b)Parallel
passages.Ifwecomparethese,weseethatthoughMk.isasawholeshorterthanMt.andLk.,yetintheparallelsitislonger.St.Marksstyleisdiffuse,andit
wasnecessaryfortheotherSynoptists,inordertomakeroomforthematterwhichtheyweretointroducefromothersources,topruneMk.considerably,(c)
CorrectionofMarkandetailsinMt.andLk.Aswehaveseen,MarkdescribesourLordspainfulemotionsthesepassagesaresofteneddowninMt.andLk.
Sometimesaslipofthepeniscorrectede.g.Mk1:2f.RVquotesasfromIsaiahapassagewhichisacentoofMal3:1,Is40:3,buttheotherssilentlyavoidthisby
omittingtheMalachipassagehere,thoughtheygiveitelsewhere(Mt11:16,Lk7:27)thewordsinMk2:26RV,whenAbiatharwashighpriest,areomittedinMt.
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omittingtheMalachipassagehere,thoughtheygiveitelsewhere(Mt11:16,Lk7:27)thewordsinMk2:26RV,whenAbiatharwashighpriest,areomittedinMt.
andLk.,forAbiatharwasnotyethighpriestatthetimeinquestion.Thealterationofabominationofdesolation(Mk13:14,soMt24:15)intoJerusalem
compassedwitharmies(Lk21:20)isclearlyanexplanationofawriterlaterthanMk.andsothechangefromSonofGod(Mk15:39,soMt27:54)toa
righteousman(Lk23:47).Insomecases,bytheturnofaphrasetheaccuracyofMk.inminutepointsislostbytheotherSynoptists.Thuscf.Mk.4:36ourLord
wasalreadyintheboat(4:1)in||Mt.Lk.Heisdescribedbyanoversightasembarkinghere.InMk10:1JesuscomesintothebordersofJudaandbeyond
JordantheparallelMt19:1omitsand,butdoubtlessMk.isrighthere,andJesuswentbothintoJudaandintoPera.ButthemoststrikingcorrectionsofMk.in
Mt.Lk.arefoundinthephraseology.TheMarkanstyleisroughandunpolished,reflectingtheGreekcommonlyspokenbytheJewsofthe1stcent.many
diminutivesandcolloquialismsarefound,butareusuallycorrectedinMt.orinLk.orinboth.InMk.therearemanyawkwardanddifficultphrasessometimes
smoothedoverinatranslationlikeours,andusuallycorrectedinMt.orLk.orboth:e.g.3:16,4:11,24(seeLk.8:18)4:32(theyetofRVisandinGr.)7:11f.
(grammaticalbutharsh)9:41,13:19,14:56(noteRVinthesecases).Thesefactsaremostsignificant,andappeartobeconclusiveastothepriorityofMk.Forno
writerhavingbeforehimasmoothtextwouldgratuitouslyintroduceharshordifficultphraseology,whereastheconversechangeisnaturalandcommon.
Therearealsosomechangesmadeforgreaterprecision,especiallyinLk.thusinMk.(e.g.1:16)and
Mt.wereadoftheSeaofGalilee,butSt.LukewithhissuperiornauticalknowledgecallsitalakeHerodAntipasinMk6:14iscalledking,butinMt.Lk.morecommonly
tetrarch(butkingisretainedinMt14:9)inMk15:32(soMt.)wereadthattheythatwerecrucifiedwithhimreproachedhim,butSt.Luke,whohadindependentknowledge
ofthisincident(foronlyherelatesthepenitenceoftherobber),emphaticallycorrectsthistooneofthemalefactors(Lk23:39).Intwoorthreecasesitispossiblethatthe
priorityliestheotherway.ThusinMk6:3thecarpenter=Mt13:55thesonofthecarpenter=Lk4:22thesonofJoseph,thecorrectionmaybeinMt.Lk.,thegivingofthe
namethecarpentertoJesusnotbeinglikedoritmaybeinMk.,thephrasesonofJosephbeingalteredascapableofmisconceptionbythosewhohadnottheBirthstorybefore
them.ButasthephrasesinMt.andLk.arenotthesame,thepriorityprobablylieswithMk.AlsotheSecondEvangelistalonerelatesthetwocockcrowings(14:30,68,72),though
thestateofthetextsuggeststhatperhapsoriginallyonlyonewasmentionedinMk.,butinadifferentplacefromthatofMt.Lk.Itishardtoseewhyalaterwritershouldhave
omittedonecockcrowinganditissuggestedthatthereforeourMk.islaterthanMt.Lk.inthisrespect.Itis,however,equallyhardtoseewhySt.Mark,ifhewroteaftertheothers,
shouldhaveaddedacockcrowing.IfintwoorthreesuchcasestheprioritybedecidedtoliewithMt.andLk.,themeaningwouldbethatourMk.hadreceivedsomeeditorial
additions(see9).Butthisdoesnotseemtobeverylikely.
ThegeneralconclusionisthatMk.aswehaveitnow,oratleastaGospelwhichdiffersfromourMk.onlyinunessentialparticulars,laybeforetheFirstand
ThirdEvangelistswhentheywrote.
ThematterpeculiartoMk.issmall:theparableoftheseedgrowingsilently(4:26ff.),thehealingofthedeafstammerer(7:31ff.),oftheblindmanatBethsaida
(8:22f.),thequestionsaboutthedulnessofthediscipleswhentheyforgottotakebread(8:17f.),aboutthedisputeofthedisciples(9:33),theincidentsoftheyoung
manwiththelinencloth(14:51f.),ofthesmitingofJesusbytheservantsofthehighpriest(14:65),ofPilateswonder,andofhisquestionputtothecenturion
(15:44).
6.Authorship,purpose,date,andplaceofwriting.Thereisnoreasontodisputethe
Patristicstatements(1)thatJohnMarkwastheauthoroftheSecondGospel.Clementof
AlexandriastatesthathewroteinRomeChrysostom(twocenturieslater)thathewroteinEgypt.Theformerstatement,bothasbeingearlierandasagreeingwith
thenegativetestimonyoftheAlexandrianFathers,ismoreprobable,thoughsomemodernshavesupposedadoublepublication,oneinRomeandonein
Alexandria.Ineithercaseitisprobablethat,asinthecaseoftheThirdGospel,Gentilesarespeciallyaddressed,thoughSt.MarkasaJewwrites(unlikeSt.Luke)
fromaJewishpointofview.ThereisageneralabsenceofOTquotationsexceptwhenourLordswordsarecited(1:2f.isanexception15:28mustalmostcertainly
heexpunged,withRV,fromthetext).TheAramaictransliterationslikeTalilhacum(i)areinterpreted,andJewishcustomsandgeographyareexplained[7:2ff.,
12:42(themitewasaJewishcoin)13:2,15:42].
TheabsenceofmentionoftheJewishLawpointsinthesamedirection.
ThedateisprobablybeforetheFallofJerusaleminA.D.70.(Fortheargumentfromthe
DiscourseontheEnd,seeart.MATTHEW[GOSPELACC.TO],5,andnoteespeciallyMk13:13f.,24,30,33,whichpointtothefulfilmentoftheprophecybeing,at
thetimeofwriting,onlyinprospect.)Thereferencetotheshewbread(2:26,itisnotlawful)suggeststhattheTemplestillstoodwhenMarkwrote.The
characteristicsalreadymentioned,thedescriptionofJesusinnerfeelings,thestyleanddetailsoftheGospel,givethesameindications.IftheearlydateofActsbe
adopted(seeart.ACTSOFTHEAPOSTLES,9),Lk.andthereforeMk.mustbeearlierstill.Theexternaltestimony,however,raisessomedifficultywhenweconsider
thedateof1Peter.ForPapiasbyimplicationandIrenusexplicitlysaythatMarkwroteafterPetersdeath,whileClementofAlexandriaandOrigensaythathe
wroteinPeterslifetime(see1).Iftheformerstatementbecorrect,andif1Peterbeauthentic,theEpistlemusthaveprecededMk.butitisnoteasytoassigna
veryearlydatetoit(e.g.1P4:18sufferasaChristianthoughDr.Biggdisputesthisinferenceandthinksthat1PeterwaswrittenbeforetheNeronicpersecution
inA.D.64).Thereisnoneedtodisputetheauthenticityof1Peterbecauseofsupposedreferencestolatepersecutions,forthereisnogoodreasonforsayingthatSt.
PeterdiedinthesameyearasSt.Paul,anditisquitepossiblethathesurvivedhimforsomeconsiderabletime,duringwhichMarkactedashisinterpreter.If,
then,weareledbyinternalevidencesostronglytopreferanearlydateforMk.,wemusteitherchooseanearlydatefor1Peter,orelseprefertheAlexandrian
traditionthatMarkwroteinPeterslifetime[Dr.Swetegivesc.69forMk.,DeanRobinsonc.
65].
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65].
7. WasMk.writteninGreekorAramaic?TheSecondGospelismorestronglytingedwith
Aramaismsthananyother.ItretainsseveralAramaicwordstransliteratedintoGreek:Boanerges3:17,
Talithacum(i)5:41,Corban7:11,Ephphatha7:34(theseMk.only),Abba14:36(soRo8:15,Gal4:6),Rabbi9:5,11:21,14:45,Hosanna11:9(thesetwoalsoinMt.andJn.),
Rabboni10:51(Jn.also),EloiEloilamasabachthani15:34(oras||Mt.Eli)andseveralAramaicpropernamesarenoticeable:Bartimus10:48(apatronymic),Cananan3:18,
Iscariot3:19,Beelzebub3:22,Golgotha15:22.AramaismsarealsofoundfreelyinthegrammarofMk.andinseveralphrases.Fromthesefactsitisargued(Blass,Allen)that
Aramaicwastheoriginallanguage.Dr.BlassalsosuggeststhatSt.LukeinAc112usedanAramaicsource,whiletherestofthatbookwashisownindependentwork.Inthese
twelvechapters,unliketherest,Aramaismsabound,andthestyleisrough.TheargumentisthatMark,thesonofaprominentladyisJerusalem,wrotetheAramaicsourceofAc1
12,andthatifsohisformerwork(ourSecondGospel)wouldbeinAramaicalso.Thisargumentwillprobablybethoughttobetoounsubstantialforacceptance.Thereisnoreason
forsayingthatMarkwrotethesupposedAramaicsourceofAc112.andevenifhedid,hemight,beingconfessedlybilingual,havewrittenhisGospelequallywellinGreekasin
Aramaic.TheAramaictingeisprobablybestexplainedbythefactthatMarkthoughtinAramaic.IfourGreekwereatranslation,theAramaicphraseslikeTalithacum(i)might
havebeenbodilyincorporatedbytransliteration,orelsetranslatedbuttheyneverwouldhavebeentransliteratedandtheninterpreted,asisactuallythecase.TheFathers,from
Papiasdownwards,hadclearlyneverheardofanAramaicoriginal.Themostfatalobjectiontothetheory,however,isthefreshnessofthestyleoftheGospel.Eventhebest
translationlosesfreshness.TheGreekofMk.readsasifitwereoriginalandwemaysafelysaythatthisisreallythelanguageinwhichtheEvangelistwrote.
8. Thelasttwelveverses.TheMSSandversionshavethreedifferentwaysofendingthe
Gospel.ThevastmajorityhavetheendingofourordinaryBibles,whichisexplicitlyquotedbyIrenusasagenuineworkofSt.Mark,isprobablyquotedbyJustin
Martyr,possiblyearlierstillbyBarnabasandHermas,butinthelastthreecaseswearenotcertainthatthewriterknewitaspartoftheGospel.Thetwooldest
GreekMSS(theVaticanandtheSinaitic),theoldSyriacversion(Sinaitic),andtheoldestMSSoftheArmenianandEthiopicversions,endat16:8,asEusebiustells
usthatthemostaccuratecopiesofhisdaydid.AnintermediateendingisfoundinsomeGreekMSS(theearliestofthe7thcent.),inadditiontotheordinaryending
andinaMSoftheOldLatin(preHieronymian)version,standingalone.Itisasfollows:Andtheyimmediately(orbriefly)madeknownallthingsthathadbeen
commanded(them)tothoseabout
Peter.AndafterthisJesushimself[appearedtothemand]sentoutbymeansofthemfromtheEasteventotheWesttheholyandincorruptiblepreachingofthe
eternalsalvation.ThisintermediateendingiscertainlynotgenuineitwaswrittenasaconclusiontotheGospelbysomeonewhohadtheordinaryendingbefore
himandobjectedtoitasunauthentic,orwhohadaMSbeforehimendingat16:8andthoughtthisabrupt.ItappearsthatthecopyfromwhichmostoftheseMSS
withtheintermediateendingweremade,endedat16:8.
NowitisconfessedthatthestyleofthelasttwelveversesisnotthatoftheGospel.Thereare,then,twopossibleexplanations.OneisthatMark,writingatacomparativelylate
date,tookthePetrinetradition,awrittenwork,ashisbasis,incorporateditalmostintactintohisownwork,andaddedtheverses1:115,16:9ff.,andafeweditorialtouchessuch
as3:5,6:6,52,whicharenotfoundintheotherSynoptics,andwhichresemblephrasesinthelasttwelveverses(16:11,13f.).ThiswasDr.Salmonssolution.Therearevarious
objectionstoittwoseemfatal(1)thatecclesiasticalwritersneverrepresentPeteraswritingaGospeleitherbyhimselforbyanyscribeorinterpreterexceptMack,andyetthis
theorysupposesthatthePetrinetraditionwasnotfirstwrittendownbyMarkand(2)thatthelasttwelveversesseemnottohavebeenwrittenasanendtotheGospelatall,being
apparentlyafragmentofsomeotherwork,probablyasummaryoftheGospelstory.Forthebeginningof16:9isnotcontinuouswith16:8thesubjectoftheverbappearedhad
evidentlybeenindicatedinthesentencewhichhadprecededyetthenecessaryJesuscannotbeunderstoodfromanythinginv.8.Further,MaryMagdaleneisintroducedinv.9asa
newperson,althoughshehadjustbeenmentionedbynamein15:40,47,16:1,andwasoneofthewomenspokenofthroughoutvv.18.Ontheotherhand,itisinconceivablethat
16:8withitsabruptandinauspicioustheywereafraidcouldbetheconclusionofaGospel.thatthebookshoulddeliberatelyendwithoutanyincidentoftherisenlifeofour
Lord,andwithanoteofterror.Theotherpossibleexplanation,therefore,isthatsomeverseshavebeenlost.Probablythelastleafoftheoriginal,oratleastofthecopyfromwhich
alltheMSSexistinginthe2ndcentweretaken,hasdisappeared.Thisisconceivable,thelastleafofaMSbeingthatwhichismostlikelytodropandthedifficultythattheoriginal
MSofMk.musthavebeencopiedbeforeitgotsooldthatthelastleaffellmayperhapsbesatisfactorilymetbysupposingthat(asweknowwasthecaselater)theSecondGospel
wasnothighlyprizedinitsyouth,asnotgivingusmuchadditionalinformation,andasbeingalmostentirelycontainedinMt.andLk.Ontheotherhand,thelasttwelveversesare
extremelyancient.Mostscholarslookonthemasbelongingtothefirstfewyearsofthe2ndcent.,andAristionhasbeensuggestedasthewriter,onthestrengthofalateArmenian
MS.ButitisquitepossiblethattheyarepartofanevenearliersummaryoftheGospelstoryand,likethepassageaboutthewomantakeninadultery(Jn7:538:11),theyaretobe
reverencedasaveryancientandauthoritativerecord.
9. HavewetheoriginalMark?Thishasbeendeniedfromtwodifferentandincompatiblepointsofview.(a)PapiasspeaksofMk.beingnotinorderand
ofMatthewwritingtheoraclesorlogia(see1above,andart.MATTHEW[GOSPELACC.TO]).ItisobjectedthatourSecondGospelisanorderlynarrative,and
cannothethatmentionedbyPapias.RenanmaintainedthatMarkwroteadisconnectedseriesofanecdotesaboutChrist,andMatthewacollectionofdiscourses,
andthatourpresentFirstandSecondGospelstooktheirpresentformbyaprocessofassimilation,theformerassimilatingtheanecdotesandaddingthemtothe
discourses,thelatteradoptingthereverseprocess.ThisrestsontheunprovedassumptionthatMatthewsoriginalworkconsistedofJesussayingsonly,whichis
veryimprobable.ButasamatteroffactthereisnotimefortheprocessimaginedbyRenantohavetakenplace,andtheresult,moreover,wouldhavebeenalarge
numberofvariantGospelsagivenpassageappearinginsomeMSSinoneGospel,inothersinanother,asistheeasewiththestoryofthewomantakenin
adultery.[ForamoreprobableinterpretationofPapiaswords,see1.](b)ItissometimesarguedthatourpresentMk.isaneditedformoftheoriginalMk.,
beingverylikeit,butdifferingfromitbytheinsertionofsomeeditorialtouchesandadditions.[ForSalmonsformofthistheory,seeabove,8butthetheoryis
heldbymany(e.g.Schmiedel)whorejectthelasttwelveversesasMarkan.]
TheonlyargumentofrealimportanceurgedbythosewhoholdthistheoryisthatMt.andLk.occasionallyagreetogetheragainstMk.Totakeoneexampleonly,Mk1:8has 27/102
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TheonlyargumentofrealimportanceurgedbythosewhoholdthistheoryisthatMt.andLk.occasionallyagreetogetheragainstMk.Totakeoneexampleonly,Mk1:8has
withtheHolyGhostwhere||Mt3:12andLk3:16havewiththeHolyGhostandfire.IfMt.andLk.arelaterthanMk.,unlesstheFirstEvangelistknewtheThirdGospelor
theThirdEvangelisttheFirst,bothofwhichsuppositionsareconfessedlyimprobable,wecannot,itissaid,explaintheiragreementsagainstMk.Thereforewemustsuppose,itis
urged,thatthesephraseswheretheyagreewereintheoriginalMk.,buthavebeenalteredinourMk.Thisideainitselfisgrosslyimprobable,foritmeansinsomecasesthatalater
editor(ourMark)alteredasmoothconstructionintoahardoradifficultonenotfoundinMt.orLk.(see5(c)),whichishardlytobeconceived.Butthisdifficultyrestsonthe
unprovedassumptionnoticedjustnow,thatthenonMarkandocumentcontaineddiscoursesonly.If,asisalmostcertain,itcontainednarrativealso,andifthisnarrative(asitis
onlyreasonabletosuppose)sometimesoverlappedthePetrinetradition,theresultisexactlywhatweshouldexpect.Mt.andLk.sometimesfollowMk.ratherthanthenonMarkan
sourcesometimesonefollowstheoneandtheothertheotherandsometimesbothfollowthenonMarkansource.ThisfullyaccountsfortheiragreementsagainstMk.
Itisindeedpossible,asmanythink,thataveryfewphrasesinourMk.arelatereditorialadditionsbuteventhishypothesisisunnecessary,anditseemsonthe
wholemostprobablethatourMk.istheoriginalMk.,andthatitwasusedbytheFirstandThirdEvangelists.
A.J.MACLEAN.
MARKET,MARKETPLACE.TheformerisfoundinOTinEzk27:13,17etc.astherenderingofacollectivenounsignifyingarticlesofexchange,hence
RVthroughoutmerchandise,thislastinv.15beingAVrenderingofanotherwordforwhichRVgivesmart.InNTmarkethasdisappearedfromRVinfavour
oftheuniformmarketplace(Gr.agora).HerewemustdistinguishbetweenthemarketsofJerusalem(Mt11:16,Mk7:4etc.),whichweresimplystreetsofshops
thebazaarsofamodernEasterncity,andthemarket(AV)ormarketplace(RV)ofaGreekcity(Ac16:19,17:17).Thelatterwasthecentreofthepubliclife
ofthecity,andwasalargeopenspaceadornedwithcolonnadesandstatues,andsurroundedbytemplesandotherpublicbuildings.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
MARKS
1.Themarkofcircumcision.Thisisaninstance(amongmany)ofthetakingoverofapreexistingrite,andadaptingittoJahwehworshipwhateveritmay
havemeantinitsoriginandopinionsdifferverywidelyonthispointitbecameamongtheIsraelitesthemarkparexcellenceofaJahwehworshipper(cf.Gn.
17:14),thesymbolofthecovenantbetweenHimandHispeople(see,further,CIRCUMCISION).
2.ThemarkofCain(Gn4:15).Inseekingtodiscoverthecharacterofthissignormark,thefirstquestionthatobviouslysuggestsitselfis,whyshouldthere
beanyprotectiveefficacyinsuchasign?Ontheassumptionofitsbeingatribalmark(soRobertsonSmith,Gunkel,andothers),menwouldknowthatanyInjury
donetoitsbearerwouldbeavengedbytheothermembersofthetribe(seeart.CAIN).Butthisanswerisunsatisfactory,because,ifitwasatribalmark,itwouldbe
commontoallthemembersofthetribe,whereasthisoneisspokenofasbeingspecificallyforCainsbenefit,andashavingbeengiventoprotecthimqua
manslayeratribalmarkwouldhavebeenonhimbeforethemurderofAbel.Butthenagain,anymarkdesignedtoprotecthimonaccountofhisbeingamurderer,
would,asproclaiminghisguilt,ratherhavetheoppositeeffect.Anotherpointtohearinmindisthatfromthewriterspointofview(ifthenarrativeisaunity)there
reallywasnobodytohurtCainexcepthisparents.Itisclear,therefore,thatthecontradictoryelementsinthenarrativeshowthatithasnobasisinfactitismore
reasonabletoregarditasoneofthetiologicalstorieswithwhichtheBookofGenesisabounds,i.e.itpurportstogivethecauseofsomecustomtherealreason
forwhichhadlongbeenforgotten.Onecan,ofcourse,onlyconjecturewhatcustomitwasofwhichthisstorygavethesupposedoriginbut,takingallitselements
intoconsideration,itwasveryprobablytheanswertotheinquiry:Whydomanslayerswithinthetribebearaspecialmark,evenafterthebloodwithasbeen
furnished?Thereasongivenwasquitewrong,butitaccountedsatisfactorilyforacustomofwhichtheoriginhadbeenforgotten,andthatwassufficient.
3.Themarkoftheprophet.In1K20:3543thereistheaccountofhowoneoftheprophetsdisguisedhimselfwithaheadbandoverhiseyestheking
doesnotrecognizethemanasaprophetuntilthelattertakesawaythiscoveringfromhisface,whereupontheking
discoveredhimasoneoftheprophets.Clearlytheremusthavebeensomedistinguishingmarkontheforeheadofthemanwherebyhewasrecognizedas
belongingtothepropheticorder.Thisconclusionisstrengthenedbyseveralotherconsiderations.(1)Itisafactthatamongotherracestheclassofmen
correspondingtothepropheticorderoftheIsraelitesaredistinguishedbyincisionsmadeontheirpersons.(2)Thereistheanalogyofcircumcisionjustasamong
theIsraelitesthiswasthedistinguishingmarkofthepeopleofJahweh,sothosewho,liketheprophets,weremoreespeciallyHisclosefollowersalsohadaspecial
mark,adistinctivesign,whichdifferentiatedthemfromothermen.(3)Thecustomofputtingamarkuponcattletodenoteownership,andforthepurposeof
differentiatingfromotherherds,wasevidentlywellknowninearlyIsrael.WhenoneremembershowrifeanthropomorphismswereamongtheIsraelites,itis
perhapsnotfancifultoseehereananalogy:justastheownersofherdsmarkedtheirownproperty,soJahwehmarkedHisownpeopleandastheprophetswere
differentiatedfromtheordinarypeople,sotheywouldhavetheirspecialmark.(4)ThereisthepassageZec13:46.Theseconsiderationspointdistinctlytomarksof
somekindorotherwhich,eitherontheforeheadoronthehandpossiblyonbothweredistinctivecharacteristicsofaprophetamongtheIsraelites.
4.Cuttingsforthedead.Thecustomofmakingcuttingsinthefleshandothermarksuponthebodyforthedead(Lv19:28cf.21:5,Dt14:1)waspractised
bytheIsraelites,butforbiddenonaccountofitsbeingaheathenrite.Thiswasnotasignofmourning,asisoften,buterroneously,supposeditwasanactof
homagedonetothedeparted,withtheobjectofinducingthespiritnottomolestthoseleftbehind.InDt14:1theprohibitionruns,Yeshallnotcutyourselves,nor
makeanybaldness(thecognateArabicrootmeanswound)betweenyoureyesforthedead.Thiswasdoneinorderthemoreeasilytobeseenbythespirit.
5. MarksconnectedwithJahwehworship.Therecanbelittledoubtthatoriginallythesignsonthehandandthememorialbetweentheeyes(Ex13:9,16)
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5.MarksconnectedwithJahwehworship.Therecanbelittledoubtthatoriginallythesignsonthehandandthememorialbetweentheeyes(Ex13:9,16)
weremarkscutintohandandforeheadthiscustomwastakenoverbytheIsraelitesfromnonJahwehworshippingancestors,andwasregardedaseffectualagainst
demoniacalonslaughtshenceinlaterdaystheuseandnameofphylacteries,whichtooktheplaceoftheactualcuttingsinhandandforehead(Dt6:8,11:18etc.).
Referencetoanearlycustomisperhaps(butcf.RV)containedinthewords:Lo,hereismymark,lettheAlmightyanswermethewordusedformarkcomes
fromarootmeaningtowound,anditisthesameasthatusedinEzk9:4,6thereferenceistothosewhoaretruetoGod.
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
6.Stigmata.TherenderingofSt.PaulsstronglyfigurativewordsinGal6:17adoptedbyRVreadsthus:Fromhenceforthletnomantroubleme:forIbear
brandedonmybodythemarks(stigmata)ofJesus.ThisrenderingaccordswiththeInterpretationofthisdifficultpassageadoptedbymostrecentscholars.The
ApostlewarnshisGalatianconvertsagainstfurtherattemptstotroublehim,forheisunderthespecialprotectionofJesus,whosemarkshebearsinthescarsand
otherevidenceofthescourgingsandotherillshehasborneforHissake(see2Co11:23ff.).St.PaulhereemphasizeshisconsecrationofhimselftohisLordby
usingafigure,familiartohisreaders,takenfromthepracticeofbrandingaslavewiththenameorsymbolofthedeitytowhoseservicehewasdevoted.Thus
Herodotus(ii.113)tellsofatempleofHeracles,inwhichifanymansslavetakerefugeandhavethesacredmarks(stigmataashere)setuponhim,givinghimself
overtothegod,itisnotlawfultolaybandsuponhim.AstillmoreappositeillustrationisaffordedbythebrandingofcertainJewsofAlexandriawithanivyleaf
thesymbolofDionysusbyPtolemyPhilopator(3Mac2:29).
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
MARMOTH(1Es8:62)=Meremoth,Ezr8:33.
MAROTH.Anunknowntown(Mic1:12only).Thereisaplayuponthename,whichmeansbitternesses.
MARRIAGE
1.FormsofMarriage.Therearetwoformsofmarriageamongprimitiveraces:(1)wherethehusbandbecomespartofhiswifestribe,(2)wherethewife
becomespartofherhusbandstribe.
(1)W.R.Smith(KinshipandMarriageinEarlyArabia)givestothisformthenamesadika,fromthesadacorgiftgiventothewife,(a)Theunionmaybe
confinedtoanoccasionalvisittothewifeinherhome(motamarriage).Thisisdistinguishedfrommereprostitution,inthatnodisgraceisattached,andthechildren
arerecognizedbythetrinecf.Samsonsmarriage.(b)Thehusbandmaybedefinitelyincorporatedintohiswifestribe(beenamarriage).Thewifemeetsher
husbandonequaltermschildrenbelongtohertrine,anddescentisreckonedonthemothersside.WomencouldinheritinArabiaunderthissystem(op.cit.p.94).
PossibletracesinOTarethemarriagesofJacob(Labanclaimswivesandchildrenashisown,Gn31:31,42),Moses(Ex2:21,4:18),Samson(Jg14,15,16:4
thereisnohintthathemeanttotakehiswifehomehiskidseemstobethesadacorcustomarypresent).SotheShechemitesmustbecircumcised(Gn34:15)
JosephssonsborninEgyptareadoptedbyJacob(48:5)Abimelech,thesonofGideonsShechemiteconcubine(Jg8:31),isaShechemite(9:15).Thewordsof
Gn2:24mayhaveoriginallyreferredtothiscustom,thoughtheyareevidentlynotintendedtodosobythenarrator,sincebeenamarriageswerealreadyoutofdate
whentheywerewritten.Manyoftheinstancesquotedcanbeexplainedasduetospecialcircumstances,buttheadmittedexistenceofsuchmarriagesinArabia
makesitprobablethatweshouldfindtracesofthemamongtheSemitesingeneral.Theymakeiteasiertounderstandtheexistenceoftheprimitivecustomofthe
matriarchate,orreckoningofdescentthroughfemales.Inadditiontothecasesalreadyquoted,wemayaddtheclosenessofmaternalascomparedwithpaternal
relationships,evidencedinbarsofmarriage(seebelow,3),andthespecialresponsibilityofthematernaluncleorbrother(Gn24:29,34:25,2S13:22).Itis
evidentthattheinfluenceofpolygamywouldbeinthesamedirection,subdividingthefamilyintosmallergroupsconnectedwitheachwife.(2)Thenormaltypeis
wherethewifebecomesthepropertyofherhusband,whoisherBaalorpossessor(Hos2:16),sheherselfbeingBeulah(Is62:4).Sheandherchildrenbelongto
histribe,andhealonehasrightofdivorce.(a)Inunsettledtimesthewifewillheacquiredbywar(Jg5:30).Sheisnotmerelyatemporarymeansofpleasure,or
evenafuturemother,butaslaveandanadditiontoamanswealth.Dt21:1014regulatestheprocedureincasesofcaptureinJg1921wehaveaninstanceofthe
custom.Tracesmayremaininlatermarriageprocedure,e.g.inthebandofthebridegroomsfriendsescorting,i.e.capturing,thebride,andinherfeigned
resistance,asamongtheBedouin(W.R.Smith,op.cit.p.81).(b)Capturegivesplacetopurchaseandultimatelytocontract.Thedaughterisvaluabletotheclanas
apossiblemotherofwarriors,andcannotbepartedwithexceptforaconsideration.Hencethedowry(seebelow,5)paidtothebridesparents.
2.PolygamyamongtheHebrewswasconfinedtoapluralityofwives(polygyny).ThereisnocertaintraceinOTofapluralityofhusbands
(polyandry),thoughtheLeviratemarriageissometimessupposedtobeasurvival.Thechiefcausesofpolygynywere(a)thedesireforanumerousoffspring,
orthebarrennessoffirstwife(Abrahamscaseisdirectlyascribedtothis,andamongmanypeoplesitispermittedonthisgroundalone)(b)thepositionand
importanceofferedbynumerousalliances(e.g.Solomon)(c)theexistenceofslavery,whichalmostimpliesit.Itcanobviouslybeprevalentonlywherethereis
adisproportionatenumberoffemales,and,exceptinastateofwar,ispossibleonlytothosewealthyenoughtoprovidethenecessarydowry.Afurther
limitationisimpliedinthefactthatinmoreadvancedstages,whentheharemisestablished,thewifewhensecuredisasource,notofwealth,butofexpense.
Polygamymeetsusasafact:e.g.Abraham,Jacob,theJudges,David,Solomon1Ch7:4isevidenceofitsprevalenceinIssacharElkanah(1S1:1f.)is
significantasbelongingtothemiddleclassJehoiada(2Ch24:3)asapriest.ButitisalwaystreatedwithsuspicionitisincompatiblewiththeidealofGn2:24,and
itsoriginisascribedtoLamech,theCainite(4:19).InDt17:17thekingiswarnednottomultiplywiveslaterregulationsfixedthenumberateighteenforakingand
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itsoriginisascribedtoLamech,theCainite(4:19).InDt17:17thekingiswarnednottomultiplywiveslaterregulationsfixedthenumberateighteenforakingand
fourforanordinaryman.ThequarrelsandjealousiesofsuchanarrativeasGn29:3130areclearlyintendedtoillustrateitsevils,anditisinpartthecauseofthe
troublesofthereignsofDavidandSolomon.Legislation(seebelow,6)safeguardedtherightsofvariouswives,slaveorfreeandaccordingtotheRabbinic
interpretationofLv21:13thehighpriestwasnotallowedtobeabigamist.Noah,Isaac,andJosephhadonlyonewife,anddomestichappinessintheBibleis
alwaysconnectedwithmonogamy(2K4,Ps128,Pr31,Sir25:1,8,26:1,13).ThemarriagefigureappliedtotheunionofGodandIsrael(10)implied
monogamyastheidealstate.Polygamyis,infact,alwaysanunnaturaldevelopmentfromthepointofviewbothofreligionandofanthropologymonogamyisby
farthemostcommonformofhumanmarriageitwassoalsoamongsttheancientpeoplesofwhomwehaveanydirectknowledgeWestermarck,Hum.Marr.p.
459).Being,however,apparentlylegalized,andhavingtheadvantageofprecedent,itwaslongbeforepolygamywasformallyforbiddeninHebrewsociety,though
practicallyitfellintodisusethefeelingoftheRabbiswasstronglyagainstit.Herodhadninewivesatonce(Jos.Ant.XVII.i.3,cf.2).Itspossibilityisimpliedby
thetechnicalcontinuanceoftheLeviratelaw,andisprovedbytheearlyinterpretationof1Ti3:2,whethercorrectornot(8).Justin(Dial.134,141)reproaches
theJewsofhisdaywithhavingfourorevenfivewives,andmarryingastheywish,orasmanyastheywish.TheevidenceoftheTalmudshowsthatinthiscase
atleastthereproachhadsomefoundation.PolygamywasnotdefinitelyforbiddenamongtheJewstillthetimeofR.Gershom(c.A.D.1000),andthenatfirstonly
forFranceandGermany.InSpain,Italy,andtheEastitpersistedforsometimelonger,asitdoesstillamongtheJewsinMohammedancountries.
3.BarstoMarriage
(1)Prohibiteddegrees.Theirrangevariesextraordinarilyamongdifferentpeoples,butonthewholeitiswideramonguncivilizedthanamongcivilizedraces
(Westermarck,op.cit.p.297),oftenembracingthewholetribe.Theinstinctiveimpulsewasnotagainstmarriagewithanearrelativequarelative,butagainst
marriagewheretherewasearlyfamiliarity.Whateveristheoriginofbarstomarriage,theyarecertainlyearlyassociatedwiththefeelingthatitisindecentfor
housematestointermarry(W.R.Smith,op.cit.p.170).Theoriginoftheinstinctisnaturalselection,consanguineousmarriagesbeingonthewholeunfavourable
tothespecies,inmanasamonganimals.This,ofcourse,wasnotconsciouslyrealizedtheinstincttooktheformofarepulsiontounionwiththoseamongwhom
onehadlivedasthesewouldusuallybebloodrelations,thatwhichwerecognizeashorrorofincestwasnaturallydeveloped(Westermarck,p.352).WefindinOT
notraceofdisliketomarriagewithinthetribe(i.e.endogamy),though,judgingbyArabanalogies,itmayhaveoriginallyexistedonthecontrary,theHebrewswere
stronglyendogamous,marryingwithinthenation.Theobjection,however,toincestuousmarriageswasstrong,thoughinearlytimestherewaslaxitywithregardto
intermarriagewithrelativesonthefathersside,anaturalresultofthematriarchateandofpolygamy,whereeachwifewithherfamilyformedaseparategroupin
herowntent.Abrammarriedhishalfsister(Gn20:12)2S13:13,Ezk22:11implythecontinuanceofthepractice.Nahormarriedhisniece(Gn11:29),and
Amramhispaternalaunt(Ex6:20).Onmarriagewithastepmotherseebelow,6.
Jacobmarriedtwosisters(cf.Jg15:2).LegislationisfoundinLv18:717,20:11(cf.Dt27:20,22,23)fordetailsseethecommentaries.Wenotetheomissionof
prohibitionofmarriagewithaniece,andwithwidowofmaternaluncle.Lv18:13forbidsmarriagenotwithadeceasedbutwithalivingwifessister,i.e.aspecial
formofpolygamy.ThebastardofDt23:2isprobablytheoffspringofanincestuousmarriage.Anheiresswasnotallowedtomarryoutsidehertribe(Nu36:6cf.
27:4,To6:12,7:12).ForrestrictionsonpriestsseeLv21:7,14.Therewerenocasterestrictions,thoughdifferenceinrankwouldnaturallybeanobjection(1S
18:18,23).Outsidetheprohibiteddegreesconsanguineousmarriageswerecommon(Gn24:4,To4:12)inJg14:3thebestmarriageisfromthybrethren.Jubilees
4maintainsthatallthepatriarchsfromAdamtoNoahmarriednearrelatives.CousinmarriagesamongtheJewsaresaidtooccurnowthreetimesmoreoftenthan
amongothercivilizedpeoples(Westermarck,p.481).
(2)Racialbarsarosefromreligiousandhistoricalcauses.Gn24,28,34,Nu12:1,Jg14:3illustratetheobjectiontoforeignmarriagesEsausHittitewivesarea
grieftohisparents(Gn26:34,27:46)cf.Lv24:10.ThemarriageofJoseph(Gn41:45)isduetostressofcircumstances,butDavid(2S3:3)andSolomon(1K
3:1,11:1)setadeliberateexamplewhichwasreadilyImitated(16:31).Amongthecommonpeopletheremusthavebeenothercasessimilarto
Naomis(Ru1:4):Bathsheba(2S11:8),Hiram(1K7:14),Amasa(1Ch2:17),Jehozabad(2Ch
24:26)arethechildrenofmixedmarriages.TheyareforbiddenwiththeinhabitantsofCanaan(Ex34:16,Dt7:3),buttoleratedwithMoabitesandEgyptians(23:7).
TheirprevalencewasatroubletoEzra(9,10)andtoNehemiah(10:30,13:23).To4:12,6:16,1Mac1:15renewtheprotestagainstthem.IntheDiasporatheywere
permittedonconditionofproselytism,butJubilees30forbidsthemabsolutelytheyarefornication.Jewishstrictnessinthisrespectwasnotorious(Tac.Hist.v.5
cf.Ac10:28).ThecaseofTimothysparents(Ac16:13)isanexampleofthegreaterlaxitywhichprevailedincentralAsiaMinor.Itissaidthatnowtheproportion
ofmixedtopuremarriagesamongtheJewsisabout1to500(Westermarck,p.375),thoughitvariesgreatlyindifferentcountries.1Co7:39probablydiscourages
marriagewithaheathen(cf.v.12ff.,9:5),butthegeneralteachingoftheEpp.wouldremoveanyreligiousbartointermarriagebetweenChristiansofdifferentrace,
thoughitdoesnottouchthesocialorphysiologicaladvisability.
4.LevirateMarriage(Lat.lvir,abrotherinlaw).InDt25:510(no||inothercodesofOT)itisenactedthatifamandieleavingnoson(child
LXX,Josephus,Mt22:24),hisbrother,ifhelivesonthesameestate,istotakehiswidow,andtheeldestchildistosucceedtothenameandinheritanceofthe
deceased(cf.Gn38:9).Ifthesurvivorrefuses,aformaldeclarationistobemadebeforetheeldersofthecity,andthewidowistoexpresshercontemptby
loosinghissandalandspittinginhisface.Thelawisacodification,possiblyarestriction,ofanexistingcustom.(a)Itispresupposedforthepatriarchalagein
Gn38,theobjectofthisnarrativebeingtoinsistonthedutyofthesurvivor(b)Heb.hasaspecialword=toperformthedutyofahusbandsbrother(c)the
customisfoundwithvariationsindifferentpartsoftheworldIndia,Tibet,Madagascar,etc.InIndiaitisconfinedtothecasewherethereisnochild,andlasts
onlytillanheirisbornsometimesitisonlypermissive.Inothercasesitoperateswithoutrestriction,andmaybeconnectedwiththeformofpolyandrywhere
thewifeisthecommonpropertyofallthebrothers.Butitdoesnotnecessarilyimplypolyandry,ofwhichindeedthereisnotraceinOT.AmongtheIndians, 30/102
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thewifeisthecommonpropertyofallthebrothers.Butitdoesnotnecessarilyimplypolyandry,ofwhichindeedthereisnotraceinOT.AmongtheIndians,
Persians,andAfghansitisconnectedwithancestorworship,theobjectbeingtoensurethatthereshallbesomeonetoperformthesacrificialritesthesupposed
indicationsofthisamongtheHebrewsareverydoubtful.InOTitismoreprobablyconnectedwiththedesiretopreservethefamilyname(amanlivedthrough
hischildren),andtopreventadivisionoralienationofproperty.Ontheotherhand,thestoryofRu4seemstobelongtothecircleofideasaccordingtowhich
thewifeisinheritedaspartofamansproperty.BoazmarriesRuthasgoel,notaslevir,andthemarriageislegallyonlyasubordinateelementintheredemption
oftheproperty.Thereisnostigmaattachedtotherefusalofthenearerkinsman,andthesonranksasbelongingtoBoaz.TheprohibiteddegreesinLv18(P)
makenoexceptioninfavouroftheLeviratemarriage,whetherrepealingorpresupposingitisuncertain.InlatertimeswehavetheSadduceesquestioninMk
12:19||.Itdoesnotimplythecontinuanceofthepractice.Ithadfallenintodisuse,andtheMishnainventsmanylimitationstoavoidthenecessityofcompliance.
Itwasagreedthatthewomanmusthavenochild(Dt.son),andtheschoolbothofShammaiandoftheSadduceesapparentlyconfinedthelawtothecaseofa
betrothed,notawedded,wife.Ifso,thedifficultywastwofold,strikingattheLeviratecustomaswellasatthebeliefintheResurrection(Edershelm,LTii.400).
5.MarriageCustoms
(1)Thearrangingofamarriagewasnormallyinthehandsoftheparents(Gn21:21,24:3,28:1,34:4,Jg14:2,2Es9:47)thereare,infact,fewnationsor
periodswherethechildrenhaveafreechoice.But(a)infantorchildmarriageswereunknown(b)theconsentofthepartieswas,sometimesatleast,sought(Gn
24:8)(c)therulewasnotabsoluteitmightbebrokenwilfully(26:34),orunderstressofcircumstances(Ex2:21)(d)naturalfeelingwillalwaysmakeitselffeltin
spiteoftherestrictionsofcustomthesexesmetfreely,andromanticattachmentswerenotunknown(Gn29:10,34:3,Jg14:1,1S18:20)inthesecasesthe
initiativewastakenbytheparties.OneviewofCanticlesisthatitisadramacelebratingthevictoryofavillagemaidensfaithfulnesstohershepherdlover,inface
oftheattractionsofaroyalrival.Itwasadisgraceifadaughterremainedunmarried(Sir42:9)thisfactisthekeyto1Co7:25ff.(2)Thebetrothalwasofamore
formalandbindingnaturethanourengagementamongtheArabsitistheonlylegalceremonyconnectedwithamarriage.Gn24:58,60maypreserveanancient
formulaandblessing.Itscentralfeaturewasthedowry(mohar)paidtotheparentsorrepresentativesofthebride,thedaughterbeingavaluablepossession.Dt
22:29(cf.Ex22:18)ordersitspaymentinacaseofseduction,and50shekelsisnamedastheaverage.InGn34:12Hamoroffersneversomuchdowrycf.the
presentsofch.24.Itmighttaketheformofservice(Gn29,Jacob1S18:25,David).Dowry,inoursenseofprovisionforthewife,aroseintwoways.(a)The
parentsprovidedforher,perhapsoriginallygivingheraportionofthepurchasemoney(Gn24:61,29:24).Calebgiveshisdaughterafield(Jos15:19=Jg1:15)
Solomonsprincessbringsadowryofacity(1K9:16)Raguelgiveshisdaughterhalfhisgoods(To8:21,10:10).Thisdowrywasretainedbythewifeifdivorced,
exceptincaseofadultery.(b)Thehusbandnaturallysignifiedhisgenerosityandaffectionbygiftstohisbride(Gn24:53,34:12[wheregiftisdistinctfrom
dowry],Est2:9).AccordingtotheMishna,thelaterceremonyofbetrothalconsistedinpaymentofapieceofmoney,oragift,ortheconveyanceofawriting,in
presenceoftwowitnesses.Athirdmethod(bycohabitation)wasstronglydiscountenanced.Afterbetrothalthepartieswerelegallyinthepositionofamarried
couple.Unfaithfulnesswasadultery(Dt22:23,Mt1:19).Thebridegroomwasexemptfrommilitaryservice(Dt20:7).Nonfulfilmentofthemarriagewasaserious
slight(1S18:19,Jg14:19),butconceivableundercertaincircumstances(Gn29:27).
(2)Weddingceremonies.GreatuncertaintyattachestotheproceedingsinBiblicaltimes.Wehavetoconstructourpicturefrompassingnotices,combinedwith
whatweknowofArabicandlaterJewishcustoms.Insomecasesthereseemstohavebeennothingbeyondthebetrothal(Gn24:6367)ortheweddingfestivities
followeditatoncebutinlatertimestherewasadistinctinterval,notexceedingayearincaseofavirgin.Tobit(7:14)mentionsacontract(cf.Mal2:14),which
becameauniversalfeature.Thefirstceremonywastheweddingprocession(Ps
45:15,1Mac9:37),whichmaybearelicofmarriagebycapture,thebridegroomsfriends(Mt
9:15,Jn3:29cf.60mightymenofCa3:7)going,oftenbynight,tofetchthebrideandherattendantsinJg14:11,15,20Samsonscomradesarenecessarily
takenfromthebridespeople.Therejoicingsareevidencedbytheproverbialvoiceofthebridegroom,etc.(Jer7:34etc.,Rev18:23).Gn24:53,Ps45:1315,Jer
2:32,Rev19:8,21:2speakofthemagnificenceofthebridalattireIs61:10,ofthegarlandofthebridegroomandjewelsofthebride(cf.49:18)theveilis
mentionedinGn24:65,29:23thesupposedallusionstothelustralbathoftheGreeks(Ru3:3,Ezk23:40,Eph5:25)areverydoubtful.ThesituationinMt25:1is
notclear.Arethevirginsfriendsofthebridegroomwaitingforhisreturnwithhisbride,orfriendsofthebridewaitingwithherforhim?Allthatitispossibletosay
isthatthegeneralconceptionisthatoftheweddingprocessionbynightinwhichlightsandtorcheshavealwaysplayedalargepart.Anotherfeaturewasthe
scatteringofflowersandnutsallwhomettheprocessionwereexpectedtojoininitortosaluteit.
Themarriagesupperfollowed,usuallyinthehomeofthebridegroom(2Es9:47)Gn29:22,Jg14:10,To8:19areeasilyexplainedexceptions.Hospitalitywas
asacreddutyhewhodoesnotinvitemetohismarriagewillnothavemetohisfuneral.Torefusetheinvitationwasagraveinsult(Mt22).Nothingisknownof
thecustom,apparentlyimpliedinthispassage,ofprovidingaweddinggarmentforguests.Jn2givesusapictureofthefeastinamiddleclasshome,wherethe
resourcesarestrainedtotheuttermost.Itisdoubtfulwhethertherulerofthefeast(cf.Sir32:1,2)isthebestman(3:29,Jg14:20),theofficebeingunusualinthe
simplelifeofGalilee(Edersheim,LTi.355).Thereisnowhereanyhintofareligiousceremony,thoughmarriagewasregardedwithgreatreverenceassymbolizing
theunionofGodwithIsrael(ib.353).Thefeastwasnodoubtquasisacramental(cf.theLatinconfarreatio),andthemarriagewasconsummatedbytheentryinto
thechamber(huppah).W.R.Smith(op.cit.p.168)findsinthisarelicofbeenamarriage(seeabove,1),thehuppahorcanopy(Jl2:16)beingoriginallythe
wifestent(Gn24:67,Jg4:17)cf.thetentpitchedforAbsalom(2S16:22).InArab.,Syr.,andHeb.thebridegroomissaidtogointothebride.Ps19:5speaksof
hisexultantcomingforthonthefollowingmorningthechambercanhardlyrefertheretothecanopyunderwhichinmodernweddingsthepairstand during
theceremony,thoughthishasnodoubtbeenevolvedfromtheoldtent.
Theweddingfestivitieswerenotconfinedtothesupperofthefirstnight,atanyrateinOTtimes.AsnowinSyria,thefeastlastedfor7days(Gn29:27,To 31/102
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Theweddingfestivitieswerenotconfinedtothesupperofthefirstnight,atanyrateinOTtimes.AsnowinSyria,thefeastlastedfor7days(Gn29:27,To
11:10,8:19[afortnight]).ThebestpictureisinJg14,withitseatinganddrinkingandnotveryrefinedmerriment.Canticlesisgenerallysupposedtocontainsongs
sungduringthesefestivitiesthosenowsunginSyriashowaremarkablesimilarity.7:17inparticularwouldseemtobethechorusinpraiseofthebridesbeauty,
suchasisnowchanted,whilesheherselfinasworddancedisplaysthecharmsofherpersonbytheflashingfirelight.Duringtheweekthepairarekingand
queen,enthronedonthethreshingboardofthevillage.ItissuggestedthatSolomon(3:7)hadbecomethenicknameforthisvillageking.Dt24:5exemptsthe
bridegroomfrommilitaryserviceforayear(cf.20:7).
6.Positionofthewife.ThepracticallyuniversalformofmarriagewastheBaaltype,wherethewifepassedunderthedominionofherlord(Gn3:16,
TenthCom.).Sidebysidewiththiswastheidealprinciple,accordingtowhichshewasahelpmeetforhim(Gn2:18),andthelegaltheorywasalwaysmodifiedin
practicebytheaffectionofthehusbandorthestrongpersonalityofthewifecf.thepositionofthepatriarchswives,ofwomeninJg.orinPr.(esp.31)cf.1S
25:18,2K4:8.Buthervaluewaslargelythatofamotherofchildren,andthepositionofachildlesswifewasunpleasant(Gn16:4,30:14,1S1:6,2Es9:43).
Polygamyledtofavouritismthefellowwifeisarival(1S1:6)atechnicalterm.Dt21:15ff.safeguardstherightofthefirstbornofahatedwifeEx21:10
providesfortherenderingofthedutiesofmarriagetoafirstwife,evenifapurchasedcoacubineiftheyarewithheldsheistogofree(cf.Dt21:14ofacaptive).
Thedifferencebetweenawifeandaconcubinedependedonthewifeshigherpositionandbirth,usuallybackedbyrelativesreadytodefendher.Shemightclaim
theinheritanceforherchildren(Gn21:10)herslavecouldnotbetakenasconcubinewithoutherconsent(16:2).Aspartofamanschattelshiswiveswerein
certaincasesinheritedbyhisheir,withthelimitationthatamancouldnottakehisownmother.ThecustomlastedinArabiatillforbiddenbytheKoran(ch.4).In
OTthereisthecaseofReubenandBilhah(Gn35:22,49:4),perhapsimplyingthecontinuanceofthecustominthetribeofReuben,afterithadbeenproscribed
elsewhere(Driver,adloc.).Itispresupposedin2S3:7,whereIshboshethreproachesAbnerforencroachingonhisbirthright,andin16:22,whereAbsalomthus
publisheshisclaimtothekingdom.In1K2:22Adonijah,inaskingforAbishag,isclaimingtheeldestbrothersinheritance.Ezk22:10findsitstillnecessaryto
condemnthepracticecf.Dt22:30,Lv18:8,Ru4showshowthewifeisregardedaspartoftheinheritance.Awidownormallyremainedunmarried.Ifpoor,her
positionwasbadcf.theinjunctionsinDt.,theprophets,andthePastoralEpp.Inroyalhousesherinfluencemightbegreaterthanthatofthewifee.g.the
differenceintheattitudeofBathshebain1K1:16andin2:19,andthepowerofthequeenmother(1K15:13,2K11).Therewasastrongprejudiceinlatertimes
againstherremarrying(Lk2:36Jos.Ant.XVII.xiii.4,XVIII.vi.6).Thereisnoinstanceofacorrespondingdisliketothemarriageofawidower,butthewifewas
regardedasamanspropertyevenafterhisdeath.St.Paul,however,permitsremarriage(1Co7:39),andevenenjoinsitforyoungerwidows(1Ti5:14).
7.Adultery.Ifabridewasfoundnottobeavirgin,shewastobestoned(Dt22:1321).Amanwhoviolatedanunmarriedgirlwascompelledtomarryher
withpaymentofdowry(v.29,cf.Ex22:16).Apriestsdaughterplayingtheharlotwastobeburnt(Lv21:9).Adulteryholdsaprominentplaceamongsocialsins
(SeventhandTenthCom.,Ezk18:11).Ifcommittedwithamarriedorbetrothedwoman,thepenaltywasstoningforbothparties,abetrotheddamselbeingsparedif
forced(Dt22:2227,Lv20:10,Ezk16:40,23:45).Theearlierpenaltywashurning,asinEgypt(Gn38:24Tamarisvirtuallybetrothed).InNu5:1131thefactof
adulteryistobeestablishedbyordeal,acustomfoundinmanynations.Itistobenotedthatthetestisnotpoison,butholywateri.e.thechancesareinfavourof
theaccused.Thegeneralpointofviewisthatadulterywithamarriedwomanisanoffenceagainstaneighbourspropertytheadulteryofawifeisanoffence
againstherhusband,butshehasnoconcernwithhisfidelity.Itisnotprohablethattheextremepenaltywasevercarriedout(2S11,Hos3).Thefrequent
denunciationsintheprophetsandPr.(2:18,5:3,6:25)showtheprevalenceofthecrimetheusualpenaltywasdivorcewithlossofdowry(cf.Mt5:31).Inthe
pericopeofJn8,partofthetestiswhetherChristwillsetHimselfagainstMosesbysanctioningtheahrogationoftheLawitisnotimpliedthatthepunishment
waseveractuallyinflictedinfact,noinstanceofitisknown.Theanswer(v.11)pardonsthesinner,butbynomeanscondonesthesin:damnavit,sedpeccatum
nonhominem(Aug.)cf.thetreatmentofthewomanwhowasasinner(Lk7:47).TheNTisuncompromisinginitsattitudetowardsthissin,includinginitsview
allactsofunchastityasoffencesagainstGodandthetrueself,assanctifiedbyHisindwelling,nolessthanagainstonesneighbour(Mt5:27,Ac15:29,1Co5:11,
6:9,1320,Gal5:19,1Th4:3).TheblessingonthevirginsofRev14:4probablyreferstochastity,notcelibacycf.thebedundefiledofHe13:4.Thelaxityof
theagemadeitnecessarytoinsistonpurityasaprimaryChristianvirtue(seeSwete,adloc.).
8.DivorceistakenforgrantedinOT(Lv21:7,14,22:13,Nu30:9),itbeingthetraditionalrightofthehusband,asinArabia,toputawayhiswife(Gn
21:14).ThestoryofHoseaprobablyembodiestheolderprocedure,whichisregulatedbythelawofDt24:1.Theremustbeabillofdivorcement(Is50:1,Jer3:8),
preparedonadefinitecharge,andthereforepresumablybeforesomepublicofficial,andformallygiventothewoman.(Butcf.Mt1:19,wherepossibilityofprivate
divorceiscontemplated[orrepudiationofbetrothal?].)Thetimeandexpensethusinvolvedwouldactasacheck.Further,ifthedivorceeremarries,shemaynot
returntoherformerhusbandadeterrentonhastydivorce,alsoonremarriage,ifthereisanyprospectofreconciliation.Therightofdivorceiswithheldintwo
cases(Dt22:19,29).Therewasgreatdivergenceofopinionasregardsthegroundifshefindnofavourinhiseyes,becausehehathfoundinherthenakednessof
athing.TheschoolofHillelemphasizedthefirstclause,andinterpreteditofthemosttrivialthings,practicallyforanycause(Mt19:3)thatofShammailaid
stressrightlyonthesecondclause,andconfinedittounchastity.Butthevaguenatureoftheexpression(cf.Dt23:14),andthefactthat22:22enactsdeathfor
unchastity,showthatsomethingwidermustbemeant,probablyimmodestorindecentbehaviour(Driver,adloc.).InspiteoftheprohibitionofMal2:1316and
thesternattitudeofmanyRabbis,divorcecontinuedtohefrequentEzr9:10encouragedit.TheMishnaallowsitforviolationoftheLaworofJewishcustoms,e.g.
breakingavow,appearinginpublicwithdishevelledhair,orconversingindiscriminatelywithmen.Practicallythefreedomwasalmostunlimitedthequestionwas
notwhatwaslawful,butonwhatgroundsamanoughttoexercisetherighttheLawgavehim.Itwas,ofcourse,confinedtothehusband(1S25:44issimplyan
outrageonthepartofSaul).WomenofranksuchasSalome(Jos.Ant.XV.vii.10)orHerodias(XVIII.v.4)mightarrogateit,butitiscondemnedasabreachof
Jewishlaw.ChristcontemplatesitspossibilityinMk10:12,perhapshavinginviewtheGreekandRomanworld,whereitwaslegal.Butthewordscauseda
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Jewishlaw.ChristcontemplatesitspossibilityinMk10:12,perhapshavinginviewtheGreekandRomanworld,whereitwaslegal.Butthewordscauseda
difficultytotheearlyversions,whichsubstitutedesertionfordivorce,andmaybealaterinsertion,addedforthesakeofcompleteness.InalaterperiodtheTalmud
allowedawifetoclaimadivorceincertaincases,e.g.ifherhusbandhadaloathsomedisease.
IntheNTdivorceseemstobeforbiddenabsolutely(Mk10:11,Lk16:8,1Co7:10,39).OurLordteachesthattheOTpermissionwasaconcessiontoalow
moralstandard,andwasopposedtotheidealofmarriageasaninseparableunionofbodyandsoul(Gn2:23).ButinMt5:32,19:9Heseemstoallowitfor
fornication,anexceptionwhichfindsnoplaceintheparallels(cf.1Co
7:15,whichallowsremarriagewhereaChristianpartnerisdesertedbyaheathen),(a)Fornicationcannotherebesinbeforemarriagethesenseofthepassage
demandsthatthewordshallbetakeninitswidersense(cf.Hos2:5,Am7:17,1Co5:1)itdefinestheuncleannessofDt24:1asillicitsexualintercourse.(b)
Divorcecannotbelimitedtoseparationfrombedandhoard,asbyR.C.commentators(1Co7usesquitedifferentwords).ToaJewitalwayscarriedwithitthe
rightofremarriage,andthewordscausethhertocommitadultery(Mt5:32)showthatourLordassumedthatthedivorcewouldmarryagain.HenceifHe
alloweddivorceundercertainconditions,Heallowedremarriage.(c)ItfollowsthatMt19:9,asitstands,givestoaninjuredhusbandtherightofdivorce,and
thereforeofremarriage,evenifitbesupposedthatthewordsexceptforfornicationqualifyonlythefirstclause,orifshallmarryanotherheomittedwithB.A
rightgiventoaninjuredhusbandmustonChristianprinciplesheallowedtoaninjuredwife.Further,remarriage,ifpermittedtoeitherparty,islogicallypermitted
bothtoinnocentandtoguilty,sofarasthedissolutionofthemarriagebondisconcerned,thoughitmaywellbeforbiddentothelatterasamatterofdisciplineand
penalty.Mt5:32apparentlyallowstheremarriageofthejustifiablydivorced,i.e.guiltywife,thoughtheinterpretationofthisverseismoredoubtfulthanthatof
19:9.(d)Theviewimpliedbytheexceptionisthatadulteryipsofactodissolvestheunion,andsoopensthewaytoremarriage.Butremarriagealsoclosesthedoor
toreconciliation,whichonChristianprinciplesoughtalwaystobepossiblecf.theteachingofHoseaandJer3Hermas(Mand.iv.1)allowsnoremarriage,and
laysgreatstressonthetakingbackofarepentantwife.(e)Hencemuchistohesaidfortheviewwhichissteadilygainingground,thattheexceptioninMt.isan
editorialadditionfromtheJudaicstandpoint,orunderthepressureofpracticalnecessity,theabsoluterulebeingfoundtoohard.(Fortheauthorities,seeHastings
DB,Ext.Vol.p.27b,andaddWrightsSynopsisandAllensSt.Mat.)ItistruethatthoughthetextualvariationsinbothpassagesofMt.arenumerous,thereisno
MSauthorityfortheentireomissionofthewords.ButthereisnohintoftheexceptioninMk.,Lk.,or1Cor.Mt19:3altersthequestionofMk10:2,addingthe
qualificationforeverycause,whichthuspreparesthewayforthequalifiedanswerofv.9.ThisanswerreallyadmitsthevalidityofthelawofDt24:1,withits
stricterinterpretation(seep.586b),whilstthelanguageofv.8leadsustoexpectitsabrogation.Theintroductionoftheexceptionupsetstheargument,whichinMk.
isclearandlogical.Again,isitnotcontrarytoChristsmethodthatHeshouldlegislateindetail?Heratherlaysdownuniversalprinciples,thepracticalapplication
ofwhichHelefttoHisChurch(seebelow,11).
(f)Therequirementin1Ti3:2,12,Tit1:6,thatthebishopanddeaconshallhethehusbandofonewife,isprobablytobeunderstoodasaprohibitionof
divorceandothersinsagainstthechastityofmarriage(cf.He13:4),madenecessarybythelowstandardoftheage.Ofcourse,nogreaterlaxityisallowedtothe
layman,anymorethanheisallowedtoheabrawlerorstrikerbutsinsofthistypearementionedaspeculiarlyinconsistentwiththeministry.Otherviewsofthe
passagearethatitforhidspolygamy(aprohibitionwhichcouldhardlybenecessaryinChristiancircles)orasecondmarriage.Buttherewasnofeelingagainstthe
remarriageofmen(seeabove,6),andSt.PaulhimselfsawinasecondmarriagenothingperseinconsistentwiththeChristianideal(1Ti5:14),sothatitishard
toseeonwhatgroundsthesupposedprohibitioncouldrest.
9.TheTeachingofNT.(1)Marriageandcelibacy.TheprevalentJewishconceptionwasthatmarriagewastheproperandhonourableestateforallmen.
AnyJewwhohasnotawifeisnoman(Talmud).TheEssene,ontheotherband,avoideditasuncleanandadegradation.OfthisviewthereisnosigninNT(1Ti
4:3).Christdoes,however,emphasizetheproprietyoftheunmarriedstateincertaincircumstances(Mt19:12[?Rev14:4]).TheviewsofSt.Paulundoubtedly
changed.In1Th4:4heregardsmarriagemerelyasasafeguardagainstimmorality.Thesubjectisprominentin1Cor.In7:1,7,8,38hepreferstheunmarriedstate,
allowingmarriageforthesamereasonasin1Th.(1Co7:2,2,36).Hegivesthreereasonsforhisattitude,theonepurelytemporary,theothersvalidundercertain
conditions.(a)Itisconnectedwiththeviewheafterwardsabandoned,ofthenearnessoftheParonsia(v.31)therewouldbenoneedtoprovideforthecontinuance
oftherace.(b)Itwasatimeofdistress,i.e.hardshipandpersecution(v.26).(c)Marriagebringsdistractionsandcares(v.32).Theonesidednessofthisviewmay
hecorrectedbyhislaterteachingasto(2)thesanctityofthemarriagestate.ThekeynoteisstruckbyourLordsaction.ThesignificanceoftheCanamiraclecan
hardlybeexaggerated(Jn2).ItcorrespondswithHisteachingthatmarriageisaDivineinstitution(Mt19:9).SoEph5:22,Col3:18,andthePastoralEpp.assume
themarriedstateasnormalinthe
ChristianChurch.ItisraisedtothehighestpinnacleasthetypeoftheunionbetwixtChristandHisChurch.Thisconceptionemphasizesboththehonourableness
oftheestateandthebeinousnessofallsinsagainstithusbandandwifeareoneflesh(Eph5cf.He13:4).(3)Asregardsrelationsbetweenhusbandandwife,it
cannotbesaidthatSt.PaulhasentirelyshakenhimselffreefromtheinfluencesofhisJewishtraining(6).Thedutyofthehusbandislove(Eph5:28),ofthewife
obedienceandfear,orreverence(v.22,33,Col3:18),thehusbandbeingtheheadofthewife(v.23,1Co11:8,711)sheissavedthroughherchildbearing(1Ti
2:1115).Theviewof1P3:17issimilar.Itaddstheideathateachmusthelptheotherasjointheirsofthegraceoflife,theircommonprayersbeinghinderedby
anymisunderstanding.WhetherthesubordinationofthewifecanbemaintainedasultimatemaybequestionedinviewofsuchpassagesasGal3:28.
10.SpiritualapplicationsoftheMarriageFigure
InOTthegodwasregardedasbaal,husbandorowner,ofhisland,whichwasthemotherofitsinhabitants.Henceitlayveryneartothinkofthegodas 33/102
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InOTthegodwasregardedasbaal,husbandorowner,ofhisland,whichwasthemotherofitsinhabitants.Henceitlayveryneartothinkofthegodas
thehusbandoftheworshippingnationality,ormotherland(W.R.Smith,Prophets,171)theideawasprobablynotpeculiartoIsrael.Itsmoststrikingdevelopment
isfoundinHosea.Led,asitseems,bytheexperienceofhisownmarriedlife,heemphasizesthefollowingpoints.(1)Israelsidolatryiswhoredom,adultery,the
followingofstrangelovers(notetheconnexionofidolatrywithliteral
fornication).(2)Jstilllovesher,asHoseahaslovedhiserringwife,andredeemsherfromslavery.(3)HoseasownunquenchableloveisbutafaintshadowofJs.
AsimilarideaisfoundinIs54:4inspiteofherunfaithfulness,Israelhasnotbeenirrevocablydivorced(50:1).Cf.Jer3,3:1,32,Ezk16,Mal2:11.Thedirect
spiritualormysticalapplicationofCa.isnowgenerallyabandoned.
InNT,Christisthebridegroom(Mk2:19,Jn3:29),theChurchHisbride.Hisloveisemphasized,asinOT(Eph5:25),andHisbridetoomustbeholyand
withoutblemish(v.27,2Co11:2).InOTthestressislaidontheingratitudeandmiseryofsinasadultery,inNTontheneedofpositiveholinessandpurity.Rev
19:7developsthefigure,thedazzlingwhiteofthebridesarraybeingcontrastedwiththeharlotsscarlet.In21:2,9sheisfurtheridentifiedwiththeNewJerusalem,
twoOTfiguresbeingcombined,asin2Es7:26.ForthecomingofherBridegroomsheisnowwaiting(Rev22:17,cf.Mt25:1),andthefinaljoyisrepresented
underthesymbolofthemarriagefeast(22:2,Rev19:9).
11.AgeneralsurveyofthemarriagelawsandcustomsoftheJewsshowsthattheycannotberegardedasapeculiarcreation,apartfromthoseofothernations.
Asalreadyappears,theypossessaremarkableaffinitytothoseofotherbranchesoftheSemiticracewemayaddthestrikingparallelsfoundintheCodeof
Hammurabi,e.g.withregardtobetrothal,dowry,anddivorce.Anthropologicalresearcheshavedisclosedawidegeneralresemblancetothecustomsofmoredistant
races.TheyhavealsoemphasizedtherelativepurityofOTsexualmoralityinthis,asinotherrespects,theJewshadtheirmessagefortheworld.But,ofcourse,we
shallnotexpecttofindtheretheChristianstandard.Inthebeginningrepresentsnotthehistoricalfact,buttheidealpurpose.Gn2isanallegoryofwhatmarriage
wasintendedtobe,andofwhatitwasunderstoodtobeinthebestthoughtofthenation.Thisidealwas,however,seldomrealized.Hencewecannotapplytheletter
oftheBible,orgotoitfordetailedrules.Whereitsrulesarenotobviouslyunsuitedtomodernconditions,orbelowtheChristianlevel,astrangeuncertainty
obscurestheirexactinterpretation,e.g.withregardtotheprohibiteddegrees,divorce,orthehusbandofonewifethereisevennodirectcondemnationof
polygamy.Ontheotherhand,theprincipleasexpandedinNTisclear.ItisthedutyoftheChristiantokeepitsteadilybeforehimastheidealofhisownlife.How
farthatidealcanbeembodiedinlegislationandappliedtothecommunityasawholemustdependuponsocialconditions,andthegeneralmoralenvironment.C.
W.EMMET.
MARSENA.Oneofthesevenprinceswhohadtherightofaccesstotheroyalpresence(Est1:14).
MARSHAL.1.ForAVscribeRVofJg5:14hasmarshal.Itwasthedutyofthisofficertomusterthemenavailableforacampaign.Inlatertimeshekepta
registeroftheirnames(2K25:10,Jer52:25,2Ch26:11,wherethesameHeb.wordisusedseealso1Mac5:42).Thestaff(notpen)inhishandwasanemblem
ofauthority(Jg5:14cf.Nu21:18).2.TheHeb.tiphsarisidentifiedwiththeAssyr.dupsarru,tahletwriter,scribe.InJer51:27andNah3:17itdenotesa
militaryofficerofhighrank(AVcaptain,RVmarshal.[Thealterationwasnotimperativelynecessary]).
J.TAYLOR.
MARSHILL.AVforAreopagus(wh.see).
MART.SeeMARKET.
MARTHAisfirstmentioned(Lk10:3842)aslivinginacertainvillagewithhersisterMary,andasreceivingourLordasHepassedonHisway.Weknow
fromJn11:1and12:1thattheyafterwardslivedwithLazarus,theirbrother,inBethanythevillage,then,maybeeitherBethanyorwheretheylivedbeforemoving
there.Thecharactersofthetwosistersarestronglymarkedandrenderedvividbytheircontrastweshallthereforedealwiththecharacteristicsofbothinthisarticle.
Marthaisoveranxious,anddistractedwithhouseholddutieswhileMary,asadisciple,sitsatthefeet(cf.Ac22:8)ofJesus.MarthacomplainedtoourLordof
Marysinactivity,andshowedsometemper,perhapsjealousy,byspeakingofthemattertoHimratherthantoher.JesuscommencedHisreplywithMartha,
Martha,repeatingthenameasHedidonanotheroccasionoflovingcorrection(Simon,Simon,Lk22:31),andblamedherforheroutwardagitation(troubled)
andinwardanxiety.(careful,RVanxious),tellingherthatshelackedtheonethingneedful.(ForvariousreadingseeRVm.)HethenpraisedMaryforhaving
chosenthatgoodpartwhichfromitsnaturewaseverlasting,andsowouldnotbetakenfromher.HeblamedMartha,notforherattentiveserviceoflove,butfor
allowingthatservicetoirritate,agitate,andabsorbher.Marthascharacterhereisloving,active,selfreliant,practical,hastyMarysalsoloving,butthoughtful,
humble,receptive,dependent,devoted.WefindthesamedistinguishingmarksinJn11,wherethetwosistersagainappearinthenarrativeoftheraisingofLazarus.
WhenJesus,afterdelayingforfourdays(v.17)tocomeinresponsetotheirjointrequest(v.3),arrived,MarthawasthefirsttohearofHisarrival,andatoncewent
tomeetHim.Mary,ontheotherhand,removedbyhergrieffromtheactivitiesoflifeengagedinbyhersister,wasunawareofHiscoming.Themoment,however,
thatshewassentforbyHim(v.28)shehurriedtoHispresence,andfelldownatHisfeet.ThecontrastofcharacterseeninLk10isheremarkedlypresent.
Marthaholdsaconversation,argueswithHim,remonstrateswithHim,andintheverycrisisoftheirgriefshowsherpracticalcommonsenseindeprecatingtheremovalofthe
stone.ItisMarywhogoesforthsilentlytomeetHim,silentlyandtearfully,sothatthebystanderssupposehertobegoingtoweepatherbrotherstombwho,whensheseesJesus,
fallsdownatHisfeetwho,utteringthesamewordsoffaithinHispowerasMartha(vv.21,32),doesnotqualifythemwiththesamereservationwhoinfectsallthebystanders 34/102
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stone.ItisMarywhogoesforthsilentlytomeetHim,silentlyandtearfully,sothatthebystanderssupposehertobegoingtoweepatherbrotherstombwho,whensheseesJesus,
fallsdownatHisfeetwho,utteringthesamewordsoffaithinHispowerasMartha(vv.21,32),doesnotqualifythemwiththesamereservationwhoinfectsallthebystanders
withtheintensityofhersorrow,andcrushesthehumanspiritofourLordHimselfwithsympatheticgrief(Lightfoot,BiblicalEssays,p.37).
Thesistersappearagain,andfinally,inJn12,attheSuppergiventoourLordatBethany(seeart.MARY,No.2)andagaintheircontrastofdispositionisseen.
Martha,aspresumablytheeldersister,served,whileMarypouredthepreciousointmentontheSavioursheadandfeet.Acomparisonbetweenthispassageand
Lk10:3842shows,indeed,thesameMartha,butnowthereisnorecordofheroveranxietyordistraction,orofanycomplaintofhersistersabsorptionin
devotiontotheSaviourfordoubtlessshehadherselfnowchosenthatgoodpartwhichwouldnotbetakenfromher.
MARTYR.SeeWITNESS.
MARY.TheGr.formofHeb.Miriam.
1.Mary,motherofJamesandJoses,wasoneofthecompanyofwomenwhofollowedJesusfromGalilee,ministeringuntoHim,andwhobeheldfromafar
thecrucifixion(Mt27:56)sheisspokenofastheotherMary(27:61,28:1),asthemotherofJamesthelittleandJoses(Mk15:40),asMarythe[mother]of
Joses(Mk15:47),andasMarythe[mother]ofJames(Mk16:1,Lk24:10).ThatsheisidenticalwithMarythe[wife]ofClopas(Jn19:25)isalmost,thoughnot
absolutely,certaintheuncertaintyarisingfromthefactthatasmanywomen(Mt27:55)werepresent,St.JohnmayhavementionedaMarywhowasdistinctfrom
theMarymentionedaspresentbytheSynoptists.ItisverydoubtfulwhetherthisMaryofClopaswassistertotheVirginMary.ThewordsofSt.John,There
werestandingbythecrossofJesushismotherandhismotherssister,MarythewifeofClopas,andMaryMagdalene,areambiguousforHemayhaveintendedto
namefourwomenaspresenttheVirginssisterbeingone,andMaryofClopasanotheroronlythree,theVirginssisterbeingdescribedasMaryofClopas.
Certaindecisiononthepointseemsimpossible.Cf.BRETHRENOFTHELORD,adfin.
2.Mary,thesisterofMartha,ismentionedthriceintheGospels(1)assittingatthefeetofJesus,whilehersisterserved(Lk10:3842)(2)asfallingatHis
feetonHisarrivaltoraiseLazarusfromthegrave(Jn11:2832)(3)asanointingHisfeetduringthefeastatBethanybeforethePassion(Mt26:715,Mk14:311,
Jn12:18).Thefirstandsecondoftheseoccasionsaredealtwithinart.MARTHA,wherethecharacterofMaryisalsotreatedof.Itremains,therefore,forusonlyto
considerthelast.
TheaccountsofthisincidentasgiveninthefirsttwoGospelsandbySt.Johnhavebeenthoughttodisagreebothastowhereandwhenthefeastwasheld.Asregardstheplace,
theFourthGospelmentionsMarthaasserving,andithasthereforebeenassumedthatthegatheringwasinherhouseafactheldtobeincontradictiontothestatementofMt.and
Mk.thatittookplaceinthehouseofSimontheleper.ButevenifSt.Johnswordsdobearthismeaning,thereisnotnecessarilyanydisagreement,forherhousemightalsobe
knownasthehouseofSimontheleper.HerhusbandorherfathermayhavebeennamedSimon,andmayhavebeenaleper.Infact,weknowfartoolittleofthecircumstancestobe
justifiedinchargingthewriterswithinaccuracy.AcarefulstudyofSt.Johnsstatement,however,seemstoshowthatthegatheringwasnotinMarthashouseforthewordsJesus
cametoBethany,whereLazaruswas,whomJesusraisedfromthedead.SotheymadeasupperthereandMarthaserved,implythatthe peopleofBethanyasawholehonouredour
Lord,whohadshownHispowernotablybyraisingtheirfellowtownsman,withapublicfeast.AtsuchafeastLazaruswouldbeoneofthosethatwouldsitatmeatwithHim,and
Marthaassuredlywouldserve.ThereasonwhytheyselectedthehouseknownasthatofSimonthelepercannotbedeterminedbutitmayhavebeensimplybecauseitwasthemost
suitablebuilding.
Asregardsthedateofthefeast,JohndistinctlyplacesourLordsarrivalassixdaysbeforethepassover,andimpliesthatthefeastwasthenheldimmediately.Mt.andMk.,
however,firstrecordthewordsofourLord,inwhichHeforetellsHisbetrayalasabouttooccuraftertwodays,and thenaddtheiraccountofthefeastinBethany.IftheFourth
GospelbetakenasdefinitelyfixingthedateassixdaysbeforethePassover,thentheSynoptistsmusthaveplacedtheiraccountoftheincidentlaterthanitreallyhappened.Probably
thisiswhattheydidandtheirreasonforsodoingisevidentlytoconnectourLordsrebukeofJudas(Mt26:13,14,Jn12:4)withthetraitorsdecisiontobetrayHim.Withthis
objectinviewtheyplacetheanointingbyMaryimmediatelybeforethebetrayal,introducingitwithavaguenessoflanguagewhichavoidsanydefinitestatementoftime(Mt20:6
NowwhenJesuswasinBethanyMk14:3AndwhilehewasinBethany).Thereisreallynocontradictionintherecords,butratherachangeintheorderofevents,ofdeliberate
purpose,byMt.andMk.forthepurposeofelucidatingthetreacheryofJudas.
Marysactofdevotioninanointingthehead(Mt26:7)andfeet(Jn12:3)ofourLord,andinwipingHisfeetwithherhair,isinperfectkeepingwithher
characterasseeninLk10andJn11asshesatatHisfeetasadisciple,andfellatHisfeetingrief,sonowinhumbleadorationsheanointsHisfeetwiththe
preciousointment,andwipesthemwiththehairofherhead.TheactcalledforththehypocriticalindignationofJudas.ButJesusatoncesilencedhim,acceptingthe
anointingasforHisburial,andpredictingthatwhereverHisGospelshouldhepreached,thereshouldherdeedofloveheremembered.
ThisactofMarybearsastrongresemblancetothatrecordedinLk7:36ff.,andsosimilaristhegeneralpicturepresentedbythetwonarrativesthatmanyhavethoughtthem
differentaccountsofthesameevent.Theagreementbetweenthenarrativesisstrikinginbotharepresentedtousactsofloveonthepartofdevotedwomeninboththehouseissaid
tobelongtoaSimoninboththedepthofthedevotionisshownbythefeetbeinganointed,andbeingwipedwiththeinnsenedhair.Ontheotherhand,however,manydifferences
aretobenoted.Thehosts,thoughbothnamedSimon,aredistinct,theonebeingdescribedasaPharisee,theotherasaleperthesceneisdifferent,forinonecaseitislaidin
Galilee,intheotherinJudathewomenaredifferent,foroneisMarywhomJesusloved,theotherisanunnamednotorioussinner,suchaswecannotsupposeMaryevertohave
been.ThelessonsdrawnfromtheincidentsbyourLordaredifferentintheonecaseHeteacheslovetoGodbasedonHisforgivingmercy,intheotherHeforetellsthatthedeed 35/102
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been.ThelessonsdrawnfromtheincidentsbyourLordaredifferentintheonecaseHeteacheslovetoGodbasedonHisforgivingmercy,intheotherHeforetellsthatthedeed
whichJudashaddescribedaswastewouldforalltimebeanobjectofuniversalpraise.
Itmustfurtherbeborneinmindthatanointingwasausualcourtesyandthatnotunnaturallytwodeeplylovingwomenwouldveryprobablyatdifferenttimesbeimpelledto
showtheirdevotionbyhumblyoutpouringtheirpreciousgiftsuponHissacredfeet.VerypossiblyMaryneverhadheardofthepoorsinfulwomansact,occurringasitdidprobably
twoyearspreviouslyandmanymilesawayinGalileebutevenifshehad,whyshouldshenotactsimilarlywhenherheartimpelledhertoalikeactofdevotion?
3.MaryMagdalene,probablysocalledasbelongingtoMagdala(possiblyelMejdel,3milesnorthwestofTiberias),aplacenotmentionedinNT,as
MagadanisthecorrectreadingofMt15:39.SheisfirstmentionedinLk8:2asoneofthewomenwho,havingbeenhealedofevilspiritsandinfirmities,
ministereduntothem(i.e.JesusandtheApostles)oftheirsubstance.Sevendemonshadbeencastoutofher(cf.Mk16:9)afactshowingherafflictionto
havebeenofmorethanordinarymalignity(cf.Mt12:45,Mk5:9).
AnunfortunatetraditionidentifiesherwiththeunnamedsinfulwomanwhoanointedourLord(Lk7:37)andshehasbeenthusregardedasthetypicalreformedfallen
woman.ButSt.Luke,thoughheplacedthemconsecutivelyinhisnarrative,didnotidentifythemandaspossessiondidnotnecessarilypresupposemoralfailinginthevictims
character,weneednotdoso.
WiththeotherwomensheaccompaniedJesusonHislastjourneytoJerusalemwiththemshebeheldthecrucifixion,atfirstfromafar,butafterwardsstanding
bytheCrossitself(Mt27:55,Jn19:25)shefollowedthebodytotheburial(Mk15:47),andthenreturnedtopreparespices,restingontheSabbath.Onthefirst
dayoftheweek,whileitwasyetdark,shevisitedthesepulchre(Jn20:1ff.).Findingthegraveempty,sheassumedthatthebodyhadbeenremoved,andthatshe
wasthusdeprivedoftheopportunityofpayingherlasttributeoflove.SheranatoncetoPeterandJohnandsaid,TheyhavetakenawaytheLord,andweknow
notwheretheyhavelaidhim.Theyallthreereturnedtothetomb,sheremainingaftertheyhadleft.Weepingshelookedintothesepulchre,andsawtwoangels
guardingthespotwhereJesushadlain.Totheirquestion,Whyweepestthou?sherepeatedthewordsshehadsaidtoPeterandJohn.Apparentlyfeelingthat
someonewasstandingbehindher,sheturned,andsawJesus,andmistookHimforthegardener.TheutteranceofhernamefromHislipsawokehertothetruth.She
cried,Rabboni,(myMaster)andwouldhaveclaspedHisfeet.ButJesusforbadeher,saying,TouchmenotforIamnotyetascendeduntotheFather.She
mustnolongerknowHimaftertheflesh(2Co5:16),butpossessHiminspiritualcommunion.This,thefirstappearanceofourLordafterHisresurrection(Mk
16:9),conferredaspecialhonourononewhoselifeoflovingministryhadprovedtherealityanddepthofherdevotion.ShehasbeenidentifiedwithMarythesister
ofLazarus,butwithoutanygrounds.
4.MarytheVirgin
(1)Scripturedata
TheNTgivesbutlittleinformationregardingher.IntheGospelssheisdirectlymentionedonlythreetimesduringChristsministry(Jn2,Mk3:21,31,Jn
19:25f.),andindirectlytwice(Mk6:3,Lk11:27).OutsidetheGospelssheismentionedonlyonce(Ac1:14).
TheApocryphalGospelsarefulloflegendarystoriesconnectedwithherchildhoodandafterlife.Inthemwearetoldthatshewasmiraculouslygrantedtoheragedandchildless
parents,JoachimandAnnathatattheageofthreeshewasdedicatedtoGodattheTemple,wheresheremaineduntilshewastwelvethatduringtheseyearssheincreasedinvirtue,
angelsministeringuntoherthatattwelveshewasbetrothedtoJoseph,anagedwidower,whowasselectedforherbyamiraculoussign.ThevisitofGabriel,thejourneyto
Bethlehem,andtheSavioursbirthinacavearementioned.ItisaddedthatatthemomentofthebirthofJesusallnaturewasstilledthefowlsoftheairstoppedintheirflight,men
withupliftedarmsdrewthemnotdown,dispersingsheepstoodstill,andkidswiththeirlipstothewaterrefrainedfromdrinking.
ThelegendarycharacteroftheapocryphalrecordsrendersthemworthlessasevidenceoftheeventsthatcentreroundthebirthofourLord,andwearetherefore
confinedtotheopeningchaptersoftheFirstandThirdGospels.IthasbeenfeltthatmoreevidencethantwoGospelscansupplymightreasonablybeexpectedfor
suchatranscendentmiracle.Butconsiderationwillshowthattheevidencecouldnotbeessentiallygreaterthanitis.Forfromthenatureofthecasethe
circumstanceswouldbeknownonlytoMaryandJoseph.MarymusthaveknownandJosephmustalsohaveknown,ifheweretocontinuetoactasprotectorof
hisespousedwife.
Now,theFirstGospelnarratestheeventsofthemiraculousbirthfromthepointofviewofJosephwhilethenarrativeoftheThirdGospel,withitsintimate
knowledgeoftheeventswhichitsocalmly,delicately,andyetclearly,setsforth,must,inthefirstinstance,havebeenobtainedfromtheVirginherself.St.Lukehas
beenprovedtobeawriterofgreathistoricalaccuracy,andwemaybecertainthatheadmittednothingwithinhisrecordofwhichhehadnotthoroughlytestedthe
truth:anditisdifficulttobelievethathewouldopenhisGospelwithastatementthathehadaccuratelytracedthecourseoftheGospelhistoryfromthefirst(1:3),
andthenimmediatelyproceedtoinsertuntrustworthyinformation.Indeed,thewidespreadbeliefoftheearlyChurchintheVirginbirthcanbereasonably
accountedforonlybytheoccurrenceofthefactitself.ThedateofSt.LukesGospelistooearlytoallowofideasofaVirginbirthtopassintotheChurchfrom
GentileChristianswhiletoJewishChristiansthewholeideawouldbealien.TotheJewmaternity,notvirginity,waspraiseworthy,andtohimthethoughtof
Jehovahbecomingincarnatewouldbeincredibleinfact,theVirginbirth,sofarfrombeinganinventionofJewishChristians,musthavebeenaseverestumbling
blocktotheminacceptingtheirnewfaith.
TheangelGabriel,whensenttoannouncetoMarythatshewastobethemotherofourLord,greetedherwiththewords,Hail,thouthatarthighlyfavoured,or
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TheangelGabriel,whensenttoannouncetoMarythatshewastobethemotherofourLord,greetedherwiththewords,Hail,thouthatarthighlyfavoured,or
thouthatartenduedwithgrace(Lk1:28).(TheRhemishVersion,followingtheVulgate,rendersfullofgraceatranslationcorrectenoughifmeaningfully
endowedwithgrace,butincorrectifmeaningfullybestowinggracearenderingtheGr.wordcannotbear.)Withabsolutesubmissionshereceivedthe
announcement,merelyreplying,BeholdthehandmaidoftheLordbeituntomeaccordingtothyword(Lk1:38).Soonshehastenedtoherkinswoman(v.36)
Elisabeth,whogreetedherwithinspiredutterance(vv.4245).TheVirgintheninreplyutteredhernoblehymnofexultation.TheMagnificatislargelybasedonthe
songofHannah(1S2).NaturallyatsuchatimeofdeepspiritualemotionshefellbackontheOTScriptures,whichshehadknownsincechildhood.Sheremained
withElisabethuntilthebirthoftheBaptist,andthenreturnedtoNazareth.HavingaccompaniedJosephonhisjourneytobeenrolledatBethlehem,shewasthere
deliveredofherSon.Whenthefortydaysofpurificationwereended,theybroughttheChildtoJerusalemtopresenthimtotheLord,andtoofferthenecessary
sacrifice.Beingpoor,theyofferedapairofturtledovesortwoyoungpigeons(Ex12:8).ThenwasitthatSimeontooktheChildinhisarms,and,blessingGod,
utteredhisNuncDimittis,andforetoldtoMarythataswordwouldyetpiercethroughhersoul:aprophecyfulfilledduringtheperiodofherSonsministry,and
speciallybyHisdeath.FromtheTempletheyreturnedtoBethlehem,whencetheyfledtoEgyptfromthecrueltyofHerod,onwhosedeaththeyreturned,and
settledinNazareth.
WenextfindtheVirgininJerusalem,whithershehadgonewithJesus,nowagedtwelve.WhenshediscoveredHimintheTemplesheremonstrated,saying,
ThyfatherandIhavesoughttheeHisreply,ImustbeinmyFathershouse(Lk2:48),showsthatHehadbeguntofeel,andexpectedHismothertorealize,
thegulfofDivineparentagethatseparatedHimfromallothers.Ittaughther,perhapsforthefirsttime,thatherSonfeltGodtobeinanespecialsenseHisFather.
ForthenexteighteenyearsourLordwassubjecttohomeauthorityatNazareth.DuringthistimeHismotherlosttheprotectionofJosephfor,ifhewerealive,
hecertainlywouldhavebeenmentionedinJn2:1,Mk3:31,Jn19:25.DoubtlessJosephsplaceinthehomewasfilledinameasurebyourLordandthesemust
havebeenyearsofwonderfulpeacetotheVirgin.
When,however,JesusonceentereduponHisministry,atimeofrealdifficultytoherbegan.She,withthesecretofHisbirtheverpresent,musthaveanticipated
forHimacareerofMessianicsuccesswhereasHe,withtheknowledgeofHisDivineSonship,wascompelledtoseverHimselfonceandforallfromhercontrol.
Wearenot,then,surprisedtofindthateachofthethreerecordedincidentswhichbringourLordandtheVirgintogetherduringtheyearsofministrycentreround
thequestionofHisabsoluteindependenceofherauthority.ThusHisfirstmiracle(Jn2)gaveHimanoccasionfordefinitelyteachingherthatshemustnolonger
impressherwilluponHim.Hisreply,Woman,whathaveItodowiththee?hasassuredlynoroughnessinit(seeJn19:26)yetthefactthatHedoesnotaddress
herasmothercanhavebutonemeaning.Again,whenthepressureofHisministryleadstoHisneglectoffood,Hisfriendssaid,Heisbesidehimself(Mk3:21).
HisfriendswereHismotherandbrethren(v.31)andwhentheirmessagereachedHimthroughthecrowdHestretchedforthHishand(Mt12:49),andsaid,
Beholdmymotherandbrethren.ForwhosoevershalldothewillofGod,thesameismybrother,andsister,andmotherwordswhichamountto,I,inworking
outtheworldsredemption,canacknowledgeonlyspiritualrelationships.Similarly,asHehungontheCross,andlookeddownuponHisbrokenheartedmother,
Hetenderlyprovidedforherfuture,andentrustedhertothecareoftheApostleoflove.Still,eventhenHewasunabletonameherasHisownmother,butgave
her,inthepersonofSt.John,theprotectionofason.Woman(notmother),beholdthyson.Son,beholdthymother(Jn19:26,27).Exactlyparalleltotheseis
Hisanswertotheexclamationoftheunknownwoman,BlessedisthewombthatbaretheeYearather,blessedaretheythathearthewordofGodandkeepit
(Lk11:27f.).
Itis,wethink,impossibletoexaggeratethebittertrialoftheseyearstotheVirginMarybutGodsgracekeptherthroughoutsubmissive,patient,andtrustful.
AnditisahappythingthatthelastmentionwehaveofherintheNTiswhensheisgatheredwiththeinfantChurchaftertheAscensionprayingintheupperroom.
(2)PlaceoftheVirginintheChristianChurch.ThepositionsheoughttoholdisclearfromtheNT,andhasbeenwelldescribedasfollows:SofarasSt.Maryisportrayed
tousintheScripturesheis,asweshouldhaveexpected,themosttender,themostfaithful,humble,patient,andlovingwoman,butawomanstill.CertainsectionsoftheChurch,
however,havenotbeensatisfiedwithgrantingherthislimitedreverence,buthavedoneherthequestionablehonourofclaimingforhertheworshipoftheChurch.Epiphanius(A. D.
370)mentionsheretics,calledCollyridians,whoworshippedtheVirgin,andhestronglyreprovesthem.ButbeforelongtheerrorfoundtooreadyawelcomewithintheChurch,and
aconsiderableimpulsewasgiventoitatthetimeoftheNestorianControversy(A. D.431).InmeetingtheerrorofNestoriustheChurchinsistedthatourLordhad,withHishuman
andDivinenatures,butonepersonality,andthatDivineandthereforeitemphasizedthefactthatHewhowasbornoftheVirginwasveryGod.Itthusbecamecustomarytogive
theVirginthetitleTheotokos.Thistitleseemstohavebeenspeciallychosentoemphasizethefactthat,bybeingthemotherofourLord,shebroughttheincarnateGodintolife,
and,atthesametime,toavoidcallinghermotherofGod.Thislattertitlewouldconveyideasofauthorityandrightofcontrolonthepartoftheparent,andofdutyandobedience
onthepartofthechildideaswhichwererightlyfelttohavenoplaceintherelationshipbetweenChristandHismotherthereforeitwasavoided.Itwouldhavebeeneasyforthe
ChurchthentocallhermotherofGod,butitdidnot.Notwithstandingthiscautioustreatment,unduereverencetowardsherrapidlyincreased,andmotherofGodbecamelargely
appliedtoher,andherworshipgainedmuchground.
WiththeworshipoftheVirgintheregraduallyaroseabeliefinhersinlessness.TheearlyFathers,whileclaimingforhertheperfectionofwomanhood,statedistinctlytheir
beliefthatshesharedinmansfallennatureandthatshehadcommittedactualsin.ButAugustine,thoughnotdenyingherparticipationinoriginalsin,suggestedherfreedom
throughgracefromactualtransgression.Ultimatelyherfreedomfromalltaintofsin,whetheroriginaloractual,wasofficiallydeclaredanarticleoffaithintheRomanChurchby
thedogmaoftheImmaculateConceptiondecreedbyPiusIX.(1854).Similartothiserroneousdevelopmentwasthegrowthofthebeliefinthemiraculoustranslationofherbody
afterdeath.ThefancifullegendsfoundintheApocryphalGospelsregardingherdeathwerereadilyseizeduponasifsupplyingtherequisiteevidenceandinduecourseitbecame
theauthoritativedoctrineofboththeRomanandGreekChurches.TheFestivalofherAssumptionisheldonthe15thofAugust.
(3) TheperpetualVirginityofMaryisamatterincapableofproofwiththeevidenceavailable.WiththeChurchofRomeandtheGreekChurchitisanessential
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(3)TheperpetualVirginityofMaryisamatterincapableofproofwiththeevidenceavailable.WiththeChurchofRomeandtheGreekChurchitisanessential
dogmabutwiththeotherbranchesofChristendomitisleftundefined.Informingadecisiononthepointmanyfeelthegreatweightoftheundeniablesentimentof
theChurchforcenturies,whileothersseeinthisverysentimentanunwholesomeview,whichoverestimatedthesanctityofvirginity,anddepreciatedthesanctityof
matrimony.FromtheNTwereceivenocertainguidanceforthetillofMt1:25isundecisive,asitsuseshows(e.g.Gn28:15,Dt34:6,1S15:35,2S6:23),while
thebrethrenofourLordmaymeaneitherthechildrenofJosephandMary,orthechildrenofJosephbyaformermarriage,oreventhecousinsofJesus.Thefirst
oftheseviewsisspeciallyassociatedwiththenameofHelvidius,thesecondwiththatofEpiphanius,thethirdwiththatofJerome.SeeBRETHRENOFTHELORD.
5.Mary,themotherofJohnMark(Ac12:12).
6.Mary,salutedbySt.Paul(Ro16:6).
MASCHIL.SeeP SALMS,p.772a.
MASH.OneofthesonsofAram,Gn10:23.Theparallelpassage,1Ch1:17,gives
Meshech(wh.see),asalsodoesLXXinbothpassages.Butthisiswrong,asMeshechwasJaphetic.EitherMonsMassiusismeant,oraregionandpeopleinthe
SyroArabiandesertcorrespondingtothedesertofMashoftheAssyrianinscriptions.
J.F.MCURDY.
MASHAL(1Ch6:74).SeeMISHAL.
MASIAS.OneofSolomonsservants(1Es5:34)isabsentfromtheparallellistinEzra.
MASON.SeeARTSANDCRAFTS,3.
MASREKAH.MentionedasthehomeofanEdomiteking,Samlah(Gn36:36=1Ch
1:47).Thelocalityhasnotbeenidentified.
MASSA.AsonofIshmael(Gn25:14=1Ch1:39),representingaNorthArabiantribe.Itsexactlocationisunknown,butitseemstobementionedinan
inscriptioncontainingareporttokingAshurbanipalofAssyria(B.C.668626)ofanattackmadebytheMassoritesuponthepeopleofNebaioth(wh.see).The
tribeofMassawouldthereforeseemtohavelivednotveryfareastofPalestine.ThisviewisconfirmedbythefactthatPr31:110isaddressedtoLemuel,kingof
Massa(seeRVm),sincePr30and31belongtotheborderlandwisdomofIsrael.ItisprobablynottobereadinPr30:1,wherethewordMassa(RVm)is
presumablyagloss.Cf.
MESHA,p.607a.
J.F.MCURDY.
MASSAHANDMERIBAH.Ex17:17(JE)tellsofamiraculousgiftofwaterataspotnearHoreb,whichwascalledMassahandMeribah(testingand
contention)becausethepeopletestedJahwehbydoubtingHisprovidenceandcontendedwithMoses.Itisimpliedthatthisoccurredaboutayearafterthe
Exodus.Nu20:118,alaternarrative(P),givesasimilaraccount,butputsitthirtysevenyearslater,andwithimportantvariations.Thesceneisnowlaidat
Kadesh,whichreceivesthenameMeribahfromthecontentionofIsraelwithJahweh.MosesandAaronalsosinagainstHim.Therearereferencestothefirst
passageinDt6:16,9:22,Ps95:8andtothesecondinDt32:51,Ps106:32inPs81:7thetwoareapparentlyconfused.Dt33:8regardstheeventsatKadeshina
peculiarlight:hereJahwehprovesLeviatMassahandstriveswith(orfor)himatMeribah.ThetendencyofrecentcriticismistoconsiderEx17andNu20as
duplicaterecordsofthesameevent,thelocalityofwhichmustbefixedatKadesh,wherethespringAinKadscreatesafertileoasis.Therethetribeswereblended
intoastrongunity.Meribah,onthisinterpretation,originallysignifiedtheplaceofjudgment,becauseMosesdeliveredtherehisoracularsentencescf.watersof
MeribahandEnmishpat(Gn14:7).
Massahneverstandsalone,saveatDt6:11,9:22.AsvariantsofMeribahwefindwatersofMeribah,watersofMeribahkadesh,and,atEzk47:18,
watersofMeribothkadesh,ifthereadingbecorrect.Ezk47:19,48:28placeMeribahonthesouthernborderoftherestorednation.Ithasbeenplausibly
suggestedthatMeribthkadeshisthecorrectreadinginsteadoftenthousandsofholyonesinDt33:2.
J.TAYLOR.
MASSIAS(1Es9:22)=MaaseiahEzr10:22.
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MASSORAH,MASSORETES.SeeTEXTOFOT.
MASTER.TheGreekwordforteacheristr.masterin2Mac1:10,Ja3:1,andinallitsoccurrencesintheGospelsexceptLk2:46,whereitisdoctor,and
Jn3:2teacher.SeeLORDandS LAVE.
MASTIC(tsor,Gn37:25RVm,EVbalm(wh.see),schinos,Sus54).Adiciousshrub(thepistacialentiscusL.),foundinthicketsontheMediterranean
seaboard.Thegumobtainedthroughcuttingsinthebarkischewedasadentifrice,andalsoforitspleasanttasteandperfume.Itissometimesusedasaflavouring
byconfectioners.
W.EWING.
MATHELAS(1Es9:11)=Maaseiah,Ezr10:16.
MATRED.Themotherinlaw(?)ofHadar(Gn.)orHadad(Ch.),oneofthekingsofEdom,Gn36:39=1Ch1:50.InGn.theLXXandPesh.makeMatred
thesonnotthedaughterofMezahab(wh.see).
MATRITES.AfamilyofthetribeofBenjamintowhichSaulbelonged(1S10:21).
MATTAN.1.PriestofBaal(2K11:18,2Ch23:17).2.FatherofShephatiah,acontemporaryofJeremiah(Jer38:1).
MATTANAH.AstationoftheIsraelites(Nu21:18,13).Nosatisfactoryidentificationhasbeenmade.
MATTANIAH.1.TheoriginalnameofkingZedekiah(2K24:17).2.AnAsaphite(1Ch9:18),leaderoftheTemplechoir(Neh11:17,12:8),doorkeeper
(12:25,35).3.Mattaniahin2Ch20:14shouldprobablybeidentifiedwiththepreceding.4.5.6.7.Fourofthosewhohadmarriedforeignwives,Ezr10:26(called
in1Es9:27Matthanias),v.27(calledinlEs9:28Othonias),v.30(calledin1Es9:31Matthanias),v.37(combinedin1Es9:31withthefollowingMattenai
intoMamnitanemus).8.ALevitewhohadchargeoftheofferings(Neh13:18).9.AHemanite(1Ch25:4,18).10.AnAsaphite(2Ch29:13).
MATTATHA.AnancestorofJesus(Lk3:31).
MATTATHIAS.1.AJew,whohadmarriedaforeignwife(1Es9:33)calledinEzr10:33Mattattah.2.OneofthemenwhostoodattherighthandofEzra
duringthereadingoftheLaw(1Es9:48)inNeh8:4Mattithiah.3.ThefatherofthefiveMaccabanbrothers(1Mac2:1,14,16f.,24,27,39,45,48,14:29).See
MACCABEES,1.4.AcaptaininthearmyofJonathantheMaccaban(1Mac11:70).5.AsonofSimonthehighpriest,whowasmurdered,togetherwithhis
fatherandbrotherJudas,atabanquetatDok,byPtolemythesonofAbubus(1Mac16:1416).6.OneofthreeenvoyssentbyNicanortotreatwithJudas
Maccabus(2Mac14:19).7.8.TwoancestorsofJesus(Lk3:25,26).
MATTATTAH.SeeMATTATHIAS,No.1.
MATTENAI.1.2.Twoofthosewhohadmarriedforeignwives,Ezr10:33(calledin1Es9:33Maltanneus),v.37(combinedin1Es9:34withthepreceding
Mattaniahinto
Mamnitanemus).3.RepresentativeofthepriestlyhouseofJoiaribinthedaysofJoiakim(Neh12:19).
MATTHAN.GrandfatherofJoseph(Mt1:15)perhapstobeidentifiedwithMatthat,whooccupiesthesameplaceinLk3:24.
MATTHANIAS.1.1Es9:27=Mattaniah,Ezr10:26,2.1Es9:31=Mattaniah,Ezr
10:30.
MATTHAT.1.SeeMATTHAN.2.AnotherancestorofJesus(Lk3:24,29).
MATTHEW(APOSTLE).Twosetsofparallelpassages,bothfromthePetrinetradition,tellusofthischosencompanionofourLord.Thefirst(Mt9:9,Mk
2:14,Lk5:27)narrateshiscall.HewasnamedbothMatthew(Mt.)andLevi(Mk.[wheresomeWesternMSSreadJames]andLk.),andwasthesonof
Alphus(Mk.).Hewasapublican(Lk.),andwassittingattheplaceoftoll(Mt.,Mk.,Lk.)nearCapernaum,whichlayontheroadfromDamascustothe
MediterraneanherehecollectedduesforHerodthetetrarch.Nodoubthewasonlyanagent,notoneofthewealthyfarmersofthetaxes.Neverthelesshemusthave
beenfairlyrich,andhadmuchtogiveupinfollowingJesus.Thecallisfollowedbyameal(Mt.,Mk.),agreatfeastgiventoJesusbyMatthewhimself(Lk.),which
rousedtheangerofthescribesofthePharisees.ThenameMatthewprobablymeansGiftofJahweh(cf.Theodore),andisanotherformofMatthiasthough
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rousedtheangerofthescribesofthePharisees.ThenameMatthewprobablymeansGiftofJahweh(cf.Theodore),andisanotherformofMatthiasthough
sometakeitasmeaningstrong.manly.ItwasdoubtlessgiventoLeviasanadditionalname,perhaps(likePeter)byourLordHimself.
ThesecondsetofpassagesgivesthelistoftheTwelve(Mt10:3,Mk3:16,Lk6:15,Ac1:15).InallthesethesurnameMatthewisgiven,notLevi,justas
BartholomewandThomasaresurnamesandinallfourBartholomew,Matthew,Thomas,andJamesthe(son)ofAlphusarementionedtogether,thoughnot
alwaysinthesameorder.Intwolists(Mt.,Ac.)MatthewcomesnexttoJames(thoughtheyarenotjoinedtogetherasapair)intheothertwo,nextbutone.Ifthen
wetaketheviewthatthisJamesisneitherthebrotherofourLord,noryetthesameasJamestheLittle(Mk15:40),andifwenegativetheideathatAlpeus
(Aram.Khalphai)and
Clopasareonename,thereisperhapssomethingtobesaidfortheopinionthatMatthewandJameswerebrothers.Buttheyarenotmentionedtogetherelsewhere.
OnlyintheMt.lististhedesignationthepublicanadded.ForMatthewsconnexionwiththeFirstGospel,seethenextarticle.Wehavenotrustworthyinformation
astohislatercareer.
A.J.MACLEAN.
MATTHEW,GOSPELACCORDINGTO.
1.TheFirstGospelintheEarlyChurch.Papias(c.A.D.140orearlier),asquotedbyEusebius(HEiii.39),says:Matthew,however,composedthelogiain
theHebrewdialect,buteachoneinterpretedthemashewasable.ThisremarkoccursinhisworkTheExpositionoftheLordslogia,andispracticallyallthe
externalinformationthatwehaveabouttheMatthan
Gospel, except that Irenus says: Matthew among the Hebrews published a Gospel in their own dialect, when Peter and Paul were preaching in Rome and
foundingtheChurch(Hr.iii.1).IrenusisprobablyquotingfromPapias.Inthe4thcent.,EusebiustellsastoryofPantnusfindinginthe2ndcent.theoriginal
AramaicMt.inIndia,butthestoryisveryuncertainEpiphaniussaysthattheAramaicGospelofMatthewexistedinhisday,inthepossessionofanEbionitesect
(distinguishedinmoderntimesasElkesaites),anddescribesitandJeromedescribeswhatheallegestobetheoriginalofMt.asinuseamongtheNazarenes,and
saysthathetranslateditintoGreek.WehavethereforefirsttointerpretPapias,andthentodealwiththelatertestimonies.
(a)WhatdoesPapiasmeanbythelogia?Thewordmaybetranslatedoraclesordiscourses,anditismuchdisputedwhichsenseweshouldtakehere.
Theinterpretationofmany(Westcott,Lightfoot,etc.,whochoosethetranslationoracles)isthatitisanearlywordfortheGospels.TheLordslogiawhichPapias
expoundedwouldbethestoryofourLordslifeandteaching,andPapiaswouldmeanthatMatthewwrotehisGospelinHebrew(cf.Ro3:2whereoraclesmay
meanonlyGodssayings,butmorenaturallymaybetakentomeanthewholeoftheOT).Certainlythewordinthe1stcent.wasusedofanysacredwriting,
whetherdiscourseornarrative.OthersdenythatatsoearlyadateaNTwritingassuchcouldbecalledtheLordsoracles,andtakelogiatomeandiscourses.But
fromthispointcriticshavediverged.ManyunderstandPapiastomeanthatMatthewwroteourLordssayingsonlybutthisdoesnotappearfromhiswords.The
argumentagainstthetranslationoraclesisdeprivedofforceifweunderstandthereferencetobe,notnecessarilytoawrittenrecord,buttotheGospelstorypure
andsimple,whetherwrittenororal.PapiaswouldthenmeanthatMatthewwrotedowntheGospelstoryinHebrew.Evenifwetakethetranslationdiscoursesor
sayings,itisextremelyunlikelythatPapiasmeantthatMatthewsGospelcontainednonarrative,thoughitisquitelikelythatdiscoursepredominatedinit.(For
Renanstheory,seeart.MARK[GOSPELACC.TO]).
(b)WhatdoesPapiasmeanabouttheoriginallanguageofMatthew?AllthetestimonyastoitsbeingAramaic[Hebrew]probablyreducesitselftothisone
sentence.OneinterpretationisthatMatthewwrotedownJesussayingsinAramaic,butdidnotexpoundthem,andthatPapiasownbookhadthisobject.Butmost
writersunderstandPapiastomeanthatindividualstranslatedMatthewsworkintotheirownlanguageforthemselves.Ifso,thisperiodmusthavebeenoverin
Papiastime,forheusesthepasttenseinterpretedhemusthavehadaGreekMatthewbeforehim.AndourMt.isclearlyanoriginalcomposition,derivedfrom
Greeksources,suchasMk.andotherdocuments,atanyrateforthemostpart(seeart.GOSPELS),andisnotatranslationfromAramaic.Thereisnoreasonfor
thinkingthattheMatthanGospelactuallyusedbyPapiaswasotherthanours.Wehavethentoask,DidPapiasmakeamistakeabouttheoriginallanguage?We
knowthattherewasaGospeloftheHebrewscurrentearlyinthe2ndcent.,knowntoHegesippus,probablytothewriteroftheClementineHomilies,perhapsto
Ignatius.JeromeknewofitandgivesusextractsfromitandEpiphaniusknewofaderivedorkindredGospel,usedbythesectoftheNazarenesandcontaining
severalepisodesdifferentfromourcanonicalnarrative,e.g.inconnexionwithourLordsbaptism,andHisappearancetoJamesaftertheResurrection(cf.1Co
15:7).InthisGospeltheHolySpiritiscalledtheMotherofChrist,thewordSpiritbeingfeminineinAramaic.Mostcritics(butHilgenfeldandHarnackare
exceptions)agreethatthisGospelislaterthanourcanonicalfourZahngivesgoodreasonsforthinkingthatitisderiveddirectlyfromourMt.anditispossiblethat
PapiasmadethemistakefallenintolaterbyJerome,and,knowingthattherewasanAramaicGospelinexistencepurportingtobebyMatthew(thoughhehad
apparentlyneverseenit),thoughtthatitwasSt.
Matthewsinreality.Eusebiussaysthathewasamanofnotmuchunderstanding.Hemay,then,haveerroneouslythoughtthatSt.Matthew,writinginPalestinefor
JewishChristians,musthavewritteninAramaic(Salmon).Anothersolution,however,ismorecommonlyreceived.PapiasisouronlyauthoritybeforeIrenusfor
attributingaGospeltoSt.Matthew.PossiblythentheApostleMatthewmayhavewritteninAramaicadocumentincorporatedin,orlargelydrawnuponby,our
FirstGospele.g.theoriginaloftheGreeknonMarkandocument(seeart.GOSPELS)andthisfactmayaccountforhisnamebeingattachedevenearlyinthe2nd
cent.totheFirstGospel.BoththesesolutionsseemtobequitepossiblebutitisnotpossibletosupposethatourFirstGospelwasoriginallywritteninAramaic.
QuotationsfromMt.arefoundintheEpistleofBarnabas(c.A.D.100?),onewiththeformulaasitiswritten.
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QuotationsfromMt.arefoundintheEpistleofBarnabas(c.A.D.100?),onewiththeformulaasitiswritten.
2.Contents,sources,andcharacteristicsoftheGospel.TheBirthnarrative(chs.1,2)restsonanunknownsource(seeLUKE[GOSPELACC.TO],3),andis
independentoftheotherSynoptics.TheBaptistspreaching,Jesusbaptismandtemptation,theearlyministry,andthecallingofSimon,Andrew,James,andJohn
(chs.3,4)followthePetrinetraditionwithadditionsfromthenonMarkansource(esp.intheBaptismandTemptation),fromwhichalsotheSermonontheMount
(chs.57)comes.ThenarrativeoftheGalilanministry(whichextendsfrom4:12to16:20)istakenmainlyfromthesetwosources,buttheorderofneitheris
strictlyadheredto.ItincludestheChargetotheTwelve(ch.10),alargenumberofparables(ch.13),andmanymiracles,somepeculiartoMt.From16:21tothe
endofthebookisthestoryofthePassionwiththepreparationforit,includingtheTransfiguration(17:18),theDiscourseonthe
End(ch.24),theparableswhichspeciallyspeakofthePassionandoftheEndoftheWorld(20:1ff.,21:33ff.,22:1ff.,25:1ff.,14ff.),andwarningsagainst
Pharisaism(esp.ch.23).InthestoryofthePassionitselfMt.followsMk.veryclosely,buthassomeadditions.
WemaynowconsiderthemannerinwhichtheFirstEvangelisthastreatedhissources.Weareatoncestruckwithagreatdifferenceoforder.Incidentsare
groupedtogetheraccordingtosubjectratherthantochronology.TheSermonontheMountisacollectionofsayingswhichwereutteredatdifferenttimes,aswesee
fromLk.,wheretheyoccurinvariouscontexts(Lk6:2049,11:24,12:22ff.,58ff.etc.).Itcontainsapassage(Mt5:20)whichwouldsuggest(ifMt.werea
chronologicalwork)thatthebreachwiththePhariseeshadalready,atthatearlystage,takenplacewhereasMk.showshowgradualthebreachwas(seethevarious
stagesinMk2:18ff.,24,3:22,7:5).AtfirstJesustreatsthePhariseesgently,andgivesthemexplanationsofdifficultiesonlywhentheyareobstinatedoesHe
denouncethem.ThisshowsthatMt5:20isnotinitschronologicalorder.Then,again,manyoftheparablesinMt.aregroupedtogether(seech.13),buttheywould
nothavebeenspokesallatonetime.TheChargetotheTwelve(ch.10)includesmuchoftheChargetotheSeventyandothersayingstothedisciplesinLk6,12
14,17.TheDiscourseontheEndinMt.isgrouped(see5).ThegroupsinMt.areoftenclosedwithaformulatakenfromDt31:1[LXX]thus7:28(Sermonon
theMount),11:1(ChargetotheTwelve),13:58(groupofparables),19:1,26:1(groupsofwarnings).Infact,theFirstEvangelistaimsatasynopticviewofChrists
teachingasawholeratherthanatachronologicalstatement.Inoneortwoparticularsonly,Mt.seemstoborrowthegroupingtendencyfromMk.,asinthecaseof
theanointingatBethany(Mt26:6ff.,Mk14:3ff.),whichisrelatedincloseconnexionwithJudascompactwiththechiefpriests(theEvangelistsseemtomeanthat
thewasteoftheointmentgreatlyinfluencedthetraitorsaction),whereasJn.(12:1)givesthemorechronologicallycorrectpositionoftheincident,sixdaysbefore
thepassover.
AnotherfeatureofMt.isthefrequencyofquotationsfromtheOT,andthemysticalinterpretationsgiven.TheinterestsoftheFirstEvangelistlielargelyinthefulfilmentof
prophecy(5:17).TheprinciplesofinterpretationcommonamongtheJewsareappliedatext,forexample,whichinitsliteralsenseappliestotheExodus,istakentorefertothe
departureoftheChildJesusfromEgypt(2:15,Hos11:1),andtheEvangelistconceivesofeventsascomingtopassthatprophecymightbefulfilled(1:22f.cf.2:15,17f.,23,
4:14ff.,8:17,12:17ff.,13:35,21:4f.,27:9f.).Itisthoughtthatthesecondass,whichisfoundonlyintheMatthannarrativeoftheTriumphalEntry(21:1ff.,theassandacoltthe
foalofanass),isduetotheinfluenceofthewordsoftheprophecy,Zec9:9forthenarrativeistakencloselyfromthePetrinetradition,butthesecondassofMt.isanadditionto
it.Sothewinemingledwithgall(27:34)forthewinemingledwithmyrrh(lit.myrrhedwine)ofthePetrinetradition(Mk15:23)seemstobeduetoPs69:21.Thetreatment
ofthenonMarkansourceissimilar.InLk11:29f.JesusreferstothesignofJonahandtotherepentanceoftheNinevites,towhom,byhispreaching,JonahwasasignbuttheFirst
Evangelistsees(withjustice)atypeofourLordsResurrectioninthestoryofJonahinthebellyofthewhale(Mt12:39ff.see,further,Robinson,StudyoftheGospels,p.96f.).
ThematterpeculiartoMt.islargeinamount.BesidestheBirthnarrativeswehavethehealingofthetwoblindmen(9:27ff.),andoftheblindanddumbdemoniacs(9:32f.,12:22f.,
thoughtbysometobeoneincident),thewalkingofSt.Peteronthewater(14:28ff.),thecoininthefishsmouth(17:24),PilateswifesdreamandPilateswashingofhishands
(27:19,24f.),andsomeotherincidents,especiallyinthePassionalsomanysayings,andpartoftheSermonontheMount.
3.PurposeoftheGospel.ThatitwaswrittenforJewishChristiansappearsfromthefrequencyofOTquotations,fromthemysticalinterpretations,andfrom
theabsenceofexplanationsofJewishcustoms.YettheauthorwasnoJudaizer.HealonetellsusofthevisitoftheGentileMagiwithLk,herelatesthehealingof
theGentilecenturionsservant(8:5f.)andtheadmissionoftheGentilestotheKingdomandtherejectionofsomeoftheJewsisannouncedin8:11f.(cf.21:43).
TheGospelistobepreached,andbaptismanddiscipleshiparetobegiven,toallnations(28:19).
4.Author.Thequestionofauthorshiphaspartlybeenanticipatedin1.TheearliestMSSgivethetitlesimplyasAccordingtoMatthew,andsimilartitles
totheotherGospels.Thetitlesneednotbe,indeedalmostcertainlyarenot,thoseoftheoriginalauthors,buttheymusthavebeenappliedataveryearlydate.What
dotheyimply?IthasbeenthoughtthattheymeantmerelythattheGospelsreflectedthepreachingofthepersonsnamed(soBartletinHastingsDBiii.297).Butin
thatcasetheSecondGospelwouldbeentitledAccordingtoPeter,atitleveryclosetoJustinMartyrsMemoirsofPeter,whichprobablyreferstoMk.(seeart.
MARK
[GOSPELACC.TO],1).Therecanbelittledoubtthatthosewhousedthetitleinthesecondhalfofthe2ndcent.meantittoimplyauthorship.Itisaquestion,
however,whetheratthefirstthephraseactuallymeantthattheGospelinitslatestformwastheworkoftheauthornamed.Forlackofexternalinformationastothe
FirstGospel,wearedriventointernalevidence.Butthiswouldnotleadustothinkoftheauthoror(ifthephrasebepreferred)theeditorwhobroughttheGospel
intoitspresentformasanApostleandeyewitness.UnlikeJn.,whichclaimstobewrittenbyaneyewitness(Jn.1:14,19:35),aclaimfullyborneoutbyinternal
evidence,andunlikeMk.,whichaboundsinautopticcharacteristics,thoughinthatcasewehavereasontothinkthattheycomenotfromthewriter,butfromthe
writersteacher,theFirstGospelhasnoneofthemarksofaneyewitness.TheautopticcharacteristicsofthePetrinetraditionhaveinmanycasesbeentakenaway
bythealterationsintroducedbytheFirstEvangelist(seeart.MARK
[GOSPELACC.TO],4).TheconclusionisthatitwasnottheApostleMatthewwhogaveustheGospelinitspresentform.Thenamecomessimplyfrom
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[GOSPELACC.TO],4).TheconclusionisthatitwasnottheApostleMatthewwhogaveustheGospelinitspresentform.Thenamecomessimplyfrom
ecclesiasticaltestimonyofthe2ndcent.,andnotfromthesacredwritingsthemselves.YettheMatthantraditionisstrong.EvenPapias,apparently,thoughtthatthe
GreekMatthanGospelwhichheusedwasatranslationoftheApostleswork.Andthereisnorivalclaimanttotheauthorship.Ontheotherhand,Matthew,asan
Apostle,wasasufficientlyprominentpersonforananonymousworktobeassignedtohim,especiallyifhehadwrittenaworkwhichwasoneofitssources.These
considerationsmayleadustopreferthesecondsolutionmentionedabove,in1(b)thatMatthewtheApostlecomposedtheAramaicoriginaloftheGreeknon
Markandocument,theLogia(notconsistingofsayingsonly,butofsayingsandnarrativecombined),andthatinthiswayhisnamebecameattachedtotheFirst
Gospel.Therealauthormustremainunknown.ThattheworkofanApostleshouldhaveentirelydisappearedisnotaveryseriousdifficultywhenwereflectonthe
numberofSt.PaulsEpistlesthathaveperished.
5.Date.Irenus(Hr.iii.1.1)explicitlystatesthatMatthewwrotefirst,whilePeterand
PaulwerepreachingthegospelinRome,butthatMarkwroteaftertheirdeparture.IntheMuratorianFragment(c.180200?),alistofNTbooks,Mt.seemsto
havecomebeforetherest,though,asitisincompleteatthebeginning,thisisnotcertain.Thisprobablywasalsothegeneralopinionofthesucceedingages,and
findsanechoinAugustinesdictumthatMk.isanabbreviationofMt.ButinternalevidencestronglynegativestheideaofthepriorityofMt.(seeMARK[GOSPEL
ACC.TO]).Thoughitispossibletomakesomereservationsastoeditorialtouches,Mk.isseentohavebeeninthehandsoftheMatthanwriterandwhateverdate
wefixforitmustbetheearliestlimitforMt.WecangetafurtherindicationfromtheDiscourseontheEnd(Mt24:1ff.).BothinMt.andMk.(whateverbethought
ofLk.)thediscourseisreportedasifthefulfilmentwereonlyinprospect,andinamannerthatwouldbeunlikelyifthesiegeofTitushadalreadytakenplace.This
conclusionbecomesstillmorelikelywhenwecomparethethreeSynopticstogether.TheyallthreebeginwiththedestructionoftheTemple(Mk13:1,2and||Mt.
Lk.).InMk.andLk.therefollowsadiscoursewhichapparentlyspeaksofthedestructionofJerusalem(Mk13:520),andthentherecomesinMk.andpartlyinLk.
apassagewhichseemstorefertotheendoftheworld(Mk13:2137).ButtheFirstEvangelist,assooften,weavestogetherthesayingsofJesuswhichinMk.are
distinct,andmakesthetwoeventsapparentlyone.(Cf.Mt24:3withMk13:4,Lk21:7).Thusthewritermusthavethoughtthatbotheventswouldbesynchronous,
andthereforemusthavewrittenhisaccountoftheprophecybeforetheFallofJerusalem.Thatthisissowemayseebyacontrast.TheFourthEvangelistgivesa
prophecyofourLordwhichhadbeenfulfilledwhenhewrotebuthereferstothefulfilment(Jn21:18f.,thedeathofSt.Peter).Itis,ofcourse,possiblethatthe
DiscoursewaswrittendownaswehaveitinMt.beforeA.D.70,andthatalaterwriterincorporateditunchanged.Butwouldnotthelaterwriterhavebetrayedsome
consciousnessofthefulfilmentoftheprophecy?ForthesereasonsadatebeforeA.D.70isprobable.Butthisconclusionismuchdisputed,andinanycasewemust
acknowledgethattheauthorshipanddateoftheFirstGospelareamongthemostperplexingofallNTproblems.
A.J.MACLEAN.
MATTHEWSBIBLE.SeeENGLISHVERSIONS,20.
MATTHIAS(giftofJehovah).ThedisciplewhowasnominatedagainstJosephBarsabbas(seeJOSEPH[inNT],No.6)andchosentofilltheplaceofJudas.
OfhisantecedentstheNTrecordsnothingbeyondthefactthathehadbeenadisciplefromthebeginningoftheLordsministryandofhissubsequentcareerittells
nothingwhatsoever.
Traditionismorelavishofinformation.Matthias,itissaid,hadbeenoneoftheSeventy(cf.Lk10:1),andhejustifiedhiselectionbyevangelizingthesavagesofEthiopiaand
writingtwobooksaGospel
andaworkentitledTraditions(Paradoseis).FromthelatterClementofAlexandriaquotestwosayings:(1)Wonderatthethingsbeforeyou(makingthis,heexplains,thefirst
steptotheknowledgebeyond.Cf.Platosdoctrinethatwonderisthebeginningofphilosophy)(2)Ifanelectmansneighboursin,theelectmanhassinned.
ItisthoughtbysomethattheelectionofMatthiaswasablunder,duetotheimpetuosityofSt.Peterandthereisreasonfortheopinion.(1)Itwasahastystep.It
wastakenduringtheseasonwhenthediscipleswerewaiting,accordingtotheLordscommand(Ac1:4),forthepromiseoftheFather,theBaptismoftheSpirit.
(2)Themethodwasobjectionable.(a)ThequalificationrequiredinthenewApostlewasnotaspiritualone:hemustbeamanwhohadbeenwithJesusallalong.It
washislackofthisqualificationthatmadetheJewishChristiansdenySt.PaulsApostleship.(b)Theyprayedforguidance,andthen,insteadoftrustingtoDivine
direction,theyhadrecoursetothesuperstitiouspracticeofcastinglotsapracticenowhereelseobservedintheApostolicChurch.Hadtheywaiteduntiltheywere
enduedwithpowerfromonhigh,theywouldhaveactedotherwise.AsamatteroffacttheelectionofMatthiaswassetasidebyGod.Thetruesuccessortothe
vacantofficewasSt.Paul.
DAVIDS MITH.
MATTITHIAH.1.OneofthesonsofNebowhohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:43)calledin1Es9:35Mazitias.2.AKorahiteLevite(1Ch9:31).3.A
LeviteoftheguildofJeduthun(1Ch15:18,21,25:3,21).4.AnAsaphiteLevite(1Ch16:5).5.SeeMattathias,No.
2.
MATTOCK.ThemattockofIs7:25isratherthehoewithwhichlandinaccessibletotheploughwashoednounandverbbeingthesamehere,cf.5:6RV 42/102
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MATTOCK.ThemattockofIs7:25isratherthehoewithwhichlandinaccessibletotheploughwashoednounandverbbeingthesamehere,cf.5:6RV
hoedforAVdigged.Fordescriptionsandillustrationsofthetriangularhoeandthemattock,orpick,ofmodernPalestine,seePEFSt,1901,p.110f.,and
HastingsDBiii.306.Thepassage1S13:20f.isverycorrupt,andinv.20atleastmattockshouldprobablybegoad.Thesameappliesto2Ch34:6,whereAVm
suggestsmauls,andRVhasruins.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
MAUL.SeeARMOURANDARMS,1(f).
MAUZZIM.TheHeb.phraselahmuzzm(Dn11:38)hasbeenveryvariouslyunderstood.Weneednotdiscussthedifferentrenderingsthathavebeen
proposed,asthereisnowpracticalagreementtotr.withRVgodoffortresses,andfortressesformuzzimagaininv.38.Itisnotsoeasytodecidewhichgodis
intended.AntiochusEpiphanesisthekingreferredto.HehadbeguntobuildatempletoJupiterCapitolinusinAntioch(Livy,xli.20).Holtzmann(Guthes
Bibelwbrterbuch,s.v.),andothers,therefore,concludethatheisthegodmeant.ButAntiochusalsosentanoldmanfromAthenstopollutethetemplein
Jerusalem,andtocallitthetempleofJupiterOlympius(2Mac6:2).HencesomehaveclaimedconsiderationfortheOlympianJupiter.Ontheavailabledata,no
certaindecisionispossible.
W.EWING.
MAW.ThisOldEng.wordforthestomachisusedbyAVinDt18:3,andbyRVinJer
51:34.Coverdaletr.1K22:34,AcertaynemanbendedhisbowehardeandshottthekyngeofIsraelbetwenethemaweandthelonges.
MAZITIAS(1Es9:35)=Mattithiah,Ezr10:43.
MAZZALOTH,MAZZAROTH.SeeS TARS.
MAZZEBAH.SeeP ILLAR.
MAZZOTH.SeeLEAVEN,P ASSOVER.
MEADOW.ThisworddisappearsfromRVintheonlytwoplaceswhereitisfoundinAV(Gn41:2,18,Jg20:33).IntheformerpassagestheHeb.readsch,
anEgyptianwordwhichprobablymeansreedgrass(RV),andmaypossiblycoverthenaturalpasturelandsofoldEgypt.ItoccursagaininJob8:11(EVrush,
RVmpapyrus).InJg20:33,whereRVsimplytransliteratesMaarehgeba,itispracticallycertainthatweshouldreadmaarab,andtranslatefromthewestof
GibeahseeGIBEAH,No.2.InRVmeadowsstandsforrth(Is19:7,AVpaperreeds),whereitispossiblethatrthmaybeamisreadingforchth.
W.EWING.
MEAL.SeeF OOD,2.
MEALOFFERING.SeeS ACRIFICE,11.
MEALS.Intheart.F OODattentionwasconfinedtothevariousarticlesofdietsuppliedbythevegetableandanimalkingdoms.Itnowremainstostudythe
methodsbywhichthesewerepreparedforthetable,thetimesatwhich,andthemannerinwhich,theywereserved.
1.Preparationoffood.Thepreparationofthefoodofthehouseholdwasthetaskofthewomenthereof,fromthedaysofSarah(Gn18:6)tothoseofMartha.
Onlythehousesofroyaltyandthegreatnobleshadapartmentsspeciallyadaptedforuseaskitchens,withprofessionalcooks,male(1S9:23)andfemale(8:13).At
thechiefsanctuaries,also,theremusthavebeensomeprovisionforthecookingofthesacrificialmeals(1S2:13ff.),althoughEzekiel(46:24RV)isthefirstto
mentionboilinghousesinthisconnexion(cf.Ex29:31,Lv8:31).
TheusualmethodofcookingandservingmeatcanhavedifferedbutlittlefromthatmostcommonlyobservedatthepresentdayinSyria.Themeatiscutinto
largerorsmallerpieces(1S2:13,Ezk24:3ff.cf.Micahstellingmetaphor3:8),andputintothecookingpotwithwater.Itisthenlefttostew,vegetablesandrice
beingadded.SuchastewwithperhapscrushedwheatinplaceofricewasthesavourymeatwhichRebekahpreparedforherhusbandfromtwokidsofthe
goats(Gn27:9).Whenmeatwasboiledinalargerquantityofwaterthanwasrequiredforthemoreusualstew,theresultwasthebrothofJg6:19f.,fromwhichwe
learnthatthemeatandthebrothmightbeservedseparately.Thecookingpotswereofearthenwareandbronze(Lv6:28.Foranaccountofcookingutensils
generally,withreferencestoillustrations,seeHOUSE,
9).
Inadditiontoboiling,or,asinEVmorefrequently,seething(sod,sodden,Gn25:29,Ex12:9etc.butAmer.RVhasboilthroughout),roastingwasmuch
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Inadditiontoboiling,or,asinEVmorefrequently,seething(sod,sodden,Gn25:29,Ex12:9etc.butAmer.RVhasboilthroughout),roastingwasmuch
invogue,andis,indeed,theoldestofallmethodsofpreparingmeat.Originallythemeatwassimplylaiduponhotstonesfromwhichtheembershadbeenremoved,
asintheparallelcaseofthecakebakenonthecoals(1K19:8RVm).ThefishofwhichthedisciplespartookbytheSeaofGalileewascookedonthecharcoal
itself.AmorerefinedmodeofroastingwasbymeansofaspitofIronorwood.InNTtimesthePassoverlambhadalwaystoberoastedinanoven,suspendedbya
spitofpomegranatelaidacrossthemouth.
Eggs(Job6:5,Lk11:12),wereadintheMishna,mightbecookedbybeingboiledintheshell,orbrokenandfried,ormixedwithoilandfriedinasaucepan.
Asregardstheimportantgroupofthecereals,wheatandbarleyearswereroastedonanironplateorinapan,producingtheparchedcorn(Amer.RV
parchedgrain)ofOT.AporridgeofcoarsewheatorbarleymealhasalsobeenreferredtounderF OOD,2.Theseedsoftheleguminousplantsweremostlyboiled
(Gn25:29cf.2K4:38).Agoodsavour(1Es1:12)wasimpartedtothestewbytheadditionofothervegetablesofamorepungentcharacter,suchasonions.In
short,itmaybeaffirmedthattheHebrewhousewiveswereinnowaybehindtheirmodernkinsfolkofthedesert,ofwhomDoughtytestifiesthattheArab
housewivesmakesavourymessesofanygrain,seethingitandputtingtheretoonlyalittlesaltandsamn[clarifiedbutter].
ThedirectioninwhichHebrew,likemostEastern,cookingdivergedmostwidelyfromthatofournorthernclimatewasinthemoreextensiveuseofoliveoil,
whichservedmanyofthepurposesofbutterandfatamongourselves.Notonlywasoilmixedwithvegetables,butitwaslargelyusedincookingfishandeggs(as
wehavejustseen),andinthefinersortsofbaking.ThepoorwidowofZarephathslittleoilwasnotintendedforherlamps,buttobakeherhandfulofmeal
withal(1K17:12).Theflourwasfirstmixedwithoil,thenshapedintocakesandafterwardsbakedintheoven(Lv2:4)oraspeciesofthinflatcakemightfirstbe
bakedintheusualwayandthensmearedwithoil.ThelatterarethewafersanointedwithoilofEx29:2etc.Honeyandoilwerealsousedtogetherinthebaking
ofsweetcakes(Ezk16:13,19).InthisconnexionitisinterestingtonotethatwhileEx16:31comparesthetasteofmannatothatofwafersmadewithhoney,the
parallelpassage,Nu11:8,comparesittothetasteofcakesbakedwithoil(RVm).
2.Thetwochiefmeals.AmongtheHebrews,asamongtheircontemporariesinclassicallands,itwasusualtohavebuttwomeals,properlysocalled,inthe
day.Beforebeginningtheworkofthedaythefarmerinthecountryandtheartizaninthecitymightbreaktheirfast(Jn21:12,15RV)byeatingamorselofbread
themorningmorselasitiscalledintheTalmudwithsomesimplerelish,suchasafewolivesbutthiswasinnosenseameal.Indeed,toeat[afullmeal]in
themorningwasamatterforgravereproach(Ec10:16).
Thefirstmealtime(Ru2:14RV),speakinggenerally,wasatanhourwhentheclimatedemandedarestfromstrenuousexertion,namely,aboutnoonthe
secondandmoreimportantmealofthetwowastakenalittlebeforeoraftersunset,whenthelabourershadcomeinfromthefield(Lk17:7).Thiswasthesupper
timeof14:17.Theformer,thearistonoftheGreeksinEVrendereddinner,Mt22:4,alsoLk11:38butRVmherebreakfastwasinmostcasesaverysimple
meal.Aservantplowingorkeepingsheeporharvestingwouldmakehismiddaymealofbreadsoakedinlightwinewithahandfulofparchedcorn(Ru2:14),or
ofpottageandbreadbrokenintoabowl(Bel33),orofbreadandboiledfish(Jn21:13).Alltheevidence,includingthatofJosephus,goestoshowthatthesecond
oreveningmealwastheprincipalmealoftheday.
3.Positionatmeals.WithintheperiodcoveredbyOTthepostureoftheHebrewsatmeals,insofarasthemenwereconcerned,waschangedfromsittingto
reclining.Intheearliestperiodofall,theHebrewstooktheirmealssitting,ormoreprobably,squattingontheground(Gn37:25etc.),liketheBedouinandfellahin
ofthepresentday,amongwhomsquattingwithbothkneesdownwards,andwiththelegsgatheredtailorfashion,aloneistheapprovedfashionwhenattable
(PEFSt,1905,124).Thefoodwasservedinalargewoodenbowlplaceduponamatofleatherorplaitedgrass,roundwhichthecompanygathered.Thefirst
advanceonthisprimitivepracticewastopresentthefoodonawoodenorothertray,setuponalowstandraisedbutafewinchesfromtheground.Thenextstep
wastheintroductionofseats,whichwouldnaturallyfollowuponthechangefromnomadictoagriculturallifeaftertheconquestofCanaan.Saulandhismessmates
satuponseats(1S20:25),thepreciseformofwhichisnotspecified,asdid
Solomonandthehighofficialsofhiscourt(1K10:5,wherethequeenofShebaadmiresthesitting,i.e.theseatedcompanyofhisservantscf.13:20etc.).||
Withthegrowthofwealthandluxuryunderthemonarchy,theSyriancustomofrecliningatmealsgraduallygainedground.InAmostimeitwasstilllooked
uponasaninnovationpeculiartothewealthynobles(Am3:12,6:4).Twocenturieslater,Ezekielisfamiliarwithastatelybedorcouch(asEst1:5RV)witha
tablepreparedbeforeit(Ezk23:41).Inthepostexilicperiodthecustommusthavetakenfirmroot,forbytheendofthe3rdcent.B.C.itwasprobablyuniversal
saveamongtheverypoor(Jth12:15,To2:1).InNT,accordingly,wheneversittingatmeatismentioned,wearetounderstandreclining,asthemarginofRV
everywhereremindsus.Attable,thatistosay,themenforwomenandchildrenstillsatreclinedoncoucheswithwoodenframes,upholsteredwithmattresses
andprovidedwithcushions,onwhichtheyleanedtheleftelbow(seeSir41:19),usingonlytherighthandtoeatwith(see5below).
4.FromtheMishnawelearnthatinNTtimesthetableswerechieflyofwood,andfurnishedwiththreeorfourfeet.Theywerelowerandsmallerthanwithus.
Thecouchesordivanswereasarulecapableofaccommodatingseveralpeople.Inthehousesofthegreateachguestatabanquetmighthaveacouchandtablefor
himself.TheGreekcustomwastoassigntwo,theRomanthree,gueststoeachcouch.Aseachguestreclinedonhisleftelbow,thepersonnextonhisrightonthe
samecouchcouldbesaidtoreclineinthebosomofhisfellowguest.SuchweretherelativepositionsofJohnandJesusattheLastSupper(Jn13:23RV).
5.Procedureatmeals,etc.InourLordsday,aswelearnfromtheGospels,greatimportancewasattachedbytheJewishauthoritiestothewashingofhands
beforemeals.Thisconsistedofpouringwater(whichhadbeenkeptfrompossibledefilementinlargeclosedjars,thewaterpotsofstoneofJn2:6)overthehands
andallowingittoruntothewrist(cf.Mk7:3RVmandcommentaries).
Thiswashingover,thefoodwasbroughtinbythewomenofthehousehold(Mk1:31,Lk
10:40)inwealthyfamiliesbymaleslaves,theministersof1K10:5,waitersofJth13:1,servantsofJn2:5,9.Atthisstagegracewassaid.Thedateofthe
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10:40)inwealthyfamiliesbymaleslaves,theministersof1K10:5,waitersofJth13:1,servantsofJn2:5,9.Atthisstagegracewassaid.Thedateofthe
introductionofthiscustomisunknown,for1S9:13isnotacaseinpoint.InNTtheblessingbeforeamealhastherepeatedsanctionofourLordsexample(Mt
15:36,26:25,etc.cf.Ac27:35forPaul).
Astowhatmaybetermed,withtheMishna,thevesselsfortheserviceofthetable,thesenaturallyvariedwiththesocialpositionofthehousehold,andmore
orlesswiththeprogressofthecenturies.Inearlytimesearthenwarevesselswouldbeused,forwhich,ascivilizationadvanced,bronzewouldbesubstituted,and
eveninspecialcases,silverandgold(seeHOUSE,9).Bread,weknow,wasusuallyservedinshallowwickerbaskets(Ex29:23).Themainpartofthemealinthe
homesofthepeoplewillhavebeenservedinoneormorelargebowlsorbasins,ofearthenwareorbronze,accordingtocircumstances.Suchwasthedishinto
whichourLorddippedthesop(Mt26:23,Mk14:20).AshallowerdishisthatrenderedchargerinMt14:8,11,andplatter,Lk11:39.
Inthecaseofatypicaldishofmeatandvegetables,preparedasdescribedabove,thosepartakingofthemealhelpedthemselveswiththefingersoftheright
hand(Pr19:24=26:15RV,Mt26:23),knivesandforksbeing,ofcourse,unknownattable,whilethemoreliquidpartsweresecured,asatthepresentday,by
usingpiecesofthinwaferlikebreadasimprovisedspoons,orsimplybydippingamorselofbread,thesopofJn13:26,intothedish.Itwascustomary,asthis
passageshows,fortheheadofthefamilytohandpiecesoffoodtovariousmembersthesearetheportionsof1S1:4.
6.IntheeventofaJewofsomepositionresolvingtoentertainhisfriendsatdinner,itwasusualtosendtheinvitationsbyhisservants(Mt22:3),andlaterto
sendthemagainwithareminderontheappointedday(v.4,Lk14:17).Arrivedathishostsresidence,theguestisreceivedwithakiss(Lk7:45),hisfeetare
washed(v.44),andhisheadisanointedwithperfumedoil(v.38cf.Ps23:5).Hehimselfisdressedinwhitegalacostume(Ec9:8seeDRESS,7),fortocometo
suchafeastinoneseverydaygarmentswouldbeaninsulttooneshost(cf.Mt22:11f.).Afterthechiefplaces(Mt23:6RVAVuppermostrooms)onthe
variouscoucheshadbeenassignedtotheprincipalguests,thehandsdulywashed,andtheblessingsaid,themealbegan.Thiswouldconsistofseveralcourses,
beginningwithlightappetizingdishes,suchassaltedfish,pickledolives,etc.Duringthecourseofthedinnerthosewhomthehostwishedtosingleoutforspecial
distinctionwouldreceive,asamarkoffavour,somedaintyportion,suchasSamuelhadreservedforSaul(1S9:23).ThesewerethemessessentbyJosephtohis
brethren(Gn43:34,foralistofthepartsofananimalinorderofmerit,sotosay,usedforthispurposeatafellahinbanquettoday,seePEFSt,1905,123).
Atthecloseofthedinnerthehandswereagainwashed,theattendantsbringingroundthewherewithal,andtableswithallsortsoffruitwerebroughtin,over
whichasecondblessingwassaid.Althoughwinewasservedinthefirstpartofthebanquetaswell,itwasatthissecondstagethatthefruitofthevinewaschiefly
enjoyed.Thewinecupswerefilledfromthelargemixingbowls(Jer35:5)inwhichthewinehadbeendilutedwithwaterandperfumedwitharomaticherbs.Itwas
usual,also,toappointarulerofthefeast(Jn2:8RVcf.Sir32:1)toregulatethemannerandthequantityofthedrinking,andtoenforcepenaltiesinthecaseof
anybreachofetiquette.Musicanddancing(Lk15:25)andotherformsofentertainment,suchastheguessingofriddles(Jg14:12ff.),werefeaturesofthispartof
thebanquet.Forinstructionintheminormoralsofthedinnertable,JesusbenSirahasprovidedtheclassicalpassages,Sir31:1218,32:312,expandingthewise
counselofthecanonicalauthorofPr23:1f.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
MEARAH.MentionedamongstthedistrictsofPalestinethathadyettobepossessed(Jos13:4).Thetextisdoubtful.
MEASURES.SeeWEIGHTSANDMEASURES.
MEASURINGLINE,MEASURINGREED.SeeARTSANDCRAFTS,1,3.
MEAT.ThiswordisusedinAVforfoodingeneral,asitisinScotlandstill.Thus2Es12:51Ihadmymeatoftheherbscf.Hall,Worksi.806,Therewas
neveranymeat,excepttheforbiddenfruit,sodeareboughtasthisbrothofJacob.
MEATOFFERING.SeeS ACRIFICE,11.
MEBUNNAI.Thenamein2S23:27ofoneofDavidsthirtyheroes.ItisascribalerrorforSibbecai,theformwhichhasbeenpreservedintheparallellists,1
Ch11:29,27:11,andalso2S21:18=1Ch20:4.
MECHERATHITE.1Ch11:36,prob.forMaachathite.1MECONAH.SeeMEKONAH.
MEDABA(1Mac9:36)=Medeba(wh.see).
MEDAD.SeeELDAD.
MEDAN.OneofthesonsofAbrahamandKeturah(Gn25:2=1Ch1:32).Theexistenceofsuchatribe,however,isverydoubtful.InGn37:36Medanites45/102
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MEDAN.OneofthesonsofAbrahamandKeturah(Gn25:2=1Ch1:32).Theexistenceofsuchatribe,however,isverydoubtful.InGn37:36Medanites
ismiswrittenforMidianites
(seeRVm),andthereiseverylikelihoodthatintheformerpassageMedanisadoubletofMidian,thenextwordintheverse.Medanisunknownelsewherein
theBible,norisitrepresentedbythenameofanypeopleinanyextraBiblicaldocument.ToconnectitwiththenameofanArabiangodMadn,orwiththesimilar
nameofawadyinN.W.Arabia,isveryhazardous,bothbecausetheassociationsareremote,andbecausethewordformiscommoninSemitic,andisliableto
occurinvariousrelations.
J.F.MCURDY.
MEDEBA(Nu21:30,Jos13:9,16,1Ch19:7,Is15:2).AtownintheMishor,orplainE.ofJordan,anhourandahalfS.ofHeshbonontheRomanroad
fromHeshbontoKerak.ItwastakenfromMoabbySihonandthenconqueredbyIsrael(Nu21:2435)andassignedtoReuben(Jos13:916[v.9allthetableland
MedebatoDibonv.16allthetablelandtoMedeba]).TheSyrianswhocametoassistAmmon(1Ch19:615)pitchedatMedeba,whichwasapparentlythen
Ammonite.Later,MoabregainedMedeba,forOmri,accordingtotheMoabiteStone,1.8,tookMehedeba,andIsraelhelditfortyyears,tillMesharecovereditand
rebuiltthecitiesheldbyOmriandAhab.JoramandJehoshaphatmadeanunsuccessfulattempttoretakethesecities(2K3),butJeroboamII.droveoutthe
Moabites.MoabagainheldMedeba(Is15:2,andprobablyalsoJer48:2butseeMADMEN).InMaccabantimesitwasthestrongholdofarobberclan,Jambri,
whichkilledJohn,eldestsonofMattathias.Jonathanavengedthis(1Mac9:3642Jos.Ant.XIII.i.2,4).JohnHyrcanusbesiegedMedeba(Jos.Ant.XIII.ix.1).
AlexanderJannustookitfromtheArabians,andHyrcanusII.promisedtorestoreittoAretas(ib.XIII.xv.4,XIV.i.4).DuringtheByzantineperiodMedebawasa
flourishingChristiancentre,theseatofabishopric,andrepresentedattheCouncilofChalcedon.In1880acolonyofChristiansfromKeraksettledthere.Many
ancientremainshavecometolight,alargepoolwithsolidwalls,remainsofgates,towers,fourchurches,somefinemosaics,especiallyadeeplyinterestingand
importantmosaicmapofChristianPalestineandEgypt.
C.H.W.JOHNS.
MEDES,MEDIA.Apeopleandcountrycalledbythesameword,MadaiinHebrewandAssyrian.TheMedeswerethefirstoftheIranianimmigrantsto
formasettledgovernmentonthebordersoftheoldSemiticrealm.Asearlyasthe9thcent.B.C.theybegantooccupythemountainouscountrysouthandsoutheast
oftheCaspianSea,andbythemiddleofthe7thcent.theirterritoryextendedsouthwardtothebordersofElam.TheirchiefcitywasEcbatana,theAchmethaofEzr
6:2andthemodernHamadn.TheAssyriansopposedthem,andfinallysubduedthemunderTiglathpileserIII.andSargon,andthelatterdeported(B.C.721)some
ofthemascaptivestoSamaria(2K17:6,18:11).InthelateryearsoftheAssyrianempiretheyregainedtheirindependence,andundertheirking,Cyaxares,who
hadformedanalliancewiththerisingChaldanpower,theydestroyedthecityofNineveh(B.C.607),andtherewiththeAssyriandominionitself.Byagreement
withtheChaldans,whorestrictedthemselvestothelowlands,theyspeedilyoccupiedthenorthernhighlandsasfarasCappadocia.Meanwhilethesouthern
immigrationfromeasternIranhadsettledtotheeastofthePersianGulfandfoundedthePersiancommunity.ThesouthernportionofElamsoonfelltothem,but
theybecamevassalsoftheirMediankindred.UnderCyrustheGreat,Astyages,kingoftheMedes,yieldedhisthronetothePersians(B.C.550),whohenceforth
heldthehegemonyoftheIranianrace.
AmongtheSemiticpeoples,however,thenameoftheMedescontinuedlongtobemorefamiliarthanthatofthePersians,partlybyreasonoftheirgreater
antiquity,andpartlybecausetheMedesformedtheprincipalportionoftheIranianpopulation.HencethewordismorefrequentthanPersia,exceptinthelater
booksoftheOT.MadaiismentionedinGn10:2amongthesonsofJapheth,withnoallusiontothePersians.SotheMedesandnotthePersiansarementionedin
prophecyastheprospectivedestroyersofBabylon(Is13:17,21:2,Jer25:25,51:11cf.ELAM,p.211b).inAc2:9theMedesarevaguelymentioned,wherethe
referenceistoJewsorproselyteslivinginMediaandusingthelanguageofthecountry.Mediawasofgreatimportanceinthehistoryofreligion,sinceitwasthere,
probablyintheearlyyearsofthe7thcent.B.C.,thatZoroasterlivedandtaught.
J.F.MCURDY.
MEDIATOR,MEDIATION.Thewordmediator(Gr.mests)occursintheNT,onceofMosesasthemediatoroftheLaw(Gal3:19,20),intheother
instancesofChristastheonemediatorbetweenGodandman(1Ti2:5),andthemediatorofabetter(He8:5),ornew(9:15,12:24,inlatterpassagenewin
senseofrecent)covenant.TheverbalformoccursinHe
6:17[RVinterposed(Gr.mediated)withanoath].TheLXXhasthetermonceinJob9:33(EVdaysman).Buttheideaofmediation,thatis,ofGoddealingwith
man,ormanwithGod,notdirectlybutthroughtheinterpositionofanother,hasaleadingplacethroughoutScripture.Differentaspectsofmediation,however,need
tobedistinguished.AsregardsthefundamentalrelationofmantoGod,Jesus,intheNT,istheoneandsoleMediator.
1.Themostgeneralformofmediationisintercessoryprayer.Thisistheprivilegeofall(cf.
Ja5:16).WellknownScriptureexamplesaretheintercessionofAbrahamforSodom(Gn18:2333),ofMosesforIsrael(Ex32:3034),ofSamuelforIsrael(1S
7:812).Jeremiah(15:1)singlesoutMosesandSamuelasthechiefrepresentativesofthisformofprayer.Probablyanelementofintercessionentersintoall
effectivemediation.St.John(ch.17)preservesthegreatintercessoryprayerofJesusaftertheLastSupper,andintercessionisdeclaredtobeachiefexerciseof
Christsmediatorialfunctioninheaven(Ro8:34,He7:25,1Jn1:1).IntercessoryprayerisadutyoftheChristian(1Ti2:1,2),butalwaysandonlyinthenameof46/102
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Christsmediatorialfunctioninheaven(Ro8:34,He7:25,1Jn1:1).IntercessoryprayerisadutyoftheChristian(1Ti2:1,2),butalwaysandonlyinthenameof
Christ,whointhesamecontextisdeclaredtobetheonemediator(v.5).
2.Mediationhasapeculiarplaceintheformationofthegreatcovenants.ItisthesingularfactinconnexionwiththecovenantwithAbrahamofwhichSt.Paul
andtheEpistletotheHebrewsindifferentwaystakenotice,thatitinvolvednomediator(Gn12:13,15,17).Itwasacovenantofpromiseabsolutely(Gal3:15
18).ThisseemstobetheforceofSt.Paulspeculiarsaying,NowamediatorisnotamediatorofonebutGodisone(Gal3:20therewerenot,asinthecovenant
throughMoses,twocontractingpartiesthecovenantproceededsolelyfromGod,andwasunconditional).InHe6:1318thisiscarriedfurther.Godhimselftook
theplaceofMediatorinthiscovenant,and,becauseHecouldswearbynohigherthanHimself,interposed(mediated)withanoathinratificationofHispromise
(cf.Gn22:1518).ItisdifferentinthecovenantwithIsraelatSinai,whereMosesisthroughout(byGodsappointmentandthepeoplesowndesire,Ex19:1025,
20:1821)themediatorbetweenGodandthepeople(Gal3:19,pointofcontrastbetweenlawandpromise).Finally,mediationisthelawinthenewandbetter
covenant,asthepassagesinHebrewsdeclare.Thereasonisthatthisperfectandeternalcovenant,procuringforgivenessofsins,andremovingallbarrierstoaccess
toGod,couldbeformedonlyonthebasisofareconcilingsacrificeandthisJesusalone,theSonofGod,hadthequalificationtooffer.Itisnoticeable,therefore,
thatallthepassagesthatspeakofJesusasMediatordoitindirectconnexionwithHissacrificialdeath1Ti2:5onemediatorbetween
Godandmen,himselfman,ChristJesusconnectswithv.6whogavehimselfaransomforallHe9:15declares:Forthiscauseheisthemediatorofanew
covenant,thatadeathhavingtakenplacefortheredemptionofthetransgressionsthatwereunderthefirstcovenant(cf.Ro3:25)12:24,wheretocometoJesus
themediatorofanewcovenantistocometothebloodofsprinkling,thatspeakethbetterthanthatofAbelsoalso8:6(cf.thecontext,v.3).Itisthisfact,that
Jesushasmadetheperfectsacrificeforsin,coupledwithHisuniquedignity,asSonofGod,whichconstitutesHimtheMediatorsuigeneris.
3.Here,accordingly,isbroughttoconsummationthelastgreataspectofmediationintheOTthemediationofasacrificingpriesthood.Prophetsalsomight
becalledmediators,ascommissionedrevealersofthewillofGodtothepeoplebutmediationispeculiarlyconnectedwiththefunctionsofthepriest.Inearlier
timestheheadofthefamilywasthepriestaninterestingexampleofpatriarchalmediationisgivenintheBookofJob(1:5forhissonscf.42:79forhisfriends).
UndertheLawthepeoplecouldapproachGodonlythroughtheAaronicpriesthoodbutthemediatorialfunctionwaspeculiarlyvestedin,andexemplifiedby,the
highpriest.Tohimitpertained,ontheonehand,torepresentthepeoplebeforeGod(cf.theephodandbreastplate,withtheirpreciousstonesgravenwiththenames
ofthetwelvetribesofIsrael,Ex39:614),andtooffersacrificesfortheirsins(He2:17,8:3healonehadtherightofentryintotheHoliestofallonthegreatannual
DayofAtonement,He9:7)and,ontheother,torepresentGodtothepeople,indeclaringHiswillbytheUrimandThummim,andblessinginHisname(cf.Dt
10:8,33:8,prerogativesofthehighpriest).Thistwofoldaspectofthehighpriestlyfunction,astheEpistletotheHebrewsseekstoshow,isinaperfectandabiding
wayrealizedinChrist,whoisthustheonetrueMediator,ourgreathighpriest,whohathpassedthroughtheheavens(4:14).SeeATONEMENT,P ROPITIATION,
RECONCILIATION.
JAMESORR.
MEDICINE.PalestinewasprobablyacomparativelyhealthycountryinBibletimes,asitisnow.Itsnaturalfeaturesinmostlocalitieswouldprotectitfromthe
usualendemicdiseasesofOrientallands,anditswantofharbourswouldtoagreatextentpreventtheimportationofepidemics(contrastthereputationofEgypt,as
attestedbyDt7:15,28:50,Am4:10)moreover,thelegislationofthePriestlyCode,ifitwaseverobserved,wouldhaveoperatedtopreventthespreadofdisease,
andtheexistenceoffarreachingdestitution.Theseprovisions,andthecommonoccurrenceofexternalandinternalwarfare,mustalsohavetendedtoeliminate
overcrowdingasacauseofdiseasebuttheratioofpopulationtoareainancienttimesisverydifficulttoestimatethefiguresin1Ch21:5and2S4:9areclearly
untrustworthy.
1.Jewsbelievedinadefiniteconnexionbetweenhealthandvirtue(cf.Is58:8,Jer8:15,22).
Diseasewaspopularlyregardedaspenal(Jn9:2),andassentbyGodeitherdirectly(Ex4:11,Dt32:39)orpermissivelybymeansofothers(Job2:7,Mk9:17,25).
Itmightalsobecausedbyhumanenvy(Job5:2),orbybodilyexcess(Sir37:30,31),butevensoitsveracausawasGodsdirectauthorization.
UnderthesecircumstanceshealingwastreatedasatokenofDivineforgiveness(Ex15:26).Andtheconnexionofpriestwithphysicianwascorrespondingly
close.Onthewhole,themedicalknowledgeoftheBiblepeopleswasverydefectivenorarethereanytracesofmedicaleducationinPalestine.Jacobwas
embalmedbyEgyptianphysicians(Gn50:2),buttheremustprobablyhavebeensomeJewishpractitionersatthetimewhenEx21:19wascompiled.Thewordin
Jer8:22meansabandager.Thewriterof2Ch16:12seemstotaketheextremeviewthatitwasasintoconsultphysicians,butsanerideasarerepresentedinSir
38:2.Still,itmaybedoubtedwhethermedicaldutieswerenotusuallyperformedbypriests(asinearlyEgypt),atanyrateintheearlierOTtimescertainlythe
priestshadthesupervisioninthecaseofcertaindiseases,e.g.leprosyandprophetsalsowereappliedtoformedicaladvice(cf.1K14:2,17:18,2K4:22,20:7).
AndeveninSir38:14thephysicianisregardedashavingcertainpriestlyduties,andtheconnexionbetweenreligionandmedicineisseeninthecounsel,givenin
thatsamechapter,thatrepentanceandanofferingshallprecedethevisitofthephysician.IntheNTwehaveSt.Lukedescribedasaphysician(Col4:14),anda
somewhatdepreciatoryremarkonphysiciansinMt5:26,which,however,ismuchtoneddowninLk8:43.
Itisthereforeprobablethatuptilllatetimesmedicinewasinthechargeofthepriests,whoseknowledgemusthavebeenlargelytraditionalandempirical.The
sacrificialritualwouldgivethemsomeknowledgeofanimalmorphology,buthumananatomycanscarcelyhaveexistedasascienceatall,sinceuptoaboutA.D.
100theceremonialobjectionstotouchingordissectingthedeadprevailed.ThusBiblereferencestofactsofanatomyandphysiologyareveryfewinnumber.
Bloodwastabooedasfood(Gn9:4,Lv17:11)ahighlyimportantsanitaryprecaution,consideringthefacilitywithwhichbloodcarriesmicrobesandparasites.A
rudimentaryembryologycanbetracedinJob10:10,Ps139:15,16(cf.Ec11:5).ButmostofthephysiologicaltheoriesadvertedtointheBibleareexpressedin 47/102
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rudimentaryembryologycanbetracedinJob10:10,Ps139:15,16(cf.Ec11:5).ButmostofthephysiologicaltheoriesadvertedtointheBibleareexpressedin
languageofpoetryandmetaphor.Onthewhole,however,wemayinferthattheJews(likeotherancientpeoples)regardedtheheartastheseatofmentalandmoral
activity(exceptionstothisviewareDn2:28,4:5,7:1),thereinsorkidneysastheseatsofimpulse,affection,conscience(Jer11:20,12:2,Ps7:9),thebowelsasthe
organsofsympathy(Ps40:8,Job30:27).ProverbsaboutphysiciansseemtobealludedtoinMt9:12,Lk4:23,Sir38:1.Exceptinthecaseofcertaindiseases,
visitationofthesickisenjoinedintheTalmud(thoughnotintheOT),andenforcedbyChristinMt25:36.2.Generaltermsfordisease.Thewordssick,
sickness,sicknesses,disease,diseased,diseases,areofthemostfrequentoccurrence,thoughtheyarenotalwaysusedasthetr.ofthesamewordsinthe
original.Sometimesthetermisqualified,e.g.sicknessuntodeath(Is38:1),soresickness(1K17:17),evildisease(Ps41:8),incurabledisease(2Ch21:18).
WealsohaveinfirmitythreetimesintheOT,inLv12:2meaningperiodicsickness,inPs77:10asweaknessfromsickness,inPr18:14asweaknessgenerally.
Thetermplagueissometimesusedofaspecificepidemic,atothertimesofsicknessingeneral.Therearealsovariousfigurativeexpressionsfordisease,andin
someplacesitisdescribedasinflictedbytheangelofGod,e.g.2S24:16.IntheNT,again,variousGr.wordsaretranslatedbysickness,disease,infirmitythe
allusionin1Co11:30maybetomentalweakness,andinRo15:1toweaknessofconscience.
Somediseases,e.g.leprosy,wereregardedasunclean,andthosesufferingfromthemwereexcludedfromcities.Butingeneralthesickweretreatedathome.As
tothetreatmentweknowverylittle.Itispossiblethatinearliertimesbleedingwasnotresortedtobecauseofthetabooonblood,thoughinlatertimestheJews
followedtheuniversalpractice.Pr30:15hasbeensupposedtoshowaknowledgeofthemedicinaluseofleechesbutthisinferencecanbynomeansbedrawnwith
anycertaintyfromthecontext.
3.Specificdiseases.AsaruletheBiblereferencestospecificdiseasesaregeneralandvagueandevenwherewefindconcretementionofparticularailments,
itisnotalwayseasytodecidewhattheexactnatureofthemaladieswas.Insomecasesthesymptomsaregiven,thoughsometimesveryindefinitely.
InDt28:22agroupoftermsisusedfordiseaseswhichappeartoresembleeachotherinthefactthattheyaresudden,severe,epidemic,andfatal.Thefirstis
calledconsumption.Thismaybephthisis,butmoreprobableitmeansakindofwastingfever,characterizedbyweaknessandanmia,oftenoflongduration,and
perhapsnotunlikeMediterraneanorMaltafever.ThesamewordisusedinLv26:16.TheconsumptionmentionedinIs10:22,28:22AVdoesnotappeartobea
specificdiseaseatall.ThisisfollowedinDeut.byfeverthesamewordinLv26:16isrenderedburningaguebytheAV,andtheLXXtranslatesitbytheGreek
wordforjaundice.ItssymptomsaregiveninthepassageofLv.itmaybeasortofmalarialfeverwhichoccursincertainpartsofPalestine,andisoccasionally
accompaniedbyjaundice.ThismaybethediseasealludedtoinJn4:26andLk4:38,bothinstancesatCapernaum.Thencomesinflammation(Dt28:22EV,LXX
ague).Thismaybeague,oreventyphoid,whichiscommoninPalestine.Nextwehaveextremeburning(Dt28:22AV,RVfieryheat,LXXirritation)either
someunspecifiedkindofirritatingdisease,orerysipelasbutthislatterdiseaseisnotoffrequentoccurrenceinPalestine.Thesword(Dt28:22AV,RVdrought)
maybeaformofdisease,ormoreprobably,likethenexttwowords,mayrefertoadestructionoftheearthsfruits.ThesamewordswordinZec11:17seems,
fromthesymptomsdescribed,torefertoawastingparalysis.ThedescriptionsgiveninPs39:11,Zec14:12,Lv26:39,Ezk24:23,33:10,Ps38:5arelargely
figurativebuttheimagerymaybetakenfromanattackofconfluentsmallpox,withitsdisfiguringandrepulsiveeffects.Itseemshighlyprobablethatsmallpoxwas
adiseaseofantiquityperhapsthesixthplagueofEgyptwasofthischaracter.
AllusionstopestilenceorplagueareexceedinglycommonintheOT.ThusatleastfouroutbreakstookplaceamongtheIsraelitesduringtheirwanderingsinthe
wilderness,viz.Nu11:33(ithasbeensuggestedthatthequailsherementionedmayhavecomefromaplaguestrickendistrict)14:37,16:46,25:9(inthislastcaseit
mayhavebeencommunicatedbytheMoabites).Forotherreferencestoplague,cf.2S24:15,2Ch21:14,Ps91:3,6,Jer21:9,42:17,perhaps2K19:35.The
bubonicplaguewastheperiodicscourgeofBiblelands.Ithasbutashortperiodofincubation,spreadsrapidlyandgenerally,andisveryfatal,deathensuingina
largeproportionofcases,andnearlyalwayswithinthreedays.NoprecautionsagainstitareprescribedintheLeviticalCode,becauseitwasregardedasaspecial
visitationofGod.AstheplagueisnotendemicinPalestine,theJewsprobablyincurreditbymixingwiththeirneighbours.Theemerodsof1S5:6weretumoursof
adefiniteshape,andmaythereforebethebuboesoftheplague.Thetumoursappearedsomewhereinthelowerpartoftheabdomen.Somehavesupposedthemto
behmorrhoids,bycomparisonwiththephraseinPs78:66,butthisisdoubtful.ThesamewordoccursinDt28:27.
Ofdiseasesinthedigestiveorgansthecasein2Ch21:19isoneofchronicdysenteryinitsworstform.ThatinAc28:8(AVbloodyflux)isalsodysentery,
whichisveryprevalentinMalta.Thementionofhmorrhageinthiscaseshowsthatitwasoftheulcerativeorgangrenoustype,whichisverydangerous.
TheresultsofintemperancearementionedinPr23:29ff.,Is19:14.
Theliver.TheHebrewphysiciansregardedmanydisordersasduetoanalterationinthebile(cf.Job16:15,Pr7:23,La2:11).Thedisordersalludedtoin1Ti
5:23wereprobablysomekindofdyspepsia,apparentlyproducinglackofenergy(cf.1Ti4:1316)thesymptomsareoftentemporarilyrelievedbytheuseof
alcohol.InPs69:3allusionismadetothedrynessofthroatproducedbymentalemotionsofaloweringcharacterandinIs16:11,Jer4:10totheflatulentdistension
ofthecolonduetothesamecause.
Heart.Therearefewreferencestophysicaldiseasesaffectingit.Pr14:30maybeone.CasesofsyncopeseemtoberecordedinGn45:26,1S4:18,28:20,Dn
8:27.TheallusionstoabrokenheartinScripturearealwaysmetaphorical,butthetheorythatourLordsdeathwasduetoruptureoftheheartdeservesmention.
Paralysisorpalsy.Thisisadiseaseofthecentralnervoussystem,whichcomesonrapidlyasarule,anddisappearsslowly,ifatall.Suchcasesarementioned
intheNT,e.g.Mt4:24,Lk4:18,perhapsAc9:33.ThecaseinMt8:6mayhavebeenoneofacutespinalmeningitis,orsomeotherformofespeciallypainful
paralysis.InthecaseofthewitheredhandofMt12:10,Mk3:1,Lk6:8acompleteatrophyofthebonesandmuscleswasprobablythecause.ThecaseinAc3:2
waspossiblyofthesamenature.SuchcasesareprobablyintendedalsoinJn5:3.ThemaninJn5:7canhardlyhavebeensufferingfromlocomotorataxia,ashe
couldmovehimself,andhisdiseasehadlasted38years.Thereforethisalsowas,inalllikelihood,acaseofwitheredlimbs.Thesuddenattackmentionedin1K 48/102
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couldmovehimself,andhisdiseasehadlasted38years.Thereforethisalsowas,inalllikelihood,acaseofwitheredlimbs.Thesuddenattackmentionedin1K
13:4wasprobablyduetosuddenhmorrhageaffectingsomepartofthebrain,whichmayundercertaincircumstancesbeonlytemporary.
Apoplexy.Atypicalseizureisdescribedin1S25:37,duetohmorrhageinthebrainproducedbyexcitement,supervening,inthisparticularinstance,ona
drinkingbout(cf.also1Mac9:55).Thesamesortofseizuremaybereferredtoin2S6:7,Ac5:610.
TranceismentionedinGn2:21,15:12.Butthecasesin1S26:12,Jg4:21,Mt8:24wereprobablyofsleepduetofatigue.PropheticfrenzyisalludedtoinNu
24:3,4,2K9:11(cf.Is8:18).Saulisaninterestingpsychicalstudy:amanofweakjudgment,violentpassions,andgreatsusceptibility,eventuallysuccumbingto
whatseemtoberecurringparoxysmsofmania,ratherthanachronicmelancholia.AnotuncommontypeofmonomaniaseemstobedescribedinDn4(the
lycanthropyofNebuchadnezzar).IntheNTvariousnervousaffectionsareprobablyincludedamongtheinstancesofdemoniacpossession,e.g.Lk11:14,Mt
12:22.InLk1:22,Ac9:7areapparentlymentionedcasesoftemporaryaphasiaduetosuddenemotion.(Cf.alsoDn10:15.)
Deafnessanddumbness.ManyoftheNTcasesofpossessionbydumbspiritswereprobablyduetosomekindofinsanityornervousdisease,e.g.Mt9:32,Mk
9:25.InMk7:32stammeringisjoinedtodeafness.Is28:11and32:4(cf.33:19)probablyrefertounintelligibleratherthandefectivespeech.Mosesslownessof
speechandtongue(cf.Ex4:10)wasprobablyonlylackoforatoricalfluency.PatiencewiththedeafisrecommendedinLv19:14.
Epilepsy.ThecaseinMt17:15,Mk9:18,Lk9:38isofgenuineepilepticfitstheusualsymptomsaregraphicallydescribed.Likemanyepileptics,thepatient
hadbeensubjecttothefitsfromchildhood.ThepiningawaymentionedintheMarkanaccountischaracteristicofaformofthediseaseinwhichthefitsrecur
frequentlyandcauseprogressiveexhaustion.ThewordusedinMt.todescribetheattackmeansliterallytobemoonstruckthesamewordisfoundinMt
4:24,andanallusiontomoonstrokeoccursinPs121:6.Itwasaverygeneralbeliefthatepilepsywasinsomewayconnectedwiththephasesofthemoon.Sucha
theoryisputforwardbyVicary,thephysicianofHenryVIII.,atsolateadateas1577.
Sunstroke.ThisismentionedinPs121:6,Is49:10,andcasesofapparentlygenuinesiriasisaredescribedin2K4:10andJth8:2.Thisseizureisveryrapidand
painful,accompaniedbyagreatriseintemperature,passingspeedilyintocoma,andresultingasaruleindeathwithinaveryshortspaceoftime.Thecureeffected
in2K4wasplainlymiraculous.Heatsyncope,ratherthansunstroke,seemstohavebeentheseizureinJonahscase(Jon4:8).Hefaintedfromtheheat,andon
recoverywasconsciousofasevereheadacheandafeelingofintenseprostration.
DropsyiscommoninJerusalem.ThecureofacaseofdropsyisrecordedinLk14:2.
PulmonarydiseaseassuchfindsnomentioninScripture.Thephraseusedin1K17:17,therewasnobreathleftinhim,ismerelytheordinarywayofstating
thathedied.
Gout.ThisdiseaseisveryuncommonamongthepeopleofPalestineanditisnot,asarule,fatal.ThediseaseinhisfeetfromwhichAsasuffered(1K15:23,2
Ch16:12)hasusuallybeensupposedtobegout,thoughoneauthoritysuggeststhatitwasarticularleprosy,andanotherthatitwassenilegangrene.Thepassages
quotedgiveusnocluetothenatureofthediseaseinquestion,nordotheystatethatitcausedhisdeath.JosephusdescribesAsaasdyinghappilyinagoodoldage.
TheOTrecordsremarkonlythathesufferedfromadiseaseinthefeet,whichbeganwhenhewasadvancedinyears.
Undertheheadingsurgicaldiseasesmaybeclassedthespiritofinfirmity,affectingthewomanmentionedinLk13:11,13,who,thoughshecouldattendthe
synagoguemeetings,wasbowedtogetherandunabletoliftherself.Thiswasprobablyacaseofsenilekyphosis,suchasnotinfrequentlyoccurswithagedwomen,
andsometimeswithmen,whohavespenttheirlivesinagriculturalorhorticulturallabour,whichnecessitatesconstantcurvatureofthebody.
Crookbackedness(Lv21:20)disqualifiedamanforthepriesthood.Thisdiseaseisonewhichcanoccurinyouth,andisduetocariesofthevertebr.The
collectionsofbonesfoundinEgyptjustifytheinferencethatsuchcurvaturesmusthavebeenfairlycommoninEgypt.
Fractureoftheskull.AcaseisrecordedinJg9:53,whereinsensibilitydidnotimmediatelysupervene,showingtheabsenceofcompressionofthebrain.InAc
20:9fatalcompressionandprobablyabrokenneckwerecausedbytheaccident.Thefallin2K1:2wasthecauseofAhaziahsultimatedeath.
Lameness.Mephiboshethslamenesswasduetoanaccidentininfancy(2S4:4),whichapparentlyproducedsomesortofbonedisease,necessitatingconstant
dressing,unlessthephrasein2S19:24refersmerelytowashing.Lamenesswasadisqualificationforthepriesthood(Lv21:18)Christhealedmanylamepeoplein
theTemple(Mt21:14)aswellaselsewhere.Jacobslameness(Gn32:31)mayalsobementioned.
Congenitalmalformations.Cf.2S21:20,1Ch20:6.Thepossessionofsuperfluouspartswasheldtodisqualifyamanforthepriesthood(Lv21:18),asdid
alsodwarfishness(Lv21:20),unlessthereferencethereistoemaciationfromdisease.ThewordinLv21:18,whichistranslatedthathathaflatnose,mayreferto
thedeformityofaharelip.
SkindiseasesareofcommonoccurrenceintheEast.Themostimportantofthemwasleprosy(wh.see).Buttherearemanyminordiseasesoftheskin
recognizedinBibleenactmentsundervariousterms.
Baldness(Lv13:4043)wasnotlookeduponascausingceremonialuncleanness,norapparentlywasitcommonitseemstohavebeenregardednotasasign
ofoldage,butastheresultofalifespentinexcessivelabourwithexposuretothesun(cf.Ezk29:18),andsoinIs3:24itisthreatenedasamarkofdegradationand
servitude.
Itch(Dt28:27)isprobablytheparasiticdiseaseduetoasmallmitewhichburrowsundertheskin,and,ifneglected,sometimesspreadsalloverthebodythis
diseaseisveryeasilycommunicated,andisnotuncommoninSyriaatthepresenttime.Itwasadisqualificationforthepriesthood(Lv21:20).
Scab(Dt28:27)orscurvy(Lv21:20)isakindreddiseaseinwhichacrustformsontheskinitismostcommononthehead,butsometimesspreadsalloverthe
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Scab(Dt28:27)orscurvy(Lv21:20)isakindreddiseaseinwhichacrustformsontheskinitismostcommononthehead,butsometimesspreadsalloverthe
body,andismostdifficulttocure.ScabinLv21:20isthetr.ofadifferentword,butisprobablyanotherformofthesamedisease(cf.Is3:17).
Scallorscurfoftheheadandbeard(Lv13:30)isanotherparasiticdiseaseofsimilarnature.
Freckledspot(Lv13:39,RVtetter)maybepsoriasis,anoncontagionseruption.
ThebotchofEgypt(Dt28:27,35).ThesamewordisusedinJob2:7,Ex9:9,2K20:7,Is38:21.Itisprobablyageneraltermforaswellingoftheskin.InEx
9:10blains,perhapspustulescontainingfluid,arestatedtohaveaccompaniedtheboils.ThediseaseinDt28:35affectedespeciallythekneesandlegs.Jobs
diseaseappearstohavebeenoneofitchingsoresorspotsalloverthebody,whichdisfiguredhisface(2:11),causedgreatpainandafeelingofburning(6:4),
madehisbreathfetid(19:17),andwereinfestedwithmaggots(7:5).Variousnamesfortheexactnatureofthediseasehavebeensuggested,suchaselephantiasis,
leprosy,smallpox,etc.Someauthorities,however,supposethesymptomstoagreebetterwiththoseortheBiskrabuttonorOrientalsore,sometimescalled
AlepposoreorBaghdadsore,whichbeginswithpapularspots,whichulcerate,becomecrustedover,areslowingranulation,andoftenmultiple.Thiscomplaint
isprobablyduetoaparasite.Lazarussores(Lk16:20)wereprobablyoldvaricoseulcersoftheleg.
Spot(Dt32:5,Job11:15,Ca4:7)andblemish(Lv21:17,Dn1:4)seemtobegeneraltermsforskindisease.Wen(Lv22:22)meansasuppuratingsore.
ThebloodysweatofourLord(Lk22:44)isdifficulttoexplain.SomeregardthepassageasmeaningmerelythatHissweatdropped,asblooddropsfroma
wound.Instancesofbloodysweathavebeenquotedincomparison,butitseemsthatnoneissatisfactorilyauthenticated.
PoisonousserpentsarementionedinNu21:6(wheretheyaremiraculouslycuredbytheerectionofabrassmodelofaserpent),Dt32:33,Job20:14,15,Is
11:8,14:29,30:8,59:5,Jer8:17,Mt3:7(metaphorically,asalsoinMt12:34,23:33,Lk3:7),Mk16:18,Lk10:19,Ac28:3.Thereareseveralpoisonousserpentsin
thedesertoftheExodusnarrative,whosebitesareoftenfatalbutithasbeensuggestedthatthefieryserpentsofNu21:6werereallytheparasiticwormscalled
guineaworms,whicharenotuncommoninthedesertregion.ScorpionbitesarecommonandoftenfataltochildreninEgypt,butnotinPalestine.
Worms(Ac12:23)isthedescriptionofthediseaseofwhichHeroddied.Oneauthoritysuggeststhatitwasacuteperitonitissetupbytheperforationofthe
bowelbyanintestinalworm.JosephusstatesthatHerodsufferedfromaviolentabdominalpainwhichinafewdaysprovedfatal.Thusitcannothavebeenacaseof
phthiriasis.ThedeathofAntiochusEpiphanes(2Mac9:59)isdescribedasprecededbyaviolentpainofthebowelsthenhewasinjuredbyaviolentfall,and
wormsroseupoutofhisbodyinallprobabilityacaseofcompoundfractures,inwhichblowflieslaidtheireggsandmaggotshatched,owingtoneglectofthe
injuries.
ThethirdplagueofEgypt(Ex8:16)iscalledoneoflice,butthemarginoftheRVsuggestssandfliesorfleas.Itispossiblethattheyweremosquitoesor
sandfleas,thelatterofwhichgenerateinthedust.
Dischargesorissuesofacertainnaturecausedceremonialimpuritycf.Lv15:225.Someofthesewerenatural(Dt23:10),othersprobablyweretheresultof
impurepractices,butitisdoubtfulhowmuchtheancientsknewofthephysicalconsequencesofvice.Cf.,however,Ps107:17,18,Pr2:18,5:1122,7:23,26.
BlindnessisexceedinglycommonamongthenativesofPalestinethewordsdescribingthisafflictionareoffrequentoccurrenceintheBible,sometimesinthe
literal,sometimesinthemetaphorical,sense.Apparentlyonlytwoformsofblindnesswererecognized:(1)thatwhicharosefromtheophthalmiasoprevalentin
Orientallands,ahighlyinfectiousdisease,aggravatedbysand,sunglare,anddirt,whichdamagestheorgans,andoftenrendersthemquiteuseless(2)thatdueto
oldage,asinthecaseofEli(1S3:2),Ahijah(1K14:4),Isaac(Gn27:1).Cf.alsoDt34:7.BlindnesswasbelievedtobeavisitationfromGod(Ex4:11),it
disqualifiedamanforthepriesthood(Lv21:18)butcompassionfortheblindwasprescribed(Lv19:14),andoffencesagainstthemwereaccursed(Dt27:18).Leah
probablysufferedfromaminorformofophthalmia(Gn29:17).InLv26:16weseeophthalmiaaccompanyingmalarialfever.TheblindingofElymasinAc13:11
mayhavebeenhypnotic,asalsopossiblytheblindingoftheSyriansoldiersin2K6:18.
ThecasesofblindnesswhichwerecuredbyourLordareusuallygivenwithoutspecialcharacterizationthetwoofmostinterestarethatofthemanbornblind
(Jn9:1),andthatofthemanwhoserecoverywasgradual(Mk8:22).Inthelattercasewedonotknowwhetherthemanwasblindfrombirthornotifhewas,the
stageinwhichhesawmenastreeswalkingwouldbethatinwhichhehadnotyetaccustomedhimselftointerpretandunderstandvisualappearances.OurLords
curesasdescribedwereallmiraculous,inthesensethattheinfluenceofauniquepersonalitymustbepostulatedinordertoexplainthecurebutHeusedvarious
methodstoeffectorsymbolizethecureinvariouscases.
St.Paulsblindness(Ac9:8)wasprobablyatemporaryamaurosis,suchasmaybecausedbylookingatthesun.Thescales(Ac9:18)neednotnecessarily
havebeenmaterialthewordssuggestameresimile.Oneofthetheoriesastohisthorninthefleshisthatitwasapermanentweaknessofeyeremainingafter
hisexperience(cf.Gal4:15).Butotherexplanationshavebeensuggested.TheblindnessofTobitanditscuremayalsobementioned(To2:10,11:11)theremedy
thereadoptedhasaparallelinPliny(HNxxxii.24).EyesalveisrecommendedinRev3:18,butthecontextismetaphorical.
Oldage.UnderthisheadingshouldbementionedthefamouspassageinEc12,wherethefailureofpowersconsequentongrowingyearsisdescribedin
languageofpoeticimagery.
Childbirth.ThespecialcasesofchildbearingwhicharementionedintheBiblearemostlyquotedtoillustratethesorrowofconception,whichwasregarded
asthepenaltyofEvestransgression(Gn3:16).Therearetwocasesoftwins,thatofEsauandJacob(Gn25:22),andthatofPerezandZerah(Gn38:29ff.).The
latterwasacaseofspontaneousevolutionwithperineallaceration,probablyfataltothemother.Rachelscase(Gn35:18)wasoneoffataldystocia,andthephrase
inGn31:35mayhintatsomelongstandingdelicacy.Phinehaswife(1S4:19)wastakeninprematurelabour,causedbyshock,andprovingfatal.Sarah(Gn21:2)
,
Manoahswife(Jg13:24),Hannah(1S1:20),theShunammitewoman(2K4:17),andElisabeth(Lk1:67)areinstancesofuniparatalateperiod.Barrennesswas
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Manoahswife(Jg13:24),Hannah(1S1:20),theShunammitewoman(2K4:17),andElisabeth(Lk1:67)areinstancesofuniparatalateperiod.Barrennesswas
regardedasaDivinejudgment(Gn20:18,30:2),andtheforkedrootofthemandrakewasusedasacharmagainstit(Gn30:10)fertilitywascorrespondingly
regardedasaproofofDivinefavour(1S2:5,Ps113:9),andmiscarriageisinvokedasatokenofGodsdispleasureinHos9:14.Theattendantsatbirthwere
women(Gn35:17,Ex1:15,midwives).Themotherwasplacedinakneelingposture,leaningonsomebodysknees(Gn30:3),oronalabourstool,ifsuchbethe
meaningofthedifficultpassageinEx1:10.Afterchildbirththemotherwasuncleanfor7daysinthecaseofamale,for14daysinthecaseofafemale,child.
Afterthisshecontinuedinastateofmodifieduncleannessfor33or66days,accordingasthechildwasboyorgirl,duringwhichperiodshewasnotallowedto
entertheTemple.Thereasonforthedifferentlengthsofthetwoperiodswasthatthelochiawassupposedtolastlongerinthecaseofafemalechild.Nursing
continuedfor2or3years(2Mac7:27),andin1K11:20achildistakenbyarelativetowean.
ThelegislationforthemenstrualperiodandformenorrhagiaisgiveninLv15:19ff.Arigidpurificationwasprescribed,includingeverythingwhichthe
womanhadtouched,andeverybodywhotouchedheroranyofthosethings(seeCLEANANDUNCLEAN).Menorrhagia(EVissueofblood)wasconsidered
peculiarlyimpossibleoftreatment(Mt9:20,Mk5:26,Lk8:43),andmagicalmeanswereresortedtoforitscure.InEzk16:4Isadescriptionofaninfantwith
undividedumbilicalcord,neitherwashednordressed.TheskinofInfantswasusuallydressedwithsalttomakeitfirm.Themetaphoricaluseoftermsderivedfrom
childlabourisexceedinglycommonintheBible.
InfantilediseasesseemtohavebeenverysevereinPalestineinBibletimes,asatthepresentday.Wehearofsickchildrenin2S12:15,1K17:17,andChrist
healedmanychildren.AmongcasesofunspecifieddiseasesmaybementionedthoseofAbijah(1K14:1),Benhadad(2K8:7),Elisha(2K13:14),Joash(2Ch
24:25),Lazarus(Jn11:1),Dorcas(Ac9:37),Epaphroditus(Ph2:27),Trophimus(2Ti4:20).
4.Methodsoftreatment.TheBiblegivesusveryfewreferencesonthispoint.Wehearofwashing(2K5:10)dietperhaps(Lk8:55)theapplicationofsaliva
(Jn9:6)unction(Ja5:14)thebindingofwoundsandtheapplicationofsoothingointment(Is1:5)theuseofoilandwineforwounds(Lk10:34)aplasteroffigs
foraboil(Is38:21)animalheatbycontact(1K1:2,17:21,2K4:34).
BalmofGileadorbalmismentionedinGn37:25,43:11,Jer8:22,46:11,51:8,Ezk27:17.Itappearstoberegardedasasedativeapplication,andwas
probablyanaromaticgumorspice
(seeart.BALM).
Mandrakes(Mandragoraofficinalis)wereusedasastimulanttoconception(Gn30:16),andthefruitasamedicine.Mint(Menthasilvestris),anise(Anethum
graveolens),cummin(Cuminumsativum)wereusedascarminativessaltforhardeningtheskin,nitre(Jer2:22)tocleanseit.Thecaperberry(Capparisspinosa)
ismentionedinEc12:5itwasregardedasanaphrodisiac.ThewineofferedtoChristatHiscrucifixionwasprobablyintendedasanarcotic(Mt27:34,48,Mk
15:23,36,Lk23:3b,Jn19:29).MostoftheremediesweredietaryintheJewishasintheEgyptianpharmacopia,e.g.meal,milk,vinegar,wine,water,almonds,
figs,raisins,pomegranates,honey,etc.
WehaveamentionofamuletsinIs3:20andperhapsGn35:4.TheapothecarysartismentionedinEx30:2535,37:29,Ec10:1,2Ch16:14,Neh3:8,Sir
38:8,49:1.Butinallthesepassagesthereferenceistomakersofperfumesratherthancompoundersofmedicines.Itisprobablethatmedicineswerecompounded
bythosewhoprescribedthem.
Hygienicenactmentsdealingwithfood,sanitation,andinfectiousdiseasesarecommonintheLeviticalCode.Withregardtofood,herbivorousruminant
animalswerepermittedtobeeatenalltruefishesalsowereallowedbutbirdswhichlivedonanimalfoodwereforbidden,andallinvertebratesexceptlocusts.The
fatandthebloodofanimalswereprohibitedasfood,andregulationsweregivenfortheinspectionofanimalsslaughteredforeating.Theorigin,however,ofmany
oftheseregulationsprobablyliesinprimitivetaboolaws(seeCLEANANDUNCLEAN).Fruitscouldnotbeusedforfooduntilthetreehadbeenplantedforfouryears
(Lv19:2325).TheprovisionsrepeatedinEx12:19,13:7,Dt16:3fortheperiodicdestructionofleaven,whatevertheirhistoricalorigin,musthavebeenofservice
forthemaintenanceofpurebreadstuffs.
Theagriculturalsanitarylawsaredirectedchieflytoprohibitthemixingofdifferentspecies,
e.g.thesowingofdifferentseedsinafieldatthesametime,thecrossgraftingoffruittrees,thecrossbreedingoryokingtogetherofdissimilarcattle.Andperiodic
restformanandbeastwasprescribed.Nomixtureoflinenandwoollenmaterialsingarmentswaspermitted(Lv19:19,Dt22:11),assuchgarmentscannotbeso
easilyorthoroughlycleansedasthoseofonematerial.Therewerealsovariousregulationsastodomesticsanitationthusthecoveringwithearthofexcretaandof
bloodwasorderedpossiblythefiresoftheValleyofHinnomwereintendedtoconsumetheoffalofthecity.Housesweretobebuiltwithparapetstoprevent
accident(Dt22:8).IsolationinsuspectedcasesofInfectiousdiseasewasprescribed(Lv13:4),andthewashingofbodyandclothes(Nu19:11)wasobligatoryon
thosewhohadtoucheduncleanthings.
Uncleannesswasinmanycasesmerelyceremonialinnature.Buttheregulationsmustoftenhaveservedtodiminishthechancesofpropagatingrealinfection.
VariousgradesofuncleannessarerecognizedintheTalmud,anddifferentperiodsoflustrationandisolationwereordained,inaccordancewiththedifferentgrade
ofuncleannesscontracted.
5.Surgicalinstruments.Aflintknifewasusedforcircumcision(Jos5:8),butinlatertimessteelkniveswereemployed.Anawlforboringtheearismentioned
inEx21:8.
Themostimportantsurgicaloperationwastheperformanceofcircumcision.Itsoriginalideamayhavebeenthatofimposingatribalmarkontheinfant(unless
itwasatfirstperformedinearlymanhoodandsubsequentlytransferredtothetimeofinfancy)butitcametoberegardedasanoperationofpurification.The
exclusionofeunuchsfromtheserviceofGod(Dt23:1)mayhavebeenduetothedreadofimportingheathenritesintoIsrael.Buttheywereimportantofficialsin51/102
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exclusionofeunuchsfromtheserviceofGod(Dt23:1)mayhavebeenduetothedreadofimportingheathenritesintoIsrael.Buttheywereimportantofficialsin
thetimeofthekingdom,asinOrientalcourtsgenerally(1K22:9,2K8:6,9:32,24:16,Jer29:2,34:19,38:7,41:16),andtherewereeunucbsatthecourtofthe
Herods,aselsewhere(cf.Ac8:27).ThepassageinIs56:4impliesthateunuchswerethenundernospecialreligiousdisabilitycf.alsoourLordsreferenceinMt
19:12.
Ofcoursewemustadmitthatinmanycasestheuseofremedies,thesanitarylaws,theprescriptionsastofood,theregulationsastouncleanness,andsoforth,
didnotnecessarilyoriginateinanytheoryastotheirvalueforthepreservationofpublichealth.Primitivetaboocustoms,folklore,magic,superstition,arenodoubt
responsiblefortheexistenceofmuchthathasbeenhereplacedundertheheadingofmedicine.Anditisquitelikely,too,thatuptoalateperiodthepopularJewish
viewofthemajorityoftheserulesandcustomswasenlightenedbynoveryclearconceptionoftheirhygienicvalue.Themoreeducatedmindsofthenationmay
possiblyintimehavecometoseethatenactmentswhichhadoriginatedincrudeormistakennotionsofreligionmightyetbepreserved,andvaluedasimportant
precautionsforthepreventionofdiseaseanditscure.Butitmaybedoubtedwhether,eveninlatetimes,thevulgaropinionaboutthemwasatallscientific.Atthe
sametime,itisnecessarytorecognizethatmanyofthelaws,begotten,perhaps,ofprimitivesuperstition,didneverthelessserveamedicalpurpose,andsomay
withoutuntruthfulnessbeincludedinatreatmentofBiblemedicine.
A.W.F.BLUNT.
MEEDDA(1Es5:32)=Mehida,Ezr2:52,Neh7:54.
MEEKNESS.Intheearlierliteratureofrevelationmeeknessissimplyanexcellentvirtue.Mosesisdescribedasverymeek,aboveallthemenwhichwere
uponthefaceoftheearth(Nu12:3),andhischaracterillustratestheHebrewidealofmeeknessinthosedays.Therewasnoweaknessorcowardiceabouthim.He
wasastill,strongman,patientandpitiful.Subsequentlythewordacquiredapeculiarsignificance.InthedaysofIsraelsconflictthemenofprideandviolence
cametothefront,whilethegodlywerethrustintothebackground,contemnedandoppressed(cf.Ps10:2,810).Thusrichandwickedcametobesynonymous
(Is53:9)andcorrespondingtothesetherewasagroupofterms:meek,humble(orlowly),poor,needy.InourLordstimethesetermsdenotedthegodly
remnantinIsrael,thosewho,despisedbytherulers,liveddevoutlivesinobscurecorners,nourishingtheirfaithontheScriptures,andwaitingfortheconsolation
ofIsrael(Lk2:25,38),theblessedAdventoftheMessiah.And,justasthePsalmistsandProphetshadsympathizedwiththeLordshiddenonesandpromised
themdeliverance(Ps9:12,18,10:1218,37:11[cf.Mt5:5]72:2,4,Is11:4),soJesuswastheirchampion.Hecalledthemblessed(Mt5:312),andHetookHis
placebytheirside,Himselfmeekandlowly(Mt11:29),thehomelessSonofMan,despisedandrejectedofmen.Hesharedtheirhumilitythattheymightshare
Hisglory.
DAVIDS MITH.
MEGIDDO(inZec12:11Megiddon).OneofthemostimportantofthefortresscitiesofancientCanaan.ItwascapturedbyThothmesIIIinthe23rdyearof
hisreign,thespoilsbeingmagnificentanditismentionedseveraltimesintheTellelAmarnacorrespondence.ThoughnominallybelongingtoManasseh(Jos
17:12,18,Jg1:27,28),theCanaanitesremainedinpossession.NearthewatersofMegiddotheCanaanitesunderSiseraweredefeatedbyBarakandDeborah(Jg
5:1821).Solomonrestoreditsfortifications(1K9:15).HerekingAhaziah(2K9:27)diedandthegoodkingJosiah,interferinginaquarrelbetweenPharaoh
nechoandthekingofAssyria,andopposingtheformersprogressinthedangerouspassageofMegiddo,wasalsoslain(2K23:29,30,2Ch35:22),tothegriefof
allIsrael(Zec12:11).Finally,itwasatArmageddon(RVHarMagedon,themountainsofMegiddo)thatthemysteriousconflictofRev16:10wastotakeplace.
ThesiteofMegiddomaynowbeconsideredasprovedtobeTellelMutesellim(Hillofthe
Governor),agreatmoundabout4milesN.W.ofTellTaannak(Taanachcf.Jos12:21,17:11,Jg5:19etc.).TheImportanceofthesitecanbeseenataglance,for
itguardsthegreatpassfromthePlainofSharontothatofEsdraelon,whichinallhistory,fromThothmesiii.toNapoleon1.,hasbeenarouteofarmies.Thehill
hasrecentlybeenexcavatedbytheGermanPalestineSociety,andfortificationsgoingbackbeforeB.C.2000havebeenuncovered,aswellasthemostextensive
remainsofsuccessivecitieswhichhaveoccupiedthissiteformanycenturies.HerewasfoundthesealofShama,theservantofJerohoamprobablyJeroboamii.
Tothesouthofthetellisanabundantstream,andinRomantimesafortifiedposttheLegioofEusebius,themodernelLejjunwasestablishedthere.Thestream
mayhavebeenthewatersofMegiddoofJg5:19etc.itisoneofthemostimportantofthetributariesoftheKishon.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
MEGILLOTH.SeeCANONOFOT,8.
MEHETABEL.1.ThegrandfatherofShemaiah(Neh6:10).2.ThewifeofHadarorHadad,kingofEdom(Gn36:30,1Ch1:50).
MEHIDA.TheeponymofafamilyofNethinimwhoreturnedwithZerub.(Ezr2:52=Neh7:54),calledin1Es5:32Meedda.
MEHIR.AJudahite(1Ch4:11).
MEHOLATHITE(1S18:19,2S21:8).ProbablyaninhabitantofAbelmeholah(wh.see).
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MEHOLATHITE(1S18:19,2S21:8).ProbablyaninhabitantofAbelmeholah(wh.see).
MEHUJAEL.ACainite(Gn4:18)(J),correspondingtoMahalalelofPsgenealogy(Gn
5:12ff.).
MEHUMAN.OneoftheseveneunuchsinattendanceuponkingAhasuerus(Est1:10).
MEJARKON(Jos19:46).TheHeb.textseemstobeindisorder.TheLXXreading,andfromthesea,JarkonandtheboundarynearJoppa,sufficiently
atteststhenameJarkon,aplaceintheterritoryofDanbutthesiteisnotyetrecovered.
W.EWING.
MEKONAH(AVRVneedlesslychangestoMeconah),AtowninhabitedaftertheCaptivity(Neh11:28).Thesitehasnotbeenidentified.
MELATIAH.AGibeonite(Neh3:7).
MELCHI.1.2.TwoancestorsofJesus(Lk3:24,28).
MELCHIAS.1.1Es9:26=Malchijah,Ezr10:25,2,1Es9:32=Malchijah,Ezr10:31,3,1Es9:44=Malchijah,Neh8:4.
MELCHIEL.ThefatherofCharmis(Jth6:15).
MELCHIZEDEK.DescribedaskingofSalemandpriestofGodMostHigh(ElElyn),whometAbrahamonhisreturnfromtheslaughterofChedorlaomer
andhisallies,refreshedhimandhisservantswithbreadandwine,blessedhim,andreceivedfromhimatenthofthespoilhehadtaken(Gn14:1820).Salemhas
beenvariouslyidentified:(1)withtheShalemofGn33:18(AVandRVm),aplacealittletotheE.ofMt.GerizimandnotfarfromShechem(2)withthe
SalimofJn3:23intheJordanValleyS.ofScythopolisand(3)withJerusalem,whichiscalled
SaleminPs76:2.ThelastidentificationismuchthemostprobableforthoughitisimpliedinJos15:8,63,Jg19:10thatJerusalemwascalledJebussolongasit
wasinhabitedbytheJebusites(i.e.uptothetimeofDavid),thenameJerusalemreallygoesbacktothe14thcent.
B.C.,sinceitappearsintheTellelAmarnatabletsasUrusalim.ThisviewhasthesupportofJosephus(Ant.I.x.2),andfurtherobtainssomeslightconfirmation
fromtheresemblanceofthenameofMelchizedektothatofAdonizedek,whowaskingofJerusaleminthetimeofJoshua(Jos10:3),theelementzedekineach
namebeingprobablythatofaCanaanitedeity.
ThehistoricalcharacterofthenarrativeinwhichMelchizedekismentionedhasbeenquestionedonthegroundofcertainimprobabilitieswhichitcontainsbutthoughtheevents
relatedhavereceivednocorroborationfromothersources,thenamesoftwoofthekingswhofoughtagainstAbraham,viz.AmraphelandArioch,havewithsomeplausibilitybeen
identifiedwiththoseofHammurabiandEriaku,contemporarykingsofBabylonandLarsaabout B. C.2200sothat,iftheidentificationiscorrect,itconfirmsthesettingofthe
story,thoughnotitsincidents.ForthenameandpersonalityofMelchizedeknoindependentconfirmatoryevidencehasyetbeenobtained.
InPs110:4,totheidealkingofJewishhopes,theMessiah,thereispromisedanendlesspriesthoodaftertheorderofMelchizedek.Thisascriptionofpriestly
functionstoasovereignwhowasexpectedtobeofthehouseofDavidandthetribeofJudahisevidentlymeantasanexceptionaldistinction,andimpliesthatthe
writerlivedatatimewhenpriestsinIsraelweretakenexclusivelyfromthetribeofLevi,aswasthecaseafterthepromulgationofthe
Deuteronomiclaw(probablyinthe7thcent.).AtanearlierdatepersonsbelongingtoothertribesthanthatofLeviweresometimespriests:Davidssons(2S8:18)
andIratheJairite(20:26),whobelongedtoManasseh(Nu32:41)buttheauthorofPs110,inseekingatypeforthecombinationinthesamepersonofboththe
regalandpriestlyoffices,hadtogooutsidethelimitsofIsrael,andfoundwhathewantedinthepriestkingofSalem,whowasallthemoreadaptedforthepurpose
byreasonofthedeferencepaidtohimbysoillustriousapersonageasAbraham.
ThewriteroftheEpistletotheHebrews,identifyingJesuswiththeMessiah,andassertingHishighpriesthood,citesthewordsofPs110,anddeclaresthatHe
wasnamedofGodahighpriestaftertheorderofMelchizedek(He5:10).HethenproceedstoshowthesuperiorityofChristspriesthoodoverthatoftheJewish
priests,thedescendantsofAaron,andseekstoillustrateitbythesuperiorityofMelchizedekoverAbraham,ashegathersitfromGn14.HeexplainsMelchizedeks
nametomeankingofrighteousness,andhistitleofkingofSalemtomeankingofpeaceandthen,arguingfromthesilenceoftherecordrespectinghis
parentage,birth,anddeath,describeshimaswithoutfather,withoutmother,withoutgenealogy,havingneitherbeginningofdaysnorendoflife,butmadelike
untotheSonofGod,andaffirmshimtohavebeengreaterthanAbraham,sinceheblessedhim(forwithoutanydisputethelessisblessedofthebetter)and
receivedfromhim(andthroughhimfromhisunborndescendantstheLeviticalpriests)atitheofhisspoils(He7:116).Inthispassagemuchofthewriters
argumentisfanciful,thenarrativeinGenesisbeinghandledafteraRabbinicfashion,andtheparalleldrawnbetweenourLordandMelchizedekbeinglargelybased
onthemereomission,intheOTrecord,ofcertainparticularsaboutthelatter,which,forthehistorianspurpose,wereobviouslyirrelevant.Atthesametimeitmay
perhapsbesaidthat,ascontrastedwiththeLeviticalpriestswhosucceededtotheirpriestlyofficesbyreasonoftheirdescent,anancientpriestkingisreallytypical
ofourLord,inasmuchasitislikelythat,inaprimitiveage,suchaonewouldowehispositiontohisnaturalendowmentsandforceofcharacter.Itwasinvirtueof53/102
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ofourLord,inasmuchasitislikelythat,inaprimitiveage,suchaonewouldowehispositiontohisnaturalendowmentsandforceofcharacter.Itwasinvirtueof
HispersonalitythatourLordmade,andmakes,HisappealtotheworldandtotheauthoritativenessofHisattitudeinregardtothecurrentteachingoftheJewish
religiousteachersofHisday(Mt5:2148,Mk7:128)adistantanalogyis,infact,affordedbythesuperiorpositionwhichinGenesisseemstobeascribedto
MelchizedekinrespectofAbraham,theancestoroftheJewishrace.Seealsoart.
P RIEST(INNT).
G.W.WADE.
MELEA.AnancestorofJesus(Lk3:31).
MELECH.1.AgrandsonofMeribbaal(1Ch8:35,9:41).2.SeeMOLECH.
MELITA.AnislandaboutsixtymilesS.ofSicily,withanareaofaboutninetyfivesquaremiles.Itsexcellentpositionasacommercialstationledtoitsearly
colonizationbyPhniciansandGreeks.ItbecamesubjecttoCarthage,butwasconqueredbytheRomansinB.C.218,andbecamepartoftheprovinceofSicily.
ButtheCarthaginianandLibyanelementpredominated,henceSt.Lukesuseofthephrasethebarbarouspeople(Ac28:2).TherecanbenodoubtthatthisMelita
wasthesceneofSt.Paulsshipwreck.TheuseofthenameAdria(Ac27:27)ledtoanattempttoidentifyitwithMelitaintheAdriatic,butthetermAdriawas
freelyappliedtotheseaE.andS.E.ofSicily,andthewindEuraquilo(Ac27:14)woulddrivethemfromCretetoMaltaifthecaptain,realizingthathischief
dangerwastheSyrtisquicksands(27:17),tookthenaturalprecautionofbearingupintothewindasmuchastheweatherpermitted.Thedescriptionisprecise.On
the14thnightoftheirdrifting,bysoundingtheyfoundtheyweregettingintoshallowerwater,andcastoutanchorsbutwhendaydawnedtheysawbeforethema
baywithashelvingbeach,onwhichtheydeterminedtorunthevessel.Thereforetheyhastilycastofftheanchors,unfastenedtherudders,whichhadbeenlashed
duringtheirdrifting,andwiththeaidoftheseandtheforesailtriedtosteertheshiptothebeach.Butbeforetheyreachedittheyranonashoalwheretwoseas
met,andreachedtheshoreonlybyswimmingorfloatingonspars.EverydetailofthenarrativeissatisfiedbyassumingthattheylandedontheW.sideofSt.Pauls
Bay,eightmilesfromValetta,fivemilesfromtheoldcapitalCittVecchia.Thetraditionwhichgavethisasthescenewasalreadyoldwhenourearliestmapof
Malta(aVenetianone)wasmadeaboutA.D.1530.AsitisscarcelylikelythatthespotwasidentifiedbyspecialinvestigationsintheMiddleAges,thisisa
remarkableinstanceofthepermanenceandcorrectnessofsomeearlytraditions.Incidentally,itisalsoaproofoftheremarkableimpressionmadeontheinhabitants
bythethreemonthsSt.Paulwascompelledtospendintheisland.St.Lukerelatesonlytwoincidents.Astheymadeafirefortheshipwreckedmen,asnake,
arousedfromthewoodbytheheat,fastenedonSt.Paulshand,and,tothesurpriseoftheonlookers,didhimnoharm.Thewordvenomous(28:4)isnotproperly
inthetext,andSt.Lukedoesnotstatethatitwasamiraculousdeliverance.Butthenativesthoughtitwas,andthereforethereprobablywerevenomoussnakesin
Maltathen.Therearenonenow,butinanislandwith2000inhabitantstothesquaremiletheywouldbelikelytobecomeextinct.Theotherincidentwasthecuring
ofdysenteryofthefatherofPublius(wh.see).NaturallytherearelocaltraditionsofSt.Paulsresidence,andthemapreferredtoabovehasachurchofSt.Pauls
nearthebay,butonitsE.side.ThefirstknownbishopofMaltawasattheCouncilofChalcedonin451.
Maltahashadavariedhistorysince.Vandals,Normans,Turksalllefttheirmarkonit.In1530,Charlesv.gaveittotheKnightsofSt.Johnwhodefendeditthreetimesagainst
thedesperateattacksoftheTurks.In1798,Napoleonseizedit,buttheEnglishtookitfromhimin1800,andithasremainedEnglishhandssince.Butthepopulationremainsvery
mixed,theraceandthenativelanguageretainingmuchoftheArabicelement.
A.E.HILLARD.
MELONS(batthm,thesamewordastheArab.battkh,whichincludesthewatermelon(Citrullusvulgaris)aswellasotherkinds).Nu11:6.Herethe
watermelonisspeciallyreferredto,asitwascommoninEgyptinancienttimes.Nofruitismoreappreciatedinthearidwilderness.MelonsflourishinPalestine,
especiallyonthesandsS.ofJaffa,andareeatenallovertheland,beingcarriedtothetownsallthroughthesummerbylongstringsofcamels.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
MELZAR.Apropername(AV),orofficialtitle(RVsteward)inDn1:11,16,inbothcaseswiththearticle.Itisgenerallyagreedthatthewordisaloan
wordfromtheAssyr.massaru,guardian,andstandsforonewhowasteacherandwardenoftheroyalwards.Cheyne,however,isledbytheLXXtoconcludefor
Belshazzarasthetruereading,andtoreadinDn1:11:AndDanielsaidtoBelshazzar,princeoftheeunuchs,etc.
W.F.COBB.
MEM.ThethirteenthletteroftheHebrewalphabet,andassuchemployedinthe119thPsalmtodesignatethe13thpart,eachverseofwhichbeginswiththis
letter.
MEMEROTH(1Es8:2)=Meraioth,anancestorofEzra(Ezr7:3)calledMarimoth.in2Es1:2.
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/m.htm MEMMIUS,QUINTUS.NamedalongwithManius(wh.see)asaRomanlegate(2Mac 54/102

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MEMMIUS,QUINTUS.NamedalongwithManius(wh.see)asaRomanlegate(2Mac
11:34).
MEMPHIS.ThefamousancientcapitalofEgypt,afewmilessouthofCairo,thepresentcapital.Accordingtotradition,MemphiswasbuiltbyMenes,who
firstunitedthetwokingdomsofUpperandLowerEgypt.Kingsanddynastiesmightmaketheirprincipalresidencesinthecitiesfromwhichtheysprang,butuntil
AlexandriawasfoundedasthecapitaloftheGreekdynasty,noEgyptiancity,exceptThebes,undertheNewKingdomequalledMemphisinsizeandimportance.
Thepalacesofmostoftheearlykings(Dyns.312)wereatornearMemphis,theirpositionsbeingnowmarkedbythepyramidsinwhichthesamekingswere
buried.Thepyramidfieldextendsontheedgeofthedesertabout20miles,fromDahshuronthesouthtoAbuRoashonthenorth,theGreatPyramidsofGizeh
lying12milesnorthofthecentralruinsof
Memphis.TheEgyptiannameMenfi(inHebrewNoph,Is19:13,Jer2:16,44:1,46:14,19,Ezk
30:13,16onceMoph,Hos9:5),wasapparentlytakenfromthatofthepalaceandpyramidof
Pepy1.ofthe6thDynasty,whichwerebuiltclosetothecity.Atalaterperiod,Tahrak(Tirhakah)ruledatMemphisNecho,Hophra,andtheotherkingsofthe26th
DynastywereburiedattheirancestralcitySais,althoughtheirgovernmentwascentredinMemphis.AfterthefoundationofAlexandriatheoldcapitalfelltothe
secondplace,butitheldavastpopulationtillaftertheArabconquest,whenitrapidlydeclined.ThegrowthofFostatandCairowasaccompaniedbythedestruction
ofallthestonebuildingsinMemphisforthesakeofthematerials,butthenecropolisstillbearswitnesstoitsformermagnificence.ThebullApis(Egyp.Hapi)
(whosenameisreadinLXXatJer46:15WhydidApisfleefromthee?)wasworshippedatMemphisassacredtoPtah(Hephaestus),theprincipalgodofthecity.
F.LL.GRIFFITH.
MEMUCAN.OneofthesevenprincesofPersiawhohadaccesstotheroyalpresence(Est1:14,16,21).
MENAHEM,oneofthelatestkingsofIsrael,wasausurper,likesomanyothermonarchsinthisperiod.HeandShallumplannedtoseizethethroneaboutthe
sametime(2K15:13f.),ShallumhavingpossessionofSamaria,whileMenahemcommandedtheancientfortressandformercapital,Tirzah.Warragedforabrief
timewithunusualferocity,resultinginthedefeatofShallum.Menahemseemsnottohavefeltsecureonthethrone,andtohavepurchasedthehelpofAssyriaby
payingaheavytributetoTiglathpileser(calledPulin2K15:19).OrwemaysupposetheAssyrianstohaveinvadedthecountrybecauseitwassoweakenedby
civilwarthatitcouldnolongermakeeffectiveresistance.Thetributewasathousandtalentsofsilver,anditwasraisedbyadirecttaxontheholdersoflanded
property.TheassessmentofsixtyshekelseachshowsthatthereweresixtythousandproprietorsinIsraelatthistime.FromtheAssyriansourceswelearnthatthis
tributewaspaidintheyear738B.C.
ItisinterestingtonotethatintheliteratureofJudaismMenahem(=Comforter)isatitleoftheMessiah.
H.P.S MITH.
MENEMENETEKELUPHARSIN.Thewordsofthehandwritingonthewall,which,accordingtoDn5:5,26,appearedmysteriouslyatBelshazzarsfeast,
andwassuccessfullydecipheredbyDanielalone(vv.2628),inv.25thewordsoftheinscription(thewritinginscribed,RV)aregivenasabove,butinthe
explanation(vv.2628)arequotedinadivergentform,andnoaccountistakenoftherepetitionofthefirstword.Thisdiscrepancycanbestbeaccountedforby
assumingthatthewordsoftheinscriptionasgiveninv.25alreadylayintheirpresentformbeforetheauthor,andarenottheproductofhisfreeinventionwhile
vv.2628aretheresultofanattempttoextractfromthewords,inspiteofgrammar,ameaningsuitabletotheoccasion.
What,then,istherealsignificanceofthemysteriouswords?AshasbeenshownbyM.ClermontGanneauintheJournalAsiatiquefor1886,theyarereally
namesofweights.MeneistheAram.equivalentoftheHeb.maneh(Ezk45:12,Ezr2:69)and=minatekel=shekelandpharsinisaplural,andprobably
representsaword(perslit.division)whichmeanshalfmina.Thusthefourwordsreadconsecutively:Amina,amina,ashekel,andhalfminas.Theenigmatic
characterofthecombinationapparentlyconsistedpartlyinthemannerinwhichthewordsweresupposedtohavebeenwrittenperhapsinsomeunfamiliarformof
Aramaiccursiveorwithsomecuriousinversioninarrangementandpartlyindeterminingtheirimportevenwhenread.Theappositenessofalistofthreeweights
insuchaconnexionisnotobvious.IndeducingameaningfittedtotheoccasionDanielsskillasaninterpreterofriddlesisstrikinglysetforth.Eachofthe
mysteriouswordsisinvestedwithameaningsuggestedbyetymologicalaffinities.Thetermforminaisconnectedwitharootmeaningtonumberhenceit
signifiesGodhathnumberedthykingdomandbroughtittoanend:shekelisconnectedwitharootmeaningtoweigh,andhencethouhastbeenweighedin
thebalanceandfoundwanting:halfmina(pers)suggestsadoubleplaythykingdomisdivided(peris)andgiventothePersians(Aram.pras=Persian).It
shouldbenoticedthatadoubleinterpretationisapparentlygiventhroughout,eachofthewordshavingperhapsbeenreadintwoways,andthemeaningscombined
(seeart.MeneMeneTekelUpharsininHastingsDBfordetails).Anotherpossiblerenderingis,Hehascounted,counted,weighed,andtheyassess(?a
commercialformula).PossiblyanactualinscriptionfoundonthewallsofthepalaceatBabylon,or,atanyrate,foundsomewhere,wasworkedbytheauthorof
Danielintothisdramaticsceneandarbitrarilyexplained(D.S.Margoliouth,ib.).
G.H.BOX.
MENELAUS.BrotherofSimontheBenjamite(2Mac3:4),or,accordingtoJosephus(Ant.XII.v.1),ayoungerbrotherofJasonandOnias.Hepurchasedthe
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MENELAUS.BrotherofSimontheBenjamite(2Mac3:4),or,accordingtoJosephus(Ant.XII.v.1),ayoungerbrotherofJasonandOnias.Hepurchasedthe
officeofhighpriestfromAntiochusEpiphanesforthesumof660talents(c.B.C.172),therebycausingthedepositionofJason,whohadobtainedtheofficeby
similarcorruptmeans.Beingunable,throughlackoffunds,topaytherequiredsum,hewascitedtoappearbeforetheking,but,findingthelatterabsentonwarfare,
heplunderedtheTempleofsacredvesselsandtherebyfoundmeanstosilencehisenemies.HavingsecuredthedeathofOniasIII.,whothreatenedtodivulgethe
sacrilege(2Mac4:2734),hebecamesounpopularthatJasonmarchedagainsthimtorecovertheofficehehadlost(5:510).AfterthisattemptofJason,which
endedinfailure,Menelausislosttosightforsomeyears,butfinallysuffereddeathatthehandsofAntiochusEupator(c.B.C.163).
T.A.MOXON.
MENESTHEUS.ThefatherofApollonius(2Mac4:21).
MENI.AdeitynamedwithGadinIs65:11:YethatprepareatableforGad,andthatfillupmingledwineforMeni.GadisFortune,andMeniDestiny.
ThenamehasbeencorrelatedwiththeArab.Manat,andwithasupposedBab.godManu.manahinHeb.meanstonumber,andsotoapportion.Thenameof
thisgodofDestinyhasbeenseeninManassehandinthenameofoneofthesonsofAnak,Ahiman,inNu13:22.SeeGAD.
W.F.COBB.MENNA.AnancestorofJesus(Lk3:31).
MENUHAH(Jg20:43).WeshouldperhapsreadManahath(wh.see),or,better,fromNohah.In1Ch8:2NohahisaclanofBenjamin.
MENUHOTH.SeeMANAHATHITES.
MEONENIM,OAKOF.AplacementionedonlyinJg9:37asbeingnearShechem.Itisagreedthattherenderingshouldbeoakofthediviners,butthe
derivationofthewordmnnmisuncertain.ThereisacognateArabicword,however,whichisusedofthehumofinsectsandthewhisperingofleaves,anditis
tempting,therefore,toconnectmennmwithsuchaphenomenonasthesoundofamarchinginthetopsofthebalsamsof2S5:24,wheretherustlingofthe
leavesisthesignofthepresenceofJahweh,astherustlingoftheleavesoftheoaksofDodonaproclaimedthewillofZeus.
W.F.COBB.
MEONOTHAI.SonofOthniel(1Ch4:14).
MEPHAATH.AcityofReuben(Jos13:18)assignedtotheLevites(21:37,1Ch6:79)aMoabitecityinJer48:21.Inthe4thcent. A.D.itissaidtohave
beenthestationofaRomangarrison.
MEPHIBOSHETH.1.AsonofJonathan(2S4:4),calledalsoin1Ch8:34,9:40Merib
(b)aal,reallytheoriginalformofthenameBaalcontendsorBaalswarrior.
David,onsucceedingtothethrone,insteadofdestroyingallthefamilyofSaul,aswasusualonsuchoccasions,sparedMephiboshethoutofregardforhis
fatherJonathan(2S9:1).MephiboshethwasfiveyearsoldwhenSaulfellonMt.Gilboa,andintheflightoftheroyalhouseholdafterthebattlehewassoseriously
injuredbyafallastobecomelameinbothhisfeet
(2S4:4).InthatwarlikeagesuchabodilyweaknesspreventedhimfrombecomingarivalofDavid,andnodoubtinclinedthelattertomercy.Davidwasinformed
ofhisplaceofconcealmentinLodebar,ontheeastoftheJordan,byZiba,whohadbeenstewardofSaul(2S9:1ff.).ThekingrestoredtoMephiboshethallthe
estatesofSaul,Zibabecamehissteward,andMephiboshethhimselfwasmaintainedasapermanentguestatDavidstable(2S9:13).
AttheflightofDavidfromJerusalemafterAbsalomsrebellion,ZibamethimontheMountofOliveswithprovisions.Healsostatedthathismasterhad
remainedinJerusalem,inhopeofobtainingthekingdomofSaul.Notwithstandingthedoubtfulnatureofthestory,Davidsaid,Behold,thineisallthatpertainethto
Mephibosheth(2S16:4).OnDavidsreturn,Mephiboshethcameouttomeethim,anddeclaredthatZibahadaccusedhimfalsely,takingadvantageofhis
lameness.DavidseemstohavedoubtedthetruthfulnessofMephiboshethordidnotwishtoalienateZiba,whohadalsobeenfaithful,anddividedthelandofSaul
betweenthetwo.MephiboshethexpressedhiswillingnessthatZibashouldhaveall,forasmuchasmylordthekingiscomeinpeaceuntohisownhouse.
From2S9:12welearnthatMephiboshethhadasonMica,whowasregardedasthefounderofawellknownfamilyofwarriors(1Ch8:35,9:41).
2.OneofthesonsofSaulsconcubineRizpah,slainbytheGibeonites(2S21:8).
W.F.BOYD.
MERAB.TheelderdaughterofSaul,promisedtotheslayerofGoliath(1S17:25),andthentoDavidpersonallyasarewardforprowessagainstthe
Philistines(1S18:17),butgivenaswifetoAdrieltheMeholathite.In2S21:8Michal,whosesonsaresaidtohavebeengivenovertosatisfytheGibeonites,is
probablyascribalerrorforMerab.
W.F.BOYD.
MERAIAH.Theheadofapriestlyhouse(Neh.12:12).
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W.F.BOYD.
MERAIAH.Theheadofapriestlyhouse(Neh.12:12).
MERAIOTH.1.SonofAhitubandfatherofZadok(1Ch9:11,Neh11:11).2.ALevite(1Ch6:6f.,Ezr7:3)calledin1Es8:2Memerothandin2Es1:2
Marimoth.3.ApriestlyhouseinthedaysofJoiakim(Neh12:15=Meremothofv.3).
MERARI,MERARITES.1.ThethirdsonofLevi,towhomadivisionoftheLevitestracedtheirdescent(Gn46:11,Ex6:16,Nu3:17,1Ch6:1,16,23:6.
ThetitleMeraritesisfoundonlyinNu26:57elsewheretheyarecalledsonsofMerari(Ex6:19,Nu3:20,4:29,33,42,46,7:8,10:17,Jos21:7,34,39,1Ch
6:19,29,44,63,77,9:14,15:6,17,23:21,24:27,26:19,
2Ch29:12,Ezr8:19).Theyweresubdividedintotwogroups,theMahlitesandtheMushites
(Nu3:33,26:58),eachbeingtracedtoasonofMerari(Ex6:19,Nu3:20,1Ch6:19,29,17,23:21).Fromthesefamiliesfragmentsofgenealogiesremain,some
branchesbeingtracedthroughthedaughtersofMahli(see1Ch23:2).
VerylittleisrelatedoftheMeraritesaftertheExile.CertainMeraritesarementionedin1Ch9:14,1618=Neh11:15,1719asdwellinginJerusalem
immediatelyaftertheReturn,andcertainothersasaccompanyingEzratothecityin454B.C.(Ezr8:18f.).ButPandtheChroniclerintroducethefamilyintothe
earlierhistory.(1)DuringthedesertwanderingstheMerariteswereonthenorthsideoftheTent(Nu3:35)theirdutywastocarrythelesssacredpartsofit,the
boards(orratherframes),pegs,cords,etc.(3:38f.,4:31f.,10:17),forwhichtheyweregivenfourwaggonsandeightoxen(7:8)andtheyweresuperintendedby
Ithamar,theyoungestsonofAaron(4:33).(2)AfterthesettlementinPalestine,twelvecitieswereassignedtothem(Jos21:7,3440=1Ch6:63,7781).(3)In
DavidsreigntheChroniclerrelatesthattheTemplemusicwassuperintendedpartlybyEthan,orJeduthun,aMerarite,andhisfamily(1Ch6:4447,16:41f.,25:1,
3,6,11,16,18,21f.andsee15:6,1719).DaviddividedtheLevitesintocoursesaccordingtothesonsofLevi(23:8Merarites,vv.2123,24,2630),and
particularofficesofcertainMeraritesaredetailedin26:1013,1618.(4)TheytookpartinthecleansingoftheTempleunderHezekiah(2Ch29:12,14).Cf.also
art.KOHATH.
2.ThefatherofJudith(Jth8:1,16:7).
A.H.MNEILE.
MERATHAIM(Jer50:21).Thetermisanenigmaticalone,andadaptedsoastorecalltoaHeb.eareitherdoublerebellionordoublebitterness.
MERCHANDISE,MERCHANT.SeeMARKET,TRADE,ANDCOMMERCE.
MERCHANTMAN.ThisEng.wordisnowusedonlyofatradingvessel.InAVitmeansmerchant,tradesmanitoccursinGn37:28,1K10:15,Mt13:46.
IneachcasetheearliesteditionsofAVhavetwoseparatewords.
MERCURYstandsintheAVfortheGr.HermesinAc14:12.Hermes,asthespokesmanofthegods,wasregardedbytheGreeksasthegodofeloquence.
Hence,whenPaulandBarnabashealedthecrippleatLystra,theformerwashailedasHermes,becausehewasthechiefspeaker.TheidentificationofHermeswith
Mercurywasduetoanotherattribute.Asthemessengerofthegods,Hermeswasthegodwhobroughtgoodfortunetomen.MercurywastheRomangodof
commerce(cf.merx,mercari),andsuccessincommercewasattributedtohim.Hencethemythologyofthetwowasconfused.
A.E.HILLARD.
MERCY,MERCIFUL
Mercy(Frenchmerci)istraced,throughecclesiasticalLatin,tomerces(reward)itseemstohavegotitsmeaningfromtheexclamationofthealmsreceiver,Merci!i.e.
Rewardtoyou(inheaven)!MayGodrewardyou!theexpressionpassingfromtheacknowledgmentmadetothebountygiven,andthentothespiritpromptingit.Thusmercy
isbyderivationalliedtomerit,merchant,mercenary,amerce.
1.IntheOT,nounandadjectiverendertwoquitedifferentHebrewterms.(1)meaningprimarilybowels(seeGn43:30,1K3:26),thencompassionoryearning,
occursasnoun,adjective,orverb(havemercy,showmercy),withthetr.mercyover60times(Gn43:14,Ex34:6,Hab3:2,aretypicalexamples),often
merciesortendermerciesforthenoun,imitatingtheHebrewplural.In5instancestheEVtranslatesbypity,pitiful(seePs103:13,La4:10),in17by
compassion.InGn19:16mercifulrendersasynonymoftheabove,whichappearselsewhere(2S12:8,Is63:9etc.)aspity.
(2)isafamiliarOTword,occurringpassiminthePsalms,denotingkindnessorbenignity,almostconfinedtothenounforminthissense.Itisrendered43times
bykindness(oftenonthepartofmen),and30timesbylovingkindness(alwaysofGod,andmostlyinPs.),bymercysome150timesinAVotherrenderings
goodness,favour,andpityareoccasionalRVfrequently,theAmericanRevisersuniformly,substitutelovingkindness(wh.see)formercywhereGodis
thesubject.ThisattributeofJliesnearertothegrace(wh.see)thanthemercyoftheNT,withoutimplyingnecessarily,liketheformer,illdesertintheobject.It
isassociatedfrequentlywithtruth(wh.see)inJlovingkindness(mercy)andtruthbeingtheregnantqualitiesofHisdealingswithIsraelandwithcovenant
(Dt7:9,1K8:23,Neh1:6,9:32,Ps89:28,Is55:8,Dn9:4),aswellaswithgoodnessandcompassion(above)whileitiscontrastedwithanger,judgment,
andsacrifice(Mic7:18,Ps101:1,Hos6:6).TheworddescribeswhatonemaycallthecharacteristictemperofJ,HisgraciousdispositiontowardsHischosen
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andsacrifice(Mic7:18,Ps101:1,Hos6:6).TheworddescribeswhatonemaycallthecharacteristictemperofJ,HisgraciousdispositiontowardsHischosen
regardedintheirdependenceandnecessities,Hisreadinesstohelp,bless,relieve,forgivethemJsleallove(G.A.Smith).
(3)Athirdroot,thenounofwhichistranslatedgrace(wh.see)anditsadjectivegracious,appearsintheverb16timesasbegraciousorthelike,and16
timesashaveorshowmercyinAV(Dt7:2,Ps4:1etc.),thriceaspity.Thistermseemstoimplymoreofinclination,and(2)moreofactivedisposition.
(4)TheexpressionbemercifulinAVofDt21:8,32:43iscorrectedbyRVtoforgiveand
makeexpiation.
2.MercyinNTplaysapartsubordinatetothatoflove(wh.see).ItrepresentsapairofGreeksynonyms,bothchiefly,butnotexclusively,applied(inScripture)
toGod.(a)AsusedintheLXX,theordinaryterm(noun,adjective,andverb)initsnounformreproducedcommonly(2)oftheHebrewwordsaboveindicatedbut
inadjectiveandverbmoreoften(3),lessfrequently(1).
Itdenotescompassionasatemperandmotiveofactionratherthanasentimentelemosyn(alms)isoneofitsderivativeslikemercy,theGreekeleosregardsits
objectsasweakorsuffering,andisthereforenarrowerinrangethantheHebrew(2)abovedefined.Outofthe27examplesofthisnouninNT,9occurinOT
allusions,7insalutationsorbenedictionsotherexamplesareMt5:7,Lk16:24,Ro9:23,2Co4:1,Ja3:17.Theverbismorefrequent.(b)ThesecondoftheGreek
synonymsverb,noun,andadjectiveismorepathetic,andcorrespondsto(1)oftheOTtermshencetheHebraizingcombinationsofPh2:1,Col3:12,Ja5:11(
HebraisticequivalentsreplacetheregularGreektermsinEph4:32,1P3:8).Thistenderersignificance
mercyhearsinLk6:36,Ro12:1,2Co1:3,He10:28,alsoinMt18:33(RV,whereAVreadspity).(c)OftendermerciesinJa5:11(AVRVmerciful)
representsaHebraisticcompoundnearlythesameasthatrenderedtenderheartedinEph4:32and1P3:8(RVAVpitiful).
Akintotheseadjectivesistheverboccurring12timesintheSynopticGospels,whichisrenderedmovedwithcompassion(movedtomercy),describingthe
emotionstirredinthebreastofJesuse.g.bythecry,Havemercyonus,ofMt20:3134.
G.G.F INDLAY.
MERCYSEAT.SeeTABERNACLE,7b.
MERED.AJudahite(1Ch4:17).
MEREMOTH.1.Theheadofthe7thcourseofpriests(Ezr8:33,Neh3:4,21,10:5)calledin1Es8:52Marmoth.2.SeeCARABASION.3.SeeMERAIOTH,
No.3.
MERES.OneofthesevenprincesandcounsellorsofAhasuerus(Est1:14).
MERIBAH.SeeMASSAHANDMERIBAH.
MERI(B)BAAL.SeeMEPHIBOSHETH.
MERIBOTHKADESH.SeeMASSAHANDMERIBAH.
MERODACH.ThenameofthecitygodofBabylon,worshipped,aftertheestablishmentofBabylonascapitaloftheBabylonianEmpire,aschiefgodof
Babylonia.TheBabyloniannamewasMarduk,olderformMaruduk.Hegraduallyabsorbedtheattributesofothergodsoncesupremethroughtheinfluenceoftheir
cityseatsofworship,particularlyElliltheoldBl,orlordsupremeofNippur.HencehewasinlatertimestheBlofBabylonia.MerodachisaHebraizedform
occurringonlyinJer50:2,buttheBloftheApocryphalBlandtheDragon(Is46:1,Jer51:44)isthesamedeity.Nebuchadnezzarwasspeciallydevotedtohis
worship,buttheAssyriansreverencedhimnolessandevenCyrus,onhisconquestofBabylon,treatedhimwiththedeepestrespect.Thenameoccursinmany
Babylonianpropernames,andappearsintheBibleinMerodachbaladanandEvilmerodach,andprobablyinMordecai.
C.H.W.JOHNS.
MERODACHBALADAN(Is39:1misspelt[inMT,butnotinLXX]Berodachb.in2K20:12).InAssyr.thenameiswrittenMardukbaliddina,andmeans
Merodachhasgivenason.Forhishistoryseep.66f.
MEROM,THEWATERSOF.ThesceneofJoshuasvictoryoverthenorthernkingsusuallyidentifiedwithLakeHulehintheUpperJordanValley(Jos11:5,
7).ThisidentificationisacceptedbyRobinson(BRPii.440),G.A.Smith(HGHL 1,481),andothers.ItisquestionedbySocin(BaedekersPalstina),Buhl(GAP),
andGuthe(Bibelwrterbuch,s.v.),thelastsuggestinganimpossiblepositionnearMeirn,atthebaseofJebelJermuk.Joshuascrowningvictorywouldnotbe
locatedbysuchwatersasaretobefoundthere.ThekingswereencampedatBeroth,notfarfromKadesh(Jos.Ant.V.i.18),butprobablytheydescended,asdid
Demetriusatalaterdate(Ant.XIII.v.7),tobattleintheplain,bettersuitedthantheroughuplandsforthechariotsonwhichtheydepended.Thereisnothingto 58/102
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locatedbysuchwatersasaretobefoundthere.ThekingswereencampedatBeroth,notfarfromKadesh(Jos.Ant.V.i.18),butprobablytheydescended,asdid
Demetriusatalaterdate(Ant.XIII.v.7),tobattleintheplain,bettersuitedthantheroughuplandsforthechariotsonwhichtheydepended.Thereisnothingto
wonderatinthedisappearanceoftheancientname,inalandwheresomanynameshaveperished.ItisalmostcertainlythelakeSemechonitisofAnt.V.v.1the
districttotheN.wasknownasUlatha(Ant.XV.x.3BJI.xx.4).ThisisthefirstappearanceofthemodernnameUlatha=Hlehwhichcoversboththelake
andthedistrict.ThewaterissuppliedbythefountainsoftheJordanatHasbeiyeh,Bnis,andTellelKdi,bythespringsatAinelBaltaandAinelMellhaon
thewesternsideofthevalleyMt.Hermonandtheneighbouringslopesalsodrainintothebasin.InshapeBaheiretelHlehisalmosttriangular.Itlies7ft.above
sealevel.Theopenwaterisaboutfourmilesinlengthbyaboutthreemilesatthebroadestpart.Itisfrom10to16ft.indepth.TotheN.stretchgreatbreadthsof
marshland,withdensethicketsofpapyrusreeds,throughwhich,invariouschannels,thestreamsfindtheirwaytothelake.Waterfowlofallkindsabound,andthe
placeisasortoffishermansparadise.TheGhawrinehArabsoccupythevalley,tillthesoil,tendthebuffaloes,hunt,andfish.Thehairtentisseldomseen:their
housesarebuiltofthepapyrusreed.
W.EWING.
MERONOTHITE.AdesignationappliedintheOTtotwomen.1.Jehdeiah(1Ch27:30).2.Jadon(Neh3:7).FromthecontextofNeh3:7Meronothwould
appeartohavebeenintheneighbourhoodofGibeonandMizpah.
MEROZ.AplacewhichtheangelofJahwehbidsmencurse,togetherwithitsinhabitants,becausetheydidnotcometofightJahwehsbattleagainstSisera.It
ismentionedonlyinJg5:23,andprobablyowesitsmentionmerelytothefactthatitlayinthelineofSiserasflight(Moore).
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
MERRAN.Bar3:23only.ProbablydwasmisreadrintheSem.original,andthename=Midian(cf.Gn37:28,Hab3:3,7).
MESALOTH.SeeARBELA.
MESHA.1.SonofShaharaim,aBenjamite(1Ch8:2).2.FirstbornofCaleb(1Ch2:42).
MESHA.AkingofMoabinthe9thcent.B.C.Accordingtoaninscription(ontheMoabiteStonediscoveredatDibonin1868)describinghisdeeds,he
expelledtheIsraelitishinhabitantsfromnorthernMoab,orfromaportionofthedebatablelandbetweenthetwomonarchieseastofthenorthernthirdoftheDead
Sea.UnderOmri,thebuilderofSamaria,theborderofIsraelhadbeenextendedsouthwardstonearitsancientlimits(Nu21:24ff.)andMeshareclaimeditby
vindictivewarfare,fromKiriathaimasfarasNebo.2K3alsodealswiththerelationbetweennorthernIsraelandMesha,anditisdifficulttoreconcilethetwo
accountsineverydetail.Themattercanbestbedealtwithherebygivingthemostprobableorderoftheevents:(1)theconquestbyOmri[Inscription,lines4,5]
aboutB.C.880(2)theexpulsionoftheHebrewsbyMeshainthetimeofAhab[Inscr.1.8ff.]aboutB.C.855,Meshasfortyyearsbeing,asalsoofteninHebrew
narrative,aroundnumber(3)therefusalofMeshatoagainsubmit,whichisallthattheHebrewof2K1:1,3:5(EVrebelled)necessarilyimplies(4)the
unsuccessfulexpeditionbyJoramandhisalliestoreduceMeshatosubmission,recordedin2K3:627.
J.F.MCURDY.
MESHAismentionedasmarkingoneoftheboundariesoftheterritoryascribedtothedescendantsofJoktaninGn10:25.Itspositionhasnotyetbeen
satisfactorilyidentified.TheproposedidentificationwiththelateterritoryofMeseneattheheadofthePersianGulfisimprobable.Abettercasecanbemadeoutfor
identifyingitwithMashorMashu,ageneraltermintheAssyrianinscriptionsfortheSyroArabiandesertthoughthepassagesuggeststhatasingleplace,ortribe,
ratherthansovastaregion,isreferredto.IfthevowelpointsbeemendedthewordmaybereadasMassa,thenameofasonofIshmaelinGn25:14and1Ch1:30.
TracesofthislattertribehavebeensoughtinplacenamesincentralArabia,butnoidentificationyetsuggestedcanberegardedascertain.
L.W.KING.
MESHACH.ThenameMishael,bywhichoneofDanielsthreecompanions,ofthechildrenofJudah,wasoriginallycalled,waschangedbytheprinceof
theeunuchsintoMeshach(Dn1:7andch.3).Suchchangesofnamewerenotuncommontheymarkedthefactthatanewstateoflifehadnowbegun.The
meaningofthenameisquiteuncertain.
MESHECH.1.ThenameofapeopleofAsiaMinormentionedafterTubalasamongthesonsofJapbeth(Gn10:2).Thesetwopeoples,possiblykindred,
appearalmostalwaysinconjunctioninOTsoeveninIs66:18,wherereadMeshechinsteadofthatdrawthebow(thewordforbowbeingasupplementary
gloss).InPs12:06MeshechandKedarappearastypesofbarbarousandwarlikepeople,justasMeshechandTubalarerepresentedinEzk32:28,38:2,39:1.In
theAssyrianannalstheTabalandMushk,whoareundoubtedlythesameasTuhalandMeshech,arefoundagaintogether(asfierceopponentsofAssyriainthe
12thcent.B.C.),theformerlyingtothenortheastofCiliciaandthelattereastwardbetweenthemandtheEuphrates.TheTibareniandMoschioftheclassicalwriters
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12thcent.B.C.),theformerlyingtothenortheastofCiliciaandthelattereastwardbetweenthemandtheEuphrates.TheTibareniandMoschioftheclassicalwriters
muststandforthesametwopeoples.Ezk27:13namesthemastradinginslavesandarticlesofbronze.
2.In1Ch1:17MeshechiswrittenbymistakeforMash(cf.Gn10:23)
J.F.MCURDY.
MESHELEMIAH.TheeponymofafamilyofKorahitedoorkeepers(1Ch9:21,26:1)=Shelemiahof26:14,Shallumof9:17,19,31,andMeshullamof
Neh12:25.
MESHEZABEL.1.Oneofthosewhohelpedtorepairthewall(Neh3:4).2.Oneofthosewhosealedthecovenant(Neh10:21).3.ThefatherofPethahiah
(Neh11:24).
MESHILLEMITH.Apriest(1Ch9:12)calledinNeh11:13Meshillemoth.
MESHILLEMOTH.1.AnEphraimite(2Ch28:12)2.Apriest(Neh11:13)calledin1Ch9:12Meshillemith.
MESHOBAB.ASimeonite(1Ch4:34).
MESHULLAM.1.2.3.ThreeBenjamites(1Ch8:17,9:7,3).4.AGadite(1Ch5:13).5.ThegrandfatherofShaphan(2K22:3).6.ThefatherofHilkiah(1
Ch9:11).7.Anotherpriestofthesamefamily(1Ch9:12).8.AKohathite(2Ch34:12).9.AsonofZerubbabel(1Ch3:19).10.Oneofthechiefmenwhose
serviceswereenlistedbyEzratoprocureLevites(Ezr8:16)calledin1Es8:44Mosollamus.11.ALevitewhoopposedEzrasproceedingsinconnexionwiththe
foreignmarriages(Ezr10:15)calledin1Es9:14Mosollamus.12.Oneofthosewhohadmarriedforeignwives(Ezr10:29)calledin1Es9:30Olamus.13.Son
ofBerechiah,oneofthosewhohelpedtorepairthewallsofJerusalem(Neh3:4,30).HisdaughterwasmarriedtoTobiah(6:18).14.SonofBesodeiah.Hehelped
torepairtheoldgate(Neh3:5).15.OneofthecompanythatstoodatEzraslefthandduringthereadingoftheLaw(Neh8:4).16,17.Apriestandachiefofthe
peoplewhosealedthecovenant(Neh10:7,20).18.OneoftheprincesofJudahwhomarchedinprocessionatthededicationofthewallsofJerusalem(Neh12:33).
19,
20,21.TwoheadsofpriestlyhousesandaporterinthetimeofthehighpriestJoiakim(Neh12:13,16,25[seeMESHELEMIAH]).
MESHULLEMETH.WifeofkingManassehandmotherofAmon(2K21:19).
MESOPOTAMIA=Aramnaharaim(seeARAM).
MESS.Amessisanydishoffoodsenttothetable(Lat.missum,Fr.mes).ThewordoccursinGn43:24,2S11:8,Sir30:13,andRVintroducesitatHe12:16.
MESSIAH.Theoneanointed(Gr.Christos),i.e.appointedandempoweredbyGodthroughtheimpartationofHisownspirit,tobecometheSaviourofHis
people.TheconceptionoftheMessiahislogicallyimplicitinalltheexpectationsoftheHebrewpeoplethatJehovahwoulddeliverIsraelandturnitintoaglorious
empiretowhichalltheheathenwouldbesubjected.Butitisnotalwaysexplicit.TheexpectationofthecomingKingdomismoreinevidencethantheexpectation
ofthecomingKing.ButinthesameproportionastheconceptionofthepersonalMessiahemergesfromthegeneralMessianichopetheseelementsappearwithinit:
(1)theDeliverer(2)thepresenceofGodsSpiritinHisownpersonalityasthesourceofHispower(3)HisworkasthesalvationofGodspeople,atfirsttheJewish
nation,butultimatelyallthosewhojointhemselvestoHim.
1.TheMessiahoftheOT
InanyhistoricalstudyoftheOTitisnecessarytodistinguishsharplybetweentheMessianicinterpretationgiventocertainpassagesbylaterwriters,notablyChristianand
Rabbinic,andtheexpectationwhich,sofarasitisrecoverable,thewritersoftheOTactuallypossessed.Adisregardofthisdistinctionhasbeencommonfromthepointofviewof
theologicalstatement,butisfataltoaproperunderstandingofthatprogressinthereligiousapprehensionofGodandtheclarifyingofreligiousexpectationswhichconstitutesso
largeafactorintheBiblicalrevelationofGod.Itisalwayseasiertodiscovertendenciesasonelooksbackoverahistoricalcourseofeventsthanasonelooksforwardintothefuture
whichtheseeventsdetermine.ThepropermethodinthestudyoftheMessianichopeisnottomassthesentencesoftheOTtowhichaMessianicinterpretationisgivenbylater
BiblicalorextraBiblicalwriters,buttostudythemintheircontextbothliteraryandhistorical.Insuchatracingofthehistoricaldevelopmentitisnecessarytorecognizecritical
resultsasfarastheyarereasonablyfixed,andthusavoidreadingbackintotheoriginalhopesoftheHebrewsthoseinterpretationsandimplicationswhichweregiventotheearly
historybyvariousredactors.Theselatter,however,constitutedatafortheunderstandingoftheMessianicidealintheageoftheeditors.
Unfortunately,inthepresentstateofcriticismitisnotpossibletoarrangethematerialoftheOTinstrictlychronologicalorder.Thisisparticularlytrueinthecaseofthat
reflectingtheMessianichope.ThefollowingclassificationofOTreferencesis,therefore,nottohetakenasachronologicalexpositionofadevelopinghopesomuchasagrouping
ofmaterialofsimilarcharacter.
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1.ThenationaltendenciesofMessianicprophecy.InthecaseofprophetslikeElijahandElishathehopeishardlymoredistinctthanabeliefthatthenation
whichworshippedJehovahwouldhetriumphantoveritsenemies.Sofarastherecordsoftheirteachingshow,however,therewasnoexpectationofany
superhumandeliverer,or,infact,anyfuturecontemplatedotherthanonewhichpresupposedaconqueringIsraelwithanequallytriumphantJehovah.
Eschatologicalconceptionswereabsent,andthenewKingdomwastobepoliticalinthetruestsense.Withtheapproachofthemoretragicdaysofthefallofthe
NorthernKingdom,thethreatenedcalamitiesservedasatextfortheforebodingofAmos.Hoseaspropheciesofprosperitywhichwouldcometothenationwhenit
turnedfromidolsandallianceswithheathennationstotheforgivingJehovahmay,ascurrentcriticisminsists,belongtoalaterperiodthanthatusuallyaccorded
thembutinthemwefindlittleornothingofthenobleuniversalismtobeseeninthepromisedvictoryoftheseedofthewomanovertheserpent(Gn3:14,15).Itis
ratherahopeofnationalglory,suchasappearsinthepromisemadetoShem(9:27),toAbraham(12:8),toJacob(27:2729),and,inparticular,toJudah(49:812).
ThebasisofthisgreatexpectationisthefaithinJehovahasinterpretedbytheprophets,whetherearlierorlater.ItwasinconceivabletothemthatthetrueGod
shouldbeotherthanultimatelytriumphantcf.theprophecyofBalaam(Nu24:1719),SongofMoses(Dt32:610),theexpectationoftheprophet(Dt18:16
19).ThisnationalismistobeseenthroughouttheMessianichopeoftheOT,althoughoccasionalexceptionsaretobefound,asinGn3:14,15,andinsome
passagesofEzekiel.
2.TheMessianichopeofthegreatprophets.WithIsaiahbegananewdevelopmentoftheMessianichope,primarilythroughthepreachingofdeliverance
fromtheinevitablecatastropheoftheAssyrianconquest.Outofthesorrowsofthetime,bornlargely,asIsaiahbelieved,fromthesinsofJehovahspeople,wasto
arisedeliverance.Thisseemstobethecentralteachingofthegreatpassage,Is7:1017.Deliverancewastocomebeforetheexpectedchildcouldchoosebetween
goodandevil,butbythetimehereachedmaturitythegreatermiseryofAssyrianinvasionshouldbreakforth.Butinthenameofthechild,Immanuel,wasthe
pledgethatJehovahwouldeverhewithHispeopleandwouldultimatelysavethemnotimpossiblythroughthechildhimself,althoughnothingissaidof
Immanuelsshareintheaccomplishmentofthedeliverance.WhetherornotthereferenceinIs9:6,7istoImmanuel,itisunquestionablethatitistothecomingofa
descendantofDavid,whoshoulddeliverIsraelandreignwithJehovahsassistanceforevertriumphantly.Inthatglorioustime,whichwastoheinauguratedbythe
MessianicKing,wouldbeprosperityhithertounknown(Is11:19).Theeternityofhisreignisundoubtedlytoheinterpreteddynasticallyratherthanpersonally,
butthekinghimselfclearlyisaperson,andJehovahsSpirit,whichistobewithinhim,isjustasplainlythesourceofhisgreatsuccess(cf.Is33:1424).Ina
similarspiritMicahlocalizesthenewKingdomestablishedthroughDivineguidanceinZion(Mic4:15),anddeclaresthattheKingistocomefromBethlehem,
thatistosay,shallbeDavidic(5:25).
Primarilynationalastheseexpectationsare,thekeynoteisthedeliverancewroughtbyJehovahthroughaparticularroyalperson,inwhosedaysrighteousness
andpeacearetohesupremeintheworldbecauseoftheHebrewempire.ThispictureoftheroyalkingbecameonecontrollingelementinthelaterMessianichope.
Inthisliterature,whateveritsdatemaybe,thereappearsalsothenewnoteofuniversalpeacetobewroughtbyJehovah.Inlargemeasurethispeacewas
conceivedofasduetothecompletenessofJehovahsconquestofthenationsintheinterestsofHispeople(cf.Is9:15).Butbeyondthistherecanalsobeseenthe
hopethattheverynatureofthereignofthenewKingwouldconducetoanendofwar.InsuchapassageasIs11:110thereisstruckthekeynoteofanobler
Messianicreignthanthatpossibletothemereconqueror.ThepeacethenpromisedwastocomefromaknowledgeofJehovahaswellasfromthegloriesofthe
Davidicruler.
ThereformationofJosiahfindsanechointheequallyexultantexpectationofJeremiahthatJehovahwouldsurelyplaceadescendantofDaviduponthe
throne,arighteousbranch,andonewhowoulddeliverIsrael(Jer33:1416).ThegloryoftherestoredkingdomwastoheenhancedbyaNewCovenanttoreplace
thebrokencovenantofSinai.Thiscovenantwouldbespiritual,andtherelationswhichitwouldestablishbetweenIsraelandJehovahwouldbeprofoundly
religious.IsraelwouldbeaservantofJehovah,whowould,onHispart,forgiveHispeoplessins(Jer31:3134,cf.33:1722).TherestorationofIsrael,whichwas
thustobeaccomplishedbyJehovah,involvednotonlynationalhonour,butalsoanewprosperityforthepriesthood,andnewimmortalityonthepartofthe
individualandthenation.Thereisnoreference,however,toapersonalMessiah.YetifsuchapassageasDt18:1619belongstothisperiod,itisevidentthatthe
hopeincludedtheexpectationofsomegreatperson,whowouldheevenmoresublimethanMoseshimself.
3.TheMessianichopeduringtheExile.ThegreatcatastrophewhichfelluponboththeNorthernandSouthernKingdomsforcedtheprophetstoreexamine
therelationsofnationalmisfortunetothepersistenthopeofthegloriousKingdomofJehovah.Itwouldseemasifattheoutsettheexileshadexpectedthatthey
wouldsoonreturntoPalestine,butthishopewasopposedmostvigorouslybyEzekiel,andthefallofJerusalemconfirmedhisteaching.Fromthedespairthat
followed,thepeoplewererescuedbytheappearanceofCyrus,whobecametheinstrumentofJehovahinbringingaboutthereturnoftheremnanttotheirownland.
ItwasfromthesedarkyearsthatthereappearedanewtypeofMessianichope,nationalandeconomic,itistrue,butalsoprofoundlyreligious.Jehovahwouldcare
forHispeopleastheshepherdcaredforhissheep,andthelandtowhichtheywouldreturnwouldberenewed(Ezk34:1131),whilethenationswouldsupport
IsraelandfearJehovah(Is49:22,23).JehovahwouldmakeaneverlastingcovenantwithHispeople(Is55:16),butthenewnationwouldnothecomposedofall
thosewhohadbeensweptintoexileandtheirdescendants.Itwouldratherbearighteouscommunity,purifiedbysuffering.Thusthehoperisestothatrecognition
oftheindividualwhichEzekielwasthefirsttoemphasizestrongly.
AtthispointwehavetodecidewhetherthesufferingServantofJehovahistobeinterpretedcollectivelyasthepurifiedandvicariousremnantofIsraeloras
someindividualwhowouldstandforeverasarepresentativeofJehovah,and,throughhissufferings,purifyandrecallIsraeltothatspirituallifewhichwouldhethe
guaranteeofagloriousfutureorasthesufferingnationitself.TheinterpretationplacedupontheseServantpassages(Is43:113,49:5,61:13,52:13
15,53:112)inRabbinicthoughtwasordinarilynotpersonal,butnational.Itwasasuffering
Israelwhowasnotonlytobegloriouslyredeemed,butwasalsotobringtheknowledgeofJehovahandsalvationtotheworldatlarge.Andthisisbecomingthe 61/102
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Israelwhowasnotonlytobegloriouslyredeemed,butwasalsotobringtheknowledgeofJehovahandsalvationtotheworldatlarge.Andthisisbecomingthe
currentinterpretationtoday.YetthepersonificationissocompleteastoyielditselfreadilytothepersonalapplicationtoJesusmadebytheearlyChurchand
subsequentChristianexpositors.Avicariouselement,whichwastoproveoflastinginfluence,isnowintroducedintoMessianicexpectation.Thedeliverancewasto
bethroughthesufferingsoftheDeliverer.See,further,S ERVANTOFTHELORD.
4.MessianicPsalms.WhileitisnotpossibletodatePs2withanyprecision,itspictureofthecomingKingwhoshallreignoveralltheworldbecauseofthe
powerofJehovah,isfundamentallypolitical.ThesameistrueofPss45and72.InthesePsalmsthereareexpressionswhichcouldsubsequentlybeusedvery
properlytoexpresstheexpectationofacompletedMessianichope,butitwouldbeunwisetoreadbackintothemaconsciousexpectationofadefinitesuperhuman
person.ThehopeatthetimeofthewritingofthesePsalmswasnationalandpolitical.
5.TheattemptataMessianicnation.WiththereturnoftheexilesfromBabylontoJudahattemptsweremadetoinaugurateanidealcommonwealthwhich
shouldembodytheseanticipations.TheonegreatprerequisiteofthisnewnationwastobetheobservanceoftheLaw,whichwouldinsurethecomingoftheSpirit
ofJehovahuponthenewIsrael(Jl2:28,29,Hag1:13,Zec2:15,etc.,Is60:122).ThecoronationofZerubbabelseemedtoHaggaiand
ZechariahthefulfilmentofthepromisethattheprincewouldcomefromthehouseofDavid
(Hag2:23,Zec3:8).Butthenewcommonwealthwasthoroughlyinefficient,andtheMessianichopeseemstohavebecomedormantinthestrugglesoftheweak
State.TheliteraryactivityoftheyearsbetweentherebuildingoftheTempleandtheMaccabanoutbreakwas,however,ifcurrentcriticalviewsbecorrect,fullof
idealisticelements.TheseexpressedthemselvesinareworkingoftheoldercodesandpropheciesoftheHebrews,undertheinfluenceofthefaithinthecoming
triumphJehovahwouldgiveHispeople.ThepersonalDelivererisnotdescribed,butthedeliverancewasassured.ThisgenuinelyMessianichopewasnotkilled
evenbyothertendenciestoreplaceprophecybythephilosophyofexperience.ThroughalltheseyearsitiscertainthatthefundamentalelementsoftheMessianic
hoperemainedfixednamely,theineradicablebeliefthatJehovahwould(a)makeoftheJewishnationaworldempire(b)establishthehouseofDavid(c)punish
theenemiesofHischosenpeople,whetherGentilesorJewsand(d)thatthisgloriousfuturewouldbeestablishedbytheexpressionoftheDivinepowerinthe
resurrection,notoftheindividualfromSheol,butofthenationfromitsmiseries.Theseelementsweresubsequentlytodevelopintothedominantcharacteristicsof
thelaterMessianichopetheKingdomofGod,theDavidicKing,theDayofJudgment,andtheResurrectionoftheRighteous.
II.TheMessiahoftheJewishliterature
1.Theriseofapocalypse.TheattemptofAntiochusEpiphanestocrushoutJudaismledtotheappearanceofanewtypeofreligiousliteraturethe
apocalypse.Theoriginofthisliteratureisamatterofdispute.TheinfluenceoftheBabylonianmythcyclesiscertainlyapparent,buttheapocalypses,astheystand,
havenopreciseanalogyinotherliteratureoftheperiod.Forourpresentpurpose,however,theimportanceoftheapocalypseliesinthefactthatitcontributedtothe
developmentofanewMessianicconception.IntheverynatureofthecasethemiseryofSyrianpersecutionforcedthePiousnotonlytorenewedfaithinJehovah,
butalsotoanewsenseoftheneedofprophecy.Intheabsenceofthegenuineprophet,thetriumphofIsraelandtheinevitabledestructionofJehovahsfoeswere
foretoldbysymbol.Thepseudonymousliterature,whichthusaroseinthecourseoftime,however,cametobetakennotsimplyasfiguresofspeech,butas
possessinganilldefinedliteralcharacter(seeAPOCALYPTICLITERATURE).
2.TheMessiahofthelatercanonicalbooksisnotwelldefined.TheapocalypticsectionsofDanielcontainapervasiveMessianicelement,andintheportrayal
ofthishopewefindthefirstthoroughlyelaboratedapocalypseofJudaism.TheinternationalrelationsofIsraelaretraced,butthehistoricalhorizonisboundedby
AntiochusEpiphanes.AmostimportantelementofthefutureassetforthbyDanielistobeseeninthetriumphofthekingdomofthesaints,whosesymbolisason
ofman,overtheoppressingkingdomsofBabylonia,Media,Persia,andSyria,symbolizedbythefourbeasts.Thereis,however,nosharplydistinctpersonal
Messiahinthesevisions,andtheexpectationisprimarilythatofagenuinelypoliticalStateestablishedbyJehovahinPalestine.ThedayofJehovah(seeDAYOF
THELORD)is,however,nowelaboratelydevelopedintoaworldjudgment,andthelinesoffutureapocalypticMessianismareclearlydrawn.Butitisnowtosome
extentexpandedbythebeliefthattherighteous,bothHebrewsandothers,wouldberaisedfromthedeadtojoinintheKingdom(Dn12:1ff.).Inthisunionofthe
ideaoftheresurrectionofthenationwiththatoftheindividualwefindmaterialwhichwasreadytogrowintothepicturesofthelaterapocalypse.
3.IntheSibyllineOraclesthefigureoftheMessiahagainisnotdistinct,butthereisapicture(III.652,794)ofaglorioustimewhenunderaDivinely
supportedking(doubtlessamemberoftheHasmonanhouse)warwastoceaseandGodwastoblesstherighteousandpunishthewicked.Thenationswouldthen
comeunderthelawofJehovah,andJerusalemwouldbethecapitaloftheworldwideempiretobeestablishedmiraculously.TheotherliteratureoftheinterBiblical
periodisnotsohopeful,althoughbenSiraforeseesaneverlastingJewishempireunderaDavidicdynasty(Sir32:18,19,33:1f.,37:25,47:11,50:24).
4.InthedifferentstrataoftheEth.EnochliteraturethehopeofapersonalMessiahispresentedinsomewhatdifferentdegreesofdistinctness.Intheolder
sections(136)oftheoriginalgroundwork(chs.136,72104),thehope,thoughapocalyptic,isnational.Here,however,asinthelaterliterature,attentionis
centredratheronthepunishmentofthewickedthanonthedevelopmentofthenewKingdom.Verynoteworthyisthefactthatboththepunishmentofthewicked
andtherewardsoftherighteousweretobeeschatological.Buteschatology,thoughinvolvingtheresurrection,isstillsomewhatnave.Therighteousaretolive500
years,beget1000children,anddieinpeace(ch.10).Still,thepunishmentofthewickedistobeinSheol,whichhasbeendividedintofoursectionswithvarying
conditions(ch.22seeS HEOL).Itisobvious,however,thatinthisearlyEnochliteraturethethoughtispoeticratherthanprecise,andinawayitmarksthetransition
fromthepoliticalreligioushopeoftheprophetstothetranscendentalexpectationsofthelaterapocalypses.
Inthedreamvisions(chs.8390)thereisamoreelaboratesymbolicalaccountofthesufferingsoftheHebrewpeopleundervariousoppressors.Thenewage,
however,isabouttobeintroducedbytheDayofJudgment,whenwickedpersonswhethermen,rulers,orangelsaretobecastintoanabyssoffire.Thenthe
NewJerusalemistobeestablishedbyGod.Thedeadaretoberaised,theMessiahistoappear,andallmenaretohetransformedintoHislikeness.Theselatter 62/102
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NewJerusalemistobeestablishedbyGod.Thedeadaretoberaised,theMessiahistoappear,andallmenaretohetransformedintoHislikeness.Theselatter
elementsofthehope,however,aresomewhatobscurelyexpressed.TheMessiahseemstohavenoparticularfunctioneitherofjudgmentorofconquest.Thenew
KingdomisadirectgiftofGod.
Inthelaterchaptersofthisearlysection(chs.90104)thethoughtbecomesmoreeschatological.TheresurrectioncomesattheendoftheMessianicreign,
whichistobeoneofstruggle,inwhichthewickedaretobesubdued.TheMessiahisthusmoredistinct,andisatleastoncecalledbyGodmySon.
IntheothergroupofEnochvisions(chs.3772)thetranscendentalhasbecometosomeextentliteralized.TheMessiahisnowveryprominent,beingcalled
sonofman,elect,righteousone.Heispreexistent,andcojudgewithGodoverboththelivingandthedead.ThepunishmentoftheenemiesofIsraelisstillas
prominentastheestablishmentofthenewKingdom,andthelatterisdescribedintermswhichmakeitevidentthattheJewscouldnotconceiveofanyKingdomof
GodapartfromPalestine.Theremenandangelsaretodwelltogetherandruleoveraworldfreedfromsin.
5.IntheBookofJubileestheMessianichopeisallbutlacking.Angelologyanddemonologyarewelldeveloped,butapparentlytheauthorofthevisions
conceivedoftheMessianicageasabouttodawn,evenifithadnotalreadybegun.Membersofthatageweretolive1000years,andweretobefreefromthe
influenceofSatan.TheJudgmentwastoclosethisperiod,buttherewastobenoresurrectionofthebody.ThereisnoreferencetoaMessiah,butrathertothe
conquestoftheworldbyanationthatkeptJehovahslaw.
6.ThebestdrawnpictureoftheMessiahinthePharisaicliteratureisthatofthePsalmsofSolomon.Inthe17thand18thofthesetheapocalypticelementis
largelywanting,butthereisnothinginconsistentwiththeviewofapocalypticMessianism.TheMessiah,however,isgivenapositionnotaccordedhimelsewhere
inpreChristianJewishliterature.Heisneithersufferernorteacher,preexistentnormiraculouslybornheisamightyking,viceregentofGod,strongthroughthe
HolySpirit.Hewouldconquertheworldwithoutweaponsorarmies,withthewordofhismouth,i.e.miraculously.ThecapitalwouldbeatJerusalem,whichwould
bepurgedfromallheathen,andhissubjectswouldberighteousJews,sonsofGod.
7.TheliteratureoflaterPharisaismbecameverystronglyapocalyptic,butthefigureofapersonalMessiahisnotalwayspresent.IntheAssumptionofMoses
thereisnopersonalMessiahmentioned,andGodissaidtobethesolepunisheroftheGentiles.Thesufferingsofthefaithfularetreatedasanincentivetofaithin
theKingdomofGod.Theconcretekingofthehostilekingdomshouldbeovercome.TheenemiesofGodweretobepunishedinGehenna,andaglorious
dispensationforunitedIsraelwastodawn.
InSlavonicEnoch,likewise,thereisnomentionoftheMessiahoroftheresurrection,althoughthelatterisdoubtlessinvolvedinthedoctrineofthemillennium,
whichthisbooksetsforth.ItwouldappearthatbothintheAssumptionofMosesandinSlavonicEnochthecentralfigureisGod,thedelivererofHispeopleand
judgeofHisenemies,ratherthantheMessiah.
IntheApocalypseofBaruchandinSecondEsdras,however,transcendentalismreachesitsfinalformundertheinfluenceofthetragedyofthefallofJerusalem.
ThesetwobooksareveryprobablythedifferentformsofcyclesofapocalyptichopesthatprevailedamongthepiousJews.InonecycleaMessiahwouldslaythose
whohadinanywayinjuredtheJewishpeople,andmakeaJerusalemalreadypreparedinheavenhiscapital.Intheothercyclethereisnosuchgloryinstorefor
Israel,buttherewillbeanendofcorruptiblethings,andtheestablishmentofanewworldageinwhichthedeadshallberaisedunderthecommandoftheMessiah.
InSecondEsdrastheChristisconceivedofaspreexistent,raisedfromtheseaincompanywithEnoch,Moses,andElijahandisaddressedbyGodasmySon.
HedestroystheenemiesofIsraelwithoutwar,withfirethatproceedsfromhismouth.ThetentribesofIsraelreturnwiththeirbrethrentoliveintheNewJerusalem
whichhadcomedownfromheaven.ThentheMessiahandallmankinddie,remainingdeadforanentireweekafterthatcomeageneralresurrectionand
judgment,andthefixingofthedestiniesofeternity.God,however,ratherthantheMessiah,istobejudge.
IntheselaterapocalypsestheChristplaysalargerle,butismanifestlytobesubordinatedtoGod.
III.TheMessiahofpopularexpectationinNTtimes.OveragainstthisMessiahof
Pharisaicliterature,soclearlyincreasinglysuperhumanincharacter,mustbeplacedthe
Messianichopeofthepeopleatlarge.Itisdifficulttodiscoverthisindetail,forthereasonthatitfounditswayintoliteratureonlyasahopethathadbeenrejected
bythewriters.YetitispossibleinsomepassagesofJosephustotraceitsriseanditstragicoutcome.TheMessianicspiritisundoubtedlytobeseeninthesuccession
ofsocalledrobbersthatdisturbedthereignsofHerodI.andhissuccessorsaswellasintheconspiraciesunderthetenmen(Ant.XV.viii.3,4)andtheRabbis
JudasandMatthias(Ant.XVII.vi.2,4).WiththedeathofHerod,however,theMessianicmovementamongthemassesgatheredheadway,particularlyafterthe
erectionofJudaintoaprocuratorialprovince(A.D.6).JudasofGamalaandaPhariseenamedZaducorganizedafourthsectcoordinatewiththePharisees,
Sadducees,andEssenes,andincitedthepeopletorevolt,becauseofthecensusthenestablished.Thereisnoevidence,however,thatthisnewsect,whichisclearly
thatoftheZealots,hadanydistincthopeofasuperhumanMessiah.AccordingtoJosephus(Ant.XVIII.i.1,6),theysaidGodwastobetheironlyrulerandlord.
TothisnewpartyJosephusattributesinlargedegreethefalloftheJewishState.Messianicmovementsarealsotobeseenintheattemptedrevoltoftheprophet
Theudas,inrobberslikeEleazar,intheSicarii(orAssassins),andintheEgyptian,withwhomSt.Paulwasmomentarilyidentifiedbythechiefcaptain(Ac21:33).
BesidesthesewerebandsoffanaticslikethosemysteriousmenmentionedbyJosephus(BJII.i.2,3).Allthesemovementscooperatedtobringaboutthe
destructionoftheJewishState,fortherevoltof66mustberegardedasdistinctlyMessianicafactperceivedbyJosephusintheimportantpassageBJVI.v.4,
whereitissaid:Whatmoststirredthemuptowarwastheambiguousoraclethatwasfoundalsointheirsacredwritings[doubtlessDanielcf.Ant.X.x.4]that
aboutthattimeonefromtheircountryshouldbecomeruleroftheworld.
ItisgreatlytoberegrettedthatthisMessianichopeofthepeoplehasnotleftlargertracesofitself.Itis,however,notdifficulttoseeinitthemorepoliticaland63/102
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ItisgreatlytoberegrettedthatthisMessianichopeofthepeoplehasnotleftlargertracesofitself.Itis,however,notdifficulttoseeinitthemorepoliticaland
concretehopeswhichthePhariseesexpressedintermsoftheapocalypse.TheZealots,likethePharisees,expectedthenewKingdomtobeestablishedbyGodor
HisrepresentativetheMessiah,but,unlikethePharisees,theywerenotcontenttoawaittheDivineaction.Theypreferredrathertoprecipitatedeliveranceby
politicalrevolt.ThefactthattheMessiahisnotprominentinsuchhopesdoesnotimplythatsuchapersonwasunexpected.Aleaderwouldcertainlybeinvolvedin
anyrevolt,butsuchaleaderwouldnotnecessarilybesuperhuman.YetitwouldbeunsafetosaythattheMessiahwhomthepeopleexpected,anymorethanhe
whomthePhariseesawaited,wouldbewithoutDivineappointmentandinspiration.Hemightnotbe,strictlyspeaking,supernatural,buthewouldcertainlybegiven
theDivineSpiritandpowertobringdeliverancewhich,withouttheaidofGod,wouldbeclearlyimpossible.ThechiefdifferencebetweentheMessianichopeof
thePhariseesandthatoftheZealotsandpeoplewasprobablythelackinthelatterofthe
eschatological,transcendentalelement,suchastheresurrectionfromthedeadandtheheavenlyJerusalem,whichwassoimportantinthehopeofthePharisees.
HowthoroughlysocialandpoliticalthisfolkMessianismbecameistobeseeninthevariousabortiveattemptstoestablish,duringtherevoltof66,apeasant
republic,aswellasinthedestructionofevidenceofindebtednessandthemassacreofthearistocrats.ThePharisaicexpectationwouldneverhaveledtoviolence,
butratherinvolvedthepatientwaitingofthefaithfulforthetimesetbyJehovah.
IV.TheMessiahoftheSamaritans.Itwouldbeexceedinglyhelpful,particularlyforanunderstandingofJn4:142,ifweknewtheSamaritanMessianic
hopewithsomeprecision.Unfortunately,thereisnoliteraturedatingfromthetimeofChristwhichsetsthisforth.Sofar,however,asitcanberecoveredfromlater
sources,andparticularlyfromthepresenthighpriestoftheSamaritans,itwouldseemthattheexpectationdidnotincludetheDavidicKingofJudaism,butcentred
ratherabouttheprophecyofDt18:15oftheprophetGodwastoraiseuplikeuntoMoses.Thisprophet,accordingtotheSamaritanbelief,wastobethe
Converter,whowouldbringmoralandreligioustruthtolight.Atthesametime,theybelievedthattheGentileswouldbesubjectedtohim,wouldbelieveinhim
andtheholyLaw,andinthesanctuaryofMt.Gerizim.Thereseemstohavebeennoexpectationofmiraculouspowerstobeexercisedbytheprophetbut
concerningthis,asinfactaboutotherparticularsoftheSamaritanhope,nostatementcanbemadewithabsolutecertainty.
V.TheMessiahofRabbinism.SubsequenttothedestructionofJerusalem,PharisaismdevelopedrapidlyintoitsfinalstageofRabbinism.Thetwo
tendencieswhicharesomarkedinPharisaismonetowardsstrictlegalism,theothertowardsMessianicidealismwerethencodifiedandsystematicallyelaborated.
ThedevelopmentoftheMessianicexpectation,however,wastosomeextentshapedbytheneedofcombatingtheMessianicinterpretationsof
Christianity.TracesofthisinfluenceareundoubtedlytobefoundintheTargumonIs53,andin2Esdras,buttheyarealsotoappearinliteraturethatwasclearly
subjectedtoChristianredaction.TheMessiahwasgenerallyregardedasadescendantofDavid.HewastofreeIsraelfromthepoweroftheheathenworld,killits
emperorofthekingdomofevil,andsetuphisownKingdom.Hewasregardedalsoaspreexistent,notmerelyideally,butactually.Foramerelyidealpreexistence
isnottobearguedfromthewellknownsayingincludingtheseventhingscreatedbeforetheworldwasmade.Thenamehereundoubtedlyimpliespersonality,and
insomeofthelaterJewishwritingsthispreexistentstateissomewhatminutelydescribed.Heistobehiddenuntilheappears,buttheobviousinconsistenciesof
viewwereneverfullysystematized.
DoubtlessbecauseoftheMessianicargumentsofChristians,baseduponsuchpassagesasIs53,theRabbiswereforcedtotherecognitionoftheideaofthe
sufferingMessiah.Inthisrecognition,however,nochangewasmadeintheconceptionoftheMessiahthesonofDavid,butthebeliefcametoinvolveasecond
MessiahthesonofJoseph.Hisofficeandpersonarenotdescribedindetail,butlaterRabbinicteachingheldthathewouldappearbeforethecomingoftheMessiah
thesonofDavid,wouldgatherfaithfulJewstohim,defeathispeoplesenemies,andestablishagreatempirewithitscapitalandtempleatJerusalem.Thereafter
someoneofthevarioustranscendentalenemiesofIsrael,likeGogandMagog,woulddefeatandslayhim.ThentheMessiahsonofDavidwouldcomeand
resurrecttheMessiahsonofJoseph,andestablishthegreatandmorepermanentMessianicKingdom.ThisconceptionoftheMessiahsonofJoseph,however,has
neverplayedaverylargeroleinRabbinicMessianism,andmustberegardedinthelightofaconcessiontoChristianopponentsratherthanasareallyformative
influence.TheolderhopeoftheMessiahsonofDavidisthatdominantamongorthodoxJews,whostillawaithiscoming,whichistofollowtheappearanceof
Elijah(Mal3:1,4:6,6).
VI.TheMessiahoftheNT.Asitsverynameindicates,ChristianitycentresaboutthebeliefthatJesuswastheMessiah.Thedefinitionofthatwordasapplied
toJesusisoneaboutwhichthereissomedifferenceofopinion.Conceivablyitmightbe(a)thatofPharisaicMessianism(b)somethingaltogethernewor,more
probably,(c)theoldconceptionmodifiedbycertainnewelements.
IndiscoveringwhattheMessianicconceptionsoftheNTare,itisnecessarytoavoidadogmaticattitudeofmind,andtocometothediscussionfromthehistoricalexegetical
pointofview.InsuchamethodthepointofdepartureisthepresuppositionthatcurrentbeliefsanddefinitionswereusedbyJesusandHisdiscipleswhereversuchthoughtsand
definitionsarenotdistinctlychangedorabrogated.Adisregardofthisprimaryprincipleinhistoricalmethodhastoofrequentlybeenthecauseoffalseperspectiveandanachronistic
conclusionsasregardsNTthought.
1.JesusconceptionofMessiahship.ThatJesusconceivedofHimselfasaMessiahseemstobebeyondquestion,itthesayingofMk14:61,62isregardedas
historical.Butsuchaconclusiondoesnotrestwhollyuponasinglesaying.HiswordsconcerningHisconquestofSatan(Mk3:2328)arealtogetherconsonant
withtheconceptionofHimselfasChristandHisassenttotheconfessionoftheApostlesatCsareaPhilippiisapracticalacceptanceofthetitle(Mk8:2730,
whichhasbeenmademoreexplicitinMt16:1316,Lk9:1820).HisanswertotheinquiryofJohntheBaptistastowhetherHeweretheComingOne(Mt11:2
10,Lk7:18f.)canbeinterpretedonlyasaffirmative.ThequestionwasgenuinelyMessianic,andtheScripturewhichHeused(Is35:5,6)wasgivenaMessianic
interpretationbytheRabbis.TogiveitanyotherthanaMessianicimplicationistorenderthewholeepisodeunintelligible.Itistobenoticedfurtherthatthissaying
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interpretationbytheRabbis.TogiveitanyotherthanaMessianicimplicationistorenderthewholeepisodeunintelligible.Itistobenoticedfurtherthatthissaying
isnotexposedtothedifficultieswhichinhereinsomeoftheapocalypticsayingsattributedtoJesus,orintherepeatedMessianicdesignationsoftheFourthGospel.
Itiseasybyaprocessofsubjectivecriticismtoremovesuchsayingsfromthefieldofdiscussion,butsuchprocedureisarbitraryinviewofthefactsalreadyadduced.Itistrue
thatintheSynopticGospelsJesusdoesnotatthebeginningoftheGalilanministrygoaboutthecountryannouncingthatHeistheChrist,butneitherdoesHeundertakethissortof
propagandaaccordingtotheJohanninesource.AnditshouldnotbeoverlookedthatinanycaseHiswordsinthesynagogueofNazareth(Lk4:1630,Mt13:5458,Mk6:16),
whichcanbestbeinterpretedasanexpositionofHisconceptionofHis
Messiahship,wereutteredintheearlypartofHisministry.WhilesomeallowancemaybemadefortheJohannineaccountsoftheearlyacceptanceofJesusasChrist,thereisno
reasonwhytheascriptionofthetitletoHimbythedisciplesmightnothavebeenmadeatthebeginningoftheministryinthesamefuturistsenseasisinvolvedintheobvious
MessianicdefinitionimpliedinthequestionsofthesonsofZebedeeintheSynopticcycle(Mk10:3545).ThefactthatJesusacceptedsuchinterpretationsofHisfuturemakesit
plainthatHeregardedHimselfasChrist,atleastinthesensethatHewastodnMessianicworkinthefuture.
This,however,bringsusfacetofacewiththequestionastohowfarJesusappliedtoHimselftheeschatologicalMessianichopesofHispeople,andhowfarHe
developedanoriginalMessianicideal.Asyetnoconsensusofscholarshasbeenreachedonthisverydifficultpoint.
Certainthings,however,seemtobeestablished.(a)Jesuswasnotregardedgenerallyasthe
Christ,butratherasaprophetandmiracleworker.HecertainlyrefusedtocommitHimselftotheMessianicprogrammeoftheZealots.HerejectedthetitleSonof
David(Mk12:35),andrefusedtobemadeaking,ortousephysicalforceinbringingintheKingdomofGod(Jn6:15cf.Mt4:810,Lk4:58,Mk14:47,58).
(b)UnlessallreferencebyJesustothefutureintermsofeschatologyistobedenied(adecisionimpossibleforreasonablecriticism),Hecertainlythoughtof
HimselfasreturninginthenearfuturetoestablishaKingdomthatwaseschatological.
AlthoughitisprobablethatthewritersoftheGospelshaveimportedeschatologicalreferencesintothesayingsofJesus,itisimpossibletoremovethemaltogether.If,asis
probable,JesusconceivedoftheKingdomasthegiftofGod,forwhosecomingmenweretoprepare,itisinevitablethatHisMessianiccareerwouldhavebeenregardedasfutureas
trulyastheKingdomitself(cf.Mt6:10,Mk9:1,Lk12:32,Mt25,Mk14:51,62,Mk13,1Th4:1517,Mt19:28,Lk22:30).
(c)ButalthoughthecomingoftheKingdom,withtheattendantJudgment,wasstillinthefuture,JesuscannotbesaidtohaveconceivedofHismissionwholly
intermsofeschatology.HehadbrokenwithPharisaismtoocompletelytowarrantourattributingtoHimaprioricompletesubjectiontoanyPharisaicconception.If
thereisanythingthatstandsoutintheexpressionofJesusselfconsciousness,itisthatHisexperienceofGodwassuperiortothatofaprophet.
WhileintheSynopticGospelsHedoesnotuseexplicitlythetermsChristorSonofGodofHimself,HisreticenceintheuseoftermsisbalancedbyHis
conceptionofHisownrelationtotheKingdomofGod.HewastheSonofMan,i.e.,inaccordancewithDn7:18,HewasthetypeofthecomingKingdom.If,as
isundoubtedlythecase,HemaintainedreserveinHispreachinginmakingexplicitclaimsconcerningMessiahship,suchreserveiseasilyexplainedasapreventive
againstthosemisapprehensionswithwhichpeoplewouldhavebeensuretoregardHiswork.ThespiritoftheLordwasuponHimtoenableHimtodocertaindeeds
whichitwasexpectedtheChristwouldperform.Hewasgatheringdiscipleswho,asHisfollowers,weretoshareinthecomingKingdom.Inaword,becauseofthe
DivineSpiritembodiedinHisownselfconsciousness,HewasalreadyengagedintheworkofsavingGodspeople.(d)TheconnectinglinkbetweentheMessianic
careerofserviceandtheMessianiccareerofglorywasHisdeath.NofaircriticismcandoubtthatJesussawinthesetwosupremeexperienceselementsofHiswork
asSaviour.OnlythuscanweinterpretHissayingattheLastSupperandHisrepeatedpropheciesto
Hisfollowers(Mk14:24,8:319:1,9:3032,Mt12:40,Lk12:45,46).ThusHefulfilledin
HimselftheMessianicpictureoftheSufferingServantofIs53.(e)Inconclusion,itappearsthatJesusconceptionofHimselfasMessiahwasthatHewastheOne
inwhomGodHimselfwasrevealingHimselfastheSaviourofthosewhowouldacceptHimastheFather.TheteachingofJesusfromthispointofviewbecomes
somethingmorethantheoreticalethicsandreligion,andisseentobeanexpositionofHisownMessianicselfconsciousness.EveninHishumiliationandinHis
sufferingsHewastheDivinelyempoweredSaviour.IfHisfaithintheultimatetriumphofthatsalvationtooktheformoftheeschatologyofHispeople,itdoesnot
therebyloseanyofitssignificance.ByHissufferingsGodsrighteousServantdidjustifymany,andbyHisdeathonthecrossHediddrawmentoHim.WithHis
resurrectionbegananewerainreligiousexperience,whichrevealedtherealitiesofthosepicturesofthattranscendentalagetocomeinwhichcurrentMessianism
clothedthegloriesoftheDivinedeliverance.
Inshort,JesusmodifiedtheconceptionoftheMessiahfundamentally:(1)byrecognizingin
HisownexperiencevicarioussufferingasapartoftheDivinedeliverance,butevenmore(2)byHisinsistenceontheuniversalfatherlinessofGod,which
transformedsalvationfromsomethingethnicandnationalintoasalvationfromsinanddeathofallthosewhoacceptHimastheChristi.e.whobyfaithreproduce
intheirlivesthatdynamicunionwithGod,whichwasthesourceofthepowerwhichHeHimselfexhibitedinHislifeandresurrection.
2.TheconceptionoftheMessiahamongtheApostles.IngeneraltheApostlesmaybesaidtohavebelievedJesustobetheMessiahinthesensethat(a)inHis
earthlyperiodofhumiliationHewasanointedwithGodsSpirit(b)thatHehadnotdonethestrictlyMessianicworkduringHisearthlycareer(c)thatHehadbeen
declaredtheChristbyHisresurrectionand(d)that,thoughnowinauthorityinheaven,HewouldreturntodeliverHispeople,establishaKingdom,andholdthe
worldjudgmentwhichwastobeprecededbytheresurrectionofbelievers,ifnotofallmen.
(1) IntheprimitiveChurchofJerusalemexpectationcentredabouttheeschatologicalconceptofjudgmentanddeliverance.AsappearsfromthespeechofSt.65/102
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(1)IntheprimitiveChurchofJerusalemexpectationcentredabouttheeschatologicalconceptofjudgmentanddeliverance.AsappearsfromthespeechofSt.
PeteratPentecost(Ac2:1442),aswellasfromotheraddressesfromtheearlychaptersofActs,thedisciplesbelievedthatthenewagewasabouttodawn.They
werelivinginthelastdaysofthepreMessianicage.TheChristhadappeared,buthadbeenkilled,hadascendedtoheavenafterHisresurrection,thenceHehad
senttheHolySpirittothosewhobelievedthatHewastheChrist,thusfulfillingtheprophecyofJl2:2832(which,however,hadnotbeenthusinterpretedbythe
Pharisees).TheResurrectionhadnotmadeHimtheChrist,buthaddecisivelyshownthatHewastheOnewhomGodhadmadeLordandChrist(Ac2:36).Inthe
primitiveChurchtheMessianicdeliverancewaslimitedtothecommonwealthofIsrael.IftheGentilesweretoshareintheMessianicdeliverance,theyhadneedto
becircumcisedandjointheJewishcommunity(Ac15:1).
JusthowfardiscipleslikeSt.PeterandSt.JohnwerecommittedtothisstrictlyJewishtypeofMessianicexpectationitisdifficulttosay.Itwould,however,beunfairtohold
thattheyrepresentedthesocalledpartyofthecircumcisionwhichcombatedSt.PaulinhisremovalofallconditionsofsalvationbeyondfaithinJesusasChrist.Itshouldnotbe
overlooked,moreover,thatevenintheprimitiveJerusalemChurchthedeathofJesuswasregardedasapartoftheMessianicprogrammeofdeliverance,thoughthereisnodistinct
theoryoftheAtonementformulated.
(2)St.PaulsconceptionoftheMessiah,(i.)ThisisinmarkedadvanceuponthatoftheprimitiveChurch.HewasatonewiththeJerusalemcommunityin
holdingthattheKingdomhadnotyetcome,andthatJesuswouldsoonreturnfromheaventoestablishit.HebuiltintohisMessianicconception,however,a
numberofimportantelements,someofwhichwerederivedfromJudaism.Theseelementswere(a)thevicariousnatureofthedeathofChrist(b)thepreexistence
ofJesusasChrist(c)thedoctrineofthesecondAdam,i.e.thatJesusinHisresurrectionwasthetypeoftherisenhumanity,asAdamwasthetypeofphysical
humanity(d)themoreorlesscompleteidentificationofJesuswiththeSpiritwhocametothedisciples,asdistinctfromhavingbeensentbyJesustothedisciples.
(ii.)Itisnotdifficulttosee,therefore,whyitwasthatSt.PaulschiefinterestdidnotlieinthecareerofthehistoricalJesusasateacherandmiracleworker,but
ratherintheDivine,risen
ChristwhomaintainedspiritualrelationswithHisfollowers.TohavemadetheteachingofJesusthecentreofhisthoughtwouldhavebeentoreplacethelegalismof
theLawbythelegalismofanewauthority.St.PaulwasevidentlyacquaintedwiththeteachingofJesus,buthismessagewasnotthatofacompletedethical
philosophy,butagospelofgoodnewsofasalvationpossibletoallmankind,throughfaithinJesusastheMessiah.ThePaulinegospeltotheunconverted(seeAc
13:1641,14:817,17:13)startedwiththeexpectationofMessianicjudgment,presentedthecrucifiedJesusasdeclaredtheChristbyHisresurrection,provedit
bytheuseofOTprophecy,andclosedwiththeexhortationtohishearerstobecomereconciledtoGod,whowasreadytoforgiveandsavethem.Inhisthought
salvationconsistedinthepossession,throughtheindwellingHolySpiritofGod,ofthesortoflifewhichtherisenJesusalreadypossessed.
Moralitywastheexpressioninconductof.thisregeneratelife.
(iii.)ThePaulineChristisDivine,andHisworkistwofold.First,itistobethatoftheMessiahofJewisheschatology.TheApostleutilizesmanyoftheelements
oftheMessianismofthePharisees,e.g.thetwoages,theworldjudgment,thetrumpettoraisethedead,thesorrowsofthelastdays.Buthealsomadeadistinct
additiontoMessianicthought(a)byhisemphasisupontherelationofthedeathofJesustotheacquittalofthebelieverintheeschatologicaljudgment,and(b)inhis
formulationofadoctrineoftheresurrectionbytheuseofthehistoricalresurrectionofJesus.Theargumentinthislattercaserestsontwofoundationstestimony
andtheimplicationsofChristianexperience.TheChristianistobesavedfromdeath,thewagesofsin,afterthemannerofhisrisenLord,whohadbornedeathon
hisbehalf.ThusthePaulineChristologyisessentiallysoteriological.Itsspeculativeelementsarewhollycontributorytotheexpositionofthecertaintyandthe
reasonablenessofthecomingdeliverance.ClothedthoughitisinJewishvocabulariesandconceptions,thePaulineconceptionofChristandHisworkhasforits
focithehistoricalJesusandChristianexperience.TheconceptsinheritedfromJudaismdonotgiverisetohisbeliefintheresurrection,buthisconfidenceinthe
historicityofthateventgivesrisetohisChristology.Secondly,conceivingthusofJesusasthesupremeKingofthosewhomHehaddelivered,thePauline
conceptionsofHisrelationswiththeChurchfollowednaturally.GodwasnottocondemnthosewhohadvoluntarilyundertakentopreparefortheKingdomwhenit
shouldappear.TheywerejustifiedthroughtheirfaithinJesusasChrist.ButcouldtheKingofthatcomingKingdombeindifferenttothosewhowerejustified,had
alreadyreceivedtheHolySpiritasafirstinstalmentofthefutureblessing,andweredailyawaitingHisreappearance?
TheChristwastheHeadoftheChurchinthelastdays,justastrulyas,inthecomingage,HewouldbeKing.HissupremacyovertheChurchconsistednot
merelyinthatitsoriginalnucleuswascomposedofHisdisciples,butalsointhatHehadinstituteditssimplerites,establishedthedetailsofitsorganizationby
givingtoitsmembersvaryinggiftsoftheSpirit,overseesitsaffairs,andispresentwithinit.Infact,sointimateisHisrelationwiththeChurch,thatChristiansmay
besaidtobeinHim,andHeisthem.
FromthisunionofthebelieverwithhisLord(generallymediatedinthePaulinethoughtbythepresenceoftheHolySpirit)comestheconsummationofthe
salvationoftheindividual.SinceHehadtriumphedoverdeath,thebelieverinwhomtheHolySpiritlivedmightalsoexpectthegiftofthatspiritualbodywhichwas
oneelementofthesalvationwroughtbyJesusinthecaseoftheIndividual.
(iv.)YetSt.PaulwouldnotsaythattheChristwastoreigneternally.AfterHehadcompletedHisworkofMessianicdeliverance,hadfinallyconqueredsinand
death,andhadestablishedHisgloriousage,HewastogiveuptheKingdomtotheFatherthatGodmightbeallandinall(1Co15:24).Thus,whilethePauline
soteriologicalthoughtisChristocentric,histheologyisTheocentric.JesusisChristinthesensethatthroughHimGodaccomplishesthesalvationofHispeople
withSt.PaulnolongertheJewishnation,butindividualswho,becauseoftheirrelationswiththeDeliverer,havebeenwroughtintoaunityonearthandawaitan
evennoblerunityinheaveo.
(3)InpostPaulineApostolicthoughttheMessianicconceptisstillcentral,butinitsdevelopmentwenoticetwotendencies.(a)Thereisthetendency,already 66/102
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(3)InpostPaulineApostolicthoughttheMessianicconceptisstillcentral,butinitsdevelopmentwenoticetwotendencies.(a)Thereisthetendency,already
presentinprimitiveandPaulineChristianity,tofindconfirmationoftheMessianicdignityofJesusintheOTprophecies.Withtheirrecollectionsofthehistorical
careerofJesus,theApostlessawintheOTMessianicmeaningswhichhadeludedthePharisees.Theydidnot,itistrue,disregardthosepassageswhichsetforththe
royaldignityoftheChrist,buttheywerefarmoreconcernedinarguingfortheMessianicsignificanceofthosepassageswhichforetoldthevictoryofGods
AnointedoverdeathandthevicariousnatureofHissufferings.ThussuchpassagesasPs110andIs53wereseentosupplementeachotherinteachingthe
consonanceoftheMessianicdignitywithsuffering.
AsChristianthoughtdeveloped,thistendencytofindMessianicreferencesintheOTsetpracticallynolimitstoitself.IntheEpistletotheHebrewstheessential
featuresoftheentireHebrewcultareviewedasforeshadowingsofthecareerandthegloriesoftheChrist.Inthepropheticfulfilmentsnoticedbythewriterofthe
FirstGospel,theprophecyofthebirthofasontothevirgin(Is7:14)andtherecallofIsraelfromEgypt(Hos11:1)arealsoseentobepropheciesofthe
experienceofJesus(Mt1:23,2:15).Thesamewastrueofmoreincidentalmatters,suchasHisnameandHisdescriptionastheNazarene(Mt2:23),whilethe
experienceofJonahwasregardedasatypeofHisburialandresurrection(12:40).Particularlywasitseenthat
Hisvicariouscharacterwasforetold.IntheBookofRevelationtheMessianicfutureofJesusand
HisKingdomwasstillfurtherelaboratedbythecopiousutilizationofapocalypticthought.IntheApostolicFatherstheuseoftheOTasthebasisforChristological
thoughtinvolvedanarbitraryexegesiswhichextendedfarbeyondthelimitsofpropermethodologyandeventsinthelifeofJesuswerefoundpredictedinsayings
andeventsquiteunusedbytheApostles.
(b)ThesecondtendencyinpostPaulineChristologicalinterpretationistorestatetheMessianicsignificanceofJesusintermsofcurrentphilosophy.Themost
pronouncedillustrationofthisistobeseenintheJohannineliterature.HeretheChristisidentifiedwiththeLogos,andHisentirecareerisviewedasanillustration
ofthegreatconflictbetweenlightanddarkness,lifeanddeath,thepowersofSatanandthepowersofGod.IntheEpistletotheHebrewsatendencyistobeseen
towardsthemetaphysicalconceptionofJesusastheSonofGodatendencywhichwastofinditsoutcomeinthetheologicalformulationsofthe3rdand4th
centuries.
ButinboththesetendenciesthefundamentalconceptionofMessiahshipismaintained.GodisinJesusreconcilingtheworldtoHimself,notimputing,their
trespassestothosewhoacceptHim,andalreadyengagedintheworkoftheirsalvation.TheelementalconceptionoftheMessiahthuspassedoverintoChristian
thought.Itcarriedwithit,itistrue,thefiguresofthatinterpretationwhichwasbornofthedevelopmentoftheHebrewandJewishthought.Butthesefiguresarenot
theessentialelementofChristianity.ThatisratherthemessagewhichtheprophetsthemselveshadappliedexclusivelytoIsrael,viz.thatGodwouldsaveHispeople
throughsomepersonalityinwhomHisspiritwasparticularlyresidenttoempowerHimfortheworkofsalvation.ThusinthehistoryofJesusandinChristian
experiencethisDivinesalvationissetforth,notasabextra,butastheresultoftheinworkingofGodinhumanlives,towhichHecomesthroughthemediationof
faithinJesus,Hissupremerevelation.Toformulateandvindicatethemessageofthissalvationistoexhibitthecontentofthegospel.
S HAILERMATHEWS.
METE.TometeIstomeasure,andameteyard(Lev19:35)isamerchantsmeasuringstick.
METHEGAMMAH.DavidtookMethegammahoutofthehandofthePhilistines(2S8:1AVandRVm).RVtr.thebridleofthemothercity,whichhas
beeninterpretedtomeanauthorityoverthemetropolis,orthesuzeraintyexercisedbythePhilistines,itbeingassumedthatGathwastheleadingcity.Inall
probabilitythetextiscorruptbeyondrestoration.See,further,ExpT,Oct.1899,p.48,andFeb.1906,p.215.
W.F.COBB.
METHUSELAH.ASethite,thefatherofLamech,Gn5:21ff.(P),1Ch1:3,Lk3:37=MethushaelinJsgenealogy,4:18.Thenameisinterpretedby
Holzingerasmanofthejavelinafittingnameforatimewhentheearthwasfullofviolence.
METHUSHAEL.ACainite,thefatherofLamech,Gn4:18(J)MethuselahinPsgenealogy(5:21ff.).Theinterpretationsofthenamearevarious.
MEUNIM.SeeMAANI,MAON,MINANS.
MEUZAL.Ezk27:19AVm.SeeUZAL.
MEZAHAB(watersofgold).FatherofMatredandgrandfatherofMehetabelthewifeofHadar(Hadad),oneofthekingsofEdom(Gn36:39).Thename
Mezahabismuchmorelikethatofaplacethanofaperson.HolzingersuggeststhatitisthesamenameasappearsinacorruptedforminDt1:1asDizahab(wh.
see).
MEZOBAITE.OneofDavidsheroesiscalledin1Ch11:47JaasieltheMezobaite.Thetextisdoubtful.
MIBHAR.In1Ch11:38oneofDavidsheroesappearsasMibharthesonofHagri.Theparallelpassage2S23:36reads,ofZobah,BanitheGadite,
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MIBHAR.In1Ch11:38oneofDavidsheroesappearsasMibharthesonofHagri.Theparallelpassage2S23:36reads,ofZobah,BanitheGadite,
whichisprobablythecorrecttext.
MIBSAM.1.AsonofIshmael(Gn25:13=1Ch1:29).2.ASimeonite(1Ch4:25).
MIBZAR(fortification).AdukeofEdom(Gn36:42=1Ch1:53).
MICA.1.SonofMeribbaal(Mephibosheth),2S9:12calledin1Ch8:34f.,9:40f.
Micah.SeeMICAH,No.3.2.SonofZichri(1Ch9:15,Neh11:17)=MicaiahofNeh12:35.3.Oneofthosewhosealedthecovenant(Neh10:11).
MICAH,MICAIAH(WhoislikeJahweh?).Thisname,whichoccursatleasttwelvetimesintheOT,andisawomansnameaswellasamans,isspeltin
threedifferentwaysthefullnameisMicajahu,apartiallyshortenedformisMicaiah,whileastillshorterformisMicah.
Themoreimportantofthosewhoborethisnamearethefollowing:1.Micah,adwellerinthehillcountryofEphraimhestolefromhismotherelevenhundred
piecesofsilver,which,however,hereturnedonhearingthecursewhichhismotherpronouncedagainstthethief.Withpartofthereturnedsilverhismothercauses
animagetobemade,whichMicahsetsupinhishousehethenconsecratesoneofhissonsapriest.ButaLevite,namedJonathan,comestothehouseofMicah
whilejourneyingMicahinduceshimtobehispriestinsteadofthesonwhomhehadfirstconsecrated.DuringthistimetheDanitessendoutfivementosearchfora
suitablelocalitywhereintosettledownthesefivemencometothehouseofMicah,andwhilestayingtheretheyrecognizetheLevite.Ontheirreturntheyreport
thattheyhavefoundaplacefortheirtribetodwellin.ThewholefamilyoftheDanitesthensetout,andcometotakepossessionofthedistricttheyintendtomake
theirhome.OntheircomingintotheneighbourhoodofMicahsdwellingplace,thefivemenwhohadalreadybeentherecomeandpersuadeMicahsLevitetojoin
them,andtobringwithhimMicahsephod,teraphim,andgravenimage.Micahfollowsafterthembutprotestsinvain,forheiswarnedthatifheattemptstoregain
hispriestandlosttreasuresbyforcehewilllosehisgoodsandhislifehethereforereturnshomewithoutthem(Jg17,18).Thisveryinterestingnarrativehas
undoubtedlyabasisinfact:itrecordsthoughlatereditorshavesomewhataltereditsoriginalformhowthesanctuaryinDanfirstcametobeestablished(seeesp.
Jg18:2931).
2.Micaiah,thesonofImlahaprophetofJahwehwhoiscalledbyAhab,attherequestofJehoshaphat,kingofJudah,toprophesyconcerningtheresultofa
projectedexpeditionagainsttheSyrians.InreplytoAbahsinquiryMicaiahfirstprophesiessmoothlybutAbahbidshimspeaknothingbutthetruththereuponhe
foretellsthedisasterthatistobefallthealliedarmiesofIsraelandJudahiftheygouptoRamothgileadtobattle.Theparablewhichtheprophetthenuttersisa
terribleindictmentagainstthelyingprophetsofIsraeltheblowwhichoneofthemthereupongiveshimisansweredbyafurtherprophecy,thistimedirected
againstthefalseprophetwhogavetheblow.Micaiahisthencommandedtobeimprisoneduntilthekingreturnsinpeacebut,undaunted,theprophetreplies,If
thoureturnatallinpeace,Jahwehhathnotspokenbyme.ThesequelshowedMicaiahtohaveprophesiedtruly(1K22).3.Micah,thesonofMephibosheth(1Ch
8:34f.,9:40f.[2S9:12Mica]).4.Micaiah,oneoftheteacherssentbyJehoshaphattoteachthecommandmentsofJahwehinthecitiesofJudah(2Ch17:7).5.
Micaiah,thesonofGemariah,andacontemporaryofJeremiah,whoheardBaruchreadingoutthepropheciesofJeremiah,andthenspokeofthemtotheprinces
whowereassembledinthescribeschamber(Jer36:913),perhapsidenticalwiththeMicaiahof2K22:12andtheMicahof2Ch34:20.6.Oneofthepriestswho
tookpartinthededicationofthewall(Neh12:41).Otherlessimportantbearersofthenamearementionedin1Ch5:5,23:20(cf.24:24f.),2Ch13:2(seeMAACAH,
4),Neh10:11,12:35[1Ch9:15Mica]41,Jth6:15.FortheprophetMicahseethefollowingarticle.
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
MICAH.TheMorashtite,oneofthefourprophetsofthe8thcenturyB.C.whosewritingshavesurvived.Probablyhisprophecydoesnotextendbeyondthe
firstthreechaptersoftheBookofMicah(seenextart.).
Accordingtothegeneralinterpretationof1:5,Micahprophesied,atleastinpart,beforethedestructionofSamaria,whichtookplaceinB.C.722thoughsome
placehispropheticactivityentirelyintheyears705701.Inanycase,heprophesiedagenerationorsolaterthanAmos,lateralsothanHoseabuthewas
contemporarywithIsaiah,andhisactivitycoincideswiththemidcareerofIsaiah,oritsclose,accordingasweaccepttheoneortheotherofthetwoviewsjust
mentioned.
HewasanativeofMoresheth(1:1,Jer26:18),aplacewhich,ifweidentifyit,asweprobablyshould,withMoreshethgath(Mic1:14),layintheShephlahof
Judah,afertilecountrywithviewsoverthePhilistinecountrytotheMediterranean,andbackedbytheloftierhillswhichrisetotheplateauonwhichJerusalemis
placed.ThehomeofMicahthuslayagooddaysjourneyfromthecapital,which,ifwemayjudgefromthevividnessofhisdescriptions,hemustfrequentlyhave
visited.
HowMicahworkedwearenottoldthathespokeinpublic,andthatperhapsbothathomeandinJerusalem,isprobableinthelightofwhatisknownofAmos
andIsaiahand,guidedbythesameanalogy,wemaysupposethathehimselfsummarizedhisteachinginwriting(Mic13inthemain).
OfthecallofMicahwehavenodetails,butheunderstoodhisdutyasprophettoconsistindeclaringtoJacobhistransgression,andtoIsraelhissin(3:8),and
thedoomwhichtheseinvolved.ThistransgressioniscentralizedinthecapitalsSamariaandJerusalem(1:5Whatisthesin(soLXX)ofJudah?Isitnot
Jerusalem?cf.3:1012).TherisingbuildingsandthegrowingmagnificenceofJerusaleminHezekiahsdayspoketohimofthegrindingdownofthepoorby
whichthewealthneededforsuchworkshadbeenobtained.ItismoreespeciallytheleadingandrulingclassesthatMicahupbraidsthewealthylandproprietors68/102
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Jerusalem?cf.3:1012).TherisingbuildingsandthegrowingmagnificenceofJerusaleminHezekiahsdayspoketohimofthegrindingdownofthepoorby
whichthewealthneededforsuchworkshadbeenobtained.ItismoreespeciallytheleadingandrulingclassesthatMicahupbraidsthewealthylandproprietors
whosqueezeoutthesmallerholders(2:1ff.cf.Is5:8),thejudgesandofficials(3:14),theprophets(3:5ff.),andtheprieststheyhavewhollymisunderstood
JahwehintheverypursuitofinjusticeandinhumanitytheyrelyonHispresenceforsafety!(3:11).WithMicahaswithIsaiah,Amos,andHosea,Jahwehisthus
essentiallyarighteousGod,offendedbymansmoralsins,pleasedonlywithamorallifetheethicalistheessentialelementinHispersonality.Briefasishis
prophecy,thisisclear,andthedeepimpressionmadebyhisworkisevidentfromthenarrativeinJer26.G.B.GRAY.
MICAH,BOOKOF.TheBookofMicahstandsinEVsixthinorderofthesocalledMinorProphets.IntheLXXitstoodthird,precededonlybyHoseaand
Amos.EVinitsarrangementfollowstheHebrewBible.IntheHebrewBibletheBookofMicahisthesixthsectionofacollectionofpropheciesalreadyknown
aboutB.C.180astheTwelveProphets(Sir49:10).ThisBookoftheTwelveProphetscannothavebeencompiledearlierthanthe5thcent. B.C.,foritcontains
theBookofMalachi,anditprobablywasnotcompiledtilltowardsthecloseofthe3rdcenturyB.C.ForthehistoryoftheBookofMicahpriortoitsinclusioninthis
compilationwemustrelyentirelyoninternalevidence,exceptforanyconclusionswhichmaybedrawnfromJer26:17ff.,itappearscertainthatthesectionofthe
BookoftheTwelveProphetsentitledMicahconsistsinpartofpropheciesofMicahtheMorashtite(seepreced.art.),acontemporaryofIsaiah,andinpartof
propheciesoflaterdatebutthedeterminationofwhatarethelaterpropheciesisnotineverycaseequallyeasyorsure.
Thebookdividesintothreeclearlymarkedsectionschs.13,PropheciesofJudgmentforsin(exception2:12f.)chs.4,5,PropheciesofPromise(mainly,if
notentirely)chs.6,7,moremiscellaneousincharacter,butcontaininginch.7confessionsofnationalsin.
Thefirstofthesesectionscontains,andforthemostpartconsistsof,propheciesofMicah.TheallusiontoSamaria(whichwasdestroyedin722)asstill
standing,andtheaccordanceoftheotherconditionspresupposedwithwhatisotherwiseknownofthelatterhalfofthe8thcent.B.C.,wouldsufficetoprovethis
butwealsopossessearlyexternalevidencethatMicahwastheauthorofasayingoccurringinthissectionofthebook.Atthecloseofthefollowingcentury(B.C.
608)theprophetJeremiahwasdenouncedbythepriestsandprophetsasworthyofdeath,becausehehadpredictedthedestructionofJerusalembutcertainelders
citedagainstthepriestsandprophetstheprecedentofMicahtheMorashtite,whohadmadeasimilarpredictioninthedaysofHezekiah,andyet,sofarfrombeing
puttodeath,hadledhispeopletorepentanceincitingthiscasethespeakersquotethewordswithwhichMic3closes(seeJer26,esp.vv.1718).Ofcourse,the
citationofthissingleversedoesnotprovethateventhefirstthreechaptersoftheBookofMicahwerethenincirculationintheirpresentformbutthenarrativein
JeremiahshowsthatMicah,acenturyafterheprophesied,rankedasaprophetofjudgment,andMicah13ispreeminentlyprophecyofjudgment.Thetwoverses
(2:12f.)whichinterruptthegeneraltenorofchs.13withapromise,representIsraelasscattered,andappeartopresupposetheExiletheyarecertainlynotpartof
theprecedingprophecy,andprobablyareaninsertioninthebookafterthetimeofJeremiah.ItisheldbysomethattheBookofMicahknowntoJeremiahs
contemporariesalsolackedthefollowingportionsofchs.131:15a,7,1015,2:5.Note,forexample,that1:7standsmostawkwardlybefore1:3,whichmay
givethereasonfor1:6,butcertainlynotfor1:7.YetthegroundsgivenfordeletingthesepassagesinordertorecovertheearliestformoftheBookofMicahareby
nomeansinallcasesequallyconclusive.FortheteachingofMicah,seeprecedingarticle.
Twonotquiteidenticalquestionsnownaturallyarise:DidtheBookofMicahinthetimeofJeremiahextendbeyondch.3?Dochs.47containanyprophecies
ofMicah?Theanswers,sofarastheycanbegiven,mustrestmainlyoninternalevidence.WhatsuggestionthenarrativeofJer26offersinthisconnexionmaybest
beputintheformofaquestion.Couldtheeldershavecited(Jer26:18)thewordsofMic3:12ifthosewordswerethen,asnow,immediatelyfollowed(Mic4:14)
byaglowingdescriptionofthefuturegloryofJerusalem?WouldtheynottherebyhavegiventhepriestsanopeningtosaythatMicahslifewassparedbecausehe
repentedofhisblasphemyagainsttheircityandspokeofitsglory?
Chs.4,5appeartobeacentoofbriefprophecies,severalofthembeingfragmentsasfollows:4:14,5,68,9,10,1113,5:1,26,79,1014.Thefirstof
these(4:14)standsalsointheBookofIsaiah(2:24).NeitherinIsaiahnorinMicahisthepassageconnectedeitherwithwhatprecedesorwithwhatfollows
owingtomistranslation,RVindeedsuggeststhat4:14isthecontrastto3:12butforbutin4:1mustbesubstitutedandasinRVitselfinIs2:2.Theverses
containapropheticpoemof20shortlines(twoofwhichwereomittedinIsaiah)asthesamePsalm(14=53)wasincludedintwoseparatecollectionsofPsalms,so
thispoemwasnotunreasonablythoughtworthybytwoeditorsofpropheticliteraturetobeincludedintheircollections.Itisimpossibletoexaminehereindetailthe
remainingsectionsofthesechapterssomeseem,ifnaturallyinterpreted,topresupposethedispersionofIsraelattheExileseee.g.4:68,5:7,wherepromisesofa
brightfuturearemadetoIsrael,whohasalreadybeenreducedtoaremnantsomepassagescontaintheexpectationofajudgmentonthenationsingeneral(4:13,
5:15),whichiscertainlymoreconspicuousinthelaterprophetsthaninthoseoftheageofMicahin4:1113Zionseemstoberegardedasinviolableapointof
viewstrikinglydifferentfromthatwithwhichMicahwaspopularlyidentified(Mic3:12,Jer26:18).In5:1014thereislittleornothinginconsistentwithaneighth
centuryoriginreadbythemselves,withoutv.15,theyarenotnecessarilyaprophecyofpromise,butratherofjudgment.Here(andperchancein5:1),ifanywhere
inchs.4,5,wemaylookforMicahsworkforthoughsoearlyanoriginoftheseversesisnotcertain,neitherisitcertainthattheyareapieceoflatereproductive
prophecy.
Turningnexttochs.6,7,weremarkfirstthatsinceEwaldtheallusiontosacrificingthefirstborn,andcertainotherfeatures,havebeencommonlyconsideredto
pointtotheperiodofManassehasthatinwhichchs.6,7werewrittenadatewhichwouldnotquitenecessarilyexcludeMicahsauthorship,forManassehbegan
toreignabout695B.C.
In6:18somepoints,suchastheuseofburntoffering(notsinoffering)andthenatureoftheallusiontoBalaam,maybemoreeasilyexplainedifthe
passagebeatleastpreexilic.Theclassicalpropheticdefinitionofreligionwithwhichthissectioncloses(6:8),thoughitembracesandsummarizesthefundamental
teachingofAmos,Hosea,andIsaiah,doesnotpassbeyonditafactwhichisthoroughlycompatiblewithEwaldstheory,thoughnot,ofcourse,initselfaproofof
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teachingofAmos,Hosea,andIsaiah,doesnotpassbeyonditafactwhichisthoroughlycompatiblewithEwaldstheory,thoughnot,ofcourse,initselfaproofof
itscorrectness.
Butitismorethandoubtfulwhetherchs.6,7shouldbetreatedasasingleprophecy6:916and7:16,thoughscarcelyacontinuationof6:18,arenot
obviouslyseparatedfromitatallwidelyinsituationortime.Ontheotherhand,ascomparedwith7:16,720showamarkeddifference.Wellhausen(citedby
Driver,LOT 5332f.)hasterselysummedthisup.
7:16consistsofabitterlamentationutteredbyZionoverthecorruptionofherchildren:andthedayofretribution,thoughready,isyetfuture,7:4.In7:720Zion,indeed,
isstillthespeakerbuthereshehasalreadybeenoverpoweredbyherfoe,theheathenworld,whichispersuadedthatbyitsvictoryoverIsraelithasatthesametimevanquished
Jahweh(7:10).Thecityhasfallen,itswallsaredestroyed,itsinhabitantspineawayindarkness,i.e.inthedarknessofcaptivity(7:8,11).Nevertheless,Zionisstillconfident,and
thoughshemayhavetowaitlong,shedoesnotquestionherfinaltriumphoverthefoe(7:7,8,10a,11).Sheendurespatientlythepunishmentmeritedbyherpastsins,assuredthat
whenshehasatonedforthem,Godwilltakeuphercauseandleadhertovictory(7:9).Whatwaspresentin7:16,viz.,moraldisorderandconfusionintheexistingJewishState,is
in7:720past:whatistherefuture,viz.,theretributionof7:4b,hasherecometopass,andhasbeencontinuingforsometime.Between7:8and7:7yawnsacentury.
Briefly,then,thehistoryoftheBookofMicahseemstohavebeenthis:asummaryoftheteachingoftheprophetMicah,notimprobablypreparedandwritten
byhimself,waswellknowninJerusalemattheendoftheseventhcenturyacenturyafterthelifetimeoftheprophet.Thissmallbookwasreeditedandprovided
withitspresentexpandedtitle,andenlargedbytheadditionofacollectionofpropheticpieces,someofpreexilic,andseveralofpostexilic,origin.Itisnot
necessarytosupposethatthisaddedmatterwasoriginallyattributedtoMicah,thoughsubsequentlyitcametoheregardedashisworkinthesamewayasIsaiah
4066andZec914cametohelookeduponaswritingsofIsaiahandZechariahrespectively.Thefinalstagein.thehistoryofthebookwasitsincorporation,
probablytowardsthecloseofthe3rdcent.B.C.,inthegreatpropheticworkTheBookoftheTwelve.Itisimpossibletodeterminethroughhowmanystagesof
editorialtreatmentthebookpassed,butsomeofthesestagescertainlyfellwithinthepostexilicperiod.
ThemostconvenientEnglishcommentariesarethosebyT.K.CheyneintheCambridgeBible,andR.F.HortonintheCenturyBible.Thediscussionandnewtranslationfrom
anemendedtextinG.A.Smith,BookoftheTwelveProphets,i.355ff.,willbefoundmostvaluableandhelpful.
G.B.GRAY.
MICAIAH.SeeMICAH.
MICE.SeeMOUSE,andMAGIC,569b.
MICHAEL(WhoislikeGod?).1.FatheroftheAsheritespy(Nu13:18).2.3.TwoGadites(1Ch5:13f.).4.TheeponymofaLeviticalguildofsingers(1
Ch6:46).5.NameofafamilyinIssachar(1Ch7:3,27:18).6.EponymofafamilyofBenjamites(1Ch8:10).7.AManassitechiefwhojoinedDavidatZiklag(1
Ch12:20).8.AsonofkingJehoshaphat(2Ch21:2).9.ThefatherofZebadiah(Ezr8:8,1Es8:34).10.Thearchangel.Seenextarticle.
MICHAEL(thearchangel).AlthoughreferencetoangelsandtheirvisitationsiscommonintheOT,especiallyduringtransitionperiods(e.g.theperiodof
theJudgesandthatoftheCaptivityarespeciallynoticeableforangelicappearances),thenameMichaelisnotfounduntilthelaterperiod,whentheangelicoffice
wasdividedintotwoparts,whichwereassignedtoindividualangels.IntheRabbinicaltraditionsMichaelfiguresconsiderably.Heisconnectedwithmanyincidents
inthehistoryofMoses,especiallyhisburial(cf.Dt34:6),whenhedisputedwithSatan,whoclaimedthebodybyreasonofthemurderoftheEgyptian(Ex2:12).In
theOTheisalludedtoseveraltimesintheBookofDaniel(10:13,21,12:1)asoneofthechiefprinces,theprince,andtheprincewhichstandethforthe
people,andheisopposedtotheprinceangelsofPersiaandofGreece.HeishereregardedastheguardianoftheIsraelitesintheiroppositiontopolytheismand
foreigninnovations.
IntheNTMichaelisfoundfightinginheaven(Rev12:7)againstthedragon,himthatiscalledthedevilandSatan,andistypicalofthewarfarewhichisthe
specialworkoftheChurchonearth.InthepassageinJude(v.9)adefinitereferenceismadetothetraditionalreadymentioned,Michaelthearchangel,when
contendingwiththedevilhedisputedaboutthebodyofMoses,durstnotbringagainsthimarailingaccusation,butsaid,TheLordrebukethee(cf.Zec3:1fora
similarincident).
T.A.MOXON.
MICHAL.YoungerdaughterofSaul,offeredtoDavid,asasnare,onconditionthathewouldslayonehundredPhilistines.ThepopularityofDavidledSaul
toseekhislife.HehadDavidshousesurrounded,butMichaldeceivedthemessengers,andcontrivedDavidsescapebythewindow(1S19:1117).Saulthen
gaveMichaltoPaltiel.WhenAbnernegotiatedwithDavidtodeliverIsraeltohim,thekingstipulatedforMichalsreturn.Thiswasaccomplished,thoughtherecord
doesnotmakeitclearwhetherdirectlyfromIshbaal(Ishbosheth)attheInstanceofDavid,orthroughAbner(2S3:14f.).Paltielfollowedweeping,butwasrudely
dismissedbyAbner.TheclosingscenebetweenMichalandDavidispathetic.DavidsdancebeforethearkwasunseemlyintheeyesofMichal,andsherebuked
him.Hisanswerwasequallycurt.ThestatementthatMichaldiedchildlessmaymeanthatshewasdivorced(2S6:16f.).Theestrangementwasprobablyduetothe
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him.Hisanswerwasequallycurt.ThestatementthatMichaldiedchildlessmaymeanthatshewasdivorced(2S6:16f.).Theestrangementwasprobablyduetothe
numerouswivesthatnowsharedDavidsprosperityandMichalsauthority.
J.H.S TEVENSON.
MICHEAS(2Es1:39)=theprophetMicah.
MICHMAS.Seenextarticle.
MICHMASH.Aplace(notenumeratedasatown)intheterritoryofBenjamin,andinthemountainsofBethel.Itcomesintoprominenceinconnexionwith
thedaringraidmadebyJonathanandhisarmourbeareruponthePhilistinesthereencamped(1S13,14).Itwasoneofthesmallerplacestowhichthereturning
exilesbelonged,contributingonly122mentotheenumerationofEzra(Ezr2:27)andNehemiah(7:31)[inboththeselasttwopassagesMichmas].Nehemiah
furtheralludestoitasabordercityofBenjamin(11:31).IndicationsofitspositionmaybeobtainedfromtheJonathanstoryandalsofromIsaiahspictureofthe
courseofanAssyrianraid(Is10:28).TheseindicationspermitanidentificationofthesitewiththemodernvillageofMukhms,situatedinawildanddesolate
regionneartheheadoftheWadyKelt.In1K4:9forMakaztheLXXerroneouslyreadsMichmash.ForatimeitwastheseatofthegovernmentofJonathan
Maccabus(1Mac9:73).
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
MICHMETHAH.ThewordoccursonlyinJos16:6,17:7,ineachcasewiththearticle,thereforeprobablynotapropername.Ofthemeaningofthewordwe
areentirelyignorant.ItindicatedaplaceorsomenaturalfeatureontheboundaryofManasseh.AnechooftheoldnamemayperhapsbeheardinelMukhneh,the
plainwhichliestotheeastofNbins.
W.EWING.
MICHRI.EponymofaBenjamitefamily(1Ch9:8).
MICHTAM.SeeP SALMS,p.772a.
MIDDIN.AtowninthewildernessofJudah(Jos15:61).Thesitehasnotbeenrecovered.
MIDIAN,MTDIANITES.Anomadictribeorgroupoftribes,saidbyanearlygenealogy(Gn25:2)tobedescendedfromAbrahambyKeturah,ofwhichthe
Kenites(wh.see)wereapart.TheylivedinancienttimesinnorthernArabia,butvanishedatanearlydatefromhistory.
AccordingtoEtheyweretraders,whosoldJosephintoEgypt(Gn37:28,36).TheyroamedaboutSinai(Ex3:1ff.,Hab3:7).Jethro(E)orHobab(J),Moses
fatherinlaw,wastheirpriest.AsJethroisalsosaidtobeaKenite(Jg1:16),probablytheKeniteswereapartoftheMidianites.
TheywereafterwardsabsorbedbythetribeofJudah(Jg1:16,1S15:6).ThePropheticsource(J)alsoshowsthatinanearlyformofthenarrativeitwasMidian,not
Moab,thatwassaidtohavehiredBalaamtocurseIsrael(cf.Nu22:4,7).Ifthisisso,itwasadifferentbranchofMidianitesfromtheKenites.Thesamesource
informsus(Gn36:35)thatakingofEdomsmoteMidianinthefieldofMoab.ThereferencespointtoanactivityofMidianinthisregionofwhichwehavenoother
trace.
ThenextwehearoftheMidianitesisintheperiodoftheJudges,whentheyinvadedtheterritoryofcentralPalestineinhordes,andwereputtoroutbyGideon
andhisthreehundredmen(Jg68).TheseMidianitesseemtohavelivedtotheeastofPalestine,andtohavegainedaccesstothewestJordanlandsthroughthe
valleyoftheJabbok.ThiscorrespondswiththestatementofGn25:6(JE),thatthesonsofAbrahambyKeturah,ofwhomMidianwasone,livedtotheeastward.At
thetimeofGideontheMidianiteswereledbytwochiefs,whosenamesJpreservesasZebahandZalmunna(Jg8:18),whileEcallsthemOrebandZeeb(Jg7:25).
GideonsocompletelyruinedthepoweroftheMidianitesthathisvictorywaslongremembered(cf.Is9:4,10:26,Ps83:9).Fromthisblowthetribenever
recovered,anddisappearsfromhistory.
AccordingtoalatePriestlypassage(Nu31:218),MosesissaidtohavegainedagreatvictoryovertheMidianites.Perhaps,assomescholarsthink,thisisa
laterversionofthevictoryofGideon.PossiblyitisanotherversionofthevictoryofthekingofEdom.
ThegenealogygiveninGn25:14callsEphahasonofMidian.Is60:6ff.mentionsbothMidianandEphahinconnexionwithKedar.Tiglathpileser III.(KIBii.21)mentionsa
KhayapainconnexionwithTaima,whichDelitzsch(Parodies,304)identifieswithEphah.Thiswouldcorrespondwiththelocationgiveninthegenealogy.
Ptolemy(Geog.vi.7)mentionsaplace,Modiana,onthecoastofArabia,whichisprobablythesameasMadyanontheHajroadtoMecca.Nldeke(EBiiii.col.3081)thinks
thatthenamehassurvivedfromanoldhabitatoftheMidianites.
GEORGEA.BARTON.
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MIDRASH.SeeCOMMENTARY.
MIDWIFE.SeeMEDICINEp.600b.
MIGDALEDER.SeeEDER,No.1.
MIGDALEL.AtownofNaphtali(Jos19:33)betweenIronandHorem.Thesiteisuncertain.
MIGDALGAD.AtownintheShephlah,intheterritoryofJudah(Jos15:37),whichcannotbeidentifiedwithanycertainty.GuthesuggestsKhirbetel
Mejdeleh,aboutSmilesS.ofBeltJibrn,withremainsofbuildings,cisterns,androckhewntombsorKhirbetelMejdel,about14milesS.ofBeitJibrn,with
extensiveruins,etc.Warren(HastingsDB)suggestselMejdel,athrivingvillage21/2milesN.E.ofAshkelon.ThenameTowerofGadprobablypointstoitshaving
beenaseatofidolatry,wheretheCanaanitesworshippedGadGoodLuckorFortune.
W.EWING.
MIGDOL.ASemiticwordmeaningtower,borrowedbytheEgyptiansoftheNew
Kingdom,andcommonasawordandinplacenames.1.Ex14:2,Nu33:7,ontheborderofEgypt,nearthespotwheretheIsraelitescrossedtheRedSea:probably
amereguardhouseontheroad.2.Ezk29:10,30:6,wherefromMigdoltoSyeneisthetruereading,insteadoffromthetowerofSeveneh.HereMigdolisthe
N.E.extremityofEgypt,asSevenehistheS.ItmaybeidenticalwithMagdoloinaRomanItinerary,perhapsatthenowdesertedsiteofTellelHer,12milessouth
ofPelusium.3.InJer44:1,46:14MigdolismentionedwithTahpanhesandNoph(Memphis)asahabitationoftheJews,andisprobablythesameasNo.2.
F.LL.GRIFFITH.
MIGRON.OneoftheplacesmentionedinIsaiahsdescriptionofthemarchofthe
AssyriansonJerusalem.Thedirectionofthemarchisfromnorthtosouth:henceMigron(Is
10:28)laynorthofMichmash(wh.see),andnorthoftheWadyesSuwnt,whichisthepassof
Is10:29.ThenameperhapssurvivesinMakrn,aruinedsitesituatedamileortwoN.W.of
Makhms(Michmash).In1S14:2Saul,whosearmywasencampedsouthoftheWadyesSuwnt,issaidtohavedweltintheuttermostpartofGeba(soread)
underthepomegranatetreewhichisinMigron.ProbablyinMigronshouldratherbetranslatedinthethreshingfloorifnot,wemustinferthatthereweretwo
placesnotmanymilesapart,onenorthandtheothersouthoftheWadyesSuwnt,bearingthesamename.ThissouthernMigronhasnotbeenidentified.G.B.
GRAY.
MIJAMIN.1.Oneofthosewhohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:25)calledin1Es
9:25Maelus.2.Eponymofthe6thofthepriestlycourses(1Ch24:9).ThisfamilyreturnedwithZerub.(Neh12:5),andwasrepresentedatthesealingofthe
covenant(10:7)=MiniaminofNeh12:17.
MIKLOTH.1.AsonofJeiel(1Ch8:32=9:37f.).2.AnofficerofDavid(1Ch27:4).
MIKNEIAH.Agatekeeperoftheark(1Ch15:18).
MILALAI.Theeponymofapriestlyfamily(Neh12:36).
MILCAH.1.DaughterofHaranandwifeofNahor(Gn11:29).Thenamesofherchildrenaregivenin22:20ff.Rebekahwashergranddaughter(24:15,24,
47).2.DaughterofZelophehad,Nu26:33,27:1,36:11,Jos17:3(allP).
MILCOM.ThenationaldeityofAmmon.SolomonestablishedasanctuaryforhimontheMountofOlives,whichseemstohavecontinuedtillitwas
destroyedbyJosiah(1K11:5,33,2K23:13).In2S12:30,1Ch20:2,Jer49:3,andZeph1:5Malcam(theirking)isprobablyanincorrectvocalizationof
Milcom.ThenameisfromthecommonSemiticrootmalk,melek(kingorprince),probablywithanInflectionaltermination.Thetraditionalidentificationof
MilcomwithMolechisbasedonlyupon1K11:7,aversewhichisprobablycorrupt.See
MOLECH.
W.M.NESBIT.
MILDEW(yrqn,Dt28:22,1K8:37,2Ch6:28,Am4:9,Hag2:17)isadiseaseofgrainduetovariousfungi:itisproducedbydamp,andisintheabove 72/102
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MILDEW(yrqn,Dt28:22,1K8:37,2Ch6:28,Am4:9,Hag2:17)isadiseaseofgrainduetovariousfungi:itisproducedbydamp,andisintheabove
passagesassociatedwithshiddphn,blasting,theoppositeconditionproducedbyexcessivedrought.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.MILE.SeeWEIGHTSANDMEASURES.
MILETUS.ThesouthernmostofthetwelvecoloniesformingtheIonianconfederacyofAsiaMinor.ItlayontheS.coastoftheLatonianGulf,which
penetratedCariaS.ofthepeninsulaofMycale,andreceivedthewatersoftheMander.Thesiltofthisriverfilledupthegulf,andMiletusisnow5milesfromthe
sea,whiletheformerislandofLade,whichhelpedtomakeitsharbour,isnowahillrisinginthealluvialplain.
TwovisitsofSt.PaultoMiletusarementioned.Thefirst(Ac20:15)tookplacewhenhewasreturningtoJerusalemattheendoftheThirdMissionaryJourney.
HestayedlongenoughtosendfortheeldersofEphesus,andgivethemthefarewellchargerecordedinAc20.Thisprobablyneededtwodays.Thesecondvisitis
mentionedin2Ti4:20TrophimusIleftatMiletussick.ThismusthavebeenbetweenSt.PaulsfirstandsecondimprisonmentatRome.Inneithercasearewetold
ofanyattempttofoundachurchatMiletus.MiletuswasalreadyunimportantbycomparisonwithEphesus,whichnowreceivedthetradeoftheMandervalley,
andsharedwithSmyrnathetradethatcamealongthegreatroadthroughthecentreofAsiaMinor.EphesuswasrecognizedbytheRomansasthesoutherncapital
oftheprovinceofAsia.FormerlyMiletushadledIonia.Itstradewasmainlyinwool,andithadfoundednumerouscoloniesontheBlackSeaandPropontis
(Sinope,Trapezus,Abydos,Cyzicus),besidesNaucratisinEgypt.IthadledtheIonianrevolt,thefateofwhichwasdeterminedbythebattleofLadeandthecapture
ofMiletus,B.C.494.IthaddefendeditselfonbehalfofthePersianpoweragainstAlexanderinB.C.334.ItsruinsarenowcalledPalalia.Theyseemtoincludefew
Christianremains,butMiletuswasabishopric,andfromthe5thcent.anarchbishopric.
A.E.HILLARD.
MILK.MilkwasatalltimesanimportantarticleofdietamongtheHebrews,andbybenSiraisrightlyassignedaprominentplaceamongtheprincipalthings
necessaryformanslife(Sir39:26).Itwassuppliedbythefemalesoftheherdandoftheflock,thelattertermincludingbothsheepandgoats(Dt32:14,where
rendersourmilk[chemh]oftheherd,andmilk[chlb]oftheflock),probablyalsobythemilchcamels(Gn32:15).Atthepresentdaygoatsmilkispreferred
toeveryother.
InBibletimes,asnow,milkslightlysouredorfermentedwasafavouritebeverage.ThemodernBedouinpreparesthissourmilk,orleben,asitiscalled,by
pouringthefreshmilkintoaskin(cf.Jg4:19sheopenedthemilkskin(EVabottleofmilk),andgavehimdrink),tothesidesofwhichclotsofsourmilkfroma
previousmilkingstilladhere.Theskinisshakenforalittle,whentheprocessoffermentationspeedilycommences,andthemilkisservedwiththatnowgathered
sournesswhichtheythinkthemorerefreshing(Doughty,ArabiaDeserta,i.263).SuchwastherefreshmentwithwhichJaelsuppliedSisera.Heaskedwater,she
gavehimmilkshebroughthimsourmilk(chemh)inalordlydish(Jg5:26,whereEVhasbutter,butonedoesnotdrinkbuttercf.4:19citedabove).
InseveralOTpassages,however,thisword,chemh,doesevidentlysignifybutter,asinPr30:33thechurning(lit.asRVmpressing)ofmilkbringethforth
butter.SoPs55:21RV,hismouthwassmoothasbutter,wheresourmilkisclearlyoutofplace.TheformerpassagesuggeststheprocedureoftheArab
housewifewhomDoughtydescribes(op.cit.ii.67)asrockingherblownupmilkskinuponherkneestillthebuttercametheyfinditinaclotatthemouthofthe
skin.ButtercannotbekeptsweetundertheclimaticconditionsofPalestine,butmustbeboiled,producingthesamnorclarifiedbutteruniversallyprized
throughouttheEast.
CheeseismentionedthreetimesinourAV(1S17:18,2S17:29,Job10:10)ineachcasetheoriginalhasadifferentword.Theclearestcaseisthelastcitedthe
textof2S17:29,ontheotherhand,isadmittedlyindisorder,andweshouldperhapsread,byaslightchangeofconsonants,driedcurdsthese,whenrubbed
downandmixedwithwater,yieldarefreshingdrinkmuchesteemedatthepresentday.FromtheMishnawelearnthatrennetandtheacidjuicesofvarioustrees
andplantswereusedtocurdle(Job10:10milk.Afterbeingdrainedofthewheythewaterofmilkthecurdsweresalted,shapedintorounddiscs,anddriedin
thesun.TheTyroponvalleyinJerusalemreceiveditsname,thevalleyofthecheesemakers,fromtheindustrytherecarriedon.
Therehasbeenmuchdiscussionoflateastotheoriginofthepopularexpressionflowingwithmilkandhoney,sofrequentlyusedinOTtodescribePalestine
asanideallandaboundinginthenecessariesanddelicaciesoflife.Manyrecentscholarsdemurtothetraditionalviewthatthisisexpressedbythewordsmilkand
honey,ontheprincipleofthepartforthewhole,andfavouramorereconditeorigininaforgottenPalestinianmythology.Thisexplanationwouldbringthephrase
inquestionintolinewiththeequallyfamiliarnectarandambrosiaofGreekmythology.
Evenmoreobscureisthesignificanceofthethricerepeatedcommand:Thoushaltnotseetheakidinhismothersmilk(Ex23:19,34:26,Dt14:21).
Opinionisstilldividedastowhetherwehavehereapieceofpurelyhumanitariansomewouldsaysentimentallegislation,ortheprohibitionofamagicalrite
incompatiblewiththereligionofJ.Forthelatestexpositionofthisview,seeJ.G.Frazer,FolkloreintheOT,inAnthropotogicalEssays,etc.(1907),151ff.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
MILL,MILLSTONE.1.ThreemethodsofpreparingflourwereinuseinPalestinein
Bibletimes,associatedwiththemortarandpestle(seeMORTARANDP ESTLE),therubbingstone,andthequernorhandmill.Themostprimitiveapparatuswasthe
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Bibletimes,associatedwiththemortarandpestle(seeMORTARANDP ESTLE),therubbingstone,andthequernorhandmill.Themostprimitiveapparatuswasthe
rubbingstoneorcornrubber,whichconsistedreallyoftwostones.Theoneonwhichthecornwasgroundwasasubstantialslab,often21/2feetlong,andabouta
footwide,slightlyconcaveandcurvingupwards,likeasaddle,atbothends(illust.inMacalister,BibleSidelights,etc.,fig.28).Theother,therubbingstone
proper,wasanarrowstonefrom12to18incheslong,pointedatbothendsandalsoslightlycurved,onesidebeingplainandtheotherconvex.Inmanipulatingthe
rubber,thewomangraspeditbybothendsandgroundthegrainsofwheatorbarleywiththeconvexside.Cf.MacalistersdescriptioninPEFSt,1903,p.118,with
SchumachersphotographreproducedbyBenzinger,Heb.Arch.2(1907)63,andtheEgyptianstatuetteinErmansAncientEgypt,190.VincentinhisCanaan
daprslexptorationrcente(405,fig.282)showsacornrubberofflintfromthepalolithicage!
2.Themorefamiliarapparatusforthesamepurposewasthehandmillorquern.Asinsomanyinstances(see,e.g.,LAMP),therecentexcavationsenableusto
tracetwodistinctstagesintheevolutionofthePalestinianhandmill.TheGezerspecimensdescribedindetailinPEFSt,1903,119,belongtotheearliertype,which
isdistinguishedfromthelaterformbytheabsenceofahandleforrotatingtheupperstone.Thequernstonesarealwayssmall,rarelybeingasmuchasafoot
across.Thelowerstone,thenethermillstoneofJob41:24,wasalwaysmoremassivethantheuppermillstone(Dt24:6),andwasapparentlyfittedwitha
narrowspindlesunkintothestone.Theupperstonewaspiercedrightthrough,andbythisholethemillwasfed.AccordingtoMr.Macalister,theupperstonewas
graspedwithbothhands(thefingersclaspingtheedge,thethumbsbeingbetweenthespindleandthestone),andworkedthroughaboutonethirdofarotation,
backwardandforward.Forvarietiesofthistype,seePEFSt,1903,p.119f.
Inthelaterandmoreeffectivetypeofhandmill,whichwasthatinuseinNTtimes,thestoneswerelarger,althoughthelowerstonewasstillconsiderablywider
thantheupper(Bababathra,ii.1).Asinthequernsofthepresentday,thelatterwasfittedwithawoodenhandle(ydintheMishna)intheshapeofanuprightpeg
insertedneartheouteredge.Themillwasfed,asbefore,throughafunnelshapedcavitypiercedthroughtheupperstone,whichwasrotatedbythehandlethrougha
completecircle.Sometimes,asappearsfromMt24:41,twowomenworkedthemill,seatedoppositeeachother,andeachturningtheupperstonethroughhalfa
revolution,asmaystillbeseenintheEast.
Bythefirstcenturyofoureraalargeranddifferentformofmillhadbeenintroduced,apparently,tojudgebythenamesofthevariouspartsintheMishna(see
art.MillinEBiiii.3093),underGrcoRomaninfluence.Inthelargerspecimensofthistype,theuppermillstone,intheshapeoftwohollowcones,asdescribed
indetail,loc.cit.,wasturnedbyanass,andisthegreatmillstoneofMt18:6RV(lit.asRVmamillstoneturnedbyanass).
3.Theworkofthemillbelongedatalltimestothespecialprovinceofthewomenofthehousehold(Mt24:41).Inlargeestablishments,itfelltotheslaves,
male(Jg16:21)andfemale(Ex11:5),particularlythelatter,hencethefigurefortheslaveryofcaptivityinIs47:2.
Thefinervarietiesofmeal,thefineflourofOT,weregotbyrepeatedgrinding,orbysiftingwithsieves,orbyacombinationofbothprocesses.
HowindispensablethehandmillwasconsideredforthedailylifeofthefamilymaybeseenfromtheprovisionoftheDeuteronomiclegislationforbiddingthe
creditortotakeinpledgethehouseholdmill(sorightlyRV),oreventheuppermillstone,forhetakethamanslifetopledge(Dt24:6).
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
MILLENNIUM.Aperiodofathousandyears,duringwhich,accordingtoRev20:27,theDragon(i.e.thedevil)istobeconfinedintheabyss,whilethe
martyrs,havingbeenraisedfromthedead,aretoreignwithChrist.Theperiodbeginswiththisfirstresurrection,andatitsend,Satan,priortohisdestruction,isto
bereleasedforatimetodeceivethenations.
ThisreferenceinRevelationisuniqueintheNT.TheMillenniumwas,however,presentintheJewishapocalypticliterature.InSlavonicEnoch(chs.32and33),
timeisdescribedasaweekofsevendays,eachofonethousandyearsinlength.Thesesixdays(i.e.6000years)aresaidtohaveelapsedfromthetimeofthe
CreationtotheJudgment.Thenwillcomeasabbathofrestofathousandyears,andthenaneighthdaywhichshallbetimeless.Asimilarexpectationistobe
foundintheTalmud(Sanh.97a),anditisnotimpossiblethatthisconceptioncanbetracedbacktoBabyloniaorPersia.
InthehistoryoftheChristianChurchthedoctrineoftheMillenniumhasplayedaconsiderablerle,butChiliasm(wh.see)hasbeenopposedbymostofthe
greattheologiansfromAugustinedown.IntheEpistleofBarnabas(ch.15)wehaveaviewverysimilartothatoftheSlavonicEnoch,whileJustinMartyr(Dial.
80)regardsachiliasticviewofthefutureasanessentialpartofChristianfaith,althoughheknowsthatitisnotheldbyalltheorthodox.Atthepresenttime,in
additiontotheSecondAdventists,millennialviewsareheldstronglybyanumberofearnestChristianscommonlycalledpremillenariansbecauseoftheirbelief
thatChristwillreturnbeforetheperiodofathousandyearsbeginsandestablishanearthlyreign.Inaccordancewiththistheory(seeCHILIASM,P AROUSIA),the
resurrectionistobelimitednottomartyrsbuttoallChristians.Suchaninterpretationobviouslydoesviolencetotheconnexionbetweenthenineteenthand
twentiethchaptersofRevelation,andgivesundueprominencetoanexpectationwhichwasheldbyneitherJesusnorSt.Paul,nor,infact,byanywriteroftheNT
excepttheauthorofRevelation.Atthesametime,thereislittlequestionthatthispremillennialviewisgermanetotheliteralisticMessianichopewhichcontrolled
theNTChurch,andisnotbeyondapossibleharmonizationwith1Co15:23ThefundamentaldifficultyinerectingitintoadoctrineofessentialChristianityisthatit
presupposesconditionsandexpectations,carriedoverfromJudaism,whichthecourseofhistoryhasshowntobewithoutfoundation.
S HAILERMATHEWS.
MILLET(probablyPanicummiliaceumorperhapsAndropogonsorghum)ismentionedinEzk4:9(only)asaningredientinbread.SeeF OOD,2.
MILLO.AplacenearShechem(thenameofwhichwouldbebetterrenderedBethmillo,withouttranslatingthefirstelement[houseofMillo,AVandRV]),
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MILLO.AplacenearShechem(thenameofwhichwouldbebetterrenderedBethmillo,withouttranslatingthefirstelement[houseofMillo,AVandRV]),
quiteunknown,theinhabitantsofwhichwereassociatedinthecoronationofAbimelech(Jg9:6,20).JoashwasslainataBethmillo,onthewaythatgoethdown
toSilla(2K12:20).Whetherthisbethesameplace,orwhether(perhapsmorelikely)itwassomewherenearJerusalem,and(ifso)whereorwhatitmayhave
been,arequestionstowhichnoanswercanbegiven.OntheMilloof2S5:8,1K11:27etc.,seeJERUSALEM,II,2.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
MINANS.ThenameofaS.W.ArabianpeopledwellingnorthoftheSabans(Sheba),whointhe9thand8thcents.B.C.becameapowerfulnationwitha
dominionstretchingnorthtothepeninsulaofSinai.ItissupposedbyrecentscholarsthattheyaremeantbytheMeunimor(better)Meinim,whoarenamedin1
Ch4:41asdwellingintheNegeb,in2Ch26:7alongwithArabians,andin2Ch20:1(bycorrection)alongwiththeAmmonites.InallthesepassagestheLXX
understandMinans.
J.F.MCURDY.
MIND.SeeP SYCHOLOGY.
MINIAMIN.1.ALevite(2Ch31:15).2.Neh12:17=Mijaminof1Ch24:8,Neh10:7,12:5.3.Apriestwhotookpartintheceremonyofthededicationof
thewalls(Neh12:41).
MININGANDMETALS.ThoughPalestineproperisdeficientinmineralresources,yetthesewerepresenttosomeextentonitsborders,andwerenotonly
abundantlyfound,butevenlargelydeveloped,inotherpartsoftheancientEast.TheScripturereferencestomining,accordingly,thoughnotverynumerous,are
sufficientlydefinite.SuchapassageasDt8:9(cf.33:25),thoughinapplicabletoPalestineproper,mayholdgoodoftheLebanondistrictor(ashasbeensuggested
bysome)oftheSinaiticregion.TheclassicaldescriptionoftheminerslifeinJob28isevidentlybasedonobservation.Itdepictstheadventurousandtoilsome
characterofthequest,theshaftssunkandthegalleriestunnelledintherock,thedarkness,thewatersthathavetobedrainedaway,thehiddentreasuresofprecious
stonesandmetalsthatrewardtheeffortandtheingenuityofman.
ThelistofmetalsinNu31:22includesallthosethatarementionedinScripture,viz.gold,silver,brass,iron,tin,andlead.Alltheseareagainenumeratedin
Ezk27:12,13,22asarticlesofTyriancommerce.
Brass.ThisEnglishword,aslateas1611,denotedcopperorbronze(analloyofcopperandtin)ratherthanthemodernbrass(analloyofcopperandzinc).
Hence,wherebrassoccursinEV,copperorbronzeistobeunderstood(seeRVmonGn4:22,andart.BRASS).
CopperoccursonceinAV(Ezr8:27,RVbrightbrass).ButseeonBrassaboveandSteelbelow.
Goldisametaltheuseofwhichcanbetracedbacktotheearliesttimesofcivilization.Asamediumofcurrencyitwasreckonedbyweight,inshekelsand
talents,coinagebeingunknownamongtheJewsbeforetheExile.WhileitfiguredinthehistoryofIsraelfromthebeginning(seethespoilsofEgypt[Ex12:35],
Midian[Nu31:52,Jg8:26],andJericho[Jos7:21]),itbecamespeciallyplentifulinPalestineinthetimeofSolomon(1K10:14,21),themainsourcesofitbeing
Ophir(1K9:28,10:11),Tarshish(1K10:22),andSheba(1K11:2,Ps72:15).AnothergoldproducingcountrywasHavilah(Gn2:11).OftheselocalitiesHavilah
andShebawereArabian.Ophir(wh.see)mayhavebeenthesame,thoughitssituationhasalsobeensoughtin
IndiaandS.Africa.ForgoldsmithsseeNeh3:18,21,32,Is41:18,41:7,46:5,also(RV)Jer
10:9,14,51:17.Theproductsoftheirartcomprisedbeatenwork(Ex25:18,37:17,22,Nu8:14,37:7,1K10:16f.,2Ch9:15f.),plating(Ex25:11,24,26:29,32,
30:3),andwireorthreadforembroidery(Ex39:3).
Ironappearstohavecomeintouselaterthancopperorbronze.ItsoresarefoundintheLebanondistrict,intheregionofSinai,andsparselyinEgypt.Themost
famousancientseatofitsmanufacturewasamongtheChalybesintheHighlandsofAssyria.MiningfortheoreismentionedinJob28:2theironfurnaceinDt
4:20,1K8:51,Jer11:4andtheforgeinIs44:12.Inmoderntimesironisseparatedfromitsoresascastiron,fromwhichwroughtironandsteelaresubsequently
prepared.Butinancienttimesthetemperaturenecessarytomeltironwasunavailable,anditmusthavebeenproducedaswroughtiron,whichisstillobtainedby
primitivesmeltingprocessesinvariouspartsoftheworld.TheusesofironalludedtoinScriptureareveryvaried,butcallfornospecialcomment.InDt3:11and
possiblyinAm1:3ironmeansblackbasalt.
LeadismentionedinJer6:29,Ezk22:1822inconnexionwiththesmeltingofsilver(seeSilverbelow).ItsweightisreferredtoinEx15:10.Theephahin
Zec5:7,8hasaleadencovering.Rockcutinscriptionsweremademoredurablebyhavingthechiselledlettersfilledupwithlead(Job19:24).
Silver,likegold,wasaveryearlymediumofexchange(Gn23:15,18).TheHeb.andGr.wordsforsilverareoftenrenderedmoneyinEV.Therearefrequent
referencesinOTtotheuseofthismetalforvesselsandornamentalwork.InNTthereisspecialmentionoftheguildofsilversmithsatEphesus,andoftheshrines
ormodelsofthetempleofDianawhichweretheirmostprofitablearticleoftrade(Ac19:24).Amongthesourcesofthemetal,Arabia(2Ch9:14)andTarshish(2
Ch9:21,Jer10:9,Ezk27:12)arenamed.Thecommonestoreofsilverisargentiferousgalena,whichcontainsalargequantityoflead,andinwhichothermetals
mayalsobepresent.Inthecourseofsmeltingtheleadcombineswiththeotherimpuritiestoformaheavyslag,whichseparatesbyitsweightfromthemolten
silver,leavingthelatterpure.Thisprocessisreferredto,usuallyinafigurativemoralsense,inPs66:10(cf.Is48:10),Pr17:3,25:4,27:21,Zec13:9,Mal3:3,and
especiallyinJer6:2836andEzk22:1722.Inthelasttwopassagesleadisthemostprominentimpurity,theothersbeingbrass,iron,andtin.Themixtureofthese
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especiallyinJer6:2836andEzk22:1722.Inthelasttwopassagesleadisthemostprominentimpurity,theothersbeingbrass,iron,andtin.Themixtureofthese
wastherefuseordrossofsilver(seealsoIs1:22,25).
Steel(2S22:35,Job20:24,Ps18:34,Jer15:12)isamistakentranslationinAVofthewordselsewhererenderedbrass.RVhasbrassinthesepassages,and
copperorbronzeistobeunderstood.OnlyinNah2:3(RV)issteelpossiblyacorrectrendering.Steelisaformofironcontainingmorecarbonthanwroughtiron.
Itiscapablenotonlyofbeingweldedbutalsocast,andtemperedtovariousdegreesofhardnessandelasticity.
Tinderiveditsimportancefromitsuseasaconstituentofbronze(analloyofcopperandtin).ItismentionedasanarticleofTyriancommerceinEzk27:12,and
asanimpurityinsilverinEzk22:18(cf.Is1:25,RVmalloy).Itsearliestsourcesareuncertain,butitappearstohavecometotheEastfromtheWest.Itisknown
thatthePhniciansobtaineditfromtheScillyIslesandCornwall.
Flintisaformofsilica,andoccursabundantly,intheformofnodules,inmanyofthelimestonerocksofPalestine.Itisexceedinglyhard,anditspropertyof
sparkingwhenstruckonsteeloronanotherflintprovidedaveryancientandcommonmeansofobtainingfire(2Mac10:3).Flinthasasharpedgewhenbrokenor
chipped,andwasusedforprimitiveweaponsandinstrumentsofmanykindsarrowheads,knives,etc.ForthelatterseeEx4:25RV,Jos5:2,3RV.Inother
Scripturereferencestoflintitshardnessischieflyinview(Dt32:13,Job28:9RV,Is5:28,50:7,Ezk3:9).
Marbleislimestone(carbonateoflime),hardandclosegrainedenoughtobepolished.Thepurestformsarewhite,butmanycolouredvarietiesarehighly
valued.MarblewasamongthematerialspreparedbyDavidfortheTemple(1Ch29:2).Josephus(Ant.VIII.iii.2,9)saysthatSolomonsTemplewasbuiltofwhite
stonefromLehanon,butthestonesexposedintheJewsWailingPlaceappeartobefromtheneighbourhoodofJerusalem,probablyfromthequarriesunder
Bezetha.MarblesuppliesasimileinCa5:15,andismentionedamongthemerchandiseofBabyloninRev18:12.
JAMESP ATRICK.
MINISH.Themod.formisdiminish.MinishoccursinAVinEx5:19,Ps107:39,andRVintroducesitatIs19:5,Hos8:10butAmer.RVprefers
diminisheverywhere.
MINISTER.ThewordministercomesfromtheLat.minister=servant,andgenerallyitmaybesaidthatwhereveritisfoundintheBible,whetherinOT
orinNT,itsoriginalmeaningisitsprimaryone,servicebeingtheideaitisspeciallymeanttoconvey.
1.InOTitisused(correspondingtothesameHeb.wordineachcase)ofJoshuaasthepersonalattendantofMoses(Ex24:13,Jos1:1),oftheservantsinthe
courtofSolomon(1K10:5),ofangelsandtheelementalforcesofnatureasthemessengersandagentsoftheDivinewill(Ps103:21,104:4cf.He1:7,14),but,
aboveall,ofthepriestsandLevitesastheservantsofJehovahinTabernacleandTemple(Ex28:35,1K8:11,Ezr8:17,andconstantly).Thesecularusesofthe
Heb.word,standingsidebysidewiththesacred,showthatitwasnotinitselfapriestlyterm.Ministrywasnotnecessarilyapriestlything,thoughpriesthoodwas
oneformofministry.
2.InNTseveralGr.wordsaretr.minister,threeofwhichcallfornotice.(1)hypretsisfoundinLk1:2,4:20,Ac13:5,26:15,1Co4:1.Intwoofthese
casesRVhasproperlysubstitutedattendantforministertoavoidmisconception.Theminister(Lk4:20)towhomJesushandedtherollinthesynagogueat
Nazarethwasthehazzan,correspondingtotheEnglishvergerorScotchbeadle.JohnMark(Ac13:5)wastheministerofBarnabasandSaulinthesamesenseas
JoshuawasofMoses,hewastheirattendantandassistant.IntheothercaseshypretsisusedoftheministerofChristorofthewordinasensethatishardly
distinguishablefromthatofdiakonosasunder.
(2)leitourgos.InclassicalGr.thiswordwithitscognatesisappliedtoonewhorendersspecialservicestothecommonwealth,withoutanysuggestionofa
priestlyministry.ButintheLXXitwasregularlyapplied,especiallyinitsverbalform,totheritualministryofpriestsandLevitesinthesanctuary,andsobyNT
timeshadcometoconnotetheideaofapriestlyfunction.Whatwehavetonotice,however,isthatnoNTwriterusesitsoastosuggestthedischargeofspecial
priestlyfunctionsonthepartofanofficialChristianministry.EitherthereferenceistotheoldJewishritual(Lk1:23,He9:21,10:11),orthewordisemployedina
sensethatispurelyfigurative(Ro15:16,Ph2:17)or,again,isappliedtoaministrationofChristiancharity(2Co9:12,Ph2:25,30)orofprayer(Ac13:2cf.v.3),
fromwhichallideasofpriestlyritualareclearlyabsent.
(3)diakonos.EvenmoresignificantthantheusestowhichleitourgosanditscognatesareputintheNTisthefactthattheyareusedsoseldom,andthat
diakonosanddiakoniaarefoundinsteadwhentheideasofministerandministryaretobeexpressed.Thiscorrespondswiththeotherfactthatthepriesthoodofa
selectedclasshasbeensupersededbyauniversalChristianpriesthood,andthataministryoflowlinessandserviceableness(whichdiakonosspeciallyimplies)has
takentheplaceoftheoldministryofexclusiveprivilegeandritualperformance,diakoniaisthedistinctiveChristianwordforministry,anddiakonosfor
minister.ButthesenounsandtherelatedverbareusedintheNTwithawiderangeofapplication.ThepersonalservicesrenderedtoJesusbyMartha,Mary,and
otherwomen(Lk10:40,Jn12:2,Mt27:55),andtoSt.PaulbyTimothy,Erastus,andOnesimus(Ac19:22,Philem13),aredescribedasformsofministry.Theman
whoservesandfollowsChristisHisminister(Jn12:26mydiakonosistheexpressionintheoriginal)andtheministerofChristwillnotfailtoministeralsotothe
brethren(1Co12:5,1P4:10).ButwhileeverytrueChristianisaministerofChristandofthebrethren,thereisaministryofparticularserviceoutofwhichthere
graduallyemergestheideaofaspecialChristianministry.WemayfindtherootsoftheideainourLordswordstoHisdisciples,Whosoeverwouldbecomegreat
amongyoushallbeyourminister,evenastheSonofmancamenottobeministeredunto,buttominister,andtogivehislifearansomformany(Mt20:26ff.).
Theministeratfirstwasonewhowasdistinguishedfromothersbyhislargerservices.Hedidnotholdanoffice,butdischargedafunction.Thereweredifferences
offunction,indeed,and,aboveall,thedistinctionbetweenthosewhowereministersoftheword(Ac6:4,2Co3:6,Eph3:6,7)andthosewhoministeredby
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offunction,indeed,and,aboveall,thedistinctionbetweenthosewhowereministersoftheword(Ac6:4,2Co3:6,Eph3:6,7)andthosewhoministeredby
graciousdeed(Ac6:1ff.).Butwhatevermightbethe
diversitiesofministrations(1Co12:5),theworddiakonoscoveredthemall.Atalaterstage,whendifferencesoffunctionhavebeguntohardenintodistinctions
ofoffice,thenamediakonosisspeciallyappropriatedtothedeacon(wh.see)asdistinguishedfromthepresbyterorbishop(Ph1:1,1Ti3:113).Butdiakonosstill
continuestobeusedinitswidersense,forTimothy,whowasmuchmorethanadeacon,isexhortedtobeagoodminister(diakonos)ofJesusChrist(1Ti4:6).
Seefollowingarticle.
J.C.LAMBERT.
MINISTRY.Theforegoingart.hassufficientlydealtwiththegeneralideaofministry,butsomethingremainstobesaidmoreparticularlyofthe
foreshadowingsandbeginningsofanofficialChristianministryasthesearefoundintheNT.TheearliesthistoricaldatumisthedistinctiondrawnbytheTwelve
betweenthediakoniaofthewordandthediakoniaoftables(Ac6:2,4)adistinctionthatconstantlyreappearsinthewritingsofSt.Paul(e.g.Ro12:68,1Co
1:17,9:14,12:28),thoughbyandbythelatterofthesetwoministrieswidensoutsoastoincludemanyothermattersbesidesthecareofthepoor.Thesetwoforms
maybebroadlydistinguishedasageneralandpropheticministryontheonehand,alocalandpracticalontheother.
1.GeneralandpropheticAc6:1ff.showsthatfromthefirsttheTwelverecognizedthattheywereDivinelycalledtobeministersoftheword,i.e.preachers
ofthegospelandSt.Paulrepeatedlyaffirmsthesamethingregardinghimself(1Co1:17,9:16,2Co3:6,4:1,Col1:23).ButitwasnottheApostlesonlywho
dischargedthishighspiritualfunction.BesidesApostles,awordwhichisusedinawideraswellasanarrowersense(seeAc14:14,Ro16:7cf.Didache,xi.4ff.),
theChurchhadalsoprophetsandevangelistsandteachers,allofthem,insomewhatdifferentwaysnodoubt,fulfillingthissametaskofproclaimingtheword(1
Co12:28,29,Eph4:11forprophets,seealsoAc11:27,15:32,21:10forevangelists,Ac21:8,2Ti4:5forteachers,Ac13:1,1Ti2:7,2Ti1:11),andmoving
aboutfromplacetoplaceinordertodoso.Thatthepropheticministryinitsvariousformswasaministryoffunctionandnotofstatedoffice,isshownbythefact
thatthesamepersonmightbeatonceapostle,prophet,andteacher(cf.Ac13:1,14:14,1Ti2:7,2Ti1:11).
2.Localandpractical.OfthistheSevenofJerusalemfurnishtheearliestexamples.Theirspecialduties,whenwefirstmeetthem,arerestrictedtothecare
ofthepoor,andinparticulartothechargeofthedailyministration.But,asthelocalChurchesgrewinsizeandChurchlifebecamemorecomplex,otherneeds
arose.Therewastheneedofgovernmentanddiscipline,ofpastoralcounselandcomfort,ofstatedinstructionbyregularteachersaswellasofoccasionalvisits
fromwanderingapostlesandprophets.Inthehelpsandgovernmentsof1Co12:28wehaveareferencetosomeoftheseneeds.Andbyandbywefindthatto
meetthenecessitiesofthesituationthelocalministryhasblossomedoutintotwoseparateforms.(a)Firstthereisthepresbyterorelder,otherwiseknownasthe
bishoporoverseer(forthesubstantialidentitybetweenthepresbyterandthebishop,seeart.BISHOP),whosedutiesaretofeedtheflockandhelptheweak(Ac
20:17,28,35,1P5:2)tovisitandprayforthesick(Ja5:14),toruleandteach(1Ti3:2,5).(b)Nexttherearethedeacon,andhiscompanionthedeaconess(Ph
1:1,1Ti3:813),whosedutiesarenotclearlydefined,butthedescriptionofwhosequalificationssuggeststhattheirworklaylargelyinvisitationfromhouseto
houseandministrationtothepoor(1Ti5:811).Thelocalministry,itthusappears,cametodischargesomeofthefunctionsthathadoriginallybelongedtothe
generalministryofApostlesandprophets.Thelatter,however,wasstillrecognizedtobethehigherofthetwo.St.Paulsummonsthepresbyterbishopsofthe
ChurchinEphesustomeethimatMiletus,andaddressestheminatoneofhighspiritualauthority(Ac20:1735).AndevenintheDidache,whichbelongs
probablytoabouttheendofthe1stcent.,wefindthatwhenawanderingprophetvisitsaChurchandisrecognizedasatrueprophet,precedenceisgivenhimover
theresidentbishopsanddeacons(Did.x.7,xiii.3).See,further,APOSTLE,BISHOP,DEACON,EVANGELIST,LAYINGONOFHANDS,P ROPHETINNT.
J.C.LAMBERT.
MINNI.ApeoplenamedinJer51:27alongwiththeArmenians(Ararat)andScythians(Ashkenaz)ascomingassailantsofBabylon.TheyaretheMannai
oftheAssyrianinscriptions,whodweltbetweenthelakesVanandUrmia.
J.F.MCURDY.
MINNITHmarksthedirectioninwhichJephthahpursuedthedefeatedAmmonitesfromAroer(Jg11:33),i.e.AroerwhichisinfrontofRabbah(Jos13:25).
Thesitehasnotbeenrecovered.ThatindicatedintheOnomasticon,4milesfromHeshbononthewaytoPhiladelphia,seemstoofartothesouth.Theplaceappears
tohavebeenfamousforthehighqualityofitswheat(Ezk27:17,cf.2Ch27:5).Itmustbeaddedthatinbothpassagestherearestrongreasonsforsuspectingthe
correctnessofthetext.
W.EWING.
MINT(Gr.hdyosmon,Mt23:23,Lk11:42).Oneofthetrifleswhichweretithedprimarily,perhaps,peppermint(Menthapiperita),butincludingalsoallied
plants,suchasthehorsemint,(M.sylvestris),whichgrowswildalloverPalestine.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
MIPHKAD.AgatesomewherenearthenorthernendoftheEastwallofJerusalem,asmaybededucedfromtheonereferencetoit(Neh3:31AVthegate 77/102
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MIPHKAD.AgatesomewherenearthenorthernendoftheEastwallofJerusalem,asmaybededucedfromtheonereferencetoit(Neh3:31AVthegate
Miphkad,RVthegateofHammiphkad)describingitsrestorationaftertheExile.Manyattemptshavebeenmadetoidentifyitmoreexactlybutasthecourseof
thispartofNehemiahswallhasnotbeenrevealedbyexcavation,andconsequentlythepositionsofitsgatesarenotknownwithcertainty,suchattemptsaremere
guesswork.Seethenoteonthegatesinart.JERUSALEM,II,4.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
MIRACLES
1.Thenarrativesa)IntheGospelsJesusisrecordedtohavecastoutdevils(Mt8:28,
15:28,17:18,Mk1:25),restoredparalytics(Mt8:13,9:6,Jn5:8),revivedthewitheredhand(Mt12:13),releasedfromthespiritofinfirmity(Lk13:12),stanched
anissueofblood(Mt9:22),cureddropsy(Lk14:2),allayedfeverwithatouch(Mt8:15),givenspeechtothedumb,hearingtothedeaf,andsighttotheblind(Mt
9:33,12:22,Mk7:35,Mt9:29,20:34,Mk8:25,Jn9:7),cleansedleprosy(Mt8:3,Lk17:18),andevenraisedfromthedead(Mt9:25,Lk7:15,Jn11:44).Besides
thesemiraclesofhealingthereareascribedtoHimotherextraordinaryacts,suchasthe
StillingoftheStorm(Mt8:26),theFeedingofFiveThousand(Mt14:19)andFourThousand(15:35),theWalkingontheSea(14:28),theChangeofWaterinto
Wine(Jn2:9).TheblastingoftheFigTree(Mt21:19),andthefindingoftheCoinintheFishsMouth(17:27),maypossiblybefigurativesayingsmisunderstood.
TheTwoDraughtsofFishes(Lk5:6andJn21:6)maybevarianttraditionsofoneoccurrence,and,liketherecoveryoftheNohlemansSonofCapernaum(Jn
4:50),mayberegardedasproofofsuperhumanwisdom,andnotofsupernaturalpower.ThesemiraclesarepresentedtousastheactsofaPersonsupernaturalboth
inthemoralcharacterassinlessandperfect,andinthereligiousconsciousnessasaloneknowingandrevealingtheFather.Itwastheuniversalconvictionofthe
earlyChristianChurchthatafterthreedaysHerosefromthedead(1Co15:4),andwasuniversallypresentinsupremepower(Mt28:18,20).
RegardingthemiraclesofJesusthefollowinggeneralconsiderationsshouldbekeptinview.(a)Itisimpossibletoremovetherecordsofmiraclesfromthe
Gospelswithouttearingthemtopieces,astheseworksofJesusaresowroughtintotheverytextureofHisministry.(b)Thecharacterofthemiraclesisabsolutely
harmoniouswiththepowerofJesuswithonlytwoapparentexceptionstheyarebeneficent.Theblastingofthefigtree(Mt21:19),eveniftherecordistaken
literally,maybeexplainedasasymbolicpropheticact,asolemnwarningtoHisdisciplesofthedoomofimpenitentIsrael.Thefindingofthecoininthefishs
mouth(Mt17:27)wouldbeanexceptiontotheruleofJesusnevertouseHissupernaturalpoweronHisownbehalf,andthenarrativeitselfallowsustoexplainit
asamisunderstandingoffigurativelanguage.(c)Themiracleswerenotwroughtfordisplay,ortoproveHisclaims.Jesusrejectedsuchuseasatemptation(Mt4:6,
7),andalwaysrefusedtoworkasigntomeetthedemandsofunbelief(Mt16:4).HedidnothighlyesteemthefaiththatwasproducedbyHismiracles(Jn4:48).
Thecureoftheparalytic,whichHewroughttoconfirmHisclaimtoforgivesins,wasnecessarytoassurethesuffereroftherealityofHisforgiveness(Mt9:6).The
miraclesarenotevidentialaccessories,butessentialconstituentsofJesusministryofgrace.(d)Whilefaithinthepetitionerfor,orrecipientof,theactofhealing
wasaconditionJesusseeminglyrequiredinallcases,whileHewaspreventeddoingHismightyworks,asatNazareth,byunbelief(Mt13:58),whiletheexercise
ofHispowerwasaccompaniedbyprayertoGod(Jn11:41,42),Hishealingactswerenevertentativethereisintherecordsnotraceofafailure.(e)Inviewofone
oftheexplanationsoffered,attentionmustbecalledtothevarietyofthediseasescurednervousdisordersandtheirconsequencesdidnotlimittherangeofHis
activity.
(b)IntheActstherecordofmiraclesiscontinued.ThepromiseofJesustoHisApostles(Mt10:8,cf.Mk16:17,18)isrepresentedasabundantlyfulfilled.In
additiontothecharismsoftonguesandprophecy(wh.see),thereweresignsandwonderswroughtbytheApostlesandothers(Ac2:43,5:12,18,6:8,8:13).
MiraclesofwhichfurtherdetailsaregivenaretherestorationofthelamemanatthegateBeautiful(3:7),andofthecrippleatLystra(14:9),thecureofthepalsied
neas(9:34),theexpulsionofthespiritofdivinationatPhilippi(16:18),thehealingofthefatherofPubliusinMelita(28:8),therestorationtolifeofDorcas(9:40)
andEutychus(20:10,thenarrativedoesnotdistinctlyaffirmdeath).ThissupernaturalpowerisexercisedinjudgmentonAnaniasandSapphira(5:5,10),andon
Elymas(13:11)actsthemoraljustificationofwhichmustbesoughtintheestimateformedofthedangerthreateningtheChurchandthegospel,butwhichdo
presentanundoubteddifficulty.OnemayhesitateaboutacceptingthestatementaboutthemiracleswroughtbyPetersshadow(5:15)orPaulsaprons(19:12).
WhatarerepresentedasmiraculousdeliverancesfromimprisonmentarereportedbothofPeter(12:8)andofPaul(16:26).Paulsescapefromtheviper(28:3)does
notnecessarilyinvolveamiracle.Thesemiracles,which,takenbythemselvesasreportedinActs,theremightbesomehesitationinbelieving,becomemore
crediblewhenviewedasthecontinuationofthesupernaturalpowerofChristinHisChurchfortheconfirmationofthefaithofthosetowhomthegospelwas
entrusted,andalsothosetowhomitsappealwasfirstaddressed.InthismattertheEpistlesofPaulconfirmtherecordofActs(1Co12:10,28,2Co12:12).Paul
claimsthissupernaturalpowerforhimself,andrecognizesitspresenceintheChurch.
(c)WecannotclaimtohavecontemporaryevidenceofthemiraclesoftheOT,aswehaveofthoseoftheNT.Themiraclesarealmostentirelyconnectedeither
withtheExodusfromEgypt,orwiththeministryofElijahandofElisha.Themajorityofthemiraclesofthefirstgrouparenotoutsideoftheorderofnaturewhatis
extraordinaryinthemistheircoincidencewiththepropheticdeclaration,thisconstitutingtheeventssignsoftheDivinerevelation.Whilethemiraclesascribedto
ElijahandElishamightbeconsideredastheircredentials,yettheycannotberegardedasessentialtotheirpropheticministryandthevariationswithwhichtheyare
recordedrepresentpopulartraditionswhichthecompileroftheBooksofKingshasincorporatedwithoutanysubstantialalteration.Therecordofthestandingstill
ofthesuninGibeonisobviouslyaprosaicmisinterpretationofapoeticphrase(Jos10:1214)behindtherecordofthebringingbackoftheshadowonthedialof
Ahaz(2K20:11)wemayassumesomeunusualatmosphericphenomenon,refractingtheraysofthesunthespeechofBalaamsass(Nu22:27)mayberegarded
asanobjectifyingbytheseerofhisownscruples,doubts,andfearstheBookofJonahisnowinterpretednotliterally,butfigurativelytheBookofDanielisnot 78/102
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asanobjectifyingbytheseerofhisownscruples,doubts,andfearstheBookofJonahisnowinterpretednotliterally,butfigurativelytheBookofDanielisnot
nowgenerallytakenashistory,butratherastheembellishmentofhistoryforthepurposesofedification.TherevelationofJehovahtoIsraelisseeninthe
providentialguidanceandguardianshipofHispeoplebyGod,andintheauthoritativeinterpretationofGodsworksandwaysbytheprophets,andinitmiracle,in
thestrictsenseoftheword,hasasmallplace.WhilethemoralandreligiousworthoftheOT,astheliteratureoftheDivinerevelationcompletedinChrist,demands
arespectfultreatmentofthenarrativesofmiracles,weareboundtoapplytwotests:thesufficiencyoftheevidence,andthecongruityofthemiracleincharacter
withtheDivinerevelation.
2.Theevidence.IndealingwiththeevidenceforthemiraclesthestartingpointshouldbetheResurrection.ItisadmittedthatthebeliefthatJesushadrisen
prevailedintheChristianChurchfromtheverybeginningofitshistorythatwithoutthisbelieftheChurchwouldneverhavecomeintoexistence.Harnackseeksto
distinguishtheEastermessageabouttheemptygraveandtheappearancesofJesusfromtheEasterfaiththatJesuslives:butheisnotsuccessfulinshowinghowthe
formercouldhavecometobe,apartfromthelatter.NoattempttoexplaintheconversionofPaulwithoutadmittingtheobjectivemanifestationofChristasrisencan
beregardedassatisfactory.Itmaynotbepossibleabsolutelytoharmonizeineverydetailtherecordsoftheappearances,butbeforethesenarrativeswerewrittenit
wasthecommonbeliefoftheChristianChurch,asPaultestifies,thatChristdiedforoursinsaccordingtotheScriptures,andthathewasburied,andthathehath
beenraisedonthethirddayaccordingtotheScriptures(1Co15:3,4).IftheResurrectionofChristisproved,thisfact,conjoinedwithHisabsolutelyuniquemoral
characterandreligiousconsciousness,investsthePersonofJesuswithasupernaturalnesswhichforbidsourlimitingtheactionspossibletoHimbythenormal
humantests.Hismiraclesarenotwonders,foritisnowonderthatHeshouldsoact,butsigns,proofsofwhatHeis,andworks,congrnouswithHischaracteras
everdoinggood,andHispurposetorevealthegraceoftheFather.Harnackwillnotrejectperemptorilyasillusionthatlamewalked,blindsaw,anddeafheard,
buthewillnotbelievethatastormyseawasstilledbyaword.Themiraclesofhealingarenotallexplicable,ashesupposes,bywhatMatthewArnoldcalled
moraltherapeuticstheinfluenceofastrongpersonalityoverthosesufferingfromnervedisorders,astheyembracediseasesofwhichthecurebyanysuchmeans
isquiteincredibleandtheevidenceforthecosmicmiracles,asthemiraclesshowingpowerovernatureapartfrommanhavebeencalled,isquiteasgoodasforthe
healingmiracles.IftheSynopticGospelscanbedatedbetweenA.D.60and90,asiscomingtobeadmittedbyscholarsgenerally,theevidenceforthemiraclesof
JesusisthoroughlysatisfactorythemythicaltheoryofStraussmustassumeamuchlongerinterval.HarnackregardsasademonstratedfactthatLuke,companion
intravelandassociateinevangelisticworkofPaul,istheauthoroftheThirdGospelandtheActsneverthelesshedoesnotconsiderLukeshistoryastruebut
RamsayarguesthattheLukanauthorshipcarrieswithitsubstantialaccuracy.InhisvariouswritingshehasendeavouredtoshowhowcarefulahistorianLukeis,
andifLukesexcellenceinthisrespectisestablished,thenwecanplacegreaterrelianceontheevidenceformiraclesintheearlyChurch,aswellasintheministry
ofJesus.HarnacklaysgreatstressonthecredulityoftheageinwhichtheGospelswerewrittenbutthiscredulitywasnotuniversal.Theeducatedclasseswere
scepticaland,tojudgeLukefromtheprefacetohisGospel,heappearsasonewhorecognizedthedutyofcarefulinquiry,andoftestingevidence.Themiraclesof
theGospelsandtheActsarecloselyconnectedwiththePersonofJesus,astheWordIncarnateandtherisenLord,andthecredulityoftheagedoesnotcomeinto
considerationunlessitcanbeshownthatamongeithertheJewsortheGentilestherewasaprejudicefavourabletobeliefintheIncarnationandtheResurrection.
Thecharacterofthemiracles,soharmoniouswiththePerson,forbidsourascribingthemtothewonderloving,andthereforewondermaking,tendencyofthe
times.
SomeindicationshavealreadybeengiveninregardtotheevidenceforthemiraclesoftheOT.ThefrequentreferencestothedeliverancefromEgyptmadein
thesubsequentliteratureattestthehistoricalrealityofthatseriesofeventsanditcannotbesaidtobeimprobablethatsignsshouldhaveaccompaniedsuchaDivine
interventioninhumanhistory.SomeofthemiraclesascribedtoElishaarenotofacharactercongruouswiththefunctionofprophecybutitmaybethatweshould
verycautiouslyapplyoursenseoffitnessasatestoftruthtotheseancientnarratives.IntheOThistory,Prophecy(wh.see)wasthesupernaturalfeatureofdeepest
significanceandhighestvalue.
3.Explanations.Admittingthattheevidenceissatisfactory,andthemiraclesarereal,whatexplanationscanbeofferedofthem?(a)Onesuggestionhas
alreadybeenconsidereditisfavouredbyHarnackandMatthewArnold:itisthatonepersonmayexerciseoveranothersostronganinfluenceastocurenervous
disorders.Theinadequacyofthisexplanationhasbeenshownbutevenwereitadmissible,areasonwouldneedtobegivenwhyJesususedameansnotknownin
Hisage,andthusanticipatedmoderndevelopmentsofmedicalskill.ItiscertainthatJesusworkedHismiraclesrelyingontheDivinepowersinHimselfwhetherin
anycasesthisobscurepsychicforcewasanunknownconditionofHismiraclesisamatterofsecondaryimportance.
(b)Asecondsuggestion,madebythelateDukeofArgyll(ReignofLaw,p.16),isthatGodchoosesanduseslawsunknowntoman,orlawswhich,evenifhe
knew,hecouldnotuse.Hethinksthatthiswouldmeettheprejudiceofscientificthoughtagainsteffectswithoutcauses.Thisexplanationrecognizesthatmiracles
arenotexplicablebythelawsofnatureasknowntoman,andthatitisofGodsfreechoicethatforcertainendsHeusesmeansotherwiseunknown.Astheselaws
arequitehypothetical,andasthisuseofthemonlyoccasionallyisnotatallprobable,thisexplanationdoesnotappeartomakemiraclesanymorecredible.
(c)Wemaynowattempttodefinemorecloselywhatwemeanbyamiracle.Itdoesseem,onthewhole,desirabletorestrictthetermmiracletoanexternal
eventofwhichthereissensibleevidence.Inwardchanges,suchasinthepropheticinspiration,orthereligiousconversionofanindividual,howevermanifestthe
Divinepresenceandactionmaybeforthepersonhavingtheexperience,shouldnotbedescribedasmiracles,unlesswithsomequalificationsuchasspiritualor
moral.Thenegativefeatureoftheexternaleventwhichjustifiesourdescribingitasamiracleisthatitisinexplicablebythenaturalforcesandlawsasknowntous.
Thewillofmanisaforceinnaturewithwhichwearefamiliar,andthereforethemovementsofthebodyunderthecontrolofthewillarenottobedescribedas
miraculous.Wesaymorethanwearejustifiedinsayingifwedescribeamiracleasaninterferencewiththelawsandforcesofnature,orabreachintheorderof
natureforjustasthephysicalforcesandlawsallowtheexerciseofhumanwillinthemovementsofthebody,sothepowerthatproducesthemiraclemay,nay
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natureforjustasthephysicalforcesandlawsallowtheexerciseofhumanwillinthemovementsofthebody,sothepowerthatproducesthemiraclemay,nay
must,beconceivedassocloselyrelatedtonaturethatitsexerciseresultsinnodisturbanceordisorderinnature.Themiracleneednotinterferewiththecontinuity
ofnatureatall.ThemodemtheoryofEvolutionisnotless,butmore,favourabletothebeliefinmiracle.Itisnotafinishedmachine,butagrowingorganism,that
theworldappears.Lifetranscends,andyetcombinesandcontrolsphysicalforces(LodgesLifeandMatter,p.198).Mindisnotexplicablebythebrain,andyet
thewilldirectsthemovementsofthebody.ThereisacreativeactionofGodinthestagesoftheevolution,whichattachesitselftotheconservingactivity.Applying
theargumentfromanalogy,wemayregardthePersonofChristandthemiraclesthatclusterroundHisPersonassuchacreativeactionofGod.Ifweadequately
estimatethesignificanceoftheExodusinthehistoryofmankind,theprovidentialeventsconnectedwithitwillassumegreatercredibility.Butthereisafinal
consideration.ThepurposeofGodinChristisnotonlyperfectivethecompletionoftheworldsevolutionitisalsoredemptivethecorrectionoftheevilsinhad
broughtonthehumanrace.Itwasfittingthattheredemptionofmanfromsinshouldbeaccompaniedbyoutwardremedialsigns,thereliefofhisneedandremoval
ofhissufferings.GodiswithoutvariationandshadowthatiscastbyturninginHispurpose,butHisactionisconditioned,andmustnecessarilybeconditioned,by
theresultsofmansuseofthefreedomwhichforHiswiseandholyendsHebestowed.HemayinHisactiontranscendHisnormalactivitybyamoredirect
manifestationofHimselfthanthenaturalprocessesoftheworldafford.Theconsistencyofcharacterofahumanpersonalityisnotdisprovedbyanexceptionalact
whenacrisisarisesandso,todealeffectivelywithsinformanssalvation,GodmayusemiraclesasmeanstoHisendswithoutanybreakinthecontinuityofHis
wisdom,righteousness,andgrace.
4.Objections.Itseemeddesirabletostatethefacts,theproofsforthem,andthereasonablenessofthem,beforetakinguptheobjectionsthataremade.These
objectionsrefertotwopoints,thepossibilityofmiracleatall,andthesufficiencyoftheevidenceforthemiraclesoftheBible.Eachofthesemaybeverybriefly
dealtwith.(a)Formaterialism,whichrecognizesonlyphysicalforcesandpantheism,whichsoidentifiesGodandmanthattheorderofnatureisfixedbythe
necessityofthenatureofGodandevenfordeism,whichconfinesthedirectDivineactivitytothebeginning,andexcludesitfromthecourseoftheworld,miracles
areimpossible.Agnosticism,whichregardstheultimaterealityasaninscrutablemystery,isundernologicalcompulsiontodenythepossibilityofmiraclesHuxley,
forinstance,pronouncessuchdenialunjustifiable.Tworeasonsagainstthepossibilityofmiraclesmaybeadvancedfromatheisticstandpoint.Intheinterestsof
scienceitmaybemaintainedthattheuniformityofnatureexcludesmiraclebut,ashasjustbeenshown,thetheoryofEvolutionhassomodifiedtheconceptionof
uniformitythatthisargumenthaslostitsforce.Lifeandmind,whenfirstappearingintheprocessofevolution,werebreachesintheuniformity.Theuniformityof
natureisconsistentwithfreshstagesofdevelopment,inexplicablebytheirantecedentsandonlywhensciencehasresolvedlifeandmindintomatterwillthe
argumentregainanyvalidity.Intheinterestsofphilosophy,itmaybearguedthatmiraclesinterruptthecontinuityofthought:theworldasitisissoreasonable
(idealism)orsogood(optimism)thatanychangeisunthinkable.Buttheaffirmationignoresmanyoftheproblemstheworldasitispresents:sin,sorrow,deathare
realwouldnotthesolutionoftheseproblemsgivebothamorereasonableandabetterworld?andifmiraclesshouldbenecessarytosuchasolution,theyare
thinkable.Again,isitnotsomewhatarroganttomakemansestimateofwhatisreasonableandgoodthemeasureofGodswisdomandgrace?
(b)Themoreusualobjectionistheinsufficiencyoftheevidence.Humelaiddownthiscriterion:Notestimonyissufficienttoestablishamiracleunlessthe
testimonybeofsuchakindthatitsfalsehoodwouldbemoremiraculousthanthefactwhichitendeavourstoestablish.Orbriefly,itiscontrarytoexperiencethata
miracleshouldbetrue,butnotcontrarytoexperiencethattestimonyshouldbefalse.Buttothisstatementitmayproperlybeobjected,thatitassumeswhatistobe
provedfor,whileitmaybecontrarytoordinaryexperiencethatmiracleshappen,whatthedefendersofmiraclesmaintainisthattherehavebeenexceptional
experiencesofmiracles.Ifmiracleswerecommon,theywouldceasetobesodescribedtheiruncommonnessdoesnotprovetheirincredibility.Althoughthetestis
onethathasnowarrant,yetitmaybearguedthatChristscharacterandresurrectionwouldstandit.ItislesscrediblethattheportraitofJesusgivenintheGospels
wasinvented,thanthatJesuslivedastheredepicted.ItislesscrediblethattheApostolicfaithintherisenLord,andallitaccomplished,shouldhaveitsoriginin
illusion,thanthatHerosefromthedead.Theimprobabilityofmiracleisusuallythetacitassumptionwhenthesufficiencyoftheevidenceisdenied.Iftherelation
ofGodtotheworldisconceivedasaconstant,immanent,progressive,perfective,redemptiveactivity,theprobabilityofmiracleswillbesogreatthattheevidence
sufficienttoproveanordinaryeventwillberegardedassatisfactory,providedalwaysthatthistestismet,thatthemiracleisconnectedwiththefulfilmentofthe
Divinepurpose,andiscongruousinitscharacterwiththewisdom,righteousness,andgraceofGod.
5.Value.Afewwordsmayinconclusionbeaddedregardingthevalueofthemiracles.Theoldapologeticviewofmiraclesasthecredentialsofthedoctrines
ofChristianityisaltogetherdiscredited.Itisthetruthofthedoctrinesthatmakesthefactofthemiraclescredible.ItisChristsmoralcharacterandreligious
consciousnessthathelpustobelievethatHewroughtwonderfulworks.TheNTrecognizesthatamiracleprovesonlysuperhumanpower(2Th2:9)onlyifits
characterisgood,isitprovedDivine.IntheOTprophecyisdeclaredfalse,notonlywhenunfulfilled(Dt18:22),butalsowhenitleadstoidolatry(13:3).Themoral
test,whichcanbeappliedtothemiraclesoftheGospels,showstheirrelevancy,nottosaytheflippancy,ofMatthewArnoldssneerabouttheturningofapenintoa
penwiperastheproofofadoctrine.ThemiraclesoftheGospelsareconstituentelementsofChristsmoralperfection,Hisgracetowardsmen.Whilethemiracles
arerepresentedintheGospelsasnotinthemselvessufficienttogeneratefaith(Jn11:46,12:37),yetitisaffirmedthattheyarrestedattentionandstrengthenedfaith
(Mt8:27,Lk5:8,7:18,Jn2:11,6:14).ChristHimselfisreportedasappealingtothemaswitness(Jn5:36),buttheappealseemsdeprecatory,aselsewhereHerates
lowthefaiththatrestsonseeingmiracles(Jn4:48,14:11),whilecondemningtheunbeliefthatresistseventhisevidence(Mt11:20).Atthebeginningofthe
ChristianChurchthemiracleshadsomevalueasevidence.TodaythechangeChristhaswroughtinhumanhistoryisthemostconvincingproofofHisclaimbutwe
mustnotignorethevaluethemiracleshadwhentheyoccurred,andtheirvaluetousstillasworksofChrist,showingassignsHisgrace.
ALFREDE.GARVIE.
MIRIAM.1.ThesisterofMosesandAaron,probablyolderthaneither.ItwasshewhowatchedMosesinthearkofbulrushes(Ex2:4ff.).Sheiscalledthe 80/102
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MIRIAM.1.ThesisterofMosesandAaron,probablyolderthaneither.ItwasshewhowatchedMosesinthearkofbulrushes(Ex2:4ff.).Sheiscalledthe
prophetess,andledthewomeninthesongofvictoryattheRedSea(Ex15:20f.).InthecourseofthewildernesswanderingsshecombinedwithAaronagainst
Moses,andwaspunishedbyleprosy,whichwashealedinanswertotheprayerofMoses(Nu12:115).ShediedinKadeshtowardstheendofthewilderness
journey(Nu20:1).HerstoryisreferredtoinDt24:89inconnexionwiththeceremoniallawofleprosy,andinMic6:4sheisspokenofalongwithMosesand
Aaronasaleaderofthepeople.
ThenameMiriambecomesinGreekMariamandMariamne,alsoMaria,ourMaryandisprobablyofEgyptianderivation(merAmon,belovedofAmon).
2.Aman(orwoman)ofthefamilyofCaleb(1Ch4:17).
W.F.BOYD.
MIRMAH.EponymofaBenjamitefamily(1Ch8:10).
MIRROR.SeeGLASS.
MISAEL.1.1Es9:44=Mishael,Neh8:4,2,Three66=Mishael,No.3.
MISGAB.MentionedalongwithNeboandKiriathaimintheoracleagainstMoab(Jer48:1).Perhapsitisnotintendedasapropername.ThesameHeb.term
occursinIs25:12,wherebothAVandRVtr.highfort(cf.2S22:3,Ps9:9bis18:2,46:7,11,48:3,59:9,16,17,62:2,6,94:22,144:2,Is33:16.
MISHAEL.1.AKohathite(Ex6:22,Lv10:4).2.OneofEzrassupporters(Neh8:4)calledinIEs9:44Misael.3.SeeMESHACH.
MISHAL.AtownofAsher(Jos19:26),giventotheGershoniteLevites(21:30)=1Ch6:74Mashal.Thesiteisunknown.
MISHAM.EponymofaBenjamitefamily(1Ch8:12)
MISHMA.1.AsonofIshmael(Gn25:14=1Ch1:30).2.TheeponymofaSimeonitefamily(1Ch4:25).
MISHMANNAH.AGaditechief(1Ch12:10).
MISHNA.SeeTALMUD.
MISHRAITES.AfamilyofKiriathjearim(1Ch2:53).
MISPAR.OneoftheexileswhoreturnedwithZerub.(Ezr2:2)=Neh7:7Mispereth,1Es5:8Aspharasus.
MISPERETH.Seeprecedingarticle.
MISREPHOTHMAIM.FromtheWatersofMeromthedefeatedCanaanitesfledtoGreatZidon,anduntoMisrephothmaim(Jos11:8).ItmarkstheS.
boundaryoftheZidonians,whohadnotbeendrivenoutbyJoshua(13:6).TheLadderofTyreformedanaturallimittotheterritoryoftheZidonians.Ontheslope
ofRasenNaqrah,themostsoutherlyofthepromontoriesformingtheLadder,isfoundasitecalledMusheirifeh,whichThomson(LB)withgreatprobability
identifieswithMisrephothmaim.
W.EWING.
MITE.SeeMONEY,7.
MITHKAH.Oneofthe12stations(Nu33:28,29).
MITHNITE.AgentilicnameappliedtooneofDavidsofficersin1Ch11:43.Thetextisdoubtful.
MITHRADATES.1.1Es2:11=Mithredath,Ezr1:8,2.(AVMithridates)1Es2:16=Mithredath,Ezr4:7.
MITHREDATH(Pers.=givenbyMithra,orthesun).1.ThePersiantreasurer,whomCyruscommandedtodelivertoSheshbazzarthesacredvessels(Ezr
1:8=1Es2:11
Mithradates).2.ApparentlyaPersianofficerstationedinSamaria.TogetherwithhiscolleagueshewrotetoArtaxerxes(Longimanus)tohindertherebuildingof81/102
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Mithradates).2.ApparentlyaPersianofficerstationedinSamaria.TogetherwithhiscolleagueshewrotetoArtaxerxes(Longimanus)tohindertherebuildingof
thewallsofJerusalem(Ezr4:7=1Es2:16Mithradates).
MITRE.WiththeexceptionofZec3:6whereitrepresentstheHeb.tsnphorturban(forwhichseeDRESS,5a),andEzk21:26RV(seebelow),mitrein
EVisusedexclusivelyofthecharacteristicheaddressoftheJewishhighpriest.Themitre(Heb.mitsnepheth,fromthesameroot,signifyingtowindround,as
tsanph)wasanelaboratespeciesofturban,composedofalongswatheoffinelinen(Ex28:39),16cubitsinlength,accordingtotheTalmud.Itspreciseform,
however,isuncertainthedescriptionsgivenbyJosephusofthehighpriestlymitreofhisday,besidesbeingobscureinthemselves,agreeneitherwithoneanother
norwiththeOTtext.
OnthenowcommonassumptionthatthePriestsCodeoriginatedinBabylonia,itisprobablethatthemitrewasintendedtohavetheconicalformcharacteristic
ofthetiaraoftheBabyloniankings.Forornamentithadaplateofgold,onwhichwereengravedtwoHebrewwords
signifyingholinesstoJ(Ex28:36,Lv8:9:cf.Sir45:12).Theplaterestedonthefrontofthemitre,andwaskeptinpositionbyabluepurpleribbon(Ex28:37,
39:31),whichprobablyservedasafilletandwastiedbehind,perhapswiththeendshangingdown,asinthecaseofthejewelleddiademorfilletwornbythe
Assyriankings.Hencethefilletcouldbedescribedastheholycrown(Lv8:9),andbybenSiraasadiadem(EVcrown)ofgolduponthemitre(Sir45:12).
TheroyalcrownofJudah,accordingtoEzekiel(21:26),consistedofthesametwoparts
(seeHeb.textineachcase):removethemitre(RV),andtakeoffthediadem(EVcrown).
ThispassageisourwarrantforsayingthattheheaddressprescribedforthehighpriestinthePriestsCode,consistingofmitreanddiadem,isintendedtosignifythat
thehighpriestshalluniteinhispersonthehighestofficeinbothChurchandState.
Theheaddressofthehighpriestisalwaysdistinguishedfromthatofhissubordinates,forwhichseeBONNET.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
MITYLENEwasthechieftownofLesbosonitsE.coast,subsequentlygivingitsnametothewholeisland.Itwasoneoftheearlyoliancolonies,andoneof
theearliesthomesofGreeklyricpoetrythebirthplaceofSapphoandAlcns.Itattainedgreatnavalpower,andfoundedcoloniessuchasSigeumandAssos.It
tookaprominentpartintheIonianrevolt,buthelpedXerxesagainstGreece.ItjoinedtheAthenianalliance,butrevoltedinB.C.428andwasnearlyannihilated.
AfteropposingRomeintheMithradaticWar,itwasmadeafreecity.IthasbelongedtotheTurkssinceA.D.1462.ItsmentioninAc20:14ismerelyincidental,St.
Paulsshipspentanightthere.
A.E.HILLARD.
MIXEDMULTITUDE.Adescriptiongiven(1)tocertainpersonswhojoinedIsraelintheExodusfromEgypt(Ex12:38),andwhofellalustingatKibroth
hattaavah(Nu11:4)(2)tothosewhowereseparatedfromtheIsraelitesafterthereturnfromtheCaptivity(Neh13:3).
InEx12:38thosereferredtoareprobablystrangersofnonIsraeliticorhalfIsraeliticorigin.TheHebrewconsonants(differentlypointed)meaneithermixedor
Arabian,andsomehavesuggestedthatweoughtheretotranslateArabians.InJer25:20,50:37,Ezk30:5,thesameHebrewwordistranslatedbytheexpression
mingledpeople,whereithasbeensupposedbysometorefertoforeignmercenaries.InEzk30:5atleastArabiansgivesabettermeaning.TheHebrewwordin
Nu11:4isadifferentone,andisprobablyacontemptuoustermsignifyingthemob,therabble.
ThecontextinNeh13:3leavesnodoubtastothemeaning.ThereferenceistothestrangerswithwhomtheIsraeliteshadintermarriedandthechildrenofsuch
alliances.
W.F.BOYD.
MIZAR.Ps42:6bruns:IremembertheefromthelandofJordanandtheHermons,fromthehillMizar.ItisaquestionwhetherMizarisapropernameoran
appellativethelittle(?).Iftheformer,MizarmustbeapeakoftheHermons,andisotherwiseunknown.Ifthelatter,thetextmustinsomewaybecorrected.
Thesimplestandmostsatisfactoryexpedientistoremovetheinitialmfrommharinthephrasemharmizar,andrenderO,thoulittlehill.Thereferencewillthen
betoZion.AsthewholePsalmreadslikethecryofanexilefromZion,expressiveofhishomesickness,thisrenderingmakesadmirablesense.O,myGod,my
souliscastdownwithinmeforIremembertheefromthelandofJordanandoftheHermons,O,thoulittlehill(ofZion).Theinitialminmharmightwellhave
creptinfromthefinalmoftheprecedingword,Hermonim.
W.F.COBB.
MIZPAH,MIZPEH.Thesewords(fromtsphh,tolookout,esp.asawatchman)meanoutlookpointandtheyarethenamesofseveralplacesandtowns
inPalestine,allpresumablysituatedonelevatedspots,andallprobablyancientsacredplaces.Thesitesofseveralare,however,uncertain.Asbothnamesare
significant,theynearlyalwaysintheHeb.havethearticle.
1.MizpahinGn31:49,whereJacobandLabanmadetheircompacttogether,andwherethenameisexplained,byapopularetymology,fromthewordsused
byLaban,Jwatchbetweenmeandthee,whenweareabsentonefromanother(andinterpose,itisimplied,ifeitherattemptstotakeanadvantageoftheother).
Thenamehasnotbeenpreserved,andhencethesitecannotbefixed,exceptconjecturally.Improbablesiteshavebeensuggested:tojudgefromthegenerallineof
JacobsroutefromHaran,theMizpahherereferredtowillhavebeensomeeminenceontheN.E.oftheJebeiAjlun,some40milesS.E.oftheLakeof
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JacobsroutefromHaran,theMizpahherereferredtowillhavebeensomeeminenceontheN.E.oftheJebeiAjlun,some40milesS.E.oftheLakeof
Gennesaret(cf.
Driver,Genesis,pp.288,301f.).
2.ThelandofMizpah,atthefootofHermon,inJos11:5,probablythesameasthecleft(orplainbetweenmountains)ofMizpehinv.8.ThisMizpah,or
Mizpeh,hasbeenidentifiedwiththeDrusevillageMutelle(theclimbedupto),onahill200ft.high,attheS.endofthebroadandfertileplaincalledtheMerj
Ayn(themeadowofAyn),overlookingthebasinoftheHulehsea,alittleN.ofAbil,and8m.W.N.W.ofBnis(Rob.iii.372f.).This,however,isthought
bysometobenotenoughtotheE.(noticeunderHermonv.8,andeastwardv.8)andBuhl(GAP240)conjecturesthatitmayhavebeentheheightonwhich
arenowtheruinsoftheSaraceniccastleKalatesSubb,2m.aboveBnias,ontheN.E.IntheformercasethelandofM.wouldbetheMerjAynitself,
betweentheriversLitaniandHasbniinthelatteritwouldbetheplainstretchingdownfromBnistowardsLakeHuleh.
3.MizpehinJos15:38,intheShephlah,orlowlandofJudah,mentionedinthesamegroupofcitiesasLachish(TellelHesy,34milesS.W.ofJerusalem).
AccordingtoEusebius(Onom.279),therewasaMizpehinthedistrictofEleutheropolis(BeitJibrn,23m.S.W.ofJerus.),ontheN.,andanotherontheroadfrom
EleutheropolistoJerusalem.TheformerofthesedescriptionswouldsuitTellesSafiyeh,onahillofwhitechalk71/2m.N.N.W.ofBeltJibrn,withacommanding
view,which,however,isnowidentifiedbymanywithGaththelatteristooindefinitetopermitofanyidentificationbeingmadewithconfidence.
4.TheMizpahofJg10:17,11:11,34,Jephthahshome,apparently,tojudgefromthenarrative,notveryfarfromtheAmmoniteterritory,and(11:33)the
AroerinfrontofRabbathammon(Jos13:25).Thesitecanonlybefixedconjecturally.MooresuggeststheJebelOsha,16m.N.W.ofRabbathammon,thehighest
pointofthemountainsS.oftheJabbok(3597ft.),commandingaviewofalmostthewholeJordanValley,aswellasofmuchofthecountryopposite,ontheW.of
Jordan(Conder,HelhandMoab,186f.).WhethertheMizpehofGileadofJg11:29isthesamespotisuncertainfromthedifferenceofname,itwouldrather
seemthatitisnot.TheMizpahofHos5:1is,however,veryprobablythesameasJephthahsMizpah.TheRamathmizpeh(heightoftheoutlookpoint)ofJos
13:25,ontheN.borderofGad,hasalsobeensupposedtobethesameasJephthahsMizpahbutthisisuncertainapointfurthertotheN.seemstoberequired.
5.TheMizpah,ontheW.ofJordan,mentionedinJg20:1,8,21:1,5,8,1S7:5ff.,10:17asameetingplaceofIsraelitesonImportantoccasionsin1K15:22
(=2Ch16:8)asfortifiedbyAsain2K23:23,25,Jer40:5,8,andseveraltimesbesidesinJer40,41,astheresidenceofGedaliah,thegovernorappointedby
NebuchadnezzaroverJudahafterthecaptureofJerusalemin586andinNeh3:7,15,19.ThesameplaceappearstobeintendedbytheMizpehof1Mac3:45
(Gr.Masspha,asofteninLXXforMizpah,e.g.Jg20:1,8),overagainstJerusalem,aformerplaceofprayer(i.e.sanctuary)forIsrael,atwhichthefaithful
IsraelitesassembledafterAntiochusEpiphaneshaddesecratedtheTempleandstoppedallworshipinit.ThisMizpahwasidentifiedwithmuchprobabilityby
Robinson(i.460)withNebiSamwil,aheight41/2m.N.W.ofJerusalem,2935ft.abovethesea,andsome500ft.abovethesurroundingplain(noticegoneorcame
upinJg20:3,21:5,8),withacommandingviewofthecountryround(ib.457f.).NebiSamwilis3m.W.N.W.ofGibeah(cf.Jg20:1,3withthesequel),2m.S.
ofGibeon(cf.Neh3:7),andalittleN.ofthepresentroadfromJoppatoJerusalem.Itistheactualpointfromwhichtravellersascendingbytheancientroute
throughthepassofBethhoroncaughttheirfirstglimpseoftheinteriorofthehillsofPalestine.Itisaveryfairanddeliciousplace,anditiscalledMountJoy,
becauseitgivesjoytopilgrimsheartsforfromthatplacemenfirstseeJerusalem(Maundeville,citedinSP,p.214).Itspresentname,NebiSamwil(theProphet
Samuel),isduetotheMoslemtraditionthatitwasSamuelsburialplace(cf.1S7:6,15whereMizpahismentionedasoneofSamuelsresidences)andthe
mosquethereonceaCrusaderschurchcontainsacenotaphreveredbytheMoslemsashistomb.
6.MizpehofMoab(1S22:8,Mizpehisperhapsalsotobereadinv.5forthehold),theresidenceofthekingofMoabwhenDavidconsignedhisparents
tohiscare.ItmusthavebeensituatedonsomeeminenceinMoabbutwehavenofurthercluetoitssite.
S.R.DRIVER.
MIZRAIM.Thenameofv(wh.see),andespeciallyofLowerEgypt.MizraimwassonofHamandfatherofLudim,Anamim,Lebabim,Naphtuhim,
Pathrusim(i.e.theinhabitantsofUpperEgypt),Casluhim,andCaphtorim(Gn10:6,13,14).Of.alsoart.P ATHROS.
F.LL.GRIFFITH.
MIZZAH.AdukeofEdom(Gn36:13,17=1Ch1:37).
MNASONofCyprus,mentionedinAc21:16asonewhoentertainedPaulandhiscompanionsontheirjourneyfromCsareatoJerusalem.TheGreekinthis
passageadmitsoftwoconstructions,eitherbringingwiththemoneMnason,orbringingustoMnason.ThemostprobableexplanationisthatMnasonlivedin
somevillagebetweenCsareaandJerusalem,andthatPaulbrokehisJourneythereandstayedthenightwithhim.Thedistancewasbetween60and70miles,too
greatforadaysjourney.
Heiscalledanold(RVearly)disciple,thatis,oneofthefirstdisciples,probablyoneofthoseconvertedonthedayofPentecost.
MORLEYS TEVENSON.
MOAB,MOABITES.MoaboccupiedtheloftytablelandtotheeastoftheDeadSea.ItwasboundedontheE.bytheArabiandesert,ontheS.bythelandof
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MOAB,MOABITES.MoaboccupiedtheloftytablelandtotheeastoftheDeadSea.ItwasboundedontheE.bytheArabiandesert,ontheS.bythelandof
Edom,ontheW.bytheDeadSeaandJordanValley.ItsN.boundaryfluctuatedatdifferentperiodsbetweentheArnonandanindistinctlinesomedistancenorthof
Heshbon.Thistablelandiselevatedsome3000feetabovetheleveloftheMediterranean,and4300feetabovetheDeadSea.Itistraversedbythreedeepvalleys,
themiddleoneofwhich,theArnon,isthedeepest,andisoftenmentionedintheBible.Thenorthernportionconsistsofbroadstretchesofrollingcountry,the
reddishsoilofwhichisfertile,whileinthesouthernportionmorehillsarefound,andthedeepwrinklesinterferemorewithagriculture.Inthewintermonthsthe
rainfallisadequate,andrendersthecountryverydesirableincomparisonwiththedesertsonitsborder.
IntheearliesttimesknowntousthislandwascalledLotan(Egyp.Ruten),orLot.ThenarrativeofGn.19,whichmakesLot(wh.see)thefatherofMoab,
apparentlymeansthattheMoabitessettledinthislandofLot.ThemeaningofMoabisundetermined.TheetymologyofGn19:37(LXX)isnotphilological,and
modernguessesareuncertain.
ThenarrativeofGn19showsthattheIsraelitesrecognizedtheMoabitesastheirkinsmen.Thattheyreallyweresuch,theirlanguage,religion,andcustoms,so
farasknowntous,alsotestify.Probably,then,theMoabitescamewiththewaveofAramanmigrationwhichbroughttheIsraelites,securedafootholdintheland
ofLotanwhiletheIsraeliteswerestillnomads,andadoptedtheCanaanitishspeechofthepeopleamongwhomtheysettled.Saycebelievestheyweresettledinthis
territorybyc.B.C.1300,forRamesesII.,hethinks,alludestothecountryMoab(cf.PatriarchalPalestine,p.22),butthislacksconfirmation.
AtthetimeoftheapproachoftheHebrewstoPalestinetheMoabitesweresostronglyintrenchedintheirlandthattheinvadersavoidedallconflictwiththem
(Dt2:9,Jg11:15,2Ch20:16),althoughtheyconqueredkingSihon,whohadsubduedallofMoabnorthoftheArnon(Nu21:2131,Dt2:2435).TheMoabites
viewedthecomingofIsraelwithalarm,anddesiredtoattackthem,butdidnotdare(Nu2224,Dt23:4,Jg11:25).
AccordingtothePriestlynarratives,theIsraelitessecuredatthistimetheterritorynorthoftheArnonbutthenarrativesdifferastowhetheritscitieswereall
assignedtoReuben(soJos13:1621),orwhethersomeofthemostsoutherly(Dibon,Ataroth,andAroer)wereassignedto
Gad(Nu32:34ff.).Perhapsthelatterviewrepresentsthefact.TheGaditesobtainedsomeofthesoutherncities,andtheReubenitessomeofthenorthern.Probably
theconquestwasnotverycomplete.
EarlyintheperiodoftheJudges,theMoabitesnotonlyhadregainedcontrolofallthisterritory,buthadextendedtheirpowerintowesternPalestinesoasto
oppresstheBenjamites(Jg
3:1230).ThisledtotheassassinationofEglon,kingofMoab,byEhud.IncourseoftimetheMoabitesabsorbedthetribeofReuben,thoughthelattermaintained
theiridentityforaconsiderableperiod.
AccordingtotheBookofRuth,friendlyintercourseexistedbetweenMoabandIsraelatthisperiod.SaulfoughtwiththeMoabites(1S14:47),butwithwhat
resultwedonotknow.TowardstheendofhisreigntheyaidedDavidagainsthim(1S22:3ff.).DavidsubjugatedMoab,andrenderedthecountrytributarytoIsrael
(2S8:1,2,12).ThissubjugationapparentlycontinuedduringthereignofSolomon,forhehadMoabitishwomeninhisharem,andbuiltashrineforChemosh,the
godofMoab(1K11:1,7).
AfterthereignofSolomon,Moabapparentlygaineditsindependence.OurnextinformationcomesfromthesocalledMoabiteStone,aninscriptionof
Mesha,kingofMoab,foundattheancientDibon,andnowpreservedintheLouvre.MeshastatesthatOmri,kingofIsrael,conqueredMoab,andthatMoab
continuedsubjecttoIsraeltillthemiddleofthereignofAhab,whenChemoshenabledhim(Mesha)towinvictoriesoverIsrael,whichsecuredMoabitish
independence,andwhichhedescribesindetail.Asomewhatconfusedallusiontothisisfoundin2K3:1ff.,Jehoram,Ahabssuccessor,undertook,withtheaidof
JehoshaphatandthekingofEdom,toreduceMoaboncemore,andalmostsucceeded,Thecountrywasoverrun,thecapitalbesiegedandreducedtogreat
extremity,whenthekingofMoabsacrificedtoChemoshhisfirstbornsononthecitywallinsightofbotharmies(2K3:27).Thecouragewhichthisarousedinthe
Moabites,andthesuperstitiousdreadwhichitexcitedinthebesiegingarmy,securedavictoryfortheformer.Itappearsfrom2K13:20thatafterthis,Moabites
frequentlyinvaded
Israel.
Amos(2:13)inthenextcenturyreprovedMoabforbarbaritiestoEdom,andTiglathpileserIII.ofAssyriaenumeratesthekingofMoabamonghistribute
payers(KIBii.20).Sennacherib,aboutB.C.700,receivedtributefromChemoshnadab,kingofMoab(KIBii.91),andthecountryremainedvassaltoAssyria
duringthefollowingreignsofEsarhaddonandAshurbanipal(cf.KIBii.148,238).
MoabitesaidedNebuchadnezzaragainstJehoiakimattheveryendofthesamecentury(2K24:2).Is15,16,Zeph2:811,Jer48,andEzk25:8ff.contain
propheciesagainstMoab,butdonotaddtoourknowledgeofthehistory.Jer48indicatesthatagreatcalamitywasimpendingoverthem.InNeh4:7Arabians
ratherthanMoabitesarealliesoftheAmmonites(cf.also1Mac9:3242andJos.Ant.XIII.xiii.5,XIV.i.4).WeknowthattheNabatanswereinpossessionof
thiscountryalittlelater,anditisprobablethatbythetimeofNehemiahtheyhadforeverbroughttheMoabitepowertoanend.SomeinferfromJeremiahs
prophecythatMoabrebelledagainstNebuchadnezzarasIsraelandAmmondid,andthathecarriedenoughofthemcaptivetoweakenthemandrendertheman
easypreytotheNabatans.Possiblythisistrue,butweknownothingofIt.
ThelanguageoftheMoabiteswas,astheMoabiteStoneshows,identicalwiththatofIsrael.ThatpeculiarconstructionknownasWawConsecutiveisfound,
outsideofBiblicalHebrew,onlyintheMoabiteStoneandoneortwoPhnicianinscriptions.
ThereligionoftheMoabiteswasverysimilartothatofearlyIsrael.Thereferencesto
ChemoshinMeshasinscriptionareverysimilartoreferencestoJahwehinIsraelitishwritingsofthesameperiod.TheDivinenameAshtarChemoshindicatesthat
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ChemoshinMeshasinscriptionareverysimilartoreferencestoJahwehinIsraelitishwritingsofthesameperiod.TheDivinenameAshtarChemoshindicatesthat
theworshipofthefemininedivinityknowntotheBabyloniansasIshtar,andtothePhniciansasAstart,wasalsomingledwiththeworshipofChemosh.Tracesof
therepellentnatureofthisworshipappearintheOT(Nu25:5,31:16,Jos22:7,Ps106:28).Nogreatethicalprophets,suchaselevatedthereligionofIsrael,rescued
thereligionofMoabfromthelevelofitsbarbaricSemiticorigin.
GEORGEA.BARTON.
MOADIAH.SeeMAADIAH.
MOCHMUR.AwadyapparentlyS.E.ofDothan(Jth7:18).
MODIN.AvillageintheShephlah,nevermentionedintheOT,butofgreatimportanceasthehomeoftheMaccabees.HereMattathias,byslayingaJew
whoconformedtothepaganizingcommandsofAntiochus,struckthefirstblowforJewishreligiousfreedom(1Mac2:128).HewasburiedatModin(2:70),as
werehisillustrioussonsJudas(9:19)andJonathan(13:25).Simonherebuiltanelaboratemonumentwithsevenpyramids,commemorativeofhisfather,mother,
andfourbrethren,withgreatpillarsaround,andbasreliefsofmilitaryandnavaltriumphs.Thissplendidmonumentcouldbeseenatsea.Itstoodforabout500
years,afterwhichitseemstohavedisappearedandwithitwaslostallrecollectionofthesiteofModin.Thishasbeenrecoveredinrecentyearsinthelittlevillage
ofelMedyeh,nearLydd.Therearenumerousrocktombsabout,someofthemtraditionallyknownasQabrelYehd,ortheJewstombs,butnothingistobe
seeninanywaysuggestiveoftheMaccabanmausoleum.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
MOETH(1Es8:68)=NoadiahofEzr8:33.
MOLADAH.AcityreckonedtoJudahinJos15:26,andtoSimeoninJos19:2,1Ch4:28.ItisinnowayrelatedtoTellelMilh,hillofsalt,withwhich
Robinsonandothershaveidentifiedit.ProbablyitlaynearBeersheba,butthesitehasnotbeenrecovered.
W.EWING.
MOLE.1.tinshemeth,Lv11:30(AVmole,RVchameleonbutsamewordisinLv
11:18andDt14:18tr.AVswan,RVhornedowl).SeeCHAMELEON.
2.chaphrprth(?burrowinganimals),Is2:20,mayapplytorats,mice,jerboas,etc.,aswellasmoles.Thetrueinsectivorousmoledoesnotoccurin
Palestine,buttherodentSpalaxtyphlus,themolerat,isverycommon.Itlivesentirelyunderground,hasmostrudimentaryeyes,andmakesverylongburrows.Itis
gregarious,andlargeareasaresometimescoveredthickwithitshillocks.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
MOLECH,MOLOCH.AdeityworshippedbytheIsraelites,especiallybythepeopleofJudah,towardsthecloseofthemonarchy.Melech(king)was
evidentlythetitleofthisgodandthepresentformisduetothecombinationoftheoriginalconsonantswiththevowelsofbsheth(shame).Thepassagesinwhich
referencetothisdivinityisprobablyfoundareLv18:21,20:25,1K11:7,2K23:10,Is30:33,57:9,Jer32:35.Thechieffeatureoftheworshipseemstohave
beenthesacrificeofchildren.ItsspecialcentrewasjustoutsideJerusalem,ataplaceintheValleyofHinnomcalledtheTopheth(whichsee).Thecultwas
introduced,accordingto1K11:7,bySolomon.Ifthereferencehereisanerror(seebelow),Ahazmayhave1beentheinnovator(2K16:3).Atanyrate,it
flourishedinthe7thcent.B.C.,aswegatherfrompropheticdenunciationandthelegislationofDeuteronomy.Manassehsacrificedhisson(2K21:6).Josiah
suppressedtheworshipanddefiledTopheth.ButunderJehoiakimthisworshiprevived,andcontinuedtilltheCaptivity.
AstotheidentityofMelech,thereisaninterestingquestion.VeryancienttraditionidentifieshimwithMilcom(wh.see),thenationalgodofAmmon.Buttheonlybasisforthis
viewwhichtheHeb.textoftheOTfurnishesis1K11:7,andtheGr.VSSofferevidencethattheoriginalreadinginthispassagemayhavebeenMilcom,asinv.5andv.3.On
theotherhand,wearetoldthat,whileMelechwasworshippedatTopheth,thesanctuaryofMilcomwasontheMountofOlives(2K23:13).Moreover,thiscultseemstohavebeen
regardedasCanaanitishinorigin(Dt12:2831,18:914).Again,welearnfrommanysourcesthatthemostatrociouschildsacrificewasaprominentfeatureinthepublicreligionof
thePhnicians,bothintheirPalestinianhomelandandinCarthageandinthisconnexionwefindconstantreferencetothepitoffireintowhichthevictimswerecast(see
T OPHETH).AmongotherSemiticpeoplesalsothereareoccasionalinstancesoftheofferingofchildren,butnotasaregularpracticesuchasweareconsidering.
MelechisatitleofmanySemiticdeities,andintheOTisfrequentlyappliedtoJahweh.WefindthattheobjectofthisworshipisalsocalledBaal(master)(Jer19:5,32:35).
ThisislikewiseatitleofnumerousSemiticdivinities,andissometimesusedofJahweh(seeBAAL).WhenthenameBaalisusedintheOTwithspecificreferencetoaparticular
god,itmeansMelkarthofTyre(1K16:32,2K3:2,8:18,27,10:1827,11:18).Theprophetsundoubtedlyregardedthecultasforeign,andasanapostasytoheathenism.Butdoes
thisnecessarilyprovethatMelechwasafalsegod?JeremiahsprotestthatJahwehhadnotrequiredthesesacrifices(7:31,19:5,32:35)wouldseemtoimplythatthepeopledidnot85/102
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thisnecessarilyprovethatMelechwasafalsegod?JeremiahsprotestthatJahwehhadnotrequiredthesesacrifices(7:31,19:5,32:35)wouldseemtoimplythatthepeopledidnot
regardthisastheworshipofanothergod.Indeed,Ezekielgoesfurther,andclaimsthatJahwehHimselfgavethemthesestatutesthatarenotgood,andsacrificesofthefirstborn,
becausetheyhadrejectedpurerworship(Ezk20:25f.,31).Onthewhole,theevidenceseemstoindicatethatthiscultuswasduetoPhnicianinfluence,andwasintroducedbecause
ofpopularmisunderstandingofthelawsrelatingtothegivingofthefirstborntoJahweh.Theoriginofsuchacult,togetherwithapossiblemoreorlesscompleteidentificationwith
Melkarth,wouldexplaintheconstantuseofthetitlesMelechandBaalratherthanthenameJahweh.
W.M.NESBIT.
MOLID.ThenameofaJudahitefamily(1Ch2:29).
MOLOCH.SeeMOLECH.
MOLTENSEA.SeeTEMPLE,6(c)BrazenSea.MOMDIS(1Es9:34)=Maadai,Ezr10:34.
MONEY
1.Antiquityofametalliccurrency:weightsandvalues.Thatthepreciousmetals,goldandsilver,andtoalessextentcopper,weretheordinarymediaof
exchangeinPalestinefromatimelongpriortotheappearancethereoftheHebrews,isnowamplyattestedbyevidencefromEgyptandBabylonia,andevenfrom
thesoilofPalestineitself.ThepredominanceofsilverasthemetalcurrencyforeverydaytransactionsisfurthershownbytheconstantuseinHebrewliteratureof
thewordforsilver(keseph)inthesenseofmoney.
AstherecanbenoquestionoftheexistenceofcoinedmoneyinPalestineuntilthePersianperiod,thefirststepinthestudyofthemoneyofOTistomasterthe
systemofweightsadoptedfortheweighingofthepreciousmetals.Moneymightindeedbetoldorcounted,buttheaccuracyofthetalehadtobetestedby
meansofthebalanceorrather,asweseefromsuchpassagesas2K12:10,11(RV),moneywastoldbybeingweighed.Now,alltheweightsystemsofWestern
Asia,andevenofEurope,hadtheirorigininBabylonia(fordetailsseeWEIGHTSANDMEASURES).There,asrequiredbythesexagesimalsystemofreckoning,the
ancientunitofweight,themanu(Heb.manehasinEzk45:12elsewhereinEVpound)ormina,whichweighed7580grainsonthelight,and15,160onthe
heavystandard,wasdividedinto60shekels,while60minaswenttothehigherdenomination,thetalent.ItwillthusbeseenthatthelightBabyloniantradeshekel
weighed,neglectingfractions,126grainstroy,andtheheavyshekel252.Theformer,itwillbeusefultoremember,wasbutthreegrainsheavierthanaBritishgold
sovereign.
AsthisweightsystemspreadwestwardswiththemarchofBabyloniancivilizationandcommerce,itcameintoconflictwiththedecimalsystemofcalculation,
andacompromisewaseffected,whichresultedintheminabeingreducedto50shekels,whilethetalentremainedat60minas,althoughreducedinweightto3000
shekels.ThattheHebrewtalentbywhichthepreciousmetalswereweighedcontained3000,not3600,shekelsmaybeseenbyasimplecalculationfromthedataof
Ex38:25ff.,Further,theheavyBabylonianshekelof252grainsremainedinuseamongtheHebrewsfortheweighingofgolduntilNTtimes.Forthiswehavethe
expresstestimonyofJosephus,whotellsus(Ant.XIV.vii.1)thattheHebrewgoldminawasequalto21/2Romanpounds.Onthebasisof5053grainstothelibraor
pound,thisgivesashekelof2522/3grains,theexactweightoftheheavyBabylonianshekelofthecommonortradestandard.
Fortheweighingofsilver,ontheotherhand,thisshekelwasdiscardedforpracticalreasons.ThroughouttheEastinancienttimestheratioofgoldtosilverwas
131/3:1,whichmeansthatashekelofgoldcouldbuy131/3timesthesameweightofsilver.
Thelatestexplanationofthisinvariableratio,itmaybeaddedinpassing,isthatadvocatedbyWincklerandhisfollowers.Onthis,thesocalledastralmythologytheoryofthe
originofBabylonianculture,gold,theyellowmetal,wasspeciallyassociatedwiththesun,whilethepalersilverwasthespecialmoonmetal.Accordinglyitwasnaturaltofixthe
ratiobetweenthemasthatwhichexistedbetweentheyearandthemonth,viz.360:27or40:3.
Inordinarycommerce,however,thisratiobetweenthetwochiefmediaofexchangewasextremelyinconvenient,andtoobviatethisinconvenience,theweight
oftheshekelforweighingsilverwasalteredsothatagoldshekelmightbeexchangedforawholenumberofsilvershekels.Thisalterationwaseffectedintwo
ways.Ontheoneband,alongtheBabyloniantraderoutesintoAsiaMinorthelightBabylonianshekelof126grainswasraisedto168grains,sothat10such
shekelsofsilvernowrepresentedasinglegoldshekel,since126131/3=16810.Ontheotherhand,thegreatcommercialcitiesofPhniciaintroducedasilver
shekelof224grains,15ofwhichwereequivalenttooneheavyBabyloniangoldshekelof252grains,since252131/3=22415.This224grainshekelis
accordinglyknownasthePhnicianstandard.ItwasonthisstandardthatthesacredduesoftheHebrewswerecalculated(see3)onitalsothefamoussilver
shekelsandhalfshekelswerestruckatalaterperiod(5).
Withregard,now,totheintrinsicvalueoftheabovegoldandsilvershekels,allcalculationsmuststartfromthemintpriceofgold,whichinGreatBritainis3,86/102
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Withregard,now,totheintrinsicvalueoftheabovegoldandsilvershekels,allcalculationsmuststartfromthemintpriceofgold,whichinGreatBritainis3,
17s.101/2d.perounceof480grains.Thisgives2,1s.asthevalueoftheHebrewgoldshekelof252grs.,andsincethelatterwastheequivalentof15heavy
Phnicianshekels,2s.9d.representsthevalueasbullionoftheHebrewsilvershekel.OfcoursethepurchasingpowerofbothinBibletimes,whichistherealtest
ofthevalueofmoney,wasmanytimesgreaterthantheirequivalentsinsterlingmoneyatthepresentday.
Theresultsastoweightsandvaluesabovesetforthmaybepresentedintabularformasfollows:
Denomination.Weight. IntrinsicValue.
GOLD
Shekel 2522/3grs.troy.2 1 0
10 0
Mina=50
12,630grs.102troy.
shekels
758,000grs.6150 0 0
Talent=3000
troy.
(circa108lbs.avoir.)
S ILVER
Shekel 224grs.troy.0 2 9
Mina 16 8
11,225grs.6
troy.
(circa1lb.10oz.avoir.)
Talent 0 0
673,500grs.410
troy.
(circa96lbs.avoir.)
Sincetheeffectiveweightoftheextantshekelsissomewhatunderthetheoreticalweightabovegiven,theintrinsicvalueofanynumberofshekelsofsilvermay
befoundwithsufficientaccuracybyequatingtheshekelroughlywithourhalfcrown(2s.6d.).
Althoughwehaveliteraryandnumismaticevidenceforthegoldandsilvershekelsofthesetablesonly,itmaynowberegardedascertainthatotherstandards
wereinuseinPalestineinhistorictimesforweighingthepreciousmetals.Thebestattestedisthatwhichthepresentwriter,inhisarticleWeightsandMeasuresin
HastingsDBlv.904f.,termedtheSyrian320grainunit,ashekelwhichistheofaheavyBabylonianminaof16,000grains.Thatthelightshekelofthisstandard,
representedbythenowfamiliarweightsof160grainsorthereby,inscribednetseph,wasusedforweighingsilverorgoldorbothisevidentfromthesmall
denominationswhichhavebeenrecovered,suchasthequarternetsephof40grs.,knownastheChaplinweight(seeop.cit.andPEFSt,1903,p.197,1904,p.209
ff.,andlateryears).
2.Moneyinthepreexilicperiod.Throughoutthewholeofthisperiod,ashasalreadybeenemphasized,ineverytransactioninvolvingthepaymentofsumsof
considerablevalue,themoneywasreckonedbyweight.Accordingly,whenAbrahamboughtthefieldandcaveofMachpelahheweighedtoEphronthesilver
fourhundredshekelsofsilver,currentmoneywiththemerchant(Gn23:15).Inviewofwhathasjustbeensaidregardingthevarietyofstandardsinusein
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fourhundredshekelsofsilver,currentmoneywiththemerchant(Gn23:15).Inviewofwhathasjustbeensaidregardingthevarietyofstandardsinusein
Palestineinearlytimes,itwouldbeunwise,inthepresentstateofourknowledge,topronounceastothevalueofthepricepaidinthistransaction.Onthe
Phnicianstandarditwouldbeapproximately55sterlingonthenetsephstandard,whichstandstothePhnicianintheratioof5:7,itwouldbeunder40.
Similarly,thepricewhichDavidpaidforthethreshingfloorofAraunahtheJebusite,50shekelsofsilver(2S24:24),willvaryfrom5to7accordingtothe
standardadopted.Ontheotherhand,wheregoldisconcerned,asinthecaseofthe30talentswhichSennacheribappointeduntoHezekiah(2K18:14),wemay
withsomeconfidenceassumethegoldstandardcommontoPalestineandAssyria.InthiscaseHezekiahstributewillrepresenttherespectablesumof184,500.
AnoteworthyfeatureoftheentriesofpricesinthepreexilicwritingsoftheHebrewsisthedisappearanceofthemina,thesumsbeingstatedintermsofshekels
andtalentsexclusively.ThusAbraham,aswehaveseen,paid400shekels,not8minas,tothechildrenofHeththeweight,andthereforethevalue,ofAchans
wedgeofgold(seenextparagraph)isgivenas50shekels,notas1mina,andsothroughout.
Inthisperiodthepreciousmetalscirculatedinthreeforms.Theshekel,itssubdivisions(cf.thequartershekelof1S9:8)andsmallermultiples,hadtheformof
ingotsofmetal,withoutanystamporothermark,sofarasourevidencegoes,asaguaranteeoftheirpurityandweight.Largervaluesweremadeupintheshapeof
bars,suchasSchliemanndiscoveredatTroyandMacalisterfoundatGezer(illust.BibleSidelights,etc.,fig.36).Thewedge(lit.tongue)ofgoldwhichAchan
appropriatedfromthelootofJericho(Jos7:21)wasprobablysuchathinbarofgold.Further,Rebekahsnoseringofhalfashekelofgold,andherbraceletsoften
shekels(Gn24:22),representathirdformwhichthemetalcurrencyoftheearlyperiodmightassume.Thevasesandothervesselsofgoldandsilverwhichareso
frequentlymentionedinancienttributelistsalso,inallprobability,representeddefiniteweightsandvalues.
Tosuchanextentwastheshekeltheexclusiveunitinallordinarytransactions,thattheHebrewwritersfrequentlyomititintheirstatementsofprices.This
appliestogoldaswellastosilver,e.g.2K5:5sixthousandofgold,whereAVandRVsupplypieces,butRVmhasthecorrectshekels(cf.silverling[wh.see]
inIs7:23).
3.MoneyinthePersianperiod:introductionofcoins.InthisperiodthemoneyofthesmallJewishcommunitywasstill,asbeforetheExile,chieflyingotsand
barsofthepreciousmetals,withoutofficialmarkofanykind.Theadditionofsuchamarkbytheissuingauthorityservesasapublicguaranteeofthepurityofthe
metalandtheweightoftheingot,andtransformsthelatterintoacoin.CoinedmoneyisusuallyregardedastheinventionoftheLydiansearlyinthe7thcent.B.C.,
butitisveryimprobablethatanycoinsreachedPalestinebeforethefalloftheJewishStateinB.C.587.ThefirstactualcoinstoreachJerusalemweremore
probablythoseof
DariusHystaspis(B.C.522485),whostrucktwocoins,thedaricingold,andthesiglosorsiktos
(fromsheket)insilver.Thedaricwasalightshekelof130grains7grainsheavierthanoursovereignworthtwentyoneshillingssterling.Thesigloswasreally
ahalfshekelof861/2grains,equalthereforeto1/20thofthedaric,onthetenshekelbasissetforthin1,orafractionmorethanashilling.
InseveralpassagesofChron.,Ezr.,andNeh.theRVhassubstituteddaricsforAVdrams(1Ch29:7,Ezr2:69,Neh7:70ff.etc.).Buttherearevalidreasons
(seeMoneyinHastingsDBiii.421)forretainingtheolderrenderinginthesense,notofcoins,butofweights.Ontheotherhand,sinceNehemiahwasaPersian
official,thefortyshekelsofsilverofNeh5:15maybePersiansigloi,althoughtheymaywithequalprobabilityberegardedasshekelsoftheusualPhnician
standard.Thereis,ofcourse,noquestionoftheJewishcommunitystrikingsilvercoinsoftheirown,thisjealouslyguardedrightbeingthen,asalways,the
touchstoneofsovereignty.
Inthisperiod,however,thewealthycommercialcitiesonthePhnicianseaboardAradus,Sidon,Tyre,andothersacquiredtherightofissuingsilvercoins,
whichtheynaturallydidonthenativestandard.Theeffectiveweightoftheseshekelsortetradrachms,astheyareusuallytermed,averagesabout220grains,afew
grainsshortofthenormal224.ThesecoinshaveaspecialinterestfortheBiblestudent,fromthefactthattheyarethenumismaticrepresentativesoftheshekelof
thesanctuary,whichisprescribedinthePriestsCodeasthemonetaryunitofthepostexiliccommunity(seeL V27:25allthyestimationsshallbeaccordingto
theshekelofthesanctuary).InEx30:13andelsewherethisshekelissaidtoconsistof20gerahs,whichtheGreektranslatorsidentifiedwiththesmallsilverobol
oftheGr.coinage,20ofwhichyieldashekelof224grains.Moreover,itisrepeatedlystatedintheTalmudthatallpaymentsaccordingtotheshekelofthe
sanctuaryaretobemadeinPhniciancurrency(Mishna,Bekhoroth,viii.7).ForthemodeofpaymentofthehalfshekeltaxfortheTempleservicessee7.
4.MoneyintheperiodfromAlexandertotheMaccabees.AlexandersconquestofSyriawasnaturallyfollowedbytheintroductionofhiscoinageingold,
silver,andbronze.Onhisdeath,PtolemyI.establishedhimselfinEgypt,towhichbesoonaddedPalestine.Duringthefollowingcentury(B.C.301198)theJews
hadattheircommandthecoinsofthePtolemaicdynasty,struckatAlexandriaonthePhnicianstandard,aswellasthoseoftheflourishingcitiesonthe
Mediterranean.ThetributepaidbytheJewstothethirdPtolemydidnotexceedthemodestsumof20talentsofsilver,orcirca4360.
InB.C.198AntiochusIII.wrestedPalestinefromthePtolemys.NowtheSeleucidshadcontinuedAlexanderssilvercoinageontheAtticstandard,thebasisof
whichwasthedrachmof,originally,67grs.,buttheeffectiveweightoftheSyriandrachmsandtetradrachmsofthisperiodisslightlybelowthisstandard,andmay
bevaluedat11d.and3s.8d.respectively.Thedrachms(To5:14,2Mac4:19,12:43)andtalents(6000drachms)oftheBooksofMaccabeesaretoberegardedas
onthisSyrianAtticstandard.
5.Thefirstnativecoinage:theproblemoftheshekelofIsrael.InB.C.139138AntiochusSidetesgrantedtoSimonMaccabustherighttocoinmoney
(see1Mac15:5f.).ThethorniestquestionofallJewishnumismatics,asithasbeencalled,isthequestionwhetherandtowhatextentSimonavailedhimselfofthis
privilege.AseriesofsilvershekelsandhalfshekelsonthePhnicianstandard,bearingdatesfromyear1toyear5,haslongbeenknowntostudents.They
showontheobverseandreverserespectivelyacuporchaliceandaspikeofalilywiththreeflowers.ThelegendsinoldHebrewlettersontheshekelsare:obv.
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showontheobverseandreverserespectivelyacuporchaliceandaspikeofalilywiththreeflowers.ThelegendsinoldHebrewlettersontheshekelsare:obv.
ShekelofIsraelrev.Jerusalemtheholy(seeillust.inplateaccompanyingart.MoneyinHastingsDBiii.Nos.14,15Reinach,JewishCoins,pl.ii.andmore
fullyinMaddensCoinsoftheJewsthestandardworkonJewishnumismatics,67ff.).Onlytwoalternativesarepossibleregardingthedateofthesefamouscoins.
EithertheybelongtothegovernorshipofSimonMaccabuswhodiedB.C.135,ortotheperiodofthegreatrevoltagainstRome,A.D.6670.Thelatest
presentationoftheargumentsfortheearlierdatewillbefoundinM.TheodoreReinachsbookcitedabove.Itisnotapointinhisfavour,however,thatheis
compelledtoassigntheshekelsoftheyear5toJohnHyrcanus,Simonssonandsuccessor.
Thepresentwriterisofopinionthattheargumentshehasadvancedelsewhereinfavourofthelaterdate(DBiii.424f.,429f.)stillholdgood.Inthiscasethe
earliestJewishcoinswillbecertainsmallbronzecoinsstruckbytheabovementionedHyrcanus(B.C.135104),withthelegendinminuteoldHebrewcharacters:
John,thehighpriest,andthecommonwealth(ortheexecutive)oftheJews.ThetitleofkingfirstappearsonbronzecoinsofAlexanderJannusJonathanthe
kingwhoalsofirstintroducedaGreek,inadditiontoaHebrew,legend.Nosilvercoins,itmaybeadded,werestruckbyanyofSimonssuccessors,orevenby
themorepowerfulandwealthierHerod.Thebronzesofthelatterpresentnonewfeatureofinterest.
6.MoneyinPalestineundertheRomans.FromanumismaticpointofviewJudamaybesaidtohaveformedapartoftheRomandominionsfromB.C.53,
fromwhichdatetheRomanmonetaryunit,thesilverdenarius,withitssubdivisionsincopper,asquadrans,etc.,waslegaltenderinJerusalem.Sincethedenarius
wasalmostequalinweighttotheSyrianAtticdrachm(4)thesilverunitthroughouttheSeleucidempirethetwocoinswereregardedasofequalvalue,and
fourdenariiwereinordinarybusinesstheequivalentofatetradrachmofAntioch.
TheRomangoldcoin,theaureus,representing25denarii,variedinweightinNTtimesfrom126to120grains.SinceaBritishsovereignweighsalittleover
123grains,theaureusmayforapproximatecalculationsbereckonedat1.SimilarlythedenariusfromAugustustoNeroweighed60grs.oursixpennypiece
weighs43.6grs.andwasequalto16copperasses.Toreachthemonetaryvalueofthedenariusinsterlingmoney,whichisonagoldstandard,wehaveonlyto
dividethevalueofthegoldaureusby25,whichgives93/8d.,sayninepencehalfpennyforconvenience,oraFrenchfranc.
Inadditiontothesetwoimperialcoins,thesystembasedontheGreekdrachmwascontinuedintheEast,andbothdrachmsandtetradrachmswereissuedfrom
theimperialmintatAntioch.InourLordsdayTyrestillcontinuedtoissuesilverandbronzecoins,theformermainlytetradrachmsorshekelsontheoldPhnician
standard(220224grs.).AsthenearestequivalentoftheHeb.shekeltheseTyriancoinsweremuchindemandforthepaymentoftheTempletaxofonehalfshekel
(seenext).Besidesallthese,theprocuratorsissuedsmallbronzecoins,probablythequadrans(1/4ofanas),fromtheirmintatCsarea,nottomentionthe
numerouscities,suchasSamariaSebaste,whichhadsimilarrights.
7.ThemoneyofNT.ThisarticlemayfitlyclosewithafewnotesoneachofthevariousdenominationsmentionedinNT.Thecurrencywasinthreemetals:
getyounogoldnorsilvernorbrass(copper)inyourpurses(Mt10:9RV).Followingthisorderwehave(a)thegoldaureusherereferredtoonlyindirectly.Its
valuewas1(see6).(b)ThesilvercoinmostfrequentlymentionedistheRomandenarius(AVandRVpenny,Amer.RV,morecorrectly,shilling).Invalue
equaltoafrancor91/2d.,itwasthedayswageofaJewishlabourer(Mt20:2).AtypicaldenariusofourLordsday,withwhichtheRomandueswerepaid(22:19)
,wouldhaveonitsobversetheheadoftheEmperorTiberius,andforsuperscriptionthefollowinglegendinLatin:TiberiusCsar,thesonofthedeified
Augustus,(himself)Augustus(illust.No.13ofplateinMoney,DBiii.).(c)ThedrachmontheAtticstandard(5)isnamedonlyLk15:8:whatwomanhaving
tendrachms(EVpiecesofsilver),ifsheloseonedrachm,etc.Inordinaryusage,aswehaveseen,itwastheequivalentofthedenarius,butforGovernment
purposesitwastariffedatonlyofthedenarius.The50,000piecesofsilver(lit.silverlings)ofAc19:19weredenariusdrachms.(d)Oncethereismentionofa
didrachm(Mt17:24AVtributemoney,RVthehalfshekel),butthiswasatwodrachmpieceonthePhnicianstandard,andwasnowveryrare.Accordinglyit
wasusualfortwopersonstojoinforcesinpayingtheTempletaxofahalfshekelbypresentingaPhniciantetradrachm.Thisis(e)thepieceofmoneyofv.27,
whichRVhasproperlyrenderedbyshekel,withthewordoftheoriginal,stater,inthemargin.ThethirtypiecesofsilverforwhichJudasbetrayedhisLordwere
alsomostprobablyTyriantetradrachms.AlthoughthesebyGovernmenttariffwouldbeequaltoonly90denarii,theirordinarypurchasingpowerwasthenequalto
120denariiorfrancs,say4,16s.ofourmoney.
PassingtothecoppercoinsoftheGospels,wefindthreedenominationsintheoriginal,thetepton,thekodrantes,andtheassarion,renderedinAmer.RVby
mite,farthing,andpennyrespectively.OurEV,unfortunately,rendersboththetwolastbyfarthing,havingusedpennyforthedenarius.Therearegreat
difficultiesinthewayofidentifyingtheseamongthecoppercoinsthathavecomedowntous(fordetailsseeHastingsDBiii.428f.,EBiiii.3647).(f)Thetepton,
thewidowsmite(Mk12:42,Lk21:2),wasthesmallestcoinincirculation,probablyoneoftheminuteMaccabanbronzes.Itsvaluewasbetween1/4and1/3ofan
Englishfarthing.(g)Twomitesmadeakodrantes(Lat.quadrans),theuttermostfarthingofMt5:26,whichwaseithertheactualRomanquadransorits
equivalentamongthelocalbronzecoins.As1/3ofthedenarius,itwasworthatriflemorethanhalfafarthing.(h)Theassarionisthefarthing(Amer.RV
penny)associatedwiththepriceofsparrows(Mt10:29,Lk12:6),andwasacoppercoinontheGreeksystem,probablythedichatkus,ofwhichinordinary
business24wenttothedenariusdrachm.Itsvaluewouldthusbeabout3/8ofapenny.Therelativevaluesofthethreecoinsmayberepresentedby1/8,1/8,and1/3
ofapennyrespectively.
Thereremainthetwolargerdenominations,thetalentandthepoundormina,neitherofwhichwasanylonger,asintheearlierperiod,aspecificweightof
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Thereremainthetwolargerdenominations,thetalentandthepoundormina,neitherofwhichwasanylonger,asintheearlierperiod,aspecificweightof
bullion,butadefinitesumofmoney.(i)Thetalentnowcontained6000denariusdrachms,whichmade240aureior240(soMt18:24RVm).Itisnotalways
realized,perhaps,howvastwasthedifferenceintheamountsowinginthisparable(18:23ff.).Theoneservantowed100denarii,theother10,000talentsorsixty
milliondenarii.Theonedebt,occupyinglittlemorespacethan100sixpences,couldbecarriedinthepocketforthepaymentoftheother,anarmyofnearly8600
carriers,eachwithasack60lbs.inweight,wouldberequired.Ifthesewereplacedinsinglefile,ayardapart,thetrainwouldbealmostfivemilesinlength!(j)The
pound,finally,ofanotherparable(Lk19:13ff.)wasamina,thesixtiethpartofatalent,inotherwords100denariusdrachmsor4sterling.
ForthelatercoinageoftheJews,whichwasconfinedtothetwoperiodsofrevoltagainsttheRomanpower,inA.D.6670and132135,inadditiontowhathas
beensaidabove(5)regardingtheshekelsandhalfshekelshereassumedtobelongtothefirstrevolt,seeMaddenandReinach,opp.citt.Schrer,GJV3i.761
ff.andHastingsDBiii.429431.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
MONEYCHANGERS.Howindispensableweretheservicesofthemoneychangers
(Mt21:12,Mk11:15),changersofmoney(Jn2:14),changers(v.15),andexchangers(Mt25:27AV,RVbankers)inthefirstcenturyofourerainPalestine
maybeseenfromthesummaryofthevariedcurrenciesoftheperiodintheprecedingarticle(6.7).TheJewishmoneychanger,likehismoderncounterpartthe
sarrf(forwhomseePEFSt,1904,p.49ff.,wherethecomplexityofexchangeinthePalestineoftodayisgraphicallysetforth),changedthelargedenominations
intothesmaller,givingdenarii,forexample,fortetradrachms,andgavesilverforgold,copperforsilver.Animportantdepartmentofhisbusinesswastheexchange
offoreignmoneyandevenmoneyofthecountryofanonPhnicianstandardforshekelsandhalfshekelsonthisstandard,thelatteralonebeingacceptedin
paymentoftheTempledues(cf.money,4.6.7).ItwasmainlyfortheconvenienceoftheJewsoftheDispersionthatthechangerswereallowedtosetuptheir
tablesintheoutercourtoftheTemple(Mt21:12ff.).Thewealthiermembersoftheprofession,theexchangers(RVbankers)ofMt25:27(cf.Lk19:23),
receivedmoneyondepositforpurposesofinvestment,onwhichinterestwaspaid(see
USURY).
Themoneychangershadconstantlytobeontheirguardagainstfalsemoney.Thisgivespointtothefrequentlyquotedunwrittensaying(agraphon)ofourLord
toHisdisciples:Beyeexpertmoneychangersbeskilfulindistinguishingtruedoctrinefromfalse.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
MONTH.SeeTIME.
MONUMENT.Is65:4,whichremainamongthegravesandlodgeinthemonuments,thatis,amongthetombs.IntheRhemishVersionmonumentisthe
usualwordfortomborsepulchre,afterVulg.monumentum.ThereferenceinIs.istothecustomofobtainingoraclesbyincubation,thatis,spendingthenightin
subterraneansacredplaces.
MOOLI(1Es8:47)=Mahli,Ezr8:18.
MOON.ThemoonisthelesserlighttorulethenightofthecosmogonyofGenesis(1:16).Itsimportancewasinpartduetotherecurrenceofitsphases,
whichformedameasurefortime.Eachnewmoon,asitappeared,markedthecommencementofanewperiod,andsoinHebrewthewordformoonandmonth
isthesame.SunandmoonoccursidebysideinpassagesofScripture,andtothemoonaswellastothesunisascribedafertilizingpoweroverandabovethegift
oflightwhichcomesfromthemtotheearth.JustaswehaveinDt33:14thepreciousthingsofthefruitsofthesun,sowehavetherethepreciousthingsofthe
growthofthemoons.Asaconsequenceofthis,thereappearanceofthenewmoonwaseagerlylookedfor,andtrumpetswereblownandsacrificesofferedonthe
dayofthenewmoon.WegatheralsofromPs81:3(RV)thatsomethingofasimilarkindtookplaceatthefullmoon.Themoontookitspartwiththesuninoneof
Josephsdreamswhenitmadeobeisancetohim(Gn37:9)anditstoodstill,inthevalleyofAijalon,atthecommandofJoshua,atthebattleofGibeon(Jos
10:12,13cf.Hab3:11).Languagewhichmusthavebeenderivedfromtheappearanceofthemoonduringeclipsesisusedbytheprophets.Themoonistobe
darkenedorturnedintoblood(Jl2:10,31)beforethedayoftheLordandsimilarlanguageisusedbyourLord(e.g.Mk
13:24).WearetoldoftheredeemedZionthatthelightofthemoonistobeasthelightofthesun(Is30:26),andthatthereistobenoneedofthemoon,becausethe
gloryofGodistobethelightofHispeople(Is60:19cf.Rev21:23).Cautionsagainsttheworshipofthemoon,andpunishmentbydeathfortheconvicted
worshippers,aretobefoundinDt4:19,17:3whilstasuperstitioussalutationofthemoonbykissingthehand,notquiteunheardofeveninourownday,is
mentionedinJob31:26,27.MoonworshipbytheburningofincensewasofferedinJerusalem,andputdownbyJosiah(2K23:5).
MountSinaiissupposedtohavederiveditsnamefromthemoongodSin,towhomworshipwaspaidthere.
Fortheworshipofthequeenofheaven,seeunderS TARS.
IntheOTwemeetmorethanoncewithcrescentshapedornaments(Jg8:21,Is3:18)whethertheseareanindicationoftheworshipofthemoonisuncertain.
Ithasbeenalwaysconsideredbanefulinthebrightclearatmosphereofthewarmerregionsoftheearthtosleepexposedtotheraysofthemoon(Ps121:6).The
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Ithasbeenalwaysconsideredbanefulinthebrightclearatmosphereofthewarmerregionsoftheearthtosleepexposedtotheraysofthemoon(Ps121:6).The
influenceoftheearthssatellitehaslongbeenconsideredburtful.OurwordlunaticreproducestheideaoftheWesternworldofourLordstime,thatlunacywas
duetotheinfluenceofthemoon:theGreekwordusedinMt4:24,17:15showsthis.IntheRVthewordistranslatedepileptic.Therearemanystilltobefound
whobelievethattheviolenceandrecurrenceofepilepticfitsvarywiththephasesofthemoon.
H.A.REDPATH.
MOOSSIAS(1Es9:31)=Maaseiah,Ezr10:30.
MOPH.SeeMEMPHIS.
MORALITY.SeeETHICS.
MORASHTITE.AgentilicadjectiveusedtodesignatetheprophetMicah(Mic1:1,Jer26:18),probablyderivedfromMoreshethgath(wh.see).Cf.MICAH,
p.614af.
MORDECAI.1.Acousin(?)ofqueenEsther,whothwartedHamansplotagainstthe
Jews.SeeESTHERandESTHER[BOOKOF].2.OneofthosewhoreturnedwithZerub.(Ezr2:2,Neh7:7)calledin1Es5:8Mardocheus.
MOREH,theHiphilparticiplefromyrh,meansteacheroronewhogivesdirection(2K17:28,Is30:20etc.),andsoisappliedtoaprophet(Is9:15).
Sittingintheshelterofasacredtree,thepriestorseerdeliveredhisdirectionororacles.1.Theterebinth(AV,wrongly,plain)ofMoreh(Gn12:6)mayhave
beensonamedfromthetheophanyvouchsafedtoAbrahamthere.ThesamespotmaybeindicatedbytheterebinthsofMoreh(Dt11:30),mentionedasindicating
thepositionofEbalandGerizim.FromtheirconjunctionwithGilgalithasbeensuggestedthatthegilgal(stonecircle)andtheterebinthswerepartsofthesame
sanctuary.TheremaybeareferencetothisplaceinGn35:4,inJos24:26,possiblyalsoinJg9:6.Gilgal(Dt11:30)maybeKhirbetJuleijel,fully11/2mileE.of
JacobsWell.Butthiswouldnotfixwithcertaintythepositionofthesanctuaryoftheterebinth.
2.ThehillofMoreh(Jg7:1)seemstohavelaintotheN.ofthepositionoccupiedby
Gideon,inthedirectionofthecampoftheMidianites.Takingthenarrativeasitstands,theMidianitespitchedinthevalleyofJezreel(6:33),whileGideonheld
thelowerspursofGilboatowardsJezreel.ThespringofHarodiswithsomeprobabilityidentifiedwithAinJald.Theconspicuoushillontheothersideofthe
vale,JebeledDuhy,popularlynowcalledLittleHermon,roundtheW.flanksofwhich,andnorthwardintheplain,theMidianiteswouldspread,maybealmost
certainlyidentifiedwiththeHillofMoreh.ThearticlewithMorehsuggeststhepresenceofasanctuaryonthehill.Thismayberepresentedbythemodernshrineof
NebyDuhy.QuestionshavebeenraisedbytheconditionoftheHeb.text,butnomoreprobableidentificationhasbeensuggested.Cf.MOREH.
W.EWING.
MORESHETHGATH.Mic1:14only.ItwasprobablythebirthplaceoftheprophetMicah(Mic1:1,Jer26:18),andmusthavebeenintheShephlah.The
Onomasticonlocatesiteastof,andnearto,Eleutheropolis.
MORIAH
1.Thename.InGn22:2AbrahamwascommandedtogointothelandoftheMoriah,andtosacrificeIsaacupononeofthemountainswhichGodwould
tellhimof.Thederivationofthenameisobscure.ThePeshitta(Syriac)versionreadsoftheAmorites,whichmaypossiblybethetruereading.Thenarrator(E),
however,inv.14appearstoconnectitwiththeverbtosee(whichisetymologicallyimpossible),andsomeoftheearlytranslatorsdothesameintheirrendering
ofthenameinv.2.TheTargumistsemphasizedtheworshipofAbrahamatthespot,perhapsconnectingthenamewiththeverbtofearwhichisequally
impossible.
2.Theplace.Theproverbrecordedinv.14clearlyimpliesthatthewriterthoughtthatIsaacwasofferedontheTemplemountatJerusalem.Andhencethe
Chronicler(2Ch3:1)namestheTemplehillMountMoriah.Fromaspiritualpointofview,theanalogyoftendrawnbetweentheofferingofIsaacandthedeathof
Christmakestheidentificationverysuggestive.ButGn22:4certainlycontemplatesamountainatamuchgreaterdistancefromthePhilistinecountry,andmuch
moreconspicuous,thantheJerusalemhill.ThereissomesimilaritybetweenthenamesMoriahandMoreh,thelatterofwhichwasatShechem(Gn12:6,Dt11:30),
closetothehillsGerizimandEbal.AnditmayhavebeenowingtothisthattheSamaritansclaimedGerizimasAbrahamsmountain(cf.Jn4:20).Geographically,it
wouldsuitthedescriptioninGn22:4butthereisnorealevidencefortheidentification.IftheSyriacreadingAmoritesbeadopted,thelocalityofthemountainis
entirelyunknown,sincethenameisageneraltermemployedbyEtodenotetheCanaanitenativesofPalestine.
A.H.MNEILE.
MORNING.SeeTIME.
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MORNING.SeeTIME.
MORTAR(AVmorter).SeeHOUSE,1,4,andcf.BITUMEN.
MORTARANDPESTLE.Theuse,fromtheearliesttimes,ofthemortarandpestleforcrushingthegrainsofthecultivatedcereals,forthepreparationof
spices,andprobably,asatthepresentday,forpoundingmeatandvegetables(seetheComm.onPr27:22)isattestedbytheconstantoccurrenceofthesearticlesin
theremainsofplacesrecentlyexcavatedinPalestine.ThemortarsfoundatGezer,aselsewhere,aresimplyheavystones,afootortwoacross,inwhoseupper
surfaceahemisphericalhollowiscut.Thepestlesarecylindricalwith[convex]bases,whichnotinfrequentlydisplaymarksofroughtreatment(PEFSt,1903,118
illus.inBliss,MoundofManyCities,85BlissandMacalister,ExcavationsinPalestine,Plates72,73).Themannaisexpresslysaidtohavebeenbeateninmortars
aswellasgroundinmills(Nu11:8).Theiruseisimpliedforpoundingcertainspices(Ex30:36)andforthebruisedcornforthemealofferingofthefirstfruits
(Lv2:14RV).Coppermortarsarealsomentionedinlaterliterature,andinHerodsTempletheincensewaspoundedinmortarsofgold.FromtheMishna(Baba
bathra,iv.3)welearnthatitwascustomarytohavelargermortarsfixedintothefloorofthehouse.
InBabylon,whenahousewasbuilt,thesellerhandedthepestleofthehousemortartothepurchaser,intokenoftheconveyanceofthehousetoitsnewowner.
Hencethefrequentoccurrence,indeedsofsale,ofthewordsthepestlehasbeenbandedover.Cf.art.S HOE.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
MORTIFY.TomortifyisinAVmetaphoricallytoputtodeath.Earlywriterscoulduseitliterallyalso,asErasmus,CommuneCrede,81,Christwas
mortified,andkilledindede,astouchyngetohisfleshebutwasquickenedinspirite.
MOSERAH,MOSEROTH.MoserahisnamedinDt10:6astheplacewhereAarondiedandwasburied:MoserothinNu33:30,31asastationonthe
routetoMt.Hor.Itslocationisquiteuncertain.
MOSES
1.NameTheHebrewnarratorregardsMshehasaparticiplefromthevb.mshh,todrawEx(2:10).Jos.andPhiloderiveitfromtheCopt,mo
water,andushesavedthisisimpliedintheirspellingMouses,alsofoundinLXXandNT.ItismoreplausibletoconnectthenamewiththeEgyptianmes,
mesu,son.PerhapsitwasoriginallycoupledwiththenameofanEgyp.deitycf.Ramesu,Thothmes,andotherswhichwasomittedundertheinfluenceof
Israelitemonotheism.
2.History
(i.)ThenarrativeofJ.MoseskilledanEgyptian,andrebukedoneoftwoIsraeliteswhowerestrivingtogether,andthenhefledtoMidian.Therehehelped
sevendaughtersofthepriestofMidiantowatertheirflocks,dweltwithhim,marriedhisdaughterZipporah,andhadonesonbyher,namedGershom(Ex2:1122).
ThekingofEgyptdied(2:23a),andatJsbiddingMosesreturned.Ontheway,JsmotehimbecausehehadnotbeencircumcisedbeforemarriagebutZipporah
savedhimbycircumcisingthechild,andthuscircumcisingMosesbyproxy(4:19,24
26.Theseversesmustbeputbacktothispoint).JappearedintheburningbushandspoketoMoses.Moseswastogathertheelders,givethemJsmessage,and
demandpermissionfromPharaohtosacrificeinthewilderness.MoseswasgiventwosignstopersuadetheIsraelites,andyetathirdifthetwowereinsufficient
(3:24a,6,7,8a,1618,4:19).Jwasangryathiscontinueddiffidence.Mosesspoketotheeldersandtheybelievedandthentheymadetheirdemandto
Pharaoh,whichledtohisincreasedseverity(4:1012,2931,5:3,6,23,6:1).Plaguesweresent,thedeathofthefishintheriver(7:14,16,17a,18,21a,24f.),
frogs(8:14,815a),flies(2032),murrain(9:17),hail(18,17f.,23b,24b,25b34),locusts(10:1a,311,13b,14b,16a,c,1619).SeeP LAGUESOFEGYPT.
PharaohbadeIsraelgowiththeirfamilies,butrefusedtoallowthemanimalsforsacrificesoMosesannouncedthedeathofthefirstborn(10:2426,28f.,11:48).
AtalatertimeIsraelitethoughtconnectedwiththeExoduscertainexistinginstitutions.TheordinancesrelatingtothemwerepreservedbyJ,buttheirpresent
positionisduetoredaction,andtheresultisatangledcombinationinchs.12,13ofordinanceandnarrative:theritualofthePassover(12:2123,27b),thedeathof
thefirstbornandthehurriedflightoftheIsraelites(2934,3739),commandsconcerningtheFeastofUnleavenedCakes(13:3a,4,6f.,10),andtheofferingof
firstlings(13:1113).Jwentbeforethepeopleinapillarofcloudandfire(13:21f.),thewaterwascrossed(14:5f.,7b,10a,1114,18b,21b,24,26b,27b,28b,30)
,(andMosessangpraise(15:1).MosesmadethewateratMarahfresh(15:2225a),andthencetheymovedtoElim(27).FragmentsofJsstoryofMassahare
preserved(17:3,2c,7a,c),andpartsoftheaccountofthevisitofMosesfatherinlaw,whichitisdifficulttoseparatefromE(18:711).Thenarrativesattachedto
thedeliveryofthelawsofSinaiareinanextraordinarilyconfusedstate,butwithafewexceptionsthepartswhichareduetoJcanberecognizedwithsome
confidence.Thetheophanyoccurred(19:18),andMoseswasbiddentoascendthemountain,whereJgavehimdirectionsrespectingprecautionstobetaken
(19:2022,24,11b13,25)[v.23isaredactionaladditionofaremarkablecharacterdueto11b13havingbeenmisplaced].Mosesstayedfortydaysandnights
onthemountain(34:28a)Jdescended,andMosesinvokedthenameofJ(6).Thelawsgiventohimarefragmentarilypreserved(1026).Jcommandedhimto
writethemdown(27),andheobeyed(28b).
ThereasonfortheinsertionofthelawssolateinthebookwasthatthecompilerofJE,findinglawsinbothJandE,andnoticingthestrongsimilaritybetweenthem,considered
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ThereasonfortheinsertionofthelawssolateinthebookwasthatthecompilerofJE,findinglawsinbothJandE,andnoticingthestrongsimilaritybetweenthem,considered
theJlawstobetherenewalofthecovenantbrokenbythepeoplesapostasy.Hencetheeditorialadditionsin34:1(fromlikeuntothefirst)andinv.4(likeuntothefirst).
Asolemnceremonysealedthecovenant(24:1f.,911).SomethingthenoccurredwhichrousedthewrathofJitisdoubtfuliftheoriginalnarrativehasbeen
preservedbutJhasinsertedanarrativewhichapparentlyexplainsthereasonforthechoiceofLevitesforDivineservice(32:2529).Mosesintercededforthe
people(thevv.tohereadinthefollowingorder,
33:14a,17,12f.,1823,34:69,33:1416).Jhavingbeenpropitiated,Israelleftthemountain,andMosesaskedHobahtoaccompanythem(Nu10:2936).
Beingwearyofmanna,theyweregivenquails,whichcausedaplague(11:415,1824a,3135),DathanandAhiramrebelled(ascribedbydifferentcomm.toJ
andtoE,16:1b,2a,1215,26f.,27b32a,33f.).FragmentsoftheMeribahnarrativeatKadeshappeartobelongtoJ(20:3a,5,8b).MosessentspiesthroughtheS.
ofPalestineasfarasHebron.Calebaloneencouragedthepeople,andhealonewasallowedtoenterCanaan(13:17b,18b,18,23,27a,28,30,31,14:1b,8,9,11
24,31).MosespromisedthatHebronshouldbeCalebspossession(Jos14:814).TheCanaanitesweredefeatedatHormah(perh.alaterstratumofJ,Nu21:13).
IsraelmarchedbyEdomtoMoab,andconqueredHeshbonandothercities(21:1620,24b,25,31,32).ThestoryofBalaam(partsof2224).Israelsinnedwiththe
Moabitewomen,andMoseshangedthechiefs(25:1b,2,3b,4).
MosesviewedthelandfromthetopofPisgah,andwasburiedinMoab(partsofDt34:16).
(ii.)ThenarrativeofE.ThemidwivesrescuedIsraeliteInfants(Ex1:1520a,21).MosesbirthhisdiscoveryandadoptionbyPharaohsdaughter(2:110).
MoseswasfeedingJethrossheepinMidian,whenGodcalledtohimfromabushatHoreb,andtoldhimtodeliverIsrael.HerevealedHisnameEhyeh,and
promisedthatIsraelshouldtriumphantlyleaveEgypt(3:1,4b,6,912,13f.,21f.).MosesreturnedtoEgypt,meetingAarononthewaytheymadetheirdemandto
Pharaoh,andwererefused(4:17f.,20b,27f.,5:1f.,4).Moses,bymeansofhisDivinelygivenstaff,broughtplaguestheturningoftherivertoblood(7:16,17b,
20b,23),thehail(9:22,23a,24a,25a,36),thelocusts(10:12,13a,14a,16b,20),thedarkness(2123,27).MoseswasbiddentoadvisetheIsraelitestoobtain
gold,etc.,fromtheEgyptians(11:13),whichtheydid(12:35f.).Theydeparted,takingwiththemJosephsmummy(13:1719).Theycrossedthewater(fragments
arepreservedfromEsaccount,13:7a,c,10b,16a,16a,19a,25a),andMiriamsangpraise(15:20,21).Onemergingintothedesert,theyweregivenmannaitis
possiblethatEoriginallyconnectedthiseventwiththenamemassah,proving(15:25b,16:4,16)ThenfollowsEsMeribahnarrative,combinedwithJsMassah
narrative(17:1b,2a,46,7b).IsraelfoughtwithAmalekunderJoshuasleadership,whileAaronandHurheldupMoseshandswiththesacredstaff(17:816).
JethrovisitedtheIsraeliteswithMoseswifeandtwosonshearrangedsacrifices,andasacrificialfeast,inwhichtheeldersofIsraeltookpart(18:1a,6f.,12).
SeeingMosesoverburdenedwiththedutyofgivingdecisions,headvisedhimtodelegatesmallermatterstoinferiorofficersandMosesfollowedhisadvice.Jethro
departedtohisownhome(18:1227).Preparationsweremadeforthetheophany(19:2b,3a,8a,10,11a,14f.),whichthentookplace(16f.,19,20:1821).Laws
preservedbyEandlatermembersofhisschoolofthoughtaregroupedtogetherinchs,2023(seeEXODUS,LAW),inthenarrativesinwhichthelawsareset,two
strata,EandE2,areperceptible,thelattersupplyingthenarrativeportionsconnectedwiththeTenWordsof20:117,Erelatestheceremonywhichsealedthe
covenant(24:38)theusualpracticeofMoseswithregardtotheTentofTryst,whereGodusedtomeetwithanyonewhowishedtoinquireofHim(33:711)
andthepeoplesactofrepentanceforsomesinwhichEhasnotpreserved(33:6),E2relatesasfollows:MosestoldthepeopletheTenWords,andtheypromised
obedience(19:7f.thismustfollow20:117),MosesascendedthemountaintoreceivethewrittenWords,leavingthepeopleinthechargeofAaronandHur
(24:1315a,31:18b),DuringhisabsenceAaronmadethegoldenbull,andMoses,whenhesawit,brakethetabletsofstoneanddestroyedtheimagsAaronoffered
afeebleexcuse,andJsmotethepeople(32:16,16a,1624,35),MosesintercessionhasnotbeenpreservedinE,butitissuppliedbyalatehandin32:3034.
WehereresumethenarrativeofE.AfterthedeparturefromHorebafirefromJpunishedthepeopleformurmuring(Nu11:18).AttheTentofTrystJtookof
Mosesspiritandputitupon70elderswhoprophesied,including
EldadandMedad,whodidnotleavethecampJoshuaobjectedtothetwobeingthusfavoured,butwasrebukedbyMoses(18f.,2430).MiriamandAaronspoke
againstMosesforhavingmarriedaforeignwomanandthenforclaimingtohavereceivedDivinerevelationsMiriambecameleprous,butwashealedatMoses
intercession(12).OnDathanandAbiram(16)seeabove,underJ.MiriamdiedatKadesh(20:1).Twelvespiesweresent,whobroughtbackalargeclusterofgrapes,
butsaidthatthenativeswerenumerousandpowerful(13:13a,c,20,23f.,26b,27b,29,33).ThepeopledeterminedtoreturntoEgyptunderanothercaptain
(14:1b,8f.).[Hereoccursalacuna,whichispartiallysuppliedbyDt1:1946,probablybasedonE.]AgainstMoseswishthepeopleadvancedtowardsCanaan,
butwereroutedbytheAmalekitesandothernatives(14:3945).Edomrefusedpassagethroughtheirterritory(20:1421).AarondiedatMoserah,andwas
succeededbyEleazar(Dt10:5).Serpentsplaguedthepeoplefortheirmurmuring,andMosesmadetheserpentofbronze(Nu21:4b9).IsraelmarchedbyEdomto
Moab,andvanquishedSihon(21:11b15,2124a,2730)thestoryofBalaam(part2224).IsraelworshippedBaalpeor,andMosesbadethejudgeshangthe
offenders(25:1a,8a,5).JwarnedMosesthathewasabouttodie,andMosesappointedJoshuatosucceedhim(Dt31:14f.,23).MosesdiedinMoab,andhis
tombwasunknown.HewasthegreatestprophetinIsrael(Dt34:5,8b,10).
(iii.)ThenarrativeofDisbasedupontheearliersources,whichittreatsinahortatorymanner,dwellinguponthereligiousmeaningofhistory,anditsbearing
uponlifeandmorals,andIsraelsattitudetoGod.Thereareafewadditionaldetails,suchasaresuitabletoaretrospect(e.g.1:68,16f.,20f.,2931,3:21f.,2328),
andtherearecertainpointsonwhichthetraditiondiffersmoreorlesswidelyfromthoseofJEseeDriver,Deut.p.xxxvf.ButDsuppliesnothingofimportanceto
ourknowledgeofMoseslifeandcharacter.
(iv.)ThenarrativeofP.IsraelwasmadetoservetheEgyptianswithrigour(Ex1:7,16,
14b).Whenthekingdied,Jheardtheirsighing,andrememberedHiscovenant(2:2325).HerevealedtoMosesHisnameJahweh,andbadehimtelltheIsraelites
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14b).Whenthekingdied,Jheardtheirsighing,andrememberedHiscovenant(2:2325).HerevealedtoMosesHisnameJahweh,andbadehimtelltheIsraelites
thattheyweretobedelivered(6:29).Mosesbeingdiffident,Aaronhisbrotherwasgiventobehisprophet(6:1012,7:17).[ThegenealogyofMosesand
AaronisgiveninalaterstratumofP,6:1425.]AaronturnedhisstaffintoareptilebeforePharaoh(7:818).ByAaronsinstrumentalitywithMosesplagueswere
sentallthewaterinEgyptturnedintoblood(7:19,20a,21b,22)frogs(8:57,15b)gnatsormosquitoes(1619)boils(9:812).[AsinJ,commandsrespecting
religiousinstitutionsareinsertedinconnexionwiththeExodus:Passover(12:118,24,28,4350),
Unleavenedcakes(1420),Dedicationoffirstborn(13:1f.).]TheIsraeliteswenttoEtham(13:20)andthencetotheRedSea.Themarvelofthecrosslngis
heightened,thewatersstandingupinadoublewall(14:14,8f.,15b,13b18,21a,c,22f.,26,27a,28a).inthewildernessofSinthepeoplemurmured,andmanna
wassentembeddedinthenarrativearefragmentsofPsstoryofthequails(16,exc.vv.4,15).TheymovedtoRephidim(17:1a),andthencetoSinai(19:1,2a).
AftersevendaysJcalledMosesintothecloud(24:15b18a)andgavehiminstructionswithregardtotheTabernacleanditsworship(2531:17),andalsogave
himtheTabletsoftheTestimony(31:18a).[OtherlawsascribedtoDivinecommunicationwithMosesarecollectedin
Lev.andpartsofNum.]WhenMosesdescended,hisfaceshone,sothatheveileditwhenhewasnotaloneinJspresence(34:2935).Acensuswastakenofthe
fighting men preparatory to the march, and the writer takes occasion to enlarge upon the organization of the priestly and Levitical families (Nu 14). The cloud
whichdescendedupontheTabernaclewasthesignalformarchingandcamping(9:1523),andthejourneybegan(10:1128).WiththestoryofDathanandAbiram
(seeabove)thereareentwinedtwoversionsofapriestlystoryofrebellion(1)Korahand250princes,allofthemlaymen,spokeagainstMosesandAaronfor
claiming,intheircapacityofLevites,asanctitysuperiortothatoftherestofthecongregation.(2)KorahandtheprinceswereLevites,andtheyattackedAaronfor
exaltingpriestsaboveLevites(partsof16).Theformerversionhasitssequelin17MosesandAaronwerevindicatedbythebuddingofthestaffforthetribeof
Levi.InthewildernessofZinMosesstrucktherock,withanangryexclamationtothemurmuringpeople,andwaterflowedMosesandAaronwererebukedfor
lackoffaith[thefragmentsofthestorydonotmakeitclearwhereinthisconsisted],andtheywereforbiddentoenterCanaan(partsof20:1a,213).Joshua,Caleb,
andtenotherspiesweresentfromthewildernessofParanthetwoformeralonebroughtagoodaccountoftheland,andtheyalonewerepermittedtoenterCanaan
theothertendiedbyaplague(partsof13,14seeaboveunderJandE).AarondiedatMt.Hor(20:22b29).IsraelmarchedbyEdomtoMoab(20:22,21:4a,10,
11a).PhinehaswaspromisedaneverlastingpriesthoodforhiszealinpunishinganIsraelitewhohadbroughtaMidianitewomanintothecamp(25:616).Allthe
lastgenerationhavingdiedexceptJoshuaandCaleb,asecondcensuswastakenbyMosesandEleazar(26).MosesappointedJoshuatosucceedhim(27).The
MidianitesweredefeatedandBalaamwasslain(31).MosesdiedonMt.Nebo,aged120(Dt34:1a,79).
3.Historicity.IntheOT,therearepresentedtousthevaryingfortunesofaSemiticpeoplewhofoundtheirwayintoPalestine,andwerestrongenoughto
settleinthecountryindefianceofthenativepopulation.AlthoughtheInvadersweregreatlyintheminorityasregardsnumbers,theywereknittogetherbyanesprit
decorpswhichmadethemformidable.Andthiswastheoutcomeofastrongreligiousbeliefwhichwascommontoallthebranchesofthetribethebeliefthat
everymemberofthetribewasundertheprotectionofthesameGod,Jahweh.Andwhenitisaskedfromwhatsourcetheygainedthisunitedbelief,theanalogyof
otherreligionssuggeststhatitprobablyresultedfromtheinfluenceofsomestrongpersonality.TheexistenceandcharacteroftheHebrewracerequiresucha
personasMosestoaccountforthem.ButwhilethedenialthatMoseswasarealpersonisscarcelywithintheboundsofsobercriticism,itdoesnotfollowthatall
thedetailsrelatedofhimareliterallytruetohistory.WhatProf.DriversaysofthepatriarchsinGenesisisequallytrueofMosesinEx.,Nu.:Thebasisofthe
narrativesinGenesisisinfactpopularoraltraditionandthatbeingso,wemayexpectthemtodisplaythecharacteristicswhichpopularoraltraditiondoesinother
cases.Theymaywellincludeasubstantialhistoricalnucleusbutdetailsmaybeduetotheinvoluntaryactionofpopularinventionorimagination,operatingduring
alongperiodoftimecharacteristicanecdotes,reflectingthefeelings,andexplainingtherelations,ofalateragemaythushavebecomeattachedtothepatriarchs
phraseologyandexpressionwillnearlyalwaysbeascribedrightlytothenarratorswhocastthesetraditionsintotheirpresentliteraryshape(art.JacobinDBii.
534b).
Mosesisportrayedunderthreechiefaspectsas(i.)aLeader,(ii.)thePromoterofthereligionofJ,(iii.)Lawgiver,andProphetormoralteacher.
(i.)MosesasLeader.SomewritersthinkthatthereisevidencewhichshowsthattheIsraeliteswhowenttoEgyptatthetimeofthefaminedidnotcomprisethe
wholenation.Whetherthisbesoornot,however,thereisnosufficientreasonfordoubtingtheHebrewtraditionofanemigrationtoEgypt.Again,ifIsraelites
obtainedpermissionasforeigntribesareknowntohavedonetooccupypasturelandwithintheEgyptianfrontier,therecouldbenothingsurprisingifsomeof
themwerepressedintocompulsorybuildinglabourforitwasacommonpracticetoemployforeignersandprisonersinthismanner.Butinordertorousethem,and
knitthemtogether,andpersuadethemtoescape,aleaderwasnecessary.If,therefore,itisanhistoricalfactthattheywereinEgypt,andpartiallyenslaved,itismore
likelythannotthattheaccountoftheirdeliverancebyMosesalsohasanhistoricalbasis.Itisimpossible,inashortarticle,todiscusstheevidenceindetail.Itisin
thelastdegreeunsafetodogmatizeontheextenttowhichthenarrativesofMoseslifearehistoricallyaccurate.Ineachparticularthedecisionresolvesitselfintoa
balanceofprobabilities.ButthatMoseswasnotanindividual,butstandsforatribeorgroupoftribes,andthatthenarrativeswhichcentreroundhimareentirely
legendary,aretothepresentwriterpureassumptions,unscientificanduncritical.Theminutenessofpersonaldetails,thepicturesquenessofthescenesdescribed,the
truetouchesofcharacter,andthenecessityofaccountingfortheemergenceofIsraelfromastateofscatterednomadsintothatofanorganizedtribalcommunity,are
allonthesideofthosewhomaintainthatinitsbroadoutlinestheaccountofMosesleadershipisbaseduponfact.
(ii.)MosesasthePromoterofthereligionofJahweh.ThroughouttheOT,withtheexceptionofEzk4048,theformsandceremoniesofJworshipobserved
ineveryageareattributedtotheteachingofMoses.Itistobenoticedthattheearliestwriter(J)usesthenameJahwehfromhisveryfirstsentence(Gn2:4b)and
onwards,andassumesthatJwasknownandworshippedbytheancestorsoftheraceandinEx.hefrequentlyemploystheexpressionJtheGodoftheHebrews
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onwards,andassumesthatJwasknownandworshippedbytheancestorsoftheraceandinEx.hefrequentlyemploystheexpressionJtheGodoftheHebrews
(3:18,5:3,7:16,9:1,13,10:3).But,inagreementwithEandP,he
ascribestoMosesanewdepartureinJworshipinauguratedatSinai.EandPrelatethattheNamewasanewrevelationtoMoseswhenhewasexiledinMidian,
andthathetaughtittotheIsraelitesinEgypt.Andyetin3:6ErepresentsJassayingtoMoses,IamtheGodofthyfather[theGodofAbraham,theGodof
Isaac,andtheGodofJacob(unlessthisclauseisalaterinsertion,asin15f.,4:5)].Andin6:3PstatescategoricallythatGodappeareduntoAbraham,Isaac,and
Jacob,butHewasnotknowntothembyHisnameJahweh.Allthesources,therefore,implythatMosesdidnotteachatotallynewreligionbutheputbeforethe
IsraelitesanewaspectoftheirreligionhedefinedmoreclearlytherelationinwhichtheyweretostandtoGod:theyweretothinkofHiminapeculiarsenseas
theirGod.WhenwegofurtherandinquirewhenceMosesderivedthenameJahweh,wearelandedintheregionofconjectures.Twopoints,however,areclear:
(1)thattheGodwhosenamewasJahwehhad,beforeMosestime,beenconceivedofasdwellingonthesacredmountainHoreborSinai(3:15,12,19:4)(2)
thatHewasworshippedbyabranchoftheMidianitesnamedKenites(Jg1:16,4:11),ofwhomJethrowasapriest(Ex3:1,18:1).Fromthesefactstwoconjectures
havebeenmade.SomehavesupposedthatMoseslearnedthenameJahwehfromtheMidianitesthatHewasthereforeaforeignGodasfarastheIsraeliteswere
concernedandthat,afterhearingHisnameforthefirsttimefromMosesinEgypt,theyjourneyedtothesacredmountainandwerethereadmittedbyJethrointothe
KeniteworshipbyasacrificialfeastatwhichJethroofficiated.ButitishardlylikelythattheIsraelites,enslavedinEgypt,couldhavebeensorapidlyrousedand
convincedbyMosesproclamationofanentirelynewandforeigndeity.TheactiontakenbyJethroinorganizingthesacrificemighteasilyarisefromthefactthat
hewasinhisownterritory,andnaturallyactedashosttowardsthestrangers.Theotherconjecture,whichcanclaimacertain
plausibility,isthatJwasaGodrecognizedbyMosesowntribeofLevi.FromEx4:24,27itispossibletosupposethatAaronwasnotinEgypt,butinthevicinity
ofHoreb,whichhealreadyknewasthemountainofGod.IfMosesfamily,orthetribeofLevi,andperhaps(assomeconjecture)theRacheltribes,togetherwith
theMidianitebranchofSemites,werealreadyworshippersofJ,MosesworkwouldconsistinproclaimingastheGodofthewholebodyofIsraelitesHimwhose
helpandguidanceasmallportionofthemhadalreadyexperienced.Ifeitheroftheseconjecturesisvalid,itonlyputsbackastagethequestionastotheultimate
originofthenameJahweh.Butwhatevertheoriginmayhavebeen,itisdifficulttodenytoMosesthegloryofhavingunitedthewholebodyofIsraelitesinthe
singlecultwhichexcludedallotherdeities.
(iii.)MosesasProphetandLawgiver.IfMosestaughttheIsraelitestoworshipJ,itmaysafelybeassumedthathelaiddownsomerulesastothemethodand
ritualofHisworship.Butthereisabundantjustificationforthebeliefthathealsogavetheminjunctionswhichwerenotmerelyritual.Itisquitearbitrarytoassume
thattheprophetsofthe8thcent.andonwards,whopreachedanethicalstandardofreligion,preachedsomethingentirelynew,thoughitisprobableenoughthat
theirownethicalfeelingwaspureranddeeperthananytowhichthenationhadhithertoattained.Theprophetsalwaysheldupaloftyidealassomethingwhichthe
nationhadfailedtoreach,andproclaimedthatforthisfailurethesinfulpeoplewereanswerabletoaholyGod.Andsincehumannatureisalikeinallages,there
musthavebeenatleastisolatedindividuals,morehighsouledthanthemassesaroundthem,whostrovetoliveuptothelighttheypossessed.Andasthenational
historyofIsraelpostulatesaleader,andtheirreligionpostulatesagreatpersonalitywhodrewthem,asabody,intotheacceptanceofit,sotheethicalmoralitywhich
appearsinthelawsofExodus,andinadeeperandintenserformintheprophets,postulatesateacherwhoinstilledintothenucleusofthenationthegermsofsocial
justice,purity,andhonour.Moseswouldhavebeenbelowthestandardofanordinarysheikifhehadnotgivendecisionsonsocialmatters,andEx18pictureshim
assodoing,and33:711showsthatitwasusualforthepeopletogotohimfororacularanswersfromGod.Itisinitselfprobablethatthemanwhofoundedthe
nationandtaughtthemtheirreligion,wouldplantinthemtheseedsofsocialmorality.Butthequestionwhetheranyofthecodifiedlaws,aswehavethem,were
directlyduetoMosesisquiteanothermatter.Inthelifeofanomadtribethecontrollingfactorisnotacorpusofspecificprescriptions,butthepowerofcustom.An
immoralactiscondemnedbecauseitisnotwontsotobedone(Gn34:7,2S13:12).Thestereotypingofcustominwrittencodesistheproductofacomparatively
latestageinnationallife.AndastudyofthehistoryanddevelopmentoftheHebrewlawsleadsunavoidablytotheconclusionthatwhilesomefewelementsinthem
areveryancient,itisimpossibletosayofanyparticulardetailthatitiscertainlyderivedfromMoseshimselfanditisfurtherclearthatmanyarecertainlylaterthan
histime.
4.MosesintheNT.(i.)AllJewsandChristiansinApostolictimes(includingourLordHimself)heldthatMoseswastheauthorofthePentateuch.Besides
suchexpressionsasThelawofMoses(Lk2:22),Mosesenjoined(Mt8:4),Mosescommanded(Mt19:7),Moseswrote(Mk12:19),Mosessaid(Mk7:10),
andsoon,hisnamecouldbeusedaloneassynonymouswiththatwhichhewrote(Lk16:20,31,24:27).
(ii.)ButbecauseMoseswastherepresentativeoftheOldDispensation,JesusandtheNTwritersthoughtofhimassomethingmore.Hewasanhistorical
personageofsuchuniqueprominenceinIsraelshistory,thathiswholecareerappearedtothemtoaffordparallelstospiritualfactorsintheNewCovenant.The
followingformaninterestingstudy,asillustratingpointswhichcoverawiderangeofChristiantruth:ThegloryonMosesface(2Co3:718),thebrazenserpent
(Jn3:14),thePassover(Jn19:36,He11:28,1Co5:7f.),thecovenantsacrificeatHoreb(Mt26:28,Mk14:24,Lk22:20,1Co11:25seealsoHe9:1820,1P1:2
withHortsnote),theterrorsoftheSinaicovenant(He12:1824),thecrossingofthesea(1Co10:2),themanna(Jn6:3035,4158),thewaterfromtherock(1
Co10:3,4),Mosesasaprophet(Ac3:22,7:37,Jn1:2123andseeJn6:14,7:40[Lk7:39]),themagiciansofEgypt(2Ti3:8),theplagues(Rev8:5,7,8,9:24,
15:68,16:24,10,13,18,21),andthesongofMosestheservantofGod(Rev15:3).
A.H.MNEILE.
MOSOLLAMUS.1.1Es8:44=Meshullam,Ezr8:16,2.1Es9:14=Meshullam,Ezr
10:15.
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10:15.
MOSTHIGH(Elyn)occursasanepithetofEl,God(Gn14:18f.,20,22,Ps78:35),orJahweh(Ps7:17)oritstandsbyitselfasatitleofGod(Nu24:16,Dt
32:8,Ps21:8etc.).Wefinditfirstinasomewhatmysteriouschapter(Gn14)whichcannotbetracedtoanyidentifiedsourcethedateisalsouncertain.Inthis
chapterMelchizedekisdescribedaspriesttotheMostHighGod(ElElyon),andsinceinlatertimestheSalemwherehelivedwasgenerallyidentifiedwith
Jerusalem,thedoublefunctionofpriestandkingascribedtohimcausedhimtoberegardedbytheJewsasatypeoftheidealking,andbytheChristiansasthetype
ofChrist.HencethenameoftheGodwhomheworshipped(ElElyon),whichmaypossibly,inthefirstinstance,havehadreferencemerelytotheloftysituationof
Jerusalem,becameinlatergenerationsamysteriousandexaltedtitleofJahweh.AtthesametimethereisthepossibilitythatthetitleElyoncameoriginallyfromthe
Phnicians:PhiloofByblus(quotedbyDriver,Genesis,p.165)mentionsadeityofthisnameinthePhniciantheogony,andthecorrespondingGreekwordis
frequentininscriptionsoftheGrcoRomanperiod,especiallyintheneighbourhoodoftheBosporus.WhatevertheoriginofthetitleElyon,itneveroccursin
strictlyprosepassagesoftheOT,thoughwefinditintheSongsofBalaam(Nu24:16),Moses(Dt32:8),andDavid(2S22:14).TheAramaicequivalentsarefairly
frequentinDaniel.
TheusesoftheGreekrenderingintheNTareinstructive.InthestoryoftheAnnunciationitisordainedthatthechildwhomMaryistobearshallbecalledSon
oftheMostHigh(Lk1:32)andalittlelateron(v.76)JohntheBaptistisspokenofasprophetoftheMostHigh.ThecontrastiscompletedintheEp.tothe
Hebrews,whereMelchizedekisbroughtforwardaspriestoftheMostHigh(cf.7:1withv.28).Itisworthnoting,too,thatthetitleistwicefoundinthemouthof
demoniacs(Mk5:7=Lk8:28,Ac16:17).Theword,then,doesnotbelongtothelanguageofeverydaylife:itisreservedforpoetryandelevatedstyle,anditseems
byitsorigintohavesuggestedsomethingarchaicandmysterious,whetheritreferredtotheloftydwellingplaceortothemajesticnatureandattributesofGod.
H.C.O.LANCHESTER.
MOTE.ThewordchosenbyWyclifandTindale,andacceptedbyallthesubsequentversionsasthetr.ofGr.karphosinMt7:3,4,5,Lk6:41,42bis.Theroot
ofkarphosiskarphtodryup,anditsignifiesabitofdriedstick,straw,orwool,suchas,intheillustration,mightbeflyingaboutandentertheeye.Inits
minutenessitiscontrastedbyourLordwithdokos,thebeamthatsupports(dechomai)theroofofabuilding.
MOTH(sh.Job4:18,13:28,27:18,Ps39:12,Is50:9,51:8,Hos5:12Gr.ss,Mt6:19,20,Lk12:33,Ja5:2).Allthereferencesaretotheclothesmoth,
whichisubiquitousandextremelyplentifulinPalestine.Itisalmostimpossibletoguardagainstitsdestructiveness,exceptbyconstantlyusingclothes,shawls,
carpets,etc.Suchgoods,whenstoredforlong,arefoundtobereducedalmosttopowderonbeingremoved(cf.Job4:19etc.).Thefragilecasesofthesemothsare
referredtoinJob27:18,iftheMThecorrect.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
MOTHER.SeeF AMILY,3.
MOUNT.Anearthworkinconnexionwithsiegecraft(Jer6:6andoft.),alsorenderedbank(2S20:15RV).In1Mac12:36RVhasthemodernform
mound,whichAmer.RVhassubstitutedthroughout.See,further,F ORTIFICATIONANDS IEGECRAFT,6(c).
MOUNT,MOUNTAIN.Althoughonthewholeamountainouscountry,Palestinehasfewstrikingorcommandingpeakstoshowconsequently,thoughwe
findfrequentmentionofmountainsintheBible,therearecomparativelyfewnamesofindividualsummits.Mountain,aswellasitscognatemount,isusedboth
ofisolatedelevationsandofextensivedistrictsofloftygroundsuchasSinai,Horeb,Carmelontheonehand,MountSeirortheMountainofGileadontheother.
Mountainsservedvariousfunctionstotheancientinhabitantsoftheland.(1)Theyweredwellingplaces,forwhichthenumerouscaves,naturalandartificial,
excavatedintheirsoftlimestonesides,wellfittedthem:thusEsaudweltinMountSeir(Gn36:8).(2)Theyservedthepurposeoflandmarks:thusMountHorwas
indicated(Nu34:7)asaboundaryofthePromisedLand.(3)Theywereusedasplatforms,foraddressinglargecrowdsofpeople,asinthefamousceremonyatEbal
andGerizim(Jos8:30ff.),intheaddressofJothamtotheShechemites(Jg9:7),andthatofAbijahtotheEphraimites(2Ch13:4).(4)Theywereburialplaces
(sepulchresthatwereinthemount,2K23:16).(5)Theyservedasrefuges(Gn14:10,Mt24:16)(6)asmilitarycamps(1S17:3)(7)assourcesofwoodand
plants(2Ch2:18,Neh8:15,Hag1:8)(8)aswatchtowersandlookoutstations(Ezk40:2,Mt4:8)(9)aspasturage(Ps50:10,Lk8:32)(10)asfortresses(Ps
125:2).TheirobviousfitnessfortypifyingstrengthandendurancegivesrisetometaphorsandcomparisonstobefoundinalmosteverybookofbothTestaments.
ButitisintheiraspectasholyplacesthatmountainsareofthedeepestinteresttothestudentoftheScripturesorofPalestine.InmodernPalestinealmostevery
hillalittleloftierormorestrikingthanitsfellowsiscrownedbyadomedshrine,nowregardedasthetombofaMoslemsaint,butnodoubttherepresentativeofa
sacredprecinctthatgoesbacktotheearliestSemiticinhabitantsoftheland.Sinai,Horeb,Carmeloccurtothememoryatonceasmountainsconsecratedbya
theophany.TheworshipathighplaceswassodeeplyengrainedintheHebrewsthatnoamountoflegislationcoulderadicateittheseveredisciplineoftheExile
wasneededforitsdestruction.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
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MOUNTOFTHECONGREGATION.SeeCONGREGATION.
MOURNINGCUSTOMS.TheOrientalexpressionofgriefhasatwofoldrelationship.TowardsGoditismarkedbysilentandreverentsubmission
symbolizedbyplacingthehandonthemouth.TheLordgaveandtheLordhathtakenaway(Job1:21)Iwasdumbbecausethoudidstit(Ps39:9).But
towardstherelativesandneighboursthecaseisaltogetherdifferent.Itisnowaneventthathastobeannouncedasquicklyandpubliclyaspossible,andaloss
whichlovehastodeplorewithpassionateabandonmentandanaccumulationofconventionalceremony.Atthemomentofdeathaloudshrillwailisraisedbythose
present.Itsmeaningisunderstoodonlytoowell.Asthepiercing,tremulousshrieksarerepeated,afewinquiriesaremadeastothelocalityandcircumstances,and
therapidlyincreasingcryisacceptedasaninvitationandclaimtoproceedtothehouseofmourning.Immediatelyafterdeaththebodyiswashedandrobedforthe
burial,whichusuallytakesplacewithintwentyfourhours.Inadditiontothesuccessiveoutburstsofgriefbymembersofthefamily,whohavetobecomfortedand
pleadedwithandledawayfromtheprostratefigureofthedead,thesustainedceremonyofmourningisattendedtobytheneighbours.These,usuallyassistedby
hiredmourners,arrangethemselvesaroundthebier,oronoppositesidesoftheroom,andkeepupthelamentationwithoutintermission.Inthiswaytheyafford
thepreoccupationofarecognizedroutine,andgivethereliefofphysicaloutlettofeelingsthateitherare,orareconsideredtobe,beyondcontrol.Attimesoneof
thechiefmournersleansoverthebody,wringingherhandsorwipingawaythefastfallingtears,andaskingwhyhehasleftthem,andwhowilldischargetheduties
thatbelongedtohimalone,pleadingforlovessaketohearonlyoncemorethemusicofthevoicenowsilent,orbeggingforgivenessonaccountofselfishnessand
imperfectserviceinthedaysthatwillneverreturn.Meanwhilethebandofmournersredoubletheirwailing,withbeatingofthebreastandfranticclutchingattheir
hairandclothes.Assuchparoxysmscannotlast,theskilledmourners,usuallywomen,endeavourtomoderateandsustainthefeelingofdesolationbyaplaintively
descendingchant.Amongthesingersthereareusuallyoneortwowhoarespeciallyskilfulinleadingoffwithmetricalphrasesandrhymesofsympatheticappeal,
whichtheotherstakeupandrepeatinconcert.Theinvariablesubjectisthegoodqualitiesofthedeparted,andtheextentofthelosswhichthefamilyhasbeen
calledupontobear.Inadditiontotheaboveallusions,newspringsoftendernessareopenedbyreferringtoothermembersofthesamefamilyrecentlydeparted,
andthelovedonewhosedeaththeyarelamentingisaskedtobearmessagesofgreetingtothem.Astheintimationofthebereavementreachesmoredistantpartsof
thetown,oriscarriedtotheneighbouringvillages,companiesofsympathizingfriendscometoshowtheirregardforthedead.Theyannouncetheirarrivalbyloud
weepingandexclamationsofgriefandastheyenterthehousethelamentationofthemournersintheroombreaksoutafresh.TotheWesternvisitorunacquainted
withthetemperamentandtraditionsofOrientalpeople,thewholesceneisdeeplydistressing,andhehastocheckthefeelingofrepugnancebyremindinghimself
thattheywouldbeequallyshockedbytheapparentcallousnessandorderedformalityofourprocedureonsimilaroccasions.Withcruelyetmercifulswiftnessthe
hourarrivesforinterment.Thelamentationthatwaspassionatebeforenowbecomestumultuouslydefiant.Relativesloseallselfcontrol,and,refusingtoletthe
bearersdischargetheirsadoffice,havetobeforciblyremoved.Theprocessionisthenformed,andonthewaytothecemeteryisincreasedbythosewhojoinitto
showtheirrespecttowardsthefamily,andalsotosharethemeritwhichtheLordattachestoserviceperformedforthosewhocannolongerrewardit.Amongthe
Jews,duringtheprescribeddaysofseparationfollowinguponadeathinthefamily,themournersaredailyvisitedbytheRabbi,whoreadstheportionsofScripture
andtheprayersappointedbythesynagogue.OverthedoorofthecemeteryisinscribedinHebrewTheHouseofEternityorTheHouseoftheLiving.The
explanationgiveninregardtothelattertermiseitherthatthelifebeyondthegraveisthereallife,or,accordingtoothers,thatthegraveistheplaceofhabitationto
whichallthelivingmustcome.
ThereferencestomourningintheBibleshowthatthecustomoftodayinPalestineisthesameasinancienttimeswithregardtothehouseofmourning,
althoughspecialfeaturesofliturgicalformnowbelongtotheSynagogue,theChurch,andtheMosque.Thereisthesameannouncementbywailing(Mic1:8,Mk
5:38).Friendscometocondole(Job2:1118),andthereisthesamelanguageofcommendationandaffectionateregret(2S1:1727,3:33,34).Theexclamations
oftodaywerethenused(1K13:30,Jer22:18).Hiredmournersarealludedto(Jer9:17,18,Am5:16)andsuchmanifestationsasthebeatingofthebreast(Is
32:12),tearingofthegarments(2S3:31),fasting(1S31:13,2S3:35),theputtingofashesonthehead,andthewearingofsackcloth(2S12:20).Theformof
lamentationfortheindividualisappliedtoafflictedIsrael(Jer9:1,La1:16,3:48,49),tothehistoricalextinctionofTyre(Ezk27:2836),andtotheworshipof
Tammuz(Ezk8:14).Sucharichandwidelyrecognizedsymbolismofsorrowmighteasilybepressedintotheservicesofreligiousimposturebythosewhowishto
appearboweddownbytheirowndevoutcontemplations,orasbearingupontheirheartsthesinsofothers.HenceChristsnoteofwarning(Mt6:1618).
TheApostlePaulcommendsasaChristiandutytheshowingofsympathytowardsthoseinaffliction(Ro12:15),butintimatesthatinChristthefamiliarphrase
ofgreetingtotheafflicted,Hopeiscutoff!hasbeenmadeobsoletebytheresurrectionoftheLordJesus(1Th4:18).OneofthefeaturestowhichtheNew
Jerusalemowesitstitleistheabsenceofmourningandtears(Rev7:17).
G.M.MACKIE.
MOUSE(akbr).Probablyagenerictermincludingfieldmice,hamsters,dormice,andevenjerboas.Themaleofthelastnamediscalledakbrbythe
Arabs.AllthesesmallrodentsareexceedinglyplentifulinPalestine.Thehamster(Cricetusphus)andthejerboa,ofwhichthreevarietieshavebeenfoundinthe
land,areeatenbytheArabs(cf.Is66:17).MetalmiceasamuletshavebeenfoundinthePalestineplain(cf.1S6:4,5).Themousewasforbiddenfoodtothe
Israelites(Lv11:28).
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
MOUTH.SeveralHeb.wordsaresotr.1.grn(Ps149:6)lit.throat.2.chk(Job12:11etc.)istheinwardpartofthemouth,thepalate,orroofofthe
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MOUTH.SeveralHeb.wordsaresotr.1.grn(Ps149:6)lit.throat.2.chk(Job12:11etc.)istheinwardpartofthemouth,thepalate,orroofofthe
mouth(Job29:10etc.).3.d,twiceinAV(Ps32:8RVtrappings,103:5RVmyearsorprime),signifiesproperlyornament.4.peh,themostusualwordfor
mouth,meaningalsoedge,e.g.ofthesword(Gn34:26etc.),orborder,e.g.ofagarment(Ps133:2).5.pm,Aram.=Heb.peh(Dn7:5etc.).6.pnm(Pr
15:14)lit.face.7.tra,Aram.lit.door(Dn3:26).IntheNTtheGr.wordstoma.FrequentlyinScripturemouthisusedfig.forspeech,ofwhichitisthe
organ.
W.EWING.
MOZA.1.SonofCaleb(1Ch2:46).2.AdescendantofSaul(1Ch8:36,37,9:42,43).
MOZAH.AtownofBenjamin(Jos18:28).ApossiblesiteistheruinBeitMizzeh,closetoKulonieh,westofJerusalem.
MUFFLERS.ThewordsorenderedoccursonlyinIs3:19,asanarticleoffemaleattire.Thecognateverb,inthesenseofveiled,isappliedintheMishna
(Shabbath,vi.6)toJewessesfromArabia.Acloseveilofsomesort,therefore,isevidentlyintendedbyIsaiah.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
MULBERRYTREES(bkm,2S5:23f.,1Ch14:14f.,Ps84:6mg.).Thesetreeshaveonphilologicalgroundsbeensupposedtobeavarietyofbalsam,
andongroundsofappropriatenesstothestory(2S5:23f.)tobepoplars,whoseleavesreadilyquiverwiththeslightestbreathofair.Theiridentityis,however,quite
uncertain.MulberriestheycannotbeforthoughplentifultodayinPalestine,andstillmoresointheLebanon,thesetreeswereintroducedtothelandlaterthanOT
times.See,however,S YCAMINE.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
MULE.
(1)pered(m.)andpirdh(f.)inallpassagesexceptthree.
(2)rekesh,RVswiftsteeds(Est8:10,14).Thetr.swiftispurelyconjectural.
(3)ymm,Gn36:24,wheremulesiscertainlyamistranslationRVhotsprings.
ThebreedingofmuleswasforbiddentotheIsraelites(Lv19:19),butfromDavidstime(2S13:29,18:9)onwards(1K1:33,10:25,18:5)theyappeartohave
beenincreasinglyused.ThereturningIsraelitesbrought245muleswiththem(Ezr2:66).MulesarepreferredinPalestinetodayaspackanimals(cf.1Ch12:40,2K
5:17).theyarehardier,subsistonlessfood,andtravelbetteronroughroads.Awelltrainedmuleisafavouriteridinganimalwiththehighestofficialsintheland.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
MUNITIONoccursinafewpassagesofAVinthesenseofafortifiedplace,e.g.Is29:7,whereRVhasstronghold.ThewordisretainedinNah2:1,where,
however,Amer.RVhasthemoreintelligiblefortress.In1Mac14:10allmannerofmunitionisliterallywithimplementsofdefence(cf.RVm),asthesame
originalisrenderedin10:11.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
MUPPIM.AsonofBenjamin(Gn46:21)calledin1Ch7:12,15,26:16Shuppim,inNu26:39Shephupham,andin1Ch8:5Shephuphan.
MURDER.SeeCRIMES,7REFUGE[CITIESOF].
MURRAIN.SeeP LAGUESOFEGYPT.
MUSHI.AsonofMerari(Ex6:19,Nu3:20,1Ch6:19,47,23:21,23,24:26,30).ThepatronymicMushitesoccursinNu3:33,26:58.SeeMERARI,1.
MUSICANDMUSICALINSTRUMENTS
1.ProbablecharacterofearlyHebrewmusic.SincetheDispersion,themusicoftheJewshasalwaysbornetheimpressofthepeoplesamongwhomthey
havesettled.Synagogueritualthusaffordsusnocluetothemusicofearlytimes,andwemustaccordinglyfallbackonScriptureandtradition.Fromthesewe
gatherthatHebrewmusicwasofaloudandpiercingnature,farremovedfromthesweetnesswhichmoderntastedemands.Thereisnorealevidencethatthe
playerseveradvancedbeyondunisonintheircombinationsofnotes,apparentlyreproducingtheaironsuccessivelyrisingorfallingoctavesofthescale.Wemay
suppose,however,thattheywouldhardlyfailtodiscoverthatcertaincombinationswerepleasingtotheear,andwouldthuslearntostrikethemeither
simultaneouslyorsuccessively(arpeggio).Howfar,however,theygraspedthenatureofachordorofharmonymustremainobscure,inspiteoftheattemptsto
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simultaneouslyorsuccessively(arpeggio).Howfar,however,theygraspedthenatureofachordorofharmonymustremainobscure,inspiteoftheattemptsto
solvethisquestion,someofthemaltogetherbaselessguesses.Forexample,eventheHebrewaccents,thoughofcomparativelylateorigin,andalwaysconfinedin
Jewishusetoactingasguidesintheproperrecitationofthetext,havebeenpressedintotheservice,asthoughemployedforthepurposeofakindoffiguredbass,
andthusindicatinganacquaintancewithmusicalharmony.Unfortunately,eventhosewhohavemaintainedthistheorydifferconsiderablyastothedetailsofits
application.
2.RenderingofHebrewmusic.ItseemsclearatanyratethatanantiphonalsettingwasinuseformanyofthePsalms(e.g.13,20,38,68,89)butthe
chantingmustnotbetakenasresemblingwhatwenowunderstandbythatterm.Theaccountwehavein1Ch15:16ff.oftheelaboratearrangementsforconducting
themusicalservicesoftheTemple,appearstoindicateasomewhatcomplicatedsystem,andtosuggestthatthereenteredaconsiderableelementofflexibilityinto
thecomposition.Itis,forinstance,quitepossiblethatthelongrecitingnotewhichwithusmaydodutyonoccasionforasmanyastwenty,thirty,orevenmore
syllables,playednosuchmonotonouspart,butwasbrokenupandvariedtoanextentsuggestedbythelengthoftheverseaswellasbythecharacterofthe
sentimenttobeconveyed.
3.Occasionsonwhichmusicwasused.Hebrewreligiousmelodyhadapopularorigin,andwasthuscloselyconnectedwiththereligiouslifeofthenaon.
ApartfromsuchreferencestosongasthoseinGn31:27andJob21:12,wefindintheheadingsofcertainPsalms(e.g.22,AyyelethhashShahar,thehindofthe
morning)tracesofwhatareinallprobabilityinsome,ifnotinall,casessecularsongs.SoAlTashheth,Destroynot,prefixedtoPss57,58,59,75,maywellbe
thefirstwordsofavintagesong(cf.Is65:9).AparallelmaybefoundindirectionsprefixedtoGabirolshymnsandthoseofothercelebratedJewishpoets,when
thesecompositionswereadaptedtomusicintheSpanish(Sephardic)ritual(seeD.J.Sola,AncientMelodies,etc.,London,1857,Pref.p.13).Amos(6:5)speaksof
musicperformedatfeasts,andin1S18:6wereadofitsuseinSaulstimeinconnexionwithprocessions.Asinthislastcase,soingeneralitmaybesupposedthat
musicanddancingwerecloselyconnectedandhadaparalleldevelopment.DavidscarefulelaborationoftheLeviticalmusic,vocalandinstrumental,was
employed,accordingto2Ch5:12,withimpressiveeffectatthededicationofSolomonsTemple.ThereformationsunderbothHezekiahandJosiahincludedthe
restoringofthemusicalritualbelongingtoDavidstime(2Ch29:25ff.,35:15).Later,thedescendantsofHemanandotherLeviticalleadersofmusicwereamong
theexilesoftheReturnfromBabylon,andunderthemtheserviceswerereconstitutedasofold(Neh12:27,45ff.).
4.Hebrewmusicalinstruments.Hereourinformationissomewhatfuller,thoughinvolvingagooddealofuncertaintyindetails.Wemayforclearness
sakedivideunderthreeheads,viz.stringed,wind,andpercussioninstruments.
(1)Stringedinstruments.Chiefamongthesearethekinnrandthenbel(RVharpandpsaltery),whichwereevidentlyfavouritesamongtheJews.Itis
plain,inspiteofdoubtswhichhavebeenexpresseduponthepoint,thatthetwonameswerenotusedindifferentlyforthesameinstrument.TheLXXinnearlyall
casesiscarefultodistinguishthem(kitharaorkinyra,andpsaltrion,nabl,ornablarespectively).Both,however,wereusedinthemain,andperhapsexclusively,
toaccompanysongs,andthoseofajoyousnature.(TheywereunsuitablefortimesofmourningseePs137:2,apassagewhichfurthershowsthattheinstrument
musthavebeen,unlikeamodernharp,easilyportable.)Theyweredoubtlessthechief,ifnotthesole,instrumentsemployedintheTempleservices.InSolomons
timetheyweremadefromalmug(algum)trees,doubtfullyidentifiedwithsandalwood.Thestrings,originallyoftwistedgrassorfibresofplants,wereafterwards
formedofgut,andsubsequentlyfromsilkormetal.
(a)Thekinnr(anonomatopoeticword,derivedfromthesoundofthestrings)istheonlystringedinstrumentmentionedintheHexateuch,where(Gn4:21)its
inventionisattributedtoJubal,sonofLamech.Thenebelisfirstmentionedin1S10:5,asusedbytheprophetswhowenttomeetSaul.Thekinnr(kitharaorlyre
[in1Mac4:54theAVrenderscithern,RVharp])consistedofasoundboxatthebase,withwoodensidearmsandacrossbarconnectedbythestringswiththe
boxbelow.ItwasoriginallyanAsiaticinstrument,andtheearliestknownrepresentationisprehistoric,intheformofarudemodelfoundatTellohinsouthern
Babylonia.
ThereisalsoaveryancientoneshownonatombinEgypt,datingfromaboutthe30thcent. B.C.(12thdynasty).AtombatThebesinthesamecountry(dating
betweenthe12thand18thdynasties)exhibitsasimilarform,whichwassometimesmodifiedlaterinthedirectionofmoreartisticconstructionandslopingofthe
crossbardownwards,soastovarythepitchofthestrings.JewishcoinsofMaccabandatefurnishuswithacloseresemblancetotheGreekkithara.Josephus(Ant.
VII.xii.3)distinguishesthekinnrasatenstringedinstrumentstruckbyaplectrumthenabla,ontheotherhand,being,hesays,playedwiththefingers.Thisneed
notnecessarilyconflict,ashasbeenthoughtbysome,withthestatement(1S16:23)thatDavidplayedthekinnrwithhishandandJosephussevidenceinsuch
amattershouldcarrymuchweight.
(b)Thenebel.Ithasbeensoughttoidentifythiswithvariousinstrumentsamongthem,thelute(soRVinIs5:12[AVviol]luteisalsoRVtr.ofGr.kinyrain
1Mac4:54),guitar,anddulcimer.InsupportofthelastitisurgedthattheArabicnameforthatinstrument,santir,isacorruptionoftheGreekpsaltrion,by
which,ashasbeensaid,theLXXsometimesrendernebel.Havingregard,however,tothetestimonyofJosephus(seeabove)thatthenebelhadtwelvestrings,and
wasplayedbythehandwithoutaplectrum,wearesafeintakingittobeakindofharp,aninstrumentoflargersizethanthekinnr,andused(Am6:5,Is5:12,
14:11)atthefeastsoftherich.Wefind,ontheotherhand,thatitwasnottoolargetobeplayedbyonewhowaswalking(see1S10:5,2S6:5).Theabove
argumentfromsantir=psaltrionisweakenedbythefactthattheGreekwordwasusedgenericallyforstringedinstrumentsplayedwithoneorhothhandswithout
aplectrum.Wemaynotefurtherthatthenabla(seeaboveforthisasaLXXrenderingofnebel),knowntotheGreeksasofSidonianorigin,wasplayedaccording
toOvid(ArsAmat.iii.327)withbothhands.
Egyptianmonumentsshowusportableharps,varyinginform,bowshaped,rectangular,ortriangular,thoughallconstructedonthesamegeneralprinciple,andhavingthe
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Egyptianmonumentsshowusportableharps,varyinginform,bowshaped,rectangular,ortriangular,thoughallconstructedonthesamegeneralprinciple,andhavingthe
soundboxabove,not,asthekinnr,below.Sevenoftheseharps,ofatriangularshape,andusedbyaSemiticpeopleinAssyria,aretobeseenonabasrelieffoundatKouyunjik.
WemayaddthatseveralearlyChurchwriters(AugustineonPs42:JeromeonPs149:3Isidore,Etym.iii.22.2)supporttheaboveidentificationofnebelwith,aharp.
(c)ThereislittlethatcanbeassertedwithconfidenceastothenatureofotherinstrumentsofthisclassmentionedintheBible.InDn3:5ff.,besidesthe
psantrn(Gr.psaltrion)andkitharis(Gr.kithara)withwhichwehavealreadydealt,wehavethesabbkha(Evsackbut).ThisisevidentlytheGreeksambyk,but
thelatterhasbeenvariouslydescribedasalargeharpofmanystringsandrichtone,similartothegrandEgyptianharp,andasaverysmalloneofhighpitch.
Afterall,bothdescriptionsmaybetrue,ifreferringtodifferentperiodsofitsexistence.
Ngnthhassometimesbeentakenasthenameofaninstrument,butismuchmoreprobablyageneraltermforstringedmusic.SoinPs68:25(Heb.26),we
haveacontrastbetweenthesingers(shrm)andtheplayersonstrings(ngnm).
Gittth,theheadingofPss8,81,84,hasalso,butsomewhatdoubtfully,beenreferredtoinstrumentsnamedafterGath:sotheearlyJewishparaphrase(Targum),
theharpwhichDavidbroughtfromGath.
(2)Windinstruments.(a)Thechll(EVpipe)seemstohavebeentheinstrumentofthisclassinmostcommonuse.Itwasplayedincomingfromandgoingto
thehighplace(1S10:5,1K1:40).Itaccompaniedfestalprocessionsofpilgrims(Is30:29).Itwasusedinmourning(Jer48:36,cf.Mt9:23),andintheritualof
twelvesolemnannualoccasions.AccordingtoIs5:12,thefeastsofthedrunkardswereenlivenedbyit.Itmayhavebeenasimpleflute,i.e.ameretubewithholes,
playedbyblowingeitherintooneendorintoaholeintheside.Itispossible,ontheotherhand,thatitmayhavebeenareedinstrument,either,asthemodernoboe,
withadoubleandvibratingtongue,or,astheclarinet,withasingletongue.Neighbouringnationswere,weknow,familiarwithreedpipes,astheyalsowerewith
doubleflutes,which,foranythingweknowtothecontrary,thechllmayhavebeen.Ontheotherhand,thekeyedfluteisofdecidedlylaterorigin,andinthetimes
withwhichwearedealingtheFingersmusthavedoneallthework.
(b)Thegb,rendereduniformlyintheAVasorgan,aninstrumentwhichwasnotknowneveninrudimentaryforminOTdays,seemstohavebecomean
obsoletewordeveninLXXtimes,asshownbythevarietyofrenderingswhichithastherereceived.TheinstrumentknownasPanspipes(Gr.syrinx,Lat.fistula)
isperhapsthebestconjecturethatcanbeoffered.(c)Themashrktha(EVfluts)mayhavebeensimilarwhile(d)thesumpnya(cf.theItalianzampugnaor
sampognaforbagpipes)maywellhavecorrespondedtothemodernbagpipes,asdevelopedfromthedoubleflute.(e)Theshphr(1Ch15:28,2Ch15:14,Ps
98:6,Hos5:8,EVcornetthecornetsof2S6:5[AVRVcastanets]areprobablybestrepresentedbyRVmsistrasee(3)(c)below)wasacurvedhornofacow
orram,usedmainly,andtilllaterOTtimesexclusively,forsecdiarpurposes,suchastogivesignalsinwar(e.g.Jg3:27)ortoannounceimportantevents(e.g.1K
1:34,39).ItisstillemployedbytheJewsatsolemnfestivals.Thehatstsrh,ontheotherhandtheoneinstrumentofwhichwehaveanundoubtedlyauthentic
representation,viz.ontheArchofTitusatRomeinfrontofthetableofshewbreadwasalong,straight,metaltrumpet,usedmainlyforreligiouspurposes,
especiallyinlatertimes(2K12:13,1Ch13:8).
(3)Percussioninstruments.(a)Thetph,tabretortimbrel,wasasmallhanddrum,representedonEgyptianandAssyrianmonuments.Intheseinstruments,
unlikethemoderndrum,theparchmentwasprobablyrigidlyfixed,andthusincapableofbeingtightenedorloosenedsoastoregulatethepitch.(b)mtsiltaimand
tseltslmwerecymbals.TwoshapesarefoundinEgyptandAssyria,theoneconsistingoftwoflatplates,playedbybeingclashedtogethersideways,theotherof
twoconeswithhandlesatthepeak,oneconebeingbroughtdownontopoftheother.(c)mnaanm(RVcastanets,marg.sistra,2S6:5)wereformedoftwo
thinmetalplateswithholes,throughwhichwerepassedrodswithloosemetallicringsattheirends.(d)shlshmin1S18:6(RVmtriangles,orthreestringed
instruments)hasbeenthought,fromtheapparentconnexionofthewordwiththethirdHeb.numeral,tobeatriangle,butthisisquiteuncertain.Itismoreprobable
thatitwasaparticularkindofsistrum.
A.W.STREANE.
MUSTARD(Gr.sinapi).Theseedofthisplantisusedproverbiallyforanythingexceedinglysmall.InthissenseitoccursintheGospels(Mt17:20etc.),and
intheTalmud(Buxtorf,Lex.s.v.Chardal).JesuscomparestheKingdomofheaventothemustardseed(Mt
13:31etc.).TheplantintendedistheSinapisnigra(Arab.khardal),whichgrowswildinPalestine,andisafamiliarsightontheshoresofGennesaret.Itisalso
foundundercultivation,andinthegardensitreachesagreatsize,beingoftenfrom10to12feetinheight.Anannual,growingfromseed,itisnaturallycompared
withothergardenherbs,which,althoughitspringsfromthesmallestseed,itquiteoutgrows.Itbearsaprofusionofminuteseeds,ofwhichthebirdsareveryfond,
sitting(lodging)onthebranchesastheyeat.Althoughitisnotproperlyatree(Lk13:19),itquiteaccordswithOrientalusetodescribeassuchagreatplantlike
this.
W.EWING.
MUTHLABBEN.SeeP SALMS,p.772a.
MUTILATION.SeeCRIMESANDP UNISHMENTS,9.
MYNDUSwasacityinCariaattheextremityofthepeninsulaonwhichHalicarnassuslay.ItwasstrongenoughtoresistanassaultofAlexander,butplayedno
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MYNDUSwasacityinCariaattheextremityofthepeninsulaonwhichHalicarnassuslay.ItwasstrongenoughtoresistanassaultofAlexander,butplayedno
greatpartinhistory.Itismentionedseparatelyin1Mac15:23asoneoftheplacestowhich,inB.C.139,theRomanssentmessagesonbehalfoftheJews.Henceit
isassumedthatitwasindependentoftheCarianconfederacyanditsnativepopulationseemstohavedescendedfromtheraceoftheLeleges,andtohavealways
maintaineditsindependenceagainsttheCarians.
A.E.HILLARD.
MYRAwasacityofLyciasituated21/2milesfromthecoast,butthesamenameisoftenappliedtoitsharbourofAndriaca.InGreektimesPatarasurpassedit,
butinRomantimesMyrabecamethechiefseaportofLycia,andwasrecognizedbyTheodoslusasthecapital.ItgrewespeciallythroughtheAlexandriancorn
tradewithItaly.TheAlexandrianshipsdidnotcoastroundtheLevant,buttookadvantageofthesteadywestwindstocrossdirectbetweenLyciaandEgypt.These
windsmadeiteasierforashipsailingfromEgypttomakeforMyra,butashipsailingtoEgyptwouldbesailingmorebeforethewindbytakingalinefromPatara.
Doubtlessthiswastheusualcustom.InAc27:6wereadthatthecenturioninchargeofSt.Paulfoundat
MyraashipofAlexandriasailingtoItalywhereasinAc21:1St.PaultookshipdirectfromPataratoTyre(thoughtheBezantextmakesthisshiptouchatMyra).
MyraretaineditsimportanceintotheMiddleAges.ItsbishopinthetimeofConstantinewasSt.Nicolas,andhebecamethepatronsaintofsailorsintheE.
Mediterranean,doubtlesstakingtheplaceofaLyciangodtowhomthesailorspaidtheirvowsonlandingatMyra.TherearesplendidruinsonthesiteofMyra.
A.E.HILLARD.
MYRRH.1.mr(Arab,murr),thedriedgumofaspeciesofbalsam(Balsamodendronmyrrha)growinginArabiaandIndia.Ithasapleasant,thoughfaint,
smell(Ps45:8,Pr7:17,Ca1:13,3:5).Itisstillusedinmedicine(Mk15:23).Itwasusedinembalming(Jn19:39).AccordingtoSchweinfurth,themyrrhoftheOT
wasaliquidproductoftheBalsamodendronopobalsamum,knownasbalsamofMecca.Ex30:23andCa5:5,13,wherethemyrrhappearstohavebeenliquid,
supportthisview.SeealsoOINTMENT.
2.lt,tr.myrrhinGn37:25,43:11,isafragrantresinfromtheCislusorrockrose,acommonPalestineshrub.InArab,thisiscalledldhan(Lat.ladanum,
soRVm).AsaproductofPalestineitwasalikelysubstancetosendtoEgypt.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN
MYRTLE(hdas,Is41:18,55:13,Zee1:8,10,Neh8:15alsoasanameHadassah=Esther[Est2:7]).Myrtuscommunisisanevergreenshrubmuchprized
inPalestine.Itgrowswildinthemountains,especiallyonCarmelandinGilead,butisalsowidelycultivated.Itsometimesreachesaheightoftenfeet,butisusually
muchless.Itsdarkgreenleaves,prettywhiteflowers,anddarkberries,whichareeaten,areallmuchadmired.ItisstillregularlyusedbytheJewsintheFeastof
Tabernacles(Neh8:15).
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
MYSIAwasadistrictintheN.W.ofAsiaMinor,S.ofthePropontisandHellespont.ItderiveditsnamefromtheMysi,aThraciantribewhoprobablyentered
AsiawiththePhrygians.Atnoperiodwereitsboundariesstrictlydenned.ItformedpartofthedominionsofthePersiansandofAlexander.FromB.C.280itwas
partofthekingdomofPergamus,andthereforefelltotheRomansinB.C.133,becomingpartoftheprovinceofAsia.TheonlymentionofitintheBibleisAc16:7,
3,whereSt.Paulpassedthroughitonhissecondmissionaryjourney.AtraditionassignedtheevangelizationofpartofMysiatoacertainOnesiphorus,whowas
martyredatPariumwhenAdrianwasproconsulofAsia,A.D.109114.SeeAssos,TROAS,ADRAMYTTIUM,allofwhichplaceswerereckonedtoMysia.
A.E.HILLARD.
MYSTERY
TheGreekmystrioninChristianLatinbecamemysterium,andthuspassedintomodernlanguages.Thekindredmysticandmystagogue,importeddirectlyfromtheGreek,point
totheprimarysignificanceofthisword.In8NTpassagestheLatinVulgatereplacedmysteriumbythealienrenderingsacramentum(thesoldiersoathofallegiance),whichhas
takenon,withmodifications,themeaningoftheoriginal.
Incommonparlance,mysteryhasbecomesynonymouswithsecret(ausagepeculiartotheLXXinextantGreek:seeSir22:22,2Mac13:21etc.),signifying
abaffling,reconditesecret.DivinedoctrinesordealingsofProvidencearesaidtobemysteriouswhenwefailtoreconcilethemwithacceptedprinciples,though
presumingthereconciliationabstractlypossible.Primarily,however,theNTmystrionisnotsomethingdarkanddifficultinitsnature,butsomethingreservedand
hiddenofsatpurpose,asinRo16:25themysteryheldinsilenceforeternalages.Itconnotesthatwhichcanonlybeknownonbeingimpartedbysomeone
alreadyinpossessionofit,notbymerereasonandresearchwhicharecommontoall.
Initsfamiliarclassicalusethewordamountedalmosttoapropernoun.TheMysterieswereabodyofsacredobservancesconnectedwiththeworshipof
certainHellenicdeities(chieflythoserepresentingtheprimitiveNaturepowers),whichwerepractisedinretreat,andwhichboundtheirInitiatesintoareligious
confraternity.ThehigheroftheseMysteriesconveyed,undertheirsymbolicdress,aconnectedesotericdoctrinevague,itmayhavebeen,butimpressivebearing
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confraternity.ThehigheroftheseMysteriesconveyed,undertheirsymbolicdress,aconnectedesotericdoctrinevague,itmayhavebeen,butimpressivebearing
ontheoriginoflife,onsinandatonement,andtheblissorwoeofmansfuturestate,thebasisofwhichwasfoundinthecourseoftheseasons,intheconflictof
lightanddarkness,andtheyearlyparablesoftheseedcornandthevineJuice.TheEleusinianMysteries,annuallycelebratedinAttica,attractedvisitorsfromthe
wholecivilizedworld,andappeartohaveexertedasalutaryInfluenceonPagansociety.Thedistinctionsofcountry,rank,orsexwerenobartoparticipationonly
slavesandcriminalswereexcludedfromtherites.ThesewerethemostfamousofahostofMysteries,manyofthemofapassionateandevenfrantic,someofa
disgraceful,character,whichwererifeintheGrcoRomanworldattheChristianeratheyformed,saysRenan,theseriouspartofPaganreligion.TheGreek
MysterieswerealreadyrivaliedinpopularitybytheEgyptiancultsofIsisandSerapis,andsubsequentlybythePersianMithraism,whichspreadinthe3rdcent.to
theboundsoftheEmpire.Theseassociationssuppliedwhatwaslackinginthecivicandfamilyworshipsofancientheathendom,viz.
emotion,edification,andmoralfellowship.
Thetermmystery,withitsalliedexpressionsintheNT,mustbereadinthelightoftheseinstitutions,whichpreoccupiedthegroundandwereknownwherever
theGreeklanguagewascurrent.ChristianityfounditsclosestpointsofcontactwithPaganism,andthecompetitionmostdangeroustoit,intheMysteriesits
phraseologyandcustomsinthecaseoftheSacraments,possibly,itsdoctrinalconceptionsasthesetookshapeduringthefirstfivecenturiesbearthemarksof
theirinfluence.ThisinfluencebetraysitselffirstintheApocrypha,whenthewriterofWisdomspeaksin2:22ofmysteriesofGodbiddenfromtheunworthy,and,
liketheApostlePaul,promisestodisclosethemysteriesofDivinewisdom(6:22)tohisreadersin14:15,23,theGentilemysteriesandinitiatoryritesare
mentionedwithabhorrence.TheNTaffords27or(includingthedubiousreadingof1Co2:1)28examplesoftheword,3oftheseinMt13:11andtheSynoptic
parallels,4inRev.(1:20,10:7,17:5,7),theother20(or21)inPaulofthelatter,10belongtoEph.andCol.,5(or6)to1Cor.
TheNTusagesaredistinguishedastheyarewiderornarrowerinapplication:(1)inRev10:7,themysteryofGodcoverstheentireprocessofrevelationin1
Ti3:15themysteryofgodliness,andin1Co2:7thewisdomofGodinamystery,embracethewholeincarnatemanifestationhiddenuptothisepochinthe
womboftime(Ro16:25f.),whichissummedupbyCol2:2asthemysteryofGod,evenChrist.Themysteryoflawlessness(2Th2:7),culminatinginthe
paronsiaofAntichrist,presentsthecounterpartoftheDivinemysteryintherealmofevil.
Or(2)themysteryconsistsinsomespecificrevelation,somepreviouslyveileddesignof
GodasintheEph.Col.passages,whereSt.PaulthusdescribesGodsplanforsavingtheGentileworld.Hepointsout(Ro11:28)theshadowattendingthisgreat
disclosureinthemysteryofthehardeningthathasinpartbefallenIsrael.Theinstitutionofmarriageviewed
aspropheticoftheunionbetweenChristandtheChurch(Eph5:32),andthebodilytransformationofthesaintsattheSecondAdvent(1Co15:51f.),areDivine
secretsnowdisclosedtheymarkrespectivelythebeginningandtheendofrevelation.TheseandsuchmattersconstitutethemysteriesofwhichtheApostleis
steward(1Co4:1),whichenlightenedChristiansknow(1Co13:2)anddwelluponinhoursofrapture(14:2).AccordingtotheSynoptics,ourLordspeaksof
Hisparablesascontaining,inasimilarsense,themysteriesofthekingdom(Mt13:11etc.).
(3)Rev1:20and17:5,7affordexamplesofanarrowerreferenceintheterm:thesevenstarsandtheharlotwomanaremysticalsymbols,patenttothosewho
areintheSpirit,ofgreatrealitiesoperativeinthekingdomsofGodandofSatan.
ThisanalysisbringsoutcertainessentialdifferencesbetweentheChristianandnonChristianemploymentofthewordinquestion.Inthefirstplace,thenew
mysteriesarenohumanperformances,ritualordramatictheyareDivinecommunicationsembodiedinChristandHisredemption,whichGodsstewardsare
commissionedtoimpart.Inthesecondplace,theyseekpublicitynotconcealmentmysteryandrevelationbecomecorrelativeterms.Thesearenotsecrets
reservedforandguardedinsilencebythefewtheunsearchablerichesofChrist,longconcealedfromall,isnowthrownopentoallhiddenfromtheagesand
generations,buttodaypreachedtothenations.MostemphaticisSt.Paulsinsistenceonthefranknessofthegospelrevelationmostearnesthisdisclaimerofany
esotericdoctrine,suchasthevendorsofforeignmysteriescommonlyprofessed.Nothingbutmoralinsensibilityorthefalseprideoftheworldswisdom,he
asserts,barsanymanfromreceivinghisgospelitishidamongsttheperishing,thosewhosethoughtsthegodofthisworldblinded(2Co4:3f.cf.1Co2:14,Lk
10:21).Thecommunicationofthegospelmysteryislimitedbythereceptivityofthehearer,notthereserveofthespeakeraddressedtoallmen,itisworthyofall
acceptation(1Ti1:15,2:4cf.Ro1:14,Ac26:22,Col1:28).Themysteryofiniquity(2Th2:7)andthatofIsraelshardening(Ro11:25),however,stillawait
solutionthesewillbedisclosedbeforethemysteryofGodisfinished(Rev10:7).
SeveralotherNTwordshadbeenassociatedinGreekusage,moreorlessdefinitely,withtheMysteries:illumination(2Co4:4ff.,Eph1:18,He6:4etc.)seal(2
Co1:22,Eph1:18,Rev7:3etc.)perfect(scil.initiated:1Co2:6,Ph3:15etc.)Ihavelearntthesecret(havebeeninitiated,Ph4:11)andtheoriginal(cognate)
wordsforbeholdandeyewitnessesin1P2:12,3:2and2P1:16.Theassociationisunmistakable,andtheallusionhighlyprobable,inthe
lasttwo,aswellasintheotherinstances.InthesePetrinepassagesthethoughtofthespectatorsbeingfavouredwiththesightofaholysecretwas,seemingly,inthe
writersmind.
G.G.F INDLAY.
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NAAM.ACalebitefamily(1Ch4:15).
NAAMAH.1.SisterofTubalcain(Gn4:22).2.MotherofRehoboam(1K14:21,31,2Ch12:13).3.AtownofJudahintheShephlah(Jos15:3741).
Thereisnonoticeofitelsewhere.ZophartheNaamathiteismentionedinJob(2:11etc.),butthereisnothingtoconnecthimwiththistown.Possiblywemay
identifyNaamahwithNaneh,asmallmudvillageonlowground6milessouthofLudd(Lydda).
NAAMAN(thewordmeanspleasantness,or,asanepithet,asisprobable,ofAdonisorTammuz,darlingcf.theAdonisplantationsreferredtoinIs17:10
[Heb.].TheArabsofthepresentdaystillcalltheredanemone,whichbloomsinthespring,atthetimeatwhichoneoftheAdonisfestivalsusedtobeheld,the
woundsofthedarling,orNaamanthenameoftheflowerprobablycomesfromNaamanseeW.R.SmithintheEnglishHistoricalReview,April1887).1.
OneofthesonsofBenjamin(Gn46:21),thoughinNu26:40and1Ch8:4heisreferredtoasBenjaminsgrandsoninNu26:40thefamilyoftheNaamitesis
spokenof,theythereforeprobablyformedaclanbelongingtothetribeofBenjamin.
2.ASyriangeneralwhocametoElishatobehealedofleprosy.Thestoryistoldin2K5,whereitappearsinentireindependenceofthecontext.Throughan
IsraeliteslavegirlNaamanhearsofthemanofGodwhoworksmiracles,andinthehopeofbeingcuredofhisleprosyhecomestoElishaitis,however,
noteworthythathecomesatElishasrequest(v.8)inorderthathemaylearnthatthereisaprophetinIsrael.OnhisarrivalNaamanreceivesamessagetothe
effectthatheistowashintheriverJordanseventimeshisobjectionthattheprophetoughttoworkthemiracleinthenameoftheLordhisGodseemsvery
justifiableupontheadvice,however,ofhisservantshedipshimselfseventimesintheJordan,andishealed.Hisfirstwordstotheprophet,thereupon,are,Behold
now,IknowthatthereisnoGodinalltheearth,butinIsrael.OnElishasrefusingthegiftofferedtohim,NaamanasksfortwomulesburdenofIsraelitishsoil
uponwhichtoworshiptheGodofIsraelthisisinentireaccordancewiththeideasofthetimethatagodofacountrycannotbeworshippedproperlyexcepting
uponhisownsoil(cf.1S26:19,20).Quitenatural,too,accordingtothebeliefsofthetime,ishiswishtobowdowninthehouseofRimmonforapartfromthe
necessityofthisonaccountofhisattendanceontheking,thereisthefactthatreligioussyncretismwasconsiderednotonlypermissible,but,undervarious
circumstances,commendable.[FortheunworthyconductoftheprophetsservantGehazi,andthepunishmentinflictedonhim,seeGEHAZI.]
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
NAAMATHITE.SeeNAAMAH,3.
NAAMITES.SeeNAAMAN,1
NAARAH(girl).1.OneofthewivesofAshhurthefatherofTekoa(1Ch4:5f.).2.AtownofEphralm(Jos16:7calledin1Ch7:28Naaran).Itisperhaps
theruinelAujeh,6milesN.ofJericho.
NAARAI.OneofDavidsheroes(1Ch11:37).Intheparallelpassage,2S23:35,thenameisPaarai,whoiscalledtheArbite.Itisimpossibletodecidewith
anyconfidencebetweentherivalreadings.
NAARAN.SeeNAARAH,2.
NAATHUS(1Es9:31)=Ezr10:30Adna.
NABAL.AwealthybutchurlishsheepownerinMaon,whosebusinesswasinCarmel(IS25:2RVm).David,whilelivingasanoutlawandfreebooter,
demandedatNabalssheepshearinghisrewardfordefendinghisflocks(1S25:5ff.).Nabal,inflamedwithwine,returnedaninsolentanswer,andDavidwas
preventedfromwreakingterriblevengeanceonlybythetimelyarrivalofAbigail,Nabalswife,withlargegiftsandabundantflattery.ThewordNabalmeansfool,
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/n.htm 1/38
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andAbigail,withwifelycandour,saystoDavid,Foolishisnameandfoolishe.ThenextdayNabalwasinformedofallthathadhappened,andtheshockof
discoverybroughtonanapoplecticseizure,whichcausedhisdeath.AbigailthenbecameDavidswife.
W.F.BOYD.
NABARIAS(1Es9:44)=Neh8:4,Hashbaddanah.
NABAT(H)ANS(1Mac5:25,9:35).SeeARABIA,ARETAS,EDOM,NEBAIOTH.
NABOTH.AmanofJezreel,ownerofavineyardadjoiningthepalaceofAhab(1K21:1).Theking,desiringtoaddthevineyardtohislands,offeredtobuy
itorexchangeitforanother.Naboth,however,refusedtogiveuptheinheritanceofhisfathers.Jezebel,Ahabswife,byusingtheroyalauthoritywiththeelders
ofthecity,hadNabothaccusedoftreasonandblasphemy,andstonedtodeath.AsAhabwenttotakepossessionofthevineyard,hewasmetbyElijah,theprophet,
whopronounceddoomonhimandhishouse.ThemurderofNabothseemstohavedeeplyimpressedthepopularmind,andthedeathsofJoramandJezebelnear
thespotwereregardedasDivineretributionontheact(2K9:25,36).
W.F.BOYD.
NABUCHODONOSOR,theGr.formofthenameNehuchadrezzar(wh.see),isretainedbyRVin1Es1:40ff.,Ad.Est11:4,Bar1:9ff.
NACON.SeeCHIDON.
NADAB.1.TheeldestsonofAaron(Ex6:23,Nu3:2,26:60,1Ch6:3,24:1)accompaniedMosestoSinai(Ex24:1,9f.)wasadmittedtothepriestlyoffice
(Ex28:1)andontheverydayofhisconsecration(Lv10:12ff.comparedwithch.9)heandAbihuperished(Lv10:1,2,Nu3:4,26:61,1Ch24:2)foroffering
strangefire.WhereinthetransgressionofNadabandAbihuissupposedtohaveconsistedisnotclear.Itisoftensuggestedthatstrangefiremeansfiretaken
fromacommonsourceinsteadoffromthealtar(cf.Lv16:12,Nu16:46).2.AJerahmeelite(1Ch2:28,30).3.ABenjamite(1Ch8:30=9:35).4.Seenextarticle.
NADABwaskingofIsraeltwoyearsorpartsofyearsafterhisfatherJeroboamI.Hewasassassinatedbyoneofhisgenerals,Baasha,whobecamekinginhis
place(1K14:20,15:25ff.).H.P.S MITH.
NADABATH.Anunidentifiedtown(?),eastoftheJordan,intheneighbourhoodofwhichaweddingpartyofthesonsofJambriwasattacked,andmanyof
themslain,byJonathanandSimon(1Mac9:37ff.).
NAGGAI.AnancestorofJesus(Lk3:25)cf.theHeb.nameNogah.
NAHALAL(inJg1:30Nahalol).AtownofZebulun(Jos19:15),giventotheLevites
(21:35).ItsinhabitantswerenotexpelledbytheZebulunites,butweremadetributary(Jg1:30).ApossiblesiteisAinMahil,northofNazareth,onthehillwhich
formedthelimitofZebuluntotheeast.AnotherisMalul,avillagewestofNazareth,andonthesouthborderofZebulun.
NAHALIEL.A station in the journey from the Arnon to Jericho (Nu 21:19), either WdyWaleh, a N.E. tributary of the Arnon, or the Wdy Zerka Main,
farthernorth,whichrunsintotheDeadSea.
NAHALOL.SeeNAHALAL.
NAHAM.ThefatherofKeilah(1Ch4:19).
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NAHAMANI.OneofthetwelveheadsoftheJewishcommunity(Neh7:7)omittedinEzr2:2calledin1Es5:8Eneneus.
NAHARAI.ThearmourbearerofJoab(2S23:37,1Ch11:39).
NAHASH.1.AkingofAmmon,whodemandedthesurrenderofthemenofJabeshgilead,withthelossoftherighteyeofeach(1S11:1f.).Sosurewasheof
theirhelplessnessthatheallowedthemsevendaysrespiteinwhichtoappealforhelp.Saul,newlydesignatedasIsraelsfutureking,wasploughinginthefields
whenthenewswasbroughttohim.Hesacrificedtheoxensentpartsofthesacrificetohisfellowcountrymenwithacommandtomuster,andpromptlydestroyed
theAmmonites.ProbablythisistheNahashwhowaskindtoSaulsenemy
David(2S10:2,1Ch19:1),andwhossonShobi(2S17:27)broughtsuppliestoDavidaMahanaim.2.FatherofDavidshalfsisters,AbigaiandZeruiah,ifthe
textof2S17:25iscorrect,whichisdoubtful.AccordingtoBuchananGray,daughteofNahashmayhavecreptintothetextfromsonofNahashinv.27cf.1
Ch2:16.
J.H.S TEVENSON.
NAHATH.1.AdukeofEdom(Gn36:13,1Ch1:37)2.AKohathiteLevite(1Ch6:26,calledinv.34Toahandin1S1:1Tohu).3.ALeviteinthetimeof
Hezekiah(2Ch31:13).NAHBI.TheNaphtalitespy(Nu13:14).
NAHOR.1.FatherofTerahandgrandfatherofAbraham(Gn11:2225,1Ch1:26,Lk
3:34).2.GrandsonoftheprecedingandbrotherofAbrahamandHaran(Gn11:2527cf.Jos24:2).HeissaidtohavemarriedMilcah,daughteofHaran(Gn
11:29),andtwelvesohsareenumeratedeightbyMilcahandfourbyReumahhisconcubim(Gn22:2024).InGn24:10wereadofthecityofNahori.e.Haran,
whereRehekahwasfound.Laban,inmakingacovenantwithJacob,swearsbytheGod(ofAbrahamandtheGodofNahor(Gn31:53).Thesonsascribedto
Nahor(Buz,Uz,Aram,etc.)areforthemostpartnamesoftribes.IthasbeenquestionerifNahorisahistoricalcharacteratall.Somethinkwehave,instead,the
nameofalosttribeonceresidentintheneighbourhoodofHaran,fromwhichtheAramartribesweredescended.WhileAbrahamappearsasthecommonancestor
oftheIsraelitesandEdomites,NahorisrepresentedasthefatheroftheAramans.
W.F.BOYD.
NAHSHON.BrotherinlawofAaron(Ex6:23)descendantinthe5thgenerationfromJudah(1Ch2:10f.)andprinceofthetribeofJudah(Nu1:7,2:3,7:12,
17,10:14)mentionedasoneoftheancestorsofDavid(Ru4:20,1Ct2:10f.),andofChrist(Mt1:4,Lk3:32).
NAHUM
I.THEMAN.ThewordNahummeansfullofcomfortandisprobablyacontractionofelongerHeb.termmeaningGodisacomforter.Ofthemansonamed
nothingiscertainlyknown.HeiscalledtheElkoshite,buttheexactmeaningofthetermcannotatpresentbedetermined.ItismadeintheTargumakindof
patronymic,recordingtheassumeddescentoftheprophetfromanunknownancestorKoshiItismorelikelytopreservethenameoftheprophetsbirthplaceor
placeofresidence,ofwhichtheidentificationisstilllacking.Threeorfourconjectureshavebeenmade.
(1)TheprophetstombisshownatElkosh,24milestotheN.ofNinevehandaccordinglyheissaidtohavelivedthere,adescendantofamemberofthetentribeswhowas
deportedin B. C.721.ButthetraditionthatburiesNahumthereisnotmetwithbeforethe16thcent.,andissufficientlyaccountedforbytheinterestinthecityshewnbythe
prophet.
(2)CapernaumisreallyatransliterationofHeb.wordswhichmeanvillageofNahum.ButaGalilnoriginforourprophetisunlikely(Jn7:52),andisnotsupportedbyany
allusionsintheprophecy.
(3)ThesameobjectionappliestoJeromesidentificationofElkoshwithavillageElkozehinN.Galilee,whichonothergroundsisprecarious.
(4)ThemostprobabletraditionassociatesNahumwithElkoshofthetribeofSimeon,andlocatesthehamletnearBethGabre,themodernBeitJibrn,abouthalfway
betweenJerusalemandGaza.ThetraditionoccursinaSyriacversionofthebiographiesoftheprophets,ascribedtoEpiphanius,bishopofSalamisinCyprustowardsthecloseof
the4thcent.,butprobablyofmuchlaterdate.
II.T B
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II.THEBOOK
1.Analysisofcontents.Intheanalysisofthebook,alineofdivisioncanbebestdrawnatthecloseof2:2.Thelattersectionistheactualprophecyororacle.
Itisprecededbyapsalmorproemconsistingoftwoparts,ofwhichtheoneisgeneralinitsassertionofGodsuniversaljudgment,theotherparticularinitsspecific
messagestoJudahandtoAssyria.JehovahasthejealousAvengeristheopeningtheme.ThisfactholdsgoodofHisadministration(1:3)andasHepassesontothe
overthrowofthewicked,physicalproofsofHispowerbecomeevidenteverywhere(1:46).TendernesstowardsthosewhowaituponHim,butanoverwhelming
flooduponHisenemies(1:710),arethetwogreatcharacteristicsofHisrule.WhatthinkyeofJehovah?(1:9,whereRVdoesnotpreservethesequenceof
thought)isthepointofpassagetothesectiondealingwithHisparticularacts,inwhichsectioneitherthetextiscorruptthroughthedisplacementofsomeofthe
verses,orthetwomessages,ofdeliverancetoJudah(1:13,15,2:2)andofvengeanceuponIsrael(1:11f.,14,2:1,weremeaottobeentangledinrepeatedantitheses.
Alreadythebearerofthegoodnewsisspeedingoverthehills(1:15cf.Is52:7,Ro10:15).
Theoracleproperconsistsalsooftwosections,correspondingwiththedivisionintochapters.Thesecondchapterisaswiftandvividdescriptionofthesiegeof
Nineveh,itscaptureandsack,withthecompletedesolationthatfollowed.
Asecondoracleiscontainedinthethirdchapter,whichthereisnoneedtoregardascompactedofseveralprophecies,butofwhichtheunityinthemeand
sequenceofthoughtisconspicuous.Thementionofthecityofblood,fullofliesandrapine,isfollowedbyoneofthemostvividbattlepicturesinHeb.literature
(3:2f.).Thecauseofdestructionistobefoundinthediplomaticbarlotry,wherebynationsandraceshadbeenluredandsoldandsorichlymeritedwillbethewoe,
thatnonewillbeleftordisposedtopityorbemoanNineveh(3:7).TheanalogyofNoamon(Thebes)makesitcertainthatasimilarfateisawaitingtheAssyriancity
(3:8ff.).Heroutpostsanddefencesarealreadyfallingbeforetheinvader,justasthefirstripefigsfallatthemereshakingofafigtreeandherpeoplehavebecome
women(3:12f.).Thetimetoprepareforthesiegeispast,addstheprophet,withhissarcasticappeal,Treadthemortar,layholdofthebrickmould.Theswarming
merchants,thecrownedones(floatingforeignpopulation,accordingtoWellhausenmoreprobablytheprincesandprosperousmen,cf.Is10:8),themarshalsor
highofficials,arelikelocustsorgrasshoppers,thatcampinthehedgesandwalls,butvanishwiththesunrise.Finally,theprophetaddressesthekinghimself,andon
theeveofthedestructionofthecityproclaimsherdisappearancefromhistoryamidstthejoyofallwhohadsufferedunderhertyranny:Thereisnoassuagingof
thyhurtallthathearthebruitoftheeclapthehandsoverthee.
2.Authenticityofthefirstchapter.ThatNahumwastheauthorofthetwooraclesishardlyopentoquestion,butoflateyearssomedoubthasbeenthrown
upontheauthenticityoftheprologue.AgainstNahumsauthorshipthepleaisofatechnicalcharacter,thatthefirstchapterisreally,inHeb.,analphabeticpoem,
andthatitsrightmetricaldivisionyields,withafewalterationsandtranspositions,aseriesofstanzas,ofwhichthefirstwordscommencewiththelettersoftheHeb.
alphabetinorder.Thispleaisfollowedbythestatementthatsuchaliteraryformpointstoalateoriginandconsequentlytheprologueisheldtohavebeen
composedorconstructedinthepostexilicperiod,andprefixedasanappropriateIntroductiontotheoracleofNahumonaccountofitsexpressionofthegeneral
principleofGodsavengingjustice,ofwhichthedramaofNinevehwassupposedtoaffordastrikingillustration.
Ontheotherside,therearrangementsnecessarytorestoreanalphabeticalformaredifficult,thoughperhapspossibleasfaras1:9,afterwhichresorthastobe
hadtoprocessesthatarescientificallyindefensible.Theorderoftheversesandofthewordswithintheverseshastobealtered,wordsareomittedorintroduced
withfreedom,andonthewholeA.B.Davidsonsverdictstandsthattheattempttorestorethealphabeticalformcanneverbemorethananacademicalexercise.
Evenifanalphabeticalformbeconceded,anecessarylatenessofdatecannotbesuccessfullyinferred.Instancesoftheuseofsuchaformoccur,e.g.,inPss
9:10,wherethetoneandteachingaredistinctlypreexilicandhistorywouldallowoftheappearanceofsuchaform,oratleastoftentativeeffortsatits
construction,atacomparativelyearlyperiodinthedevelopmentofaliterature.Thelanguageandatmosphereoftheprologuearethoseofthesucceedingoracles.
Allegedparallelswiththepostexilicpsalmsareinrealityparallelswithearlierwritings,whichpossiblysuppliedbothNahumandthewritersofthepsalmsin
questionwiththeircommonphrases.Vividnessandforce,severitytowardssin,ferventconfidenceinGod,arefeaturesofallthreechapters,whicharefurtherknit
togetherbytheirtheme,thefirstsettingupGodsthroneofjudgmentandannouncingHissentenceonNineveh,theothersportrayingtheexecutionofthatsentence.
Andtheattemptstodestroytheunityofthebook,ableastheyhavebeenandfullofvaluablecontributionstoitsexegesisandtoBiblicalsciencegenerally,mustbe
regardedashavingsofarfailed.
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3.Date.ThequestionoftheauthenticityofthefirstchapterdoesnotseriouslyaffectthefurtherquestionofthedateatwhichNahumcomposedthetwo
oraclesbygeneralconsentascribedtohim.Twopointsmaybefixedatonceandintheperiodbetweenthemtheactualdatemustbefound.Nahumprophesied
afterthecaptureofNoamonorThebes(3:810)byAshurbanipalinB.C.664663,butbeforethefallofNinevehinB.C.606.Theinterval,withinwhichtheexact
datemustbesought,maybeshortenedwithgreatprobability.AshurbanipalsbrilliantreignterminatedinB.C.626,andbeforethatdatetherecannotbesaidtohave
beenanygreatdeclineinthestrengthofAssyria.TheMedesandtheScythianswerebeginningtothreatentheempire,butitsmostseriousdifficultiesarosefrom
dynasticrivalriesandtherevoltofAshurbanipalsbrother.HadthatrevoltbeentheoccasionofNahumsprophecy,hewouldhavedirectedhiswordsagainstthe
kinginpersonandnotagainstthecity.AfterthedeathofAshurbanipaltheMedesrapidlygrewinstrength,andlaidsiegetoNineveh,butwerecalledawaybyan
invasionoftheirowncountryandthecitywassparedfornearlytwentyyears.TherightdateforNahumseemstobealittleafterthedeathofAshurbanipal,when
thesignsofAssyrianweaknessweremultiplying,andtheoutlyingpartsoftheempirehadalreadyrecoveredtheirindependenceorbeenappropriatedbyother
powers.AtalaterdatethelanguageofaprophetinJudahwouldbelikelytobeaffectedbytheDeuteronomicstyle,ofwhichtherearenotracesinNahuman
earlierdatewouldfailtosupplythehistoricconditions,whicharealwaysanessentialfeatureofJewishprophecy.About623or624Nahumwouldneednogreat
discernmenttoseetheapproachingfallofAssyria,andintheequipmentandquickmovementsoftheMedesandScythianshewouldfindtheimagerywhichhe
usestosuchgoodeffectinhisoracles.
4.Literarycharacterandreligiousvalue.PicturesquenessandforcehavebeendescribedasthemostprominentcharacteristicsofNahumspoety.
Compactthought,vividdescription(2:35,3:2f.),effectiveimagery(2:11f.,3:17f.)separatehimsufficientlyfromtheprophetsoftheChaldanperiod,andgive
himapositionnotfarbehindthatofIsaiah.Obscurityissometimesmetwith(e.g.1:10,2:8),butthecauseisprobablyquiteasoftenthehighspecificgravityofthe
sentenceasanerrorintranscription.Findlaysays(BooksoftheProphets,II.191)thatNahumisneglectedbytheBiblereader,asthoughthestoryofNinevehhad
littleconnexionwiththeprogressoftheKingdomofGod,andweremerelyacompleteandisolatedfactofthepastwithnorelationtopresentneeds.YetifNahum
isnotareligiousteacherlikeMicahorIsaiah,hefocusesthetruthofGodsmoralgovernmentoftheworld,concentratingthelightuponasingletypicalinstance
andhedoesnotfailtodefendconfidenceinGodastheeventualAvengerofwrongandtheperpetualdefenceofthosewholoveHim.Wherehedifferschieflyfrom
theotherprophetsisinthecompleteoutwardnessofhisgaze.HehasnoeyefortheshortcomingorsinofJudah,andnorevelationtomakeoftheinnerhistoryor
moralcharacterofhisowngeneration.InthisrespecthecontrastsespeciallywithhiscontemporaryZephaniah,whoalsolookedforthecollapseoftheAssyrian
kingdom,butsawclearlyasimilarfateabouttoovertakethesinnersofIsrael.ForNahum,Ninevehfillsupthewholecanvas.Theprophecyisasternsongofwar,a
shoutoftriumphovertheconqueredandslainandthoughtherebyitstandsincontrastwiththekindliertemperandspiritoftheNT,inwhichnocitationfromthe
bookoccurs,itaccordswellwiththetraditionsofitsownage.Anditsgreatlesson,fromwhichattentionisnotallowedtobediverted,isthatthemillsofGodgrind
exceedingsmall,andfornationsasforindividualssin,whenitisfullgrown,bringethforthdeath(Ja1:15).
R.W.MOSS.
NAIDUS(1Es9:31)apparently=Benaiah,Ezr10:30.
NAIL.1.AmongtheancientArabsitwasthecustomforawidowtoallowhernailstogrowduringhertermofmourning.Toparethemwasaformal
indicationthatthisperiodwasatanend.FromDt21:12and2S19:24(LXX)itmaybeinferredthatsuchwasalsothecustomamongtheHebrews.Theformer
passage,however,refersonlytothecaseofaforeigncaptivewhomaHebrewmighttaketowifeafteramonthsseclusion,duringwhichthecareofthepersonwas
neglectedintokenofmourningforthecaptivescondition.ThelatterpassageinitsbetterGr.form(seeCent.Bible,inloc.)tellsusthatMephiboshethshowedhis
sympathywithDavidby,interalia,omittingtotrimhistoenailsandhisfingernailsduringthelattersabsencefromJerusalem.
2.TheHeb.wordmostfrequentlyrenderednailisproperlyatentpeg,or,asJg4:21RV,tentpin.ThisisalsothebetterrenderinginZec10:4,whereitis
synonymouswithcornerstone,bothtermssignifyingtheprincesorleadingmenoftheStateasitssupports.ThefigureofIs22:23,25,ontheotherhand,is
derivedfromthecustomofdrivinganailintothehousewalluponwhichtohang(v.22)domesticutensilsorthelike.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
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NAIN.ThetownwhereJesusraisedthewidowssontolife(Lk7:11).ThenameisfoundinthemodernNein,asmall,squalidvillage,6milesS.E.of
Nazareth,ontheN.slopeoftheHillofMoreh,thesocalledLittleHermon.Thesummitofthehillis1690feethigh,withawhitedomedsanctuary,thetombofthe
saintfromwhomthemountaintakesitsmodernname,JebeledDuhy.Thevillageis744feetabovethesea.SirW.M.Ramsaythinkstherecanbelittledoubtthat
theancientcitywasonthetopofthehill(TheEducationofChrist,Preface,ix),buttheevidenceisnotstated.Thepresentvillageisinsignificant.Ruinsstretchto
thenorth,showingthattheplacewasonceofsomeimportancebuttheyarecomparativelymodern.TherockcuttombstotheEast,however,bespeakamuch
higherantiquity.Thesmallsanctuary,MaqmSdnaIsa,PlaceofourLordJesus,onthenorth,doubtlesscommemoratesthevisitoftheSaviour.
Thereisnotraceofcitywalls.Tristramwasmisledbytheshapeoftheruins(LandofIsrael,125).TheGatewasprobablytheusualentrancefromthatdirection.
Thesitecommandsaninterestingview.AcrossanarrowbayofEsdraelonrisesMt.Tabor,overtheeasternshoulderofwhichthewhitesummitofHermonisvisible
whiletotheN.W.andW.theeyerangesoverthehillsofLowerGalilee,andtherollingbreadthsofthegreatplain,toMt.Carmelbythesea.
W.EWING.
NAIOTH.AplaceinRamah,wherewasacompanyoftheprophets.HereDavidfledtoSamuelafterSaulhadattackedhimwithajavelinhitherSaul
pursuedhim,andwasseizedwithanecstaticfitofsomekind(1S19:1824).Nothingisknownofthesituationoftheplace.Itisnotevenabsolutelycertainthat
Naiothisapropernamebutopinionsdifferrespectingitspossiblemeaning.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
NAME,NAMES
1.ThenamesofGod.SeeGOD,p.299f.
2.Personalnames.Fromtheearliesttimesthenamegiventoachildwassupposedtoindicatesomecharacteristicofthepersonofthe
circumstances,trivialormomentous,connectedwithhisorherbirthofthehopes,beliefs,orfeelingsoftheparents.Thisisevidentfromtheetymologies(Gn
21:3,6,27:36,Ex2:10,1S4:21,25:25etc.),notalwaysreliable,buttestifyingtotheimpressionthatnameandfactsshouldcorrespond.Therearemany
indicationsofthepersistenceofthisidea.Forinstance,thereisthefrequencyofnamesdenotingpersonalqualities,Adin,Amasai,Jaddua,Korah,Solomon,etc.
orpointingtooccupations,Asa,Sophereth,etc.Again,anIsaiah(7:3,8:3)oraHosea(2:4,8,9)isquitereadytobestowsymbolicalnamesonhischildrena
Jeremiah(20:3)predictsthechangefromPashhurtoMagormissabib,becausethelatterwillmoreaccuratelycorrespondtothesurroundingsandthesame
prophetsumsupallhishopesforthefutureinthetitlewhichhebestowsontheMessianicKingandtheholycity(23:6,33:16cf.Rev19:13).Thenewname
promisedtothefaithful(Rev2:17)correspondstothefreshglorybestowedonhim,whichdiffersineachrecipientandisknownonlytohimself(Rev14:1).
AnalogousconvictionsprevailedamongotherEasternnations.Nomenetomenwasaninfluentialconception.Whenamanwaswantedtomilkacamel,Mohammeddisqualified
oneapplicantafteranothertillamancamewhosenamemeantLongLifeifoneofhisconvertswascalledRough,hecalledhimSmoothhewasevenguidedinhisstrategyby
thenamesoftheplacesenroute(Margoliouth,Mohammed,p.61f.).
Generallythenamewasfixedimmediatelyalterbirth,asitstilliswiththeArabs.Themotherusuallyexercisedthisprivilege(Gn4:25,19:37f.,29:32ff.,30:6ff.,
18ff.,35:18,1S1:20,4:21,Is7:14),sometimesthefather(Gn4:26,16:15,17:19,21:3,Ex2:22,2S12:24,Hos1:4ff.),occasionallyotherinterestedpersons(Ru
4:17,Lk1:5768).Somenameswerebestowedindifferentlyonmenandwomen:Abiah,(1K14:31,1Ch2:24)Abihail(Nu3:25,1Ch2:29)Zibiah(2K12:2,
1Ch8:9).
Beginningatafairlyearlydate,thereareamoderatenumberofnamesderivedfromthevegetableworld:Elah(terebinth),Zuph(sedge),Tamar(palmtree),
etc.Themajority,however,belongtomorerecentdocuments:Asnah(bramble),Coz(thorn),Hadassah(myrtle),Susannah(lily),Shamir(thorn),etc.Other
naturalobjectsarealsodrawnupon:Geshem(rain),Barak(lightning),etc.curiouslyenough,Jorah(autumnrain,Ezr2:16)isidenticalwithHariph
(autumn,Neh7:24).Afew,ofpeculiarlydifficultinterpretation,pointtofamilyrelationships:Ahab=fathersbrother,butthequestioniswhetheritsignifies
uncleorwhetheritisanindicationthatthechildcloselyresembleshisfatheroristobeasabrothertohim.Ahban=brotherisson,Ahiam=amaternaluncle,
belongtothisclass.ButMoses,if,asismostprobable,ofEgyptianoriginandsignifyingson,isashortenedformofatheophorousnamecf.MOSES,adinit.
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NameswhichhaveareligiousimportaremorecharacteristicoftheSemiteracesthanofours,andthisisespeciallytrueoftheIsraelitesallthroughtheirnational
life.AcertainnumberofthosefoundintheOThaveheathenassociations:Anath(transferredtoamanfromawellknowngoddessworshippedinSyria,etc.),
Ahishahar(Shahar[i.e.Dawn]isbrother),Baal(1Ch5:5,8:30),Bildad(Job2:11),Balaam,Obededom(servantof[thegod]Edom),ReuandReuel(Gn
11:18,Ex2:18).Amongtheearliestclannamesarethoseofanimals:Rachel(ewe),Hamor
(ass),Caleb(dog),etc.Thismaywellbeasurvivalfromaprehistoricageoftotemism.In
Davidsdaywefindindividuals,possiblymembersofsuchclans,calledEglah(calf),Laish(lion),Bichri(frombecher,ayoungcamel).Andthecurious
recrudescenceofwordsofthisclassinandaboutthereignofJosiah(Huldah,weasel,Shaphan,rockbadger,etc.),mightbeaccountedforonthesupposition
thatanimalworshiphadconsiderablevogueduringthatageofreligioussyncretism(cf.Ezk8:1012).NameslikeHezir(swine),Achbor(mouse),Parosh(flea)
favourthisexplanation.Atthesametime,itmustbeadmittedthatanimalnameswereinmanyinstancesbestowedastermsofendearment,orasexpressionsofa
wishthatthechildmighthaveswiftness,strength,gracefulness,orwhatevermightbethecreaturespeculiarquality.
Thereisanimportantclassofcompoundsinwhichrelationshiporiginallyconceivedasphysicalwiththegodofthenationorclanisasserted:Ammiel
(kinsmanisEl),Abijah(fatherisJah),Ahijah(brotherisJah).ThesecompoundsceasedtobeformedlongbeforetheExile,owing,nodoubt,tothesensethat
theyinfringedontheDivinedignity.Othersnowappear,containinganelementwhichreferredtotheDivinesovereignty:Adonijah(Jahislord,likethePhn.
Adoneshmun,Eshmunislord),Malchiah(Jahisking),Baaliah(Jahisbaal[orlord]).TurningnowtothetwogreatgroupsinwhichElorJahwehformspart
ofthename,itistobenotedthattheformerhadthefirstrunofpopularity.FromDaviduntilaftertheExile,Jah,Je,orJehoismorecommon.Fromthe7thcent.
B.C.onwardsElisseentoberecoveringitsground.Altogetherthereare135namesinEl,and,accordingtoGray(HPN,p.163),157inoneoftheabbreviationsof
Jahweh[Jastrow(ZATWXVI.p.2)hassoughttoreducethelatternumbertoabout80].Abbreviationsofboththeseclassesarefairlycommon:Abi,forAbijahPalti,
forPaltielNathan,forJonathanorNathanael,etc.ThenationswhichwererelatedtotheHebrewsacknowledgedorinvokedtheirgodsinthesamefashion:
BabylonianandAssyrianpropernamescontainingtheelements,Bel,Asshur,Nebo,Merodach,etc.PhnicianhavingAshtoreth,Bel,Eshmun,Melech,etc.
AramaicHadad,Rimmon,etc.Palmyrene,Saban,andNabatanexhihitthesamefeatures.
SpecialmentionoughtperhapstobemadeofthecuriouswordsfoundintheBooksof
Chronicles.EwaldobservesthattheyremindusofthenomenclatureaffectedbytheEnglish
Puritansofthe17thcentury.TheyweremeanttoexpressthereligioussentimentsoftheChroniclerandthoselikeminded.ThuswehaveJushabhesed(kindnessis
requited),Tobadonijah(goodistheLordJahweh),Elioenai(toJahweharemineeyes),Hazzelelponi(Giveshade,Thouwhoturnesttomecf.theAssyr.Pn
Bladagal[IlooktoBel]andPnAsshrlmur[IwilllooktoAsshur]).Buttheclimaxisreachedin1Ch25:4,where,withveryslightalteration,thelistwhich
beginswithHananiahreads,Begraciousuntome,Jahweh!Begraciousuntome!ThouartmyGod!Thouhastgivengreatandexaltedhelptohimwhosatin
hardship.Thouhastgivenjudgmentsinmultitudesandabundance.ThesephenomenadifferfromtheShearjashubandMahershalalhashbazofIsaiah,inthat
thelatterwereformedfortheexpresspurposeofsymbolicalprediction.Wehave,however,somethingresemblingtheminotherlatedocuments.PgivesusBezalel
(intheshadowofGodcf.Bab.InasilliBl,undertheprotectionofBel),Ex31:2,andLael(toGodcf.Bab.ShaBlatta,thoubelongesttoBel),Nu3:24.
AndNeh3:6hasBesodeiah(inthecounselofGod).
Fromaboutthecloseofthe4thcent.B.C.itwasacommonpracticetocallchildrenaftertheirrelatives(Lk1:5961).Whenwereadsuchalistasthis:Hillel,
Simon,Gamaliel,Simon,Gamaliel,Simon,Judah,Gamaliel,Judah,wegettheimpressionthatthegrandfathersnamewasmoreoftenadoptedthanthefathers(cf.
To1:9,Lk1:59Jos.Ant.XIV.i.3,BJV.xii.21).TothesameperiodbelongtheAramaicnamesMartha,Tabitha,Meshezabel(Bab.Mushizibilu),andthosewith
theprefixbar,ofwhichwehavemanyexamplesintheNT.ForeignnamesaboundinJosephus,theApocrypha,andtheNT.Insomeinstancesapersonhastwo
separatedesignations:Alcimus,JacimusJohn,GaddisDiodotus,Tryphon,etc.Saul,whoiscalledPaul(Ac13:9),isatypicalcase.Insomeoftheexamplesthe
reasonforthesecondchoiceisobscureinothersthereisanobvioussimilarityofsoundormeaning.Doublenameswerenowfrequent:JudasMaccabus,Simon
Zelotes,etc.NonJewishnamesweresubstitutedforJewish:JasonforJesusSimonforSimeon(Deissmann,BibleStudies,p.315,note).
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AfterthebirthofasonanArabfatherwilladoptanhonorificname(kunya).IfhehadbeencalledAbdallah,heishenceforthAbuOmar,orthelike.Thereisno
traceofthiscustominHeb.familylife,buttheideaofadistinguishingandhonourablesurnameisnotaltogetherwantingseeIs44:5,45:4,Job32:21,andsomeof
thefamiliardoublenames.Itisalsopossiblethatthe
Heb.originalofSir44:23signifiedIgavehimthesurnameBirthright.AndthesenseofSir
47:6isTheygavehimthesurnameTheTenThousand.
3.PlaceNames.Themajorityofthesewerenodoubtfixedbythetribeswhomthe
Hebrewsdispossessed.Fromtheirgreatantiquityandthealterationstowhichtheyhavebeensubjected,itissometimesimpossibletodeterminethemeaning.Many
places,however,gottheirdesignationfromasalientnaturalfeature,awell(beer),afountain(en,inEngedi),ameadow(abel),avineyard(karmel),woods
(jearim),inKirathjearim),ahill(Gibeah,Gibeon,Ramah),trees(Bethphage,Bethtappuah,Anab,Abelhasshittim,Elah,Allonbacuth)fromsomecircumstance
belongingtothehistoryorlegendsofthelocality,anencampment(Mahanaim),awatchtower(Migdal,Megiddo,Mizpah),avillage(Hazer),atemporaryabodeof
shepherds(Succoth),aplaceofrefuge(Adullam),avision(Bcerlahairoi)fromtheclanwhichdweltthere(Samaria).OfthefiftythreenamesofanimalsinGrays
list(pp.8896),twentyfourareappliedtotownsordistricts.Onthetotemtheorythiswouldmeanthattheclanbestowedthenameofitstotemanimalontheplace
ofitsabode.Othernamesevidentlyimplytheexistenceoflocalsanctuaries,someofwhichmusthavebeenpreIsraelite:Bethanath,Anathoth,Bethel,Gilgal,
Kedeshnaphtali,Migdalel,Migdalgad,Neiel,Penuel,Bethshemesh.AlmostallthecompoundswithBaalbelongtothisclass:Baalbeer,Bamothbaal,B.dagon,
B.hamon,B.hazor,B.meon,B.perazim,B.shaisha,B.tamar.One,Baaljudah(thecorrectreadingof2S6:2cf.1Ch13:6),isclearlyofHeb.origin,Baalhere
beinganameforJahweh.SpecialinterestattachestothenamesoftwoclansintheS.andcentreofPalestine,JacobelandJosephel,mentionedbyThothmesIII.
(c.1500B.C.)inhisinscriptionatThebes.CorrespondingwiththeseformsareIsrael,Ishmael,Jezreel,Jabneel,Jiphthahel,Jekabzeel,Joktheel,intheOT.Theel
oftheterminationwasthelocaldeity,invoked(Gray,p.214ff.),ordeclaredtohaveconferredsomeboononhisworshippers(Meyer,ZATW,1886,p.5).
J.TAYLOR.
NANA(2Mac1:13,16).AgoddessworshippedinSyria,Persia,Armenia,andotherpartsofAsia.BytheGreeksthisgoddesswasidentifiedsometimes
withArtemis,sometimeswithAphrodite.Sheseemstohaverepresentedtheproductivepowersofnature.In2Mac1:1017wehavealegendaryaccountofthe
deathofAntiochusEpiphanes,whoissaidtohaveattemptedtoplunderatempleofNanainPersia,andtohavebeentreacherouslykilledinthetemplebythe
priests.
NAOMI.ThewifeofElimelechtheEphrathite,ofBethlehemjudah,whowasdrivenbyfamineintothelandofMoab.Afterthedeathofherhusbandandher
twosons,shereturned,accompaniedbyRuth,toherownland.HerreturnwasamatterofsurprisetothepeopleofBethlehem,andtheysaid,IsthisNaomi?Her
answerincludedadoubleplayofwordsonherownname,CallmenotNaomi(pleasant),callmeMara(bitter):fortheAlmightyhathdealtverybitterlywithme
whycallyemeNaomi,seeingtheLordhathtestified(nh)againstme?(Ru1:221).
NAPHISH.AsonofIshmael(Gn25:15=1Ch1:31).InallprobabilityitishisdescendantswhoarementionedinEzr2:50asthechildrenofNephisim
(RV)orNephusim(AVandRVm).Intheparallelpassage(Neh7:52)thereadingisNephushesim(RV)orNephishesim(AVandRVm).Thereadingin1Es5:31
isNephisi.
NAPHISI(1Es5:31)=Nephisim,Ezr2:50Nephushesim,Neh7:52.
NAPHTALI.ThesecondsonofBilhah,Rachelshandmaid,andthesixthsonofJacob
(Gn30:7f.[J]).Thetraditionconnectsthestoryinavaguewaywiththewordtwist,wrestle:
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NaphttelhmniphtaltiWrestlingsofGod(ormightywrestlings)IhavewrestledwithmysisterandIhaveprevailed,RachelexclaimedwhenNaphtaliwas
born,andshecalledhisnameNaphtali.
TheinformationwhichwehaveofNaphtaliisverymeagre.PascribestohimfoursonswhenJacobandhisfamilyenteredEgypt(Gn46:24).Thesefourhave
developedintofamiliesatthetimeoftheExodus,andtheirnumherisgivenas53,400intheSinaicensus(Nu1:42).AtMoab,however,theyhaddecreasedto
45,000(26:48).Noneoftheseclannamesgivenhere,exceptGuni,appearsagainoutsideofthegenealogyrepeatedin1Ch7:13.Inthemarchthroughthedesert
NaphtaliformedwithDanandAshertheCampofDan,whichconstitutedatotalof157,000menofwar.
Whilethegenealogicallistscannothereliedon,thereisnoapparentreasonforlinkingtogetherDanandNaphtali.ButthattheyarebothtracedtoBilhah
indicatesthattheyweretribesofminorimportance,inferiorinstrength,andoflessconsequenceinthenationaldevelopmentatthetimewhentheserelationships
werecreated,thanthetribeswhichsprangfromRachel.
Naphtaliwasthesixthinordertoreceiveitslot(Jos19:3239).Itissomewhatmoredefinitelydefinedthantheothers,thoughfewoftheplacesmentionedcan
beidentified.Nofewerthannineteencitiesaresaidtoliewithinitsterritory,themostofwhicharenotfoundagainintheOT,doubtlessbecausethehistoryofIsrael
waswroughtoutmainlyintheregionstothesouth.TheterritoryreachedonthenorthalmosttotheLebanon.SouthwarditextendedalongtheJordanuntilit
reachedthepointbelowtheSeaofGalileewheretheWadyelBirehjoinstheJordan.ThegreaterpartlaytothenorthwestoftheSea,andinthisdirection(N.and
W.)itsboundariesappeartohavebeenshifting.Ancientandmodernwriters(writesDriver,Deut.413)viewithoneanotherinpraisingthesoilandclimateofthe
territoryownedbyNaphtali:itwasabundantlyirrigatedanditsproductionsrichandvaried.LowerGalileewas,however,yetmorefertileandbeautifulthanUpper
Galilee.Thevegetationintheneighbourhoodofthelakeissemitropical.ModernwritersjoinwithJosephusinpraisingit,andNeubauer(Gog.duTalm.p.180)
quotesasayingfromtheTalmud:ItiseasiertoraisealegionofolivesinGalileethantobringupachildinPalestine.NowonderthatNaphtaliwaslikeahindlet
loose(Gn49:21,ifthisbethecorrecttranslationseetheComm.).Besidestheseadvantages,itwasfortunateinlocationintimesofpeace.Roadsraninevery
direction,connectingitwiththeouterworld.
TheheroismandwarlikedaringofthetribeissunginJg5.InthatdecisivestrugglewiththeCanaanitcsthetribewroteitsnamehighontherollofIsraelitish
fame.Butthiswasinthedaysofitspristinevigour.Atalaterperioditperformednothingworthyofrecord.TheBlessingsof
Jacob(Gn49:21)andofMoses(Dt33:23,Satisfiedwithfavour,andfullwiththeblessingof
Jahweh)dwellonlyuponitsproductivity.Thecaptaintowhomthehonourofleadingthe
IsraelitestovictoryoverthehostsofSiseraisascribedintheprosenarrative,Jg4,wasBarakofKedesnnaphtali.Thisisprobableinviewofthereadinesswith
whichNaphtaliandZehulunitsneighbourrespondedtohiscall,thoughJg5:15pointsrathertoaconnexionwithIssachar.Accordingto1K7:14,Hiram,the
workerinmetals,etc.,whomSolomonbroughtfromTyretoworkonthehouseofJahweh,wasthesonofawidowofthetribeofNaphtali[2Ch2:14,itistrue,says
shewasofDan.Theshiftingofboundariesmaybethecauseofthedivergence].Fewnamesofprominence,however,frommembersofthistribeappearin
connexionwiththenationallife.
AccordingtotheChronicler(1Ch12:34)37,000warriorswith1000captainswenttothesupportofDavidatHebron.UndertheSyriankingBiridri
(Benhadad),allthelandofNaphtali,togetherwithcertaincitiesofIsrael,weresmittenwiththesword(1K15:20).WhentheSyriankingdomfellbeforethe
Assyrianarmies,northernIsraelwasexposed,asneverbefore,totherelentlesslegionsoftheEastandinthedaysofPekah,kingofIsrael,cameTiglathpileser[III.
B.C.734],kingofAssyria,andtookljon,andAbelbethmaacah,andJanoah,andKedesh,andHazor,andGilead,andGalilee,andallthelandofNaphtali,andhe
carriedthemcaptivetoAssyria(2K15:29).SeealsoTRIBES.
JAMESA.CRAIG.
NAPHTUHIM.FourthsonofMizraim(Gn10:13,1Ch1:11).Manysuggestionshavebeenmadetoaccountforthename,whichdoesnotappearexactlyin
EgyptianorAssyrianinscriptions,butinAshurhanipalsAnnals(col.1.94,99)adistrictNathu,probablyinLowerEgypt,occurs,whichmaybethesame.An
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Egyptiannidhw,themarshes,usedincontrasttoPathros,maybeintendedbutthediscoveryofCaphtor,solongapuzzle,maywarnustowaitforfurther
evidence.
C.H.W.JOHNS.
NAPKIN(soudarion).Theclothinwhichtheunprofitableservantwrappedthemoneyofhislord(Lk19:20)usedtobindthefaceofthedead(Jn11:44,
20:7)carried,possiblyasindicatedbythename(Lat.sudarium),towipeoffperspiration(Ac19:12).TheArabicrendersmandl,whichmaybeeithertowel,
napkin,veil,orheadband.SeealsoDRESS,5(a),8.
W.EWING.
NARCISSUS.St.PaulinhisEpistletotheRomans(ch.16:11)salutes,amongothers,themthatheofthehouseholdofNarcissusthatareintheLord.The
namewasnotuncommon,butmanyhaveidentifiedthepersonmentionedherewiththesecretaryoftheEmperorClaudius,whowasputtodeathbyAgrippinain
thefirstyearofNerosreign,aboutthreeyearsbeforethisEpistlewaswritten.Accordingtothecustomofthosetimes,thehouseholdofthefreedmanofClaudius
wouldpassintothepossessionofNero,retainingthenameoftheirdeceasedowner.ItwillbenotedthatthesalutationisnotaddressedtoNarcissushimself,butto
themembersofhishousehold.
MORLEYS TEVENSON.
NASBAS.ApparentlythenephewofAchiacharus,whowasthenephewofTobit(To11:18).HecamewithAchiacharustotheweddingofTobias.Abouthis
identitythereissomelittleuncertainty.TheVulgatespeaksofhimasbrotherofAchiacharus,whileothershaveregardedthetwoasidentical.Ithasbeensuggested
alsothatheisthesameasAmanorNadan,thewardofAchiacharus(To14:10),inwhichcasetheuncleadoptedthenephewandbroughthimupashisson.
T.A.MOXON.
NASI(1Es5:32)=Neziah,Ezr2:54,Neh7:58.
NATHAN.1.ThirdsonofDavidbyBathsheba(2S5:14,butnote2S12:24).InZec
12:12theNathanwhoisrecognizedasheadofahouseisprobablyDavidsson.InLk3:31thegenealogyofJesusistracedthroughNathantoDavid.2.The
prophet,aconfidentialadviserofDavid.ThekingdesiredtobuildtheTemple,andNathanatfirstagreed,butlaterreceivedarevelationforbiddingtheenterprise(2
S7).ThenextappearanceofNathanisinconnexionwiththeparableoftheewelamb,bywhichDavidwasselfconvictedofhissinwithBathsheba(2S12:115)
.Later,intokenthatanatonementhasbeenmade,headdstoSolomonsnamethesignificanttitleJedidiah(belovedofJah).Thethirdservicewasrenderedalike
toDavidandtoSolomon.Adonijabhadplannedacoupbywhichtograspthesceptre,nowfallingfromthehandsofhisagedfather.ItwasNathanswatchfulness
thatdiscoveredtheplot,andhisingenuitythatsavedthekingdomforSolomon(1K1).ItwasfittingthataLifeofDavidshouldcomefromthisfriendlyhand(1Ch
29:29).HisservicetoSolomonwasrecognizedbytheking,whoappointedhissons,AzariabandZabud,toimportantoffices(1K4:5).3.FatherofIgal,oneof
Davidsheroes(2S23:36).Thetextof1Ch11:38reads,JoelbrotherofNathan.4.OneofthecbiefmenwhoreturnedwithEzra(Ezr8:15,1Es8:44).5.Oneof
theBanifamily,whohadtakenstrangewives(Ezr10:39)calledin1Es9:34Nathanias.6.AJudahite(ICh2:36).
J.H.S TEVENSON.
NATHANAEL.1.1Es1:8=2Ch35:9Nethanel.2.1Es9:22=Ezr10:22Nethanel.3.AnancestorofJudith(Jth8:1).4.NathanaelofCanainGalilee(Jn
21:2)appearstwiceintheFourthGospel.(1)WhentoldbyPhilip,WehavefoundhimofwhomMosesinthelawandtheprophetsdidwriteJesusofNazareth,
thesonofJoseph,Nathanaelhesitated.CananygoodthingcomeoutofNazareth?heasked.PhilipthereuponconductedhimtomeetJesus,and,whenhelooked
onthatwondrousface,hisdoubtvanished,andhehailedHimastheMessiah,theSonofGod,theKingofIsrael.SeeJn1:4351.(2)Nathanaelwasoneofthe
seventowhomtherisenLordmanifestedHimselfattheLakeofGalilee(Jn21:2).HisnameoccursonlyinJn.butthefollowingarereasonsforbelievingthathe
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wasidenticalwithBartholomew,whoisnevermentionedbySt.John,andbytheotherEvangelistsonlyintheircataloguesoftheApostles(Mt10:3=Mk3:18=
Lk6:14).(a)Bartholomewisnotaname,butapatronymicBarTalmai,thesonofTalmai.(b)NathanaelappearsinSt.JohnsnarrativeasafriendofPhilip,and
BartholomewiscoupledwithPhilipinthelistsoftheApostles.(c)SincetheothersofthesevenattheLakewhosenamesareindicatedbySt.JohnwereApostles,it
isprobablethatNathanaelalsowasanApostle.HistitlewouldthusbeNathanaelharTalmai.
DAVIDS MITH.
NATHANIAS(1Es9:34)=Nathan,Ezr10:39.
NATHANMELECH.AnofficialinthereignofJosiah,whosenameisusedtodesignateoneofthehallsorchambersoftheTemple(2K23:11).
NATIONS.In many places where in the AV we have Gentiles and heathen the RV bas rightly substituted nations, and it might with advantage have
carriedoutthechangeconsistently.
TheHeb.(goi)andGreek(ethnos)wordsdenoteinvariablyanationorapeople,neveraperson.WhereintheAV(onlyNT)wefindGentileinthesingular(Ro2:9f.)theRV
hasGreek,followingtheoriginal.InnearlyeveryexamplethesingularnationstandsforIsrael,thoughwehaveafewexceptions,asinEx9:24(ofEgypt),Pr14:34(general),
andMt21:43.ItisoftenappliedtoIsraelandJudahwhenthereisanimplicationofdisobediencetoGod,sinfulnessandthelike:seeDt32:28,Jg2:10,
Is1:4etc.ThisshadeofmeaningbecameverycommoninthelaterwritingsoftheOT.QuiteearlyinIsraelitishhistorythesingularasatermforIsraelwasdiscardedfortheword
translatedpeople(am),sothatam(people)andgoi(nation)cametobealmostantitheticterms=IsraelitesandnonIsraelites,asinRabbinicalHebrew.Forthereasonof
thechangeintheuseofgoi(nation),seebelow.
IntheAVGentilesoftencorrespondstoGreeksintheoriginal,asinJn7:35,Ro3:9etc.IntheRVthewordGreeksisrightlysubstituted,thoughthesenseisthesame,for
totheJewsofthetimeGreekcultureandreligionstoodforthecultureandreligionofthenonJewishworld.
Thetwowords(Heb.andGreek)translatednationhavetheiroriginalandliteralsenseinmanypartsoftheOTandNT,asinGn10:5,10etc.,Is2:4(=Mic
4:2f.),Job12:23,34:20,Ac17:28,Gal3:14.InotherpassagesthisgeneralmeaningisnarrowedsoastoembracethedescendantsofAbraham,e.g.inGn12:2,
18:18,17:4,5,6,15.Butitisthepluralthatoccursbyfarthemostfrequently,standingalmostinvariablyfornonIsraelitishnations,generallywiththeaddednotion
oftheirbeingidolatrousandimmoral:seeEx9:24,34:10,Lv25:44ff.,Nu14:15,Dt15:5,1K4:31,Is11:10,12,andoften.ThesearecontrastedwithIsraelthe
peopleofJahwehin2S7:22,1Ch17:21etc.
ThiscontrastbetweenIsrael(unitedordividedintothekingdomsofIsraelandJudah)as
Jahwehspeople,andalltherestofthehumanracedesignatednations,runsrightthroughthe
OT.SuchaconceptioncouldhavearisenonlyaftertheIsraelitesbaddevelopedtheconsciousnessofnationalunity.Atfirst,evenamongtheIsraelites,eachnation
wasthoughttobejustifiedinworshippingitsdeity(seeDt3:24,10:17,1K8:23,Is19:1etc.).Aslongasthisideaprevailedtherecouldbenonecessary
antagonismbetweenIsraelitesandforeignnations,exceptthatwhichwasnational,forthenationsgodwasidentifiedwiththenationalinterests.Butwhenthe
beliefinJahwehsabsoluteandexclusiveclaimspossessedthemindofIsrael,asitbegantodointhetimeoftheearliestliteraryprophets(seeAm9ff.,Mic7:18
etc.),thenationscametoberegardedasworshippersofidols(Lv18:20),andinPs9:5,15,17(cf.Ezk7:21)nationsandwickedpeopleare,asbeingidentical,
putinparallelism.Itwillbegatheredfromwhathasbeensaid,thatthehostilefeelingswithwhichIsraelitesregardedotherpeoplesvariedatvarioustimes.Atall
periodsitwouldbemodifiedbythelawsofhospitality(seeart.S TRANGER),bypoliticalalliances(cf.Is7:1ff.,and2K16:5ff.,AhazandAssyriaagainstIsraeland
Syria),andbytheneedsofcommerce(seeEzk27:11[Tyre],1K9:28,10:11,22:28etc.).
ThereformsinstitutedbykingJosiahintheSouthernKingdom(2K22:1f.),basedupontheDeuteronomiclawnewlyfoundintheTemple,aimedatstamping
outallsyncretisminreligionandestablishingthepurereligionofJahweb.Thisreformation,asalsotheRechabitemovement(Jer35),hadaprofoundinfluence
uponthethoughtsandfeelingsofJews,wideningthegulfbetweenthemandaliennations.Theteachingoftheoldestprophetslookedinthesamedirection(seeAm
2:11,3:15,5:11,25,6:8,8:5,Hos2:19,8:14,9:10,10:13,12:7ff.,14:4,Is2:6,10:4,17:10,Zeph1:8,11,Jer35:1ff.,37:6f.etc.).
ButtheDeuteronomiclaw(about
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/n.htm . .620)madelegallyobligatorywhatearlierteachershadinculcated.IsraeliteswerenottomarrynonIsraelites(Dt7:3),orto
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ButtheDeuteronomiclaw(aboutB.C.620)madelegallyobligatorywhatearlierteachershadinculcated.IsraeliteswerenottomarrynonIsraelites(Dt7:3),orto
haveanyexceptunavoidabledealingswiththem.
ThefeelingofnationalexclusivenessandantipathywasintensifiedbythecaptivityinBabylon,whenthepropheticandpriestlyinstructorsoftheexiledJews
taughtthemthattheircalamitiescameuponthemonaccountoftheirdisloyaltytoJahwehandtheordinancesofHisreligion,andbecausetheycompromisedwith
idolatrouspracticesandheathennations.ItwasinBabylonthatEzekieldrewuptheprogrammeofworshipandorganizationforthenationaftertheReturn,laying
stressonthedoctrinethatIsraelwastobeaholypeople,separatedfromothernations(seeEzk4048).SometimeaftertheReturn,EzraandNehemiahhadto
contendwiththelaxitytowhichJewswhohadremainedinthehomelandandothershadyieldedbuttheywereuncompromising,andwonthebattlefor
nationalisminreligion.
JudaismwasinevengreaterdangerofbeinglostintheworldcurrentsofspeculationandreligionsoonafterthetimeofAlexandertheGreat.Indeed,butforthe
braveMaccabanrisingintheearlierhalfofthe2ndcent.B.C.,boththereligionandthelanguageoftheJewmight,humanlyspeaking,haveperished.
TheApocryphaspeaksofthenationsjustasdothelaterwritingsoftheOT.Theyareuncircumcised,havingsoldthemselvestodoevil(1Mac1:15)they
breaktheSabbath,offernosacrificetoJahweh,eatuncleanfoodandsuchashasbeenofferedtoidols(2Mac5:6,9,18,15:1f.etc.etc.).
TheNTrevealsthesameattitudetowardsforeignnationsonthepartoftheJews(seeAc10:45etpassim).InRabbinicalwritingsJewishexclusiveness
manifesteditselfevenmoredecisively(seeEisenmenger,EntdecktesJudenthum,vol.I.,esp.ch.xvi.).But,asintheOTabroaderspiritshowsitselfconstantly,
culminatingintheuniversalismofChristianity,soenlightenedandbroadmindedJewsinallageshavedeprecatedthefanaticalracehatredwhichmanyoftheir
compatriotshavedisplayed.
T.WITTONDAVIES.
NATURAL.Thecontrastbetweennatural(Gr.psychikos)andspiritual(pneumatikos)isdrawnoutbySt.Paulin1Co15:4446.Thenaturalbodyis
derivedfromthefirstAdam,andisourbodyinsofarasitisaccommodatedto,andlimitedby,theneedsoftheanimalsideofthehumannature.Insuchasenseit
isespeciallytruethatthenaturalmanreceivethnotthethingsoftheSpiritofGod(1Co2:14).ManderiveshisspirituallifefromunionwithChrist(thelast
Adam),buthispresentbodyisnotadaptedtotheneedsofthisspiritualexistencehencethedistinctionmadebySt.Paulbetweenthenaturalbody(calledthe
bodyofdeath,Ro7:24)andthespiritualbodyoftheresurrection.Thetransferencefromtheonetotheotherbeginsinthislife,andthetwobeingsareidenticalin
sofarascontinuitycreatesanidentity,butotherwise,owingtotheoperationoftheunionwithChrist,distinct.
T.A.MOXON.
NATURE.ThetermnatureisnotusedintheOT.norwastheconceptioncurrentinHebrewthought,asGodaloneisseeninall,throughall,andoverall.The
ideacamefromthewordphysisfromHellenism.Swinesfleshiscommendedforfoodasagiftofnaturein4Mac5:7.IntheNTthetermisusedinvarioussenses:
(1)theforces,laws,andorderoftheworld,includingman(Ro1:26,11:21,24,Gal4:8)(2)theinbornsenseofproprietyormorality(1Co11:14,Ro2:14)(3)
birthorphysicalorigin(Gal2:15,Ro2:27)(4)thesumofcharacteristicsofaspeciesorperson,human(Ja3:7),orDivine(2P1:4)(5)aconditionacquiredor
inherited(Eph2:3,bynaturechildrenofwrath).Whatiscontrarytonatureiscondemned.WhilethetermisnotfoundortheconceptionmadeexplicitintheOT,
Schultz(OTTheol.ii.74)findsintheLawthegeneralrulethatnothingistobepermittedcontrarytothedelicatesenseoftheinviolableproprietiesofnature,and
givesanumberofinstances(Ex23:19,34:26,Lv22:28,19:19,Dt22:911,Lv10:9,19:28,21:5,22:24,Dt14:1,23:2).Thebeautyandtheorderoftheworldare
recognizedasevidencesofDivinewisdomandpower(Ps8:1,19:1,33:6,7,90:2,104,136:6ff.,147,Pr8:2230,Job38,39)butthesumofcreatedthingsisnot
hypostatizedandpersonifiedapartfromGod,asinmuchcurrentmodernthinking.GodisCreator,Preserver,andRuler:Hemakesall(Is44:24,Am4:13),andisin
all(Ps139).HisimmanenceisbyHisSpirit(Gn1:2).JesusrecognizesGodsbountyandcareintheflowersofthefieldandthebirdsoftheair(Mt6:26,28)He
usesnaturalprocessestoillustratespiritual,insalt(5:13),seedandsoil(13:39),andleaven(13:33).ThegrowthoftheseedisalsousedasanillustrationbyPaul(1
Co15:37,38).ThereisintheBiblenointerestinnatureapartfromGod,andtheproblemoftherelationofGodtonaturehasnotyetrisenonthehorizonofthe
thoughtofthewriters.
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ALFREDE.GARVIE.
NAUGHT.Naughtisnothing(fromA.S.nanot,andwihtawhitorathing).Sometimesthespellingbecamenought(perhapsundertheinfluenceof
ought).IntheearliesteditionsofAVthereisnodifferencebetweennaughtandnoughtbutintheed.of1638adifferencewasintroduced,naughtbeingused
in2K2:19,Pr20:14,becausetherethemeaningisbadnoughteverywhereelse,butwiththemeaningworthlessness.Thisdistinctionwaspreservedby
Scrivener,inhisCambr.Par.Bible,andisfoundinmostmodernEnglishBibles.Naughty,however,issimplyworthless,asJer24:2verynaughtyfigs.But
naughtinessalwaysmeanswickedness,asPr11:6transgressorsshallbetakenintheirownnaughtiness.
NAVE.Theforminwhich(possiblybyaprimitiveerrorintranscriptionoftheGreek)theHeb.nameNunappearsinAVofSir46:1.
NAVY.SeeS HIPSANDBOATS,p.849b.
NAZARENE.AtitleappliedtoChristinMt2:23,apparentlyasaquotationfromaphrophecy.Itssignificationisamatterofcontroversy.Apartfromthe
primarymeaningoftheword,aninhabitantofNazareth,theremayhavebeen,asisoftenthecaseinpropheticquotations,asecondarymeaninginallusiontothe
Heb.wordntser,abranch,inwhichcasethereferencemayhavebeentotheMessianicpassageIs11:1orpossiblythereferencemayhavebeentotheword
ntsar,tosave.Theepithet,appliedofteninscorn(cf.Jn1:48),wasusedofChristbydemoniacs(Mk1:24,Lk4:34),bythepeoplegenerally(Mk10:47,Lk
18:37),bythesoldiers(Jn18:67),bytheservants(Mt26:71,Mk14:67),byPilate(Jn19:19),aswellasbyHisownfollowersonvariousoccasions(Lk24:19
etc.).TheattempttoconnectthewordwithNaziriteisetymologicallyimpossible,andhasnomeaningasappliedtoJesusChrist.
T.A.MOXON.
NAZARETH(mod.enNsira).AtowninthenorthborderofthePlainofEsdraelon.Itwasaplaceofnohistory(beingentirelyunmentionedintheOT,
Josephus,ortheTalmud),noimportance,and,possibly,ofbadreputation(Jn1:48).Here,however,livedMaryandJoseph.Hither,beforetheirmarriage,wasthe
angelGabrielsenttoannouncethecomingbirthofChrist(Lk1:2638),andhithertheHolyFamilyretiredaftertheflighttoEgypt(Mt2:23).Theobscureyearsof
Christsboyhoodwerespenthere,andinitssynagogueHepreachedthesermonforwhichHewasrejectedbyHisfellowtownsmen(Mt13:54,Lk4:28).Afterthis,
saveasacentreofpilgrimage,Nazarethsankintoobscurity.TheCrusadersmadeitabishopricitisnowtheseatofaTurkishlientenantgovernor.Manytraditional
sitesarepointedouttopilgrimsandtourists,fornotoneofwhich,withthepossibleexceptionoftheVirginsWell(which,beingtheonlyspringknowninthe
neighbourhood,wasnotimprobablythatusedbytheHolyFamily),isthereanyjustification.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
NAZIRITE(AVNazarite).TheprimarymeaningoftheHeb.verbnzaristoseparate.Hencethenzristheseparated,consecrated,devoted.Josephis
theNazirite,i.e.,theconsecratedprince,amonghisbrethren(Gn49:26)thenoblesofJerusalembearthesametitle(La4:7)theuntrimmedvine,whosebranches
recallthelonghairoftheNaziriteproper,iscalledthyNazirite(Lv25:5,11).But,aboveall,thenamebelongstoaclassofpersonsdevotedbyaspecialvowto
Jahweh(Am2:11f.,Jg13:5,16:17,Nu6,Sir46:13,1Mac3:4953).AccordingtoJg13andNu6,thedetailsofoutwardobservancecoveredbythevowwere:
(1)abstinencefromthefruitofthevine,(2)leavingthehairuncut,(3)avoidanceofcontactwiththedead,and(4)ofalluncleanfood.
Opinionsdifferastowhethertheabstinencefromwineortheuntrimmedhairwasthemoreimportant.Am2:11f.mentionsonlytheformer.1S1:11,onthe
otherband,refersonlytothelatter(theLXXandheshalldrinknowineorstrongdrinkbeinganinterpolation).IfwelookoutsidetheOT,weseethatamongthe
ancientsgenerallythehairwasregardedassoimportantanoutcomeofthephysicallifeastobeafitofferingtothedeity,andameansofinitiatingorrestoring
communionwithHim.ThereisevidenceforthisfromSyria,Arabia,Egypt,Greece,Rome,and,inrecenttimes,evenamongtheMaoris.This,then,seemstohave
beentheoriginalobservance.IfAm2:11f.doesnotmentionit,thereasonisthatthemostattractivetemptationwasfoundinthewine.Jg13:7statesthatSamsons
motherwasbiddentoabstain,butthesameisnotaffirmedofSamsonhimselfallthestress,inhiscase,islaidonthehairbeinguntouched(Jg16:17).Nu6:3,4
putstheabstinencefirst,butevenherethesignificanceoftheotherpointappearsinthedirectionsfortheceremonialshavingandoblationofthehair(Nu6:18).The
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vinestoodforthecultureandcivilizationofCanaan,andwasspeciallyassociatedwiththeworshipofthenaturegods.Henceitwasapointofhonourwiththe
zealotsofJahwehtoturnawayfromitutterly.TheluxuryandimmoralityconnectedwithamoreadvancedcivilizationthreatenedthesimplicityofIsraelslifeand
faith.MartialdevotioncoalescedwiththeasceticspirittoproducesuchmenasJonadab,sonofRechab,whoresembledtheNaziritesveryclosely(2K10:15,Jer
35:6f.).
TheNaziritevowwasoriginallyalifelongobligation.YoungandenthusiasticmenweremovedbytheSpiritofGodtotakeitup,asotherswereinspiredtobe
prophets,anditwasanoffenceagainstHimtotemptthemtobreakit(Am2:11f.).Womenweredivinelybiddentodevotetheirpromisedoffspring(Jg13:7).Others
prayedforchildrenandpromisedthattheyshouldthenbeconsecratedtothisservice(1S1:11itisnoteworthythatintheHeb.andSyr.ofSir46:13,Samuelis
expresslycalledaNazirite).Incourseoftime,however,agreatchangecameoverthepurposeandspiritoftheinstitution.Thevowwasnowtakentogainsome
personalendprotectiononajourney,deliverancefromsickness,etc.Women,too,becameNazirites.Andtherestrictionswereonlyforacertainperiod.Nu6
representsthisstage,buttheinformationwhichitgivesneedssupplementing.Forinstance,itfailstoprescribethemannerinwhichthevowshouldbeenteredon.
TheTalmudassertsthatthiswasdoneinprivate,andwasbindingifonesimplysaid,Behold,IamaNazirite,orrepeatedafteranother,Ialsobecomeone(Nazir,
i.3,iii.1,iv.1).Nu6doesnotdeterminethelengthofthesetemporaryvows.Here,again,arulehadtobemade,anditwasdecidedthatthepersonhimselfmight
fixtheperiodotherwise,itshouldbethirtydays(Nazir,i.3,iii.1Jos.BJII.xv.1).Incaseofaccidentaldefilement,theNaziritehadtoundergosevendays
purification,cutoffhishairontheseventhdayandhaveitburied(Temura,vi.4),ontheeighthdaybringtwoturtledovesortwoyoungpigeons,oneforasin,one
foraburntoffering,aswellasalambforaguiltoffering,andthusbeginthecourseofhisvowafresh(cf.Nazir,iii.6Jos.Ant.XX.ii.5).Attheexpirationofthe
timehewasbroughttothedoorofthesanctuary,withahelambforaburntoffering,aewelambforasinoffering,aramforapeaceoffering,tenunleavenedcakes
andtenunleavenedwafersanointedwithoil,ameatoffering,andadrinkoffering.Whenthesacrificeshadbeenofferedhishairwasshavedandheputitinthefire
whichwasunderthepeaceoffering,orunderthecaldroninwhichthelatterwasboiled(Nazir,vi.8).Thenawaveofferingwasmade,consistingofthesodden
shoulderoftheram,acake,andawafer.Thefatwasthensaltedandburnedonthealtar,andthebreastandtheforelegwereeatenbythepriests,whoalsoatethe
wavedcakeandtheboiledshouldertherestofthebreadandmeatbelongedtotheofferer(Maimonides,HilchothMaasehaCorbanoth,ix.911).Afreewill
offeringfollowed(Nu6:21).InthesecondTempletherewasachamberintheS.E.cornerofthewomenscourt,wheretheNaziritesboiledtheirpeaceofferings,cut
offtheirhairandcastitintothecaldron.
Thefollowinghistoricalnoticesareofsomeinterest:(1)1Mac3:4953enablesustorealizetheimportancewhichcametobeattachedtothepunctilious
performanceofeveryoneoftheceremonies.JustbeforethebattleofEmmaus,theNazirites,beingshutoutofJerusalem,couldnotoffertheconcludingsacrifices
there.Evidentlythiswasregardedasaseriouspubliccalamity.(2)TheimportanttractateoftheTalmudentitledBerakhothtellsastoryofslightlylaterdatethanthe
above,whichillustratestheingenuitywhichtheRabbisdisplayedinfindingreasonsforreleasingfromtheirvowspersonswhohadrashlyundertakenthem(vii.2).
(3)JohntheBaptisthasbeenclaimedasaNazirite,butthisisdoubtfulwereadnothingabouthishairbeinguntouched.(4)Acustomgrewupforwealthypeopleto
providetherequisitesacrificesfortheirpoorerbrethren.Thus,whenAgrippacamefromRometoJerusalemtoenteronhiskingdom,heofferedmanysacrificesof
thanksgivingwhereforealsoheorderedthatmanyoftheNaziritesshouldhavetheirheadsshaven(Jos.Ant.XIX.vi.1).ThisthrowslightonAc21:2326.(5)
Eusebius(HEii.23)appearstorepresentJamestheJustasalifelongNazirite:Hewasholyfromhismotherswomb.Wineandstrongdrinkhedranknot,neither
didheeatflesh.Arazorpassednotoverhishead.ButthefurtherstatementthathealonewaspermittedtoentertheHolyofHoliesissoimprobableastolessenour
confidenceinthenarrator.
JOHNTAYLOR.
NEAH.NamedonlyinJos19:13.Thenamehasnotbeenrecovered.Itisprob.identicalwithNeielofv.27.
NEAPOLIS.TheharbourofPhilippi,atwhichSt.Paullanded(Ac16:11)aftersailingfromTroas.ItlayonthecoastofMacedoniaoppositeThasos,being
situatedona,promontorywithaharbouroneachside.Itwasabout10milesfromPhilippi.TheViaEgnatiafromDyrrhachium,afterpassingthroughThessalonica,
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Amphipolis,andPhilippi,reachedthecoastagainatNeapolis,andtheregularcourseoftravellerstoAsiawasnottocontinuefartherbyland,buttocrossbyshipto
Troas.ThemodernnameofNeapolisisKavalla.
A.E.HILLARD.
NEARIAH.1.AdescendantofDavid(1Ch3:22f.).2.ASimeonite(1Ch4:42).
NEBAIOTH.AnimportanttribeofNorthArabians.InGn25:13(=1Ch1:29)NebaiothistheeldestsonofIshmaelalsotherepresentativeoftheIshmaelite
tribesinGn28:9,36:3.ThepeopleofNebaiothhaveanimportantplaceamongtheArabiantribessubduedbyAshurbanipalofAssyria,namedbyhimalongwith
thepeopleofKedar(wh.see),justasinthegenealogyofGenesis.Itisaboutthisdate(B.C.650)thattheycomeintoprominenceamongthecompetingtribesof
thepeninsulaapositionwhichtheyretainedforcenturies.Theirexactlocationcannotbedefinitelydetermined,buttheinscriptionstellusthattheywerevery
remotefromAssyria,andtheirplaceattheheadofthetribesofIshmael,aswellastheiraffiliationwiththeEdomites(Gn28and36),makesitprobablethatthey
werewellknowntotheHebrews.HencetheyaretobesoughtfornotfarfromthesoutheasternbordersofPalestine.Thetimewhentheyflourishedagreeswiththe
factthatintheBibletheyarementionedonlyinthelatePriestlyCodeandbytheThirdIsaiah(Is60:7).Theyareusually,butwrongly,identifiedwiththe
Nabatans(theNabathansof1Mac5:25,9:35).
J.F.MCURDY.
NEBALLAT.AtowninhabitedbyBenjamites(Neh11:34)prob.themodernBeitNebl,31/2milesN.E.ofLydda.
NEBAT.FatherofJeroboamI.(1K11:26andonwards).TheconstantdesignationofJeroboamI.asbenNebatisprobablytheusageofawriterlaterthan
JeroboambenJoash.Itisintended,doubtless,todistinguishthetwokings.
NEBO(Assyr.Nab,Announcer).ABab.deitywhopresidedoverliteratureandscience.Thecuneiformsystemofwritingwascreditedtohisinvention.He
wasthesonandmessengerofBelMardukwhosewilltomortalsheinterpreted.TheplanetMercurywassacredtoNebo.Thechiefcentreofhisworshipwasthe
templeofEZidainBorsippa,betweenwhichandthetempleofMardukinBabylontookplacethegreatannualprocessionsofwhichwefindareminiscenceinIs
46:1f.ThenameNehoappearsasanelementinmanyBabyloniannamesNehuchadrezzar,Nebuzaradan,Abednego(properlyAbednebo),etc.
W.M.NESBIT.
NEBO.ThenameofaMoabitetown,amountaininMoab,and(accordingtotheHebrewtext)ofacityofJudah.Itisprobable,thoughnotquitecertain,that
theseplaceswerenamedaftertheBabyloniandeityNebo(seepreced.art.),andthuspointtotheinfluenceoftheBabyloniancultataremoteperiodbothE.andW.
oftheJordan.
1.Nebo,acityofJudah(Ezr2:29,10:43[1Es9:35Noomias],Neh7:29],identifiedbysomewithBeitNub,12milesN.W.ofJerusalem.ThisNeboisthe
Nobai(asignatorytothecovenant)ofNeh10:20.Whethereitherformexactlycorrespondstotheoriginalnameisuncertain.
2.TheMoabitetowncalledNeboismentionedinNu32:3,33,33:47,Is15:2,Jer48:1,22,1Ch5:8,andalsointheinscriptionofMesha,whosays:And
Chemoshsaiduntome,GotakeNeboagainstIsrael.Theexactsiteisunknown,butthetownprobablylayon,ornear,Mt.Nebo.
3.MountNeboisthetraditionalsiteofMosesviewofCanaan(Dt34:1f.)andofhisdeath(Dt32:50).ItisdescribedasbeinginthelandofMoabover
againstJerichoandasreachedfromthesteppesofMoah(Dt34:1).Therecanbenoquestionthatthisdescriptionimpliessomepointontheedgeofthegreat
plateanofMoab,whichdropssteeplysome4000feettotheJordanValleyortheDeadSea.Tworelatedproblemscallforsolution:Whichpointinparticularonthis
edgeoftheplateauisMt.Nebo?HowdoestheactualviewthenceagreewiththetermsofDt34:1f.?ThereappearstobemostreasonforidentifyingMt.Nebowith
thepointnowcalledNeb,andtheidentificationmightberegardedascertainifwecouldfeelsurethatNebisreallyanancientname,andnotmerely(asitmay
be)thenameattachedtothesummitaftertraditionhadclaimeditastheNebooftheBible.Nebliesabout12milesalmostdueE.oftheJordanatthepointwhere
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theriverenterstheDeadSea,andisoneofthesummitsmosteasilyascendedfromthesteppesofMoah.Inthisrespectitsatisfiesthedescriptionbetterthanthe
othersiteswhichhavebeenproposed,(1)thesomewhatloftierMt.Attrus10milesfarthersouth,and(2)Mt.Oshsome20milesnorthofMt.Nebandafiner
pointofview,butoutsideMoab.TheviewfromeachofthesegreatpointsandfromseveralothersalongthegreatmountainwallwhichenclosestheJordanValley
ontheE.isextensiveandimpressivebutitslimitationsinsomedirectionsarealsosharplydefined.Northward(or,strictly,betweenN.andN.N.W.)theview
extendsfarfromMt.Neb,forexample,itispossibletoseeMt.Tabor,70milesaway.Westwards,ontheotherhand,itisblockedatfrom30to40milesbythe
greatwallformedbythesharpdeclivityoftheJudanplateautotheJordanValley.ThiswesternmountainwallisofapproximatelythesameheightastheMoabite
wallontheE.ConsequentlyfromnopointinMoabisitpossibletoseethehindersea,i.e.theMediterraneannorisitpossibletoseemorethanaboutonethirdof
thecountrybetweenJordanandtheMediterranean.ItfollowsthatthedescriptioninDt34:1f.isinaccuratenotonlyinmentioningspecificfeatures(the
Mediterranean,Dan,probablyZoar)whichareoutofsight,butingivingthegeneralimpressionthattheviewcommandedthewholeofWesternPalestine,whereas
itactuallycommandsbutathird.ThedifficultycouldbeinpartovercomebyconsideringDt34:2,3(togetherwiththewordsofGileaduntoDaninv.1)an
editorsnoteexplainingthephrasealltheland.ItissignificantthatthisdetaileddescriptionisabsentfromtheSamaritantext,whichhas,instead,ashorter
descriptionwhichdefinesthelandofIsraelbutnottheview.ForafurtherdiscussionoftheviewfromNeb,seeExpositor,Nov.1904,pp.321341.Seealsoart.
P ISGAH.
G.B.GRAY.
NEBUCHADNEZZAR.Seenextarticle.
NEBUCHADREZZAR.TheNabkuduruzuroftheBabylonians,forwhich
Nebuchadnezzar(thefamiliarformoftenretainedinthepresentwork)isanerror,wassonandsuccessorofNahopolassar,founderoftheNewBab.empire(B.C.
604561).ThefallofNinevehgaveEgyptachancetoreclaimSyria,andPharaohNechomadeanattempttoregainit.Josiahfellinavainefforttorepelhim(2K
23:29),butNebuchadrezzardefeatedhimatCarchemish(B.C.605).HethenrecoveredthewholeoftheWest,andseemstohavebeenthreateningEgyptwhen
recalledtoBabylonbynewsofhisfathersdeath.AtthistimehefirstcapturedJerusalem(Dn1:1,2).Weknowlittleofhiswarsfromhisowninscriptions,which
dealalmostentirelywithhisbuildingsandpiousactsathome.Accordingtoclassicalhistorians,hemadeBabylononeofthewondersoftheworld.Hefortifiedit
withatriplelineofwallsandamoatherestoredtemplesandcitiesthroughouthiskingdom.Afragmentofhisannalsrecordsthatinhis37thyearhe.foughtagainst
AmasisinEgypt(cf.Jer46:1326,Ezk29:220).ForhisrelationswithJudah,seeJEHOIAKIM,JEHOIACHIN,ZEDEKIAH,GEDALIAH.Hecertainlywasthegreatest
kingofBabylonsinceHammurabi.Forhismadness,seeMEDICINE,p.599a.
C.H.W.JOHNS.
NEBUSHAZBAN(Jer39:13).TheBab.Nabshezibanni,Nabusaveme,wasRabsaris(wh.see)atthecaptureofJerusalembyNebuchadrezzar.
C.H.W.JOHNS.
NEBUZARADAN.TheBab.Nabzeriddin,Nabhasgivenseed,thechiefofthebodyguardtoNebuchadrezzar(2K25:820,Jer52:30).Hewas
chargedwiththepacificationofJudahafterthefallofJerusalem.
C.H.W.JOHNS.
NEC(H)O.2K23:29,33,2Ch35:2036:4,Jer46:2,Egyp.NekoorNekoou,sonof
PsammetichusI.andsecondkingofthe26thDyn.(B.C.610594).ContinuingthedevelopmentofEgyptthathadgoneoninhisfatherslongreign,Necho
commencedacanaljoiningtheNileandtheRedSea,butabandoneditunfinished.EarlyinhisreignhealsoendeavouredtorevivethedominionofEgyptinSyria,
seizingtheopportunityaffordedbythecollapseofAssyriahisarmyreachedtheEuphrates,havingbrushedasidetheforcewithwhichJosiahendeavouredto
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opposehimatMegiddo,andslainthatking.Returning,hedeposedJehoahaz,thesonandsuccessorofJosiah,atRiblah,substitutedforhimhiselderbrother
Eliakim,whosenamehechangedtoJehoiakim,andexactedtributefromthenewkingattheexpenseofthepeople.But
Nabopolassar,kingofBabylon,wasnowsecureenoughintheeasttosendhisson
NebuchadrezzartodisputetheprizewiththeEgyptianking.NebuchadrezzarroutedNechosforcesatCarchemish(inB.C.605),andtookfromhimallhisSyrian
possessions,fromthebrookofEgyptuntotheriverEuphrates.
F.LL.GRIFFITH.
NECK.ThemostusualwordsarerephandtsavvrinHeb.,andtrachlosinGreek.Chainsupontheneckwereacommonornament(Pr1:9etc.,Ezk
16:11).TofallupononeanothersneckhasfromoldtimebeenanaffectionateformofgreetingintheEast(Gn33:4etc.).Theneckunderyokemeantsubjection
andservitude(Dt28:48etc.)breakingoftheyokemeantdeliverance(Gn27:40,Jer30:8).Stifforhardofneck(Dt31:27etc.)signifiedonedifficulttoguide,like
ahardneckedbullockinthefurrow.Toputthefootupontheneckofafoe,meanthisutteroverthrow(Jos10:24etc.).Toputthenecktowork(Neh3:5)wasa
phraseequivalenttoourownputahandto.
W.EWING.
NECKLACE.SeeORNAMENTS,3.
NECROMANCY.SeeMAGICDIVINATIONANDS ORCERY.
NEDABIAH.AdescendantofDavid(1Ch3:18).
NEEDLESEYE.SeeCAMEL,adfin.NEEDLEWORK.SeeEMBROIDERY.
NEESING.Thevb.toneese(mod.sneeze)occursinthe1611ed.ofAVat2K4:35,thechildneesedseventimes.Buttheneesing(Job41:18)of
leviathan(thecrocodile)meanshardbreathing,snorting,anddoesnotcomefromthesameA.S.verbasneesemeaningtosneeze.
NEGEB,originallymeaningthedryland,isinmostpassagesintheOTthenameofadefinitegeographicalarea(Dt1:7,34:3,Jos10:40,12:8etc.)theword
is,however,usedalsointhesenseofSouth(Gn13:14).TheNegebwasoftenthesceneofAbrahamswanderings(Gn12:9,13:1,8,20:1)hereHagarwas
succouredbytheangel(Gn16:7,14)Isaac(Gn24:62)and
Jacob(Gn37:1,46:5)bothdwelttherethroughthisdistrictpassedthespies(Nu13:17,22).InNu13:29theNegebisdescribedasbelongingtotheAmalekites.
LaterthelandwasallottedtoSimeon,anditscitiesareenumerated(Jos.19:19)latertheyrevertedtoJudah(Jos15:2132).
DavidwasstationedbyAchishatZiklagonthebordersoftheNegeb(1S27:6).AtthistimetheNegebisdescribedasofseveralparts,theNegebofJudah,ofthe
Jerahmeelites,andoftheKenites(1S27:10)whilein1S30:14wereadoftheNegeboftheCherethitesandofCaleb.Jeremiah(13:19)prophesiedtroubleas
comingonthecitiesofthisregion,butonthereturnfromcaptivitytheytooweretoparticipateintheblessings(32:44,33:13).
ThedistrictinquestionwasanilldefinedtractofcountrylyingS.ofHebron,andextendingsome70milestotheTihordesert.ItwasboundedontheE.bythe
DeadSeaandtheArbh,whileW.itfadedawayintotheMaritimePlain.Itwasapastoralregion,wedgedbetweenthecultivatedlandsontheN.andthe
wilderness,andformedamostefficientbarriertothelandofIsraeltowardstheSouth.Attacksoflargearmedforcescouldnotcomefromthisdirection,butonlyby
theArbhtotheS.E.(Gn14),viGazaonS.W.,orbytheE.oftheJordan.TheIsraelitesthemselveswerecompelledtotakethelastroute.Thecountryconsists
ofaseriesofmountainousridgesrunninginageneraldirectionE.andW.,withopenwadysinwhichacertainamountofwatercollectsevennowInancientdays
damswereconstructedinplacestocollectandstoretherainfall,whichtodaysoonrunsoff.Thoughnowlittlebetterthanawilderness,thenumerousruinsoftowns
andbrokenterraceswitnesstodaysoflargepopulationandgoodcultivationtheOT,too,inthestoriesofSaulsandDavidscapturesfromtheAmalekites(1S15:9
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,27:9),witnessestoagreatwealthofcattle.InByzantinetimesthelandattaineditshighestprosperity.Underneglectithasbecomeagainlittlebetterthanadesert:
theBedouinofthesepartsareknowninPalestinefortheirskillinmakingroughcisternsonthehillsidestocatchthesurfacewater,andhaveinrecentyearsbeen
employedtoconstructmanysuchinthewildernessofJuda.Beershebaandthedistrictaroundhaverecentlybeengreatlyimproved:aroughcarriageroadhas
beenmadefromtheretoGaza.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
NEGINAH,NEGINOTH.SeeP SALMS,p.772a.
NEHELAMITE.AnepithetappliedtoShemaiah,afalseprophetwhoopposedJeremiah(Jer29:24,31,32).Accordingtoanalogythewordshouldmeanan
inhabitantofNehelam.butthereisnoplaceofthatnamementionedintheBible.
NEHEMIAH.1.OneofthetwelveheadsoftheJewishcommunity(Ezr2:2=Neh7:7),1Es5:8Nehemias.2.Oneofthosewhohelpedtorepairthewallof
Jerusalem(Neh3:16).3.Seethefollowingarticle.
NEHEMIAH.SonofHacaliahandcupbearertokingArtaxerxes.OursolesourceofinformationregardingthisgreatJewishpatriotisthebookthatbearshis
name.Accordingtothis,inthe20thyearofArtaxerxes(i.e.,asusuallyunderstood,ofArtaxerxesI.Longimanus,464424),B.C.445444,NehemiahisatSusa,
thechiefcityofElamandthewinterresidenceofthePersiancourt.Here,inconsequenceofareportthatreacheshimregardingtheruinedconditionofJerusalem
anditspeople,Nehemiahis,onhisowninitiative,appointedgovernor(pechah)oftheprovinceofJudabytheking.Heisgrantedalimitedleaveofabsenceby
thelatter,furnishedwithroyallettersandanescorttoassurehissafepassageandalsowitharoyalrescripttoAsaph,thekeeperofthekingsforests,commanding
thatheshallbefurnishedwithsufficientsuppliesoftimber.OnarrivingatJerusalem,havingsatisfiedhimselfastotheruinousconditionofthecitywalls,he
energeticallybeginsthetaskofrebuildingthem,and,inspiteofmuchoppositionfromwithout(fromSanballatandothers),he,withtheaidoftheentireJewish
populationdrawnfromtheoutlyingvillages,successfullyaccomplisheshisundertakingwithintwomonths(Neh17).Allthis,accordingtotheusuallyaccepted
chronology,happenedintheyear444.Thewallwasfinishedonthe25thdayofthe6thmonth(6:16),andonthefirstdayofthefollowingmonththeeventsofthe
religiousreformdescribedinchs.810apparentlybegan.TheBookoftheLawwasreadbyEzrainthepresenceofNehemiahbeforethepeopleinsolemn
assemblytheFeastofTabernacleswascelebrated(8:1819)nationalconfessionofsinwasmade(ch.9)andthecovenantwassealed,thepeoplepledging
themselvestoobserveitsobligations(ch.10).In12:2743adescriptionofthesolemndedicationofthecompletedwallsisgiven.If2Mac1:19canbereliedonas
preservingatruetradition,thededicationtookplaceonthe25thofChislev(December),i.e.threemonthsafterthecompletion,andtwomonthsafterthereadingof
theLawandthecelebrationoftheFeastofTabernacles.
Theexactsequenceoftheseeventsisuncertain.SomewouldplacethereadingoftheLaw,etc.,subsequenttotheDedication,inthefollowingyear.Rawlinsonproposedtoplace
theDedication12yearslater,inNehemiahssecondgovernorship.Butthisviewisimprobable.
Shortlyaftertheseevents,itwouldseem,NehemiahreturnedtothePersiancourt,andwasabsentfromJerusalemforsomeyears.
HowlongexactlyNehemiahsfirstgovernorshiplasted,andforhowgreatanintervalhewasabsentfromJerusalem,areuncertaio.In5:14itseemstohestateddefinitelythathe
wasgoveroorinthefirstinstancefor12years.Butin13:6Nehemiahsays:ButallthistimeIwasnotatJerusalem:forinthetwoandthirtiethyearofArtaxerxes,kingofBabylon,
Iwentuntotheking,and,aftercertaindays,askedIleaveoftheking.Onthewholeitseemsprobablethat5:14meansthatduringthetwelveyearsNehemiah,thoughabsenton
courtduty,wasactuallygovernor,rulingbydeputiesandthatinthe32ndyearofthekingsreignheagainsecuredleaveofabsence,andcametoJerusalem(B. C.433).Theevilshe
foundonhisreturnmusthavetakensomeconsiderabletimetodevelop.
OnhisreturntoJerusalemin433Nehemiahfoundvariousabusesandinternaldisordersrampantinthecommunity.EliashibthepriesthadprovidedTobiah
withquartersinoneoftheTemplechambers(13:4f.),theLeviteshadnotreceivedtheirdues,theSabbathwasopenlydesecratedinandaroundJerusalem(13:15f.),
and,inspiteofEzrasgreatpuritanicalmovement,mixedmarriageswerestillcommon,andthechildrenofsuchmarriagesspokehalfintheirmothersforeign
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speech(13:23f.).PossiblyinformationastothesedevelopmentshadimpelledNehemiahtoreturn.Atanyrate,onhisarrivalheassertedhimselfwithcharacteristic
vigour,andinaugurateddrasticmeasuresofreform.Onecharacteristicsentencevividlyillustratesthisrelentlesszeal:AndoneofthesonsofJoiada,thesonof
Eliashibthehighpriest,wassoninlawtoSanballattheHoronite:thereforeIchasedhimfromme(13:28).ThuscleansedIthemheproceedsfromevery
thingstrange,andappointedwardsforthepriestsandfortheLevites,everyonetohiswork:andforthewoodofferingattimesappointed,andforthefirstfruits
(13:30).
TheBookofNehemiah(seenextarticle)iscompositeincharacter,andthenarrativeisinpartfragmentary.Hencetheactualcourseofeventsisbynomeansalwaysclearand
certain.SomescholarsareofopinionthattheArtaxerxesreferredtoisArtaxerxes II.Mnemon(reigned B. C.404358),andsupposethatNehemiahwasgovernorforthe12years
384372,andagainatalaterperiod.JosephusplacesNehemiahinthetimeofXerxes.
ThepersonalityofNehemiah,asrevealedinhismemoirs,isinmanyrespectsstrangelyattractive.Heappearsasagiftedandaccomplishedmanofaction,well
versedinthewaysoftheworld,andwellequippedtomeetdifficultsituations.Thecombinationofstrengthandgracefulness,thegenerosity,ferventpatriotism,and
religiouszealofthemancontributedtoformapersonalityofstrikingforceandpower.HeisauniquefigureintheOT,andrenderedservicesofincalculablevalue
tothecauseofJudaism.Evenhislimitationsrevealacertainstrength(e.g.hisnaveprayer:Rememberuntome,OmyGod,forgoodallthatIhavedoneforthis
people).Likeallgreatmen,hehasbecomethesubjectoflegend(cf.2Mac1:18f.).Buthedeservesineveryrespecttheeulogiumpronounceduponhimbyben
Sira(Sir49:13)andbyJosephus,who(Ant.XI.v.8)saysofhim:Hewasamanofgoodandrighteouscharacter,andveryambitious
tomakehisownnationhappyandhehathleftthewallsofJerusalemasaneternalmonumentofhimself.
G.H.BOX.
NEHEMIAH,BOOKOF.Thetwobooks,separatedinourBibleandappearingthereasEzraandNehemiah,originallyformedasinglebook(asappearsfrom
theTalmud,theLXX,andfrominternalevidence),whichwasthesequeltoChronicles.InfactEzraverballycontinuesthenarrativeof2Ch36(cf.2Ch36:22,23
withEzr1:12),andthewholework1and2Chron.,Ezra,andNehemiahformsasinglecontinuousnarrativefromAdamtoNehemiahssecondvisitto
Jerusalem,andwasprobablycompiledbytheChronicler.ThatpartofthisvoluminousworkwhichnowbearsthetitleNehemiahissocalledbecauseitdealslargely
withthecareeroftheJewishpatriotwhosenameitcarries,andembodiesexcerptsofconsiderableextentfromhispersonalmemoirs.
1.ExtractsfromthememoirsembodiedinNehemiah.(a)1:17:5.Attheoutsetwemeetwithalongsectionwherethefirstpersonsing,isused
throughout,viz.1:17:6.ThesechaptersareindubitablyauthenticextractsfromNehemiahspersonalmemoirs.Theyaredistinguishedbyindividualcharacteristics
whichhelpustoformadistinctideaofthewriterspersonality.Enthusiasmforagreatidea,andunstintingandunselfishdevotlontoitsrealization,aremarked
features.From5:14itisclearthatthenarrativecannothavebeenputintoitspresentformtillsomeyearsaftertheeventsrecounted.Doubtshavebeenraisedasto
theauthenticityof6:15(thewallsfinishedin52days),buttheobjectionisnotafatalone.Itshouldbenoted,however,thataccordingtoJosephus(Ant.XI.v.8)
thebuildingofthewallslasted2yearsand8months.OnwhatauthorityJosephusbasesthisassertionisnotknown.(3:132,allstofpersonswhohelpedtorebuild
thewallsofJerusalem,hasalsobeenthesubjectofdoubt.)
(b)7:673a.ThissectioncontainsalistoftheexileswhoreturnedwithZerubbabel,whichNehemiah(7:5)sayshefound:italsoappearsinEzrasmemoirs
(Ezr2),withslightdifferences.Itformsanaturalandeasycontinuationto7:5,andprobablyfromtheveryfirststoodasaconstituentelementinNehemiahs
memoirs.
(c)Ch.11.Thischapter,whichcontainsalistofpersonswhodrewlotstoresideatJerusalem,andotherdetailsregardingthesettlementofthecapital,probably
alsostoodintheoriginalmemoirs.Thelistwhichpartlyrecursin1Ch9:317istoberegardedastheimmediatecontinuationofch.7(withEwald),andrefers
tomeasurestakenbyZerubbabel.DoubtlessitwasfollowedinthememoirsbyanaccountofwhatNehemiahdidtoresumeandcompletethesemeasures(cf.7:4,
6),butthishas,unfortunately,notbeenpreservedtous.
(d)12:2743.Accountofthededicationofthewalls.Noticetheresumptionofthe1stpers.
sing,(vv.31,38,40).Thispassageisanexcerptfromthememoirs,buthasbeenabridgedandrevisedbythecompiler.
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(e)13:431.Anotherextractfromthememoirs,givingdetailsofatimesome12ormoreyearslaterthanthatreferredtointheearlierextracts.Itdealswith
Nehemiahssecondvisit.
2.PassagesinNehemiahnotderivedfromthememoirs.(a)7:73b10:40(39).Thislongsectionbreakstheconnexionwhichitisgenerallyagreedexists
between7:73aandch.11.Initspresentformitisdoubtlessduetothecompilerbutitcontainssomanydetailsofanapparentlyauthenticcharacter,its
representationisoftensovivid,thatitisprobablethattheworkofaneyewitnesshasbeenusedandworkedupbythecompilerinproducingthepresentnarrative.
Probably9:610:40hasbeentakenoverdirectlyfromthememoirsofEzra(theLXXascribestheprayerbeginningin9:6toEzra:AndEzrasaid).Thewhole
section,therefore,canberegardedasoffirstrateauthority.
(b)12:126.AlistofpriestsandLeviteswhoreturnedwithZerubbabel.NoticehowthepriestlygenealogyiscarriedfardownbelowNehemiahstime,asfar,in
fact,asthereignofDariusthePersian(v.22),i.e.DariusIII.Codomannus(reignedB.C.335331).ThehighpriestJadduamentionedinv.11isknownfrom
JosephustohavebeenacontemporaryofAlexandertheGreat.
3.HistoricalvalueoftheBook.Onthewhole,recentcriticismhasbeenfavourabletotheolderviewastotheessentialtrustworthinessofthenarrativeof
eventsgiveninEzraNehemiah.ReferencehasalreadybeenmadeinthepreviousarticletotheviewthattheArtaxerxesmentionedisthesecondofthatname.Ifthis
isaccepted,Ezrasvisitandworkofreformfallintheyear398.Kostersgoesmuchfurtherthanthis.
Accordingtohim,areturnofexilesinthesecondyearofCyrusdidnottakeplaceatallthebuildingoftheTempleandthewallswasrathertheworkofthepopulationthathad
remainedbehindintheland(2K25:12),ofwhomZerubbabelandNehemiahweregovernorsEzrasvisitandworkofreformfallinthesecondgovernorshipofNehemiah,afterthe
eventsnarratedinNeh13:431.Ezraarrivedforthefirsttimeafter433firstofallthecommunitywasreconstitutedbythedissolutionofthemixedmarriages,andthensolemnly
boundtotheobservanceoftheLawwhichhadbeenbroughtwithhimbyEzra:thefirstreturnjourneyunderZerubbabel,withallthosewhojoinedthemselveswithhim,hasbeen
inventedbytheChronicler,whoreversedtheorderofevents.Finally,accordingtoTorrey,theIpassages,withtheexceptionofNeh1,2(mainly)and3:326:19(mainly),have
beenfabricatedbytheChronicler,whointhemcreatedhismasterpiece:andNehemiahalsobelongstothereignofArtaxerxes II.(Cornill).
KosterstheoryhasbeenenergeticallyopposedbyWellhausen,andsinceEd.Meyersdemonstrationoftheessentialauthenticityofthedocumentsembodiedin
Ezra47,theextremeformofthecriticaltheorymayberegardedashavinglostmostofitsplausibility.
G.H.BOX.
NEHEMIAS.1.1Es5:8=Nehemiah,Ezr2:2,Neh7:7.2.1Es5:40,NehemiahthecontemporaryofEzra.
NEHILOTH.SeeP SALMS,p.772a.
NEHUM.OneofthetwelveheadsoftheJewishcommunity(Neh7:7)prob.ascribalerrorforRehumofEzr2:2calledin1Es5:8Roimus.
NEHUSHTA.WifeofkingJehoiakimandmotherofJehoiachin(2K24:8).ShewastakenaprisonertoBabylonwithhersonin597(2K24:12).
NEHUSHTAN.SeeS ERPENT(BRAZEN).
NEIEL.SeeNEAH.
NEKODA.1.EponymofafamilyofNethinim(Ezr2:48=Neh7:60)calledin1Es5:31Noeba.2.NameofafamilywhichreturnedfromtheExile,butwere
unabletoprovetheirIsraelitishdescent(Ezr2:60=Neh7:62)calledin1Es5:37Nekodan.
NEKODAN(1Es5:37)=Nekoda,Ezr2:60,Neh7:62.
NEMUEL.1.SeeJEMUEL.ThepatronymicNemuelitesoccursinNu26:12.2.AReubenite(Nu26:9).
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NEPHEG.1.SonofIzharandbrotherofKorah(Ex6:21).2.OneofDavidssons(2S5:16=1Ch3:7,14:6).
NEPHEW.InAVnephewmeansgrandson.ItoccursinJg12:14,Job18:19,Is14:22,1Ti5:4.
NEPHILIM.AHeb.word,ofuncertainetymology,retainedbyB.VintheonlytwoplaceswhereitoccursinOT(AVgiants).InGn6:4weread:The
Nephilimwereintheearthinthosedays,andalsoafterwards,whenthesonsofGodwentintothedaughtersofmenandtheyharetothemthesearetheheroes
whichwereofold,themenofrenown.Theversehastheappearanceofanexplanatoryglosstotheobscuremythologicalfragmentwhichprecedes,andisvery
difficulttounderstand.Butwecanhardlybewronginsupposingthatitbearswitnesstoacurrentbelief(towhichtherearemanyheathenparallels)inaraceof
heroesordemigods,producedbytheunionofdivinebeings(sonsofGod)withmortalwomen.TheothernoticeisNu13:33,wherethenameisappliedtomenof
gigaoticstatureseenbythespiesamongthenativesofCanaan.ThatthesegiantswerepopularlyidentifiedwiththedemigodsofGn6:4,thereisnoreasontodoubt.
Seealsoart.GIANT.
J.S KINNER.
NEPHISHESIM,NEPHISIM.SeeNAPHISH.
NEPHTHAI.SeeNEPHTHAR.
NEPHTHAR.ThenamegivenbyNehemiahtoathicksubstancewhichwasfoundinadrypitafterthereturnfromBabylon(2Mac1:1835).Thelegend
relateshowcertainpriests,beforetheCaptivity,tookthesacredfireandhidit.OntheReturn,whenasearchwasmade,therewasfoundinitsplacethishighly
inflammablesubstance,whichseemsnottohavedifferedmuchfromthenaphthaofcommerce.Someofitwaspouredoverthesacrifice,andwasignitedbythe
greatheatofthesunandburnedwithabrightflame.Thenamenephtharornephthai[v.36]hasnotbeensatisfactorilyexplained,althoughitissaidbythewriter
tomeancleansing.
T.A.MOXON.
NEPHTOAH.AtownontheboundarybetweenJudahandBenjamin(Jos15:9,18:16),usuallyidentifiedwithLifta,about2milesN.W.ofJerusalem(so
Tobler,BaedekerSocin,Guthe,etc.).TheTalmudidentifiesNephtoahwithEtam,themodernAinAtm,atwhatarepopularlycalledthePoolsofSolomon,S.of
Bethlehem(Neuhauer,Gog.duTalm.p.146).ThislatterisfavouredbyConder,whowouldplaceElephatLifta.Thephrasethefountainofthewatersof
Nephtoahwouldleadustoexpectabundantsuppliesofwater.InthisrespecttheclaimofAinAtmiscertainlystrongerthanthatofLifta.
W.EWING.
NEPHUSHESIM,NEPHUSIM.SeeNAPHISI.
NER.ThefatherofAbner(1S14:50f.,26:6,14etc.).
NEREUS.ARomanChristian,towhom,alongwithhissister,St.PaulsendsgreetinginRo16:15.Theexpressionandallthesaintsthatarewiththemseems
topointtosomecommunityofChristiansaccustomedtomeettogether.
MORLEYS TEVENSON.
NERGAL.ThegodofthecityofCubtainBabylonia,henceworshippedbythecaptiveCuthanswhoweretransplantedtoSamariabySargon(2K17:30).In
theBab.Assyr.pantheonhewasagodofwarandpestilence,andofhunting,andtheplanetMarswassacredtohim.
ThenameNergalisprobablyofSumerianorigin,namely,Nergalgreatwarrior.ThegodissometimesinthenonSemitictextscalledNerunugal,heroofthelower
world,evidentlyindicatinghisconnexionwithdeathanddestruction.
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W.M.NESBIT.
NERGALSHAREZER.TheBab.NrgalsharuzurNergalpreservetheking,theRabmag(wh.see),who,withNebuzaradanandNebushazban,released
Jeremiahfromprison(Jer39:3,13).ItistemptingtosupposethathewastheNrgalsharuzurwhomarriedadaughterofNebuchadrezzar,andlatercametothe
throneofBabylon,andisknownfromclassicalwritersasNeriglissar(B.C.559556).
C.H.W.JOHNS.
NERI.AnancestorofJesus(Lk3:27).
NERIAH.ThefatherofBaruch(Jer32:12,16,36:4,8,32,43:3,6,45:1,51:59).InBar1:1theGreekformofthename,Nerias,isretained.
NERIAS.SeeNERIAH.
NEROisnotmentionedbynameintheNT,buthisconnexionwithSt.Paulstrial(Ac2528,whereCsarisNero),thementionofhishousehold(Ph4:22),
andthegeneralconsensusofopinionthatthenumberoftheBeast666(Rev13:18)isacypherindicatingNeroKesar(theGr.wayofpronouncingtheEmperors
name),aresufficientreasonsforincludinghimhere.LuciusDomitiusAhenobarbus,sonofGnaensDomitiusAhenobarbus(consul32(died40)A.D.)andIulia
Agrippina,daughterofGermanicus(theadoptedsonoftheEmperorTiberius),whobecamewifeoftheEmperorClaudiusin48A.D.,wasbornon15Dec.inthe
year37A.D.Onadoptionbyhisstepfatheron25Feb.50hereceivednewnames,byoneofwhich,Nero,hehassincebeenknown.OnthemurderofClaudiushis
solerulebeganin54,andduringithewasofficiallyknownasImperatorNeroClaudiusCsarAugustusGermanicus.Hisdeathtookplaceon9June,68,inhis
thirtyfirstyear.
Neroinheritedevilqualitiesfromhisfatherandmother,whichforthefirstfiveyearsofhisreign,whenhewasamereyouth,werekeptincheckbyhistwo
tutors,Burrusanexperiencedsoldier,andSenecathedistinguishedphilosopher.Hismother,awomanofverystrongwill,whohadsuccessfullyschemedforhis
advancement,hadnogoodinfluenceonhim,and,whenofagetothrowoffallrestraints,heplungedintofolliesandexcesseswhichsuggestthatmadnesshad
unhingedhismind.Hisdefects,however,seemtohavedonelittlemorethanscandalizeandamuseRome:theprosperityoftheprovinces,thankstotheexcellence
ofthebureaucraticmachine,continued.Spacepermitsonlyareferencetosomeimportanteventsinhisreign.
ThequestionoftheEasternfrontier,whichwasaproblemeverpresenttotheEmperors,demandedsettlementfromNero.Thesafetyofthisfrontiercouldhe
securedonlyifArmeniawereunderthesuzeraintyofRome.Itwasthereforetheobjectoftheirperpetualrivals,theParthians,toobtainthissuzerainty.TheRomans
darednotannexArmenia,becauseitwouldinevitablybecomenecessarytoannexalsothewholeofthecountryonthewestoftheTigris.AttheopeningofNeros
reign,Tiridates,aParthian,hadestablishedhimselfsecurelyonthethroneofArmenia,andthepossessionofArmeniabytheRomanswasthusseriouslythreatened.
TheultimateintentionofRomewastoofferArmeniatoTiridatesasagift,butasanecessarypreliminarytothistheymadethemostvigorouspreparationsforwar.
Cn.DomitiusCorbulo,oneoftheablestgeneralsofthe1stcent.,wasappointedbyNerotoconductthecampaign,andthegovernorofSyriaandtheotherofficials
andclientprincesintheneighbourhoodofArmeniawereinstructedtocooperatewithhim.TheconditionoftheEasterntroopscausedadelayoftwoandahalf
years.AfteraterriblewinterpassedintentsintheuplyingplainofArmenia,Corbulowasreadytostrikeinspring58,andastheresultofthisfirstcampaign
Tiridatesaskedforterms.HewasofferedhiskingdomasagiftfromRome,butrefusedtoacceptit,andinthesecondcampaign(59)theRomangeneralmarched
uponTiridatescapitalArtaxata,whichsurrendered,andproceededthencebyalonganddifficultmarchtoTigranocerta,thesecondcapital,intheextremesouth,
whichinitsturnsurrendered.Intheyear60,whichwasoccupiedinpacification,Tigranes,whowaseducatedinRome,wasplacedonthethronebyNero.Thefolly
ofthiskingandthecowardiceandincompetenceoftheRomangeneralPtusthreatenedtoundoallthatCorbulohadachievedbutCorbulo,assupreme
commanderinchiefforthewholeEasternfrontier,retrievedthelossintheyear63andfollowingonthissuccessfulcampaignTiridatesreceivedthecrownasthe
giftofRome.ThelongpeacewithArmeniawhichfollowedistothecreditofCorbulosconsummategeneralshipandNerosskilfuldiplomacy.TheRomanholdon
Britain,whichhispredecessorClaudiushadobtained,wasfurtherstrengthenedunderNero.ItwasinhisreignthatthejustlyarousedrebellionunderBoudicca
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(betterknownbytheincorrectformBoadicea)inEastAngliawascrushed,afterterriblemassacresbytheBritons,bythegovernorSuetoniusPaulinus(60).There
washenceforth,foraconsiderabletime,peaceinBritain.TheGermanyandDanubefrontiersalsoengagedattentioninNerostime.
InthecityNeroexercisedawisecareforthecornandwatersupplies.HealsoincreasedthepoweroftheSenate,andmaybesaidtohaveconstitutedan
ImperialCabinet.Hewasfondofthearts,especiallymusicandpoetry,butheneverattainedmorethanarespectablestandardineither.On19July,64,firebroke
outinRome,andragedforninedaysinall,leavinggreatpartsofthecityinashes.OntheevidenceNeromustbeacquittedofallconnexionwiththefire,whichwas
duetochance.Thepopulace,however,suspectedtheEmperor,andwereanxioustobringretributionontheoriginatorsofthefire.NeroselectedtheChristiansas
scapegoats,andhemayhavebelievedthemguilty,assomeofthemwereunderstoodtohaveconfessedtheirguilt.Theyweresubjectedtoeveryimaginablevariety
ofcrueldeath.ThesepunishmentsdidnotremovesuspicionfromNero,and,asthepopulacesoonbecamesated,otherchargeshadtobebroughtagainstthem.Of
thesecharges,hostilitytocivilizedsocietywasthechief.AtalaterstageinhistorywefindevidencetojustifytheconclusionthatthenameChristianwasheldtobe
asufficientchargeinItself.AconspiracyagainsttheEmperorslife,inwhichsomeofthechiefmenintheStatewereimplicated,failedofitspurposethrough
treacheryin65theeffectontheEmperorsmindissuedinareignofterror,andanumberofthenoblestpersons,particularlyStoics,wereputtodeath.Thelater
daysofNerosawtheriseoftheJewishinsurrectionagainsttheRomanpower,whichculminatedinthedestructionofJerusalemandthemassacreofcountlessJews
inA.D.70.Twoyearsbeforethat,however,therevoltofGaulunderVindexhadbeenthepreludetoNerosdeath.Hislifeofeaseandluxuryhadweakenedanature
neverinuredtohardship,andwhenthehourofdangercamehesoughtarefugeinsuicide.NotlongafterhisdeaththerearoseacuriousrumourintheEast,thathe
hadcometolifeagain,orhadnotreallydied.TheEasthadseennothingbuthisbestside,andthisrumour,bornofadesiretoseehimemperoragain,seriously
endangeredthepeaceoftheEmpire,asmorethanonepersoncameforwardclaimingtobeNero.
OfthetrialortrialsofSt.Paulweknownothingcertain.ItishighlyprobablethathisappealwasheardeitherbeforeacommitteeoftheEmperorsprivycouncil,
orbeforetheEmperorsdeputy,theprefectofthecity.
A.S OUTER.
NEST(qn).Usedliterallyofbirdsnests(Dt22:6,32:11,Job39:27,Ps84:3,104:17,Pr27:8,Is16:2)metaphoricallyforaloftyfortress(Nu24:21,Jer
49:16,Ob4,Hab2:9)Jobreferstohislosthomeasanest(29:18)inGn6:14theroomsofthearkare(seemg.)literallynests(qinnm).InMt8:20,Lk9:58
ourLordcontrastsHiswandering,homelesslifewiththatofthebirdswhichhavetheirnests(katasknseis,RVmlodgingplaces).
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
NETAIM.AplacesituatedprobablyintheShephlahofJudah.SeeGEDERAH.
NETHANEL.1.TheprinceofIssachar(Nu1:8,2:5,7:18,23,10:15).2.OneofDavidsbrothers(1Ch2:14).3.ApriestinthetimeofDavid(1Ch15:24).
4.ALevite(1Ch24:6).5.OneofObededomssons(1Ch26:4).6.AprincesentbyJehoshaphattoteachinthecitiesofJudah(2Ch17:7).7.Achiefofthe
LevitesunderJosiah(2Ch35:9[1Es1:9Nathanael]).8.Apriestwhohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:22[1Esr9:22Nathanael]).9.Apriestintimeof
Joiakim(Neh12:21).10.ALevitemusician(Neh12:35).
NETHANIAH.1.ThefatherofIshmaelthemurdererofGedaliah(2K25:23,25,Jer40:8,14,15,41:1f.,6f.,9,10ff.,15f.,18).2.AnAsaphite(1Ch25:2,
12).3.ALevite(2Ch17:8).4.ThefatherofJehudi(Jer36:14).
NETHINIM.Thewordisalateformofapassiveparticiplenthnm,anddenotesmenwhoaregiven.Inearlydays,whensacrificeswereofferedinthe
openair,therewaslittledifficultyoccasionedbytheodouranddirtarisingfromtheblood,fat,andashes.Butwhentheywereofferedwithinthewallsofatemple,
andofferedwithgreatfrequencyandwithlargenumbersofvictims,someverydisagreeabledrudgerywasalwaysnecessary.Thechoppingofwood,lightingof
fires,sharpeningofknives,drawingofwater,thecleansingnotonlyofthealtaranditssurroundingsandutensils,butofthewholeoftheTempleprecincts,andthe
performanceofmanymenialofficesforthepriests,requiredalargestaffofservants.Theanalogyofotherlandssuggeststhattheseofficeswouldbeperformedby
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slaves,procuredeitherbypurchaseorcapture.TheGreekshadhierodoutoi,templeslaves,andtheMohammedansatMeccasimilarly.Itisnotknownatwhatdate
thepracticearoseinIsraelbutthereseemtohavebeenthreestagesinthehistoryofTempleservants.(1)Theywereslavesinthestrictsense(2)theywereadmitted
toIsraeliteprivileges,beingcircumcised,andtreatedasfreemenholdinganofficialpositionintheChurch(3)theyroseinstandingandprestigesoastobecome
practicallyequivalenttotheLevites.
1.ThenameNethinimisnotusedbeforetheExile.Ezr8:20speaksoftheNethinimasthosewhomDavidandtheprinceshadgivenfortheserviceofthe
Levites,whichshows,atleast,thatcommonbelieftracedtheiroriginbacktoDavid.Averysimilarclassofpersons,thechildrenofSolomonsservants,is
mentionedinEzr2:55,58,Neh7:57,60,11:3theirdescentwasevidentlytracedtothenonIsraeliteslavesemployedbySolomoninconnexionwithhisbuildings,
someofwhommusthavelabouredinthenewroyalsanctuary(cf.1K9:1921).ThisemploymentofforeignslavesintheTemplecontinuedtillthebeginningof
theExile(Ezk44:6f.).
2.AchangeinthestatusofthesemenwasbroughtaboutbytheExile.Whenthepeoplewerefarfromtheland,everyonewhohadheldanysortofpositionin
theTemplemusthavegainedacertainprestige.TheformerTempleslavesseemedtohaveformedthemselvesintoaguild.Bytheveryfactoftheirexile,theywere
freedfromtheirslaverytotheTemple,andthuswhentheyandtheirsonsreturnedtoJerusalem,theyreturnedasfreemen,whowererecognizedaspartofthe
nation.Asaguild,theyacquiredforthemselvesthetitleNethinim,owingtotheirtraditionalorigin.InEzr2:4858,70=Neh7:4658,73aregiventhenamesof
theNethinimwhoarereportedtohavereturnedwithZerubbabelandtheyarementionedtogetherwithpriests,Levites,singers,andporters.Someofthenamesin
thelistareundoubtedlyofforeignorigin.Again,Ezrarelates(8:20)thatonhisreturn,220NethinimfromCasiphiaaccompaniedhim.Afteratimewefindthemso
completelyestablishedasasacredofficialclass,thatprivilegesareaccordedtothem.Theysharedwithpriests,Levites,singers,andporters,immunityfromtaxation
(Ezr7:24).Theylivedinaspecialquarterofthecity,namedOphel,i.e.thesouthernandeasternslopeoftheTemplehill,ormoreparticularlythatpartofitwhich
reachedtotheWatergateontheeast,andtothetowerprojectingfromtheroyalpalace(Neh3:28).TheywerethusneartheTemple,andBp.Ryle(Ezra,etc.,p.
lviii)pointsouttheappropriatenessofassigningtodrawersofwaterthepositionbytheWatergate,whichcommunicatedwiththeVirginsSpring.Andv.31
mentionsthehouseoftheNethinim,whichmusthavebeenanofficialbuildingusedbythemduringtheirperiodsofduty.Theywereunderthecommandoftwo
chiefsofwhomone,atleast,wasamemberoftheirownbodyZihaandGishpa(Neh11:21)theformeristhefirstinthelist,inEzr2:45=Neh7:48,andGishpa
maypossiblybethesameasHasupha,thesecondname.Further,onlyaportionofthem,likethepriests,Levites,singers,andporters,dweltinJerusalemtheothers
dweltintheircities(Ezr2:70=Neh7:73,1Ch9:2).Andsofarweretheyfrombeingregardedasforeignslaves,thattheyjoined,asfullmembersofthe
community,intheoaththattheywouldnot(amongotherthings)allowtheirsonsanddaughterstomarryanybutIsraelites(Neh10:2830).
3.FromthispointtheNethinimgraduallyroseinofficialposition,untiltheywereindistinguishablefromtheLevites.In1Ch23:28theLevitesarespokenof
insuchawayastosuggestthatthetermincludedallTempleservants.Andconversely,sincesingersanddoorkeepers(whoarequitedistinctfromLevitesinEzr.
Neh.)wereexplicitlyreckonedbytheChroniclerasLevites(1Ch15:18,26:119),itisprobablethatthesamewasthecasewiththeNethinim.Finally,in1Es1:3
theLevites,andin8:22,48theNethinim,aredescribedbythesameterm,hierodoutoi.
A.H.MNEILE.
NETOPHAH.Atown,thenameofwhichfirstoccursinthelistoftheexileswhoreturnedunderZerubbabel(Ezr2:22=Neh7:26=1Es5:18Netophas).
PerhapsthenameispreservedinthemodernBeitNettifattheentrancetotheWadyesSuntorValeofElah.ThegentilicnametheNetophathite(s)occursin2S
23:28f.,2K25:23,Jer40:8.
NETOPHAS(1Es5:18)=NetophahofEzr2:22||Neh7:26.
NETSwereusedintakingwildanimals(seeHUNTING),andbirds(seeS NARES)buttheirmainusehasalwaysbeeninfishing.TheancientHebrewswerenot
fishermen,nordotheyseemtohaveeatenmuchfish.ThereisnoreferenceinOTtofishingintheinlandwatersofPalestine.Thefishermenandtheimplements
namedareeitherEgyptianorPhnician.ThefisherpartnersofJob41:6arePhniciansthefishermenofIs19:8areEgyptians.Fishweretakenalongthe
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Mediterraneancoastwithlineandbook(Job41:1,Is19:8,Am4:2),andthefishspearorharpoon(Job41:7).Butsufficientquantitiesforcommercialpurposes
couldbeobtainedonlybymeansofnets.(a)Heb.mikmr(Is51:20)andmakmr(Ps141:10)andthefem.formsmikmreth(Is19:8)andmikmereth(Hab1:15,
16)isprobably=Gr.sagn(Mt13:47),theArab,jarf,drawnet.Itisasmuchas400metreslong,20ft.deep,andoffinemesh,sothatitsweepseverything
beforeit.Fromthesternofaboatitispaidoutinagreatsemicircle,theloweredgecarrieddownbyleadsinkers,theuppersustainedbycorkfloats.Itisthendrawn
ashore,withitscontents,byropesattachedtotheends.Fishermenswimbehind,divingtoeaseitoverstonesandotherobstructions.ThisaccountsforSimon
Peterscondition(Jn21:7).(b)Heb.chrem(Ezk26:5,Hab1:15etc.),Gr.amphiblstron(Mt14:18etc.),themod.shabakeh,castnet.Itiscircular,ofclose
mesh,withacordattachedtothecentre.Thefishermangathersittogether,arrangesitonhisarmandshoulder,andmoves,orwades,stealthilyalongtheshoreuntil
heseessignsoffishwithinreachthen,withaskilfulcast,thenetfliesoutanddropsfullcircleonthewaterleadbeadsroundthecircumferencecarryittothe
bottom,enclosingthefish,whicharethensecuredatleisure.(c)Anetusedtoday,calledmbatten,consistsofthreenetsstrungonasinglerope,thetwoouter
beingofwide,theinnerofclose,mesh.Itisletdowninfairlydeepwater,parallelwiththeshore.Thefishpassthroughtheouternet,pushingtheinnerbeforethem
throughthewidemeshesontheotherside,thusbeingentangled.Thenetispulledupandemptiedintotheboats.(d)Gr.diktyon(Mt4:20etc.)isatermusedfor
netsingeneral.IntheLXXamphiblstronandsagnareusedindiscriminatelyastr.alikeofchremandmikmr,etc.
AtaxisleviedonallfishcaughtintheSeaofGalilee.Thefavouritefishinggroundsarenear
AinetFulyeh,southofelMejdelthebayatetTbighaandthewatersofelBateihahintheN.E.TheUpperJordanandetHlehliewithintheprivatelandsofthe
Sultan,towhompaymentismadeforfishingrights.Seeanexcellentaccountof,TheFisheriesofGalileeinPEFSt,Jan.1908,p.40ff.,byDr.Mastermanof
Jerusalem.
W.EWING.
NETTLE.1.chrl(Job30:7,Pr24:31,Zeph2:9),moreprobablyagenericnameforthornbushesgrowinginthewilderness,suchastheZizyphusand
varietiesofacacia.2.qimms(Is34:13,Hos9:6),qimmsnm(Pr24:31EVthorns).Thesewordsallreferprobablytonettles,whichareabundantindeserted
placesinPalestine.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
NEWBIRTH.SeeREGENERATION.
NEWMOON.SeeF EASTS,2,andMOON.
NEWTESTAMENT.SeeBIBLE,CANONOFNT.TEXTOFNT.
NEZIAH.ThenameofafamilyofNethinim(Ezr2:54,Neh7:66)calledin1Es5:32NasiorNasith(thelatterforminAVandRVm).
NEZIB.AtownintheShephlahofJudah(Jos15:43)thepresentBeitNusib,7RomanmilesfromEleutheropolisontheroadtoHebron.
NIBHAZ.AnidoloftheAvvites(2K17:31).ButtheHeb.textiscorrupt,andnoidentificationofthisdeityispossible.
NIBSHAN.AcityinthedesertofJudah(Jos15:62).Thenamehasnotbeenrecovered.
NICANOR.1.SonofPatroclus,aSyriangeneralwhowasengagedintheJewishwars(1Mac3:38).HewassentbyLysiasinB.C.166againstJudas
Maccabus,butwasdefeated.FiveyearslaterhewassentonthesameerrandbyDemetriusthistimeheendeavouredtowinbystrategywhathehadfailedtogain
byforce.Againhewascompelledtofight,andwastwicedefeated,onceatCapharsalama(1Mac7:2632)andagainatAdasa,wherehelosthislife.Thedayof
hisdeathwasordainedtobekeptasafestivalasNicanorsDay.Theaccountin2Mac(esp.14:1230)differsinseveraldetails.2.OneoftheSeven(Ac6:5).
T.A.MOXON.
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NICODEMUS.APhariseeandamemberoftheSanhedrin(Jn3:1,7:50),elderly(3:4)andevidentlywelltodo(19:39).HeismentionedonlyintheFourth
Gospel,andtherehefiguresthrice.(1)AttheoutsetofHisministryJesuswentuptoJerusalemtokeeptheFeastofthePassover,andHismiraclesmadeadeep
impressiononNicodemus,halfpersuadinghimthatHewastheMessiahinsomuchthatheinterviewedHimsecretlyundercoverofthedarkness(Jn3:121).He
beganbyraisingthequestionofthemiracles,which,heallowed,provedJesusattheleastaGodcommissionedteacherbutJesusinterruptedhimandsethimface
tofacewiththeurgentandpersonalmatterofregeneration.Nicodemuswentawaybewildered,butaseedhadbeenplantedinhissoul.(2)Duringthethirdyearof
Hisministry,JesuswentuptotheFeastofTabernacles(October).TherulerswerenowHisavowedenemies,andtheyconvenedameetingoftheSanhedrinto
devisemeasuresagainstHim(7:4552).Nicodemuswaspresent,and,adiscipleatheartbutafraidtoavowhisfaith,hemerelyraisedapointoforder:Dothourlaw
judgeaman,exceptitfirsthearhimselfandknowwhathedoeth?(RV).(3)AtthemeetingoftheSanhedrinwhichcondemnedJesustodeathNicodemusmadeno
protestprobablyheabsentedhimself.ButaftertheCrucifixion,ashamedofhiscowardice,heatlastavowedhimselfandjoinedwithJosephofArimathaingiving
theLordsbodyakinglyburial(19:39).
DAVIDS MITH.
NICOLAITANS.Seenextarticle.
NICOLAS(lit.conquerorofthepeople).AmongtheSevenchoseninAc6toministertotheHellenistsorGreekspeakingJews,wasNicolas,aproselyteof
Antioch.Theremainingsix,weinfer,wereofJewishbirth,forproselyteistheemphaticword(6:5).AtalateragetheJewsdividedconvertstoJudaismintotwo
classes,proselytesofrighteousness,whowerecircumcisedandwhokeptthewholeLaw,andproselytesofthegate,whohadonlyasomewhatundefined
connexionwithIsrael.ItisprobablethatthisdifferenceinitsessencealsoholdsinNT,wherethelatterclassarecalledGodfearingordevout,adescription
whichinActsappearstobetechnical(soLightfoot,Ramsaythisisdisputed,however).Iftheviewherestatedbetrue,therewerethreestagesintheadvance
towardstheideaofaCatholicChurch:(1)theadmissionofNicolas,afullproselyte,toofficeintheChristianChurch,followedbythebaptismoftheEthiopian
eunuch,alsoprobablyafullproselyte(8:27)(2)thebaptismofCornelius,aGodfearingproselyte,i.e.ofthelatterclass(3)thedirectadmissionofheathentothe
ChurchwithouttheirhavinghadanyconnexionwithJudaism.
NicolasisnotfurthermentionedinNT,butIrenusandHippolytusassertthathewasthefounderoftheNicolaitansofRev2:6,15(ifindeedarealsectistheremeant)and
LightfootthinksthattheremightwellbeaheresiarchamongtheSeven(Galatians6,p.297).Itis,however,equallyprobablethatthiswasonlyavainclaimofthelate2ndcent.
sectofthatnamementionedbyTertullian,forbothhereticsandorthodoxofthatandsucceedingagesapocryphallyclaimedApostolicauthorityfortheiropinionsandwritingsorit
isnotunlikelythattheNicolaitansofRev2weresocalledbecausetheyexaggeratedanddistortedinanantinomiansensethedoctrineofNicolas,whoprobablypreachedtheliberty
ofthegospel.IrenusandHippolytusarenotlikelytohaveknownmoreaboutthematterthanwedo.
A.J.MACLEAN.
NICOPOLIS,orthecityofvictory,wasfoundedbyAugustusinB.C.31,onthespotwherehehadhadhiscampbeforethebattleofActium.Itwasmadea
Romancolony,andwaspeopledbycitizensdrawnfromvariousplacesinAcarnaniaandtolia.
InTit3:12St.Paulwrites,GivediligencetocomeuntometoNicopolisforthereIhavedeterminedtowinter.Itmaybetakenascertainthatthismeans
NicopolisinEpirus,fromwhichdoubtlessSt.Paulhopedtobegintheevangelizationofthatprovince.Noothercityofthenamewasinsuchaposition,orso
importantastoclaimsixmonthsoftheApostlestime.
TheimportanceofNicopolisdependedpartlyontheActiangames,partlyonsomecommerceandfisheries.ItwasdestroyedbytheGoths,and,though
restoredbyJustinian,itwassupplantedintheMiddleAgesbyPrevesa,whichgrewupalittlefarthersouth.Thereareextensiveruinsonitssite.
A.E.HILLARD.
NIGER.ThesecondnameofSymeon,oneoftheprophetsandteachersintheChurchofAntioch(Ac13:1).HisnameSymeonshowshisJewishorigin,and
NigerwasprobablytheGentilenamewhichheassumed.Nothingfurtherisknownofhim.
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/n.htm M S . 26/38
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MORLEYS TEVENSON.
NIGHT.SeeTIME.
NIGHTHAWK(tachms).Anuncleanbird(Lv11:16,Dt14:16).Whatthetackmsreallywasismerelyamatterofspeculation.Aspeciesofowl,theostrich,
andeventhecuckoo,haveallbeensuggested,butwithoutanyconvincingreasons.Nighthawkismerelyanothernameforthefamiliarnightjarorgoatsucker
(Caprimulgus),ofwhichthreespeciesareknowninPalestine.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
NIGHTMONSTER.SeeLILITH.
NILE.TheGreeknameoftheriver,ofuncertainderivation.TheEgyptiannamewasHopi,laterYero,GreatRiver,buttheHebrewgenerallydesignatesthe
NilebytheplainEgyptianwordforriver,Yer.TheNilewasrichinfish,andthehomeofthecrocodileandhippopotamus.Itboremostoftheinternaltrafficof
Egyptbutitwaspreeminentlytheonesourceofwater,andsooflifeandfertility,inalandwhich,withoutit,wouldhavebeendesert.TheWhiteNilesendsdown
fromtheCentralAfricanlakesasteadystream,whichisgreatlyincreasedinsummerandautumn,whenthehalfdrybedsoftheBahrelAzrekandtheAtbaraare
filledbythetorrentialrainsannuallypouredonthemountainsofAbyssinia.Thewatersofthesetributariesarechargedwithorganicmatterwasheddownbythe
floods,andthisisspreadoverthefieldsofEgyptbytheinundation.TheheightoftheNilerisewasmeasuredandrecordedbytheEgyptiansfromtheearliesttimes:
onitdependedalmostwhollytheharvestoftheyear,andagreatexcessmightbeasharmfulasadeficiency.TherisebeginsaboutJune19,andafterincreasing
slowlyforamonththerivergainsrapidlytillSeptemberattheendofSeptemberitbecomesstationary,butrisesagain,reachingitshighestlevelaboutthemiddleof
October. The crops were sown as the water retreated, and on the lower ground a second crop was obtained by artificial irrigation. Canals and embankments
regulated the waters in ancient times. The water was raised for the irrigation of the fields by shadfs, i.e. buckets hung from the end of dipping poles, and
handscoops,andcarriedbysmallchannelswhichcouldbeopenedorstoppedwithalittlemudandcutherbage:bythismeanstheflowwasdirectedtoparticular
fieldsorpartsoffieldsasmightberequired.WaterwheelswereprobablyintroducedinGreektimes.Inmoderndays,vastdamstostorethewateragainstthetimeof
low Nile, and steam pumps (in Lower Egypt) to raise it, have changed the aspect of high Nile and revolutionized the system of irrigation but for the smaller
operationstheoldmethodsarestillpractised.TheNilehadsevenmouths,ofwhichthewestern(theCanopic)andtheeastern(thePelusiac)werethemostimportant.
TheformersecuredmostofthetrafficwithGreeceandtheislands,thelatterwiththePhnicians.ThePelusiacarm,onwhichTahpanhesandPibesethlay,would
bebestknowntotheinhabitantsofPalestine.Nowtheancientmouthsaresilteduponlyawestern(Rosettabranch)andacentralone(Damiettabranch)survive.
TheworshipoftheNilegodmusthavebeenprominentinpopularfestivals,buthasnotleftmuchmonumentaltrace.TheNilewasnotoneofthegreatgods,andhis
figureappearschieflyasemblematicoftheriver,e.g.bringingofferingstothegodsthefigureisthatofanobesemanwithwaterplantsonhishead.
TheEgyptiansseemtohaveimaginedaconnexionoftheNilesouthwardswiththeIndianOcean,andtheprieststaughttheabsurdnotionthatitgushedout
northandsouthfromtwospringsattheFirstCataract.TheyalsofanciedaNileinheavenproducingrain,andanotherundergroundfeedingthesprings.Theseven
leanyearsinGenesisisparalleledbyanEgyptiantraditionofamuchearliersevenyearsfamineunderthe3rdDyn.,andyearsoffamineduetoinsufficientriseof
theNilearereferredtoinmorethanonehieroglyphictext.
F.LL.GRIFFITH.
NIMRAH.SeeBETHNIMRAH.
NIMRIM,THEWATERSOF(Is15:6,Jer48:34).NamedalongwithZoarandHoronaim,andmustthereforebesoughtintheS.ofMoab.TheOnomasticon
(Nemerim)placesittotheN.ofZoar.ThenameseemstobefoundinWdyNmeirah,whichopensontheE.shore,atBurjenNmeirah,aboutthreemilesfrom
theS.endoftheDeadSea.
W.EWING.
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NIMROD(Gn10:812,1Ch1:10,Mic5:6).Alegendarypersonage,describedinGn
10:8ff.asthefirstoftheheroes,amightyhunterbeforetheLord,theruleroffourancientBabyloniancities,andthefounderoftheAssyrianEmpire.Inthe
statementthathewasbegottenbyCush,wehaveprobablyareferencetotheKashorKasshuwhoconqueredBabyloniaaboutthe17thcent.B.C.,andsetupa
dynastywhichlasted600years:theriseofAssyriaissaidtodatefromthedeclineofBabyloniaunderthelaterKassitekings.ThenearestBabylonianparalleltothe
figureofNimrodasyetdiscoveredisGilgamesh,thetyrantofErech,whoseadventuresarerecordedinthefamousseriesoftabletstowhichtheDelugestory
belongs,andwhoissupposedtobetheherosooftenrepresentedonsealsandpalacereliefsinvictoriouscombatwithalion.Itwasatonetimehopedthattheactual
nameNimrodmightberecoveredfromtheideogramcommonlyreadasIZ.DU.BARandthoughthisexpectationhasbeendispelledbythediscoveryofthetrue
pronunciationGitgamesh,thereisenoughgeneralresemblancetowarrantthebeliefthattheoriginaloftheBiblicalNimrodbelongstoBabylonianlore.The
combinationofwarlikeprowesswithapassionforthechaseisillustratedbythenumeroushuntingscenessculpturedonthemonumentsanditmaywellbe
imaginedthattotheHebrewmindNimrodbecameanidealpersonationoftheproudmonarchswhoruledthemightyempiresontheEuphratesandtheTigris.
J.S KINNER.
NIMSHI.GrandfatherofkingJehu(1K9:16,2K9:2,14,20,2Ch22:7).
NINEVEH(Assyr.Nin,Nina)issaidinGn.10:11tohavebeenfoundedbyNimrodinAssyria.NinevehwasincludedinthedominionsofHammurabi,who
restoredthetempleofIshtarthere.Itwasearlyanimportantcity,andisfrequentlyreferredtointheroyalinscriptions,butSennacheribfirstraisedittotheposition
ofcapitalofAssyria.ItlayontheE.oftheTigris,oppositethemodernMosul.ItschiefremainsareburiedbeneaththemoundsofKouyunjikandNebiYunus,but
theoutlineoftheoldwallscanbetraced.Theyenclosedsome1,800acres,withacircumferenceofabout8miles.ThemoundofKouyunjikisseparatedfromthe
moundofNebi
YunusbytheKhoser,andoverliesthepalacesofSennacheribtotheS.,andAshurbanipaltothe
N.Thesouthernmound,NebiYunus,coverspalacesofSennacheribandEsarhaddon.TheNinevehofSennacheribsdaylaylargelyoutsidethisarea,andincluded
theRebitNina,orRehobothir,whichextendedasfarasKhorsabad,whereSargonbuiltagreatcity,DrSargon.Thetraditionsofitsgreatsizemaybeduetoa
reminiscenceofthisoutergirdleofinhabitedcountry.ThefallofNineveh(B.C.606)isreferredtobyNahumandZephaniah(2:1315).2K19:36andIs37:37
knowitasthecityofSennacherib.ForJonahsmission,seeJONAH.Later,Tobit(1:10,17etc.)andJudith(1:1)refertoit,andtheNinevitesarenamedinMt12:41,
Lk11:30,32.
C.H.W.JOHNS.
NIPHIS(1Es5:21)perhaps=MagbishinEzr2:30.
NISAN.SeeTIME.
NISROCH.AnAssyr.deityinwhosetempleSennacheribwasworshippingwhenassassinated(2K19:37,Is37:38).
GeseniuscomparedthenamewiththeArabicnisr(eagle),andconjecturedthatitreferredtooneoftheeagleheadeddivinitiesthatappearinthebasreliefs.Inlatertimes
attemptshavebeenmadetoidentifyNisrochwithNusku(thefiregod)whosenamewouldnaturallybemostfamiliarintheconstructformNusuk,andevenwithMarduk.But
NuskudidnotatthisperiodoccupyasufficientlyprominentpositionintheAssyr.pantheonandtheideaofMarduk,thegreatgodofBabylon,beingthepatronofSennacherib,the
archenemyofthatcity,ismanifestlyincongruous.ThedeitythatshouldlogicallyholdthisplaceisAshur.AccordinglyPrincesuggeststhatNisrochisahybridformduetoa
confusionofAshurwithNusku.ButcomparisonwiththeGreekformsseemstoindicatethattheoriginalreadingwassomethingsimilartoAsorach.ThisSchraderexplainsas
Ashurach,ahypotheticallenghtenedformofAshur.AndMeinholdconjecturesacompound(AshurAku)ofAshurwithAku,theSumeriannameofthemoongod,whoseAssyr.
nameSinisanelementinthenameSennacherib.
W.M.NESBIT.
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NITRE,initsmodernusage,denotessaltpetre,nitrateofpotash,butthenitronornitrumoftheancientswasadifferentsubstance,natron,carbonateofsoda.
NitreoccurstwiceinAV.In
Pr25:20theeffectofsongsonaheavyheartiscomparedtotheactionofvinegaruponnitre(RVmsoda).Vinegarhasnoeffectuponsaltpetre,butwith
carbonateofsodaitproduceseffervescence.InJer2:22nitre(RVlye)isreferredtoasacleansingagent.Here,again,natronratherthanmodernnitresuitsthe
connexion.
NO.Jer46:25,Ezk30:14,15,16,thenameofThebes(DiospolisMagna),Egyp.N:alsoNoamon,Nah3:8,Amon(Ammon)beingthegodofthecity.
NahumseemstoimagineThebesasresemblingthecitiesofthelessremoteDeltasurroundedbycanals,whichweretheirchiefprotectioninrealityitlayonboth
banksoftheNile,withdesertboundingitoneitherside,andwaterprobablyplayedlittlepartinitsdefence.ThebeswasofnoimportanceuntiltheMiddleKingdom
(Dyns.11,12),duringwhichtheroyalfamiliesweremuchconnectedwithit.Itwasthecapitalofthelocal17thDyn.,strugglingagainsttheHyksosinthenameof
itsgodAmmonandthegreatwarriorsofthesucceeding18thDyn.enrichedThebeswiththespoilsofconquest,builttemplestherethatsurpassedallothersinsize
andmagnificence,andmadeitthegreatestcityoftheEmpire.Underthe19thand20thDynasties,Ammonwasstillthenationalgod,andThebesthecapitalof
Egypt.Later,Memphisagaintookthefirstplace,butThebeswasatleastthereligiouscentreofthewidespreadAmmonworship,andthetemplesretainedmuchof
theirwealthuntilthesackofthecitybykingAshurbanipal(aboutB.C.666),referredtoinNahum.ThetemplesofThebescontinuedtobeaddedtountil
insurrectionsunderthePtolemysledtoitsdestructionandfinalabandonmentasacity.InJer46:25(RV)IwillpunishAmonofNoandPharaohandEgyptwithher
godsandtheirkings,AmonisprobablynottakenastherepresentativegodofEgypt,apositionwhichhenolongerheldinthe6thcent.B.C.:thepassagerather
indicatesthecompletenessofEgyptsfallbythepunishmentoftheremoteThebes,whichcouldnotbeaccomplishedtillLowerEgyptwasprostrate.TheTheban
AmmonwasoftenentitledAmenR,kingofthegods,beingidentifiedwiththesungodR.Hisfigureisthatofaman,generallycolouredgreen.Theramwashis
sacredanimal.InEthiopiahewasadoptedasthenationalgod,andhisworshipwasestablishedintheOases,especiallyintheOasisofAmmon(Siwa),wherehis
oraclewasvisitedbyAlexander.
F.LL.GRIFFITH.
NOADIAH1.ALeviteintimeofEzra(Ezr8:33)calledin1Es8:68Moeth.2.Aprophetess,whoopposedNehemiah(Neh6:14).
NOAH.1.Nach,rest.ThenameisexplainedinGn5:29byaplayonnicham,tocomfortbutperhapsthereadingsupportedbytheLXXshouldbe
adopted,Thissameshallgiveusrest.InonetraditionNoahistheherooftheFlood,andanswerstoUtnapishtimintheBab.legend.SeeDELUGE.Utnapishtim
wastranslatedtoimmortalityandthisisperhapsreferredtoin6:9b(cf.5:24andseeENOCH).Inanothertraditionheisthediscovereroftheartofmakingwine
(9:2027).ElsewhereintheBible,besidesthereferencestotheFlood,Noahismentionedin1Ch1:4,Ezk14:14,20,Lk3:36.2.Nh(Nu26:38,27:1,36:11,
Jos17:8).OneofthedaughtersofZelophehad,ofthetribeofManasseh.Theyclaimedtheirfathersinheritancebecausehehaddiedleavingnosons.Itwasgiven
tothem,onconditionthattheywerenotmarriedintoanothertribe.
A.H.MNEILE.
NOAMON.SeeNo.
NOB.Aplaceofthisnameismentionedinthreepassages1S21,22,Neh11:33,Is10:32(textnotquitecertain).Thecontextinthetwolatterpassages
pointstoaplacenearJerusalem.In1Sam.,DavidpassesNob,whichhasbecomethecityofpriestsafterthedestructionofShiloh,onhiswayfromSaul(in
Gibeah,wh.see)toGaththiswouldsuitasitenearJerusalem,thoughitdoesnotdemandsuchaposition,unless,indeed,weinfer(cf.1S20:6)thatDavidwentto
NobwiththeintentionofproceedingtoBethlehem(5milesS.ofJerusalem).
Thereisnostrongreasonagainstassumingthatinallthreepassagesthesameplaceisreferredto.InNeh11:33andIs10:32Nobiscloselyconnectedwith
Anathoth,21/2milesN.ofJerusalem.SinceinIs10:32NobisthelastpointreachedbytheAssyrianarmyandtheplacefromwhichitthreatensJerusalem,thesiteis
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bestsoughtforonaneminencealittleN.ofthecity,perhapsinparticular(withDriver)ontheRaselMeshrif.about11/2milesS.W.ofAnathoth,theridgefrom
thebrowofwhichthepilgrimalongthenorthroadstillcatcheshisfirstviewoftheholycity.Thenamehasnotsurvivedandtheidentificationsuggestedstandsor
fallswiththecorrectnessoftheHebrewtextinIs10:32.
G.B.GRAY.
NOBAH.1.TheclannameoftheIsraeliteswhoconqueredthecityofKenath(wh.see).2.AplacenamedwithJogbehahintheaccountofGideonspursuitof
ZebahandZalmunna(Jg
8:11),possiblyalsoinNu21:30,wheretheSyr.readsNobahwhichisonthedesert,insteadofNophahwhichreachethuntoMedeba.Thismayhavebeenthe
originalsettlementoftheclanofthatname.Itshouldbesought,probably,neartheupperreachesoftheJabbokbutthesitehasnotbeenrecovered.
W.EWING.
NOBAI.Oneofthosewhosealedthecovenant(Neh10:19).Cf.NEBO,1.
NOD.AccordingtoGn4:16,thecountryinwhichCainthefratricidetookuphisabodeafterhissentenceofbanishment.Theplaceisunknown.Itisprobably
connectedinsomewayetymologicallywiththeepithetndofv.14(RVwanderer).TheadditioneastwardofEdenisoflittlehelpforitslocation.
J.F.MCURDY.
NODAB.Thenameofatribementionedin1Ch5:19,alongwithNaphishandJetur,asamongthefoesencounteredandsubduedbytheReubenites.A
comparisonwithvariousreadingsofLXXshowsthatthevowelsofthewordareuncertain.AnIdentificationwiththeNabatansisexcludedbothonphonological
groundsandbythefactthatthelatter,whosepositionwasinanycasetooremotefromReuben,didnotappearinhistorytilllongafterthetribalperiodofthe
Hebrewshadcometoanend.SomewhatmoreplausibleisacombinationwithamodernvillageNudbeintheHauran.
J.F.MCURDY.
NOEBA(1Es5:31)=NekodaEzr2:48,Nekodan1Es5:37.
NOGAH.OneofDavidssons,bornatJerusalem(1Ch3:7,14:6).
NOHAH.FourthsonofBenjamin(1Ch8:2).SeealsoMENUHAH.
NOISOME.Noisomeisliterallyannoysome.Theadj.meansoffensive,injuriousinAVthewordisnowratherrarelyused,butwhenitisuseditmeans
loathsomeratherthanhurtful.
NOOMA(1Es9:35)=NeboinEzr10:42.
NOPH.SeeMEMPHIS.
NOPHAH.SeeNOBAH.
NORTHCOUNTRY,LANDOFTHENORTH.Aphraseofsomewhatvague
application,butdenotinginageneralfashion1.ThesourceorregionfromwhichdangerousfoesweretocomeuponPalestine(soinJer6:22,10:22,Zec6:6,8).
2.TheregionstowhichthepeopleofIsraelorJudahhadbeenexiled,andwhencetheyweretoberestored(soinJer3:18,16:16,23:8,31:8,Zec2:6).3.Northern
Syria(soJer46:10).ThelastnamedInstanceexplainsitself.Theotherapplicationsofthetermmaybefurtherillustratedbytheusageofthewordnorthgenerally
inOT.Hereitissufficienttorecallthegeneralfactthat,whileintheearlyhistoryofIsraelthelandwasinvadedbymanysmallpeoplesfromtheeastandsouth,after
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theriseoftheAssyrianandChaldanpowerstheattacksweremadebylargerarmieswhichcameinthecourseoftheirmarchdownthroughSyriaorthe
Mediterraneancoastland,theeasterndesertroutebeingimpossible.Deportationsofcaptiveswerenaturallyeffectedbythesameroutes,andbythesameroutes
theywouldreturn.Thus,thoughBabyloniawasinthesamelatitudeas
Palestine,itwasincludedamongthecountriesofthenorth.
J.F.MCURDY.
NOSE,NOSTRILS(aphistheusualwordnchrmonlyinJob41:20nacharinJob
39:20,AVnostrils,RV,correctly,snorting).Tohaveaflat,ormoreprobablyslitnose(Lv21:16),disqualifiedamanforthemakingofofferings.Thenoseis
theorganofthebreathbywhichmenlive(Gn2:7etc.).Thebreathiseasilystoppedorexpelled,hencethefactsignifiesthetransiencyofhumanlife(Is2:22).
Excitedbreathing,withdistentionofthenostrilswhenmovedbyindignation,ledtothenosebeingusedfig.foranger(Gn27:45,andveryoften),Ezk8:17refers
tothecustomofputtingatwigtothenose,apparentlyinidolatrousworship,thesignificanceofwhichisnowobscure.Fornosering,seeORNAMENTS,2.
W.EWING.
NOUGHT.SeeNAUGHTandnotice,further,thephrasesetatnought(Pr1:25,Mk9:12).Tosetistovalue,andnoughtisnothing,sothephrase
meanstoreckonofnovalue.
NOVICE.In1Ti3:5itisenjoinedthatthebishopmustnotbeanovice.TheGr.word(neophytos,lit.newlyplanted)wasafterwardsusedinthetechnical
senseofonewhohasnotyettakenreligiousvows.HereitisgeneralonenewlyintroducedintotheChristiancommunity.
NUMBER
1.Notation.ThedecimalscaleofnotationwasusedbytheIsraelites,Assyrians,Babylonians,Egyptians,Greeks,Romans,and,sofarasweknow,bythe
othernationsmentionedintheBible,i.e.theyreckonedbyunits,tens,hundreds,etc.
2.Varietyandrangeofnumericalterminology.TheHeb.languageexpressedtheintegersfromonetoanyamountbywordsdenotingunits,tens,a
hundred,twohundred,athousand,twothousand,tenthousand,twentythousand,andbycombinationsofthesewords.Thusthehighestnumberexpressedbya
singlewordistwentythousand,thewordusedmeaningdoubletenthousand.ThewordmillionsinAVofGn24:60isamistranslationitshouldbetenthousands
asinRV.Thenumberreferredtointhisverse,thousandsoftenthousands,forthedescendantshopedforfromRebekah,andthenumberoftheangelsinDn7:10,
Rev5:11,thousandthousandsministereduntohim,andtenthousandtimestenthousandstoodbeforehim,iftakenliterally,wouldbethelargestnumbers
mentionedintheBible,buttheyaremerelyrhetoricalphrasesforcountless,indefinitelylargenumbers.InRev7:9theredeemedareagreatmultitudewhichno
mancouldnumber(cf.Gn13:16)thenearestapproachwhichtheBiblemakestothemathematicalideaofinfinity.
ThelargestliteralnumberintheBibleisthenumberofIsraelitesfitforwarlikeservice,ascertainedbyDavidscensusas1,100,000,inadditiontothemenof
Judah470,000(1Ch21:6).In2S24:9,however,thenumbersare800,000and500,000respectively.ClosetothiscomesthearmyofZerah(2Ch14:9),a
thousandthousand,i.e.1,000,000andin2Ch17:12ff.,Jehoshaphathasanarmyinfivedivisions,of300,000,280,000,200,000,200,000,180,000respectively.
ThenumberoffightingmenamongsttheIsraelitesisgiveninNu2:32as603,550andlateroninNu26:51as601,730.
Hebrewalsopossessedafewspecialformsfortheordinals,first,second,etc.,andtodenoteseventimes,etc.inothercases,especiallyforthehighernumbers,
thecardinalsareused.
Therearealsoafewwordsforfractions,athird,aquarter.
TheBiblicalGreekcallsfornospecialcommentthewritershadattheirdisposaltheordinaryresourcesofHellenisticGreek.Wemay,however,callattentionto
thedisputedrenderinginMt18:22,whereRVhasseventytimesseven,RVmseventytimesandseven.
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3.Symbols.IntheHeb.textoftheOT,andalsoforthemostpartintheGr.textoftheNT,numbersaredenotedbywords.Thismethodisalsotheonlyone
usedinthetwoancientHeb.inscriptionstheMoabiteStone(ratherlaterthanAhab),andtheSiloaminscription(usuallyascribedtothetimeofHezekiah).Asthe
Assyrians,Egyptians,andPhniciansusedfiguresaswellaswordstodenotenumbers,itispossiblethattheIsraelitesalsohadarithmeticalfiguresbutatpresent
thereisnopositiveevidenceofsuchausage.
InlatertimestheJewsusedconsonantsasnumericalsignstheunitsfromonetonineweredenotedbythefirstnineletters,thetensfromtentoninetybythe
nextnine,andthehundredsfromonehundredtofourhundredbytheremainingfourletters.Othernumbersweredenotedbycombinationsofletters.Acurious
featureofthissystemisthatthenaturalcombinationfor15,viz.Yod=10,He=5,wasnotusedbecauseYod,He,orYahwasaformofthesacrednameYahweh,
whichmightnotbepronouncedaccordinglyTeth=9andWaw=6weresubstituted.ThissystemisstillcommonlyusedtonumberthechaptersandversesinHeb.
Bibles.AsimilarsystemwasalsousedbytheGreeks,andisoccasionallyfoundintheNTthustheNumberoftheBeast,666,inRev13:18,iswrittenbymeansof
threeletters.
4.Arithmetic.Thereisnoevidenceofproficiencyinarithmeticbeyondthesimplestoperations,butwehaveexamplesofadditioninconnexionwiththe
censusinthewilderness,thenumbersoftheseparatetribesbeinggivenfirstandthenthetotal(Nu1:22ff.,26:7ff.)subtractionisreferredtoinLv27:18an
instanceofmultiplicationisLv25:8,77=49andLv25:50impliesakindofruleofthreesum.
5.RoundNumbers.Asinotherlanguages,roundnumbers,exacttens,hundreds,thousands,etc.,mustoftenhavebeenusedbytheIsraelites,onthe
understandingthattheywereonlyapproximatelyaccurateandinthesamewaysmallernumbersweresometimesusedindefinitelyforafewcf.ourhalfa
dozen.ForInstance,theexacttenthousandsof
Jehoshaphatsarmiesgivenabovearedoubtlessroundnumbers.Again,inLv26:8,fiveofyoushallchaseahundred,merelymeans,ahandfulofyoushallputto
flightmanytimesyourownnumber.Thisindefiniteuseofasmallnumberisspeciallycommonwheretwoconsecutiveunitsaregivenasalternatives,e.g.Is17:6,
twoorthree,fourorfive.AvarietyofthisidiomistheuseoftwoconsecutiveunitstoIntroduceemphaticallythehigherofthetwoe.g.Pr30:21Forthree
thingstheearthdothtremble,andforfourwhichitcannotbearthenfourthingsareenumerated.Inadditiontohundredsandthousandsandtenthousands,the
mostcommonnumberusedinthisapproximatewayisforty:peopleconstantlyliveorreignforfortyyearsormultiplesoffortyyears.Itisamatterofopinion
howfarthenumeroussevens,tens,andtwelveswereoriginallyintendedasexactnumbers.Probably,however,inmanycaseswhatwereoriginallyround
numbersweretakenafterwardstobeexact.Forinstance,Davidsreignisgivenas40years,2S5:4inthenextversethisperiodisexplainedasmadeupof71/2
yearsatHebronand33atJerusalemanexplanationwhichimpliesthat,apartfromsomeoddmonths,the40yearsweretheactuallengthofthereign.Thereare
someindications,too.thatthevarious40sand80swereaddedinwithothernumberstoobtainacontinuouschronology.Again,inNu3:39thecensusgives
22,000Levites,whichonewouldnaturallyunderstandasaroundnumberbutinvv.4351itistakenasanexactnumber,inasmuchasitisordainedthatbecause
the22,273firstbornexceedtheLevitesby273,redemptionmoneyshallbepaidforthesurplus.
Inviewofthereferencestocaptainsofthousands,hundreds,fifties,andtensinDt1:15,ithasbeensuggestedthatthesetermsaresometimesnotnumerals,but
namescorrespondingtoourregiment,company,squad,etc.,anddenotingbodiesofmenwhosenumbersvaried.Thousandespeciallyhasbeenheldtobeaterm
denotingtribeorclan(seeJg6:15,1S10:19)sothatathousandmightcontaincomparativelyfewmen.Thisviewhasbeenappliedtomakethecensusinthe
Bk.ofNumbersmorecrediblebyreducingthetotalamountsbutitisclearthatthenarrativeasitstandsintendsthousandtobeanumeral,anddoesnotusethe
wordforaclan.
6.Accuracyofnumbers.Withoutattemptinganexhaustiveconsiderationoftheaccuracyofnumbersasgivenbytheoriginalauthors,wemaypointoutthat
weshouldnotexpectalargemeasureofmathematicalaccuracyeveninoriginalnumbers.Often,aswehaveseen,theyareapparentlygivenasroundnumbers.
Moreover,inthecaseoflargenumberstheywouldseldombeascertainedbycarefulenumeration.Thenumbersofarmiesespeciallyhostilearmiesofslain,and
soforth,wouldusuallyhegivenonaroughestimateandsuchestimatesareseldomaccurate,butforthemostpartexaggerated.Moreover,primitivehistorical
criticismrevelledinconstructinghypotheticalstatisticsontheslightestdata,or,toputthematterlessprosaically,theOrientalimaginationlovedtoplaywithfigures,
thelargerthebetter.
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Butapartfromanyquestionastotheaccuracyoftheoriginalfigures,thetransmissionofthetextbyrepeatedcopyingforhundredsandthousandsofyears
introducesalargeelementofuncertainty.Ifweassumethatnumbersweredenotedbyfiguresinearlytimes,figuresarefarmoreeasilyaltered,omitted,oradded
thanwordsbut,aswehaveseen,wehaveatpresentnostronggroundforsuchanassumption.Butevenwhenwordsareused,thewordsdenotingnumbersin
Hebrewareeasilyconfusedwitheachother,asinEnglish.JustaseightandeightydifferonlybyasinglelettersoinHebrew,especiallyintheolderstyleof
writing,theadditionofasingleletterwouldmakethreeintothirty,etc.etc.And,again,incopyingnumeralsthescribeisnotkeptrightbythecontextasheiswith
otherwords.Itwasquitepossible,too,forascribetohaveviewsofhisownastowhatwasprobableinthewayofnumbers,andtocorrectwhatheconsidered
erroneous.
Acomparisonofthevariousmanuscripts,versions,etc.,inwhichourbookshavebeenpreserved,showsthatnumbersarespeciallysubjecttoalteration,andthat
inverymanycaseswearequiteuncertainastowhatnumbersweregivenintheoriginaltext,notablywherethenumbersarelarge.Evenwherethenumberofa
bodyofmen,thelengthofaperiod,etc.,aregiventwiceoveroroftenerindifferentpassagesoftheBibleitself,thenumbersareoftendifferentthoseinChronicles,
forinstance,sometimesdifferfromthoseinSamuelandKings,asinthecaseofDavidscensusmentionedabove.Then,asregardsmanuscripts,etc.,wemaytake
oneortwostrikinginstances.ThechiefauthoritiesforthetextofthePentateucharetheHeb.textinJewishMSS,theHebrewtextinSamaritanMSS,andtheGreek
translation,theSeptuagint.Nowthenumbersconnectedwiththeagesofthepatriarchsarelargelydifferentinthesethreeauthoritiese.g.intheJewishtext
Methuselahlivestotheageof969,andisthelongestlivedofthepatriarchsintheSamaritanhelivesonlytobe720,andissurpassedbymanyoftheother
patriarchsandtheintervalfromtheCreationtotheFloodis2262yearsintheSeptuagint,1656intheJewishtext,1307intheSamaritantext.Again,thenumberof
personsonboardtheshiponwhichSt.PaulwasshipwreckedisgiveninsomeMSSas276,andinothersas76(Ac27:37)andsimilarlythenumberoftheBeastis
variouslygivenas666andas616(Rev13:18).
TheprobabilitythatmanymistakesinnumbershavebeenintroducedintotheBiblebycopyistsinthecourseofthetransmissionofthetexthaslongbeenadmitted.Forinstance,
inthefiftheditionofHornesIntroductiontotheCriticalStudyandKnowledgeoftheHolyScriptures,publishedin1825,athoroughlyoldfashionedapologeticwork,wearetold
thatChronologicaldifferences,i.e.discrepancies,doundoubtedlyexistintheScriptures.Differencesinchronologydonotimplythatthesacredhistoriansweremistaken,but
theyarisefromthemistakesoftranscribersorexpositorsandagain,Itisreasonabletomakeabatements,andnotalwaystoinsistrigorouslyonprecisenumbers,inadjustingthe
accountsofscripturalchronology(i.550f.).
7.Favouritenumbersandtheirsymbolism.Naturallytheunits,andafterthemsomeoftheeventens,hundreds,andthousands,weremostfrequentlyinuse,
andcametohavespecialassociationsandsignificance,andafractionwouldinsomemeasuresharetheimportanceofitscorrespondingunit,e.g.wherefour
occurredoftenweshouldalsoexpecttomeetwithafourth.
One,suggestingtheideaofuniqueness,selfsufficiency,andindivisibility,isspeciallyemphasizedinrelationtotheDivineUnity:JahwehourGod,Jahwehis
one(Dt6:4)andsimilarlyEph4:5f.oneLord,onefaith,onebaptism,oneGodandFatherandotherLikepassages.
Two.Thereweretwogreatlightsmenfrequentlyhadtwowives(Lamech,Jacob,
Elkanah)twosons(Abraham,Isaac,Joseph)twodaughters(Lot,Laban,Saul).Oragain,whereamanhadonewife,therewasanaturalcoupleandsowith
animalsinoneaccountoftheFloodtheygointwobytwo.Twomenoftenwenttogether,e.g.Joshuasspies(Jos2:1)andtheTwelveandtheSeventywentout
bytwos.Thefactthatmenhavetwoeyes,hands,etc.,alsogaveaspecialcurrencytothenumber.Twoobjectsoranimalsareoftenrequiredforritualpurposes(e.g.
Lv14:22).Thereweretwotablesofstone.Similarly,ahalfwouldbeafamiliarfractionitismostcommoninthehalftribeofManasseh.
Assetsoftwowerecommoninnatureandinhumansociety,soinasomewhatlessdegreeweresetsofthree,andinacontinuouslylesseningdegreesetsoffour,
five,etc.etc.Ineachcaseweshallreferonlytostrikingexamples.
Three.Threeiscommoninperiodse.g.Davidisofferedachoicebetweenthreedayspestilence,threemonthsdefeat,andthreeyearsfamine(1Ch21:122
S24:18hassevenyears)Christisthreedaysandthreenightsinthetomb(Mt12:40,cf.Jn2:19).
Deitiesoftenoccuringroupsofthree,sometimesfather,mother,andchilde.g.theEgyptianOsiris,Isis,andHorus.TherearealsotheBabyloniantriads,e.g.
Bel,Anu,andEa.Divisionintothreeiscommonanattackingarmyisoftendividedintothreeparts,e.g.Gideons(Jg7:16cf.alsoRev8:10,12).
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Four.Thesquare,asthesimplestplanefigure,suggestsfour,andisacommonshapeforaltars,rooms,etc.hencefourcorners,pillars,thefourwinds,thefour
quartersoftheearth,N.,
S.,E.,W.IrenusarguesthattheremustbefourcanonicalGospelsbecausetherearefourcherubim,fourwinds,andfourquartersoftheearth.
Five,Ten,andmultiplesobtaintheircurrencythroughthehabitofreckoningintens,whichagainisprobablyderivedfromcountingonthetenfingers.The
fractiontenthisconspicuousasthetitheandfifthandtenthpartsofmeasuresoccurintheritual.
Six,Twelve,andmultiplesarespeciallyfrequentinreferencetotime:12months,anditshalf,sixmonths,12hours,sixthhour,etc.,partlyinconnexionwiththe
12signsoftheZodiac,andtheapproximatedivisionofthesolaryearinto12lunarmonths.Itissuggestedthatthenumber12forthetribesofIsraelwasfixedby
theZodiacintheliststhenumber12isobtainedonlybyomittingLeviorDan,orbysubstitutingJosephforEphraimandManasseh.Whenthenumber12was
establishedforthetribes,itscurrencyandthatofitsmultipleswerethusfurtherextendede.g.the12Apostles,the144,000oftheApocalypse,etc.
Sevenandmultiples.AspeciallysacredcharacterispopularlyascribedtothenumbersevenandalthoughtheBibledoesnotexpresslyendorsethisidea,yetit
issupportedbythefrequentoccurrenceofthenumberintheritual,thesacredseventhday,theSabbaththesacredseventhyear,theSabbaticalyeartheJubilee
year,theyearfollowingseventimessevenyearsthesevenbranchedcandlesticksevenfoldsprinkling(Lv4:6etc.)sevenlambsoffered(Nu28:11ff.)forgiveness
till70times7(Mt18:22)thesevenchurchesofAsiasevenangelssevenstars,etc.fourteengenerations(Mt1:17)70descendantsofJacob(Ex1:5)70years
captivity,etc.(Jer25:11,Dn9:2,Zec7:5)70missioners(Lk10:1).AsimilaruseofsevenisfoundintheEgyptian,Assyrian,andPersianreligions,andisoften
derivedfromastralworshipofthesevenheavenlybodies,thesun,moon,andthefiveplanetsknowntotheancients.Itisalsoconnectedwiththesevendayweekas
roughlyaquarterofthelunarmonth,sevenbeingthenearestintegertothequarterof291/2.ThePleiadesalsowerethoughtofasseven(cf.Am5:8).
Eight.Therewereeightpersonsinthearkaboywascircumcisedontheeighthday.
Ezekielsritualhasacertainpredilectionforthenumbereight.
Forty.Thisnumberapparentlyowesitsvoguetotheviewthat40wastheapproximateorperhapsaveragelengthofagenerationatleastthisisacommon
view.ItisalittledifficulttoreconcilewiththewellknownOrientalcustomofearlymarriage.Thenumbermightperhapsbeobtainedbytakingtheaverageofthe
yearsofamansageatwhichhischildrenwereborn,thoughsuchanexplanationdoesnotappearveryprobable.Ortheuseof40foragenerationmightbearelic
oftheperiodwhentheyoungestbornsucceededtothefamilytentandsacra.Atanyrate40iswellestablishedasamoderateroundnumberbetweenafewanda
verygreatmany.Thus,inadditiontothenumerousreigns,oppressions,anddeliverancesof40,80years,etc.,IsaacandEsaumarryattheageof40thereare40
yearsofthewanderingEzekiels40yearscaptivity(29:11)40dayswastheperiodMosesspentintheMount,ElijahandChristfastedinthewilderness,etc.
AcertainmysticalvalueisattachedtonumbersinlaterJewishandChristianphilosophyandsuperstition,perhapsduepartlytotheideassuggestedbythe
relationsofnumberstoeachother,andtothepracticalpowerofarithmeticthesymbolswhichaidedmensoeffectuallyseemedtohavesomeinherentforceoftheir
own.Or,again,ifsevenissacred,topronounceaformulaseventimesmustbemoreeffectivethantopronounceitsixoreighttimes.
GreatimportanceisattachedtonumbersinthemedivalJewishmysticalsystem,theKabbala.TherearetensephirothorprimaryemanationsfromGod,one
originalsephira,andthreederivativetriadstherearetwelvechannelsofDivinegrace613commandments,etc.
8.Gematria,aHebraizedformoftheGreekgeometria,usedtomeanreckoningbynumbers,wasalatedevelopmentofwhichtherearetracesintheOT.It
consistedinindicatingawordbymeansofthenumberwhichwouldbeobtainedbyaddingtogetherthenumericalvaluesoftheconsonantsoftheword.ThusinGn
14:14Abrahamhas318trainedservants,318isthesumoftheconsonantsofthenameofAbrahamsstewardEliezerinitsoriginalHebrewform.
Thenumberisapparentlyconstructedfromthename.
TheApocalypticnumberoftheBeastisoftenexplainedbyGematria,and666hasbeendiscoveredtobethesumofthenumericalvaluesofthelettersofsome
formorotherofalargenumberofnameswritteneitherinHebrew,orGreek,orLatin.ThustheBeasthasbeenidentifiedwithhundredsofpersons,e.g.
Mohammed,Luther,thePope,NapoleonI.,NapoleonIII.etc.,eachofwhomwasspeciallyobnoxioustotheingeniousidentifier.Probablybyalittlecareful
manipulation,anynameinsomeformorother,inHebrew,Greek,orLatin,couldbemadebyGematriatoyield666.ThetwofavouriteexplanationsareLateinos=
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Latinus(theRomanEmpireorEmperor),andNeroCsar.Thelatterhasthespecialadvantagethatitaccountsnotonlyfor666,butalsoforthevariousreading
616mentionedaboveasNeronCsaritgives666,andasNeroCsar,616.
W.H.BENNETT.
NUMBERS,BOOKOF.1.TheBookofNumbersformsthesequeltotheBookof
ExodusitcarriesonthehistoryoftheIsraelitesfromthestayatSinaitillthearrivalatthebordersofMoab.ThenameNumbersisduetotherepeatednumberings
inchs.1,3,4,26.ThebookiscomposedofwritingsfromthepropheticschoolsofJandE,andthePriestlyschoolofP.OnepassageisfromD21:3335=Dt
3:18.Aminuteanalysisofthesources,notonlydistinguishingJ,E,andP,butalsoseparatingthedifferentstrataofP,isnecessaryforafullunderstandingofthe
book.Thepresentarticle,however,canonlyacceptinbroadoutlinetheresultsreachedbyscholars.ThereaderisreferredtoTheHexateuched.byCarpenterand
Battersby,theart.NumbersbythelatterinHastingsDBiii.,andGraysCom.onNumbers.
2.AlthoughthenarrativebeginsatSinaiandendsinMoab,theperiodofthe40yearswanderingsisablank,andtheeventsareconfinedtothetwoperiods
beforeandafterit.Thebookconsistsofthreeparts:110:10,10:1121:9,21:1036:13.
A.1:110:19.OrdinancesatSinai.ThesectionisentirelyfromP.
Contents.Chs.14:(a)Thecensus(b)arrangementofthecamp(c)functionsoftheLevites.Chs.5,6:Lawsconcerning(d)threeuncleanclassesofpersons
whomustbeexcludedfromthecamp(5:14)(e)somepriestlydues(510)(f)theordealofjealousy(1131)(g)thelawoftheNazirite(6:121)(h)thepriests
formulasofblessing(2227).(i)Ch.7:Theofferings(identicalineachcase)ofthetwelvetribalprinces.(j)Ch.8:14:Thegoldenlampstand.(k)Ch.8:526:
DedicationoftheLevites,andageoftheirservice.(l)Ch.9:114:
ThesupplementaryPassover,(m)Ch.9:1523:ThecloudovertheTabernacle,(n)Ch.10:110:Thetwosilvertrumpets.
Notes.Twopassagesinthissectionareretrospective,viz.7and9:114.Therestcoverthelast19days(1:1,10:11)spentatSinai.
(a)ThecensusisreferredtobyanticipationinEx30:12,38:26.ThestrangepositionofGadinthelists(1:2047,26)isexplainedbythepositionassignedtoitinch.2,next
toReubenandSimeonontheS.ofthecamp.ThefiguresofthecensusareartificialandimpossibletheyareinvestigatedbyGray,Numbers,pp.1015.(b)Thearrangementofthe
campisbaseduponthesameprincipleasthatintheidealpictureofEzekiel(ch.48).(c)TheLevitesareinstitutedasaclassofpriestsservantsaconceptionquiteatvariancewith
allearlierrepresentations.TheyareacceptedbyJinlieuofthefirstbornofIsrael.ThetransportdutiesofthethreeLeviticalfamilies,Kohath,Gershon,andMerari,aredetailed.
Noticethattheperiodofservicein4:220differsfromthatin8:2326.(d)ThethreeclassesaredealtwithindetailinLv13,15andNu19respectively,(e)Thesectionis
supplementarytoLv5:2026.Itdealswiththecasesinwhichtheinjuredpartyisdead,andthereisnonextofkin.Itfurtherlaysdownthateverysacredgiftistobelongtothe
particularpriesttowhomitispaid,(f)Awomansuspectedbyherusbandofadulterywhichcannotbeproved,ismadetodrinkapotionwhichwillbeharmfulifsheisguilty,but
willresultinfruitfulnessifsheisinnocent.ThisandtheNaziritevow(g)areinstancesofveryancientpracticeswhichhavesurvived,intheformoflaw,onlyinP.(h)Thepriestly
blessingisprobablyearlierinoriginthanP,andmayhavebeenusedintheTemplebeforetheExile.Ps67appearstobeinfluencedbyit.(i)SeeEx25:3140,27:20f.(j)reads
likealaterexpansionofthecommandsinchs.3,4.
B.10:1121:9.FromSinaitothedesertW.oftheArabah.
Contents.(a)10:1128P.ThemovetotheWildernessofParaninmarchingorder.(b)10:2936J.DeparturefromthemountainMosesaskedHobabto
accompanythem.WordswhichMosesusedtoaddresstotheark.(c)11:13E.Taberah.(d)11:435JE.Kibrothhattaavahthe70elders,EldadandMedadthe
quailsHazeroth.(e)12:115E.AaronandMiriamattackedMosesMiriamsleprosy.(f)12:13J.ThemovetothewildernessofParan.(g)
13,14JEP.Thesendingofthespiestheirevilreport,anditssequel.15P.Lawsconcerning:(h)Mealofferingsandlibations(116),(i)cakeoffirstofrsth(17
21),(j)propitiationforsinsofIgnorance(2231),(k)punishmentforSabbathbreaking(3238),(l)tassels(3741),(m)16JEP.RebellionofKorah(P)andof
Dathan.Abiram,andOn(JE).(n)17P.Aaronsrodbudded,(o)18:17P.Levitestobethepriestsservants,(p)18:332P.DuestotheLevites.(q)19P.Ritualof
theredcow,toremovedefilementbythedead.(r)20:113JEP.Themovetothe
WildernessofZin(P)MiriamdiedatKadesh(JE)wantofwater(JE)thesinofMosesand
AaronatMeribah(P).(s)20:1421JE.Edomrefusedpassagethroughtheirterritory.(t)20:2229P.AarondiedatMt.Hor,andwassucceededbyEleazar.(u)
21:13JE.Hormah.(v)21:49JEP.DeparturefromMt.Hor(P)circuitroundEdomandthebronzeserpent(JE).
Notes.(b)Hobab,notReuel,isMosesfatherinlawcf.Jg4:11(RVm).Hobabsanswerafterv.32hasbeenlostbutJg1:15makesitprobablethatheconsentedto
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Notes.(b)Hobab,notReuel,isMosesfatherinlawcf.Jg4:11(RVm).Hobabsanswerafterv.32hasbeenlostbutJg1:15makesitprobablethatheconsentedto
accompanythem.(d)Intothestoryofthequailshavebeeninterpolatedvv.11f.,14f.,andalsotheaccountoftheelders,vv.18f.,24b30Somethinkthattheformershouldfollow
Ex33:13andthelatterEx33:711.(g)ThenarrativesofJEandofPhavebeencombined.InJEspieswenttotheS.ofCanaan,asfarasHebrononly.Theybroughtbacka
clusterofgrapes,andsaidthatthelandwasfertile,butinvinciblewithitsgiantsandgreatcities.Calebalonedeclaredthattheywouldbeabletoconquerit.Thepeopledetermined
toreturntoEgyptunderanothercaptain.MosesentreatedJnottosmitethemwithpestilence.Jconsented,butcondemnedallexceptCalebtodieinthewilderness.Theywere
commandedtogobytheRedSea,whereupontheysuddenlyrepented,andmadeanattackupontheAmalekitesandCanaanites,butwererepulsedwithloss.InP,thespies,whose
namesaregiven,wentthroughthewholeofCanaanunmolested.Theyreportedthatthelandwassobarren[asitwasinthedaysofP]thatitsinhabitantscouldnotlive.Thepeople
murmured,butCalebandJoshua[herefirstmentionedinP]triedtoencouragethem.ThegloryofJappeared,andthepeoplewerecondemnedtowander40years,inwhichall
over20yearsofage,exceptCalebandJoshua,shoulddie.(h)Ascaleofamountsofmeal,oil,andwinetoaccompanyvariousanimalsinsacrifice.Itisalater,andmorecarefully
graduated,systemthanthatinEzk46:57,11,14.(i)rsthperhapsmeansbarleymeal.Firstappearstorefertothefirstlumpofdoughmadefromthematerial.(m)Distinct
incidentsfromJEandfromPhavebeenwoventogether.InJEarebellionwasraisedbysomeReubenitesDathan,Abiram,andOnagainstthecivilauthorityofMoses.Moses
warnedthepeopletodepartfromthetentsoftheconspirators,whowerethenswallowedupintheearth.InP,Korahwith250princes,whowererepresentativesofallthesecular
tribes,rebelledagainsttheclaimforthespecialsanctityofthetribeofLevi.AtJschallengetheyburnedincenseoncensersinfrontoftheTabernaclethewholecongregationwere
present,andthegloryofJappeared.MosestoldthemassofthepeopletodepartfromtheTabernacle,andthefireofJdevouredthe250men.Onthenextdaythepeople
assembled,andmurmuredagainstMosesandAaron.Aplaguebegan,whichwascheckedbyAaronsactioninrunningamongthepeoplewithalightedcenser.Thesuperiorityofthe
tribeofLeviwasthenvindicatedbythebuddingofAaronsstaff(ch.17),andtheduestobepaidtotheLeviteswerelaiddown(ch.18).IntoPsstory,however,laterpassageshave
beeninterpolated(16:811,18f.,17:15),whichrepresentKorahscompanyasLevites,whorebelagainsttheclaimofsuperiorsanctityforthefamilyofAaron.(r)Theeventsare
attheendofthewanderings,butnomovementshavebeenrecordedsincetheeventsbeforethe40years(ch.13).ThedifficultieswithregardtoKadeshandthewanderingsmaybe
studiedinDriver,Deut.pp.3133.TheMeribahnarrativeinthepresentsectionisacombinationofJandP.(AMeribahstoryfromEiscombinedwithaMassahstoryfromJinEx
17:17.)ThesinofMosesandAaronhasnotbeenfullypreservedv.10relatesonlyilltemper(referredtoinPs106:32f.),thoughv.12describesitasunbelief,and27:14as
rebellion.(s)Thesequelofthisis21:4b,12f.(JE),(u)Hormahisconnectedwithhrem,ban,becauseofthevowtodestroybantheCanaanitecities.Thesectionappearstobe
misplaced,foritisdifficulttounderstandwhytheIsraelitesshouldhaveturnedawayfromCanaanimmediatelyaftersuchastrikingvictory.(v)Thestorywasprobablytoexplain
theexistenceofthebronzeserpentwhichHezekiahafterwardsdestroyeditisdifficulttoseehowsuchafigureinbronzecouldhavebeenmanufacturedinthedesertwiththerapid
hastewhichtheoccasionwoulddemand
C.21:1036.MarchesandeventsE.oftheArabahandtheJordan.
Contents.(a)21:1030JEP.Itinerary,andtwosongs.(b)21:2132JE.Amoritesrefusedpassage.andweredefeated.Songoftriumph,(c)21:3335D.Defeat
ofOg.(d)22:1P.ArrivalatMoab.(e)22:224:25JE.Balaam.(f)25:15JE.ImmoralityandidolatryowingtoseductionbytheMoabitewomentheworshipof
theBaalofPeor.(g)25:818P.PerpetualpriesthoodpromisedtothelineofPhinehasforhiszealinkillingtheIsraeliteandtheMidianitess.(h)26P.Thesecond
census,(i)27:111P.CasearisingoutofthedaughtersofZelophehad.(j)27:1223P.MosesbiddentopreparefordeathJoshuaappointedtosucceedhim.(k)28,
29P.Ascaleofpublicofferings.(l)30P.Conditionsofvalidityofavow.(m)31P.ThewarwithMidian.(n)32P.GadandReuben,and(J)Manasseh,settledon
theE.ofJordan.(o)33:149P.ItineraryfromEgypttoMoah.33:5036P.LawsrelativetothesettlementinCanaan,viz.:(p)33:5056.DestructionofCanaanitish
objectsofworship,anddivisionoflandbylot.(q)34:115.TheboundariesofCanaan.(r)34:1629.Personstosuperintendtheallotment.(s)35:15.Levitical
cities.(t)35:934.Citiesofrefuge.(u)Ch.36.Heiresses(Zelophehadsdaughters)nottomarryoutsidetheirowntribe.
Notes.(a)vv.10,11aPtaketheIsraelitesfromMt.HorstraighttoapointontheE.oftheArabah,apparentlydisregardsthedetourbytheRedSeaandbytheE.ofEdom.
Vv.11b20EcontainplacesonthenorthwardmarchfromEziongeberontheGulfofAkabahDt10:69givesthepreviousmarchsouthwardfromKadesh.(b)Thelastclauseof
thesong(290)maybeagloss.Thewholeinterpretationofthesongdependsuponitspresenceorabsence(seeGrayonthepassage).(c)PracticallyidenticalwithDt3:13theonly
passagefromDinthebook.(g)TheintroductionofaMidianitesscanhardlyhaveoccurredinMoab.Thementionofforeignwivesinv.1mayhavecausedthepassagetobeplaced
here.Thenarrativeisonlypartiallypreserved,fornothingissaidofthesendingoftheplague(8f.).(j)Vv.12,13arecloselyrelatedtoDt32:4850whethertheyare
incorporatedin,orderivedfrom,Dt.isuncertain.
(k)Thescaleofofferingsincidentallycontainsalistofthefixedfeastsorsacredseasons,viz.Sabbath
(28:9f.).NewMoon(11),Passover(16),UnleavenedCakes(17),FeastofWeeks(26),FeastofTrumpets(29:1),DayofAtonement(7),FeastofBooths(1238).(l)Theseare
concernedchieflywithwomensvows,whicharetreatednowhereelse.(m)ThestoryisofthenatureofamidrashthenumbersoftheIsraelites,andoftheslainandthespoils,are
artificialnothingissaidofthemarchtoMidian,oroftheplaceoffighting.Thenarrativeappearsmainlyintendedtoillustratetherulesofthedistributionofbooty(2530),andthe
removalofuncleannessbycontactwiththedead(1024).(n)ThetermGileadisveryelastic.In129itreferstolandsouthoftheJabbok,butin39tolandnorthofit,whilein
Jos22:9,13itcoversthewholelandE.oftheJordan.ThetownsassignedtoReubenandGadconflictwithPstheoryin
Jos13:1533,whichisrepresentedinmostmapsofPalestine,accordingtowhichGadistothenorthandReubentothesouthoftheN.endoftheDeadSea.Inthepresentpassage
thetownsofReubenliebetweenGaditetownssituatedtotheN.andtheS.ofthem.Vv.3942(J)representtheManassitesettlementontheW.ofJordanasolderthanthatontheE.
Theversesareafragment,similartoJg1andtheolderpartsofJoshua.(o)Theitineraryfallsintofourparts:515,RamesestotheWildernessofSinai1535,thencetoEzion
geberontheE.armoftheRedSea36,thencetoKadesh=WildernessofZin(onestageof70miles)3749,thencetothesteppesofMoab.(p)Theobjectsmentionedarefigured
6/29/2017 N
geberontheE.armoftheRedSea36,thencetoKadesh=WildernessofZin(onestageof70miles)3749,thencetothesteppesofMoab.(p)Theobjectsmentionedarefigured
stones(ifthatistherightrenderingLv26:1only),moltenimages,andhighplaces.(q)Theboundariesareideal,atleastonthewest,fortheIsraelitesneveroccupiedaspoton
thecoastuntilSimonMaccabuscapturedJoppa(1Mac14:5).(s)TheLevitesreceive48plotsofland,eachofabout207acres,andcontainingatownandpastureland.Jos21
statesthenumberofplotsallottedineachtribe.LikeEzekielsscheme(48:814),thearrangementispurelyidealfor(1)inamountainouscountrylikePalestineplotsof207acres
wouldbeimpossible(2)earlierwritingssnowthatLeviteshadnolandedproperty,butwerecommendedtothecharityoftherestofIsrael(3)priestsarefoundlivinginsuchtowns
asNob,Shiloh,andBethel,whicharenotinthelistofLeviticalcities.(t)TheearlierlawsofasylumaregiveninEx21:1214,Dt19:113thedevelopmentoftheprocedureis
noteworthy.(u)Asupplementto27:111.
3.Broadlyspeaking,thevalueofJEsnarrativesliesintheirportrayalofcharacter,thatofPsinitsembodimentofecclesiasticalideas.InJEthecharacterof
Mosesisstronglymarked,initsstrengthanditsoccasionalweakness:e.g.hishumblepiety(12:3),histrustinJ(10:2932),hisfaithfulnesstoandintimacywith
Him(12:68),hisaffectionforhispeople(11:2,1015,21:7),hisgenerosityandpublicspirit(11:2729,12)andwiththishisdespondency(11:1015)and
provocationbythepeople(partsof20:113).Andnolessvividistheportrayalofthecharacterofthepeopletheirdislikeofrestraint,theirselfishmurmurings,
theirvehementrepentancefollowedbywilfulselfassertion.ThenarrativesofJEwerenotcompiledforthesakeofrecordinghistorythecompilerwasaprophet
withakeensenseofthereligiousmeaningofhistory.Andhisviewofpersonalcharacterrevealedineventsisnotanincidental,butaprimary,elementinhiswork.
AndsidebysidewiththisishisconceptionoftherelationbetweenJandIsrael.J,asIsraelsonlyGod,commandseveryactionandstepinthedramaand
obediencetoHimisfollowedbyprosperity,whiledisobediencealwaysbringstrouble.
ThespontaneityandsimplicityoftheearliernarrativesareinmarkedcontrastwiththeartificialidealismofP.ThewritingswhichweknowcollectivelyasP
extendovercenturies,buttheywereoneandalltheworkofecclesiastics.Narrativesandlawsalikeweremethodsofrepresentingthehierocraticconditionseither
actuallyprevalentaftertheExile,orcontemplatedbythewritersasdesirable.EcclesiasticismenteredalsointotheirconceptionsofJ.Inearlydaysanymanmight
meetwithJandinquireofHimattheTent,whichwaspitchedoutsidethecamp(Ex33:711,E).ButnowthepresenceofJisprotectedfrompollutionbythe
sacredbarrierofthepriestsandLevites,thattherebenowrathuponthecongregation(Nu1:53).Realmattersofabidingconsequencetomansin,andJs
attitudetowardsit,andthemeansofforgivenessarehardlytouched.AndifthisdescriptionseemstoleaveinPlittleofspiritualvalue,itmustbeansweredthatits
valueliespartlyintheveryevidencethatitaffordsofthedeadeninginfluenceproduceduponspirituallife,andevenuponliteraryart,byanarrowecclesiasticism
whichhasitselfasitsonlyaim.TheageandthewritingsofthePriestlyschoolareaninvaluablebackground,toshowupallthemoreclearlythebrightnessofthe
agewhich
followedit,whenuniversalapproachtoGodwasthrownopenbyanotherpriest,whohathbeenmade,notafterthelawofacarnalcommandment,butafterthe
powerofanindissolublelife(He7:15f.).
A.H.MNEILE.
NUMENIUS.Oneofanembassysent(c.B.C.144)bytheJewstoRomeandSparta(1Mac12:118).HevisitedRomeonasimilarerrandafewyearslater(1
Mac14:24,15:1524).
NUN.ThefourteenthletteroftheHebrewalphabet,andassuchemployedinthe119thPsalmtodesignatethe14thpart,eachverseofwhichbeginswiththis
letter.
NUN.ThefatherofJoshua(Ex33:11,Nu11:28,Jos1:1etc.).
NURSE.HealthywomenamongtheHebrewsinancienttimeswereaccustomedtosuckletheirownchildren(Gn21:7).AsinPalestinetoday,thechildwas
suckledforalongtime,sometimesasmuchasthreeyears(1S1:23f.,2Mac7:27).Weaningwastheoccasionofajoyfulfeast(Gn21:8,1S1:24).Butthenurse
wasalsofoundinoldentimesinIsrael,andwasoftenheldingreataffectionandhonour(Gn24:59,35:8,Ex2:7,2K11:2,Is49:23,1Th2:7).Thenurse,
mneqeth,mustbedistinguishedfromthemeneth,tr.nurseinRu4:18,2S4:4,whichmeanstheattendantinchargeofthechild.
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/n.htm W.E . 37/38

6/29/2017 N
W.EWING.
NUTS.1.gz(Ca6:11),withoutdoubtthefruitofthewalnuttree(Juglansregia),calledtodayinArab.jauz.2.botnm(Gn43:11)meanspistachionuts,
thefruitofPistaciavera,atreewidelycultivatedinPalestine.Thenuts,knowninArab,asfistuq,areverygreatfavouritestheyareeatenraw,andalsomadeinto
varioussweetsandconfectionery.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
NYMPHA(S).AninfluentialColossianChristian(Col4:16).HishousewasusedasameetingplaceforChristians.Thequestionofthecorrectreadingisa
difficultone,anditisuncertainwhetheritshouldbeNymphasorNympha,amanorawoman.Nothingfurtherisknownofthepersonnamed.
MORLEYS TEVENSON.

Dictionary of The Bible - H To N - James Hastings

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Dictionary of The Bible - H To N - James Hastings

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6/29/2017 H

Nadab 915913. Abijam 920917.

Baasha 913889. Asa 917876.

Elah 889887. Jehoshaphat 876.

Ahaziah 853851. Jehoram 851843.

Joram 851842. Ahaziah 843842.

Jehu 842814. Athaliah 842836.

Jehoahaz 814797. Joash 836796.

Jehoash 797781. Amaziah 796782.

Zechariah 6months Jotham 737735

Shallum 740737 Ahaz 735725

Menahem 737735 Hezekiah 725696

JACINTH.SeeJEWELSANDP RECIOUSS TONES,p.467a.

JASPER.SeeJEWELSANDP RECIOUSS TONES,p.467a.

3.TheConditionsinPalestine(Schrer,GJV3 [HJP II.i.1ff.]).TheconditionoftheJewsatthebirthofChristmaybesummarilydescribedasmarkedby

http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/j.htm JETHER.1.FatherinlawofMoses(RVmofEx4:18E),prob.amistakeforJethro.2. 62/124

5.SappirSappheiros Sapphire Sapphirs

8.SheboAchates Agate Agate

11.ShohamBeryllion Onyx Onyx(mg.

1.Odem 1.Sardion Sardius(mg.Ruby) Sardius(mg.Ruby)

2.Pitdah 2.Topazion Topaz Topaz

7.Sappir 5.Sappheiros Sapphire Sapphire

5.Shoham. 11.Beryllion Onyx Onyx

3.Yahalom 12.Onychion Diamond Diamond

21:20 5.SardonyxSardonyx Sardonyx

10. HyrcanusII.wasaweakman,buthadforhisadviserandmajordomoAntipater,anexceedinglyableman.TheState,asreorganizedbyGabinius,wasattachedtoSyria 3/102

http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/m.htm MEMMIUS,QUINTUS.NamedalongwithManius(wh.see)asaRomanlegate(2Mac 54/102

http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/n.htm A E.G . 12/38

http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/n.htm W.M.N . 21/38

http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/n.htm W.E . 37/38

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