718 ‘Schultz, 75. 1985. Relationship between sound power level and sound pres- tue levelindwellings andes. ASHRAE Transactions 91(1) 12433. ‘Warnock, A.C. 1998a, Sound pressure level vs. distance from sourees in ots. ASHRAE Transactions 104(1A) 643-69, ‘Wamock, A.C, 19946, Tranumission of sound fom air terminal devices Ubrough cing systems ASHIRAE Traneactons 10S(1A)830-857 BIBLIOGRAPHY ASHRAB. 1998, Applications of manufacturers’ sound dat. 2001 ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook (S1) Beranek, LL. 1988, Noise and vibration conto. Insite of Noie Conta Engineering, Washington, D.C. Berane LL. 1985. Acoustics, American Inatie of Physic, Acoustical Socity of America, New York aris, CM. 1991, Handbook of acoustical measurements and noite con- trol MeGra-Hil, New York Poterron, APG and EE. Gro, Ir, 1974 Handbook of noise mearuremen (Geniad oe, Concord, MA. Schaffer, ME 1991. practical guide to noise and vibration control for THVAC systems, ASHRAB, AltaCHAPTER 8 THERMAL COMFORT Human Thermoregulation al Energy Balance 82 Thermal Exchanges with the Emsironment 83 Engincering Data and Measurements 86 Conditions for Thermal Comfort Buz Thermal Nonuniform Conditions and Local Discomfort... 8.13, Secondary Factors Affecting Comfort as Prediction of Thermal Comfort 816 Environmental Indices 819 Special Environments 822 Symbols 8.26 PRINCIPAL purpose of heating, ventilating, and air-condition ng systems is to provide conditions for human thermal com- Tort. A widely accepted definition is, “Thermal Comfort is that condition of mind that expresses satisfaction withthe thermal envi- ronment’ (ASHRAE Standard 55). This definition leaves open ‘what is meant by condition of mind or satisfaction, butt comectly emphasizes thatthe judgment of comfort is a cognitive process involving many inputs influenced by physical, physiological, pey- chological, and other processes ‘The conscious mind appears to reach conclusions about thermal comfort and discomfort from direct temperature and moisture sense: tions fom the skin, deep body temperatures, andthe efortsneces- sary to regulate body temperatures Hensel 1973, 1981; Haedy eta. 1971; Gagge 1937; Berglund 1995).In general, comfor occurs when, body temperatures are held within narrow ranges, skin moisture i= Jow, and the physiological effort of regulation is minimized. Comfort also depenis on behavioral actions that are initiated anconsciously or by the conscious mind ané guided by thermal and moisture sensations to reduce discomafor.. Some of the possible behavioral actions to reduce disconafort are altering clothing, alter- ing activity, changing posture or location, changing the thermostat selling, opening a window, complaining, or leaving the space. ‘Surprisingly although regional climate condition, living consi- tions, and cultuces differ widely throughout the worl, the temper- ature that people choose for comfort under like condition? of clothing, activity, humidity, and air movement has been found to be very similar anger 1972; de Dear et al. 1991; Busch 1992), This chapter summarizes the Fundamentals of hunaan thermoreg- slation and comfort in terms useful to the engineer for operating «y= tems and designing forthe comfort and health of building occupants HUMAN THERMOREGULATION ‘The metabolic activities ofthe body result almost completely in ‘beat that must be continuously dissipated and regulated to maintain xormal body temperatures. Insufficient heat loss leads to overheat- ing, also called hyperthermia, and excessive heat loss results in body cooling, aso called hypothermia. Skin temperature greater than 45°C ar less than 18°C causes pain (Hardy etal. 1952). Skin temperatures associated with comfort at sedentary activities are 33, (034°C and decrease with increasing setvity anger 1968).Incon- sas, intemal temperatures rise with activity, The temperature reg- latory center inthe brain is about 36.8°C at rest in comfort and {increases to about 37.4°C when Walking and 37.9°C when jogging. ‘An intemal temperature less than about 28°C can lead to serious cardiac arhythmia and death, and a temperature greater than 46°C ‘an caureimeversible brain damage. Therefore, the careful regula- tion of body temperature is eiticl to comfort and health, ‘The prepasstion ofthis chapter is assigned to TC 2 Physiology and &l “The beat produced by a resting adult is about 100 W. Because sost ofthis eal is transferred to the environment through te skin, itis often convenicat to characterize metabolic activity ia terms of heat prelction pe unit tea of skin. For the resting perso thi is shout 58 Win? and is called I met. Tht is based on the average tnale European, with a skin surface ara of about 8 m2. For com: patiton, female Buopeans have an average sitaceatea of 1.6m Systematic difeences in his parameter may occur between ei and geographical groups. Higher metabolic rates at often described interme the esting rate. Thus, person working at metabolic rate fie times the resting rate would bave« metabolic ate of 5 met. ‘The hypothalamus, located inthe bain isthe ceatal conto, cxgaa for body teraperatue. Ibs hot and cold temperate sensors and isbathed by arterial blood. Since the eitculation rate of blood in the body is rapid and returning blood is mixed togeter in the Ihart before securing othe body, ate blood is indicative af he average interal body texnperatute. The hypothalamus also receives thermal information from temperatere sensors inthe skin and per haps other locations as well (pinl cord, gud, as summarized by Hensel (1981). ‘The hypothalamus controls various physiological processes of the body 10 regulate body temperature. Is contol behavior is tarily proportional to devistion from set-point temperatures with tome integral and derivative response aspects, The most maportant and often used of the physiological processes i regulating blood flow to the ski, When interal temperatures ise above ast point, sm increasing proportion of the total blood is diected tothe skin. This vasodilation of skin blood vesels can increase skin blood flow by 15 times Grom 1.7 mLstsum?) at resting comfort to 25 saLi(¢m?) in exteme heai) 10 cay intemal heat co the skin for ‘wansfer tothe environment. When body emperatres fall below the setpoint skin blo flow is reduced (Yasocoustited) 1 conserve body beat. The eect of maximim vasoconstriction i equivalent to the insulating ellect of «heavy sweater AU temperatres les than the setpoint muscle tension increases to generate aditionl het where muscle groups are eppesed, ths may increas o visible shiv ering. Shivering ean double the esting rat of heat production ‘Atelevated internal temperatures, sweating curs. This defense smechanisnisa powerful way cool the skin and increase heat os from the core. The sweating function ofthe skin and its conte! is more advanced in humans than in ober animals ands increasingly necessary for comfort at metabolic rates above resting level (anger 1968). Sweat glands pump perspiration onto the skin surface for evaporation I conditions afe g00d for evaporation, the skin can remain relatively dry even at high sweat tates with ite perception of sweating. At skin conditions less favorable for evaporation, the ‘seal mst spread out on the skin about the sweat gland untl the fea-covered ara is sullcieat to evaporate the sweat coming to the surface. Tae Iraction of the skin that i covered with wate to account forthe observed otal evaporation rt is termed skin wel tedness(Gagte 1957).B2 Humans are quite good at sensing skin moisture from perspira- sion (Berglund and Cunningham 1986; Berglund 1994), and skin moisture correlates well with warm discomfort and unpleasantness (Winslow etal 1937). Itissare fora sedentary or slightly active per- son to be comfortable with a skin wettedness greater than 25%. In ‘addition to the perception of skin moisture, skin weitedness increases the fiction hetween skin and fabrics, making clothing fee] Jess pleasant and fabrics feel more coarse (Gwosdow et al. 1987). ‘This also accuss with architectural materials and surfaces, paticu- larly smoat®, nonhygroscopie surisces With repested intermittent beat exposute, the set point for the ‘onset of sweating decreases and the proportional gain or tempera- ture sensitivity of the sweating system increases (Gonzalez et a. 1978, Hensel 1981), However, under long-ierm exposure to hol conditions, the set point increases, perhaps to reduce the physio- logical effort of sweating, Perspiration as secreted has a lower salt ‘concentration than interstitial body fai or blood plasma After pro- longed heat exposure, sweat glands further reduce the salt concen- wation of sweal to conserve salt. ‘Atte surface, the wate in sweat evaporates while the dissolved salt and other constituents remain and accumulate, Because salt lowers the vapor pressure of water and tezeby impedes is evapo- ration, the accumulating salt results in increased skin wettedness ‘vith time. Some ofthe relief end pleasure of washing after a warm Gay is related (othe restoration of « hypotonic sweat film and de- creased skin wettedness. Other adaptations to heat are increased ‘blood flow and sweatin in peripheral regions wheve beat transfer is ‘etter. Such adaptations are examples of integral control ‘The role of thermoregulatory effort in comfort is highlighted by ‘he experiments of Chatonaet and Cabanac (1965) and observations ‘of Kuno (1995). Chatonnet's experiments compared the sensation ‘of placing the subject's hand in relatively hot ot cold water (30 to 38°C) for 305 given the subject at different thermal tates. When the person was overheated or byperthermic, the cold water was pleasant land the hot water was very unpleasant, but when the subject was in ‘cold or hypothermic state, the hand felt pleasant in hot water and ‘unpleasant in cold water. Kuno (1995) describes similar observa- tions during transient whole body exposures to hot and cold envi- ronment, When & subject isin a state of thermal discomafor, any ‘move away from the thermal stress of the uncomfortable environ ‘ment is perceived as pleasant during the wansiton, ENERGY BALANCE Figuce I shows the thermal interaction of the human body’ with its environment, The total metabolic rate of work Mf produced ‘within the hody isthe metabolic rate required forthe person's activ- ity M,.,plus the metabolic level required for shivering M,,, (should shivering occus).A portion of the Body's energy production may be expended as extemal work done by the muscles W; the netheatpro- duction M~W is either stored (S) causing the body's temperature to rise, or dissipated to the environment through the skin surface {aa and respiratory tract (pe). MWe da td tS (CARE) + Crop tE ed * StS) of metabolic heat production, Wit rae of mechanical work accomplished, Wh al rate of est lous from ski, Wit? al ate of heat loss trough espization, Win (C48 = sensible heat loss from skin, Witt” Ey = tal ate of evaporative heat loss from ski, Witt G2 = tate of convective heat lor Srom respiration, Wit Ex, = tate of evaporative heat ss from respiration, Wit ate of heat storage in skin compartment, Wit! ate of heat storage i core compartment, Win! 2001 ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook (S1) ved eM ie, HEAT Bain CLOTHS Hy Fd Caled neat LOBS Eg) scannafin Cantnd Fig. 1 Thermal Interaction of Human Body and Environment Heat dissipation from the body to the immediate surroundings ‘occurs by several modes of heat exchange: sensible heat flow C +R ftom the skin; latent heat flow from the evaporation of sweat En, and from evaporation of moisture diffused through the skin E,," sensible heat flow during respiration C,,; and latent heat flow due {o evaporation of moisture during respiration E,,,. Sensible heat flow from the skin may be a complex mixture of conduction, con- vection, and radiation for a clothed person; however, itis equal 10 the sum ofthe convection C and radiation R heat transfer at the outer clothing surface (or exposed skin) Sensible and latent best losses from the skin axe typically ex- pressed in terms of environmental factors, skin temperature fan ‘kin wettednessw. The expressions also incorporate factors that sc- ‘count forthe thennal insulation and moisture permeability of cloth- ing, The independent environmental variables canbe summarized as air temperature, mean radiant temperature 7, relative ait velocity Vand ambient water vapor pressure p, The independent personal variables that influence thermal comfort are activity and clothing. The rate of heat storage inthe body equals the rate of increase in internal energy. The body can be considered as two thermal compart- sient, the skin and the cote (See the section on TWo-Node Model under Prediction of Thermal Comfort) The rate of storage can be ‘written separately for each compartnent in terms of thermal capac- ty and dime rate of change of temperature in each compartment Ue aydmeyy dt or = a 5, = Mn oe : ra ° where ‘4 = fsction of body mass concentrated in skin compatinest m= body mass, kg cya = speci heat eapaciy of bady Ap = Dubois surface area, m* 1g, = temperature of core compare, °C tr of skin compartent. °C 1490 eK) @ = time, ‘The fractional skin mass oy depends on the rate sn, of blood flow ing to the skin surfaceThermal Comfort THERMAL EXCHANGES WITH ‘THE ENVIRONMENT Fanger (1967, 1970), Hardy (1949), Rapp and Gagge (1967), and Gagge and Hardy (1967) give quantitative information on calcual- ing the heat exchange betsseen people nd the environment. A sum- ‘mary of the mathematical statements for various terms of heat ‘exchange used in the heat balance equations (C, R, Eg. Cpr» Ey) follows. Terms describing the beat exchanges associated withthe ‘thermoregulatory control mechanisms (rstr Mtr Bry), Vales {or the coefficients, and appropriate equations for Mc and Ap are presented in later sections ‘The mathematical description of the energy balance of the ‘human body represents a combined rational/empirical approach to 5 met ate likely to prove abating Intermittent Activity. The activity of many people consists of 4 mixture of activities of a combination of workeree periods. A Weighted average metabolic rate is generally satisactory,pro- Vide that activites alternate iequen'ly (Several times pet hou) For example, a person typing 50% ofthe tine, filing while seated 2566 of the time, and walking about 25% ofthe time would have snaverage metabolic tat of 0.50 x 65 +0.25 x 70-4025 x 100= 75 Wim! (se Table 4. Accuracy. Estimating metabolic rates is dificll. The values siven in Table 4 indicate metabolic rates only for the specifi aeiivities listed. Some entries give a range and some a single ‘alue, depending on the source of the data The level of accuracy depends on the value of Mj, and how well the activity can be clined. For well-defined activities wilh M,<1 Smet (e.g. reade ing), Table 4 is sulfcienlly accurate for ist engineeing pure poses, For values of Mae > 3, whete a task is poorly defined ox Were there are a variety of ways of performing a task (e.g. heavy ‘nachine work) the Vales ay be in mor by a ch as 350% for a given application. Engineering calculations should thus allow {or potential variations “Measurement. When metabolic rate must be determined more accuatly than is possible with tabulated data, physologieal mea Suxements with human subjects may be necesary. The rate of met- tholic heat produced by the body i most accurately measared by the rate of respiratory oxygen consimplion and carbon dioxide pro- diction, An empirical equation for metabolic ae is given by Nishi 0981}Thermal Comfort 87 Table 4 Typical Metabotic Heat Generation for Table Heart Rate and Oxygen Consumption at ‘Various Activites Different Activity Levels Wink me Heart Rate, Oxygra Consumed, et ertertion tm tole Seeping 40 07 Tight wok <9 a ozknn (aon us 20 Sowce: stad 8 RoI O9TD, Caiwmaawe 2 a laboratory measurements since it doesnot strongly alfect the value (seis of the metabolic rate. A 10% emor in estimating the xespitatary nee Activities ‘quotient results in sn er of less than 3% in the metabolic ae. eating, seated ss to ‘A second, much ess accurate, method of estimating metabolic Wiring 6 Lo rate physiologically isto measure the heat rte. Table 5 chow the ‘Typing 83 uy relationship between beast rate and oxygen consumption at different Fling sewed cn 12 levels of physical exertion for atypical person. Once oxygen con- ing, standing wo La sumption is estimated from heart rate iformation, Equation (34) Walking about 100 a Conbe wed toesimate the metabolic ate. numberof factors other Litingypecking 10 2a than metabolic rate allect heart rate, such as physical condition, Driving Fiying heat, emotional Lactors, muscles used, etc. Asirend and Rodahl oe soos roo 1577 Show dat heat ate ely «very apoxinite meas of Scat rotne “ Inetabolc rate and should not be the only source of information Aserat natrment nding 105 us ‘where accuracy is required. ‘eth cba 1 ae Mechanical Efficiency. Ia the heat balance equation, the rate ay vente iss o Wool work accomplished must bein the same units as metabolism [Mand expressed in terms of Ap in Wim! The mechanical work Macellneous Occupations Activites done by the muscles fora given task is often expresed in terms Cooking %Sw15 1620 ofthe body's mechanical eicency j= WAM. Tee wna for Houseclening 11510200 201034 to be more than 005 to 0-10; for mort activites, sti close Seated, heavy linb movement 10 2a zero. The maximum value under optimal conditions (¢ z., bicycle Machine work xgometer) is f= 0.20 to 024 (Nishi 1981), I is common to sawing (able sav) 10s us fsfume that mechanical work is zero for several reasons (1) the igh kestrel nds) 1151140201024 chancel work produced is small compared to metaboke rate avy 2s 40 especially for oflice activities; (2) estimates for metabolic rates Handing 50g bags as 40 can often be inaccurate: and (3) this assumption results in a mare Pick and shovel work BSW 401048 Conservative estimate when designing airconditioning eqsip- Miscellaneous Lesce Actities rent for upper comfort and health limits. More accurate calcula. Dancing social 1dow25s 2444 ‘on af heat generation may require estimation ofthe mechanical Catsteicvexecite Tistoas — dotedo Work produced for activites where tis significant (walking 03 4 “ean, sngee aiows7 —setedo fade, climbing a ladder, bicycling, lifting, ete). In some cases it Basta psoww44) Sore i possible to either estimate or measure the mechanical Work Waring competitive Tots _Towwky Far example, 4 90 ke person walking up a 5% grade at 1.0 mls ETE Would iting an 882.N (0 kg X 9.8 Nika) weight over aight (U8), Parmer an Duin 1967) a5¢ Webo 983). 21(023RQ +0.7)Qo, ) 7 6 where M = metabolic ate, Win? RQ = respzalory quota molaraiof Qco, exiled to Qo, ald dimensionless Qo, = volumetric rate of oxygen cons °C, 101325 kPa ls sions conditions (STPD) of “The exact value ofthe respiratory quotient RQ used in Equation (G4) depends on a person's activity, det, and physical condition. It can be determined by measuring both carbon dioxide and oxygen inthe respiratory asflows, or it ean be estimated with reasonable accuracy. A good estimate forthe average adult is RQ = 0.83 for light or sedentary activities (M < 1.5 met, increasing proportion- ately RQ = 1.0 for extremely heavy exertion (M =5.0 met), Este ration of RQ is generally sufficient for all except precision (0f 005 mevery second, fora work rate of 44 Ns = 44 W. This rate of mechanical work would then be subtracted from Mf t0 determine the net heat generated, Heat Transfer Coefficients ‘Values forthe linearized radiative heat transfer coefficient, con- vective heat transfer coefficient, snd evaporative heat transfer coet- ficient ate required to solve the equations describing heat transier from the bo, Radiative Heat Transfer Coefficient. The linearized radiative beat transfer coefficient can be calculated by 4, = seo farsa! (38 = seoefinsa «att 09 radiative het transfer octet, Wi-K) average emissivity of eloting or body surface, dimensionless (= Stefan-Boltzmana constant, $67 10% Win? KS) effective radiation area of body, mi?88 “The rato A,/Ay is 0.70 fora siting person and 0.73 for a standing person (Fanger 1967). Emissivity € is close to unity (typically 0.95), unless special reflecive materials are used or high-temperature sources are involved. isnot always possible to solve Equation (35) explicitly for f,, since £ may also be an unknown. Some form of iteration may be necessary if a precise solution is required. Forti- nately h is nearly constant for typical indoor temperatures, and a value of 4.7 Witn?-K) suffices for most calculations. Ifthe emis- svity is signticantly less than unity, the value should be adjusted by = ate 65) where € represents the area-weighied average emissivity forthe clothing/body surface Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient. Hest anser by con- ection is wally cossed by air movereat within the living space fr by body movements Equations for estimating h unde Vaious conditions are presented in Table 6. Where two conditions apply {eg walking in moving ait). reasonable estimate can be aby tained by taking the larger ofthe two values for h. Limits have been given to all equations. I ao limits were given in the source, reasonable limits have been estimated, Care shouldbe exercised in ‘sing these values for seated and reclining persons. The heat tans- fer coeticents may be accurate, but the elective heat transfer area ray be substantially reduced due to body contact with « padded chair or bed Quantitative values of ate important, not only in estimating convection Loss, ut in evaluating (1) operative temperature 2) lothing parameters and, and (3) rational effective temperaires ‘oy and ET, All hal tansrcoeliciensin Table 6 were evaluated stornear 101.33 kPa. These coeflicients shouldbe corrected as fol lows for atmospheric pressure hace = hekoy/ 101.33)" on where hee ; = loclstmospheve pressure, KBs coneted convective hes ranafrcoefcient, Wit: K) ‘The combined coefficient h is the suum of h, and h,, described ix Equation (35) and Table 6, respectively. The coefficient h governs ‘exchange by radiation and convection from the exposed body sur- Tace to the surrounding environmen, ‘Table 6 Equations for Convection Heat Transfer Coefficients Equation Timits Condon Remariafourees Rana? 02 eV <4) Seated with Michel 197A oeveo2 _ Rovingsir Oise VETS Revining wih Colm snd Howe oeveois vines (1967) O5 100%, insert PD = 100%. V,yis the standard deviation ofthe velocity measured with an ‘omnidirectional anemometer having a 0.2s ime constent, ‘The model extends the Fanger and Christensen (1986) draft chart ‘model to include turbulence intensity. Ia this study, Tu decreases ‘when Vinereases, This means that he effect of Vfor the experimen- tal data to which the models fitted ate: 20 < f, < 26°C, 005 < V< (05 m/s, and 0 3 met), where a significant amount of sweat ing occurs even at optimum comfort conditions, this assumption say imit accuracy. The reduced equation is slightly dierent from. the eat tansfer equations developed here. The radiant heat exchange is expressed in terms of the Stefan-Boltzmann law (instead of using h,) and diffusion of water vapor through the skin is expressed as a diffusivity coeficient and « inear approximation for saturated vapor pressure evaluated al f,. The combination of ‘environmental and personal Vatiables that produces a neutel sense tion may be expressed as follows Mew (742094) 3.96 x 10°F, [(0,, +273)" Heth lst) + 505[5.73 -0.00(M—W)~,] + 0.2{(M—W) 58.15) +00173M(587-p,) + 00014M(34—1,) 6) 2001 ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook (SI) where fey = 35.7 -00205(M-W) = Ry (MW) = 3.0515.73-0.007(M— W)—,] = 0.42{(M— W) 58.15] -00173M(587-p,) = 0.0014M(34 = 1,9} 65) ‘The values off and .,can be estimated from tables and equations given in the section ‘on Engineering Data and Measurements. Fanger used the following relationships 288-4) 2581 > 121d = (60) na 2381-1) 05 clo ep Figuees and 12 show examples of how Equation (58) can be used. Equation (58) is expanded to include a range of thermal sensa- dons by using a predicted mean vote (PMV) index. The PMV index predicts the mean response ofa large group of people accord- ing o the ASHRAE thermal sensation scale, Fanger (1970) related PMV to the imbalance between the actual heat flow from the body in 4 given eavitonment and the heat flow required for optiqnum comfort at the specified activity by the following equation: PMV = [0.303exp(~ 0.036M) +0.028] (62) ‘where Lis the thermal load on the body, defined as the diference between intemal heat production and heat loss tothe actual envi= ronment for a person hypothetically kept at comfort values of fy ‘and E,,, at he actual activity level. Thermal load Lis then the df= ference’ between the left and ight sides of Equation (58) caleu- lated for the actual values of the environmental conditions. As part of this calculation, the clothing temperature 1, is found by itera fy = 357-0028 =) =R (39.6 10°F f(t.) +273)! —(F, + 273)'] + fahdlteyt)) 6) — “ { PPP pevacor Vink e enemas (PERATWE TEMPERATURE 5 1.76 Fig. 1 Air Velocities and Operative Temperatures at 50% rh ‘Necessary for Comfort (PMV = 0) of Persons in Summer ‘Clothing at Various Levels of ActivityThermal Comfort 5 8 @ [- | gio Nis i. fer OBC PLTTn ; \ 12 Air Temperatures and Mean Radiant Temperatures [Necessary for Comfort (PMV = 0) of Sedentary Persons in Summer Clothing at 50% rh 3 3s Be Fig. 13 Predicted Percentage of Dissatistied (PPD) as Function of Predicted Mean Yote (PMV) After estimating the PMV with Equation (62) or another method, the predicted percent dissatisfied (PPD) witha condition can also ‘be estimated. Fanger (1982) elated the PPD to the PMV as follows: PPD = 100 —9Sexp[- (0.03353PMV4+0.2179PMV?)]_ (64) where disstistied is defined as anybody not voting 4, +1, of 0 ‘This relationship is shown in Figure 13. APPD of 10% comrecponds tothe PMV range of 20:5, and even with PMV =0, about 5% of the people are dissatisfied ‘The PMV-PPD model is widely used and accepted for design and Field assessment of comfort conditions, ISO Standard 7730 includes a short computer listing that facilitates computing PMV and PPD fora wide range of parameters ‘Two-Node Model ‘The PMV model is useful only for predicting steady-stale com- {ort responses. The two-node model can be used to predict physio- logical responses or responses to transient situations, at east forfow 8.17 and moderate activity levels in cool :0 very hot environments (Gagge et al. 1971, 1986). The two-node model is «simplification of more complex thermoregulatory models developed by Stolwijk and Tlardy (1966). The simple, lumped parameter model considers ‘human as two concentric thermal compartments that represent the fkin and the core ofthe body. ‘The skin compartment simulates the epidermis and dermis, and is about 1.6 mam thick. Its mass, which is about 10% of the {otal body, depends on the amount of Blood flowing through it for thermoregulation. The temperature in @ compartment is assumed to be uniform so thatthe only temperature gradients are between compartments. In a cold environment, blood flow to the extremi- ties may be reduced to conserve the heat of vital organs, resulting in axial temperature gradients in the arms, egs, hands, and feet. Heavy exercise with certain muscle groups of asymmetric envi- ronmental conditions may also case nonuniform compariment temperatures and limit the accuracy of the model. Al the heat is assumed to be generated in the core compart- ‘ment. Inthe cold, shivering and muscle tension may generate addl- tional metabolic heat. This increase is related to skin and core temperature depressions from their set point values, or M, 9.4034 14 )GT te) 65) where the temperature terms ate set to zero if they become negative The core loses energy when the muscles do workon the surround- ngs, Heat is also Jost from the core through respiration. The rte of respiratory heat lose is due to sensible and latent changes in the respired air and the ventilation rate at in Equations (19) and (20). Inaidtion, heat is conducted passively from the core tothe skin. ‘This is modeled as a massless thermal conductor [K = 5.28 Wi(ta-K)]. A controllable hea loss path from the core consists of pumping variable amounts of warm blood to the skin for cooling. ‘This penpheral blood flow Qin L/h depends on skin and core temperature deviations trom teie respective set points BEN + cull =37) O61 = T35,G8=7,) (65) ‘The temperature terms can only be > 0. Ifthe deviation is nega- tive, the term is set to zero. For average persons, the coefficients EEN, cyy, and S, ate 63, 175 and 05, Further, skia blood flow Q,, Js limited fo a maximum of 90 Lim) Day (sensible) beat loss gy ftom the skin lows through the clothing by conduction and thea by parallel paths tothe air and sur- rounding surfaces. Evaporative heat follows a similar pat, flowing through the clothing and through the air boundary layer. Maximum evaporation Ea, Occuts if the skin is completely covered with sweat. The acta evaporation rate Ey depends on the size w'of the sweat film Eq, = ¥E, on where i EBay The rate of repulatory sweating Eye (rte at which water is brought tothe surface of the skin in Wit) can be predicted by skin and core temperature deviations from their set points Evy = Goulds Fores) Pte 34)/ 107] (68) where fy =(1 ay, + yt, andie the mean body temperature, and Cm = 170 Whos? K). The temperature deviation terms are set to zero when negative. Oy isthe Lraction of the total body mass that is considered to be thermally in the skin compartment8.18 0745 , Hy = 00818 roED rae ) Regulatory sweating Q,,, inthe model is limited to 1 L/a-m? or {610 Wins... evaporates om the skin, but Ey is greater than Ea, the excess dips off “An energy balance on the care yields MM, = Wy 4 SKBRE, 4M) a, + mia 0 and for the ski, aig (K+ SKBF ep, lop) = May +Iovap *Mataagy OD where ¢,,,€,4, and cy ae specific heats of core, skin, and blood (3500, 3$00'and 4190 /(kg-K), respectively], and SKBF is pins ‘where pj is density of blood (12.9 kg/L). Equations (70) and (71) can be reanranged in terms of di/d0 and df and numerically integrated with small time steps (10 %0 (60s) from initial conditions or previous values to find f, and fg at any sme ‘After calculating values off. fy, nd the model uses empir- {cal expressions to predict thermal sensation (TSENS) and thermal iscomiort (DISC). These indices are based on 1-point numerical scales, where positive values represeal the warm side of neutral sen- sation or comafort, and negative values represent the cool side ‘TSENS is hased on the sate scale as PMY, but with extra tems for ‘34 (very hot/cold) and 5 (ntelerably hot/cold). Recognizing the ‘same positive negative convention for warmicold discomfort, DISC is detined ae 5 intolerable 4 limited tolerance 3. very uncomfortable 2 uncomfortable and unpleasant 1 lightly uncomfortable but acceptable © comfortable ‘TSENS is defined in terms of deviations of mean body tempera- te from cold and hot set poinss representing the lower and upper limits for the zone of evaporative regulation: f,. and f,. feapec- tively. The values ofthese set points depend on the net rate of inte zal beat production and are calculated by 0.94, tye = SeTEOM-W) + 36301 m™ 0347 ay _ wy fy = SEEM —W) 436,669 o "TSENS is then determined by (046851, — i) AT Cann toed 47, + 04685¢1,—f,4) ‘SENS 45, 6 SMe) where 1, is the evaporative efficiency (assumed to be 0.85). DISC is numerically equal to TSENS when f is below its cold set point f, and i i related to skin wettedness when body temper- ‘ature is regulated by sweating 2001 ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook (SI) 0.4685(4,—,<) 41 Ey ~E, on Even reo) E, DISC = te 5) ‘nas Frou reg Fay Wwhete Erpyyey is calculated as in Fanger’s model, using Equation on, Adaptive Models Adaptive models do not actually predict comfort responses but rather the almost constant conditions under which people at likely tobe comfortable in buildings. In general, people naturally adapt and say also make various adjustments to themselves and their sur- roundings to reduce discomfort and physiological stain. Ithas been ‘observed that, through adaptive actions, an acceptable degree of ‘comfort in tesidences and offices is possible over a range of air emi- peratures from about 17 to 31°C (Humphreys and Nicol 1998) ‘The adaptive adjustments are typically conscious behavioral sctions such as altering clothing, posture, activity schedules, activ= ity levels, rate of working, dit, veatlation, ai movement, and local temperature. The adapiations may also include unconscious longer ‘erm changes to physiological set points and gains for the contol of shivering, skin blood flow, and sweating, as Well as adjustments to body fluid levels and salt loss. However, only limited documenta- tion and information on such changes is available. ‘An important driving force behind the adaptive process is the pattern of outside weather conditions and the exposure to them, This 's the principal input to the adaptive models that have evelved 10 date, and there models predict likely comfort temperatures 1, of ranges of f ftom monthly mean outdoor temperatures fay. Such & sodel (Uluimphzeys and Nicol 1998), based on data from a wide range of buildings, climates, and cultures is teu=22)? 242-4044, 22)emp - (=) (76) The adaptive models are useful to guide design and energy deci- sions. They may also be useful to specify building temperatures set, points throughout the year. A recent ASHRAE-spansored study on, adaptive models compiled an extensive database from past Held dies to study, develop, and test adaptive models. For climates and buildings where cooling and central heating are not required, the study suggests the following model (de Dear and Brager 1998}: fgg = 189+ 0255touy a where fis the operative conafort temperature In general, the value of using an adaptive model to specily set poiats or guide temperatute contol strategies is likely to increase ‘with the freedom that occupants are given to adapt (eg, by having flexible working hours, locations, or dress codes). Zones of Comfort and Discomfort The section on Two-Node Model shows that comfort and ther- smal sensation are not necessarily the same variable, especially for ‘ petson inthe zone of evaporative thermal regulation, Figures 14 and 15 show this diference for the standard combination of met- ‘lo-ait movement used inthe standard effective temperature. Fig- lure 14 demonstrates that practically a basic physiological vai- ables predicted by the two-node model are functions of ambient temperature and ate relatively independent of vapor pressure, All exceptions occur at relative humidities ebove 80% and as the iso- therms reach the ET* = 41.5°C line, where regulation by evapora- tion fails. Figure 15 shows that lines of constant ET* and weltedaess are functions of both ambient temperature and vaporThermal Comfort pressure, Thus, human thermal responses are divided into two lasses—those in Figure 14, which respond only to heat stress from the environment, and those in Figure 15, which respond to both the dea sess from the environment and the resultant heat stain (Stol- wij etal. 1968), For warm environments, any index with isotherms parallel to skin temperature is «reliable index of thermal sensation alone, and not of discomfort caused by increased humidity, Indices with izo- ‘therms parallel to BT* are reliable indicators of discomfort or dis- satisfaction with thermal environments, For a fixed exposure time to cold, lines of constant ty, ET*, and f, are essentially identical, and cold censation is no different from cold discomfort. Fora sate ‘of comfort with sedentary or light atvity, lines of constant fy and ET? coincide, Thus conafor ad thezmml sensations coincide in this region as well. The upper and lower temperature limits for comfort at these levels can be specified ether by thermal sensation (Fanger 1982) or by ET*,asis done in ASHRAE Standard 5, since lines of ‘constant conafoet and lines of constant thermal sensation should be identical, “Fer. Sono ‘SepenaRY sta Fig. 14 Effect of Environmental Conditions on Physiological Variables 57 wongws Bob HEaTINO FoR EM net B ag Ener Fig. 15. Effect of Thermal Environment on Discomfort 8.19 ENVIRONMENTAL INDICES An environmental index combines two or more parameters (© airtemperature, mean radiant temperature, Bumidity, or ar velocity) into a single variable, Indices simplify the description of the thermal environment and the stress imposed by an environment. Enviroa- ‘ental indices may be classified according to how they are devel- oped. Rational indices ae based on the theoretical concepts presented earlier Empirical indices are based on measurements ‘with subjects or on simplified relationships that do not necessarily follow theory. Indices may also be classified according to their application, generally ether eat stressor cold stress. Effective Temperature The effective temperature ET" is probably the mos! common cnvironmental index, and it has the widest range of application. It combines temperature and humidity into a single index, so two fnvironments with the same ET* should evoke the same thermal response even though they have different temperatures and humsid- ities; but they must have the same air velocities The original empirical effective temperature was developed by Houghten and Yaglou (1923). Gagge et al. (1971) defined a new effective temperature using a rational approach, Defined mathemat- ically in Equation (33), this isthe temperature of an environment st 5086 rh tha results in the same total hea loss Ey rom the skin asin the actual environment Because the index is definedin terms of operative eraperatue itcombines the effects of tree parameters (Ff, and p,) into a sin~ ale index. Skin wettedness w and the permeability index jy, aust be Specified and are constant fora given ET line for a particular sita- ‘tion. The two-node model is used to determine skin wettedness in the zone of evaporative regulation. At the upper limit of regulation, w approaches 1.0; atthe lower limit, w approaches 0,06. Skin wet. tedness equals one ofthese values when the body is outside the zone of evaporative regulation, Since the slope of a constant ET* line depends on skin weltednese and clothing moisture permeability cllective temperature for a given temperature and humidity may ‘depend on the clothing and activity of the person, This diference is shown in Figure 16. Atlow skin wettedness, the air humidity as lit- Ue influence, and lines of constant ET are neatly vertical As skin Weitedness increases due to activity and/or heat stress, the lines become more horizontal and the influence of butaidity is much smote pronounced. The ASHRAE comfort envelope shown in Fig- tre 5 is described in terms of ET* Since ET* depends on clothing and activity, itis not possible (o generate a universal ET* chart Calculation af ET* can also be tedious, requiring the solution of multiple coupled equations to determine skin wettedness. A standard set of conditions represen- tative af typical indoor applications is used to define a standard effective temperature SET*, The standard effective temperature is then defined as the equivalent ait temperature of an isotheermal environment af 50% rh in which a subject, while wearing cloth- Ing standardized for the activity concemed, has the same heat stress (skin temperature f,) and thermoregulatory strain (skin ‘weltedness w) asin the actual environment Humid Operative Temperature ‘The humid operative temperature fis the temperature of 4 uniform environment at 100% th in which a person loses the fame (otal amount of heat from the skin af in the actual envi ronment, This index is defined mathematically in Equation (32). Itis analogous to ET*, the only difference being that it is defined at 100% rh and O% th rather than at 50% rh, Figures 2 and 16 indicate that lines of constant ET are alzo lines of con- Slant fay, However, the values of these two indices differ for a given environment