FUNDAMENTALS OF CHEMISTRY

Everything in the universe can be classified as either matter or energy.

Matter is defined as anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter describes the physical things
around us: the earth, the air you breathe, and your pencil etc... The Law of Conservation of
Matter states that matter cannot be created nor destroyed.
Energy is the capacity of doing work; where work is the process of moving some matter against
another opposing force. Many forms of energy include: heat, electricity, and light. The Law of
Conservation of Energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can change its
form .The total quantity of matter and energy that is in the universe is constant.
Chemistry is a branch of science concerned with the study of matter. It deals with the structure and
the composition of matter and the changes that it undergoes.
Classification of matter :
According to modern science there are two principal ways of classifying matter.
(i) On the basis of physical state. Solid, liquid, and gas: these are the three most common forms
of matter (plasma is considered to be the fourth state of matter. plasmas rarely exist on Earth,
although they occur commonly in stars and other parts of the universe.)
(ii) By its chemical constitution as an element, compound or mixture.

Kinetic Molecular theory of matter:

Our understanding of the nature of matter is based on certain assumptions about the particles
of which matter is composed and the properties of those particles. This understanding is
summarized in the kinetic theory of matter
According to the kinetic theory of matter, all matter is composed of tiny particles. These
particles can be atoms, molecules, ions, or some combination of these basic particles.
These particles have spaces lying between them, and these spaces are referred to as
intermolecular spaces. And the force of attraction acting between these (molecules) particles
is called intermolecular force.
The particles of which matter is composed are always in motion. Those particles may rotate
on their own axes, vibrate back and forth around a certain definite point, travel through space
like bullets, or display all three kinds of motion. Due to their motion particles posses kinetic
energy.
On heating the kinetic energy of particles increases and they move faster.

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 Fundamentals of Chemistry

By using kinetic molecular theory of matter, we can explain properties of three states of matter.
Sl.
Property Solids Liquids Gases
No
Liquids do not have definite Gases neither have
Solids possess definite
shape, but volume is definite shape nor
Shape and shape and volume. This is
1 definite. This is due to the volume. It is due to the
Volume due to the close packing of
loose packing of the random motion of
molecules in solids.
molecules. molecules.
The intermolecular space The intermolecular space in The intermolecular
Intermolec
in a solid is very small, as a liquid is large than in a space is a very large,
2 ular
much smaller than in a solid and smaller than that the largest among all the
spaces
liquid or a gas in a gas. states.
Mutual forces of attraction Forces of attraction between Forces of attraction
Intermolec
3 between the molecules are molecules are less than between the molecules
ular force
maximum. those in cases of solids are negligible.

The density of a liquid is The density of the gas is

4. Density The density of solid is high. less than that of solids and extremely low.
higher than that of gas.

The surface area of a solid

is large because it is open
from all sides. If a solid is
The surface area of a liquid
broken, the surfaces area A gas does not have a
Surface is small as it can have
5. increases because new free surface like a solid
Area maximum of one free
surfaces are created. or a liquid.
surface.
Thus, the surface area of a
crushed solid is extremely
large
Gases are highly
Solids are least
It is slightly more than that in compressible. It is due
Compressi compressible. It is due to
6. solids and less than that of to the large empty
bility the small empty space
gases. spaces between the
between their molecules.
molecules.
Liquids are fluids.
Solids are rigid. They Gases flow freely
They usually flow freely
7 cannot flow freely like because there are no
despite the forces of
Diffusion gases or liquids because effective forces of
attraction between the
the particles are strongly attraction between the
particles but liquids are not
held in fixed positions. particle.(fluids)
as fluid as gases.
Molecules possess least Molecules possess These molecules are
8. Energy
energy moderate value of energies most energetic

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 Fundamentals of Chemistry

Fluid: Any substance, which flows is known as fluid.

INTERCONVERSION OF STATES OF MATTER.

The phenomenon of change from one state of matter into another, and then back to the original state
is called the interconversion of states of matter. Matter can be changed from one state to another by
(i) Heating or by cooling
(ii) Increasing or decreasing the pressure

Note: The interconversion of the states of a substance does not bring about any change in its mass or
chemical composition.
For example, if 10 g water is heated, it changes into exactly 10 g of water vapour (mass is
same), which still consists of H2 O molecules (composition is also same).
Following are the terms involved in interconversion of states of matter.
Melting : The process of change of matter from its solid to its liquid state, at a particular temperature,
is called melting or fusion. The constant temperature, at which a solid becomes liquid on
absorbing heat, is called the melting point of that solid.
Freezing (solidification):
The process of change of matter from the liquid to the solid state, at a particular temperature, is
called freezing or solidification. The constant temperature, at which a liquid changes into a solid
by giving out heat energy, is called the freezing point of that liquid.
Evaporation and Boiling (vaporization)
The process of conversion of a substance from the liquid state to the gaseous state is called
evaporation or vaporization. Evaporation is a slow process. It occurs at all temperatures and at
the surface of the liquid.
For example drying of wet clothes is due to the slow evaporation of the liquid.
Boiling is the process of change of liquid to vapour from all parts of the liquid at a particular
temperature. The temperature at which a liquid changes to vapour is called boiling point.
Boiling point depends significantly on pressure. It increases when the pressure is increased.
Liquefaction or condensation is the process of change from the gaseous state to the liquid state, at
a particular temperature.

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 Fundamentals of Chemistry

Sublimation:
Sublimation is a process, in which a heated solid directly changes to the gaseous state without
first changing into a liquid, conversely, on cooling the gas directly changes back to a solid.
Heat
Solid Vapour

Cool
For example ammonium chloride, iodine, camphor, naphthalene, solid carbon dioxide, etc.
change directly into vapour when they are heated
Sublimation can take place even without heating, e.g. naphthalene and dry ice sublime at room
temperature
Explanation on the basis of the kinetic Molecular Theory
On heating the particles of solid gain energy and vibrate vigorously and move in their position
and become liquids (fluids)
On further heating they gain more energy and move further apart and turn into gas.
When a gas is cooled the particles lose energy and slowly come closer and condense to liquid.
On further cooling the particles lose still more energy and come closer they by freeze to form a
solid.
Classification on the basis of chemical constituents
Matter that has uniform composition and identical properties throughout the phase is called
homogenous matter. All pure substances, elements or compounds are the examples of
homogenous matter. Matter, that is made of two or more components, which are physically
distinct, is called heterogeneous matter. All impure substances, mixtures are the examples of
heterogeneous matter.
Pure substance
A pure substance is a homogeneous material with a definite invariable chemical composition,
and definite, invariable physical and chemical properties.
All pure substances are homogeneous, but all homogeneous substances are not pure
substances, for example solution of salt in water, though homogeneous, is not a pure
substance. Every drop of the solution has the same taste and composition, but it is neither pure
water nor pure salt.
Element: It is a pure simple substance made up of only one kind of atoms.
Elements cannot be broken down into two or more simple substances by ordinary chemical (or
physical) means. We use the term ordinary chemical means to exclude nuclear reactions.
e.g.: hydrogen, chlorine, oxygen, copper, sulphur
Elements in their pure state are difficult to find because they usually react to form compounds .

Compound: A compound is a pure substance made up of two or more elements combined chemically
in a fixed proportion. It has a definite set of properties and the component elements in the
compound do not retain their original properties e.g. CO 2, H2O.
One important characteristic of Compounds is that they cannot be separated into by physical
methods.
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 Fundamentals of Chemistry

Physical Methods include: freezing, boiling, straining, filtering, dissolve in water or other liquid,
or passing it through a magnetic field. Compound can only be separated into its constituent
elements by a chemical reaction(chemical method).Water, for example, can be frozen or boiled,
but the ice or water vapor is still water! Freezing and boiling cannot separate water into
Hydrogen and Oxygen Atoms or Molecules. Components in a compound can be separated
only by chemical means.

Mixture: Two or more substances, combined in varying proportions - each retaining its own specific
properties. The components of a mixture can be separated by physical means, i.e. without the
making and breaking of chemical bonds.
Examples: Air, table salt thoroughly dissolved in water, milk, wood, and concrete.
Mixtures are of two types :
Heterogeneous Mixture
Mixture in which the properties and composition are not uniform throughout the sample.
Examples: Milk, wood, concrete, Brass (copper, zinc) Bronze (copper, zinc, tin).
Homogeneous Mixture
Mixture in which the properties and composition are uniform throughout the sample. Such
mixtures are termed solutions.
Examples: Air and table salt thoroughly dissolved in water.
Atoms and Molecules :
Atom is the basic building block of matter and it is the smallest particle of the element, which
can take part in a chemical reaction and may or may not exist independently in nature.
For example in nature hydrogen may not exist as Hydrogen atoms (H) it exists as H2 molecules.
Helium in nature exists as individually He atoms.
It is divisible in to sub- atomic particles. most important sub-atomic particles are protons,
neutrons and electrons(fundamental particles).
Atomic number: It is either the total number of electrons or the total number of protons present in
the atom. It is denoted by a letter Z
Atom is electrically neutral because the number of protons inside the nucleus will be equal to
the number of electrons outside the nucleus.
Mass number: It is the total number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of the atom. It is
denoted by a letter A.
An element X is represented as ZXA
Examples: 12 C6
Note: A-Z = number of neutrons.
Atomic mass (atomic weight):
An atom is so minute that it cannot be detected even with the most powerful microscope, let
alone placed on a balance pan and weighed. So there is no question of determining the
absolute weight of an atom
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 Fundamentals of Chemistry

The atomic mass of an element can be defined as the number which indicates how many
th
times the mass of one atom of the element is heavier in comparison to 1/12 part of the
mass of one atom of carbon-12
Atomic masses of a number of elements are not nearly whole numbers. Most of the elements
occur in nature as mixture of isotopes. (Isotopes the atoms of the same element having different
atomic masses). With very few exceptions, however, elements have constant mixtures of
isotopes.
Example: Chlorine is found in nature as a mixture containing two isotopes Cl 35 (34.969 amu) and Cl
37 (36.966 amu). These are found in the ratio of 75.53%(percentage abundance)
(Cl 35) and 24.47 % (Cl 37). Therefore, the average relative mass of chlorine is calculated
as:
(34.969 x 0.7553) + (36.966 x 0.2447) = 34.46 amu
If a, b are atomic masses of two isotopes element and their abundance ratio m: n
m X a+n X b
Then, Average isotopic mass =
m+n
X, Y are percentage abundances of the two isotopes (Y=100-X)
x y
Average isotopic mass = Xa+ Xb
100 100
Atomic Mass Unit (amu) :It is a small unit of mass to express atomic and molecular masses.It is
1
th
defined to be 12 mass of one atom of carbon - 12(6C12)
1 amu = 1.66x10-24g
In modern books amu is referred as unified atomic mass unit (u), or dalton (Da).
SYMBOLS
Elements are made up of atoms and these atoms are denoted by symbols.
Symbols are thus a short form or abbreviated name of elements. Berzelius suggested the use of
first letter of the name. It created confusion as many elements had the same initial letter with a
different name.
E.g. Carbon, Cobalt, Calcium- All would take C as symbol
Later second letter was added to some and for some it was derived from their Latin names.
When two letters are used, the first is written in capital and second in small letter. For some
elements whose symbols are derived from name of the scientist(curium Cm from Madam
curie),country or laboratory, (Americium Am from America) name of the planet (Uranium U from
Uranus).
Examples: C-carbon, Ca -calcium, Co-Cobalt, Cu-copper from cuprum (Latin word)

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 Fundamentals of Chemistry

List of first thirty elements, with their symbols, Atomic numbers, Atomic weights
(Atomic Mass)
Atomic number Element symbol Atomic
mass(approximately)
1 Hydrogen H 1
2 Helium He 4
3 Lithium Li 7
4 Beryllium Be 9
5 Boron B 11
6 Carbon C 12
7 Nitrogen N 14
8 Oxygen O 16
9 Fluorine F 19
10 Neon Ne 20
11 Sodium Na 23
12 Magnesium Mg 24
13 Aluminum Al 27
14 Silicon Si 28
15 Phosphorous P 31
16 Sulphur S 32
17 Chlorine Cl 35.5
18 Argon Ar 40
19 Potassium K 39
20 Calcium Ca 40
21 Scandium Sc 45
22 Titanium Ti 48
23 Vanadium V 51
24 Chromium Cr 52
25 Manganese Mn 55
26 Iron Fe 56
27 Cobalt Co 59
28 Nickel Ni 58
29 Copper Cu 63.5
30 Zinc Zn 65.3

Molecule: -
A molecule is defined as the smallest particle of an element or compound which has an independent
existence and it has all the properties of that substance.

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 Fundamentals of Chemistry

Molecular weight of relative molecular mass:

The molecular mass can be defined as the number which indicates how many times the mass of one
1
molecule is heavier in comparison to th part of the mass of one atom of carbon-12
12
Mole concept
This is the Latin word 'moles' meaning heap or pile. A mole is defined as the number of atoms in 12.00
g of carbon-12. The number of atoms in 12 g carbon -12 has been found experimentally to be
6.023x1023. This number is called Avogadros number.
The mass of one-mole atoms of any element is exactly equal to the atomic mass in grams or gram
atomic mass.

The mass of one-mole molecules of any substance is exactly equal to the Molecular mass in grams or
gram molecular mass.
Examples: Mass of 6.023 x 1023 Hydrogen atoms (H) is 1g
Mass of 6.023 x 1023 Oxygen atoms (O) is 16g

Mass of 6.023 x 1023 Hydrogen molecules (H2) is 2g

Mass of 6.023 x 1023 Oxygen molecules (O2) is 32g
Mass of subs tan ce ingrams
Note : Number of moles of subs an ce =
Mole of the subs tan ce in grams
VALENCY:
Old concept: The valency of an element is the combining capacity of its atom and it is measured by
the number of hydrogen or chlorine atoms with which 1 atom of the element would combine.
Modern concept: According to the modern concept, the valency may be defined as the number of
electrons lost, gained or shared with one atom of the element in the formation of chemical bond.

Measurement of valency: 1 atom of chlorine combines with 1 atom of hydrogen to form HCl. The
valency of chlorine is 1.
1. atom of oxygen combines with 2 atoms of hydrogen to form H 2 O. The valency of oxygen is

1 atom of carbon combines with 4 atoms of hydrogen to form CH 4 (methane). Therefore the valency
of carbon is 4.
Note: Valency is a whole number: Valency of an element varies from 1 to 8. It may be zero for an
element which does not combine with any other element.
Ions: An ion is an atom or group of atoms, with a net electric charge. Positively charged ions are
called cations and negatively charged ions are called anions.
Examples: SO4-2, Ca2+, NH4+
The numbers of charges indicate the number of electrons lost or gained by the atom or group of
atoms.
Depending on the number of charges viz 1,2,3 or 4 the ions are described as Monovalent, divalent,
trivalent or tetravalent respectively.

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 Fundamentals of Chemistry

NAME AND SYMBOLS OF IONS (CATIONS) [ +VELY CHARGED IONS]

Name of the cation Symbol of the cation Charge
Monovalent :
Hydrogen H+ +1
+
Lithium Li +1
+
Sodium Na +1
+
Potassium K +1
+
Rubidium Rb +1
+
Copper Cu Cuprous or Copper (I) +1
+
Silver Ag +1
+
Gold Au Aurous or gold (I) +1
Mercury Hg1+ Mercurous or Mercury (I) +1
Ammonium NH+4 +1
Divalent :
Beryllium Be2+ +2
Magnesium Mg2+ +2
2+
Calcium Ca +2
2+
Strontium Sr +2
2+
Barium Ba +2
2+
Radium Ra +2
2+
Copper Cu Cupric or Copper (II) +2
2+
Mercury Hg Mercuric or Mercury (II) +2
2+
Iron Fe Ferrous or Iron (II) +2
Chromium Cr2+ Chromous +2
2+
Cobalt Co Cobaltous or Cobalt (II) +2
2+
Nickel Ni +2
2+
Manganese Mn Maganous of Manganese (II) +2
2+
Cadmium Cd +2
2+
Zinc Zn +2
2+
Lead Pb lead (II) +2
2+
Tin Sn Tin (II) +2
Trivalent :
Iron Fe3+ Ferric or Iron (III) +3
3+
Manganese Mn Manganic or Manganese (III) +3
3+
Aluminium Al +3
3+
Gold Au Auric or gold (III) +3
3+
Antimony Sb Antimonous or Antimony (III) +3

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 Fundamentals of Chemistry

Arsenic As3+ Arsenous or Arsenic (III) +3

3+
Chromium Cr +3
3+
Cobalt Co Cobaltic or Cobalt (III) +3
3+
Boron B +3
Tetravalent :
Platinum Pt4+ Platinum (IV) +4
4+
Lead Pb Lead (IV) +4
4+
Tin Sn Tin (IV) +4
NAME AND SYMBOLS OF IONS (ANIONS)
Name of the anion Symbol of the anion Charge
Monovalent :
Acetate CH3 COO- or C 2H3 O2- 1
- -
Formate HCOO or CHO 2 1
-
Bicarbonate of Hydrogen carbonate HCO 3 1
Bisulphate or hydrogen sulphate HSO -4 1
-
Bisulphite or Hydrogen sulphite HSO 3 1
-
Hydrogen Sulphide or Bisulphide HS 1
-
Fluoride F 1
-
Chloride Cl 1
-
Bromide Br 1

Iodide I 1
-
Hypochlorite ClO 1
-
Chlorite ClO 2 1
-
Bromite BrO 2 1
-
Iodite IO 2 1
Chlorate ClO3- 1
-
Bromate BrO 3 1
-
Iodate IO 3 1
-
Perchlorate ClO 4 1
-
Nitrite NO 2 1
Nitrate NO3- 1
-
Cyanide CN 1

Hydride H 1
-
Hydroxide OH 1
Bivalent :

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 Fundamentals of Chemistry

Carbonate CO32 - 2
2-
Chromate CrO 4 2
2-
Dichromate Cr2 O 7 2
2-
Manganate MnO 4 2
Sulphide S2 - 2
2-
Sulphite SO 3 2
2-
Sulphate SO 4 2
2-
Oxide O 2
Trivalent :
Boride B3 - 3
3-
Borate BO 3 3
3-
Nitride N 3
3-
Phosphide P 3
Phosphite PO33 - 3
3-
Phosphate PO 4 3
Tetravalent :
Pyrophosphate P2 O74 - 4
4-
Carbide C 4
FRAMING FORMULAE OF COMPOUNDS
An electropositive ion (cation) will combine with an electronegative ion (anion) in such a proportion
that the valencies of the combining parts are equal.
*Generally the symbol or formula of the electropositive part is written first and the symbol or formula of
the electronegative part is written next.
*Enclose the compound ion (ion consists of two or more atoms of different elements ) if any,in a
bracket,e.g,keep SO4 as (so)4
*If the charges of the two ions are divisible by a common factor, then reduce the numerals.
Finally criss cross the numerical values of their charges.
Examples:
(i) Aluminium oxide:
A|3+ O2- Al2 O3

(ii) Calcium bromide

Ca2+ Br- . CaBr2

(iii) Zinc nitrate

Zn2+ NO3- . Zn (NO3) 2

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 Fundamentals of Chemistry

A chemical formula tells us about the number of atoms of each element present in the molecule. It
helps us to calculate the molecular weights.
Examples: CO2 molecule contains 1 carbon& 2 oxygen atoms
(1 x 12) + (2 x 16) = 44
H2 SO4
(2 x 1) + (1 x 32) + (4 x 16)
2 + 32 + 64 = 98
The total number of atoms multiplied with their respective atomic weights gives the molecular weight of
that compound.

CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE OF INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

The word nomenclature means system or scheme of naming.
ELEMENTS
The commonest elements have been known for a long time and there is generally no system about
their naming. Recently isolated metals, however, have been given names ending in ium or um, e.g.,
radium, platinum, osmium, aluminium, while recently named non-metals have been given names
ending in on, e.g., argon, xenon.
COMPOUNDS
Binary compounds (compounds containing only two elements) : The name-ending ide is given
to compounds containing only two elements and the nature of the elements is indicated in the two
words of the name, e.g., copper oxide, CuO; hydrogen sulphide, H 2S.
The number of atoms of one of the elements contained in a molecule of the compound is sometimes
indicated by a prefix to the second part of the name, e.g., carbon disulphide, CS 2, phosphorus
trichloride, PCl3; carbon tetrachloride; Phosphorus pentoxide, P2O5.

There are many binary compounds of hydrogen for which the trivial name is used. For example H 2O
(water), BH3 (borane), SiH4 (silane), GeH4 (germane), NH3 (ammonia), PH3 (phosphine), AsH3 (arsine),
SbH3 (stibine), N2H4 or NH2.NH2 (hydrazine or diammine) etc.

Nomenclature of anions :
i) Monoatomic anions are named by adding ide to the stem name of the element. Examples are :
H (hydride ion), F (fluoride ion), Se2 (selenide ion), N3 ( nitride ion), P 3 (phosphide ion), O2
( oxide ion) etc.
ii) Certain polyatomic anions have their names ending in ide. Examples are OH (hydroxide ion),
O22 (peroxide ion), O2 (superoxide ion), O3 (ozonide ion), CN (cyanide ion),
Acids and salts :
A great many acids contain hydrogen, oxygen and a third element, eg, H 2SO4, HNO3, H3PO4.
The commonest and most stable of such acids is usually highly oxidised and to it is given a
name which ends in ic and is derived from the element it contains in addition to hydrogen
and oxygen, eg., sulphuric acid, H2SO4, and nitric acid, HNO3. An acid containing the same
elements but less oxygen has the name-ending changed to ous, while one with less oxygen

12
 Fundamentals of Chemistry

still takes the prefix hypo-with the ous ending. An acid with a higher proportion of oxygen
than the ic acid takes the prefix per-with the ic ending.
The corresponding salts have names of the form ate, ite, hypo-ite and per -- - -- ate. Thus :
Acids Salts
Perchloric acid, HClO4 potassium perchlorate, KClO4
Chloric acid, HClO3. Potassium chlorate, KClO3
Chlorous acid, HClO2 potassium chlorite, KClO2
Hypochlorous acid, HClO potassium hypochlorite, KClO.
Notice also the following common pairs of acids and salts:
Acids Salts
Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 sulphates, eg., Na2SO4
Sulphurous acid, H2SO3 sulphites, eg, Na2SO3
Nitric acid, HNO3 nitrates , eg. KNO3
Nitrous acid, HNO2 nitrites, eg. KNO2

A useful rule to remember is that a salt with the name ending ate or ite usually
contains three elements, one of which is oxygen , eg., lead sulphate, PbSO4, copper nitrate,
Cu (NO3)2, sodium hypochlorite, NaClO,
Salts containing acid hydrogen (eg. NaHCO 3, LiH2PO4 etc.) are named by written hydrogen
before the name of the anion. Number of H-atoms is indicated by di, tri, etra etc. For example
NaHCO3 (sodium hydrogen carbonate), KHS( potassium hydrogen sulphide), LiH 2PO4 (lithium
dihydrogen phosphate), Na2HPO4 (disodium hydrogen phoshpate) etc.

Recent recommendations of the Chemical Society and the International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry have made certain chemical names trivial and they are to go out of use.
Examples are names in ic and ous derived from names of metals, eg., ferric and ferrous,
cupric and cuprous. The recommended replacement takes the form of the ordinary name of
the metal with its operative valency stated in brackets in Roman numerals.

Old New
Cuprous oxide Copper (I) oxide , Cu2O
Cupric oxide Copper (II) oxide, CuO
Ferrous sulphate Iron (II) sulphate, FeSO4
Ferric sulphate Iron (III) sulphate, Fe2(SO4)3
Plumbous chloride Lead (II) chloride, PbCl2
Plumbic chloride Lead (IV) chloride, PbCl4
Manganese dioxide Manganese (IV) oxide, MnO2
Chemical Equation:
An equation is a short scientific mode of representing a chemical change.
The symbols and formulae of all materials undergoing the change are written on the left, those of the
products of the change on the right .The reactants and the products are connected by an arrow
which stands for produces. The symbol +means together with

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 Fundamentals of Chemistry

Examples: Mg+O2 MgO

N2 +O2 2NO
Balancing a chemical equation :
Balancing Chemical Equations is essential if we want to determine quantities of reactants or products.
An unbalanced Chemical Equation gives only the identify of the beginning reactants and the final
products using the appropriate formulas as well as the conditions of temperature, physical state, and
pressure conditions under which the reaction takes place. However an unbalanced equation can not
convey anything about the quantities involved until the equation has been balanced. An equation must
be balanced in order to satisfy the Law of Conservation of Matter, which states that matter is neither
created nor destroyed in the course of a chemical reaction. An unbalanced equation would imply that
atoms have been created or destroyed.
Write the chemical equation in words showing the reactants & products of the reaction.
Write it using symbols & formulae
To balance the chemical equation, change the coefficients of molecules of the reactants &
products without disturbing their chemical composition.
An upward arrow () besides a substance represents a gas and a downword arrow ()
represents precipitate.
Example: Zinc + Hydrogen chloride zinc chloride + Hydrogen
Zn + HCl ZnCl2 + H2
Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2

It gives information about the relative numbers of moles of reactants and products involved in
the chemical change.
Example: 1
2C2 H 6 (g) + 7 O 2 (g) 4 CO 2 (g) + 6 H 2O (l)
2 molecules 7 molecules 4 molecules 6 molecules
2 moles 7 moles 4 moles 6 moles
2 x 30 = 60 g 7 x 32 = 224 g 4 x 44 = 176 g 6 x 18 = 108 g
2 x 6.02 x 1023 7 x 6.02 x 1023 4 x 6.02 x 1023 6 x 6.02 x 1023
molecules molecules molecules molecules

Example :2
Mercuric oxide decomposes, on heating, into mercury and oxygen. Mercuric oxide has the
formula HgO
HgO Hg + O
There are as many mercury and oxygen atoms on the right hand side as on the left. The equation is
therefore, balanced. But it is not correct, since free oxygen must be represented as O 2. The equation
must, therefore, be multiplied throughout by 2.

2HgO 2 Hg + O2

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 Fundamentals of Chemistry

Example:3
Potassium chlorate decomposes on heating into potassium chloride and oxygen. Potassium
chlorate has the formula Ki (ClO3)i and potassium chloride Ki Cl i,
KClO3 KCl + O
This is called the skeleton equation. A beginner is advised to present oxygen, hydrogen etc., in an
equation by its symbol to start with. The equation may be balanced as such. The representation of
oxygen, hydrogen etc. O 2, H2 etc, may be reserved to the end. In the above equation, there are one
atom of potassium and 3 oxygen atoms on the left-hand side. Therefore we must 3(O) on the right
hand side. The equation becomes.

KClO3 K Cl + 3 O

Free oxygen must be represented as O 2. So the equation must be multiplied throughout by 2. It

becomes 2 KClO3 2 KCl + 3 O2

WORKED EXAMPLES
1. Which of the following is an element?
a) Mercury b) Ammonia c) Water d) Glucose Ans. (a)
Mercury (Hg) is an element where as ammonia (NH 3), water (H2O) and glucose (C6H12O6) are
compounds
2. Which of the following mixtures are homogenous and which are heterogeneous?
a) Oil and water e) Water and acetone
b) Brass f) Chalk and water
c) Kerosene and petrol g) Ammonia and water
d) Sugar and water i) Sulphuric acid and water
Ans: a, e, f are heterogeneous , b,c,d,g,h i are Homogenous
3. Match the following:
a) Sulphur 1) Mixture
b) Sugar 2) Element
c) Air 3) Compound
Ans. a 2, b-3, c-1
Sulphur is an element
Sugar is a compound composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
Air is homogenous mixture of several gases like O2 + N2 + CO2 ..
4. Which of the following substances in the gaseous state should be called a vapour?
a) Hydrogen b) Oxygen c) Carbon dioxide d) Sulphur Ans: (d)
Hydrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide exist as gases at room temperature where as sulphur
exists as solid.
5. Which of the following contains the least number of molecules and which the highest?
a) 16 g carbon dioxide (CO2) b) 8 g of oxygen (O2)
c) 4 g of nitrogen (N2) d) 2 g of hydrogen (H2)

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 Fundamentals of Chemistry

(Atomic weights of C = 12, O = 16, H = 1 and N = 14).

It is necessary to calculate the number of molecules in each; it is enough if we calculate the
number of moles because a mole contains 6.02 x 10 23 molecules, and mole ratio is the same as
ratio of number of molecules.
a) Molecular weight of CO2 = 12 + (2 x 16 ) = 44).
w 16
Number of moles of CO2 = = = 0.36
M 44

(w = mass and M = molecular weight)

Number of molecules of CO2 = 0.36 x 6.02 x 1023

(b) Molecular weight of O2 = 2 x 16 = 32

8
Number of moles of O 2 = = 0.25
32

Number of molecules of O2 = 0.25 x 6.02 x 1023

(c) Molecular weight of N2 = 2 x 14 = 28

4
Number of moles of N 2 = = 0.14
28
Number of molecules of N2 = 0.14 x 6.02 x 1023
(d) Molecular weight of hydrogen = 2
2
Number of moles of H 2 = =1
2
Number of molecules of H2 = 6.02 x 1023

(c) N2Contains the least number of molecules and (d)H 2 the highest number
6. What is the mass of 1 molecule of carbon monoxide (CO)
Gram molecular weight of CO = 12 + 16 = 28 g.
6.02x 1023 molecules of CO weighs 28g.
28
1 molecule of CO weighs = 4.65 x 10-23 g
6.02 X 1023
7. Boron has two isotopes boron 10 and boron 11 whose percentage abundance are 19.6
and 80.4 % respectively. What is the average atomic mass of boron?

10 X 19.6 + 11X 80.4

Average atomic mass = = 10.804 u
100
8. Write the formulae of the following compound.
a) Barium Sulphate b) Calcium bicarbonate
c) Ferrous Sulphide d) Potassium dichromate

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 Fundamentals of Chemistry

Ans. a) BaSO4 b) Ca (HCO3) 2 c) FeS d) K2 Cr2 O7

9. Calculate the amount of CO2 produced when 50gms of CaCO3 is heated?
CaCO3 CaO + CO 2
100g 56g + 44g
100g CaCO3 produce 44g CO2
50 44
50 g CaCO3 produce g of CO2 Ans. 22g of CO2
100
10. What amount of Oxygen can react with 120gms of Mg to produce magnesium oxide?

2Mg + O2 2MgO

48g + 32g 80g

48 g of Mg reacts with 32 g of O2
120 g of Mg reacts with?

120 X 32
= = 80g of O 2
48
11. CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2 O + CO2
In the above reaction of 2 moles CaCO3 is available 73g of HCl reacts with it. Will there be
any CaCO3 left after the completion of reaction.

100g of CaCO3 1 mole

100 g CaCO3 consumes 73 g HCl

2 moles is 200g consumes 146 g HCl

Through 200 g of CaCO3 is available it should reacts with only 73g of HCl.
Ans. So, 100g of CaCO3 will be left unreacted.
12. Carbon occurs in nature as a mixture of carbon 12 and carbon 13. The average
atomic mass of carbon is 12.011. What is the percentage abundance of carbon 12 in
nature?
Let x be the percentage abundance of carbon 12;
Then (100 x) will be the percentage abundance of carbon 13.

12x 13(100 - x )
Therefore, + = 12.011
100 100
or 12x + 1300 - 13x = 1201.1
Abundance of carbon 12 is 98.9%
or x = 98.9

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 Fundamentals of Chemistry

13. Calculate the percentage composition of calcium nitrate.

The formula of calcium nitrate is Ca (NO3) 2.
Thus, the formula mass or molecular mass
= At. Mass of Ca + 2 x at. Mass of N + 6 X at. Mass of oxygen = 40 + 2 X14+6X16 = 164
40
% of Ca = X 100 = 24
164
28
% of N = X 100 = 17
164
% of O = 100 - (24 + 17) = 59

LEVEL I
1) Very often we come across the term Matter what does this mean?
2) Compare the properties of solids, liquids and gases.
3) Can heat be classified as matter? Explain
4) An atom has 12 protons and 12 electrons. What does the statement infer?
5) What is the total number of electrons, protons and neutrons present in phosphorous.
6) What is sublimation?
7) What is a homogenous substance?
8) What are isotopes? Give an example
9) What is valency? What is trivalent ion?
10) What are cations and anions? Give examples
11) How an atom is electrically neutral?
12) Name 2 liquids, which vaporize at room temperature.
13) Distinguish between vapour and gas
14) A molecule of a substance contains atoms of different kinds, is the substance an element or
compound.
15) What makes gases highly compressible ?
16) Point out the correct and the false statements out of the following:
a) In some compound, atoms of elements may combine in any weights ratio.
b) Atomic weight of an element is always a whole number.
17) The formula of Indium nitride is In N. Write the formula of Indium chloride.
18) A metal M is divalent in its ous state and trivalent in itsicstate. Write the formulae of he
following compounds
a) Meal nitrate b) Metal sulphite c) Metal phosphide d) metal sulphide
19) Write correct formulae for the following compounds
a)ammonium Hydrogen carbonate b) potassium sulphitec)copper(ii) nitate
d)Iron(iii) oxidee) barium hydroxidef) sodium phosphate
20) Balance the following equations
1) C6H6+O2CO2+H2O 2) Fe3O4+H2Fe+H2O 3) H2S+O2H2O+S
4) PbO2+HClPbCl2+Cl2+H2O 5) Al2O3+C Al4C3+CO

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 Fundamentals of Chemistry

21) How can matter be converted from one state to another?

22) Describe what happens when(a) a mixture of iron and sulphur,(b) a compound of iron and
sulphur are given the following tests:
i)a magnet is applied,
ii)carbon disulphide is added and the solution evaporated
23) What are the differences between mixtures and compounds?
24) The correct formula of aluminium oxide is
1) AlO3 2) AlO2 3) Al2 O3 4) AlO
25) The valency of nitrogen in nitrogen dioxide NO2 is
1) One 2) two 3) three 4) four
26) Which species contains more protons than electrons?
1) Sodium atom 2) Sulphide ion 3) Sulphur atom 4) Sodium ion
27) The ion that comprises 18 electrons and 16 protons exhibits the charge:
1) +18 2) -18 3) +2 4) -2
28) Write names of the following inorganic compounds :
1) Na2SO4 2) Al(OH)3 3) FeCl3 4) PbS 5) Na3PO3
6) PCl5 7) KClO 8) NH3 9) H2CO3 10) NaHSO3 11) Fe3O4
12) Mg3N2 13) Na2HPO4 14) AlN 15) CaCl2
16) PbCO3
LEVEL II
1) Chlorine becomes Cl , calcium becomes Ca 2+ what it says with respect to the protons.
-1

1) How many atoms and ions are present in zinc phosphate?

2) What is the mass percentage of copper in CuSO4?
3) Give an example each for the following mixtures
a) Solid in solid b) Gas in liquid c) Solid in gas d) Solid in liquid
4) When a coke bottle is opened bubbles are seem. What bubbles are these why are they
formed?
5) Solid and liquids have an open surface where as gases dont. Explain?
6) Energy changes when matter is transformed from one form to another what happens to mass
and composition during inter conversion of matter?
7) We use naphthalene balls in our cupboards. They shrink in size after some days why is it so?
8) Write the following equation and balance them.
(i) Sodium hydroxide + Sulphuric acid sodium sulphate + water
(ii) Iron + Sulphuric acid Ferrous sulphate + hydrogen
9) Atomic weight of helium is 4. Calculate the number of atoms in 1 g of helium.
11) C+O2 CO2 if 18 grams of carbon is burnt, what is the amount of CO 2 produced?
12) A friend of yours is trying to balance an equation for the formation of Ammonia saying
N+H3 NH3 . Do you think it is correct .If yes explain if no give your suggestion?
13) How many grams of iron is there in 5 moles of Fe2O3+FeSO4?
14) If one volume of hydrogen reacts with one volume of nitrogen what is the volume of Ammonia
formed. Will all the reactants to get consumed in the formation of Ammonia.
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 Fundamentals of Chemistry

15) An oxide of an element contains 39.7% by mass of oxygen. Calculate the Molecular weight of
the element.
16) Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2 calculate the weight of ZnCl2 formed when 2 moles of Zn & 4 moles
of HCl are taken? (Zn molecular weight: 65).

KEY TO LEVEL I
4. Z = 12; Magnesium 5. 15e 15p, 15n, 16. a) False b) False
17. InCl3 18. a) M(NO3)2 ; M(NO3 b) MSO3 ; M2(SO3)3 c) M3(PO4)2 ; MPO4
d) Mg; M2S3 19. a) NH4HCO3 b) K2SO3 c) Cu(NO3)2 d) Fe2O3
e) Ba(OH)2 f) Na3(PO4)
22. a) We can separate Iron & Sulphur by applying these methods
b) Separation of Iron & Sulphur is not possible

KEY TO LEVEL II
2. Zn3(PO4)2 ; 3 Zn, 2 P and 8 0 atoms; 3Zn2+ , 2PO43- ions

6.023 1023 18 44
5. Due to release of CO2 10. atoms 11. g
4 12
12. In 1 mole mixture 3 mole Fe atoms are present ; 3 x 56g
14. No; one volume hydrogen required 3 volumes of N2
100 16
15. g 16. 2 moles ZnCl2 i.e., 272 g
39.7

WORK SHEET

1. The term matter what does this mean? And classification of matter?
2. Calculate the percentage composition of
a) Magnesium nitride b) calcium carbonate
c) Ammonium nitrate c) sodium bi carbonate
3. Boron occurs in nature of boron-10 and boron-11. The average atomic mass of boron is 13.022.
What is the percentage abundance of boron 10 and boron 11 in nature?
4. Which of the following contains the least number of molecules and which the highest?
a) 16 g of SO2 b) 4 g of CaCO3 c) 2 g of CaCl2 d) 10 g of Ca
5. Calculate the amount of CO2 produced when 42g of mgco3 is heated?
6. What amount of O2 can react with 16g Ca to produced Cao?
7. Write a short notes on radicals? Give the examples of radicals?

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 Fundamentals of Chemistry

8. Balance the following equations

a) CaCO3 + HCl CaCl 2 + H 2O + CO 2
b) Pb(NO3 ) 2 PbO + NO 2 + O 2
c) (NH 4 )2 SO 4 NH 3 + H 2SO 4
d) KI + Pb(NO3 ) 2 KNO3 + PbI 2
9. NaH CO3 is called--------
10. The symbol of mercury is--------
11. The formula of hydrogen peroxide is ----------
12. The atomic mass of sulphur, oxygen and hydrogen are 32, 16,1 respectively. Then the formula
of H 2 SO4 ---------
13. Give the chemical formula for the following compounds?
a) Aluminium sulphate b) Potassium nitrate c) Calcium hydroxide d) Acetic acid
14. Write a short notes on
a) Vaporization b) Solidification c) Sublimation d) Condensation
15. Write a short notes on
a) Moles b) Molecules and what is N value?
16. Write a short notes on
a) Atoms b) Atomic number c) Mass number d) Electrically neutral
17. Explain the compressibility of liquids & gases?
18. Explain the interconversion of states of matter?
19. a) Write down the chemical equation of heating of carbon in the presence of oxygen?
b) State how many grams of oxygen react with 1 gram of carbon
c) Calculate the weight of CO2 formed when 24 grams of C is burnt in air?
20. Balance a chemical equation
Kmno 4 + H 2SO 4 K 2SO 4 + MnSO 4 + H 2 O + O 2

21