PII: S00036870(97)00080-X Applied Ergonomics Vol. 29, No. 5, pp.

325334, 1998
( 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd
All rights reserved. Printed in Great Britain
00036870/98 $19.00#0.00

Personal perspective: in search of an

optimum cycling posture
K. de Vey Mestdagh
an Zuylen van Nijeveltstraat 182, 2242 AX assenaar, he Netherlands

(Received 30 July 1996; in revised form 19 November 1997)

Correct cycling posture improves performance and may prevent injuries. This article addresses
the most important variables that determine cycling posture of road racing cyclists. It focuses not
only on posture height but also on posture length, an aspect that has as yet received little
attention. In order to help cyclists find their optimum posture, reliable anthropometric measuring is
of utmost importance. The relevant measurements and the necessary measuring instruments are
considered. Special attention is given to gender related posture aspects. ( 1998 Elsevier Science
Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: cycling posture, anthropometry, posture height, posture length

Introduction
The most common posture problems encountered by
road racing cyclists relate, as amply documented in the
literature, either to the lower extremities and lower back
or to the back, neck and upper extremities. Complaints
falling into the first category are closely connected to
a badly adjusted saddle, those in the second are predomi-
nantly caused by incorrectly adjusted handlebars. As the
intermediate area between upper and lower body, the
genital and lumbar region are particularly vulnerable
(e.g. Van Hulten and Hendriks, 1985; De Mondenard,
1989; Mellion, 1991; Groenendijk et al, 1992). For a fit
and healthy cyclist with no significant anatomical abnor-
malities, many of these problems can be prevented or
cured if the bicycle is correctly adjusted and the rider
changes his or her posture accordingly. In the search for
an optimum posture of the road racing cyclist a balance
should be found between power delivery and endurance Figure 1 Adjustment of saddle and handlebars: two variables
limits and if a choice must be made between enhance- of crucial importance for a correct cycling posture
ment of performance and prevention of injuries the latter
should take precedence.
Saddle height, crank length, shoe cleat position and
saddle setback determine what can be defined as consequences for cycling posture of anthropometric
posture height. The discussion of this below is based on differences between male and female riders are con-
a review of existing ergonomics and biomechanical re- sidered.
search as well as on extensive testing and practical ap- On the basis of the characteristics of an optimum
plication. Reach, handlebar level and handlebar width cycling posture as described here the author has
together constitute what is termed posture length. developed an anthropometric measuring system,
This aspect, which has as yet received little attention in the
including the corresponding computer program and
literature, is dealt with afterwards with results of experi-
mental research. By addressing posture height as well as measuring instruments. This is currently used under
posture length we can obtain a comprehensive picture of the name of Cyclefit' by some 200 bicycle shops
the proper adjustment of saddle and handlebars. These in a number of European countries. The measuring
two variables, both independently and in relation to methods referred to below are identical to the Cyclefit'
each other, are of crucial importance for a correct measuring protocol. The tables which provide indica-
cycling posture (Figure 1). At end of the paper some tions of how to implement some of the recommendations
325
326 Optimum cycling posture: K. de ey Mestdagh

contain rounded figures based on formulae used

in the Cyclefit' program. They are included for
illustration purposes only. Precise postural advice
can only be given if all individual variables, includ-
ing a number of bicycle components, are taken into
account.

Posture height
Saddle height
Flexion and extension of hip, knee and ankle joints must
occur within certain limits to obtain a high power output
from the pedalling movement whilst maintaining
a supple cycling motion. Changing saddle height changes
the range of joint angles made during a revolution of the
pedals. This results in the relevant muscles being shorten-
ed and stretched to a greater or lesser extent, so they
function at a different section on the tension-length
curve. Faria and Cavanagh (1978) discuss muscle group
specific competence curves which combine the effects of
tension-length and leverage and illustrate the relative
ability to produce rotation at various angles. From these
curves optimum competence angles for extension and
flexion of the knee and the hip can be inferred, above
and below which the turning effect drops (see also Gregor
and Rugg, 1986). When saddle height deviates from the
optimal position, the effect for the cyclist is that more Figure 2 Knee angle in BDC pedal position (a) may be at
oxygen must be consumed and more work is required, most 150 and in TDC pedal position (b) not less than 65.
which means a loss in efficiency. Different tests have Optimum plantar flexion in BDC pedal position (c) is 13. (1)
shown that the knee angle in the BDC (bottom dead Trochanter major, (2) epicondylus lateralis femoris, (3) mal-
centre) position of the pedal may be, at most, 150 and in leolus lateralis
the TDC (top dead centre) position not less than 65
(Bohlmann, 1981; Cavanagh and Sanderson, 1986;
Matheny, 1992; Rose, 1989). The optimum plantar
flexion of the foot in the BDC pedal position, i.e. the
optimum competence angle for the ankle flexors, has
been measured by Francis (1986) at approximately 13
(Figure 2).
If the saddle height obliges the knee to extend fully
when the pedal is in the BDC position, not only do the
knee flexors (hamstrings and gastrocnemius) not function
to their full competence, but also locking of the knee joint
might occur. Besides, the pelvis will rock excessively,
a movement which is propagated to the spine, unduly
fatiguing the lower back muscles. When the saddle is so
low that the knee is overly flexed when the pedal is in the
TDC position, the knee extenders (quadriceps and glu-
teus maximus) will function inefficiently in relation to
their competence when extending the knee to move the
pedal downwards past the TDC-position. Moreover, the Figure 3 The patellofemoral compression force which is caused
increased force which the quadriceps must produce to by tension of the quadriceps (Q and Q ) and is dependent upon
1 2
extend the knee, resulting in strong patellofemoral com- the knee angle, increases considerably as the knee moves from
pression forces may easily overload the patella-femur extension to flexion
interface (Figure 3). As a consequence, the slightest incon-
gruity between the patella and the facies patellaris of the
femur may cause chondromalacia which has been widely
increase power when moving the pedal through the sec-
recognized as one of the most common cycling knee
complaints (Bohlmann, 1981; De Mondenard, 1989; Mel- ond quarter of the pedal circle and its BDC position
lion, 1991; Sala, 1992; Holmes et al, 1994). Also, when the (Clarijs and Van Ingen Schenau, 1985; Faria and
saddle is too low the ankle flexors (notably the tibialis Cavanagh, 1978; Holmes et al, 1994).
anterior) will not be used efficiently and the Achilles Determination of best saddle height is a question
tendon may be overstressed as a consequence of a pro- of finding a balance between effectiveness (power
nounced dorsiflexion (so-called heel dropping) to output/power supply) and efficiency (power supply/
 Optimum cycling posture: K. de ey Mestdagh
energy use) of the cycling motion. Muller (1937) con-
cluded that most power could be supplied if saddle
height, the distance between pedal spindle and top of the
saddle, was 5 to 6 cm more than inside leg length or
pubic-symphysis height, the barefoot distance between
ground and os pubis. He also discovered that a some-
what lower saddle position should be adopted for a
more efficient use of energy. A group of ergonomists
at Loughborough College of Physical Education in
1965 found that saddle height should be 109% of inside
leg length for maximum power output (Watson and
Gray, 1984; Whitt and Wilson, 1982). Hamley and
Thomas (1967) replicated Mullers tests and also estab-
lished that maximum power, albeit over a short period,
could be produced with saddle height 9% greater than
inside leg length. These findings were again confirmed by
Faria and Cavanagh (1978) who demonstrated that ap-
proximately one percent less power could be delivered for
every percent that saddle height deviated from 109%
height.
This position of the saddle at 109% of inside leg length
may be called maximum saddle height. The inside leg
length should be measured accurately, if possible by
a system of standardized air pressure which approxim-
ates saddle pressure. This will eliminate the subjective
sense of pressure felt when, due to the form of the arcus
pubis, the skin under the os pubis is compressed to
a greater or lesser extent (Figure 4).
Nordeen-Snyder (1977) also concluded that a saddle
position lower than required for maximum power was
advisable to maintain higher power output over a
longer period. It was shown that the lowest oxygen con-
sumption occurred at saddle height of 107% of inside leg
length. A lower oxygen consumption denotes an in-
creased efficiency and is therefore an important element
to take into account when advising saddle height to
a stage racer or touring cyclist. Saddle height at 107% of
inside leg length can be defined as optimum saddle
height.
Figure 4 Inside leg length: the barefoot distance between the
ground and the os pubis (Cyclefit' protocol)
327
Crank length
There is more to effectiveness and efficiency dur-
ing cycling than correct saddle height. Crank length is
another important variable. In contrast to the pursuit of
maximum power production, measurements of crank
length and efficient performance have as yet produced
little of clarity (Goes, 1989; Whitt and Wilson, 1982).
Determination of optimum crank length appears to be
a very complex issue. Besides inside leg length, various
factors have been described to play a role such as terrain,
rolling resistance and wind resistance, which in combina-
tion with crank length are directly related to the pedall-
ing cadence (Hull and Gonzalez, 1988; Kyle, 1986, 1994;
Morris, 1992; Ryschon, 1994). The latter influences the
velocities at which leg muscles contract, which in turn
determines the blood supply capacity of the muscles, and
therefore oxygen supply. Moreover, muscle fibre type
has been noted to be of importance, since it influences
the so-called preferred pedalling rate (Gregor and
Rugg, 1986).
As the crank arm length determines the size of the
pedal circle, it also affects knee and hip flexion. With
a view to maintaining a chosen saddle height a change in
crank length should be balanced by an equal alteration in
saddle height. However, a satisfactory solution is hard to
find as any compensation in relation to the TDC pedal
position works in the wrong way in the BDC position
and vice versa. Cycling with long cranks, especially when
combined with (overly) large gears, can not only lead to
unduly stressing the rectus femoris and vasti, but also
regularly causes the patellofemoral problems mentioned
earlier. Patellofemoral compression forces are parti-
cularly increased as a result of the combination of
the smaller knee angle with the larger fulcrum effect
of the longer crank arm. A conservative position is
therefore recommended when advising the regular road
racing cyclist in this respect (also Genzling and Hinault,
1986).
According to Hull and Gonzalez (1988), the limited
variety of crank lengths (the distance between the heart of
the pedal spindle and of the crank axle) normally avail-
able in retail cycle sales, usually between a minimum of
165 mm and a maximum of 180 mm in steps of 2.5 mm,
coincides reasonably well with results of research into the
relationship between the length of the crank and minim-
izing muscle stress. Determination of proper crank length
therefore can be based on standard (retail) crank lengths,
related to inside leg length, despite the latters limited
predictive value and the lack of decisive research data in
this area (Table 1). Kyle (1994) and Ryschon (1994) dem-
onstrate that more precise selection would require the
possibility of ergonomically testing and determining the
muscle-fibre type of every single cyclist.
Table 1 Determination of proper crank length can be based on standard
crank lengths, related to inside leg length
Inside leg length Crank length
575 16.50
*78 16.75
*81 17.00
*84 17.25
*87 17.50
*90 17.75
*93 18.00
328 Optimum cycling posture: K. de ey Mestdagh

Shoe cleat position The above does not account for variations in pedal,
Inside leg length is by far the most important factor in cleat or shoe designs. It is clearly not possible within the
determining proper posture height, but for a more framework of this article to provide guidance on all
precise determination the length of the foot must also possible combinations of pedal types and shoes, Saddle
be considered (Figure 5). A difference of some 5 cm can height as defined above is based on the traditional pedal,
be found in the length of midfoot plus hindfoot, (i.e. cleat and shoe and thus on a distance from the centre
the distance from the ball of the foot [head of the of the pedal spindle to the underside of the shoe sole of
first metatarsal] to the rear of the calcaneus) between 1.7 cm and a sole thickness of 1 cm, i.e. 2.7 cm distance
French shoe sizes 36 and 46 (UK/US sizes approximately from spindle centre to planta pedis.
3 and 12). A portion of foot length must be accounted
for in saddle height because the optimum plantar flexion
in the BDC pedal position of 13 referred to above Saddle setback
corresponds with approximately 20 from the horizontal A reliable starting point for determining saddle setback,
(Table 2). the longitudinal position of the rear of the saddle behind
Since foot length is relevant to saddle height, accurate the centre of the crank axle or bracket, is to allow the
determination of the position of the cleats on the cycling knee joint, or posterior part of the patella, to be directly
shoes is important, the more so as the ball of the foot positioned above the pedal spindle when the crank arm is
must be positioned directly above the pedal spindle so in horizontal forward position (Figure 7). This will enable
that the use of the lever formed by midfoot and hindfoot
can be optimised (Figure 6). This prefered cleat position
may lead to compression of the digital nerves between
the metatarsals caused by a protracted fixed pedal load,
especially with an insufficient forefoot arch. The cleats
then could be moved slightly further backwards to relieve
pressure on the ball of the foot. However, it is preferable
to see if corrective orthotics can provide relief so that the
most efficient pedal movement can be retained (see also
Pavelka, 1992; Sala, 1992). According to Holmes et al
(1994), the cleats should not be positioned further for-
wards since this would mean that the ball of the foot is
placed behind the pedal spindle which can lead to over-
stressing of Achilles tendon and gastrocnemius.

Figure 6 The shoe cleat position should be calculated such that

the head of the first metatarsal is positioned directly above the
pedal spindle

Figure 5 Foot length: distance between the posterior part of

the calcaneus and the front of the longest toe. These and
following measurements cannot be made accurately with a tape
measure. Sliding callipers should therefore be used (Cyclefit'
protocol)

Table 2 A portion of the foot length must be accounted for in the saddle
height

Foot length Saddle height

23 !0.8
24 !0.6
25 !0.4
26 !0.2
27 #0.2 Figure 7 Saddle setback should allow the posterior part of the
28 #0.4 patella to be positioned above the pedal spindle and the sacral
29 #0.6
apex to be in line with the rear of the saddle when the crank arm
30 #0.8
is in horizontal forward position
 Optimum cycling posture: K. de ey Mestdagh
the hip and knee extensors and flexors to be fully utilized
and to minimize strain on the knee joint since the
musclejoint relationship will profit from the optimum
competence angles discussed above. Any change in the
fore-aft position of the saddle will change the joint angles.
This knee-to-pedal relationship, adhered to by, inter alia,
Holmes et al. (1994), Matheny (1993) and Piednoir et al
(1990), is based on the so-called neutral saddle position
which also allows the sacral apex to be in line with the
rear of the saddle, so that a stable position on the saddle
can be obtained. A saddle that is adjusted too far for-
wards results in a smaller knee angle in the TDC pedal
position which will, as was noted above, necessitate an
increased quadriceps force to extend the knee, often lead-
ing to patellofemoral complaints. A saddle placed too far
backwards reduces the effective working of the ham-
strings, gastrocnemius and gluteus maximus.
The length of the upper leg may give an indication of
proper saddle setback (Figure 8 and Table 3). For a more
precise determination it is important to know the exact
relationship between the upper leg length and the full
Figure 8 Upper leg length: distance between the sacral apex
and the anterior part of the patella. Angle between the horizon-
tal femur and the fibula must be 90 (Cyclefit' protocol)
Table 3 The length of the upper leg may give an indication of saddle
setback
Upper leg length Saddle setback
56 31
58 32
60 33
62 34
64 35
66 36
329
inside leg length, in order to establish the correct knee
and hip angles. Moreover, the length of the crank arm
should be taken into account.
Triathletes and time trialists have been experimenting
with the longitudinal position of the saddle, and an
increasing number adopt an extreme forward, steep pos-
ture (Figure 9). This style of riding focuses primarily on
maximum reduction of air resistence, but also aims at
achieving maximum power output which is facilitated by
maximum saddle height required for the forward posture
in order to avoid knee problems. As rightly pointed out
by Beaujon (1994) and Kuhnen (1994), these develop-
ments, including even more radical postures adopted by
Graeme Obree and Chris Boardman during recent im-
provements of the world hour record, cannot be general-
ized however to regular road racing.
Although a steeper riding posture has proved to be
useful in time trials, it is not advisable for criterium or
stage racers. Not only does it require an aero handlebar
to support the upper body which, according to Verheij
(1992), may lead to shoulder complaints as a consequence
of the upper arm (humerus) transmitting road shocks
directly to the acromioclavicular joint, it also involves
considerable strain on muscles and joints of the lower
extremities. As a result of gradually diminishing ergo-
nomics quality, aerodynamic advantages are obtained at
the expense of power production during longer rides.
Saddle setback and saddle height should be adjusted to
achieve maximum balance between power and endur-
ance. The cycling posture should be appropriate to the
Figure 9 An increasing number of triathletes adopts an ex-
treme forward (saddle) position a style of riding which de-
mands maximum saddle height and requires the use of aero
handlebars
330 Optimum cycling posture: K. de ey Mestdagh

type of performance expected. Geometry and adjustment

of the road racing bicycle should focus on maintaining
high power output over a long period in very diverse
riding conditions (also Phinney, 1995; Wauthier, 1995).
To determine correct posture height, both power de-
livery and endurance limits must be taken into account.
This means that with regard to stage racers and touring
cyclist the recommended saddle position should prefer-
ably be based on the optimum saddle height, as defined
above, taking adequate crank length, foot length and
saddle setback into consideration.

Posture length
Reach
As well as the problems caused by incorrect posture
height, many cyclists have problems related to incorrect
posture length. In most cases this is due to insufficient
reach, the distance between the rear of the saddle and the
transverse part of the handlebars (Figure 1). It should be
appreciated that no matter what cycling posture is ad-
opted, the upper body is used in an unnatural manner.
The road racing cyclist contracts the muscles in his or her Figure 10 A pronounced thoracal kyphosis as a result of an
forward-leaning upper body, sometimes for hours at excessively compact posture leads to a strong cervical lordosis
a time. The muscles of neck and back and the abdominal (a). Moreover, such a posture forces arms and wrists in a verti-
muscles are normally used to stabilize the vertebral col- cal position (b) so they will function as shock absorbers instead
umn in a vertical position. Thus, with a view to achieving of hinged springs
optimum posture length, well developed back muscles
and abdominals are important. Furthermore the arms
and consequently the arm muscles are of importance in
providing stability and support for the forward-leaning
upper body.
The road racing cyclist must be able to assume a pos-
ture where the back, and in particular the lower back and
the neck, are as relaxed as possible. If the posture is too
short, it places too much stress on the natural form of the
vertebral column, in particular the lumbar and cervical
part and may cause lower back pain and neck com-
plaints. It also forces the arms and wrists into a position
that is too vertical, so they become locked and only
function as shock absorbers (Figure 10). This increases
the chance of compression syndromes, common among
cyclists, characterised by a gradual onset of numbness
and unpleasant tingling in the fingers which can lead to
weakness in the ulnar-innervated intrinsic muscles of the
hand, known as cyclists palsy (Burke, 1981; De
Mondenard, 1989; Mellion, 1991; Richmond, 1994). The
arms must function as hinged springs, to provide good
and supple support. This position requires more muscle
power but it does significantly lessen the load on the
ligaments and joints of hands, arms and shoulders.
When the posture is too short the pelvis is tilted
backwards so the buttocks slide forward on the saddle.
Such a posterior pelvic tilt and strongly forwardly-flexed
back cramps the lumbosacral region of the spinal system,
by flattening the lumbar lordosis, which increases pres- Figure 11 A posterior pelvic tilt cramps the lumbosacral region
sure on the vertebral discs (Figure 11). By adopting an of the spinal system and increases pressure on the vertebral
anterior pelvic tilt, the cyclist can maintain the physiolo- column
gical position of the vertebral column and can also
achieve a more stable posture, closer to the rear of the
saddle. This way the rider is not balanced as much on the erector spinae and the external obliques are stretched
ischial tuberosities, but instead rests on the rami of the os less. Moreover, an anterior pelvic tilt pre-stretches
ischii and pubis on both sides. Tilting the pelvis for- the gluteus maximus, enhancing its power development
wards relieves the pressure on the lower back because the (Figure 12).
 Optimum cycling posture: K. de ey Mestdagh 331

Figure 13 Arm length: distance between the superior part of the

acromion and the heads of the metacarpalia. The arm should be
Figure 12 By adopting an anterior pelvic tilt the physiological stretched downward with a clenched fist. Fist and arm must
position of the vertebral column can be maintained form a straight line (Cyclefit' protocol)

Neck and shoulder complaints experienced by many

cyclists are also more often caused by a posture that is
too short rather than too long. Such problems are caused
by an overly strong kyphosis of the thorax so the neck
must make a sharp lordosis to enable the cyclist to look
forwards. A further important consequence of such
a cramped posture is that the cyclist tends to ride with
hunched shoulders. An anterior pelvic tilt and a more
extended posture makes the thoracal kyphosis less pro-
nounced. This prevents the cervical lordosis and the
contraction of the semispinalis capitis and the levator
scapulae from becoming too pronounced as a result of
exaggerated hyperextension of the neck.
With few exceptions (De Mondenard, 1989; Mellion,
1991; Phinney, 1996), there is little attention paid in the
literature to posture length and in particular to a more
extended posture. Almost every debate on back problems
in relation to cycling is based on the supposition that the
reach should be decreased and that the cycling posture
should be assumed from a posterior pelvic tilt. It is
therefore not surprising that from this pelvic position it is
recommended to sit as upright as possible, advice that is
of little use to racing cyclists. Moreover, the racing saddle Figure 14 Torso length: the distance between the flat seat of
a stool and the incisura jugularis of the manubrium sterni
is not constructed for upright sitting: the more vertical
(Cyclefit' protocol)
the posture the greater the pressure on the saddle and the
greater the chance of saddle sores.
To determine the reach, the distance of the handlebars
from the rear of the saddle, that will give the cyclist the Handlebar level and width
correct posture, full arm length (Figure 13) together with Handlebar level, the difference in height between the
the length of the upper body (Figure 14) must be taken handlebar stem and the top of the saddle (Figure 1), is an
into account (Table 4). important factor in the relationship between posture
332 Optimum cycling posture: K. de ey Mestdagh
Table 4 Reach and handle bar level are determined by arm length
together with the length of the upper body
Torso 1 Armlength Reach Handlebar level
122 78 5.5
124 79 6.0
126 80 6.5
128 81 7.0
130 82 7.5
132 83 8.0
134 84 8.5
136 85 9.0
138 86 9.5
140 87 10.0
142 88 10.5
length and cycling efficiency. Trunk posture has a great
influence on air resistance and an extended and suffi-
ciently deep posture produces a more aerodynamic posi-
tion. With that in mind it would be advisable to adopt
the deepest possible posture. Even though competitive
dropped handlebars enable various positions to be
taken, the regular road racing cyclist, who races over
long distances, should assume a basic posture that is not
too deep, to avoid overstressing the lumbar and cervical
region (also Mellion, 1994). Richmond (1994) and
Matheny (1995) note that handlebars that are set too low
can also induce compression neuropathy and certain
overuse symptoms, as well as irritation of the labia in
female cyclists and of the prostate in male cyclists.
It is difficult to be more precise on defining handlebar
level. Although riding with an anterior pelvic tilt facilit-
ates a deeper posture, handlebar level depends primarily
on training level, abdominal strength and in particular
lower body flexibility. Recommendations can therefore
only be based on averages (Table 4). Should the average
level lead to lumbar or cervical complaints, then the
handlebar should be brought back to comfort level, to
relieve the erector spinae, as well as the semispinalis
capitis and levator scapulae. Inexperienced cyclists in
particular, but also experienced racers at the beginning of
a new season, can benefit from gradually lowering the
handlebar level. In doing so, it is important to ensure that
the reach remains as close as possible to the recommen-
ded optimum value.
An extended forward-leaning posture is advisable be-
cause, as we have already mentioned, extension (but not
hyper-extension) of the back, rather than flexion, does
not unnecessarily stress the lower back and neck, or
hands, arms and shoulders. The thorax is also enlarged
by extending the back so that respiration is made easier.
In addition to increased thoracic volume, Berry et al
(1994) argue that a decrease in weight on the thoracic
cage may also cause changes in lung volume, as a result of
the forward-leaning position.
It is often advised that handlebar width should be
chosen such that the resulting posture does not hinder
respiration. For that purpose, shoulder width has long
been considered as providing a compelling reference.
Results of recent studies, however, have cast serious
doubts on the theory that ventilatory responses are
Figure 15 Shoulder width: the distance between the most lat-
eral aspects of the shoulders (Cyclefit' protocol)
different, as a consequence of the (upper) arms being
forced too close to each other (Johnson and Shultz, 1990;
Berry et al, 1994). Nevertheless, experienced racing cyc-
lists prefer wider handlebars, which increase steering con-
trol and make the posture more comfortable. With this
goal in mind, shoulder width remains a satisfactory indi-
cator for the choice of handlebar width (Figure 15).
Some gender related aspects
There is no support for the popular assumption that in
general, compared to males, females have a short upper
body and relatively long legs. In fact, the average ratio is
exactly the same at 0.70, as may be seen from the data
compiled in Table 5. These data reflect a series of
measurements of 200 males and 200 females, conducted
during the first three months of 1994, in Belgium,
Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands, on the basis of
the Cyclefit' measuring protocol. Only when both torso
length and arm length, used to determine the reach, are
taken into account is a difference (although not signifi-
cant) shown. The average ratio of torso length plus arm
length to inside leg length is 1.52 for males and 1.49 for
females. This means that on average female riders have
a 1 to 1.5 cm shorter reach than male riders with an equal
inside leg length. Measurements carried out by others
have led to comparable conclusions (Juden, 1994).
Although on average females have a slightly longer
femur than males, there is equally no significant differ-
ence in the average ratio of upper leg length to inside leg
length, at 0.71 for males and 0.73 for females. This means
that females have an upper leg length on average 1 cm
longer than that of males with an equal pubic-symphysis
height. This would imply, inter alia, that the recommen-
ded saddle setback for females should be approximately
0.5 cm greater than for males.
Averages do not necessarily reflect an individuals rid-
ing posture, whether male or female. The benefit of indi-
vidual measurement is that individual advice can be
 Optimum cycling posture: K. de ey Mestdagh 333

Table 5 Anthropometric data (averages, including standard deviations) which provides extra support for the wider pelvis, but
of 200 male and 200 female cyclist also a design, described by Weaver (1990), that has vir-
Average Stnd Dev. Average Stnd Dev. tually no or only very soft filling at the position where the
Male Male Female Female labia become constricted (Figure 16). This type of saddle
is equally recommended and marketed for male cyclists
Inside leg length 86.74 5.27 81.70 5.36
Upper leg length 61.96 3.54 59.23 3.45 who encounter saddle problems related to pressure in the
Torso length 60.79 3.54 57.08 3.55 regio urogenitalis which, according to Matheny (1995),
Arm length 70.77 4.43 64.84 4.22 might cause irritation of the prostate and in some cases
Shoulder width 44.73 3.23 40.75 3.20
Foot length 27.06 2.07 24.56 1.42 even prostatitis.
There is a misconception that a racing saddle for
female riders should be shorter than a traditional racing
saddle, which is approximately 27 cm long. A shorter
saddle does not provide relief for the problems men-
tioned, since the area of contact with the regio
urogenitalis is not on the nose of the saddle but more to
the rear. Furthermore, a shorter saddle has the disadvan-
tage that the inside of the thighs cannot be used as easily
to keep the bicycle under control, in particular on a twist-
ing course and during downhills.

Concluding remarks
This article has provided some insight into a number
of aspects which together form the foundation of a cor-
rect cycling posture. Practical experience has shown that
balanced postural advice can be given based on prin-
ciples and methods discussed above, although fine tu-
ning is only possible if all individual variables, including
a number of components of the bicycle itself, can be taken
into account. Even then it should be emphasized that
advice can only be based on external anthropometry.
External measuring, if carried out properly, can give
a reasonably reliable insight into internal anthropomet-
ric proportions, but postural advice based upon it should
be considered only an initial if well-supported recom-
mendation. Even an optimum cycling posture stresses
tendons, muscles and joints, and the best advice will only
achieve optimum results if accompanied by training of
specific muscle groups and riding many kilometres in
training.
Figure 16 An anatomically adapted female saddle

given on the basis of a riders unique anthropometric
data. It could be concluded, from the measurement data
presented above, that there is little need for special advice
tailored to females. However, there are some good rea-
sons for including such an option. Compared to males
the female pelvic tends to show a natural anterior tilt.
Moreover, the wider pubic arch and distance between the
ischial tuberosities increases contact between the regio
urogenitalis and the saddle. Female cyclists in an ex-
tended posture, whereby the pelvis is further tilted for-
wards, are often troubled therefore by irritated genitals
(inter alia Groenendijk et al, 1992). This specific problem
can be partially alleviated by advising a somewhat shor-
ter posture and thus a shorter reach, as well as a slightly
higher handlebar stem.
Extra relief from saddle problems experienced by fe-
males is often achieved by an anatomically adapted
saddle involving not only a somewhat wider rear part
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank C. M. J. van Hulten,
MD, Mediguide, Driebergen, The Netherlands, for his
comments and suggestions regarding the draft manu-
script.
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