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Abstract--The objective of this paper is to provide an light loaded systems [1, 2] and can limit the amount of PV that
assessment on voltage profiles in residential neighbourhoods in can be installed on these feeders. For instance, Germany limits
the presence of photovoltaic (PV) systems. The network was the maximum voltage increase on the LV level due to
modeled in PSCAD using common feeder characteristics that
distributed generation to 0.02 pu [10].
Canadian system planners use in sub-urban residential regions. A
simulation study was performed to investigate potential voltage In urban areas, the feasibility of solar-based
rise issues in the network up to 11.25% total PV penetration in neighbourhoods has been demonstrated in [3, 4]. A detailed
the feeder and LV transformer capacity penetration up to 75%. US monitoring study for a neighbourhood of 115 houses with
Results indicate that the PV penetration level should not 2 kW of PV panels and a total capacity of 230 kW [3] did not
adversely impact the voltage on the grid when the distributed PV reveal excessive service or substation voltage due to reverse
resources do not exceed 2.5 kW per household on average on a
power flow from exporting PV systems: only a slight voltage
typical distribution grid. Moreover, the role of feeder impedance,
feeder length and the transformer short circuit resistance in the rise of approximately 0.6% was observed on clear days.
determination of the voltage rise is quantified. Although the penetration levels on this study may not be
considered high, the voltage rise might have a different effect
Index Terms--grid disturbances, overvoltage, power on the system, depending on the feeder characteristics [7].
distribution, solar power generation, power system modeling, In [9], several studies of urban real estate developments in
power system planning and power quality.
Germany, Netherlands and France with high penetration of
distributed PV generation were investigated. The voltage level
I. INTRODUCTION
increase was within the tolerance bands required by European
1 km
single phase connection, it is considered normal operating
conditions (NR Normal Range) when the voltage level is 1 km
P+jQ
A A
R=0 V V V_25_kV BL
94 MVA Substation
COUPLED
SECTION
PI
V
A
COUPLED COUPLED
P+jQ
P+jQ
PI PI
SECTION SECTION
Single Phase
COUPLED
SECTION
Ph In PI SectionPh Out
P+jQ
PI
A
Single Phase
Ph In PI SectionPh Out
P+jQ
B
C
V
A
Enable
Enable
Enable
Enable
Q
9.0
9.0
9.0
9.0
9.0
9.0
9.0
9.0
PI
House_7
House_1
House_5
PV_1
PV_3
PV_5
PV_7
n
A
P
+
-
V
A
PI SectionPh Out
P+jQ
CPh In
COUPLED
SECTION
PI
V
A
#2
#2
#2
#2
VPV5_14kV
#1
#1
#1
#1
VPV4_14kV
C
A
#1
#1
#1
+
#2
#2
#2
#2
Sub Network
- B
+
-
+
P_PV
-
-
V
A
P_PV P_PV
P
PV_2
House_4
House_2
-
P
House_6
Sub Network
PV_4
PV_6
n
n
Q_PV
A
9.0
Q_PV Q_PV
Q
9.0
9.0
9.0
9.0
9.0
Q
Enable
Enable
L1 L2
TABLE I R1 R2
TABLE II
THREE-PHASE PI SECTION LINES PARAMETERS III. SIMULATION RESULTS
336 kcmil Line with 2/0
Neutral ASC
#0 Line with #0 Neutral It is well-known that the feeder voltage profile will rise
when connecting a unity power factor distributed energy
R1 0.1902 / km 0.603 / km
resource to that feeder. This section presents a case study on
L1 1.09 mH / km 1.213 mH / km
the impact of high PV penetration on the voltage profile of a
C1 11 nF / km 9.90 nF / km
residential sub-urban neighbourhood using the proposed
R0 0.5271 / km 0.978 / km
network described in the last section. Voltage profiles
L0 3.37 mH / km 3.639 mH / km contemplating a variety of scenarios are presented to
C0 4.9 nF / km 4.73 nF / km investigate the limits of PV penetration as well as the
The PV inverters and the house models were designed to maximum power allowed to be exported guaranteeing
represent a predefined constant active and reactive power adequate voltage levels.
load/generator. Basic inverter protection for voltage trip limits The models were developed to perform a load flow study.
was modeled with respect to Canadian standards [14, 15]. The The house load behaviour could vary with various
used voltage disconnection thresholds are 0.88 and 1.1 pu, and unaccounted parameters as it is considered a very chaotic load.
the reconnection thresholds are 0.89 and 1.09 pu for Indeed, there is no overall control on each consumers habit
undervoltage and overvoltage, respectively. A visual and load connections, and therefore no standard can regulate
description of the complete PSCAD overhead PV the residential load behaviour. Moreover, their behaviour
neighbourhood system is shown in Fig. 3. depends on so many factors that it is impossible to create a
global generic model. Therefore, the house load was
720 [pF] 720 [pF] considered equal among all the houses for simplification
purposes. The PV inverters were ideally modeled as controlled
4.8 [uH]
4.8 [uH]
5.4 [mohm]
P n Q
P_H Q_H the maximum net generation is known, planning engineers are
PV_9A 1.0
+ aware of how to deal with highly variable loads and how to
PV_On
- Enable
determine the feeders minimum load level during the day so
that the maximum PV capacity that could be installed in the
Q_PV
P_PV
P n Q
Two scenarios were chosen to define the limits of net disconnected from the network, emulating a period of
generation in the feeder regarding voltage rise. The first extremely low loading level in the feeder. The voltage on the
scenario investigates the network with a 60 MVA equivalent secondary network of the distribution transformer rises;
load, representing the adjacent feeders being connected to the however, with the operation of the tap changer, it remains
substation. Results of this scenario are presented in Fig. 6 and within the appropriate limits as shown in Fig. 8.
Fig. 7. For net generation levels below 1.93 kW per house, the The corresponding voltage profiles on the LV transformers
voltage was within CAN3-C235 [9] limits for normal network are presented in Fig. 9. Given the low loading
operation (NR). The voltage rise rate (slope of the voltage condition, there is a small voltage offset if compared with the
trend measured in the graphic) found at the last customer was first scenario, as the tap changer compensated the new loading
0.60%/kW/house. condition. Again, it can be seen that the voltage rise rate in the
Fig. 7 presents the corresponding impact on the distribution 25 kV distribution feeder is 0.050%/kW/house, which differs
system voltage profile. The voltage rise rate found in the from the rate at the last customer of the LV part of the feeder
backbone of the network was 0.059%/kW/house. Also the (0.60%/kW/house as well as in the first case). In the LV
voltage levels were always below 1.04 pu in all parts of the network, for net generation levels above 1.87 kW per house
25 kV distribution feeder. It is important to remark that the (~22% of LV transformer capacity), the voltage level exceeds
voltage in the 25 kV side of the substation is already close to CAN3-C235 [9] limits for normal operation.
the upper limit of operation of the tap changer. A further 1.040
increase in the generation would change the tap, so that the
voltage in the substation would be kept below 1.04 pu, making
0 km 1 km
this case the worst scenario.
1.035 2 km 3 km
1.08 5 km 6 km
Voltage [pu]
1.07
1.06 1.030
1.05
Voltage [pu]
1.04
1.025
1.03 0m
20 m
1.02
40 m
1.01 60 m
1.020
80 m -6.25 -5
-3.75 -2.5 -1.25 0 1.25 2.5 3.75 5 6.25
1.00 Power per Household [kW]
100 m
CAN3-C235-83 (NR)
Fig. 8: Voltage profile in the distribution system without the 60 MVA load
0.99
(MV).
CAN3-C235-83 (ER)
0.98 1.08
-6.25 -5 -3.75 -2.5 -1.25 0 1.25 2.5 3.75 5 6.25
Power per Household [kW] 1.07
Fig. 6: Voltage profile in the sub-network A (LV).
1.06
1.040
1.05
Voltage [pu]
1.04
0 km 1 km
1.035 1.03 0m
2 km 3 km
20 m
5 km 6 km 1.02
Voltage [pu]
40 m
1.01 60 m
1.030 80 m
1.00
100 m
the absolute value of the feeder impedance varies and the avoid exceeding the normal threshold is reduced to
second where the feeder impedance characteristics (K = R/XL) 1.10 kW/house, which is about 41% below the maximum
vary. export limit for the base case with low load.
Table IV and Table V show the line parameters used in the 1.09
simulations. In these scenarios, the 60 MVA load is 1.08
disconnected. All the values chosen are based on the typical
1.07
cables and conductor configuration found in LV feeders. For
1.06
instance, a two-fold increase in the impedance has a similar
effect of using a 1/0 AWG cable in the pole-pole lines of the 1.05
Voltage [pu]
LV feeder instead of the 4/0 AWG considered the base case, 1.04
and a 266 kcmil cable has its line impedance about 25% lower 1.03 Z = 2Zb
than a 4/0 AWG cable. Additionally, the range used in these 1.02 Z = 1.5Zb
simulations takes into consideration different conductor 1.01 Z = 1.25Zb
configurations like spacing and type of material, which could 1.00 Zb
result in a variety of absolute values of the feeder impedance Z = 0.75Zb
0.99
and feeder impedance characteristics. CAN3-C235-83 (NR)
0.98
CAN3-C235-83 (ER)
TABLE IV
0.97
SINGLE-PHASE PI SECTION LINES PARAMETERS EACH CASE STUDIED SAME K
DIFFERENT |Z| -6.25 -5 -3.75 -2.5 -1.25 0 1.25 2.5 3.75 5 6.25
Power per Household [kW]
Drop Lines Pole-Pole Lines
Fig. 10: Voltage level at the last customer node for different LV feeder
Zb R 0.55 / km 0.27 / km impedances (|Z|) (LV).
(Base Case) L 0.29 mH / km 0.24 mH / km
Fig. 11 shows the results for the variation of the K ratio.
R 1.1 / km 0.54 / km
Z = 2 Zb The voltage rise rate is also increased for higher K ratios;
L 0.58 mH / km 0.48 mH / km
however, it has lower impact when compared with the impact
R 0.825 / km 0.40 / km of the absolute value of the feeder impedance. When the K
Z = 1.5 Zb
L 0.43 mH / km 0.36 mH / km ratio of the feeder impedance is tripled, the voltage rise rate
R 0.68 / km 0.33 / km was found to be 0.62%/kW/house. Also, the maximum export
Z = 1.25 Zb
L 0.36 mH / km 0.30 mH / km limit to avoid exceeding the normal threshold is reduced to
R 0.42 / km 0.20 / km less than 8% (1.72 kW/house) in the same case.
Z = 0.75 Zb
L 0.22 mH / km 0.18 mH / km 1.08
TABLE V 1.07
SINGLE-PHASE PI SECTION LINES PARAMETERS EACH CASE STUDIED SAME |Z|
DIFFERENT K 1.06
Drop Lines Pole-Pole Lines 1.05
Kb R 0.55 / km 0.27 / km
Voltage [pu]
1.04
(Base Case) L 0.29 mH / km 0.24 mH / km
R 0.56 / km 0.283 / km 1.03 K = 3Kb
K = 3 Kb
L 0.1 mH / km 0.08 mH / km 1.02 K = 2Kb
R 0.558 / km 0.281 / km Kb
K = 2 Kb 1.01
K = Kb/2
L 0.15 mH / km 0.12 mH / km
1.00 K = Kb/3
R 0.521 / km 0.237 / km
K = 0.5 Kb CAN3-C235-83 (NR)
L 0.55 mH / km 0.42 mH / km 0.99
CAN3-C235-83 (ER)
R 0.482 / km 0.201 / km 0.98
K = 0.33 Kb
L 0.76 mH / km 0.54 mH / km -6.25 -5 -3.75 -2.5 -1.25 0 1.25 2.5 3.75 5 6.25
Power per Household [kW]
Fig. 10 presents the voltage at the last customer while Fig. 11: Voltage level at the last customer node for different LV feeder
varying the absolute value of the feeder impedance. The feeder impedances ratio (K = R/XL) (LV).
Table VI. As transformers are mostly custom ordered to meet voltage rise rate is 1.029%/kW/house.
utilities requirements, the values chosen consider a wide range Fig. 14 presents a similar situation, however using the most
used by utilities. efficient transformer (RT = 0.25 RTb). In this case, the export
TABLE VI
capacity is increased to 1.42 kW/house. This means that by
MODIFIED TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE PARAMETERS reducing the transformers short circuit resistance and,
RTb R1 0.006 pu consequently, increasing the system efficiency, the possibility
(Base Case) R2,3 0.012 pu to experience a voltage rise problem is reduced, thus allowing
R1 0.009 pu for the integration of more distributed generation resources
RT = 1.5 RTb into the system. The corresponding voltage rise rate, in this
R2,3 0.018 pu
R1 0.0075 pu case, was observed to be 0.77%/kW/house.
RT = 1.25 RTb
R2,3 0.015 pu 1.10
R1 0.0045 pu 1.09
RT = 0.75 RTb 1.08
R2,3 0.009 pu
1.07
R1 0.003 pu
RT = 0.5 RTb 1.06
R2,3 0.06 pu
1.05
Voltage [pu]
R1 0.0015 pu 1.04
RT = 0.25 RTb
R2,3 0.03 pu 1.03 0m
1.02 20 m
Fig. 12 presents the voltage at the last customer. The
1.01 40 m
voltage rise rate is higher when the transformer has larger 60 m
1.00
resistance (0.70%/kW/house). Besides increasing the losses, 80 m
0.99
having transformers with larger short circuit resistance also 0.98
100 m
1.06 1.05
Voltage [pu]
1.04
1.05
1.03
Voltage [pu]
1.04 1.02
1.01
1.03 RT=1.5RTb
ZT = 1.5ZTb
1.00 0m 20 m
ZT = 1.25ZTb
RT=1.25RTb
1.02 0.99 40 m 60 m
ZTb
RTb
80 m 100 m
1.01 0.98
ZT = 0.75ZTb
RT=0.75RTb
CAN3-C235-83 (NR) CAN3-C235-83 (ER)
ZT = 0.5ZTb
RT=0.5RTb 0.97
1.00 0.96
RT=0.25RTb
ZT = 0.25ZTb
0.99 CAN3-C235-83 (NR) -6.25 -5 -3.75 -2.5 -1.25 0 1.25 2.5 3.75 5 6.25
CAN3-C235-83 (ER) Power per Household [kW]
0.98 Fig. 14: Voltage profile with transformer with increased efficiency (ZT = 0.25
-6.25 -5 -3.75 -2.5 -1.25 0 1.25 2.5 3.75 5 6.25 ZTb) (LV).
Power per Household [kW]
Fig. 12: Voltage in the last customer for transformers with different short D. Feeder Layout Effect
circuit impedances (LV). The neighbourhood layout impacts the feeder impedance
Considering the cumulative effect of using feeders with values of the network. As the feeder becomes longer, the
high feeder impedance values and transformers with high short feeder impedances increase. Fig. 15 shows an alternative
circuit resistances as the worst case scenario, Fig. 13 presents layout where the houses are connected in a way that the total
the corresponding voltage profile to that case. The parameters LV feeder length is increased from 100 m to 180 m. Fig. 16
used to simulate this worst case scenario were: for the LV presents the voltage profile in this neighbourhood with a
feeder impedances, Z = 2 Zb and for the transformer, RT = 1.5 modified layout. When each house is producing 1.04 kW, the
RTb. Results reveal that the export capacity is decreased by NR limit is exceeded. At the last house, the voltage rise rate is
50% (0.93 kW/house) as compared with the base case, and the found to be 0.96%/kW/house.
8
Substation
30 MVA
120 kV/25 kV
3 MVA 3 MVA
PF 0.90 0 AWG ASC PF 0.90
2 MVA AB 2 MVA
PF 0.95 PF 0.95
C 2 MVA
PF 0.95
X 12 X 12 X 12 X 12 X 12 X 12 X 12 X 12
B
Fig. 15: Sub-network A modified layout I.
1.10 X 12 X 12 X 12 X 12
X 12 X 12 X 12 X 12
1.04 Sub-Network A
1.03
1.02 Left Lateral
1.01 20 m 20 m
1.00 0m 40 m
0.99 80 m 120 m 20 m 20 m
4/0 AWG, Aluminum, XLPE
0.98 160 m 180 m
CAN3-C235-83 (NR) CAN3-C235-83 (ER) 20 m
0.97 20 m
0.96
20 m 20 m
-6.25 -5 -3.75 -2.5 -1.25 0 1.25 2.5 3.75 5 6.25 1/0 AWG, Aluminum, XLPE
Power per Household [kW]
Fig. 16: Voltage profile in the modified sub-network A (LV). 20 m 20 m 20 m
Right Lateral
Rural feeders have longer lines, which increases the feeder
Fig. 17: Rural feeder layout I.
impedance values. The concentration of DGs may have a
1.10
higher impact in this kind of feeder. Therefore, a modified
1.09
layout of the neighbourhood under investigation is simulated 1.08
considering the rural feeder characteristics as presented in Fig. 1.07
1.06
17. Each LV transformer feeds 12 houses. The net 1.05
load/generation is also varied between 6.25 kW/house. The 1.04
Voltage [pu]
1.03
tap of the LV transformer was adjusted at +5% to avoid 1.02
undervoltage in the houses during full load condition. 1.01
Fig. 18 and Fig. 19 present the voltage profile along the 1.00
0.99
sub-network A for the right and the left feeder laterals, 0.98
0m 20 m
respectively. In this configuration, any slight presence of 0.97
120 m 220 m
0.96
reverse power flow along the feeder causes the voltage levels 0.95
320 m 420 m
the farthest houses of the left lateral, the voltage rises at a rate 0.93
of about 2.0%/kW/house (1.6%/kW/house for the last house -6.25 -5 -3.75 -2.5 -1.25 0 1.25 2.5 3.75 5 6.25
Power per Household [kW]
on the right lateral). This causes the last two PV inverters in Fig. 18: Voltage profile of the rural feeder in the sub-network A layout I (right
the left lateral to trip when the net generation is about 3 lateral) (LV).
kW/house. The voltage still keeps rising until the last inverters Another layout for the LV part of the rural feeder is also
from the right lateral houses reach the tripping threshold. This considered as presented in Fig. 21. The pole-pole lines were
is due to the difference in the house distribution where modified using a thicker cable (266 kcmil, Aluminum, XLPE)
generation is more concentrated at the end of the left lateral, to consider the higher density of the houses in this case.
while along the right lateral it is closer to the LV transformer.
Fig. 20 presents the impact on the distribution system. The
voltage in the farthest LV transformer varies about 4.5% from
full load to full generation conditions in a rate of
0.40%/kW/house, while the voltage levels are within the
standard limits.
9
Voltage [pu]
CAN3-C235-83 (NR) CAN3-C235-83 (ER)
0.92 1.03
0.91 1.02
-6.25 -5 -3.75 -2.5 -1.25 0 1.25 2.5 3.75 5 6.25 1.01
Power per Household [kW] 1.00
Fig. 19: Voltage profile of the rural feeder in the sub-network A layout I (left 0.99
lateral) (LV). 0.98
0m 20 m
0.97
80 m 140 m
1.040 0.96
200 m 260 m
0.95
1.030 CAN3-C235-83 (NR) CAN3-C235-83 (ER)
0.94
1.020 0 km 5 km 0.93
10 km 15 km
-6.25 -5 -3.75 -2.5 -1.25 0 1.25 2.5 3.75 5 6.25
1.010 25 km 31 km Power per Household [kW]
Voltage [pu]
1.000 Fig. 22: Voltage profile of the rural feeder in the sub-network A layout II
(LV).
0.990