Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1995, Vol. 1, No. 3-4, pp. 237-266 Amsterdam B.V. Published under license by
Reprints available directly from the publisher Gordon and Breach Science Publishers SA
Photocopying permitted by license only Printed in Singapore
AGNES MUSZYNSKA
Senior Research Scientist & Research Manager, Bently Rotor Dynamics Research Corporation, Minden, Nevada, U.S.A.
(Received January 13, 1994)
This paper outlines rotating machinery malfunction diagnostics using vibration data in correlation with operational process
data. The advantages of vibration monitoring systems as a part of preventive/predictive maintenance programs are
emphasized. After presenting basic principles of machinery diagnostics, several specific malfunction symptoms supported
by simple mathematical models are given. These malfunctions include unbalance, excessive radial load, rotor-to-stator
rubbing, fluid-induced vibrations, loose stationary and rotating parts, coupled torsional/lateral vibration excitation, and rotor
cracking. The experimental results and actual field data illustrate the rotor vibration responses for individual malfunctions.
Application of synchronous and nonsynchronous perturbation testing used for identification of basic dynamic characteristics
of rotors is presented. Future advancements in vibration monitoring and diagnostics of rotating machinery health are
discussed. In the Appendix, basic instrumentation for machine monitoring is outlined.
Key Words: Vibration diagnostics of machine malfunctions; Vibration monitoring on machinery; Plant maintenance;
Rotating machinery; Rotor systems; Modal testing; Dynamic stiffness identification; Expert
systems.
ompetitiveness of the world market stimulates a cated transducers for capturing machine vibration and
plants main goal of increased throughput of high- process data. Advancements in electronics have consid-
quality products. This goal is often achieved by increased erably improved data management systems (Fig. 1). A
machine speeds and reduced machinery outages, which, new generation of electronic transducers, and computers
in turn, put a great emphasis on machinery health. with their large memories, fast processor speeds, high
Vibration monitoring as a part of preventive/predictive quality graphics, standard communication links, and
maintenance programs assists in achieving the main goal, advanced software based on intimate knowledge of
and has proven to be highly cost effective. The benefits solid/fluid dynamics and thermodynamics, provide the
from vibration monitoring include the following: capability to extract reliable and meaningful information
from an increased volume of data in given amounts of
Reduced production losses. time and budget. Vibration and process data presented in
Enhanced efficiency, reliability, availability, and lon- convenient cross-correlated formats permit effective and
gevity of machinery. reliable evaluation of the machinery health, give early
Reduced maintenance costs (reduced overtime pay- warning of impending failures, and allow determination
ments for labor, decreased spare parts and stocked of the cause of malfunctions. Faults detected early
inventory costs, reduced fuel costs). enough can be monitored closely to ensure that signifi-
Improved work load planning. cant damage is avoided, and that the machine is operated
Enhanced safety and environmental programs. safely until the maintenance can be scheduled to correct
the malfunctions.
The core of machine vibration monitoring schemes The basic principles creating the foundation for ma-
consists of appropriately selected and strategically lo- chine malfunction diagnosis methodology applicable for
238 A. MUSZYNSKA
COMPUTEt:
Analytical models of the machine dynamic behavior--
DATA ACQUISITION
ANALYSIS
particularly the models based on a modal approach--are
DATA STOIAGE
DATA PROCESSING
DATA FORMATTING
CORRECTIVE
ACTIONS of tremendous value in future diagnostic procedures. On
DATA DISPLAY large critical machines or machines that have had a
history of vibration problems, it is desirable to incorpo-
rate these analytical models into the machines database.
FIGURE Machine diagnostic system.
The analytical and testing baseline information is neces-
sary for comparing the machines previous and present
condition when a machine malfunction occurs. It can
also be used after the problem is fixed to verify the
validity of the correction.
both periodic and continuous monitoring are (Laws et al. Most of the baseline data and process/operational
[1987]): requirements, as well as a comprehensive prediction
profile of the machine, should be provided by the
Know the basic mechanical, fluidic, thermal, and machine manufacturer. Also, a monitoring system, or at
electric (as applicable) characteristics of the machine. least the recommendation of transducer locations for
Know the types of malfunction mechanisms and their diagnostic purposes, should be included as a part of the
corresponding symptoms that the machine is likely to design for all rotating machines.
incur. Monitoring of the machine operation and its process
Monitor the key parameters that will indicate a change variables should be cross-correlated with a simultaneous
in condition of the machine. monitoring of the machine vibrational behavior. The
Reduce diagnostic data into interpretable formats and operation of machines is a dynamic process, and the
compare the results with analytical predictions. process data, to be of significance, must include dynamic
Understand the historical and related events that may components of the quantities monitored. Changes in
have caused changes in machine condition. process or auxiliary variables (e.g., changes in bearing
Present data on the machine condition in as solid temperature or changes in driving electric motor power
engineering form as possible. consumption) may represent the first warning signals of
Take prompt action based on the machine diagnosis. impending vibration problems. Machine vibrations, be-
ing symptoms of malfunctions, occur in response to
Any machine health condition evaluation requires the either input forcing function changes or machine dy-
knowledge of the fundamental physical characteristic of namic stiffness (transfer function) changes. Vibrations
the machine, such as geometry, weight, clearances, etc. also carry information about the character of, and pos-
However, understanding the basic factors of the machine sible source of, the malfunctions. Both process and
goes beyond knowing these characteristics. It involves vibration data should be trended, ideally in cross-corre-
understanding the machines dynamic behavior during lated formats using whichever cross-correlations that
its operation. To achieve this goal, the design data should yield pertinent information.
be accessible to the machine user, and the process and While fulfilling the main function of the rotating
vibration data need to be acquired as early as during machines, the machinery rotors are most prone to me-
acceptance testing and commissioning. Various methods, chanical vibrations, and are the principal source of
such as controlled unbalance response testing (synchro- vibrations. Most malfunctions originate from direct
nous perturbation) and nonsynchronous perturbation transfer of rotor rotational energy into vibrational energy
testing, are used to document the rotor response during of various modes. Among the latter, the lateral modes of
steady-state (on-line with partial and full load) and the rotor are of the highest concern. Most often they
transient (start-up and shutdown) conditions. This pro- represent the lowest modes of the machine structure.
cess provides baseline data for insight to: Rotor vibrations are eventually transmitted to pedestals,
casing, and foundation. It is evident that measuring
The natural frequencies of the system and mode vibrations "at the source" becomes vital for correct
shapes, especially those of the machine train rotor. evaluation of the machine health. That is why the
The amount of effective damping in the system. generally accepted practice is to utilize two noncontact-
The margin of safety against instability of a rotor ing displacement transducers installed in orthogonal XY
system. configuration on or near each radial bearing to measure
The load-to-vibration relationships. lateral vibrations and static centerline position of the
Acceptable vibration limits. rotor relative to the mounting fixture. Vibration measure-
ROTATING MACHINERY MALFUNCTIONS 239
ment on pedestals or casing by using velocity pickups function identification. Phase angles of vibration com-
and/or accelerometers provides indirect information ponents with synchronous frequency, twice rotative
about the vibration source. The clarity of this information frequency, and of whirling and whipping frequencies
depends on the mechanical transmissibility of elements are especially meaningful.
between the source and transducers. In addition, these Shaft centerline position for insight into the radial load
transducers are (i) not able to measure shaft centerline status, and into the specific location of the rotor with
position, (ii) do not indicate the direction of shaft respect to the stationary components of the machine.
orbiting, (iii) do not provide information on the rotor The ratio of overall to the vibration amplitudes, as
mode shape, and (iv) their sensitivity in the most a signal for operators to get machinery diagnostics
important low frequency range is very poor, Housing assistance.
vibration measurements can be recommended only for
noncritical, general purpose low-speed machines. In the next section several rotating machine vibration
In the USA the American Petroleum Institute has malfunctions, with their symptoms and simple math-
adopted a recommended practice (RP) entitled "Vibra- ematical models explaining malfunction physical prin-
tion, Axial Position, and Bearing Temperature Monitor- ciples, will be discussed.
ing System" (RP#670). It outlines the system require-
ments for installing proximity transducers in the XY
configuration on compressors and their driver to ob- DIAGNOSIS OF PARTICULAR
serve shaft motion. In addition to these radial transduc- MALFUNCTIONS OF ROTATING
ers, this recommended practice calls for two axially MACHINES ILLUSTRATED BY BASIC
oriented noncontacting proximity transducers. These MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF THE
probes are used to monitor and alert about machine thrust ROTOR
problems, and are often tied to automatic trip when a
danger condition exists. Both of these transducer instal- Widespread availability of computers accelerated the
lation practices are also appropriate for the monitoring appearance of more and more sophisticated software for
and protection of turbogenerators, pumps, fans, and other calculations of various aspects of rotating machine dy-
rotating machines. namics. Finite Element Method allows computation of
One of the very important transducers called for the
RP is a phase angle reference transducer, the Keypha-
!n the machines solid structure response, including fluid
interactions. Complex computer models built from sepa-
sor(R) transducer, which provides a rotor once-per-turn rate blocks are, however, only as good as the basic
marker. It is used to monitor rotative speed and phase of particular models adequacy to real, observable phenom-
rotor (synchronous) response, as well as phases of ena occurring in rotating machines. Research on the
the rotative frequency fractional and/or multiple type latter ,is still pending. During the last twenty years, the
vibration components. The Keyphasor ties the rotor widespread application of vibration supervisory systems
vibration data to its rotational motion. The information on machines has accumulated broad case history data on
provided is extremely valuable for balancing, as well as major vibrational problems occurring in specific types of
in diagnosing various machine malfunctions. machines. The implementation of the acquired theoreti-
Six vibration-related parameters are commonly mea- cal and practical knowledge into the machine design
sured on rotating machines under steady-state (on-line) procedure is, however, slow and seldom consistent. As a
and transient (start-up and shutdown) conditions" result, the machines often contain an intrinsic dynamic
incorrectness, and the machine performances are seldom
Overall magnitude of vibration for indicating presence smooth since the beginning of their operation. The
and severity of a problem. n
dynamic process of further operatio inevitably leads to
Frequencies of vibration components for insight into worsening of the performance. Maintenance engineers
the root causes of the malfunction. who have been taught machine dynamics on computers
Timebase waveforms and orbital paths of rotor lateral have difficulty in understanding basic physical phenom-
motion (rotor orbital and its direction) for insight into ena affecting the machine behavior. Quick fixes are based
the nature of the malfunction. The orbits are especially on trial and error methods. And yet, if the machine
significant: they represent magnified snapshots of the vibrates, there always exists a cause of it.
rotor actual motion. The purpose of this section is to present simple
Amplitudes and phase angles of the orbital motion mathematical models which describe fundamental cause/
components of the rotor. The phase angle is one of the effect relationships for several, most important vibration-
most important parameters for rotating machine mal- related machinery malfunctions. In all models the modal
240 A. MUSZYNSKA
approach is adopted, and mainly the first lateral mode of Eq. (3) illustrates the balance of causes and effects: The
the rotor is considered. Further generalizations of this rotor response depends on both its dynamic stiffness and
approach are obvious. unbalance excitation. Any change in the rotor response
may, therefore, result from either a change in unbalance
or a change in the restraining rotor dynamic stiffness
Unbalance: Residual and Controlled components (e.g., shaft crack would reduce K).
The elements of the synchronous response vector
Unbalance is a most common malfunction in rotating (amplitude and phase angle) can easily be calculated
machines. Unbalance in the rotating machine is a condi- from Eq. (3):
tion of unequal mass distribution at each section of the
rotor. In an unbalanced condition, the iotor mass center- mr2
line does not coincide with the axis of rotation. During
rotation, rotor unbalance generates an inertia centrifugal
force which rotates at the rotor rotational frequency.
Unbalance represents then the first, fundamental mecha- D(1 )t)f K. (4)
c g- arctan 2
nism to transfer the rotational energy into vibrations. The K MI)
mathematical model of an isotropic unbalanced rotor
It is clear that when the rotative speed 1) reaches the
(rotating at a constant speed lq in a counterclockwise
value V/K/M, the response amplitude will exhibit a
direction) at its first lateral mode is as follows:
resonance peak, as it will only be controlled by the
M"
rotor
inertia
force
+ D(1
damping
force
mr[-2eJ(t + 8), Z
k.) + Kz
stiffness
force
jK(12)z
tangential
force
phase c differs from its original value 6 by -90 The.
relatively small damping term, additionally weakened by
the tangential component K,. At resonance the response
unbalanced
x + jy, d/dt, j =k//Z critical speed, or the first balance resonance speed;
(1) represents a system natural frequency, the lowest
excitation force
of the rotor lateral modes.
The notations are given in the Nomenclature. Eq. (1) The synchronous response vector locus, from the data
represents the balance of forces acting on the rotor, provided by one lateral displacement transducer during
including the tangential force oriented in the direction of rotor start-up or shutdown, are usually presented in the
rotation. In most cases the tangential force is a function Bode and/or polar plot formats. For this purpose, the
of the rotative speed, and represents another mechanism rotor vibration signal is filtered to the frequency of
transferring energy of rotation into vibrations. The factor rotation, and usually compensated by subtracting the
)t emphasizes the rotor damping reduction effect due slow roll (low frequency) response vector. These
to fluid tangential forces (see Section 2.5). The left side formats are widely used for unbalance diagnosis and
of Eq. (1) describes the rotor restraints, its dynamic corrections (Fig. 2). They also allow for easy detection of
stiffness. At the right side, the inertia unbalance force resonant frequencies, and evaluation of the system effec-
creates the forcing function. The effect of it, i.e., the rotor tive damping and synchronous amplification factor using
forced response as observed by two XY transducers, is the half-power bandwidth method.
characterized by the circular orbital (precessional) mo- The unbalance malfunction is corrected by routine
tion in the direction of rotation (following the force), procedures of machine balancing.
with frequency 1", amplitudeA, and phase lag o. This
orbital motion observed by only one lateral displacement
transducer will represent a sinusoidal waveform. The Synchronous and Nonsynchronous Perturbation
forced solution of Eq. (1), i.e., the rotor response, is: Testing for System Identification
Eq. (3) represents the basic equation not only for
z Ae j(at + ) (2) unbalance diagnosis, but also for identification of the
When substituted to Eq. (1), it yields synchronous dynamic stiffness of the rotor by using
synchronous perturbation technique (Muszynska et al.
I- -1 [1989a]). This method consists of inputting a controlled
[K MI) :z + jD(1 X) j Kt.] Ae jo mr2e j8 (3)
unbalance to the rotor and measuring its synchronous
rotor synchronous synchronous unbalance response. From three components of Eq. (3), now the
dynamic stiffness response vector
vector dynamic stiffness can be calculated:
ROTATING MACHINERY MALFUNCTIONS 241
For the sweep-frequency perturbation, the dynamic Gravitational load on horizontal rotors, thermal expan-
stiffness components are calculated in the entire fre- sion load, offset, or cocked bearing-related load, and gear
quency range: mesh forces also belong to this category. Due to the
radial force, the rotor becomes displaced from the
Direct Dynamic Stiffness original position, and moved to higher eccentricity
K- M02 Fcos(81 oO/A ranges inside the bearing and seals. It may also become
bowed, and rotate in a bow configuration. At these
Quadrature Dynamic Stiffness conditions the nonlinear effects of the system become
D(1 )t)o- K(I) Fsin(81 c)/A active. A simple rotor model extended from Eq. (1)
describes this phenomenon:
Using this technique for a sequence of constant
rotative speeds, all rotative speed dependent components M + Dx(1 Xx) Yc + mr122 cos(Ot
can be identified. This, in particular, applies to the
Kx + K,(f)y
+ 8) + P cos T (6)
tangential force.
The concept of perturbation technique is explained My + Dy(1 Xy)3 + Kyy- K,y(D,)x + y (K,y + ...)=
here on a simple rotor model. It can, however, be rnrf 2 sin(ft + 8) + P sin
extended to more complex cases used for identification
of several mode modal parameters (Muszynska et al. where P represents the load force applied to the rotor in
[1989a]). The nonsynchronous perturbation testing the radial direction at the reference angle y and K is a
should become a routine procedure during initial testing generalized nonlinear stiffness coefficient. Eq. (6) con-
of the machine performance. tains, therefore, the stiffness-related nonlinear term,
which represents only an example of nonlinearities
which may be active in the system (e.g., fluid film radial
Misalignment and Radial Load on the Rotor stiffness and damping at high eccentricities have different
Following unbalance, the misalignment of machine train functional form of nonlinearities). This term may be
rotors is the second most common malfunction of rotat- referred to as the first term of the Taylor expansion for
ing machinery. The literature on rotor unbalance mal- any nonlinear function. The dots indicate possible exist-
function and corrective balancing procedures can be ence of other nonlinear terms.
found in thousands of papers, books, and reports. Amaz- Due to nonlinearity, the unbalance-forced response of
ingly, misalignment has not drawn that much research- the rotor will now contain not only the synchronous
ers attention. The literature on rotor misalignment mal- component (2), but also its higher harmonics: 2, 3,
function is very scarce. Machine alignment procedures etc., vibration components. The radial force also causes
now involving quite sophisticated laser-optic instrumen- the shaft average position to be affected by nonlinearity.
tation are considered routine. Handbooks on "how to Excessive radial load can be diagnosed from the
align a machine train" are popular. There is, however, vibrational data. Abnormal orbital motion, abnormal
very little published on the misalignment malfunction, its radial average shaft centerline position, and abnormal
destructive, overloading effects on rotors and bearings, or shaft versus casing motion are indicative of excessive
on how to diagnose misalignment by using vibration radial loads. Figure 4 illustrates how an orbital motion
monitoring. can be analyzed. As the orbit changes from an elliptical
One of the main effects of misalignment between shape to a "banana" shape, it is an indication that higher
rotors in the machine train is a generation of rotor load in frequency components are present. The analysis of the
a specific radial direction. The misalignment causes a shaft centerline position should also be used to diagnose
constant radial force which pushes the rotor to the side. excessive loads. A combination of shaft centerline posi-
The same result can be caused by a strong radial tion and orbits reflects the actual situation at each
component of the fluid flow in fluid-handling machines, bearing. In Figure 4, the radial load on the shaft forces
especially evident in single volute pumps, or in turbines the shaft down in one bearing and up in the other. Note
during partial steam admission on the first-stage nozzles. the elliptical and "banana" shape nature of the orbits as
a result of an increasing load. The Keyphasor marks on
the orbits (Fig. 4b) indicate that, although the bearings
are loaded in opposite directions, both ends of the shaft
3The gyroscopic effect, another rotative speed dependent component, vibrate in phase. Since at higher eccentricity positions
was not included in the considered here rotor model. The nonsynchro-
nous perturbation applied to an overhung rotor with a strong, gyro-
nonlinear effects are present, the increasingly rich spec-
scopic effect provides identification of pertaining parameters (Muszyn- trum of higher harmonics will be an indication of the
ska, et al. [1986a]. excessive radial loads. Axial measurements may addi-
ROTATING MACHINERY MALFUNCTIONS 243
Zl
(g2 + K3)z K2z + vg2(IZll c) (1 + j/z) i 0,
5
FIRST l/5x l/4x 1/3x
BALANCE
0 O)res 2 3 4
0
FIGURE 8 Spectrum cascade of vertical vibrations of a rotor rubbing
FREQUENCY, kcpm inside the seal, timebase waveform, and orbits at selected speeds. In the
FIGURE 7 Spectrum cascade of rotor vibrations and corresponding
orbits. Rotor is lightly rubbing on the upper surface of a seal
(Muszynska 1984a]).
higher harmonics of .
lower speed range, rotor bounces inside the seal, producing multiple
The diagnosis of rotor rubbing from vibrational data is and stationary parts are small, and the rotors operate at
based on (i) changes in rotor synchronous response low eccentricity within these clearances. Due to friction,
vectors, (ii) appearances of subsynchronous fractional shaft rotation generates a circumferential flow of the
components which, when filtered, most often exhibit fluid. The fluid, in turn, produces a dynamic effect:
backward orbiting, (iii) short-lasting appearances of rotating forces acting in feedback at the rotor. Such
components with natural frequencies (due to transient situations take place in lightly loaded fluid-lubricated
character of rubbing), (iv) appearances of higher har- bearings, in seals, in balance pistons, in stator/blade tip
monics of the fundamental components, and (v) changes clearances, and rotor/stator peripheries. Similar phenom-
in shaft centerline position data. ena occur in all cases where the fluid becomes involved
Partial or fully backward orbiting of the rotor is the in rotational motion, such as in centrifuges, rotors with
most characteristic for rubs, distinguishing this malfunc- trapped fluid, or rotors filled with fluid. Well known are
tion from the others. the final dynamic effects of such rotor/fluid interaction,
The coupling/stiffening effect of rubbing can be de- namely, the rotor self-excited subsynchronous vibrations
tected through changes in the balance resonant frequen- of the "fluid whirl" and "fluid whip" type.
cies. It is especially noticeable in differences between the The simplest mathematical model of the rotor (con-
rotor start-up and shutdown synchronous responses, centricity rotating inside a bearing or seal) which de-
when rubbing occurs in the range of the balance reso- scribes the fluid Whirl/whip phenomena is as follows
nance speeds (Fig. 9). The amplitudes become limited at (Fig. 5) (Muszynska [1986b]):
rubbing location; they may increase, however, in other
shaft sections; phase lags less. Thermal effect of rubbing, M:+ D(1 )R) + (K1 + K2)Z K2Zl 0
causing at certain rotative speeds an ever-changing (K2 + K3)Zl K2z + Db (l -jhDZl) +
thermal bow-related unbalance of the shaft, may lead to
tangential force (10)
1 amplitude fluctuations and continuous 1 phase
lagging as a function of time resulting in characteristic
spirals (Fig. 10).
gb / gnblZ112 /...)Z 0
Diagnosis of the rub axial location requires an analysis Eq. (102) includes fluid film radial damping Db and fluid
of vibration component phases along the rotor in corre- nonlinear stiffness Kb + K,,blZ112 +... at the bearing (or
lation to the particular modes. For the first mode it can be seal) location. It also includes fluid average circumfer-
based on Eqs. (9). ential velocity ratio h, the measure of the circumferential
flow strength; hIl is the rate at which the fluid damping
force rotates (Fig. 11) (Muszynska [1986b, 1988a,
Fluid-Induced Instabilities
1990a]). For K3 :# 0, the model represents a rotor/seal or
Rotating shafts operate in a fluid environment. An stator/rotor/blade tip clearance system (Fig. 5); when K3
interaction between the rotor and the surrounding fluid 0, it represents a rotor/bearing system. In Eqs. (10) the
becomes significant if the clearances between rotating unbalance, radial load, and other forces are omitted for
clarity. Note that, in contrast with the rubbing case, the
fluid-induced tangential force is oriented in the direction
of rotation.
The solution (8) of Eqs. (10) describes the rotor
self-excited vibrations of the fluid whirl or whip type.
The amplitudes B, B 1, frequencies to, and the relative
phase [3 can be calculated by substitution (8) into Eqs.
Turbine is Approaching First Balance Resonance at 2240 (10). B and [3 remain the same as in Eqs. (9). The
Electronic Governor Increases Ramp Rate at 1600 rpm. frequency o and amplitude B are calculated from the real
Radial Vibration Trip at mii pp.
Dual Votin Logic With 3-Second Delay. ili,ii and imaginary parts of the following equation (only the
first nonlinear term included):
/ \
e3:se:7
e3:58:32 o3:54:47
83:68:27
ea: 521 a7 12 a7
1)st K1 + + +
For the rotor/seal model l)st is close to 1/h times rotor
lateral mode natural frequency. For the rotor/bearing
M
O0 iz
_---Y._--_--_----..0.3- il-p/div
18 ;7.
_ ms/div-----
9.6 12
model there is K3 0, and since usually K, << K 1, the FREQUENCY, kcpm
onset (13) reduces to l)t //M/h. For a relatively FIGURE 12 Orbit, timebase wave at 5056 rpm, and spectrum cascade
small K it may occur at quite low rotative speed, much of a start-up of an electric motor-driven compressor rotor supported in
lower than the first balance resonance speed. After this oil-lubricated bearings. Fluid whirl vibrations with frequency 0.4 are
present (BN MDS Reports).
instability onset, the following limit cycle self-excited
vibrations have the whirl frequency (12), and exhibit
forward, almost circular, orbits (Fig. 12). If the onset (13)
.
is high enough, only whip vibrations may be observed. asymptotically tending to the rotor high eccentricity first
For the assumed one nonlinear term, the fluid whirl/ lateral mode natural frequency (slightly modified by
whip amplitude at the source location of instability is nonlinearities), while still maintaining forward direction,
obtained from Eq. (11) as follows: and almost circular shaft orbits at the bearing (or seal)
location. The other shaft locations exhibit vibration
(K + K Mw2)K22 patterns typical for the rotor first bending mode. The
B fluid whip is also persistent; at certain rotative speeds it
(K, + K Moe) e + [D(I ))o] may, however, disappear and then reappear again. It can
(14) be shown that there may exist cessations and subsequent
;2-/3 }- /2
onsets of the instabilities (Muszynska [1986b, 1988b]).
At higher rotative speeds the consecutive onsets of
instability lead to the fluid-whirl/whip vibrations of
where are the whirl or whip frequencies which are
calculated from the remaining paa of Eq. (11) (Eqs. (12) higher modes (Fig. 13) (Muszynska, [1988b, 1991]).
present approximated values only). Their frequencies and orbital appearance characteristics
For well-balanced rotors the whirl vibrations are quite are similar to the first mode whirl/whip ones, but the
persistent (Fig. 12). At the beginning of fluid whirl, the shaft centerline exhibits distinct higher mode shapes,
rotor vibrates as a rigid body. When the rotative speed characteristic for these higher modes.
approaches the 1/A value of the first balance resonance Even though very simplified, the mode-based model
frequency, the rotor self-excited whirl vibrations get (10) indicates quite well in which direction the cures of
smoothly transformed into the whip, with a frequency fluid whirl/whip vibrations should go. More complex
rotor systems exhibit essentially the same behavior as
this simple system. The main cause of the whirl/whip
4"Instabilities" means high amplitude self-excited lateral vibrations of vibrations lies in the fully developed circumferential
the rotor occurring as limit cycles of rotor unstable pure rotation. flow: the rotor will become more stable if the circumfer-
5A higher unbalance force resulting in the rotational synchronous ential flow-related tangential force strength is reduced (X
vibration mode moves the rotor within the clearance into higher lowered). This may be accomplished by either moving
eccentricity range, where the fluid circumferential flow is modified (h the shaft to higher eccentricities, by applying to the rotor
lowered), and the fluid film radial stiffness and damping are high. This
effect is especially evident in the balance resonance range of speeds a "friendly" external radial load force, or by modifying
where the fluid whirl disappears (Muszynska, [1986b]). In contrast to the fluid flow pattern. Appropriately loaded noncircular
the rub malfunction, the unbalance provides here better stability. bearings, bearings with lobes and grooves, bearings with
248 A. MUSZYNSKA
tional frequency responses 1/2, 1/3 and repre- ing, and friction, are similar to the dynamic phenomena
sents the simplest simulation of the observed phenomena during the rotor-to-stator rubbing. The similarity is,
(Fig. 14) (Goldman et al, 1991 ]). however, of the "mirror image" type, since while rub-
The diagnosis of the pedestal looseness is usually bing, the system becomes periodically stiffer during a
based on the appearance of 1/2 vibrations and visual cycle of vibration, which leads to an increase of the
inspection of the bearing/pedestal/foundation fastenings. average stiffness. In the oversize bearing/rotor system,
the average stiffness decreases. As the rubbing occur-
rences are described as "normal-tight" situations, the
Oversize, Poorly Lubricated Bearing Malfunction oversize bearing leads to the "normal-loose" description.
In both situations two other physical phenomena, namely
The designs of plain bearing bushings and rolling ele- friction and impacting, are similar. Their involvement
ment bearings used in rotating machines include a small and strength differ, however, in specific cases.
bearing clearance which is appropriate for normal opera- The mathematical model simulating the oversize bear-
tion of the rotor. When poorly lubricated bearing and ing malfunction is similar to Eqs. (7) with K3 0 and the
journal surfaces wear, this inevitably leads to an increase normal force N replacing the stator stiffness force K
of the rotor/bearing clearance. The increased looseness in (IZll-- C) (Muszynska [1990b]). The model produces
the bearing (which is often referred to as "dead band") rotor unbalance-related responses with synchronous and
causes a reduction of the system stiffness, and may result subsynchronous fractional frequencies, as well as self-
in a specific array of dynamic phenomena experienced excited vibrations occurring with the rotor natural fre-
by the rotating shaft. Excessive bearing clearance, and quency of the first lateral mode. The perturbation equa-
occasional loss of the shaft/bearing contact during op- tions around the rotor static equilibrium position yield
eration, cause variable stiffness of the rotor/bearing anisotropic characteristics for the vertical/horizontal
system, thus provide nonlinear conditions for unbalance- stiffnesses and tangential components. The latter ad-
related excitation, which may lead to rotor instability. equately reflect the anisotropic nature of the rotor/loose
The physical phenomena occurring in the oversize bearing system, and eventually generate differences in
bearing/rotor system, namely, variable stiffness, impact- vertical and horizontal modes.
The diagnosis of the oversize bearing malfunction, and
distinguishing it from the rubbing, should be based on
the rotor centerline position and l data, frequency
spectrum, and, especially meaningful, the orbit analysis
(Figs. 15, 16). While exhibiting similar spectra, the
journal/bearing contact is usually maintained during a
4 . . . . . !": "" III!:. . . .::i,"!s;1". . . i.. . . . . I.,,,",... . . . ;, ":, : . . "
I,
..,..i
.,
I;i
ll y,i ",/
--4".
longer fraction of the vibration period when the rotor/
stator rubbing contact, thus the orbits are substantially
........ I";,
l,.,t,
,:,
,.",
/.. ,,"
" ..... ,_.._._....
I":,
.....
;,,
./ #" v ----;.,":.-."--.
different from the rub case. While maintaining the
contact, the journal slides on the bearing surface, and a
.
,".- .2
,iei.,,,
I ,:,,
lllfF,
...
t.,
!il,,,.
.,,,
,%11, "":"";5",:/",
:.,
(t.. ,",,"
. . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . "
T,
,:
::,
-----.,"
-------I":
"5
"i -__..i:
":
, 3x part of the orbit follows the beating clearance circle.
During rubbing there is high rotor lateral excursion from
the rubbing spot, and, therefore, more impacting and
unsteady transient motion occur. Within an oversize
bearing the journal remains close to the bearing surface,
:,i.-,/,:,,,,,".),",:; :,;:;:i;,, ;"", I",, .!..,:7" ;:.,L,
--,l
/,,...,.
./,."
:.... ,,/
/"-
., , the vibration spectrum, as compared to the rub cases.
./
/
,." Loose Rotating Part Malfunction
16""i 2i 4 6kcpm 8" """"I0 Looseness, and eventual involvement in rotative motion
FREQUENCY,
of machine elements, such as disks or thrust collars
pedestal. The ,
FIGURE 14 Spectrum cascade of the response of a rotor with loose
1/2, and 1/3 subsynchronous vibrations, plus rich mounted on rotating shafts, or such as bearings untight-
ened in bearing pedestals, represent another machine
spectrum of higher harmonics, are present (Goldman et al. [1991]).
250 A. MUSZYNSKA
3360
l:::::::::1,
tio "v" LOt./ I/I .oo ooo
:.. r
I:
4: .,o
,OIV !/]/
" v...,
2,, .
I:::::::::/
lm
/
t /, 69
/ . /:::::::::
PPiO
...i
/x
3210 351e
FIGURE 15 Centerline position during start-up and selected orbits of a journal rotating in an oversize poorly lubricated bearing (unbalanced rotor
supported in one 5-mil and one 50-mil radial clearance brass bearing bushing) (Muszynska [1990b]).
0.5x
1X
9690 rpm-
8310 rpm
/ 7710 rpm, 3x
5910
Orbit Scale
5
3 mil rpml
6
pp/div
]
171
----!8
FREQUENCY, kcpm
FIGURE 16 Spectrum cascade of the journal horizontal response and selected orbits from the same run as in Figure 15. Subsynchronous
vibrations of 1/2 and 1/3, as well as self-excited vibrations, are present (Muszynska [1990b]).
vibrations, and may sometimes be confused with the The model of the cracked rotor will be as follows
latter (Fig. 18). (Muszynska, 1982)"
Cracked Shafts M(, + 2j- 2Zr) q" D(1 )k)( -4r jZr) + (18)
gz jgtz jKAYr= mr2eJ + peJ(-nt + v) jKe
Cracked shafts represent a severe malfunction in rotating
machinery, and always should be considered as a poten- where 0 < A < represents the gaping crack-related,
tial event. A shaft crack causes two major results: a unilateral stiffness-reducing effect and e represents the
stiffness reduction resulting in rotor anisotropy, and a rotor elasticity axis shift. When Eq. (18) is re-trans-
shift of the elasticity axis (the rotor bows) which affects formed to the previously used stationary coordinates, it
the balance state. will have periodically variable stiffness with frequency
In order to present a simple model of a rotor with the 212, and an additional unbalance-like excitation
cracked shaft, first transform Eq. (1) of an unbalanced K6.ei(ft 270"). Since the latter interferes with the rotor
rotor into coordinates Zr Xr + JYr-" ze-Jft attached to the residual unbalance "mr," the synchronous responses
rotor, and rotating at the angular speed 12 (assuming of a cracked rotor will differ from the original ones,
further that the axis Yr passes through the crack): especially at the low frequency range. The radial load
force P applied to a rotor with 2 periodically variable
M(," + 2jl2 "2Zr) q- O(1 )k)( -I-jZr) + stiffness results in an appearance of the forced vibrations
gz jgtz mrf2e J + Pe j(-at + v) (17) with frequency 2. (Eq. (18) can easily be solved first,
252 A. MUSZYNSKA
"
r 30
2.5
(C) 2.0
.5 RES--
0.0
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
.5 RES RES FREQUENCY [kcprn]
FIGURE 19 Spectrum cascade and selected orbits of a cracked shaft vibrational response. High and 2 components The latter exhibit
resonances at "half resonance" speeds of (Bently et al. [1986]).
"
..
. . f
. .- -
9O
FULL SCALE AMPLITUDE 4 mil pp
----._
", HORIZONTAL
RUNUP
-,
"
/DATE: IINE
i--"-"-------"---.
-=i
_. gg7
."=
. ".
,,o Y. k
. 123.,
.."-
...,."t?::.,,iee
,.. I
:L ,_-, "- z
\
\, . .. :X
"...t..."
t
t
.-
_....;
.. . .
.:t I;
/
,:t,;,.
%..,.,,!-
7,,\ ".
-r.."e
. t..
t
...i... ;,,,:
.ill
/
./.te,,FIL
FIGURE 20 Shaft crack diagnosis: abnormal 2 response vector polar plot taken 9 days after the first one. Amplitudes considerably increased,
and phase is leading in the low speed range. At 3550 rpm 2 orbit is backward (BN MDS Reports).
254 ROTATING MACHINERY MALFUNCTIONS
-
sional vibration transducers on rotating machinery in
order to monitor rotor torsional activities may prove to
M(, + 2j 2Zr) + D(1 )(t + j[-Zr) +
be a handicap: poorly damped torsional modes excited
gz --jK,zr jKAyr mr[2to( + j(tll 2- J)]eja= (19) through coupling with the lateral modes contribute con-
-.
mr[-2eja + pej(-lt + siderably to shaft stress increase, and may significantly
mr
I +Ktt [K(1 A)y + D(1 h)(y flXr) intensify shaft cracking. When trended, the torsional
vibration changes may reveal symptoms of an impending
P tcos(t + 8- T) P sin(l-It + /)] T (20) crack at much earlier levels than lateral vibrations.
A part of Eq. (19) is the same as (18) (with no additional
Internal/Structural Friction. Interactive
crack-related unbalance); it also includes the coupling
terms with the torsional vibration coordinate Eq. (20)
Malfunctions. Extended Models
represents the balance of moments for the shaft torsional One classical machinery rotor malfunction, namely in-
mode, including the external torque T. This linearized ternal and structural friction, has not yet been mentioned.
equation has one periodically variable coefficient. Its Internal/structural friction in rotating elements is known
action affects the torsional stiffness Kt. It is well known to cause self-excited lateral vibrations with frequencies
that such equation produces parametric resonances close to rotor natural frequencies (the model (10) with
(Mathieu/Hill/Duffings type). These resonances occur at and Db equal to the internal/structural friction
rotative speeds coinciding with 1, 1/2, 1/4, 1/6, 1/8, damping may be used as a first approach in modeling
fractions of the torsional natural frequency (-- Kt//) these phenomena). Since internal/structural friction-in-
Since the unbalance and radial load force interfering with duced, self-excited vibration exhibit the whip type (as the
shaft asymmetry constitute the actual system forcing onset of stability is high enough with ) 1), it is usually
functions, the highest torsional mode resonances occur at difficult to identify a real cause of these vibrations. (Most
1x and 2 (Fig. 22) (Muszynska et al. [1992]). The often the whip is caused by fluid interactions, as much
lateral modes exhibit peak responses at the lateral bal- stronger agents.) One aspect of the internal/structural
ance resonance frequencies, as well as at the speeds friction should, however, be mentioned here: The inter-
corresponding to the torsional natural frequency (Fig. nal friction force acts in phase with the external damping,
23). It can be noticed that while lateral mode peaks are i.e., it intensifies the effective damping only for super
not very high, the torsional resonant vibrations exhibit synchronous frequencies. For subsynchronous frequen-
significant amplitudes, indicating, that the effective cies, it opposes the external damping, reducing its
damping in the torsional mode is very poor. stabilizing effect. That is why all subsynchronous vibra-
FIGURE 21 Shaft crack diagnosis: amplitude-phase-time (APHT) plot and polar trend of a cracking rotor 2 vibration component, at a constant
speed. The plots exhibit the characteristics of the lateral second mode resonance response, due to the propagating crack-related shaft weakening
(BN MDS Reports).
ROTATING MACHINERY MALFUNCTIONS 255
, The
2 components, and higher harmonics of torsional vibrations due
mode relationships. The latter should also include all
possible malfunction effects in interactive manners.
to coupling with lateral modes, are present in the entire speed range
(Muszynska et al. [1992]).
ADVANCEMENT TREND IN VIBRATION
MONITORING AND DIAGNOSTICS OF
180 ,I I..,, ,..,I I,, ROTATING MACHINERY HEALTH
The analysis of accumulated database from machinery
360 monitoring systems, and from laboratory simulations,
allows for generalizations and correlations of particular
malfunctions with the machine design features and
operational conditions. Machinery health monitoring
alone will not improve machine performance. The accu-
mulated practical knowledge supported by simple math-
ematical modeling must be absorbed and implemented
by machinery manufacturers (Diewald et al. [1990]).
Potential mechanisms of energy transfer from rotation to
vibrations should be eliminated, or at least reduced, at
the design stage by imPlementing passive and active
methods of vibration control. Machine malfunctions
should not occur, as a rule, but as extraordinary events.
This does not lead, however, to a conclusion that
vibration monitoring systems on machinery should be
f7""- = I I l I abandoned. To the contrary, they would allow continuous
0 2 4 6
KOTATI SPEED, krpm monitoring of the machine performance, and use of the
information for more efficient scheduling of routine
FIGURE 23 Bode plot of the rotor lateral response from the same
run as in Figure 22. It exhibits lateral split resonance peaks at 4900 rpm outages.
and 5400 rpm, as well as the torsional resonance peak at 3000 rpm Nowadays health monitoring of machines becomes
(Muszynska et al. [1992]). increasingly automated. The use of computer-controlled
256 A. MUSZYNSKA
instruments and computer systems to collect, record, and cost-effective, and reliable operation of the machinery
process the data has become a routine. Expert systems used to produce required products.
are natural extensions of this trend. About ten years ago,
aspirations in the area of expert systems were being
discussed. Today attempts of their designs are being References
published (Lu et al. [1986], Gross et al. [1989]). Several Bently, D. E., and Muszynska, A., 1986. Detection of Rotor Cracks,
years from now, accomplishments will be summarized, Proceedings of the Texas A&M University 15th Turbomachinery
followed by their routine implementations. Symposium and Short Courses, Corpus Christi, Texas, pp. 129-139.
Contemporary expert systems are cost effective only Bently, D. E., and Bosmans, R. F., 1990. A Method to Locate the
Source of a Rotor Fluid-Induced Instability Along the Rotor, The
when applied to specific classes of machines which Third International Symposium on Transport Phenomena and Dy-
operate in large numbers. High complexity and resulting namics of Rotating Machinery, Honolulu, Hawaii.
high development costs of the expert systems are realis- Bently Nevada Mechanical Diagnostic Services Reports, 1987-1990.
tic only if they can be amortized over a large number of Diewald, W., and Nordmann, R., 1990. Parameter Optimization for the
sales. The individual specific solutions for expert sys- Dynamics of Rotating Machinery, Proceedings of the Third IFToMM
International Conference on Rotordynamics, Lyon, France.
tems are necessary, because the general solution for the Goldman, P., and Muszynska, A., 1991. Analytical and Experimental
vibration pattern recognition problem for a wide variety Simulation of Loose Pedestal Dynamic Effects on a Rotating Ma-
of rotating machines operating in a large multitude of chine Vibrational Response, Rotating Machinery Dynamics, DE-vol.
processes is still imperfect at the present time. A second 35, The Thirteenth Biennial ASME Conference on Mechanical
Vibration and Noise, Miami, Florida.
major problem with contemporary expert systems is that
Gross, K. C., and Humenik, K. E., 1989. Nuclear Plant Component
the responses and recommendations are stated only as Surveillance Implemented in SAS Software, SAS Users Group
probabilities, thus expert human judgments are still International Conference, San Francisco.
required to assess these probabilities. In a few years, Laws, W. C., and Muszynska, A., 1987. Periodic and Continuous
expert systems will evolve from tools that assist experts Vibration Monitoring for Preventive/Predictive Maintenance of Ro-
into tools that will be able to help knowledgeable users tating Machinery, Trans. of the ASME, Journal of Engineering for
Gas 7urbines and Power, vol. 109, pp. 159-167.
who are not experts. Only in the distant future will expert Loewy, R. G., and Piarulli, V. J., 1969. Dynamics of Rotating Shafts,
systems be able to help general users. (Advances in the The Shock and Vibration Information Center.
neural network computing and fuzzy logic may speed up, Lu, S. C-Y, and Komanduri, R. (Eds.), 1986. Knowledge-Based Expert
however, this process.) Systems for Manufacturing, ASME Publication PED-v. 24, H00371.
A true expert system must be capable of totally Muszynska, A., 1982. Shaft Crack Detection, Proc. of the Seventh
Machinery Dynamics Seminar, National Research Council, Edmon-
replacing a human expert in the machine operation ton, Alberta, Canada.
control, diagnosis, and corrective actions. In the machin- Muszynska, A., 1984a. Partial Lateral Rotor-to-Stator Rubs, The Third
ery diagnostics field, a true expert system would have to International Conference on Vibrations in Rotating Machinery,
be able to recognize early signs of any potential problem IMechE, C 281/84, York, New United Kingdom, pp. 227-236.
by analyzing real-time data from the vibration monitor- Muszynska, A., 1984b. Synchronous and Self-Excited Rotor Vibrations
Caused by a Full Annular Rub, Proceedings of the Eighth Machinery
ing and process control systems, hypothesize all possible Dynamics Seminar, NRC No. 23619, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada,
causes of the problem, construct a series of parametric or pp. 22.1-22.21.
process perturbation tests, and develop a data acquisition Muszynska, A., 1986a. Modal Testing of Rotor/Bearing Systems,
strategy to gather the required additional information to International Journal of Analytical and Experimental Modal Analy-
each sis, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 15-34.
prove or disprove hypothesis, conduct the tests,
Muszynska, A., 1986b. Whirl and Whip--Rotor/Beating Stability
gather the data, analyze the results with respect to the Problems, Journal of Sound and Vibration, vol. 110, no. 3, pp.
particular machinery, process them, form a reliable 443-462.
conclusion, and undertake corrective actions. An expert Muszynska, A., 1988a. Improvements in Lightly Loaded Rotor/Bearing
system capable of performing all of these functions and Rotor/Seal Models, Trans. of the ASME, Journal of Vibration,
Acoustics, Stress and Reliability in Design, vol. 110, no. 2, pp.
should be able to handle most typical problems with
129-136.
well-behaved symptoms on traditional machinery. Hu- Muszynska, A., 1988b. Multi-Mode Whirl and Whip in Rotor/Bearing
man experts, with their intuitive abilities, will probably Systems, Dynamics of Rotating Machinery, The Second International
always be required to provide solutions for most infre- Symposium on Transport Phenomena, Dynamics, and Design of
quently encountered problems, or almost all malfunc- Rotating Machinery, vol. 2, Hemisphere Publishing Corp., Honolulu,
tions which exhibit any asymptomatical characteristics. Hawaii, pp. 326-340.
Muszynska, A., 1988c. Effects of Loose Rotating Parts on Rotor
Expert systems must always be considered, however, Dynamics, The Fourth International Conference on Vibrations in
as useful tools to assist in the machinery health diagno- Rotating Machinery, IMechE, C241/88, Edinburgh, Scotland, pp.
sis, not as main goals. The latter is still the safe, efficient, 573-578.
ROTATING MACHINERY MALFUNCTIONS 257
Muszynska, A., Bently, D. E., Franklin, W. D., and Hayashida, R. D., Subscripts
1989a. Identification of Modal Parameters of Rotating Systems Using b Beating, seal, or rotor/stator periphery fluid
Perturbation Techniques, Part and Part 2, Rotating Machinery film
Dynamics, DE-V. 18-1 H0508A, Twelfth Biennial ASME Conference f Foundation
on Mechanical Vibration and Noise, Montreal, Canada, pp. 107-118. / Loose rotative part
Muszynska, A., 1989b. Rotor-to-Stationary Element Rub-Related Vi- n Nonlinear
bration Phenomena in Rotating Machinery, Literature Survey, The r Rotating coordinate
Shock and Vibration Digest, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 3-11. R Rotor
Muszynska, A., and Bently, D. E., 1990a. Frequency Swept Rotating s Stator
Input Perturbation Techniques and Identification of the Fluid Force st Stability
Models in Rotor/Bearing/Seal Systems and Fluid Handling Ma- t,x,y Torsional, horizontal, vertical
chines, Journal of Sound and Vibration, vol. 143, no. 1, pp. 103-124. "r Tangential
Muszynska, A., 1990b. Effect of an Oversize Poorly Lubricated
Bearing on Rotor Dynamic Response, ISROMAC-4, Honolulu,
Hawaii, pp. 432-452. APPENDIX
Muszynska, A., and Grant, J. W., 1991. Stability and Instability of a
Two-Mode Rotor Supported by Two Fluid-Lubricated Bearings, Vibration Transducers
Trans. of the ASME, Journal of Vibration and Acoustics, no. 2.
Muszynska, A., Goldman, P., and Bently, D. E., 1992. Torsional/Lateral Three types of transducers are available for measuring
Cross Coupled Responses Due to Shaft Anisotropy: A New Tool in mechanical vibrations.
Shaft Crack Detection, Vibrations in Rotating Machinery, IMechE, C
1. Displacement transducer. Most reliable and useful
432-090, Bath, United Kingdom.
transducer to measure rotor vibrations relative to station-
ary elements of the machine is a noncontacting eddy
Nomenclature current proximity probe (Fig. A1). Its principle of opera-
A,c Amplitude and phase of rotor filtered vibration tion is based on a modification of electromagnetic field,
components due to currents induced in a conductive solid material in
B, BI( Amplitudes and relative phase of rotor self- the proximity of the probe tip. The output voltage is
excited vibrations
c Radial clearance proportional to the gap between the probe and the
D,K,M Rotor modal damping, stiffness and mass material surface. Typical sensitivity is 0.2 V/mil (8 mV/
respectively (K may include bearing stiffness.) pro). (High sensitivity (2V/mil) proximity transducers are
used in rolling element malfunction diagnostics; flaws on
Amplitude and angular orientation of rolling elements or rings generate specific outer ring
externally applied perturbation force
deflections observed by the transducer.) Proximity trans-
Rotor polar moment of inertia ducers provide vibration and static data. They cover the
Tangential force coefficient frequency range from zero to about 600 kcpm. The
Mass, radius, and angular position of proximity probe requires an external power supply (usu-
unbalance
N
ally 18 to -24 Vdc) for operation. For signal accuracy,
Shaft/bearing normal force
Radial force amplitude and its angular the shaft surface must be conditioned. The proximity
orientation probe is considered the best for measuring rotor lateral
Time and axial vibrations and positions on rotating machinery.
Torque It is prized for easy calibration check, reliability, and
Rotor lateral displacements in two orthogonal robustness in the industrial environment. The proximity
directions (conventionally x horizontal, y
vertical) probes successfully replaced obsolete shaft riders.
z,z Rotor lateral displacement coordinates 2. Velocity transducer. The principle of operation of
A,e Crack-related stiffness-reducing coefficient and this transducer is based on inertial (seismic) property of
elasticity axis shift respectively a heavy mass suspended by springs on a vibrating body
Fluid-related tangential drag coefficient
to remain still. In the electromagnetic transducer design,
Fluid circumferential average velocity ratio, a
measure of the strength of circumferential flow
the mass carries a coil of wire and is elastically sus-
in bearings, seals, and/or rotor/stator periphery pended by soft springs in a case containing in the middle
Dry friction coefficient a permanent magnet (Fig. A2). The case, attached to a
Kroneckers delta vibrating structure (such as a beating cap or machine
Torsional angle coordinate
casing), transmits its vibration. The relative motion
Perturbation frequency, frequency or
self-excited vibrations, rotor precession between the coil and the magnet generates an output
frequency voltage proportional to the instantaneous velocity of
Rotative speed vibration. The transducer is self-generating, and does not
258 A. MUSZYNSKA
BOBBIN
CASE
SPRINGS
BOBBIN
POLE PIECE
PROBE GAP
Amplifier
Preload Bolt
Mica
Reference Mass
Con du ctive "Jl//,,//l
Plate PiezoelectriCcrystal
Electrical
Insulator__...
-270
0
-300
4 rnil= 3,750 rpm
UNCOMPENSATED COMPENSATED
,mils
o
330
2 mils
6,000 rpm
7,000 rpm
10.,000 rprn
3,600 rpm
! / / ,20o m,,
UNFILTERED
PLANT ID: XYZ UTILITIES
TRAIN ID: TURBINE GENERATOR
MACHINE ID: TURBINE #2 BRG
RUN: 5
DATE: 21 MAY 81
TIME: 1206 Hour
PROBE #1 ID: #2 BRG VERTICAL
ORIENTATION- 135 DEG
AMP SCALE .4 MILS/DIV SCE- .4 MILSmIV MAX AMP- 1.35 MILS PK-PK
TI SCE- 10 MSECIV PROBE #2 ID: #2 BRG HORIZONTAL
ROTATION: CW M (STT) 3604 ORIENTATION- 45 DEG
M (E)- 3606 MAX AMP- 1.07 MILS PK-PK
X FILTERED
RUN: 5
DATE: 21 MAY 81
TIME: 1208 Hour
PROBE #1 ID: #2 BRG VERTICAL
ORIENTATION- 135 DEG
1X VECTOR- 1.05 MILS PK-PK
0 201
PROBE #2 ID: #2 BRG HORIZONTAL
N /" \ ORIENTATION- 45 DEG
IX VECTOR- .83 MILS PK-PK
0 356
MMP SCALE- .4 MILS/DIV AMP SCALE .4 MILS/DIV
TIME SCALE o MSEC/DIV
RPM (START)- 3606 RPM( END)- 3605
FIGURE A8 Unfiltered and filtered timebase orbits of a rubbing turbine generator.
(e) Shutdown is, for some machines, the only practical rotating machinery. The Keyphasor signal serves, also,
mode for transient-state data acquisition. The shutdown for the evaluation of vibration-to-rotation frequency ratio
data differs from the start-up data by the driving torque (Fig. A13).
effects (absence/presence), and often by thermal and Rotor torsional vibrations can be measured by a
alignment conditions of the machine. The data can be proximity transducer observing equally spaced, tooth-
displayed using the same formats as for the start-up data. like markers on the rotor (typically 36 markers). An
During start-up and shutdown, the synchronous pertur- instantaneous phase of the each tooth on/off signal is then
bation testing can be performed in order to identify the subtracted from the "ideal" phase based on the constant
Synchronous Dynamic Stiffness and lowest mode modal rotative speed. An additional subtraction of signals from
parameters of the rotor. two such transducers mounted at different axial locations
provides rotor torsional vibrations. In order to eliminate
the effect of lateral vibrations on torsional responses, at
Keyphasor Functions, Phase Measurements, and
each location, one more transducer is mounted at 180-
Torsional Vibration Measurements
degree position. Data from two transducers are then
The Keyphasor(R) is a radially mounted proximity trans- added, so for the torsional vibration measurements, at
ducer that observes a key, keyway, or other once-per-turn least four transducers are required.
discontinuity on the rotor surface. During rotor rotation,
the transducer generates a once-per-turn on/off-type sig-
nal (Fig. A12). This signal provides the rotative speed
Measurement and Documentation Conventions
measurements and the reference for filtered vibration Conventions are designed to follow specific routines so
signal phase measurements. The absolute phase on a that clarity and consistency of the data are maintained.
filtered signal is measured as a phase "lag" from the start
of a blank Keyphasor dot to the first positive peak of the
signal. The phases of filtered vibration components 1. Cables should be properly identified so that
represent one of the most important diagnostic tools in transducer signals are not intermixed or inverted.
262 A. MUSZYNSKA
4
-- POINT gRG
-S
g HORIZ
-4
OR Y
-3
TYPF_
-2 121
UP
.o .,o oo
POINT ID: BRG #1 VERT 45 deg
POINT 1D: BRG #1 HORIZ 315 deg
FIGURE A10 Waterfall spectrum of vibration response at operating
speed of a rotor supported in rolling element bearings. (EP is element FIGURE A11 Shaft centerline position trend plot measured by X
passage rate.) displacement transducers.
ROTATING MACHINERY MALFUNCTIONS 263
Vertical Horizontal
KEYPHASOR oEc.zS---
PROBE
ROTATION
<
180 OF ORBITING 360 ROT
B
S60O0F ROTATION
120 OF ORBITING
0F ROTATION
120 ORB
3t30 ROT
24O ORB
360 ROT
2
--X
3
RG 1-7
"-L-J
E]GURE ]6 xJa] (thst) posJtJovJbratJon measurements. E[GURE ]8 ransducer odentatJon on a turbJne-ddven compressor.
Recommendations for Monitoring order to avoid a lack of signal from a probe located in
Monitoring of rotating machines includes a broad range a nodal point for some modes. (These "modal" probes
of protection and information systems. On general pur- can also be mounted on the same sides of the beatings,
pose machines, vibration probes and temperature sensors but at least one shaft diameter distance from the other
are installed primarily to protect the machine from probes.)
catastrophic failure. The transducers can provide, how- Two temperature sensors located in each radial bearing
ever, much more useful information which can be used in for short bearings (with length-to-diameter ratio less
early diagnosis of an impending malfunction and in than 1/2) one sensor will be sufficient.
preventing the failure. The recommendation for vibration Two temperature sensors mounted in active and inac-
and temperature monitoring is as follows: tive faces of the thrust bearing.
Two shaft observing proximity probes mounted in XY Instruments for Data Processing and Displaying in
orientation at or in proximity of each bearing. Real Time
Two proximity probes for monitoring shaft axial
1. Oscilloscope. The oscilloscope is one of the most
position/vibration. Axial position is an extremely im-
portant measurement, because it indicates changes in
important instruments for visual observation of the
vibration signals in real time. It displays the amplitude,
machine internal clearances or thrust reversals which
may lead to catastrophic consequences on the ma- frequency, phase, and, if available, position data simul-
chine. As a result, many users tie axial position to a taneously. The shape of the waveform or orbit can
main trip function. highlight rotor response significant changes that can
A Keyphasor probe. goundetected when these characteristics are viewed
Redundant probes for any of the above which are separately. The orbit is especially meaningful for the data
inaccessible from the machine exterior. provided by the shaft observing XY proximity transduc-
Two additional XY proximity probes at the opposite ers, and the Keyphasor transducer. The orbits display
sides of each bearing for mode identification, and in
actual magnified paths of the rotor centerline. The
Keyphasor dots correlate rotative speed with the shaft
vibrational motion, and give an idea about the shaft mode
of vibration, when orbits with Keyphasor dots from two
lll lLi i"i]-i !11 C: ends of the shaft are compared (Fig. A19).
!1 17 I-I II-II <----; 2. Monitors. Monitors are designed to continuously
I.___I..J.;I._.t_LI_;I..._I.-.II ,,-:
h-ll;t41t-l#tl;;i:",, JL
tlORIZ monitor and display a wide variety of supervisory
II11/1 ltl II ILII ,._.---. K, parameters measured by transducers. They aid operation
personnel in recognizing machinery problems, and auto-
matically shut down machines before costly damage due
--" to malfunction occurs (Fig. A20). The monitors are
,,,._..,
/7..,
x.._/
,,<....,
-,L
equipped with "OK", "Alert", "Danger" indicators and
glll rlr3k
e i-ili I"tii 0 I"t)" "Alarm" relays. The monitors are usually built in modu-
"" " Time Base
lJll L.ILJI lar versions to choose elements for specific machine
-_--_--_--_--_--_--_.JL j_=__.._._=_=___jj
needs. Many of them are equipped with possible com-
FIGURE A17 Oscilloscope convention. puter interfacing.
ROTATING MACHINERY MALFUNCTIONS
,
265
ORBIT The tracking filter can thus provide the filtered synchro-
nous vibration (1 ), as well as vibration signal compo-
BE
A#R21N G nents being fractions or multiples of the rotative speed
(1/3, 1/2, 2, 3, etc.).
If the bandpass filter is swept across the frequency
[
A
MASS
" ,"
l.,, k7 IEYPHASOR range (sweep filter), a spectrum will be generated. It
serves for identification of significant frequency compo-
nents of a vibration signal.
F:
"BEARING
#1
" " OF
MODE SHAPE ROTOR
FIGURE A19 Shaft mode shape determined from orbit and Keypha-
sor mark information.
4. FFT Spectrum Analyzer. This instrument is widely
used (and often misused) in vibration analysis. It pro-
vides the Fourier spectrum of the vibration signal. In
rotating machine diagnostics the most often used are
steady-state spectra, spectrum waterfalls versus time, or
versus some other monitored parameter, and spectrum
cascade plots versus rotative speed from the machine
start-up or shutdown. For rolling element beating and
gear train diagnostics, however, the spectrum analyzer is
often the primary measuring instrument. The spectrum
3. Filters. In the frequency domain, filters serve to analyzer is also used for identification of the instability
focus on specific vibration components or eliminate source location along the rotor of a machine train (phase
unwanted components (such as noise) of the transducer measurement of cross-correlated signals, such as fluid
signal (Fig. A21). A high or low pass filter eliminates, whip, from two ends of the rotor).
respectively, the low or high frequency components of
the signal. In the rotating machinery applications, the
Computerized Data Acquisition and Processing
most useful is the tracking filter, such as a Digital Vector
Filter. This instrument automatically adjusts a narrow
Systems
bandpass filter center frequency to the frequency of a Vibration and process data from machines can be visu-
reference signal, usually that of the Keyphasor signal. ally monitored, and/or manually acquired and reduced
"- S /Trend
System
Human
Expertise
Problem Deter-
mination and
Correction
_Long Term Actions
torage
Uomputer
Data Correlation Automatic
Data Compression Shut Down
the Machine
Plotting Capability
II __kj Sto
.o..,n. ...,m Il---
-1 lS"" /
age
ii
/
E -__-__-__-__-__
j /
_I
FIGURE A20 On-line preventive system for critical machinery.
266 A. MUSZYNSKA
provided electronic signals. A dedicated computer soft- FIGURE A22 Computerized data acquisition and processing.
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