modals: ability, obligation

(present I future) .
ability: can, can't, cannot
Can't is the negative, with cannot as a formai and written form. There is no third person -s form.
Question forms are Can I, Can you etc.
Use can / can't
to describe ability ar lack of it.
Many animals can see c1early in the dark. Human beings can't do this.
to describe what is allowed ar not allowed.
You can look at the animals in the zoo but you can't touch them.
with a future meaning.
Sorry, but I can't come to the party next week.
with verbs of perception: hear, see, taste, feel, smell.
What can }iou see? I can smell gasi

ability: be able to
This has the same meaning as can.
Use be able to
instead of can.
Many animals are able to see in the dark.
whencan is unsuitable. Because can has only present and past forms, we use be able to for other
tenses, and infinitive form.
I haven't been able to finish my project. We hope to be able to visit you next month.

obligation: have to / has to

The forms follow have: I have to, he / she has to etc; do I have to, does she have to; I don't have to etc.
Use have to / has to
to describe what is necessary,a rule, or something we do because other people tell
us to.
Baby birds have to learn how to fly ar they won 't survive.
Do we have to buy another ticket to see this part of the castle?
The negative form, don't / doesn't have to, is used to describe something unnecessary.
I don 't have to go to work tomorrow. There's a holiday

obligation: must / mustn't

The negative is mustn't, with must not as a formai and written form. There is no third person -s form.
Question form is must I, must you etc.
Use must to describe something we personally think is necessaryand important to do.
There is sometimes little difference between first person I must and I have to.
Sorry, I really have to go naw. Sorry, I really must go naw!
In other contexts, there is a difference.
You must be more careful! (= personal opinion of the speaker)
We have to wear safety goggles. (= an 'outside' opinion or rule)
We usually use the question form of have to for musf.
Do I have to sit here?
We use mustn't when we think an action is against the rules.
You mustn't throw things in the science lab! It's dangerous!
Compare mustn't and don't have to.
You mustn't use a pencil. (it's not allowed)
You don't have to use a pen. (it's not necessary- use a pen or a pencil)

CD
Use should, ought to
to say what we think is right or correct, ar is a good idea in your opinion. This is not as strong as must.
You should pay more attention. You shouldn't talk 50 much.
to give advice.
I think you shouJd study biology next year.
in the same way. Ought to / ought not to has the same meaning as should / should not.
Use had better
to say what we think someone should do. There is only one formhad better /'d better. The negative is
had better not.
You'd better wear your raincoat. It's going to rain. You'd better not wait too long. You'lI be late.
Use need to
with the same meaning as have to. Need to is not a modal verb.
You need to work harder. You don't need to come tomorrow
Do I need to bring my dictionary?

Need is a modal verb and has no third person form. It is mainly used in questions and negatives, and is
more formai in use.
Need Jsay morel He need not take the exam.

1 Complete each sentence with can ar can't + the verb in brackets. Use a form of be ab/e to if
can / can't is not possible.

a That shelf is tOGhigh. I (reach)cal'l.llre.ach . e Sorry, I (come) ..

it. tomorrow. 1'11try and see you next week.
b What's that noise? I (hear) . f I rea11ywant (use) .....
something. a computer properly.
c There's something wrong with this door. I (open) .. g Don't push Harry in the water. He (swim)
................it.
d I'm rea11yhungry! I (take) . h I feel terrible. I (sleep) ..
................
my lunch break yet. ....for the past couple of nights .

2 Complete the sentence with must or mustn't. They are ali strange but true laws.
a In New Hampshire, USA, you ...t\t4Sll:1.>t ..pick up seaweed from the beach.
b In Louisiana, USA, schoolchildren ca11their teachers Sir or Ma'am.
c In Canada you .. ...let a 11amaeat grass in a national park.
d In Italy, a man .... . wear a skirt in public. cO
e In Illinois, USA, you .. . use the' steering wheel when you drive a car. +-'
re
f In Michigan, USA, people .. . swear in front of women and children. O)
g In Baltimore, Maryland, USA, you take a lion into a cinema. ..o
h In Kentucky, USA, everyone ... take at least one bath every year. O

3 Complete the sentence with mustn't, ar don't / doesn't have to.

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a YouMusll'l.ll stand on the desk. You'l1 break it. re
b We.. . take an umbrella. I'm sure it isn't going to rain. In
re
c You.. . . put a stamp on this letter. It says FREEPOSTon it. ""O
d We.. .. forget to take the presents with us when we go. O
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e In aur country children .... go to school on Saturday.
f YOU.. ......touch the balI. It's against the mIes. CD
 4 Complete the text with the verbs in brackets and a form of can ar have to.

Rapid population growth a (cause) c.el1,Hc.e4S~

problems.The government b (provide)
more hospitals, schools and jobs, farmers c (produce)
.. more food and ali the extra
people d (have) homes. In a
less economically developed country, the economy
e (grow) fast enough to deal !
l
with the problems. Many countries realize that they
f (control) population growth.
Some countries believe they can encourage family planning
through education and publicity. Other countries believe
that they have such a serious problem that they g (take)
special measures to control the number of people. In China, for example, there is a
'one chiid' policy. Couples h (ask) permission from the government to marry, and
women i (be) at least 25 years old. The couple then i (ask)
permission to have a chiid, and are allowed only one.

5 Complete the text to give advice on how to deal with a snake bite using should ar shouldn't.
Check the factual answers on page 208.

a You~*(Jtlld stop the victim moving too much.

b You give the victim a painkiller.
c You check the person's temperature, breathing and blood pressure.
d If the snake is dead, you keep it for later examination.
e You cut into the bite.
f You keep the person calm.
g You try to suck out the poison wit h your mouth.
h You give them food and drink.

6 Add a comment to each situation, using the pronoun in brackets and an idea from the list
with had better.

take au umbIella don't play in the match che ck it in the dictionary leave now
wear ahat don't wake him up take some sandwiches call a taxi

a I think it's going to rain. (we) lNe-IcL be-lle-e.l.akL aVl.uMbmlla.

b H's a long way to the station. (you)
( You don 't look very well. (you)
d We might get hungry later. (we)
e H's going to be hot today. (you)
f The last train leaves in fifteen minutes. (we)
g He's still asleep. (we)

h That word doesn't look right. (you)

A
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 7 Read these test tips for maths. Then complete each sentence so that it contains the word or
words in capitals. Leave out any unnecessary words.

a It's important for you to think about aU the inforrnation given. NEEDTO
You YI,ececdlqlhit1,k ..?lQQt1J:.?lII ...lhec.iYl,QQ1A?lliQVt,..qiy~Vt, .
b Don't worry about spelling, but you should try to be as accurate as you can. NEEDN'T
You
c It's necessary for you to identify aU the necessary steps to solve a problem. NEEDTO
You ..
d You have to understand technical words, eg equation. NEEDTO
You
e It's vital for you to be able to use methods of multiplication and division. NEEDTO
You . .", .

f It/s important for you to know when to use an example. NEEDTO

You.

8 Choose the correct option, A, B, C or D, to complete the sentence.

a Are you any good at athletics? How fast .J) you run?
b You. take some money with you in case you need it.
c I think that was the last bus look for a taxi.
d I'm reaUy tired, but luckily I get up early in the morning.
e You.. . look at other students' work. It's against the rules.
f 'My tooth reaUy hurts!' 'I think you.. ..go to the dentist's.'
g Sorry, but my train is at 6.00. I.. ......leave nowo
h You eat so many sweets. They aren't good for you.

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1 Make a list of ten things you have to do at school or at work. ""C

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2 Give some advice about what you should do if you want to
learn a foreign language wel!.
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 modals: possibility, uncertainty,
certainty (present I future)
possibility and uncertainty
Use may, might, could + bare infinitive
to describe things that will possibly happen.
The next earthquake may / might / could happen tomorrow

Use may not and might not + bare infinitive

to describe things that will possibly not happen in the future.
The next earthquake may not / might not happen for another fifty years. It's impossible to predict exactly

possibility
Use can + bare infinitive
to describe a possibility in general, but not with a future time reference.
During an earthquake, people can suffer injuries when parts of buildings fali into the street.

certainty
Use will + bare infinitive
when we are certain something will happen in the future.
During a strong earthquake, some older buildings will collapse.

Use must + bare infinitive

when we are certain something is true (usually with be), ar when we suppose what a situation
is like.
I've never been in an earthquake. It must be really frightening.
(= I'm certain of that.)
You've done a lot of work. You must feel really tired'
(= I'm sure you do.)

negative certainty
Use can't + bare infinitive
when we are certain something is not true (usually with be) ar impossible.
That can't be an earthquake! We don't have earthquakes here!
You can't know the answer already! That's impossible!

G
1 Complete the sentence with may ar may not.

a They sky looks a bit grey. It f1Ae0HHHHrain later.

b I don't think the new secretary likes her job. She.. ..HH stay very long.
e If you leave right now, you.. .HHHHHbe on time.
d In the future when technology has improved, itH be possible to build a
spaceship that can travel to distant planets.
e I'm not sure if Sue's at home today. She .. have come back from her holiday yet.
f The Prim e Minister .. . H fly to India later this week for talks on reducing global
warming.
g I.. . go to the party because I'm not feeling very well.
h According to astronomers, there be intelligent life on other planets. We don't
know because we haven't travelled very far into space yet.
Jarek .. . have an mp3 player. Ask him if you can borrow it.
Juan pass his exams if he revises every day.

2 Underline the correct form.

a Even if you don't live in a Mediterranean country, you can / might already know about
earthquakes.
b They can / might be frequent in some countries, though most are too small to be noticed by
humans and you may not / cannot even notice when one occurS. .....
ClJ
e Earthquakes are the result of movements of the Earth's tectonic plates, though human I...
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activity may / will be responsible. +oJ
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d Most earthquakes happen at depths of 20 or 30 km, though they will / can be as deep as 600 km. '+-
......

e What is it like to experience an earthquake? If the tremor is very small you might / couldn't +oJ
C
feel nothing at all. ClJ
VI
f In a stronger tremor, there is more movement, and so the furniture in the room can / will ClJ
I...
move. Q.
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g Tall buildings will / may definitely move a little, and, depending on how well the building is >.
+oJ
constructed, cracks will / might appear in the walls. C
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h In a major earthquake, the building could / can collapse completely, though with modern +oJ
I...
ClJ
earthquake-proof buildings, this is unlikely. U
>-
+oJ
C
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I...
ClJ
U
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 3 Rewrite the sentence 50 that it contains the word in capitals.

a rm sure you know the difference between a solid and a gas! MUST
..a ..Solid ..and ..a ..qas/ ...
...You ..Musl.K.I'\Qw.lhe. ..die.re.l'\ce...Qe.l..we.e.V',
b If a substance does not contain hydro gen, then we are sure that it isn't an acid. CAN'T

c If we put some litmus paper in a solution and it turns red, then we are sure that the
solution is an acid. MUST

d If we add a substance to a red-cabbage solution and it stays red, then we are sure the
substance isn't an alkali. CAN'T

e If we add a substance to a red-cabbage solution and it turns green, then the substance
is sure to be an alkali. MUST

f If we put some litmus paper in a solution and it turns red, then we are sure that the
solution isn't an alkali. CAN'T

g If it's not an acid, ar an alkali, then it's sure to be neutral. MUST

h If we use a universal indicatar to check a substance, and it turns purple, then we are
sure that the substance isn't an acid. CAN'T

4 Rewrite each sentence 50 that it begins as shown and contains the word in capitals.

a If the warld becomes warmer, as some scientists predict, it is possible that Europe will
change dramatically over the next century. COULD
If the world becomes warmerassQMe.Hs.cie.l'\lisls9re.ctic.l)~urQpe.cQu(d
d:t?mqe.HctmMalic.aJltjQve.rlke.l'I.e.xlce.l'I.lUGJ.
b H is possible that there will be no snow-covered mountains in Europe by then. MIGHT
There ..
c And it's possible that areas in the south of Europe will become deserts. COULD
And areas ..
d H's also possible that heavy rain will become normai in narthern Europe. MIGHT

e While it's possible that southern Europe will be always shart of water. COULD
G While southern Europe ..
f possible that there will be some benefits for some people.
It/s MIGHT
There ..
g It's possible that summers will become longer, and hotter, and winters will become
warmer. COULD
Summers ..
h On the other hand, it's possible that some species of plants and animals will become
extinct. MIGHT
On the other hand, some species of plants and animals ..

5 Choose illl the possible answers, A, B or C, for each gap.

Most of us enjoy a good night's sleep, but we a A, 13 ... not

realize just how important sleep isoEveryone knows that without
sleep for a night or two, a person b.. . find it hard to think
well.After three nights without sleep, you c start to see
things, and you d begin to lose your sense of reality.ln
experiments, rats which are not allowed to sleep e ..
actually die, which seems to prove that sleep f be very
important. We know that children who do not sleep enough can
fail to grow properly, as growth hormones g be active
while the body is asleep. Lack of sleep h also damage the immune system, so you i
fali ill more often. Scientists don't know exactly what sleep is for and why humans need so much of it, but they
believe that it jH give the bodyachance to repair muscles and replace cells. It k .
also give the brain the opportunity to organize memory, and some experts believe that dreams I ..
help in this process.The brain also needs to rest, so sleep m give the brain a chance to 'recharge' its
batteries. Obviously, sleep n also be related to the fact that there are hours of darkness when our
activities are limited.Another possible reason for sleeping is that if we didn't sleep and save some energy, we >.
+-'
o have to eat a lot more food. C
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Q.
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1 Make some predictions about how your life could change in the next 20 years.
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2 What do you think it must be like to be an astronaut? Use these ideas: food, "'O
O
feelings, sleep, washing, how you spend the time, training.
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Need more practice7 Go to the Review on page 192.
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