Pumps

RASCO Libya
Training & Development Department
Prepared by:
FARAG ALI AL-AWKALI
‫مركز الشمس الدولي للتدريب و الستشارات‬
INTRODUCTION
The transfer of fluids from one piece of equipment or plant
to another is a central feature of industrial operation, and a wide
range of pumps is used for this purpose.
The main function of a pump is to raise the pressure of a
liquid to a required value so it can flow. It is necessary to
consider all factors in selecting a pump for a certain duty, this
includes, flow, head, type of fluid, fluid temperature, and fluid
viscosity.
In this course we will discuss the type of pumps, their
construction, and cover in details the maintenance of pumps
similar to those, installed at the GREAT RIVER PROJECT. For
the maintenance of any particular pump the manufacturers
manual should be consulted for the detail of maintenance for
each type of pump. The manufactures have spent many hours
and years of experience to prepare these manuals for the use of
operating and maintenance personnel. These instruction books
should be read carefully and concerned maintenance people
should be very familiar with these instruction manuals.
PUMPS FUNCTION
One of the essential jobs in any plant is to move liquids
such as:
• Water to a boiler to make steam,
• Cooling liquids to equipment,
• Liquids for plant processes, or
• Potable water to city
A pump is a machine that provides energy to move
liquids.
PUMP SELECTION
Successful and efficient operation of pumps depends upon
proper selection and installation. For any particular application, a
pump is chosen that is capable of delivering a specified flow of
liquid with the required head. The size and type of the pump to
be used in each case depends on both the discharge head
(m/feet) and the quantity of flow (m3/Hr or gal/min).
2/85
Fig. (1-1)
Approximate upper limit of pressure and capacity by pump class.
As seen in Fig. (1-1) for very high head but low flows a
positive displacement pump “Reciprocating” will be the obvious
choice, while for very high capacity “Volume flow” the centrifugal
pump is usually used. Rotary pumps are a particularly useful type
since they are suitable for handling a wide variety of fluids from
the very lowest to the very highest viscosities (with suitable
modification of design where very high fluid viscosities are
concerned). As a general rule, however, they are suitable only for
handling fluids free from solid contaminants which could jam in
the small clearance spaces involved or produce high wear.
A further factor to be considered is the nature of the liquid

being pumped. For instance, viscosity affects the frictional losses
that have to be accounted for, and the corrosive nature of the
fluid determines the material of construction.
In the chemical industries, there are many different liquids

that are to be pumped under a wide range of conditions, in order
3/85
to meet the requirements of all the applications it has been

necessary to develop a wide range of pumping equipment. Of all
the different types of pumps available, the centrifugal pumps, the
reciprocating piston and rotary pumps are the three general
types, which are most commons used.
At Great River Project “GRP” most of the pumps used are

the centrifugal type. These pumps operate by initially giving the
liquid a high kinetic energy and then converting this energy as
efficiently as possible into pressure energy. The other two pumps
types can be described as positive displacement pumps, these
include screw pumps mainly used for pumping fuels oil, and
plunger pumps used mainly as dosing pumps.
4/85
Table (3) gives a fairly good guide for type pump selection and
the working range in regards to flow and the head.
TABLE 3 TYPICAL PUMP WORKING RANGE

PUMP TYPE CAPACITY RANGE MAX. HEAD
Litres/min Gal/min Meters Feet
Centrifugal
25 to 225000 5 to 50000 30 100
Single-stage 45 to 10000 10 to 2000 150 500
Two-stage 45 to 225000 10 to 5000 Over 150 Over 500
Multi-stage 450 to 225000 100 to 5000 Over 300 Over 1000
Peripheral 5 to 100 1 to 20 150 500
Mixed flow 1000 to 450000 250 to 100000 25 to 3 75 to 10

Decreasing with increasing
capacity
Axial flow 4500 to 900000 1000 to 200000 7.5 to 0 25 to 0
capacity
Reciprocating 100 to 4500 20 to 1000 Over 300 Over 1000
Power driven
Direct-acting 20 to 7000 5 to 1500 Over 300 Over 1000
Plunger 5 to 700 1 to 150 Over 1500 Over 5000
Diaphragm Up to 100 Up to 20 6 20
Flexible vane Up to 350 Up to 75 6 20
Rigid vane Up to 225 Up to 50 125 400
Rolling vane Up to 225 Up to 50 66 300
Screw, flexible stator Up to 1000 Up to 200 50 to 15 175 to 50
capacity (up to 1000
ft with multi-stage)
Screw, rigid screws 45 to 225000 10 to 5000 60 to 25 200 to 80
capacity
Submersible 20 to 7000 5 to 1500 50 175
5/85
PUMPS CLASSIFICATION
Pumps may be classified on the basis of the applications

they serve, the materials from which they are constructed, the
liquids they handle, and even their orientation in space. All such
classifications, however, are limited in scope and tend to
substantially overlap each other.
• Classification by inlet geometry
• Classification by mounting
• Classification by operation
• Classification by drive
• Classification by material
• Classification by theory of operation
Out of all these classification, one is commonly used, that

which divided the pump into two major categories Fig. (1-2)
& (1-3).
i. DYNAMIC:- in which energy is continuously added to

increase the fluid velocity within the machine to values in excess
of those occurring at the discharge such that velocity reduction
within or beyond the pump produces a pressure increase.
ii. DISPLACEMENT:- in which energy is periodically added

by application of force to one or more movable boundaries of any
desired number of enclosed, fluid-containing volumes, resulting
in a direct increase in pressure up to the value required to move
the fluid through valves or ports into the discharge line.
ADVANTAGE OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
When compared with a reciprocating pump, the

centrifugal pump offers the following advantage:
1- Higher speed resulting in lower size and cost.
2- Continuous delivery free from pressure fluctuation.
3- Having known characteristics a centrifugal pump can:
6/85
3.1-Operate on minimum flow without exceeding a

predetermined pressure.
3.2-Operate on maximum flow without exceeding a

predetermined power demand.
3.3-Be designed to meet several duties, thus in many

(but not all) cases, matching the pump characteristic
to the site requirement.
4- Applicable to direct drive in almost every case.
5- Absence of vibration and simpler foundation.
6- Handling liquids containing solids “contaminated

liquid”.
ADVANTAGE OF RECIPROCATING PUMPS
1. Within their field higher efficiencies than centrifugal

pumps.
2. Applicable to variable pressure without adjustment of

speed – a useful factor where the head is uncertain.
3. Self-priming and therefore able to handle a certain

amount of air or other vapour without failing to pump
4. Capable of utilizing kinetic energy or rotation to give

peak pressure, and as a result often able to clear
accidental obstructions in the delivery main.
7/85
PUMPS
DYNAMIC DISPLACEMENT
CENTRIFUGAL
DYNAMIC
SINGLE STAGE CLOSED IMPELLER

FIXED PITH
MULTI-STAGE OPEN IMPELLER
VARIABLE PITCH
MIXED FLOW
RADIAL FLOW
SELF-PRIMING
CLOSED IMPELLER
SINGLE SUCTION NONPRIMING
SEMIOPEN IMPELLER
DOUBLE SUCTION SINGLE STAGE
OPEN IMPELLER
MULTI-STAGE
PERIPHERAL
SINGLE STAGE SELF-PRIMING
MULTI-STAGE NONPRIMING
JET (EDUCTOR)
GAS LIFT
SPECIAL EFFECT
HYDRAULIC RAM
ELECTROMAGNETIC
Fig (1-2) Dynamic pump classification
8/85
PUMPS
DYNAMIC
DISPLACEMENT
RECIPROCATING
PISTION,
PLUNGER
SIMLEX
STEAM –DUBLE
DUPLEX
ACTIING
SIMLEX
SINGLE ACTING DUPLEX
POWER
DOUBLE ACTING TRIPLEX
MULTIPLEX
DIAPHRAGM
SIMLEX FLUID OPERATION
MULTIPLEX MECHANICAL OPERATION
ROTARY
VANE
PISTON
SINGLE ROTOR FLEXIBLE MEMBER
HYDRAULIC RAM
ELECTROMAGNETIC GEAR
MULTIPLE LOBE
ROTOR CIRCUMFERENTIAL PISTON
SCREW
Fig (1-3) Displacement pump classification
9/85
FLUID MECHANIC
The force of gravity causes a liquid to flow from higher

elevation to a lower elevation.
Potential energy is stored energy. Liquid at higher pressure

has more potential than liquids at lower pressure. Thus, liquid
flows from higher pressure to lower pressure areas.
Liquid at higher elevation has more potential energy than

liquid at lower elevations. Than liquids flow because there is
pressure difference in the system. If there is pressure
equilibrium will be no system flow. Pumps are used to adds
pressure or energy to the liquids, to moves from lower elevation
to higher, or from lower-pressure area to higher-pressure area .
Pumps are also used to move more liquid in a given

amount of time; the capacity of a pump is the amount of liquid
that the pump moves in a given length of time.
Capacity in the metric measurement system is usually

measured in cubic meters per hours, in English measurement
system usually measured in cubic feet per unit time.
Pumps are installed to achieve one or more of the following

functions: -
Move liquids from lower elevations to higher elevations.
Move liquids from lower-pressure areas to higher-pressure

areas.
Increase the flow rate “line capacity”.
10/85
PRESSURE AND HEAD
PRESSURE is defined as the amount of force exerted on a

unit area of a substance. This can be stated by the equation
below
P = F/A
WHERE P is the pressure N/cm2
F is the force N
A is the area exerted m2
Two important principles about pressure were described by

Pascal: -
Pressure acts uniformly in all directions on a small volume of a

fluid.
In a fluid confined by solid boundaries, pressure acts

perpendicular to the boundary.
These principles, sometimes called Pascal’s law, are illustrated in

Fig (1-4) & Fig (1-5).
(A) Furnace duct (b) Pipe of tube (c) Heat exchanger tube
(d) Dam (e) Reservoir
Fig (1-4) Direction of fluid pressure on boundaries
11/85
Fluid surface
Fig (1-5) Pressure acting uniformly in all

directions on a small volume of fluid.
Pressure can be measured in term of the height of a

column of liquid exerting that pressure on the horizontal liquid
surface at the bottom of the column. It is independent of the
cross section of the column and can thus be expressed as a
single linear quantity i.e. metres or feet.
The relation between pressure (P) and head (H) thus follows as:
P=W*H
Where: -
(W) is the specific weight OR density of the fluid in gm/cm3.
Density (gm/cm3) x H (metres) SG x H (metres)
Pressure (bar) = --------------------------------------- = ---------------------
10 10
Density (Ib/FT3) x H (feet) SG x H (feet)

Pressure (bar) = --------------------------------------- = ---------------------
144 2.25
density of the fluid

NOTE:- SG (specific gravity of fluid) = --------------------------------
density of water
Density of water = 1 gm/cm3

= 64 Ib /feet3
12/85
We can use the same equation in the following form
P=ρ *g*H
Nearly perfect
Where: - vacuum
P Pressure
ρ Density H
g Gravity =9.81 Kg m/s2
H Height of the column Patm
Fig (1-6)
Mercury
Pressure gauges are set to read 0 at atmospheric pressure.
1 atmospheric pressure = 1.0332 Kg/cm2.

= 14.70 PSI.
Below drawing shows a tank with liquid pressure measured

by pressure gauge, this pressure gauge records only tank or
liquid pressure and since a gauge read atmospheric pressure as
0, it is measuring gauge pressure.
The pressure in this tank is 10 Kg/cm2 (gauge).

Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure (reading).
The absolute pressure in the tank = 1.03 + 10 = 11.03 Kg/cm2.
Pressure readings will be marked with (G) for gauge reading

only, and with letter (A) for absolute pressure reading.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
VENT
LIQUID PRESSURE
Fig (1-7)
13/85
Following are equivalents of pressure values used in metric and

English measurements:
1 Atmospheric (atm.) = 1.033 kg/cm2
1 Bar = 1.019 kg/cm2
1 Bar = 100 Kilo Pascal (kpa.)
2
1 Newton / metre (N/m ) = 1 Pascal (pa)
2
1 kg/cm = 14.22 Ib/in2 2
= 14.222 psi 10 Kg/cm
Density
It is the amount of mass per unit volume of a substance.
ρ = m/V
Where V is the volume of the substance having a mass m. The
units for density are kilograms per cubic meter Kg/cm3 in the SI
system and slugs per cubic foot in the U.S. Customary System.
Specific weight
It is the amount of weight per unit volume of a substance.
γ = w/V
where V is the volume of the substance having a the weight w.
The units for specific weight are Newton per cubic meter
(N/m3) in the SI system and pounds per cubic foot (Ib/ft3) in
the U.S. Customary System.
Specific gravity
It is the ratio of the density or specific weight of substance

to the density or specific weight of water at 4˚C.
γ s ρ s
SG = ----------------- = --------------------
γ w @ 4˚C ρ w @ 4˚C
γ w @ 4˚C = 9.81 kN/m3 γ w @ 4˚C = 62.4 Ib/ft3
ρ w @ 4˚C = 1000 Kg/m3 ρ w @ 4˚C = 1.94 slugs/ft3
14/85
PUMP TERMS
NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD
The net positive suction head (NPSH), hsv is a statement of

the minimum suction conditions required to preventing cavitation
in a pump. The required or minimum suction, NPSH must be
determined by test and usually will be stated by the manufacturer
at the pump name plat. The available NPSH at installation must
be at least equal to the required NPSH if cavitation is to be
prevented. Increasing the available NPSH provides a margin of
safety against the onset of cavitation.
Calculation of NPSH available.
The general formula for NPSH available at the pump suction is
V12 NPSHa =
Ha + -------- + Hs – Hf - Hvap
2g
Where: -
Ha = absolute suction pressure in ft. of liquid
V1 = flow velocity at point of measurement of
suction pressure ft./sec.
g = gravitational acceleration ft./sec2
Hs = static water level ft. of liquid (negative if below
reference datum line)
Usually, a positive value is called a suction
head and negative value is called a suction lift.
Hf = friction loss between point of measurement of
suction pressure and pump suction flange in ft.
of liquid.
Hvap = absolute vapour pressure of the liquid at
pumping temperature in ft. of liquid.
Where Ha is measured at the free water surface in the

suction vessel the term V12/2g is zero.
15/85
This term of the equation is only applied when the datum

for measurement is a pressure gauge or manometer located in
the suction piping at the same intermediate point between the
free water surface and the pump suction branch.
Four examples are “given in the nest pages” for the method of
calculating the NPSH available for different pump suction
arrangements.
16/85
CASE I
Positive suction from an open tank
Atmospheric pressure
190 F
15 ft.
14.7 x 2.31
Ha = atmospheric pressure 14.7 psia = ---------------- = 35 ft
0.967
9.33 x 2.31
Hvap = atmospheric pressure 9.33 psia = --------------- = 22.3 ft
0.967
Hf = 5 ft. frictional loss
Hs = 15 ft.
Where specific gravity of water at 190F = 0.966
NPSHav = Ha + Hs – Hf - Hvap
= 35 + 15 – 5 –22.3
= 22.7 ft.
17/85
CASE II
Suction lift from an open tank
2 ft.
Atmospheric pressure
190 F
14.7 x 2.31
Ha = atmospheric pressure 14.7 psia = ---------------- = 35 ft
0.967
9.33 x 2.31
0.967
Hs = 2 ft. suction lift which is negative
Where specific gravity of water at 190F = 0.966
= 35 - 2 – 5 –22.3
= 5.7 ft.
18/85
CASE III
Suction from a closed tank (Deaerator)
9.33 PSIa
190 F
15 ft.
In a de-aerator the pressure in the storage vessel

corresponds to the vapour pressure, therefore Ha and
Hvap have the same value, that is:-
9.33 x 2.31
0.967
Ha = 22.3 ft.
Hs = 15 ft.
= 22.3 + 15 – 5 –22.3
= 10 ft.
19/85
CASE IV
The determination of NPSH by measurement of pressure at the

pump suction during a works or site test.
20 PSIg
2 ft
V1= 10 ft/sec
0.1 ft. Hf
Liquid being pumped water at 212F; vapour pressure 14.7 PSIa,

specific gravity 0.958.
In this case it is necessary to take velocity head at the point of

pressure measurement into account giving the following
formula:
V12 NPSHa =
Ha + -------- + Hs – Hf - Hvap
2g
(20+14.7) * 2.31
Ha = ---------------------------------- = 83.6 ft.
0.958
V12
--------------- = 1.55 ft.
2g
14.7 x 2.31
0.967
Hs = 2 ft
Hf = 0.1 ft
NPSH a = 83.6 + 1.55 +2 –0.1 –35.5 = 51.55 ft
20/85
CAVITATION
Cavitation takes place when the pressure at the pump inlet is

insufficient to prevent formation of vapour bubbles. After the
liquid enters the impeller these bubbles collapse (implode)
and damage the material of the impeller “cavitation erosion”.
If the energy in the suction line falls below the liquid vapor
pressure, vapor is formed in the liquid stream. Vapor volume
exceeds liquid volume by a factor of 1000.
Cavitation can be recognized in a running pump by the

following symptoms.
The pump discharge pressure fluctuates. The

vapour bubbles, forming and collapsing as the
liquid boils inside the pump casing cause this
fluctuation.
The pump makes an abnormally loud sound, caused

by the collapsing bubbles.
The flow rate from the pump may become sporadic.
The effects of cavitation are noise and vibration caused by the

collapse of the vapor bubbles as they reach the high pressure
side of the pump. If operated under cavitating conditions for
sufficient length of time:
♦ Pitting of impeller vanes and pump volute.
♦ Short bearing life and heavy loading.
♦ Shaft breakage and other fatigue failures in the
pump.
♦ Short seal life.
Problem may be:

1. Reduction in suction pressure.
2. Increase in temperature of the pumping liquid.
3. Increase in velocity or flow of the fluid.
4. Separation and contraction of flow due to a
change in viscosity of the pumped fluid.
5. Undesirable flow conditions caused by
obstructions or sharp turns.
21/85
6. Pump is not suitable for the system curve.

PUMP OPERATION CURVES
Pump manufacturers supply graphs showing the normal

operation capabilities of their pumps. A pump operating
curve compares the pump pressure, or pump head, with the
pump capacity. The capacity is expressed as the volume
flow rate of the pump.
The relation between pressures and capacity will vary

according to the design of the pump. One relationship,
however, is the same for all centrifugal pumps: the pump
head always decreases as the volume flow rate
increases. Fig (1-8)
♦ Head, efficiency, horsepower and NPSH for a

particular pump, rpm and flow rate.
Fig (1-8)
Head - Total head in feet developed at various flow rates.

Efficiency - Efficiency; ratio of output horsepower to input
horsepower at various flow rates.
B.E.P. - Best efficiency point; point where operating head
capacity coincides with maximum efficiency.
B.H.P. - Brake horsepower; horsepower required at various flow
rates, based on specific gravity of 1.0.
NPSH - Net positive suction head; energy required to overcome
friction losses from the pump suction opening to the impeller
vanes.
22/85
Steady Rising Curve or a rising
head capacity characteristic is
a curve in which the head rises
continuously as the capacity is
decreased. The rise from best
efficiency point to shut-off is
about 10 to 20%. Pumps with
curves of this shape are used
in parallel operation because
of their stable characteristics.
Drooping Curve characteristic is
a curve in which the head
capacity developed at shutoff
is less than developed at some
capacities. When pumps with
drooping characteristics are
run on throttling systems
operating difficulties can occur
since the system friction curve
can intersect the head capacity
curve at two points, these
pumps will also only operate in
parallel when the operating
point is below the shut-oil
head; therefore, parallel
operation should be avoided
with this curve shape.
Steep Rising Curve is one where

there is a large increase in
head between that developed
at design capacity and that
developed at shut-off. It is best
suited for operation where
minimum capacity change is
desired with pressure changes,
such as batch pumping or filter
systems.
Flat Curve refers to a

characteristic in which the
head varies slightly with
capacity from shut-off to
design capacity. When wide
fluctuations of capacity occur
with nearly constant pressure
requirements, this pump is
best used.
23/85
‫‪CENTRIFUGAL PUMP‬‬
‫‪24/85‬‬
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
The description centrifugal pump is applied generally to all
type of pumps with an impeller having fixed blades housed in a
suitable shaped casing,
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Fluid enters at the pump center or suction point. The fluid

flows from the center outward, gathering speed as the spinning
action of the pump rotor moves it through the pump. The fluid
leaves the pump at maximum speed from the discharge point.
The fluid can then travel through the piping system in which the
pump is installed.
In it is simplest form, a centrifugal pump consist of an

impeller rotating within a casing. This is illustrated by simple
diagram in Fig. (2-1). The liquid flowing to the pump is directed to
the center o the impeller, picked up by the blades (or vanes ) and
accelerated to high velocity by the rotation of the impeller.
This high velocity, which the liquid has gained by the time it
leaves the blade tips, is changed to pressure head as the liquid
passes into the volute chamber C and then out of the discharge
nozzle. The efficiency of a centrifugal pump is determined by the
ease with which the kinetic energy is converted to pressure
energy.
Fig (2-1) Simple view of a centrifugal pump

25/85
Pump operation
When liquid rotates rapidly around a centre

point, centrifugal force causes the liquid to
move away from the centre of rotation. A
centrifugal pump uses centrifugal force to
move liquid through the pump.
As a centrifugal pump operates, the parts of

the pump act to change the energy of the
liquid from one form to another.
The chain of energy begins with the motor.

The motor supplies energy in the form of
rotary motion, which turns the shaft. This
motion, in turn, causes the impeller inside
the pump to spin.
Liquid is drawn from the suction end of the

pump into the centre of the impeller, called
impeller eye “ suction eye”. From there, the
liquid moves across the vanes of the
spinning impeller to the outside edge of the
impeller.
As the impeller spins, centrifugal force

causes the liquid to increase in speed as
the liquid moves from the suction eye to the
outer edge of the impeller. In this way, the
energy supplied by the motor (rotary
motion) results in an increase in the velocity
of the liquid.
The shape of the pump casing changes the

velocity of the liquid into pressure. This is
because the area between the impeller and
the pump casing is greater at the discharge
end. Where the casing is narrow, the liquid
has a higher velocity and a lower pressure.
As the casing widens, the liquid slows down
while the pressure increase. This pressure
provides the liquid with force to overcome
the resistance to flow in the system.
26/85
‫‪Fig (2-2) Section of API 610 centrifugal pump‬‬
‫‪27/85‬‬
The main parts of the centrifugal pumps are as shown in fig (2-2).
28/85
CASING
In the single stage horizontal pumps, the casing is a volute

type and it is centerline, the suction and discharge nozzle are
integrated part of the casing. The casing collects the liquid
discharged by the impeller and converts its velocity energy to
pressure energy.
Fig 2-3 Typical single-stage end-suction volute pump
A centrifugal pump volute increases in area from its initial

point until it encompasses the full 360o around the impeller and
then flares out to the final discharge nozzle. The wall dividing the
initial section and the discharge nozzle portion of the casing is
called the tongue of the volute or the
“cutwater”.
The diffusion vanes “Fig (2-4)” and

concentric casing of a diffuser pump
fulfill the same function as the volute
casing in energy conversion.
Casings are provided with step

piece to prevent rotation of the
liquid as it enters the impeller.
Casing volute is designed for
smooth flow with gradual change in Fig 2-4 Typical Diffuser
velocity
29/85
Radial thrust at pump volute
In a single stage-volute pump casing design Fig (2-5a),

uniform or near uniform pressures act on the impeller when the
pump is operated at design capacity (which coincides with the
best efficiency). At other capacities, the pressure around the
impeller is not uniform Fig (2-5b) and there is a resultant radial
reaction (F).
A B
Fig 2-5 Radial thrust at the pump volute
The application of the double –volute design principle to

neutralize radial reaction forces at reduced capacity is illustrated
in Fig (2-6)
Fig 2-6 Double volute casing
30/85
Fig 7 sec 2.2

IMPELLER
It is the main part of the centrifugal pump which picks up
the liquid by it is vanes and accelerated to high velocity by the
rotation and discharge it by the centrifugal force into the casing
out the discharge nozzle.
When the liquid forced away from the center of the impeller
a reduced pressure is produced and there is more liquid flow
forwards. The steady flow continues unless something happen to
break the suction at the inlet or unless the flow at the discharge is
restricted by pressure greater than the pressure head developed
by the pump.
A variety of different shapes and arrangements of the
blades can be produced within a particular form, a main
classification being whether the impeller is shrouded (close) or
unshrouded (open). Closed impellers are common to centrifugal
pumps (and some mixed-flow pumps), with shrouds rigidly
attached on both sides to enclose the liquid passage. However,
for the handling of fibrous material in suspension in liquid the
impeller may be semi-open (one side shroud) or fully open or
skeleton impeller rotating between stationary discs. See fig (2-7).
Fig 2-7 Number of pump impellers
31/85
The use of semi-open or open impeller together with

modifications of blade shape can make the centrifugal pump
suitable for handling contaminated rather than clean fluids. For
handling fibrous solids material special designs of impeller are
often employed which may also include auxiliary cutting blades,
or be preceded by a separate communiting device. Some typical
impeller forms are shown in Fig (2-8), but these are intended as
general illustration only as there numerous individual and patent
designs.
Fig 2-8 impellers handle fibrous solids
32/85
‫‪33/85‬‬
‫‪34/85‬‬
‫‪35/85‬‬
PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE IMPELLER
Single-suction impeller Fig (2-9), is subjected to an axial

thrust because the area opposite the impeller eye is under
suction pressure at the front of the back shroud and under
discharge pressure at the rear of the back shroud. The
magnitude of the axial thrust can be calculated from
Fig 2-9 Axial thrust on a single-suction impeller
T = (A1 –As) (p1 – ps)

Where: -
T is the axial thrust.
A1 is the area corresponding to the diameter of wear ring.
A2 is the area of the shaft.
ps is the suction pressure.
p1 is the discharge pressure.
One of two methods is usually employed to reduce or eliminate axial

thrust in single stage pumps.
1st A balance chamber. On the back of the impeller is provided

with closely fitted set of wearing rings “commonly used Fig (2-
10)”, and suction pressure is admitted to this chamber either by
drilling holes through the impeller back shroud into the eye or by
providing a special channel connection to the suction pressure.
2nd radial ribs are used on the back shroud to reduce the pressure
in the space between the impeller and the pump casing.
36/85
Fig 2-10 Single suction impeller with balancing chamber
Multi-stage
The problem of axial thrust becomes more important when

dealing with multi-stage pumps because of the higher pressures
involved and the combined thrust of several stages. Several
methods are used to balance axial thrust in multi-stage pumps:
• Impellers
with even numbers of stages may be arranged in
two opposing groups. Fig (2-11)
•Individual stages may be balanced by providing balance
chambers on the back of each impeller shroud, but this
method is seldom used in modern pumps.
•Double-suction impellers may be used in all stages.
• Specialbalance devices such as the automatic balancing disk
and balancing drum may be used. Fig (2-12)
Fig 2-11 Four-stage pump. Axial thrust due to shaft shoulder and impeller
37/85
‫‪38/85‬‬
39/85
Fig 2-12 Delaval boiler feed pump with automatic balance disk
SHAFT SLEEVES
Pump shafts are usually protected from erosion, corrosion,

and wear at stuffing boxes, leakage joints, internal bearings, and
the waterways by renewable sleeves.
The most common shaft sleeve function is that of protecting

the shaft from wears at stuffing box. Shaft sleeves serving other
functions are given specific name to indicate their purpose. For
example, a shaft sleeve used two between multi-stage pump
impeller in conjunction with the inter-stage bushing to form an
inter-stage leakage joint is called an inter-stage or distance
sleeve.
In medium-size centrifugal pumps with two external

bearings on opposite sides of the casing (the common double
suction and multi-stage varieties), the favoured shaft construction
uses an external shaft nut to hold the sleeve in axial position
against the impeller hub. Sleeve rotation is prevented by a key,
usually an extension of the impeller key Fig (2-13). If the axial
thrust exceeds the frictional grip o the impeller on the shaft, it is
transmitted through the sleeve to the external shaft nut.
A) Sleeve with external locknut and B) Sleeve with internal impeller nut,
impeller key extending into sleeve to external shaft sleeve nut, and
prevent slip. separate key for sleeve.
Fig 2-13
40/85
STUFFING BOXES
Stuffing boxes have the primary function of protecting the

pump against leakage at the point where the shaft passes out
through the pump casing. If the pump handles a suction lift and
the pressure at the interior stuffing box end is below atmospheric,
the stuffing function is to prevent air leakage into the pump. If this
pressure is above atmospheric, the function is to prevent liquid
leakage out of the pump.
Normally the bottom or inside end of the box may be

formed by the pump casing, a throat bushing, or a bottoming ring
Fig (2-13).
Fig 2-13 conventional stuffing box with throat bushing
41/85
WEARING RINGS
Wearing rings provide an easily and economically

renewable leakage joint between the impeller and the casing. A
leakage joint without renewable parts is illustrated in Fig (2-14)
below. To restore the original clearance of such a joint after wear
occurs, the user must either (1) build up the worn surfaces by
welding, metal spraying, or other means and then true up the part
or (2) buy new parts.
Impeller
Suction
head
Flow
Fig 2-14 Plain flat leakage joint with no rings
The new parts are not very costly in small pumps,

especially if the stationary casing element is a simple suction
cover.
All wearing rings are nominated by the part where it protect,

casing suction wear ring, impeller wear ring, and etc.
Wear ring types
There are various types of wearing-ring design, and the

selection of the most desirable type depends on the liquid being
handled, the pressure differential across the leakage joint, and
the rubbing speed.
In general, the most common ring constructions are:
42/85
• The flat type. The leakage joint in the former is a

straight annular clearance. Fig (2-15)
• L- type. The axial clearance between the impeller

and the casing ring is large and so velocity of the liquid
flowing into the stream entering the suction eye of the
impeller is low. Fig (2-16)
• Labyrinth type. Have one or more annular leakage

joints connected by relief chambers. Fig (2-17)
Impeller
Suction
head
Flow
Fig 2-15 Flat constructions wear ring
Fig 2-16 An L-type casing ring Fig 2-17 Labyrinth-type ring
43/85
‫‪General Parts‬‬
‫‪44/85‬‬
SHAFT SEAL:
We can divide the common sealing equipment into:
Soft packing
A compression packing can be described as a deformable

material used to prevent or control the passage of a fluid
between surfaces that move in relation to each other.
Packings are the traditional form of gland seal and can be

manufactured from a wide variety of different materials. A
packing may be in shredded form (usually with a lubricant) with
which the gland or stuffing box is packed; in made-up sections
(normally rectangular but sometimes circular); wound in position
spiral fashion from a suitable cut length; or fabricated sections
assembled in the gland as cut rings.
The principle of a packed gland is illustrated in Fig (3-1).

The compressive force generated by tightening of the gland
spigot produces a radial pressure providing the seal effect.
Where lubrication is a problem, or a degree of gland cooling

is required, additional lubricant/coolant can be fed to the centre of
the gland Fig (3-2). The degree of cooling that can be provided
by this is limited and for higher temperature working cooling may
have to be applied to the complete gland housing to maintain the
operating temperature of the gland within the limits of the packing
material.
Compressive force
System Pressure through gland spigot
Reaction
Fig 3-1 Gland packing principle
45/85
Design guidelines
There seem to be very few international standards defining

the design of the installation environment for compression
packings. Furthermore, staffing box depths vary according to
specific service conditions such as the pressure of the fluid being
sealed, lantern ring inclusion, and Fig (3-3) shows general
design guidelines.
Points to note are:
1. Assuming square section packing is to be used,

dimension C should be at least 1.5 times B.
2. The shaft must be adequately supported. The

packings must not be used as a bearing. It must also be
free from scores, pits, grooves and ridges.
3. If metallic packings are to be used the shaft hardness

should be at least 500 Brinell.
4. The use of a sleeve over the length of packing

reduces refurbishment/replacement costs particularly
when hardening is necessary.
Additional
Lubricant / coolant
Lantern ring Distribution

ports
Fig 3-2 Gland packing lubrication
46/85
Fig 3-3 Design guideline
Shaft diameter Packing section Stuffing box pressure Number of

mm mm bar rings
Up to 16 3 Up to 35 4
Above 16 to 25 5 Above 35 to 70 6
Above 25 to 50 6.5 Above 70 to 140 8
Above 50 to 90 8 Above 140 10
Above 90 to 150 10
Above 150 12.5
47/85
Mechanical Face Seals
Known generally, as mechanical seals comprise rotating

and stationary elements in “rubbing” contact to form a sealing
face with a minimal leakage path, following the basic principle
shown in Fig (3-4). Successful operation depends on achieving
the right conditions at the face. The faces themselves being
lubricated by a thin hydrodynamic film “ 0.0006 μm to 0.00006
μm. While the basic principle of operation remain the same,
mechanical seals vary widely in detail design and construction to
cater for normal operating conditions – e.g. shaft size, speed,
pressure and the fluid to be contained.
Leakage path
Axial force
Fig 3-4 A simple end face seal
A particular advantage of a face seal is that besides being

capable of providing positive sealing it places no wear on the
shaft it self, and their continual rubbing action maintains a lapped
finish and very close fit in the absence of abrasive contaminants.
Some flexibility can also be introduced into the design to
accommodate small amount of axial or radial misalignment,
which may be present.
48/85
Basic components
An example of a simple mechanical seal is shown in Fig

(3-5), where for general descriptive purposes the rotating
elements are referred to as the rotary and the static element as
the stator.
1. Stationary seal ring
2. Stationary seal ring packing
3. Rotary seal ring
4. Rotary seal ring packing
5. Spring
Fig 3-5 Typical mechanical face seal

M. Seal Material
• Material of principle components (seal ring bodies,
spring, sleeves, spring housings,) range from the more
common stainless steel, bronze, etc, to materials with
special corrosion resistance such as Titanium.
• Faces materials are selected on a duty/life/cost basis,

their material range from plain stainless steel, lead bronze.
Normally the stationary ring is made of a carbon
composition.
• Secondary seal materials are selected on the basis of

chemical compatibility with sealed fluid and temperature.
49/85
Type classification
Mechanical seal can be classified in several ways,
i. Inside or outside seals
ii. Single or double seals
iii. Hydraulic balanced seals
Inside or outside seals Fig (3-6)
Mechanical seals are described as inside if the hydraulic

pressure being contained acts in a “closing” direction, this type is
the most common used.
Outside-mounted seals are considered for low-pressure

applications. An external seal installation is used to minimize
corrosion that might occur if the metal parts of the seal were
directly exposed to the liquid being sealed.
Fig 3-6 Single seal installation (a) outside-mounted,

(b) inside-mounted
50/85
Multiple seal installations
In a few cases seals are fitted in pair. These two seals are
fitted with the rotating units either back to back, in tandem, or
face to face.
• back to back arrangement Fig (3-7)
This arrangement solves a number of difficulties foe a

single seal, and is offered for
1. very abrasive duties
2. gases
3. thick viscous liquids
Beside these applications double back to back seals

considered one way of seal cooling and particularly effective in
handling hot solutions which can be vary abrasive to single seals.
The pressure of between the double seals of a pressurized

liquid also makes back to back arrangement ideal for handling
and containing hazardous liquids.
In this arrangement the metal parts are taken out of the

sealed liquid and this makes it possible to use seals in back to
back installations which do not need metal parts which are fully
corrosion resistant.
To make a double back to back seal work requires a

pressurized liquid, termed the sealant, to flow through the formed
space between the inner and outer seals. The pressure is
normally not less than 1 to 2 bars above the sealed pressure, so
that effectively both seals are preventing the escape of sealant.
51/85
The sealant is normally a clean stable liquid, provided from

external source.
Sealant
system
Fig 3-7 Back to back arrangement mechanical seal
• Face to face arrangement Fig (3-8)
This is a special form of tandem seal in which the outer seal

is reversed and therefore limits the sealant pressure roughly to
no more than 1 bar.
This arrangement should be considered as a single seal

with effective quench bush, and is sometimes recommended
when water or other solvent quench is required to prevent
crystals formation on atmospheric side of a single seal or for
safety reasons.
Fig 3-8 Opposed “face to face” double seals

52/85
• Tandem seals Fig (3-9)
In this arrangement the inner is mounted exactly as would

be as a single seal. The duty must therefore be suitable for a
single seal and this is the first major difference from back to back
seals. The second is that the sealant is at lower than the sealed
pressure and the outer seal is again mounted as a single seal
would be to seal the sealant.
A tandem seal can therefore be used to provide extra

operating safety or as a means of breaking down the sealed
pressure to bring it within the operating capability of the seals to
be used.
The pressure over the inner seal is controlled within seals

operating temperature range and sealant cooling can allow it to
operate in a higher temperature than would normally permitted.
Fig 3-9 Tandem seals
53/85
Hydraulic balance
Hydraulic balance refers to the relationship between the pressure

of the fluid being sealed and the contact pressure between the
seal faces.
Sealed pressure forces the face on the seat to create the seal.
Too little force will lead to seal failing, and too large force seal
faces may wear out too quickly.
Hydraulic balance is a design method by which face closing

pressure can be controlled so that the seal always operates
properly between those two unacceptable extremes.
Two versions are usually available:
1. Unbalanced seals
2. Balanced seals
54/85
Unbalance seals
In unbalanced seal the hydraulic pressure is unrelieved by

the face geometry so that the face contact pressure is equal or
greater than the fluid pressure.
Hydraulic closing area

(face pressure P` => ------------------------------------ x sealed pressure P
face reaction area
The disadvantage of unbalanced seal is that the friction is

high at the faces “because of the high face contact pressure” with
high heat generated, and increases in rubbing wear of the
contact faces. Unbalanced seals are widely used for pressure up
to 10 bar (150Ib/in2).
A.P.I. 610 specification call for balance seals to be used for

pressure above 5 bar (75 Ib/in2), and no unbalanced seal to be
used for process duties. The main advantage is that construction
is less complicated and less costly than the balance seal.
Fig 3-10 Pressure acting on unbalance seal face
55/85
Balance seals
With balance type the design proportion the radially

disposed areas, so that the effective contact pressure is always
less than the fluid pressure. In practice, the lowest face pressure
that will give effective sealing is normally selected. Fig (3-11)
VISUALLY A BALANCED PUSHER SEAL REQUIRES A STEP

IN THE SHAFT OR SHAFT SLEEVE.
Hydraulic closing area

(face pressure P` < ------------------------------------ x sealed pressure P)
face reaction area
The immediate advantage of a balance seal is that friction

is reduced at the seal faces “because of the lower face contact
pressure”, with less heat generated and reduction in rubbing
wear.
A.P.I. 610 calls specifically for balance seals only for all
process duties, while balance mechanical seals extend the
application up to 85 bar (1250 Ib/in2).
The main disadvantage is that construction is more

complicated and more costly, than the unbalanced seal and
commonly calls for a stepped shaft or sleeve. The hydraulic
pressure (plus a small spring load) closes the faces onto the
seat, face is stepped down on the outside to reduce the closing
force and then on the inside to increase the face area. The result
is reduced face contact pressure, so that seal can work at higher
sealed pressures.
FACE TEMPERATURE & COOLING
The heat generated by the rubbing faces of a mechanical seal

must be removed if the seal is to work with minimum leakage and wear.
Equally, to be most effective, the coolant should be directed at the point
where the most effective heat transfer occurs. This applies whether
cooling is achieved by recalculation of the pumped product, or by an
external source of coolant independent of, and not in direct contact with
the rubbing faces.
56/85
Fig 3-11 Pressure acting on balance face
Fig 3-12 Common unbalance and balance seals
57/85
Table 3-1 Comparison Of Packing And Mechanical Seals

Advantage Disadvantage
Packing
1. Low initial cost 1. Relatively high leakage.
2. Easily installed as rings and 2. Requires regular
glands are split. maintenance
3. Good reliability at medium 3. Wear of shaft sleeve can
pressures and shaft speeds be relatively high.
4. Can handle large axial 4. Power losses may be high.
movement.
5. Can be used in rotating or
reciprocating application.
6. Leakage increases
gradually, giving adequate
warning of impending breakdown.
Mechanical seals
1. Very low leakage. 1. High initial cost.
2. Require no maintenance. 2. Easily installed but requires
some disassembly of pump.
3. Eliminate sleeve wear.
4. Very good reliability.
5. Can handle higher
pressures and speeds.
6. Easily applied to
carcinogenic, toxic, or radioactive
liquids.
Source: Crane Packing Co.
58/85
BEARING HOUSING
The main function of the bearing housing are as following:
• As lubricant Container “oil / grease”.
• Fixing and containing the shaft bearing.
• Fixing the pump body to the foundation.
Fig (3-13) showing typical bearing housing in centrifugal pumps,

with main containing parts.
• Oil seals • Oil breather
• Cooling jacket • Oil drain plug
• Oil level glass • Oil filling plug
Fig 3-13 Typical bearing housing assemble
59/85
BEARINGS
The function of bearings in centrifugal pumps is to keep the shaft

or rotor in correct alignment with the stationary parts under the
action of radial and transverse loads.
Bearings that give radial positioning to rotor are known as line /

radial bearings and those that locate the rotor axially are called
thrust bearing. in most applications the thrust bearing actually
serve both as thrust and radial bearings.
The bearings are mounted in a housing that is usually supported

by brackets attached or integral to the pump casing.
Bearing Names
Bearings are known by one of the following name
1. Inboard and outboard bearing
2. Drive and non drive end bearing
3. Free and fixed bearing
BEARING TYPES
Generally bearing classified to two types
• Plain, Sleeve and journal bearing
• Antifriction , roller bearing
60/85
Journal bearing
Some of the qualities required in a material for a sleeve

bearing are load-carrying capacity, thermal conductivity, low
coefficient of friction, smoothness of surface, and resistance to
wear, fatigue, and corrosion.
Sleeve bearing material
The chemical compositions of a number of typical bearing materials are
given in Table (3-2).
A. Tin and lead base babbitts. Babbitt bearings are in very wide
use and are of two general types: tin base and lead base. They are
quickly run in and assume very smooth surface. Application is
usually made to steel back. Lining thickness usually about 0.015 in.
babbitt bearing have the property of adjusting themselves to small
misalignment or shaft deflections.
B. Bronze bearings. Bronze bearings are suitable for high loads
and slow speeds, but the alignment between shaft and bearing must
be good.
C. Copper –lead bearing. These bearings are used where the
loads are higher than can be carried by babbitt bearings, such bearing
must be used where the shaft are rigid and the alignment good.
D. Cast-Iron bearings
E. Carbon and Plastic bearings
F. Rubber and Wood
Table 3-2 Percent Composition of Babbits with SAE Classification of 11 to 15

SAE no. (similar ASTM spec.)
11 12 13 14 15
Element (none) (B23,alloy 2) (none) (B23,alloy 7) (B23,alloy 15)
Tin (min) 86.0 88.2 5.0-7.0 9.2-10.8 0.9-1.2
Antimony 6.0-7.5 7.0-8.0 9.0-11.0 14.0-16.0 14.0-15.5
Lead 0.5 0.5 Remainder Remainder Remainder
Copper 5.0-6.5 3.0-4.0 0.5 0.5 0.5
Iron 0.08 0.08 -- -- --
Arsenic 0.1 0.1 0.25 0.6 0.8-1.2
Bismuth 0.08 0.08 -- -- --
Zinc 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005
Aluminum 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005
Cadmium -- -- 0.05 0.05 0.05
others 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
61/85
Sleeve bearing type
1. Cylindrical bearing
The most common type of journal bearing is the plain

cylindrical bushing Fig (3-14). It may be split and have lubricating
feed grooves at the parting line. The axial grooves are to enable
better cooling. They are generally used for medium speed “200
mm/sec surface speed” and medium to heavy load applications
17 to 28 bar on projected area.
The principal advantages are
• Simple construction.
• High load capacity relative to other bearing

configurations.
2. Cylindrical bearing with axial grooves
A typical configuration of this type of bearing is a plain

cylindrical bearing with four equally spaced longitudinal grooves
extending most of the way through the bearing, for that it has less
load capacity than the plain bushing bearings. The grooves act
as convenient outlet for any contaminants in the lubricant, in
general, this bearing can be considered as an alternate to plain
bearing. Fig (3-15)
3. Elliptical and lobe bearings
4. Tilting-pad bearing
Fig 3-14 Cylindrical bearing Fig 3-15 Cylindrical bearing with

axial grooving
62/85
Note:
Hydrostatic lubrication: - fluid-film lubrication in which the

pressure in the fluid film is generated externally to the
bearing surface.
Hydrodynamic lubrication: - fluid-film lubrication in which

the pressure in the fluid film is generated by the relative
velocity of the bearing surface; that can be either the
circumferential or axial.
Hydro static bearing
The lubricants feed under high

pressure. The bearing forces is
absorbed as a result of the difference
between top-under the shaft.
Hydro dynamic bearing
The lubricant feed under low pressure.
Dynamic Static
1. Simple manufacturing 1. No danger of excessive

wear
2. The lubricant in feed 2. More expensive to

either pressure less or very operate because extra
low feed to bearing during equipment needed.
operation
3. Wear is increased in 3. Long dimension

stopping
4. Smaller dimension
63/85
Antifriction bearings
The most common antifriction bearings used on centrifugal

pumps are the various types of ball bearings. Roller bearing are
used less often, although the spherical roller bearing is used
frequently for large size, for which there is a limited choice of ball
bearings.
Rolling bearing construction
Rolling bearings are made of main four parts as shown in

Fig (3-16). To increase the contact area and permit larger loads
to be carried, the balls run in curvilinear grooves in the rings. The
radius of the groove is slightly larger than the radius of the ball
and a very slight amount of radial play must be provided.
• Inner and outer race: they are normally running

with relatively speed, one fixed, usually outer race “zero
speed” and the other is running normal speed, usually
inner race “fitted on the rotor”.
• Roller element: can be a number of balls or rollers,

running between the inner and outer races.
• Cage: to keep rolling elements away of each other.
Fig 3-16 Rolling bearing construction
64/85
Rolling bearing are made in a wide variety of types and sizes.
Ball bearing
1- Deep groove ball bearings are used in a particularly wide

variety of applications Fig (3-17). They are simple in design,
non-separable, capable of operating at high and even very
high speeds, and require little attention or maintenance in
service. These characteristics coupled with a price advantage
make deep groove ball bearings the most popular of all rolling
bearings. They are available in several design as follow:
1.1- Single row, deep groove ball bearing Fig (3-17) no1.
1.2- Double row, deep groove ball bearing Fig (3-17) no2.
1.3- Filling slot, Filling notch, Maximum deep groove ball

bearing Fig (3-17) no 3.
2- Self-aligning ball bearings have two rows of balls with a

common spheroid raceway in the outer ring. This feature
gives the bearings their self-aligning property, permitting
angular misalignment of the shaft relative to the housing.
They are therefore particularly suitable for application
where misalignment can arise from errors in mounting or
from shaft deflection. Fig (3-18)
Fig 3-17 Deep groove ball bearings
65/85
Fig 3-18 Self-aligning ball bearings
Fig 3-20 Angular contact ball bearings arrangement
Fig 3-19 Angular contact ball bearings
66/85
3- Angular contact ball bearings
Have raceways in the inner and outer rings, which are

displaced with respect to each other in the direction of the
bearing axis. This means that they are particularly suitable for
the accommodation of combined loads, i.e. simultaneously
acting radial and axial loads. Fig (3-19)
When the load carrying capacity of a single bearing is

inadequate pair mounting in tandem arrangement is used, or
when the bearing arrangement must carry axial loads in both
directions (back-to-pack and face-to-face arrangements). They
are available in several designs as follow: Fig (3-20)
3.1- Single row angular contact ball bearing.
3.2- Double row angular contact ball bearing.
3.3- Four-point angular contact ball bearing.
Roller bearing
1- Cylindrical roller bearings. They have high, radial load

carrying capacity and also high-speed capability. They are
produced in different designs, which differ in the configuration
of the flanges. Fig (3-21). They can be used at temperature of
up to +150 ˚C. they can be founded in the following names.
1.1- Single row roller bearing.
1.2- Full complement
1.3- Crossed cylindrical roller bearings
Fig 3-21 Cylindrical roller bearings
67/85
2- Spherical roller bearings.

They have two rows of roller with a common sphered
raceway in the outer ring. The two inner ring raceways are
inclined at an angle to the bearing axis. The bearings are self-
aligning and consequently insensitive to errors of alignment of
the shaft relative to the housing, and to shaft bending. In addition
to radial loads, the bearings can also accommodate axial loads
acting in both directions. Fig (3-22)
2.1- Spherical roller bearings
2.2- Spherical roller bearings with adapter sleeve
2.3- Spherical roller bearings with withdrawal sleeve
3- Taper roller bearings.
They have tapered inner and outer ring raceways between

which tapered rollers are arranged. Their design makes taper
roller bearings particularly suitable for the accommodation of
combined “radial & axial” loads. Taper roller bearings are
generally of separable design, i.e. the inner ring with roller and
cage assembly forms a unit which can be mounted separately
from the outer ring. Fig (3-23)
3.1- Single row taper roller bearings
3.2- Paired single row taper roller bearings
Fig 3-22 Spherical roller bearings
68/85
‫‪Fig 3-23 Taper roller bearings‬‬
‫‪69/85‬‬
Oil selection
Viscosity is one of the most important properties of the

lubrication oil. And it decreases with increasing temperature in
order for sufficiently thick film of oil to be formed in the contact
area between rolling element and race way.
The oil must retain a minimum viscosity at the operation

temperature. The kinematic viscosity required at the operation
temperature to ensure adequate lubrication can be determined
from diagram below, which is provided for a mineral oil.
70/85
For example
A bearing with bore diameter D=340mm and outside diameter

D=420mm operate at a speed of n=500 r/min. The operating
temperature has been determined by experience to be
approximately 70˚C. What viscosity is required to obtained
satisfactory lubrication, and what viscosity does this represent at
reference temperature 40˚C
71/85
The friction in rolling bearing is comparable to that in well

designed journal bearing operating under thick film condition. The
decision as to the kind of bearing to use, that is whether to use a
rolling bearing or journal bearing can be influenced by one or
several of the following:
1. Roller bearings have an advantage where starting

torque lower.
2. Where space limitations are present rolling bearings

are preferable.
3. Rolling bearing give warning “noisy” when failure is

imminent.
4. Rolling bearing can take a combination or radial and

axial loads.
5. Clearance in rolling bearing needs to be much less

than in journal bearing providing for accurate positioning of
machine part such as gears.
6. Rolling bearing can be pre-packed with grease to

provide for a maintenance free installation.
7. Rolling bearing can take high overloads for short

periods.
8. Good low-temperature starting
Disadvantage
1. Rolling bearing especially at high speed is not as quiet

in operation as journal bearing.
2. More severe alignment requirement
3. Higher cost
72/85
‫‪Positive Displacement Pumps‬‬
‫‪73/85‬‬
4-1 RECIPROCATING PUMPS

General
Reciprocating pumps have positive action and will deliver a
certain volume of liquid against a pressure determined by the system to
which the pump is attached. Reciprocating pumps are usually used for
small quantity high-pressure outlets, where their efficiency can exceed
that of a centrifugal pump.
Operation principle
The diagrams illustrate the operating principles of a “single
acting” reciprocating pump. The operation of the pump is similar to that
of a bicycle pump:
A closely fitting piston moves backwards and forwards inside a
cylinder.
Unlike a bicycle pump [where the piston is driven by human
effort!], this piston is driven, through a system of gears and cracks, by
an electrical motor.
As the piston moves back [Fig 4-1[a]], known as the suction stroke,
‘space’, i.e. a vacuum, is created in the pump chamber. This space will
need to be filled. The ball at the bottom of the pump will be sucked
inwards enabling liquid to enter through the inlet nozzle. The ball at the
top of the pump will be sucked into the opening on the discharge line
and will prevent liquid entering from the discharge pipeline. When the
piston has travelled the full length of its suction stroke, it now moves in
the forward direction [Fig 4-1[b]], known as the discharge or delivery
stroke. The piston moving forward must now push liquid out of the
pump chamber.
Pump
Discharge
chamber
valve closed
Inlet valve
open
From
supply
Fig 4-1 [a] Piston drawing fluid into cylinder
74/85
Pump
Discharge
chamber
valve open
Inlet valve
close
Fig 4-1 [b] Piston imposing pressure on fluid
In attempting this, it pushes the ball at the bottom of the pump over
the inlet line preventing liquid from leaving at that point. However, it
also pushes the ball at the top of the pump out of its seat, opening up the
discharge line so that liquid can leave through it. [The balls are held in
retaining ‘cages’, which prevent them from passing fully out of the
discharge line or into the pump cylinder.] Thus the movement of these
balls creates one way flow through the pump chamber. They are ‘one-
way’ valves, only allowing liquid in through the inlet and through the
outlet.
The cycle of operation is then repeated – a suction stroke drawing
liquid in, followed by a delivery stroke forcing liquid out.
This type of pump, a fixed quantity of fluid to discharge at each
delivery stroke, thus giving what is called positive displacement of the
fluid. It is often referred to as a ‘positive displacement pump’.
The term ‘positive displacement’ refers to the fact that once liquid
has been drawn into the pump, it must leave the pump on the discharge
stroke. For this reason this type of pump can not and must never operate
against a closed inlet or discharge valve. To prevent excessive pressure
built-up if the discharge valve is accidentally closed, these pumps are
fitted with a relief valve, which automatically opens if the pressure goes
above a pre-set limit.
The flow from reciprocating pump is uneven, or pulsating. Such a
flow can be undesirable for some applications. A more even flow can be
obtained if two reciprocating pumps work together. Thus, number 1
75/85
pump will be on its suction stroke while number 2 is on its delivery

stroke. On the next cycle number 1 will be on delivery stroke as number
2 pump is on its suction stroke. If the flow from each piston goes into a
common outlet, then the flow will be more even. Double acting
reciprocating pumps, of the kind shown in Fig (4-2), are designed to
work along similar lines, but involve only a single piston and chamber.
Fig (4-2) Double acting cylinder
In a simple system such as “single acting piston”, it can be seen that

there is no output from the pump when the piston is on the backward
stroke. Even when liquid is being discharged from the pump, the
delivery rate fluctuates in accordance with changes in piston velocity.
The delivery rises from zero as the piston begins to move forward, to a
maximum when the piston is fully accelerated at approximately mid
stroke and then falls back to zero. These variations in delivery rate are
shown in Fig (4-3) & (4-4).
Flow
Start of delivery Time “crank angle” End of delivery

stroke stroke
Fig (4-3) Theoretical flow curve for single cylinder
76/85
Delivery
rate
No Flow during suction
Time “crank angle”
Fig (4-4) Single acting pump
Delivery
rate
Fig (4-5 a) Double acting simplex pump
Delivery
rate
Fig (4-5 b) Double acting duplex pump
77/85
Construction features
It is clearly undesirable for there to be such wide variations in

flow and so normally a more complex type of reciprocating pump is
chosen which gives a better delivery. In a double acting pump, liquid is
fed to both sides. Thus whilst the cylinder is filling with liquid on one
side of the piston, delivery is occurring on the opposite side. The
variations in delivery for such a system are shown in Fig (4-5 a), and a
double acting duplex pump “ duplex means two cylinder “ shown in Fig
(4-5 b).
After the piston passes the mid point of the cylinder it begins to
decelerate. However the liquid has no forces to slow it down and so it
continues at the same speed until it catches up with and collides with
the piston. The pump is then said to “Knock”.
Discharge head and capacity
The head required to accelerate the liquid is referred to as the

“acceleration head” and is equivalent to the required NPSH for
centrifugal pumps. The pressure head in the cylinder will fall below the
vapor pressure. The resultant cavitation can seriously damage the
piston, valves and packing.
The head and capacity of reciprocating pumps are defined by

vertical lines. However in practice the “H-Q” curves are limited by the
maximum design working pressure and maximum speed. The H-Q lines
tend to depart somewhat from a true vertical due to slippage, i.e. fluids
passes the piston to the suction side. See Fig (6)
78/85
H
E
A
D
Increasing rev/min
Capacity
Fig 4-6 Displacement pump performance curve
79/85
Characteristics of reciprocating pumps

• Reciprocating pumps will deliver fluid at high pressure.
• On the backward stroke a vacuum is created which will

suck liquid into the pump. This makes reciprocating pumps
‘self-priming’; i.e. it is not necessary to fill the pump chamber
manually before pumping can commence.
• Reciprocating pumps produce a pulsating flow.
• The filling of the cylinders on the suction stroke is difficult

when the fluid being pumped is very viscous.
• Reciprocating pumps are expensive to make.
• Reciprocating pumps are not used for pumping slurries.
80/85
• The pumping chamber is a small part of the overall pump.

Thus they give low volume rates of flow compared to other pumps
of a similar overall size.
• Difficult to the flow rate “capacity”.
81/85
4-2 DIAPHRAGM PUMP

Because of the inability of the reciprocating pump to pump
liquids containing suspended solid, possibly abrasive, particles, a
modified version of the pump has been developed for this purpose. This
is the Diaphragm pump.
Fig (4-7) illustrates the basic construction and operation of the pump.
Fig 4-7 Diaphragm pump
The diaphragm is fixed and sealed at its edges, is flexible and free to
move at its centre. The piston, in its chamber, is isolated from the liquid
or slurry by the diaphragm. As the piston moves up and down, the
centre of the diaphragm is caused to move “in and out”, or ‘backwards
and forwards’, thus drawing in and forcing out the liquid through the
one-way valves.
82/85
The cavity between the piston and the diaphragm is filled with a
fluid to transmit the pumping action. This is usually air for large
machines, and hydraulic fluid for smaller pumps, which tend to operate
at higher pressures.
Diaphragm pump characteristic
• The moving piston does not contact the liquid being

pumped. The piston can therefore be made of relatively cheap
and easily machined materials even if the liquid being pumped is
corrosive.
• Pumped material never be contaminate by lubricant from

the operation system as the diaphragm acts as a barrier between
them.
• Many often diaphragm rupture.
• Movement of the diaphragm is restricted and this limits

throughput.
• Diaphragm pumps produce a pulsating flow.
83/85
4-3 GEAR PUMPS
The gear pump is a rotating positive displacement pump, which

can also deliver fluid at high pressure. The pump consists of two gear
wheels, which rotate inside a stationary casing. Because the gear wheels
rotate they are called the rotors, and the casing, which remains
stationary, is called the stator.
When the pump is started up the liquid enters the pump through
the ‘liquid inlet’, and ‘slugs’ of liquid are caught between the rotor and
the stator and carried to the ‘liquid outlet’. Here as the gear teeth mesh
together, they squeeze the liquid out through the discharge pipeline. As
the teeth then unmesh a space is created between them, which sucks
more liquid in through the inlet pipeline.
Direction of flow Liquid outlet
Fig 4-8 Gear pump
84/85
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GEAR PUMP
• It is self-priming
• Gives a smooth flow of liquid
• It can pump viscous fluids, since the pump has no narrow

inlet or outlet valves to restrict the flow of liquid.
• It can not be used for pumping slurries.
• It should not be used to pump liquids with no lubricating

properties.
85/85

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RASCO Libya

Training & Development Department

A further factor to be considered is the nature of the liquid

In the chemical industries, there are many different liquids

to meet the requirements of all the applications it has been

At Great River Project “GRP” most of the pumps used are

TABLE 3 TYPICAL PUMP WORKING RANGE

Multi-stage 450 to 225000 100 to 5000 Over 300 Over 1000

Peripheral 5 to 100 1 to 20 150 500

Mixed flow 1000 to 450000 250 to 100000 25 to 3 75 to 10

Pumps may be classified on the basis of the applications

• Classification by inlet geometry

• Classification by theory of operation

Out of all these classification, one is commonly used, that

i. DYNAMIC:- in which energy is continuously added to

ii. DISPLACEMENT:- in which energy is periodically added

ADVANTAGE OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

When compared with a reciprocating pump, the

1- Higher speed resulting in lower size and cost.

2- Continuous delivery free from pressure fluctuation.

3- Having known characteristics a centrifugal pump can:

3.1-Operate on minimum flow without exceeding a

3.2-Operate on maximum flow without exceeding a

3.3-Be designed to meet several duties, thus in many

4- Applicable to direct drive in almost every case.

5- Absence of vibration and simpler foundation.

6- Handling liquids containing solids “contaminated

ADVANTAGE OF RECIPROCATING PUMPS

1. Within their field higher efficiencies than centrifugal

2. Applicable to variable pressure without adjustment of

3. Self-priming and therefore able to handle a certain

4. Capable of utilizing kinetic energy or rotation to give

SINGLE STAGE CLOSED IMPELLER

SINGLE STAGE SELF-PRIMING

Fig (1-2) Dynamic pump classification

SIMLEX FLUID OPERATION

MULTIPLEX MECHANICAL OPERATION

SINGLE ROTOR FLEXIBLE MEMBER

Fig (1-3) Displacement pump classification

The force of gravity causes a liquid to flow from higher

Potential energy is stored energy. Liquid at higher pressure

Liquid at higher elevation has more potential energy than

Pumps are also used to move more liquid in a given

Capacity in the metric measurement system is usually

Pumps are installed to achieve one or more of the following

Move liquids from lower elevations to higher elevations.

Move liquids from lower-pressure areas to higher-pressure

Increase the flow rate “line capacity”.

PRESSURE AND HEAD

PRESSURE is defined as the amount of force exerted on a

Two important principles about pressure were described by

Pressure acts uniformly in all directions on a small volume of a

In a fluid confined by solid boundaries, pressure acts

These principles, sometimes called Pascal’s law, are illustrated in

(d) Dam (e) Reservoir

Fig (1-4) Direction of fluid pressure on boundaries

Fig (1-5) Pressure acting uniformly in all

Pressure can be measured in term of the height of a

Density (Ib/FT3) x H (feet) SG x H (feet)

density of the fluid

Density of water = 1 gm/cm3

We can use the same equation in the following form

Pressure gauges are set to read 0 at atmospheric pressure.