Mineralium Deposita (2003) 38: 423442
DOI 10.1007/s00126-002-0299-y
A RT I C L E
Mark D. Hannington Ingrid M. Kjarsgaard
Alan G. Galley Bruce Taylor
Mineral-chemical studies of metamorphosed hydrothermal alteration
in the Kristineberg volcanogenic massive sulfide district, Sweden
Received: 10 December 2001 / Accepted: 23 May 2002 / Published online: 7 August 2002

Springer-Verlag 2002
Abstract The massive sulde deposits of the Kristine-
berg area, Sweden, occur within a 2- to 3-km-thick
succession of felsic volcaniclastic rocks belonging to the
Skellefte Group. The volcanic pile is intruded by a
synvolcanic Jorn-type granitoid (Viterliden intrusive
complex) and is overlain by a thick sequence of me-
tasedimentary rocks (Vargfors Group). Mineralization
occurs at two main stratigraphic levels, at the base of
the felsic volcanic succession and at the contact with
the metasedimentary rocks of the Vargfors Group. The
Kristineberg CuZn mine is the largest deposit (ap-
proximately 21 Mt) and occurs at the base of the vol-
canic pile, close to the contact with the Viterliden
intrusive complex. Four smaller deposits (Ravliden,
Ravlidmyran, Horntrask and Nyliden) occur along the
upper ore horizon. These deposits are thought to be
related to a late intrusive phase of the Viterliden com-
plex which cuts the altered volcanic rocks at the Kris-
tineberg deposit. Within an area of about 50 km2
surrounding the Kristineberg deposit, felsic volcanic
rocks between the two ore horizons are aected by ex-
tensive albite-destructive alteration (sodium depletion)
and development of chlorite and muscovite (strong co-
enrichment in magnesium and potassium). The Kris-
tineberg deposit is enveloped by a large and partly
transposed quartzchlorite alteration zone, approxi-
mately 2 km in diameter, and a distal but coherent py-
ritequartzmuscovite alteration zone extending as far
as 4 km from the deposit. Chlorite(talc) in the mine
Editorial handling: R.J. Goldfarb
Electronic Supplementary Material is available at http://dx.doi.
org/10.1007/s00126-002-0299-y. On that page (frame on the left
side), a link takes you directly to the supplementary material.
M.D. Hannington (&) A.G. Galley B. Taylor
Geological Survey of Canada, 601 Booth Street,
Ottawa K1A 0E8, Canada
E-mail: mhanning@NRCan.gc.ca
I.M. Kjarsgaard
Mineralogical Consultant, 15 Scotia Place,
Ottawa K1S 0W2, Canada
area is notably magnesium-rich and contains anomalous
F, Ba, Zn and Mn. High uorine is also present in co-
existing muscovite and phlogopite. The magnesium-rich
chlorite alteration contrasts sharply with the iron en-
richment observed in many other felsic, volcanic-hosted
Precambrian massive sulde deposits. This may indicate
xation of iron by large amounts of pyrite in the section
or entrainment of large amounts of seawater in the hy-
drothermal upow zones. Kyanite is developed locally in
the chlorite-rich pipe at Kristineberg in response to re-
gional thermal metamorphism of highly aluminous al-
teration in the immediate foot-wall rocks. Spectacular,
andalusite-bearing quartzmuscovite schists and quartz
biotitecordierite schists also occur where the altered
felsic volcanic rocks are intruded by the late Revsund
granite. However, similar metamorphic mineral growth
is not observed where the volcanic rocks at the contact
are less altered. Deposits near the top of the felsic vol-
canic succession are characterized by magnesium-rich
chlorite alteration in the foot wall and proximal calc-
silicate assemblages (dolomite, calcite, tremolite, gar-
net, margarite) where the host sedimentary rocks are
carbonate-rich. In general, the calc-silicate alteration is
restricted to the immediate hanging wall and zones lat-
eral to the deposits and does not represent a regionally
extensive exploration target. The two main ore horizons
in the Kristineberg area are not linked by any obvious
discordant structures or alteration zones. However,
mineral-chemical studies highlight several possible uid
ow pathways leading from the Kristineberg deposit to
the Ravliden ore horizon, more than 2 km upsection.
Overprinting regional metamorphic minerals have in-
herited the hydrothermal signature of the ore-related
alteration.
Electronic Supplementary Material is available at http://
dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00126-002-0299-y. On that page
(frame on the left side), a link takes you directly to the
supplementary material.
Keywords Skellefte Sweden Kristineberg
VMS alteration Mineralogy Mineral chemistry
424
Introduction
Mapping of alteration at the regional scale in volca-
nogenic massive sulde (VMS) districts has shown that
the eects of hydrothermal uid ow can be traced
over great distances, commonly encompassing an entire
volcanic complex (e.g., Eastoe et al. 1987; Brauhart et
al. 1998, 2001; Hannington et al. 2002). The abundance
and composition of indicator minerals such as chlorite,
sericite, epidote, actinolite and carbonates can highlight
broad zones of synvolcanic hydrothermal alteration
which contain, but are generally larger than, the al-
teration zones close to the deposits. The phyllosilicate
assemblages, in particular, are highly systematic and
display orderly compositional zonation which may ex-
tend for several kilometers along strike or upsection
through the volcanic pile (e.g., Hendry 1981; Walshe
and Solomon 1981; McLeod and Stanton 1984).
Studies of metamorphosed VMS deposits show that
these relationships are preserved through the meta-
morphic recrystallization of the minerals (e.g., Zaleski
et al. 1991; Hodges and Manojlovic 1993; Skirrow and
Franklin 1994; Huston and Patterson 1995). In several
areas, the relationship of alteration mineralogy and
Fig. 1 Regional geology of the Skellefte district. The Kristineberg
area (outlined) is located at the western end of the belt (after Allen
et al. 1996)
mineral chemistry to regional-scale hydrothermal uid
ow has been validated by whole-rock oxygen isotope
mapping (Cathles 1993; Brauhart et al. 1998). The
combined mineral-chemical and oxygen isotope pat-
terns constitute signicantly enhanced exploration tar-
gets.
The Kristineberg area of Sweden is a deformed and
metamorphosed volcanic domain in the western part of
the Proterozoic Skellefte mining district (Fig. 1). The
area contains six VMS deposits, ranging in size from the
large Kristineberg deposit (ca. 21 Mt) to the smaller
Kimheden, Ravlidmyran, Ravliden, Horntrask and
Nyliden deposits (Table 1 and Fig. 2). The deposits oc-
cur within a thick succession of altered felsic volcani-
clastic rocks which have been metamorphosed to
quartzmuscovitechloritebiotite schists. Exploration
in the area is complicated by the fact that virtually all of
the exposed volcanic rocks within an area of about
50 km2 have been intensely hydrothermally altered prior
to metamorphism. The rocks exhibit nearly uniform
sodium depletion throughout the camp. As a result,
many of the common alteration indices do not provide
reliable vectors to mineralization at a scale which is
useful for exploration. In this paper, we examine the
phyllosilicate mineralogy of the felsic volcanic rocks in
the Kristineberg area as possible indicators of hydro-
thermal uid ow paths within the volcanic pile and as
possible vectors toward mineralization.
 425

Table 1 Tonnage (million tonnes) and grades of VMS deposits in (Lundberg 1980; Weihed at al. 1992; Allen et al. 1996). The vol-
the Kristineberg area, Sweden (data from Allen et al. 1996, and canic rocks have predominantly calc-alkaline arc-type signatures,
unpublished data) suggesting that the deposits formed during the extension of conti-
nental or mature arc crust. Deposition of the sedimentary rocks of
Deposit Statusa Cu Zn Pb Au Ag the Vargfors Group is thought to mark the end of a major phase of
(Mt) (wt%) (wt%) (wt%) (g/t) (g/t) arc-related volcanism which produced the Skellefte Group. The
volcanic and sedimentary rocks have been intruded by the post-
Kimheden PP 1.0 1.2 0.1 0.4 6 orogenic Revsund granites (ca. 1.8 Ga; Welin et al. 1971; Lundberg
Kristineberg P 20.1 1.0 3.7 0.5 1.0 35 1980). These intrusions are located mainly in the southern part of
Horntrask PP 0.9 1.1 4.6 0.5 0.6 65 the Skellefte eld and exhibit conspicuous contact metamorphic
Ravlidmyran PP 6.8 1.0 3.9 0.6 0.8 51 aureoles, most notably in the Kristineberg area (Rickard 1986).
Ravliden PP 1.9 1.9 3.1 0.1 0.6 67
Nyliden DP
a
P, producer (prod. and reserves); PP, past producer; DP, devel- Geology of the Kristineberg area
oped prospect
The geology of the Kristineberg area has been described by Du
Rietz (1953), Edelman (1967), Grip and Frietsch (1973), and
Regional geological setting and stratigraphy Willden (1986). The volcanic rocks of the Skellefte Group at
Kristineberg occupy a large anticlinorium which plunges to the
The Skellefte mining district comprises an east-west-trending belt west and exposes deeper levels to the east (Fig. 2). The structure is
of Early Proterozoic (ca. 1.9 Ga) volcanic rocks which host more cored by a subvolcanic Jorn-type granitoid known as the Viterliden
than 85 VMS occurrences (Rickard and Zweifel 1975; Allen et al. intrusive complex. The volcanic stratigraphy is cut o in the south
1996). The belt extends for approximately 200 km from Boliden in by the intrusion of a Revsund granite. Owing to the limited outcrop
the east to the Kristineberg area in the west (Fig. 1). The volcanic in the area, detailed structural and stratigraphic analysis has not
and related rocks of the Skellefte Group, which host the VMS been possible, and most of the present contact relationships have
deposits, are mainly juvenile felsic volcaniclastics, porphyritic in- been deduced from drilling and geophysics.
trusions and lavas, and minor intercalated sediments (black mud- In the Kristineberg area, the volcanic rocks of the Skellefte
stone, siltstone, and volcanic-derived sandstone and conglomerate). Group comprise a gently westward-dipping, 2- to 3-km-thick,
In most cases, the ore-hosting volcanic rocks are pyroclastic, with dominantly homoclinal succession of felsic tus and lavas, inter-
compositions ranging from rhyolite to dacite. Jorn-type granitoids calated with minor mac volcanic and sedimentary rocks. Near the
intrude the volcanic package and are thought to be comagmatic Kristineberg deposit, the dips are 3040; at the contact with the
with the Skellefte Group volcanic rocks. The Skellefte Group is Vargfors Group, the dips are about 20. Because of the uniform
overlain by a thick sequence of graphitic argillites, mudstone, and composition of the volcanic rocks and the intense alteration, de-
wackes known as the Vargfors Group. These rocks exhibit the same tailed stratigraphic subdivisions of the volcanic pile are not possible.
cleavage, folding, and intensity of deformation as the rocks of the Least-altered felsic volcanic rocks contain between 72 and 75 wt%
Skellefte Group. Several dierent stratigraphic models have been SiO2 (Willden 1986; Vivallo and Willden 1988). Subordinate mac
proposed for the region (Lundberg 1980; Weihed et al. 1992; Allen volcaniclastic material is mainly andesitic in composition.
et al. 1996). In general, the volcanic and sedimentary rocks appear Outcrops throughout the Kristineberg area are mainly pyritic
to have mainly conformable and interngering contacts with no quartzmuscovitechloritebiotite schists. Well-preserved volca-
major unconformities in the succession. nic textures are rare, although porphyritic textures are present in
The major felsic volcanic centers within the Skellefte Group are the more massive units (Du Rietz 1953; Edelman 1967; Vivallo and
thought to have formed within a continental margin arc setting Willden 1988). Porphyritic rhyolite tu, which is the most common

Fig. 2 Geology of the Kris-

tineberg area (after Willden
1986). Volcanic rocks of the
Skellefte Group at Kristineberg
occupy a regional anticlinorium
which plunges to the west and
exposes deeper levels in the east.
The structure is cored by the
Viterliden subvolcanic intrusion
which forms a high standing
area known as the Kristineberg
massif. Several protrusions of
the Viterliden complex occur
near the Kristineberg deposit
and in an area referred to in the
text as the Sater salient. The
volcanic rocks of the Skellefte
Group are overlain by metase-
dimentary rocks of the Vargfors
Group, and the stratigraphy is
cut o in the south by the post-
orogenic Revsund granite.
Dashed lines show the location
of the cordieritebiotite and
andalusite isograds within the
contact metamorphic aureole of
the Revsund granite
426
least-altered volcanic rock, contains both quartz and feldspar
phenocrysts (13 mm in size). Original fragmental units are locally
discernible and include polymict lapilli tu, pumiceous breccia, and
in-situ hyaloclastite breccia. Porphyritic intrusions and lavas are
locally intercalated with the felsic volcaniclastic rocks. The more
massive and coherent porphyritic units are considered to be ows
or shallow intrusive domes. These rock types are typical of other
well-exposed volcanic units elsewhere in the Skellefte district (e.g.,
Allen et al. 1996).
A poorly dened unit of mixed felsic and minor mac volca-
niclastic rocks occurs near the base of the volcanic succession and
has been termed the Kimheden Formation (Willden 1986; Fig. 3).
It comprises rhyolitic and andesitic tu, redeposited volcaniclastic
rocks, volcanic breccia, and local argillaceous sedimentary rocks.
Although the contacts with the dominant rhyolitic volcaniclastic
rocks are not well known, the presence of coarser clastic material in
this part of the volcanic pile is thought to mark the development of
local sub-basins, with the thickest accumulations in the vicinity of
the Kimheden and Kristineberg deposits (Willden 1986). Numer-
ous, small mac dikes are also present, especially near the Kris-
tineberg deposit.
Volcanic rocks at the top of the felsic succession, in contact with
the sedimentary rocks of the Vargfors Group, are mainly inter-
bedded felsic and mac tus, massive rhyolite, and volcanic-de-
rived greywacke and mudstone (Willden 1986; Allen et al. 1996).
Calcareous units and volcaniclastic rocks with a carbonate-rich
matrix occur locally at the base of the Vargfors Group, together
with abundant graphitic argillite. These rocks host the massive
sulde deposits at Ravliden, Ravlidmyran and Horntrask.
The Viterliden intrusive complex which intrudes the base of the
volcanic succession is a foliated, multiphase tonalitic granitoid. It is
mainly a ne-grained porphyritic rock, with grain sizes of 13 mm
and a granophyric texture. In the vicinity of the Kristineberg de-
posit, it locally contains abundant xenoliths of mac volcanic
rocks. Although the boundaries of the Viterliden are poorly ex-
posed, the intrusion contains minor amounts of nely disseminated
magnetite, and its limits are well known from magnetic surveys
(Willden 1986; Vivallo and Willden 1988). The interpreted contact
between the Viterliden intrusion and the volcanic rocks of the
Fig. 3 Locations of samples
selected for this study from
outcrop and drill core. All
sample locations have been
projected to surface. Wherever
possible, samples were collected
at 200- to 500-m spacings. The
shaded area within the Skellefte
Group is the interpreted map
pattern of the Kimheden For-
mation (from Willden 1986).
Samples plotted within the
Vargfors Group are from drill
holes which intersect the volca-
nic rocks of the Skellefte Group
below the sedimentary cover.
Grid spacing is in kilometers
Skellefte Group follows the major folds in the overlying rocks (e.g.,
between the Skellefte Group and Vargfors Group). At the Kris-
tineberg deposit, a ne-grained porphyritic phase of the Viterliden
intrusion locally cuts the immediate host rocks of the deposit. The
margins of the intrusion are hydrothermally altered and contain
abundant chlorite and biotitecordierite. Where the volcanic
complex has been infolded with the intrusion, it is sometimes dif-
cult to distinguish between the intrusive rocks and the overlying
quartzmuscovitechloritebiotite schists. There is little or no
contact metamorphism associated with the Viterliden intrusion,
although hydrothermally altered rocks at the contact have been
aected by the later Revsund granite.
Regional hydrothermal alteration, deformation
and metamorphism
The alteration history of the Kristineberg area is complicated by a
protracted history of synvolcanic hydrothermal and subsequent
regional and contact metamorphism. Regional-scale spilitization
(albitechlorite alteration) was an early and ongoing process,
beginning with the extrusion of felsic domes and volcaniclastic
rocks onto the seaoor and associated with the emplacement of
early phases of the Viterliden intrusive complex. The Kimheden
Formation possibly marks the cessation of early felsic volcanism
during which the Kristineberg and Kihmeden deposits were
formed. Continued felsic volcanism and local emplacement of
mac dikes, up to and including the Ravliden ore horizon, were
accompanied by ongoing spilitization in the upper part of the
volcanic pile and albite-destructive hydrothermal alteration at the
base. Hydrothermal uids driven by the latest phases of the Vit-
erliden intrusive complex were ushed through the volcanic pile to
form the VMS deposits along the Ravliden ore horizon.
The early, regional-scale spilitization of the volcanic rocks in
the Kristineberg area was previously documented by Vivallo and
Willden (1988). Within about 5 to 7 km of the Kristineberg deposit,
the spilitized volcanic rocks are overprinted by higher-temperature
albite-destructive alteration (see below), and felsic volcanic rocks
 427

near the deposit are strongly depleted in sodium (typically <1 wt%
and commonly <0.5 wt% Na2O). The extent and intensity of this
alteration is thought to be partly a consequence of the highly
permeable nature of the volcanic pile. Quartzchloritemuscovite
schists in the mine area are characterized by nearly complete
removal of sodium, and pronounced enrichment in magnesium and
potassium compared to the more massive porphyritic rhyolite ows
which are typically the least altered rocks in the Kristineberg area
(Table 2). Both chlorite-rich and muscovite-rich rocks near the
deposit have similar TiO2 and immobile element concentrations (Y,
Zr and REEs), suggesting that they are derived from the same felsic
volcanic rock precursor (see also Vivallo and Willden 1988).

Table 2 Representative whole-rock chemical analyses of altered volcanic rocks of the Kristineberg area
QtzMusc CordBiot QtzMusc QtzMusc Chlorite Chlorite Chloritite Albite
And schist schist schist schist schist schist porphyry
TA97SW21 TA97SW32 TA97SW04 TA97SW23 72202-21.2 TA97SW19 KRC857G KIA76-73.5

SiO2 (wt%)a 79.0 74.5 75.1 74.4 62.7 62.0 26.4 70.9
TiO2 0.45 0.35 0.33 0.31 0.36 0.61 0.94 0.51
Al2O3 18.7 13.3 13.9 11.5 11.2 13.9 23 13.6
Fe2O3 <0.1 0.1 0.7 1.4 1.1 1.7 5.3 1.1
FeO 0.4 2.3 1.1 2.3 5.5 6.0 11.9 3.0
MnO <0.01 0.01 0.08 0.03 0.23 0.43 0.27 0.04
MgO 0.09 2.74 2.06 3.69 12.66 7.68 21.3 2.62
CaO 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.23 0.12 0.53 0.33 0.89
BaO 0.01 0.13 0.11 0.13 <0.01 0.06 <0.01 0.06
Na2O 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.7 <0.1 0.1 <0.1 5.6
K2O 0.86 3.39 4.2 2.18 0.25 1.73 0.02 0.54
H2O 0.6 2.3 2.4 2.1 5.8 4.9 10.8 1.5
P2O5 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.08 0.42 0.19 0.11
CO2(T) 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2
S(T) <0.02 0.68 <0.02 0.8 0.1 0.3 0.16 0.04
Total 100.5 100.2 100.3 100.1 100.3 100.5 100.7 100.7
Rb (ppm) 10 35 63 31 5.9 25 0.08 12
Sr 8 20 20 34 <1 8 0 162
Zr 180 260 250 230 190 140 350 190
Y 6.5 17 23 16 16 23 32 35
Nb 15 9.4 11 12 8.1 7.8 20 10
Sn 2 3.9 1.7 1.0 0.7 1.1 2.5 1.6
F 189 954 1,610 1,231 1,264 1,380 2,890 1,060
Cu <10 17 35 <10 55 <10 <10 <10
Zn <5 31 44 45 210 93 1,100 7
Pb <1 13 9 5 2 2 2 4
Hf 4.0 6.0 5.7 5.5 4.5 3.4 9.0 4.7
Ta 0.26 0.61 0.72 0.69 0.51 0.5 1.3 0.59
Th 3.7 4.8 5.6 5.7 4.8 2.7 9.2 3.0
U 1.6 2.8 3.3 2.5 3.5 1.4 4.9 2.5
Cs 0.07 0.55 0.72 0.58 0.41 0.16 0.05 0.6
Sc 2.2 7.7 7.9 7.7 7.2 15 15 14
V 13 <5 <5 <5 13 53 64 <5
Mo 0.7 4.7 9 1.2 1.9 0.5 7.9 0.5
Tl 0.04 0.16 0.57 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.02 0.08
Ga 1.9 13 15 13 12 21 28 17
Ag <0.1 0.8 0.1 0.4 0.3 <0.1 0.5 <0.1
Cd <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2
Co 11 <5 <5 5 6 6 6 <5
Sb 0.7 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.4 15 1.5
Ni <10 10 <10 <10 <10 <10 <10 <10
La 6.2 27 17 29 27 13 62 25
Ce 18 60 39 62 60 30 150 59
Pr 2.6 7.1 5.1 7.3 7.2 3.7 17 7.5
Nd 11 27 20 27 28 15 66 32
Sm 2.2 4.9 3.7 4.9 4.1 4.0 11.0 6.3
Eu 0.38 0.79 0.53 0.83 0.75 1.0 1.8 1.5
Gd 1.3 3.8 2.9 3.6 2.9 3.7 7.8 6.3
Tb 0.17 0.51 0.51 0.49 0.39 0.57 1.1 0.99
Dy 0.98 2.6 3.2 2.5 2.5 3.4 5.8 5.7
Ho 0.20 0.54 0.71 0.51 0.53 0.72 1.1 1.2
Er 0.6 1.5 2.0 1.4 1.6 1.9 3.2 3.4
Tm 0.10 0.26 0.34 0.24 0.25 0.30 0.50 0.50
Yb 0.75 1.9 2.4 1.7 1.7 1.9 3.6 3.5
Lu 0.12 0.31 0.37 0.28 0.28 0.31 0.55 0.51
a
Major, minor and trace elements were determined by ICP, ICPMS followed by infrared spectrophotometry (Leco). Fluorine was de-
(ux fusion) and wet chemical methods in the laboratories of the termined by pyrohydrolysis followed by ion chromatography.
Geological Survey of Canada. Total S was analyzed by combustion CO2(T) is total carbon reported as CO2
428

Although the Kimheden formation contains a higher proportion of
mac volcaniclastic material, these rocks are not necessarily more
chloritic than the felsic rocks higher or lower in the stratigraphy.
Highly pyritic schists (typically 5% pyrite) are a common rock type
in the Kristineberg area. Representative samples of alteration types
in the Kristineberg area are shown in Fig. 4.
The volcanic rock package is folded along at-lying axes
trending NWSE. Two prominent cleavages are recognized in the
map area. The S1 cleavage is coincident with bedding and is de-
formed by a second stage of folding, also on at-lying axes in a
WSW direction. The S2 cleavage is mainly a crenulation cleavage
and is the preferred orientation of metamorphic minerals in the
rocks. Both cleavages predate the intrusion of the Revsund granite
but have aected the rocks of the Viterliden intrusive complex. The
shape of the contact between the volcanic rocks of the Skellefte
Group and the overlying metasedimentary rocks of the Vargfors
Group is controlled by open F2 folds with moderately plunging
axes. Several high strain zones, bound by shears (faults shown in
Fig. 2), cut across the F2 fold axis near the Kristineberg deposit.
The grade of regional metamorphism increases from east to
west in the Skellefte district (Fig. 1), reaching greenschist to lower
amphibolite facies metamorphism in the Kristineberg area. The
regional metamorphism overprints the original, VMS-related
quartzsericite and quartzchlorite hydrothermal alteration, and
the strong schistose fabric in the volcaniclastic rocks reects ex-
tensive recrystallization and growth of muscovite, chlorite, and
biotite. The coarse-grained white mica and biotite are locally more
abundant in the S2 cleavage than chlorite, indicating that they have
grown relatively late in the metamorphic history of the rocks.
Contact aureole of the Revsund granite
Where the volcanic rocks of the Skellefte Group are intruded by the
Revsund granite, a well-developed contact aureole is present. Du
Rietz (1953) identied three main zones within the contact aureole:
(1) an andalusite zone closest to the contact, (2) an intermediate

Fig. 4AH Representative al-

teration types in the Kristine-
berg area. A Quartzmuscovite
alteration of felsic volcaniclastic
units surrounding the Kristine-
berg deposit. B Quartzchlorite
alteration proximal to the
Kristineberg deposit. C Massive
chloritite from the quartz
chlorite alteration zone of the
Kristineberg deposit. White
patches are quartzmuscovite
clots. D Purple phlogopitic mica
from altered albite porphyry
near the Horntrask deposit.
E Quartzmuscovite schists
with biotite clots from the cor-
dieritebiotite zone in the con-
tact aureole of the Revsund
granite. F Calc-silicate altera-
tion from the Nyliden area.
Pink clots are garnet, brown
clots are vesuvianite (idocrase).
G Quartzmuscoviteandalusite
schist from the contact aureole
of the Revsund granite in the
Sater area. Andalusite occurs as
ne- to medium-grained brown-
ish clots in a matrix of quartz
and muscovite. H Coarse-
grained andalusite in pyritic
quartzmuscovite schist from
outcrops in the Sater area. This
andalusite is associated with
widespread disseminated pyrite
and may be related to locally
intense synvolcanic hydrother-
mal alteration of the precursor
volcanic rocks

cordieritebiotite zone, and (3) an outer chloritemuscovitebio-
tite zone (part of the regional greenschist facies metamorphic as-
semblage; Fig. 2). The cordieritebiotite and andalusite zones have
not developed uniformly along the contact but are most obvious in
the intensely altered volcanic rocks of the Skellefte Group. Coarse-
grained andalusite is best developed where the granite cuts highly
altered, pyritic quartzmuscovite schists in the lower part of the
volcanic succession. The andalusite occurs as large porphyroblasts
( 2 cm) which overgrow the S2 cleavage. Its distribution implies a
pre-metamorphic control related to locally intense synvolcanic
hydrothermal alteration (e.g., high Al2O3 and SiO2) at the base of
the volcanic pile. Coarse-grained andalusite, cordierite, and biotite
are not observed where the volcanic rocks at the contact are less
altered. However, these minerals can be found locally in the al-
teration zones of the VMS deposits (see below). Retrograde chlorite
after cordierite and biotite is also common in the contact zone.
Mineral deposits
The VMS deposits in the Kristinberg area occur at two
main stratigraphic levels; near the base of the complex
(Kristineberg and Kimheden), and at the top of the
volcanic pile near the contact with the overlying Vargf-
ors Group (Ravliden ore horizon). There is a conspic-
uous lack of mineralization in the volcanic rocks
between the Kristineberg-Kimheden and the Ravliden
ore horizons. However, locally intense quartzmusco-
vitechlorite alteration of the intervening volcanic
stratigraphy implies that convective hydrothermal cir-
culation was ongoing throughout the deposition of the
volcanic pile. The sulde deposits are stratiform pyrite
sphaleritechalcopyrite bodies with well-developed
metal zonation but variable metal ratios (Willden 1986).
In all cases, the deposits have been extensively deformed
and metamorphosed along with their host rocks. They
are now mainly elongate bodies with long axes parallel
to the regional eastwest stretching lineation. Except in
the hinges of the main F2 folds, most of the discordant
alteration and stringer mineralization has been trans-
posed into the regional cleavage direction.
The Kristineberg deposit was discovered in 1918
during early electromagnetic surveys of the area by H.
Lundberg, but mining did not commence until 1941. The
geology of the deposit has been described in detail by Du
Rietz (1953). It consists of several stratiform lenses of
massive pyrite and sphalerite with minor chalcopyrite,
including one large lens, about 2030 m in thickness,
and several smaller en-echelon lenses about 3 to 10 m
thick. The ore lenses strike eastwest for more than
1,000 m and dip toward the south at about 50 to 60.
Strong metal zonation suggests that the ore lenses are
upright in their present orientation, but the geometry of
the sulde lenses varies considerably due to folding and
shearing. Sphalerite is most abundant at the top of the
lenses, together with notable amounts of galena and
tetrahedrite. The sphalerite is commonly light-colored
and iron-poor (between 2 and 3 wt% Fe). Copper-rich
ore is located in thin zones immediately below the py-
ritesphalerite lenses, and the foot-wall stockwork zones
are dened by heavily pyrite-impregnated chloritic schist
with abundant quartz. Stringer mineralization is weakly
429
developed and highly transposed, located mainly be-
neath the eastern part of the deposit. The abundance of
pyrite in the wall rock increases in proximity to the de-
posit, and disseminated pyrite envelopes the massive
sulde lenses.
Intense quartzchloritemuscovite alteration occurs
in the deposit, with the strongest chloritization in the
immediate foot wall of the ore lenses. Chlorite-rich rocks
(>30 wt% chlorite) have a maximum strike length of
about 1,500 m and envelope the Kristineberg deposit.
These rocks have taken up much of the strain in the mine
area (Du Rietz 1953). Chloritic wall-rock fragments or
schlieren are common in the massive pyritesphalerite
ores and may be evidence of subseaoor replacement
(e.g., remnants of a host volcanic breccia). Massive
chlorite and talc-rich rocks also occur along the length
of the ore horizon (Du Rietz 1953). Semimassive talc (as
much as 30 wt%) also occurs along the hanging-wall
contact of the main zinc-rich lens, near the thickest part
of the deposit, and is most likely related to the location
of the main discharge zone. Kyanite is an important
accessory mineral in the chloritic stockwork zone and in
quartzchlorite schists between the ore lenses. Du Rietz
(1953) noted a close association between the occurrence
of kyanite and the abundance of disseminated suldes in
the quartzchloritemuscovite schists surrounding the
deposit. The presence of the kyanite is thought to be
related to the aluminous nature of the precursor
hydrothermal alteration immediately surrounding the
massive suldes (see below). Actinolite and tremolite
also occur locally within the massive sphalerite ores, and
anhydrite of probable metamorphic origin has been
reported in the deposit (Edelman 1967).
The Kimheden deposit occurs within felsic and minor
mac tus of the Kimheden Formation, and is inter-
preted to lie at approximately the same stratigraphic
position as the Kristineberg deposit. The mineralization
consists of a number of transposed sulde lenses within a
quartzmuscovitechlorite schist with inliers of more
mac tu. The ore comprises mainly pyritic lenses and is
of low grade.
Four deposits occur along the Ravliden ore horizon.
They have broadly similar bulk compositions (zinc- and
lead-rich compared to Kristineberg and Kimheden) and
similar alteration. The deposits occur within a mixed
unit of felsic and mac tuaceous rocks and argillites at
the transition between the volcanic rocks of the Skellefte
Group and the sedimentary rocks of the Vargfors
Group. Locally abundant calc-silicate minerals associ-
ated with the deposits are thought to be products of
hydrothermal alteration and subsequent metamorphism
of carbonate-altered volcanic rocks. This unusual alter-
ation, and the locally higher grades of silver and lead in
the ores, implies somewhat dierent conditions of min-
eralization than for the Kristineberg and Kimheden
deposits.
The small Horntrask deposit occurs in a folded se-
quence of tuaceous rhyolite with minor andesite, cap-
ped by argillite. The deposit consists of two separate
430
lenses of massive sphalerite and pyrite in calc-silicate
rocks and chlorite schist. The massive sphalerite lenses
are underlain by pyritechalcopyrite stringer mineral-
ization within intensely chloritized, foot-wall felsic vol-
caniclastic rocks. Abundant biotite and phlogopite,
together with minor magnetite and garnet, likely reect
the larger mac component in the host volcanic rocks.
Relics of kyanite porphyroblasts are also observed in the
foot wall of the Horntrask deposit, where they are
pseudomorphed by retrograde muscovite and sericite. A
hanging-wall calc-silicate assemblage of spotted dolo-
mitecalcitechloritetremolitetalc occurs in a calcare-
ous unit immediately above the deposit.
The zinc-rich Ravlidmyran deposit is hosted by a ne-
grained tu (quartzmuscovite schist) immediately
above a more massive rhyolite unit. A biotite-rich vol-
canic breccia occurs in the hanging wall, and the min-
eralized horizon is capped by a thick succession of
greywacke belonging to the base of the Vargfors Group.
As at Horntrask, hanging-wall calc-silicate alteration
occurs above the deposit within a broader zone of cor-
dieritebiotitechlorite alteration.
The Ravliden deposit occurs approximately 1.5 km
south of Ravlidmyran within equivalent volcanic and
sedimentary rocks. The deposit consists of several sep-
arate ore lenses, both copper-rich and zinc-rich, hosted
by quartzmuscovite schists, chlorite schists and gra-
phitic argillite. The alteration at Ravliden is similar to
that at Horntrask and Ravlidmyran.
The drilled prospect at Nyliden occurs in felsic vol-
canic rocks at the contact with the Revsund granite. It
consists of vein and disseminated suldes, including
abundant sphalerite and galena, and garnetiferous calc-
silicate alteration. In this case, the calc-silicate alteration
is in the high-grade contact aureole of the Revsund
granite.
Methodology
Alteration mineral assemblages and mineral chemistry were docu-
mented in 235 samples collected from drill core and surface out-
crops. The samples cover an area of approximately 50 km2 and
encompass the entire felsic volcanic stratigraphy between the Vit-
erliden intrusive complex and the Vargfors Group (Fig. 3). De-
pending on the availability of outcrop and drill holes, sample
spacing was between 200 and 500 m. Wherever possible, sampling
was restricted to the felsic volcanic rocks of the Skellefte Group
(quartzmuscovite and quartzchloritemuscovite schists); obvious
mac volcaniclastic units, argillaceous sediments, and dike rocks
were not sampled. Quartzmuscovite schists (mainly silicied felsic
tus and altered quartzfeldspar porphyry of rhyolitic to rhyoda-
citic composition) account for about 75% of the sampled litholo-
gies. Quartzchlorite schists account for about 20% of the samples.
The chloritic rocks are mainly altered felsic tus, although whole-
rock geochemical data indicate that some highly altered rocks were
probably andesitic in composition (e.g., Table 2). Quartzbiotite
schists, including mac tus, rare mac dikes, and the marginal
facies of the Viterliden porphyry, account for less than 5% of the
sampled lithologies. No samples were collected within the deposit
workings.
Mineral abundances were determined by semiquantitative
X-ray powder diraction, based on peak intensities relative to
whole-rock standards. The diractometer record was processed
using the peak-stripping program JADE, which isolates individual
peaks from the background and corrects for known interferences.
The precision of the method is limited by the sensitivity of the
X-ray detector, and results cannot generally be reported with
accuracy below 5 wt%.
Approximately 1,750 microprobe analyses were obtained on
muscovite, chlorite, biotite, and selected aluminosilicates. On av-
erage, four points were analyzed for each mineral in each thin
section. The mean was used for plotting and contouring of data.
The entire data set is available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00126-
002-0299-y as an electronic supplement to this paper.
Metamorphosed hydrothermal alteration assemblages
Greenschist to lower amphibolite facies metamorphism
has aected all of the felsic volcanic rocks in the Kris-
tineberg area, producing widespread quartzmusco-
vitechlorite schists. The record of regional-scale,
synvolcanic hydrothermal alteration in these rocks is
obscured by the extensive metamorphic recrystallization
and growth of coarse-grained muscovite and chlorite.
Except in close proximity to the massive sulde deposits,
it is commonly dicult to distinguish metamorphosed
hydrothermal alteration from the regional background
(i.e., quartzmuscovitechlorite schists derived from
less altered felsic volcanic rocks). In this section, the
characteristics of metamorphosed alteration most
closely associated with the massive sulde deposits are
described, and mineral abundance maps are used to
recognize large-scale alteration patterns which may be
linked to the deposits. Mineral chemistry, discussed in a
subsequent section, also provides a means of identifying
the eects of hydrothermal alteration through the
metamorphic overprint.
Quartzmuscovitechlorite schists
Coarse-grained muscovite and chlorite are the dominant
phyllosilicates in the hydrothermally altered and meta-
morphosed felsic volcanic rocks proximal to the massive
sulde deposits. Both minerals occur as coarse clots and
crenulated bands, intergrown with quartz. Normative
calculations based on K2O contents indicate back-
ground muscovite contents of about 5 to 10 wt% in the
least-altered volcanic rocks distal to areas of hydro-
thermal alteration (e.g., albite porphyry). In the most
intensely altered rocks, muscovite abundances of more
than 20 wt% are common. Chlorite contents are typi-
cally 5 to 10 wt%, and the most intensely chloritized
rocks contain 15 to 30 wt% chlorite. Because of the
unusually pale color of the chlorite, the relative abun-
dances of chlorite and muscovite are dicult to deter-
mine without a thin section or X-ray diraction analysis.
As a result, many of the sampled lithologies, initially
logged as quartzmuscovite schists, were found to con-
tain subequal amounts of chlorite and muscovite. Near
the Viterliden intrusion and in the contact aureole of the
Revsund granite, retrograde chlorite and muscovite are
 431

also common as pseudomorphs after biotite and cor- chlorite alteration in this area is also contained in
dierite. Pyrite is abundant in the quartzmuscovite mac dikes which intrude the Kristineberg deposit.
schists, averaging about 5 wt% in most rocks and 15 Smaller zones of chlorite alteration, <1 km wide, are
20 wt% in the most pyritic schists proximal to the VMS associated with the Horntrask and Ravlidmyran de-
deposits. posits, where chlorite is generally conned to the im-
Quartzmuscovite rocks, thought to be the meta- mediate ore horizons and the underlying stockworks or
morphosed equivalent of albite-destructive quartzseri- breccia zones. In the contact aureole of the Revsund
cite alteration, occupy an area of at least 30 km2 across granite, the original hydrothermal chlorite was re-
the top of the Viterliden intrusive complex and sur- placed by biotite and cordierite, and it is now present
rounding the Kristineberg deposit, encompassing virtu- as a retrograde mineral.
ally the entire southeastern portion of the map area
(Fig. 5A). This alteration generally conforms to the
contact of the Viterliden intrusion and is most obvious
in the stratigraphically lowest part of the volcanic pile.
Quartzmuscovite rocks with >10 wt% muscovite are
most abundant in a distinctive horseshoe pattern
surrounding the Kristineberg deposit and extending
outward from the deposit for a distance of as much as
4 km (Fig. 5B). Smaller quartzmuscovite alteration
zones are associated with the other deposits in the area.
Although the density of the samples is not uniform, it is
clear that the alteration is not conned to a particular
lithology or stratigraphic horizon. Contouring of albite
and muscovite abundance suggests that several trans-
gressive alteration zones extend from the base of the
volcanic pile up to the Ravliden ore horizon. However,
the internal structure is complex, and these alteration
zones are folded together with their host rocks.
The highest concentrations of chlorite occur in
volcanic rocks within about 2 km of the Kristineberg
deposit (Fig. 5C). This zone includes altered rocks in
both the hanging wall and the foot wall of the deposit
and is surrounded by the much larger halo of quartz
muscovite alteration. A notable concentration of
chlorite (>10 wt%) also occurs adjacent to the Vit-
erliden intrusion, east of the Kristineberg mine, and
may dene part of the hydrothermal upow zone for
the deposit. These rocks partly occupy a high-strain
zone near the main F2 fold axis in the area, and it is
unclear whether the observed alteration is transgressive
or conformable with the S1 foliation. Some of the

c
Fig. 5AC Contoured mineral abundance maps for albite, mus-
covite, and chlorite in the Kristineberg area. A Distribution of
albite, showing large areas of albite destruction near the base of the
Skellefte Group. Bold lines outline areas of <5 wt% albite.
B Distribution of muscovite showing a large halo of quartz
muscovite alteration surrounding the Kristineberg deposit. Bold
lines outline areas of >10 wt% muscovite. C Distribution of
chlorite showing local development of chlorite-rich rocks at the
core of the quartzmuscovite zone. Bold lines outline areas of
>15 wt% chlorite. Locally anomalous quartzchlorite and/or
quartzmuscovite alteration also occurs at Kimheden, Horntrask,
Ravlidmyran, Ravliden, and in the Nyliden area. Possible
discordant zones of albite-destructive alteration, extending upsec-
tion from Kristineberg to the Ravliden ore horizon, are suggested
by the contoured data, although these zones are folded and the
availability of samples between the ore horizons is limited.
Anomalous alteration mineralogy locally extends into volcanic
rocks beneath the cover of sedimentary rocks of the Vargfors
Group. Grid spacing is in kilometers
432
Quartzbiotitecordierite schists
Biotite occurs in all parts of the volcanic succession but
is most abundant in the cordieritebiotite zone in the
contact aureole of the Revsund granite and in the mar-
ginal facies of the Viterliden intrusion where it is ex-
tensively retrograded to chlorite. Throughout much of
the contact zone, the biotite forms ovoid clots or ag-
gregates which appear to be relics of original cordierite.
Biotite is well developed in the sedimentary rocks of the
Vargfors Group and locally in the mac-rich portions of
the Skellefte Group. An unusual yellow-brown to purple
phlogopitic mica is present in the altered albite porphyry
at Horntrask. However, biotite is not a major compo-
nent of the metamorphosed alteration assemblage
associated with the VMS deposits.
Cordierite locally comprises 510 wt% of the rocks in
the contact aureole of the Revsund granite (e.g., in the
Nyliden and Morkliden areas; Fig. 3). The abundance of
cordierite in these areas presumably reects the high
magnesium content of the original VMS-related, hy-
drothermal alteration assemblage. The cordierite forms
poorly dened crystals with abundant inclusions of
chlorite, biotite and muscovite and occurs as streaks in
the foliation.
Quartzmuscoviteandalusite schists
Andalusite-bearing schists are most abundant south of
the Kristineberg deposit, within about 1 km of the
contact with the Revsund granite and close to the mar-
gin of the Viterliden intrusive complex. The outcrops are
mostly white, with a notable pink coloration due to the
presence of the andalusite. Generally, there is a complete
lack of chlorite and little or no cordierite or biotite in
these rocks. The distribution of andalusite can be quite
variable at the outcrop scale, occurring in coarse clots or
in micaceous bands within the quartzmuscovite schists.
The marginal facies of the Viterliden intrusion also
contain locally abundant andalusite. Andalusite-rich
outcrops in the Sater area (Fig. 2) contain as much as
20 wt% andalusite, together with abundant disseminat-
ed pyrite, and are likely related to intense synvolcanic
hydrothermal alteration adjacent to the Viterliden
intrusion.
Large, pinkish gray to brown crystals of andalusite
(36 mm) clearly overgrow the latest cleavage and are
commonly poikilitic, enclosing chlorite and biotite.
Coarse-grained clots of andalusite are mainly pseud-
omorphs after folded bundles of muscovite, with inter-
nal foliations which are thought to be inherited from the
pre-existing phyllosilicates. Microscopic andalusite also
occurs locally as irregular grains in masses of white
mica. Rare grains of corundum are found with the
andalusite, and local diaspore appears to be a product of
retrograde alteration; pyrophyllite was not observed. In
lower-grade rocks, far from the granite contact
(>1 km), the andalusite is poorly crystallized (e.g.,
small anhedral grains and granular aggregates) and has
abundant inclusions of other minerals.
Andalusite, together with large K-feldspar (and to a
lesser extent albite) porphyroblasts, is also developed in
shale units along their contact with the Revsund granite
north of Nyliden. These sedimentary rocks locally con-
tain as much as 10 wt% K-feldspar, which most likely
formed from metamorphic reactions in the contact au-
reole of the intrusion involving pre-existing muscovite
and biotite (e.g., muscovite=Kspar+corundum+H2O
or muscovite+quartz=Kspar+andalusite+H2O).
Calc-silicate assemblages
Calc-silicate alteration associated with deposits along
the Ravliden ore horizon consists of calcite, dolomite,
tremolite, magnesium-rich chlorite, phlogopitic mica,
garnet, talc, diopside. The calc-silicates are con-
spicuous in proximity to the deposits and are thought to
be a product of SiO2-rich hydrothermal uids reacting
with carbonate-rich volcanic rocks above the massive
suldes. The carbonate in the rocks may have originated
from early CO2 metasomatism of the volcanic rocks or
may be related to pre-existing calcareous units within the
tus (e.g., Edelman 1967). Tremolite, which is the
dominant calc-silicate, is typically coarse-grained and
colorless, consistent with a magnesium-rich end-member
composition. The original Ca-Mg-silicates were exten-
sively recrystallized during metamorphism, leading to
the formation of locally abundant garnet.
At Nyliden, near the contact with the Revsund
granite, the calc-silicates are metamorphosed to an as-
semblage of chlorite, biotite, cordierite, garnet and
vesuvianite (idocrase). Margarite (calcium-rich musco-
vite) also has formed by the metamorphic reaction of
hydrous phyllosilicates and carbonate minerals in the
original hydrothermal assemblage. Optically, the marg-
arite is very similar to chlorite, and occurs as needles
intergrown with muscovite (and locally with andalusite)
in the quartzmuscovite matrix.
Other alteration minerals
Epidote and actinolite are uncommon but have been
noted in the more mac units at Kimheden and Horn-
trask. Minor amounts of epidote are also found in mac
dike rocks within the alteration halo of the Kristineberg
deposit. Titanite and rutile are common accessory
phases, and chloritoid is also present locally. Rutile, and
to a lesser extent apatite, are common in the quartz
muscovite and quartzchlorite schists surrounding the
Kristineberg deposit. Staurolite has also been noted at
Kristineberg and Horntrask and seems to be restricted
to the more mac lithologies.
Quartztourmaline veins occur locally in late shears
and reactivated structures (Du Rietz 1953; Edelman
1967; Rickard and Zweifel 1975). These veins are
 433

thought to be related to the intrusion of the Revsund

granite (Willden 1986). Tourmaline is also present lo-
cally in quartzmuscovitechlorite schists in the felsic
volcanic rocks along the Ravliden horizon and, in some
cases, within zones of calc-silicate alteration. However,
tourmaline does not show a coherent map pattern at any
scale.

Mineral chemistry

Chlorite

Chlorite throughout the Kristineberg area is commonly

colorless and dicult to distinguish from the white mi-
cas in drill core and even in thin section. Chlorite com-
positions are typically very homogeneous within
individual samples and, in almost all cases, chlorite
compositions are close to the magnesium-rich end
member (Fig. 6). Only 10 of 167 samples had chlorite
compositions with Fe/(Fe+Mg) ratios >0.5. Although
chlorite is more abundant in the vicinity of the Kris-
tineberg deposit, it is noteworthy that Fe/(Fe+Mg) ra-
tios in chlorite from the deposit are not signicantly
dierent than those of chlorite in the outer quartz
muscovite alteration zone. Slightly more iron-rich chlo-
rite has been documented in the copper-rich ores, but
most of the chlorite associated with the zinc lenses is
magnesium-rich. The high magnesium concentrations in
chlorite throughout much of the lower part of the felsic
volcanic succession (Fig. 7A) are thought to be related Fig. 6A, B Composition of chlorite in the Kristineberg area (all
to voluminous uid ow in this part of the volcanic pile. data). A Histogram of Fe/(Fe+Mg) ratios in Kristineberg chlorites
Similar magnesium-rich chlorite occurs at Horntrask, compared to chlorites from Noranda (Hannington et al. 2002). The
overall low iron contents of Kristineberg chlorites likely reect
Ravlidmyran, and in the Nyliden area, although higher saturation of the volcanic pile with seawater and generally low
Fe/(Fe+Mg) ratios in chlorite are found in volcanic temperatures of alteration. The most iron-rich chlorite in the area is
rocks of mixed mac and felsic parentage (e.g., southeast from feldspar porphyritic dikes or sills which intrude the base of
of Horntrask and near Kimheden). the Vargfors Group sedimentary succession. These samples are
located 100200 m above the contact with the volcanic rocks of the
Chlorite in proximity to the massive sulde deposits Skellefte Group and are considered to be unrelated to hydrother-
is notably enriched in uorine. Fluorine concentrations mal alteration in the underlying felsic volcanic complex. B Hey
locally reach more than 1 wt%, and high uorine is diagram showing chlorite compositions of the Kristineberg area in
also present in coexisting muscovite and phlogopite the ripidolite and sheridanite eld. The shaded area is the eld of
( 1.4 wt%). Fluorine contents are also high in the talc Noranda chlorite
at Kristineberg and Ravlidmyran ( 2.4 wt%; Table 3).
There is poor correlation between uorine and FeO or chlorites are also found at Horntrask, Ravlidmyran and
MgO in most of the chlorite (Fig. 8). Some magnesium- Ravliden.
rich chlorites contain much higher uorine than others,
suggesting that variations in uorine concentrations are
not simply a reection of iron avoidance in the chlorite Muscovite
structure (Munoz 1984). Contoured patterns of uorine
concentrations in chlorite highlight several contiguous Muscovite in the quartzmuscovite alteration zone sur-
zones of uorine enrichment through the volcanic pile rounding the Kristineberg deposit contains between 0.5
(Fig. 7B), which may have been pathways for uorine- and 1.0 wt% FeO and 1.0 to 2.0 wt% MgO, with
rich uids. These correlate well with apparent semicon- notable magnesium enrichment in the most intensely
formable and discordant alteration zones indicated by altered volcanic rocks near the base of the Skellefte
albite-destructive quartzmuscovite alteration (Fig. 5A). Group. However, Fe/(Fe+Mg) ratios in the white micas
Chlorite associated with the large alteration zone are commonly higher than in coexisting chlorite
at the Kristineberg deposit is also enriched in manga- (Fig. 10), consistent with observed relationships in other
nese and zinc, containing as much as 1.7 wt% MnO metamorphically recrystallized phyllosilicate assem-
and 0.35 wt% ZnO (Fig. 9). Similar manganese-rich blages (Laird 1988).
434
Fig. 7A, B Contoured plots of chlorite compositions. A Fe/
(Fe+Mg) ratios in chlorite showing the dominantly magnesium-
rich compositions throughout much of the mineralized stratigra-
phy. Bold lines outline areas of chlorite with Fe/(Fe+Mg)<0.25.
Anomalous, magnesium-rich chlorite is found as far as 3 km along
strike from Kristineberg and in the vicinity of Horntrask and
Ravlidmyran. The distribution of magnesium-rich chlorite is
similar to the observed map pattern for albite-destructive quartz
muscovite alteration (Fig. 5A). B Distribution of uorine-rich
chlorite, showing possible uid ow pathways along strike from
Kristineberg and in several discordant alteration zones leading
upsection to the Ravliden ore horizon. Bold lines outline areas of
chlorite with uorine contents >0.5 wt%. Grid spacing is in
kilometers
Most muscovite has high concentrations of SiO2
(i.e., phengitic compositions: MgSi=Al). Loss of vol-
atiles from the muscovite structure during metamorphic
recrystallization seems to have been important, as the
calculated water-free totals are high in many of the
samples (Table 3). The muscovites are locally barium-
rich, presumably reecting hydrothermal enrichment in
the original alteration assemblage. Most samples con-
tain between 0.2 and 1.0 wt% BaO, with a maximum
of about 6 wt% BaO (Fig. 11); only 8 of 200 samples
had no detectable Ba (<0.1 wt% BaO). The barium-
rich micas are particularly abundant at Kimheden,
Ravlidmyran, and Nyliden, and locally in the marginal
facies of the Viterliden intrusion. However, a consistent
association with all of the deposits is not evident.
Minor amounts of manganese and zinc ( 0.2 wt%
MnO and 0.2 wt% ZnO) are present in most
muscovites but not as much as in coexisting biotite
phlogopite solid solutions (see below). There is no
correlation between manganese and zinc in muscovite
and proximity to known VMS mineralization. Fluorine
concentrations in the white micas reach 1.0 wt% F but
they are commonly lower than in coexisting chlorite
(Fig. 12). The map pattern of uorine enrichment in
the white micas is not as coherent as that for chlorite.
However, strong co-enrichments of uorine in musco-
vite and chlorite occur at Kristineberg, Horntrask and
Nyliden.
Selected analyses were carried out on margarite from
the calc-silicate assemblages at Nyliden (Table 3). The
CaO contents are between 5 and 10 wt%, close to the
margarite end member, and uorine concentrations are
similar to those of muscovite.
Biotite
Most of the biotite in the volcanic rocks of the Skel-
lefte Group is a light yellow-brown color, reecting its
generally low iron content. In the most altered rocks,
the biotite is rich in the phlogopitic end member, and
this seems to reect the magnesium-rich nature of the
precursor hydrothermal assemblage. Near-end-member
phlogopite is found locally in the rocks in the lowest
part of the Skellefte Group, adjacent to the Viterliden
intrusion. These iron-poor compositions are also re-
ected in retrograde chlorite which replaces the biotite
(Fig. 13). More iron-rich biotite compositions appear
to correlate generally with the abundance of mac
material in the rocks, and the most iron-rich compo-
sitions are found in sedimentary rocks of the Vargfors
Group.
Fluorine contents are high in the phlogopitic micas
( 4 wt% F; Fig. 14). They mimic the uorine contents
of chlorite, and the map distribution of uorine-rich
phlogopite highlights the same uorine-enrichment
zones indicated in Fig. 7B. Concentrations of manga-
nese and zinc in biotitephlogopite solid solutions are
also similar to those in chlorite, with the most anoma-
lous samples (1 wt% MnO) occurring in the halo of
alteration surrounding the Kristineberg deposit. Barium
concentrations are lower than in coexisting muscovite
but show similar enrichment trends.
Cordierite was not analyzed in this study, although
the light yellow pleochroism suggests that it is iron-poor.
Andalusite
The composition of andalusite from the Kristineberg
area is compared in Table 4 with that of coarse-grained
andalusite from the Boliden VMS deposit in the eastern
part of the Skellefte belt. The andalusite at Boliden has
 435

Table 3 Representative microprobe analyses of phyllosilicate minerals in the Kristineberg area

Locality Sample Sample SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Cr2O3 FeOtot MnO ZnO MgO CaO SrO BaO Na2O K2O F Cl Total
number

Chlorite
Kimheden KIA-75 n=4 29.02 0.05 22.40 0.02 8.43 0.77 0.16 25.88 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.06 0.04 0.61 0.00 87.56
Kristineberg KRC-775G n=3 28.93 0.10 20.09 0.03 11.08 0.16 0.22 25.78 0.02 0.00 0.06 0.01 0.00 1.14 0.01 87.63
Kristineberg KRC-856G n=4 28.38 0.01 23.34 0.02 4.61 0.08 0.08 29.56 0.05 0.00 0.52 0.03 0.02 0.73 0.00 87.44
Nyliden NYF-9 n=4 25.74 0.13 21.95 0.05 17.12 0.17 0.29 21.74 0.08 0.00 0.17 0.03 0.02 0.24 0.01 87.78
Horntrask HORN-45 n=4 25.00 0.09 23.00 0.02 20.46 0.49 0.08 17.94 0.02 0.01 0.15 0.03 0.01 0.15 0.01 87.47
Horntrask HORN-29 n=4 28.60 0.08 22.56 0.02 4.26 0.07 0.12 29.64 0.05 0.00 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.50 0.02 86.03
Ravlidmyran RAV-6 n=4 31.94 0.02 17.97 0.03 1.77 0.04 0.00 34.38 0.07 0.02 0.05 0.01 0.01 0.64 0.01 86.96
Ravlidmyran RAV-10 n=4 28.47 0.04 23.58 0.02 4.21 0.18 0.09 29.90 0.03 0.00 0.06 0.03 0.05 0.48 0.00 87.15
Ravliden RAV-101 n=4 27.20 0.06 22.23 0.02 13.96 0.17 0.06 23.14 0.05 0.00 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.26 0.00 87.27
Muscovite
Kimheden KIA-75 n=4 45.93 0.38 35.73 0.05 1.22 0.04 0.06 0.88 0.01 0.01 0.33 0.80 10.13 0.28 0.01 95.87
Kristineberg KRC-856G n=4 46.74 0.40 36.46 0.01 0.74 0.04 0.16 1.44 0.05 0.00 0.38 0.62 10.18 0.50 0.01 97.73
Kristineberg KRC-965 n=4 47.16 0.52 36.43 0.01 1.29 0.02 0.09 1.23 0.01 0.02 0.25 0.57 10.05 0.14 0.00 97.80
Nyliden NYF-9 n=4 45.68 0.72 35.15 0.04 0.68 0.03 0.10 0.93 0.02 0.00 0.43 1.15 10.12 0.93 0.01 96.02
Horntrask HORN-45 n=4 46.17 0.42 35.72 0.02 2.12 0.02 0.06 1.06 0.01 0.02 0.62 0.59 10.59 0.13 0.01 97.59
Horntrask HORN-29 n=4 46.39 0.41 35.10 0.04 0.57 0.03 0.12 2.16 0.07 0.01 0.37 0.34 10.53 0.21 0.01 96.39
Ravlidmyran RAV-10 n=4 47.65 0.37 35.80 0.02 0.34 0.02 0.07 1.73 0.03 0.01 0.16 0.39 10.71 0.28 0.01 97.61
Ravlidmyran RAV-1 n=4 45.69 0.22 37.14 0.03 0.55 0.03 0.05 1.82 0.03 0.07 0.26 0.70 9.76 0.27 0.01 96.64
Ravliden RAV-101 n=4 48.16 0.08 33.19 0.02 1.33 0.02 0.07 3.13 0.10 0.03 0.39 0.17 11.04 0.32 0.00 98.07
Talc
Kristineberg KRC-775G n=3 62.86 0.03 0.40 0.02 4.02 0.08 0.12 28.78 0.02 0.00 0.52 0.11 0.01 2.12 0.02 99.11
Ravlidmyran RAV-6 n=2 63.36 0.055 0.17 0.02 1.22 0.01 0.085 31.48 0.4050.00 0.11 0.04 0.00 0.685 0.01 97.64
Biotite
Kristineberg KRC-1006 n=2 36.39 1.94 18.50 0.02 13.99 0.44 0.12 13.98 0.01 0.04 0.30 0.26 9.40 0.81 0.01 96.19
Kristineberg KRC-1473 n=2 34.96 1.53 17.84 0.05 15.62 0.42 0.00 13.72 0.00 0.02 0.03 0.07 10.08 0.37 0.01 94.68
Horntrask HORN-45 n=1 36.33 1.01 16.26 0.00 13.25 0.29 0.00 15.99 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.10 10.62 2.76 0.00 96.80
Horntrask HORN-35 n=1 36.37 1.26 18.08 0.02 15.01 0.34 0.00 13.25 0.04 0.02 0.51 0.09 10.26 0.41 0.00 95.72
Ravlidmyran RAV-203 n=2 34.43 1.31 17.69 0.04 20.86 0.27 0.10 9.94 0.09 0.07 0.15 0.06 9.32 1.15 0.02 95.46
Ravlidmyran RAV-202 n=2 35.68 0.79 17.17 0.00 15.39 0.32 0.00 13.55 0.11 0.01 0.26 0.03 9.76 0.85 0.03 93.91
Phlogopite
Kimheden KIA-76 n=1 36.40 1.52 16.27 0.00 13.08 0.10 0.00 16.10 0.00 0.00 0.81 0.10 10.42 2.57 0.00 97.37
Kristineberg KRC-965 n=3 37.40 1.76 15.94 0.03 11.44 0.12 0.09 16.82 0.03 0.01 0.60 0.06 9.32 0.59 0.00 94.21
Nyliden NYF-9 n=2 37.33 1.45 17.52 0.06 13.11 0.11 0.02 15.07 0.05 0.00 0.15 0.34 9.05 1.32 0.06 95.70
Horntrask HORN-46 n=2 39.83 0.49 17.14 0.00 4.29 0.04 0.00 22.53 0.03 0.11 0.08 0.06 10.55 1.52 0.01 96.67
Hortntrask HORN-42 n=2 37.84 0.54 17.78 0.01 8.35 0.53 0.03 20.00 0.07 0.07 0.13 0.08 9.57 1.35 0.02 96.41
Ravlidmyran R2A-1747 n=1 40.75 0.10 21.00 0.04 3.15 0.53 0.00 20.17 0.02 0.00 0.09 0.13 10.58 0.81 0.01 97.39
Ravliden RAV-101 n=2 38.44 0.51 17.09 0.00 9.57 0.10 0.02 19.18 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.05 10.24 1.75 0.01 97.15
Margarite
Nyliden NYF-9 n=4 31.56 0.09 49.43 0.02 0.14 0.03 0.08 0.08 11.29 0.41 0.00 1.36 0.20 1.15 0.01 95.93
Nyliden NYE-2 n=3 37.76 0.07 47.30 0.08 0.20 0.01 0.08 0.19 6.27 0.15 0.36 2.57 0.31 0.14 0.03 95.53

been interpreted to be the metamorphic product of a

highly aluminous alteration assemblage produced by
extreme acid leaching, similar to that associated with
high-suldation epithermal deposits (Nilsson 1968;
Bergman-Weihed et al. 1996). Conditions associated
with the formation of the metamorphic precursors of
andalusite at Boliden are thought to have resulted in
the quantitative removal of all constituents except
Al2O3 and SiO2 from the altered rocks, and this is re-
ected in the high purity of the andalusite. By com-
parison, andalusite from the Kristineberg area is
distinctly dirty, containing up to 0.7 wt% Fe. It
bears a closer resemblance to the andalusite found in
metamorphosed shales than to andalusite associated
with high-suldation epithermal deposits (e.g., Fig. 15).
Such small dierences in composition may be useful in
distinguishing advanced argillic alteration from other
alteration assemblages in highly metamorphosed terr-
anes.
Discussion
The Kristineberg deposit is enveloped by a large and
partly transposed quartzchlorite alteration zone, ap-
proximately 2 km in diameter. The alteration is both
conformable and transgressive above the deposit. A
distal, but coherent, zone of pyritequartzmuscovite
alteration can also be mapped as far as 4 km from the
deposit. The extent of this alteration is evidence that
laterally extensive uid ow occurred throughout the
lower part of the volcanic succession of the Skellefte
Group, both during and after the formation of the
Kristineberg deposit. The alteration partly overlaps the
interpreted map pattern of the Kimheden Formation.
However, it is clear that the alteration is not conned to
a particular lithology or stratigraphic horizon. Magne-
sium- and uorine-rich chlorite extends well into the
stratigraphic hanging wall, and uorine enrichment can
436
Fig. 8 A Fluorine versus FeO, and B uorine versus MgO in
chlorite from the Kristineberg area (all data). Fluorine contents of
chlorite show a weak positive correlation with MgO and a negative
correlation with FeO, in part reecting the iron avoidance of
uorine in the chlorite structure. However, the large scatter
suggests that the variation in uorine concentrations cannot be
accounted for solely by iron avoidance, and that hydrothermal
uids responsible for the formation of chlorite were likely enriched
in uorine
be traced in chlorite and white micas along discordant
zones leading from Kristineberg to the stratigraphic top
of the volcanic pile. The locally abundant chlorite at the
intrusive contact with the Viterliden complex, immedi-
ately east of Kristineberg deposit, coincides with the
presence of a mac dike swarm which may have been the
locus of high-temperature upow in the area. Semicon-
formable quartzmuscovitechlorite alteration at the
top of the Viterliden intrusion also appears to extend
northward, beyond the Kimheden deposit. However, the
alteration associated with Kimheden itself is discontin-
uous and notably weaker than at the Kristineberg de-
posit. The overprinting metamorphic minerals in all
cases have inherited the hydrothermal signatures of the
precursor minerals, even when new uids may have been
generated by regional and contact metamorphic events.
Magnesium and uorine metasomatism
Intense magnesium metasomatism is associated with all
of the mineralized zones of the Kristineberg area and
Fig. 9 A Abundance of MnO in chlorite and biotitephlogopite
solid solutions from the Kristineberg area (all data). The MnO
concentrations are highest in phlogopitic micas (locally exceeding
1.0 wt% MnO). B Abundance of ZnO in chlorite and biotite
phlogopite solid solutions from the Kristineberg area (all data)
is reected in both the whole-rock and mineral-chem-
ical data. The unusually magnesium-rich compositions
of chlorite contrast sharply with the iron-enrichment
observed in chlorite from other felsic, volcanic-hosted
Precambrian VMS deposits and suggest that the vol-
caniclastic rocks surrounding the Kristineberg deposit
may have been saturated with magnesium-rich sea-
water at the time of mineralization. Nearly complete
xation of iron by the widespread disseminated pyrite
in the felsic volcaniclastic rocks may also have con-
tributed to the low Fe/(Fe+Mg) ratios of coexisting
chlorite (e.g., Richards et al. 1989). The occurrence of
talc, together with magnesium-rich chlorite, in the
foot-wall stockwork zone of the Kristineberg deposit is
similar to that of other talc-bearing VMS deposits,
such as Matagami Lake, Quebec, and Chu Chua in
British Columbia (e.g., Costa et al. 1983; Aggarwal
and Nesbitt 1984), and conrms that large amounts of
seawater were entrained in the upow zone. However,
the additional presence of talc immediately above the
zinc-rich lenses at Kristineberg suggests that some talc
may have been a direct hydrothermal precipitate,
rather than an alteration product, as has been ob-
served at some modern hydrothermal vents (Han-
nington et al. 2001). Similar magnesium enrichment is
evident in the calc-silicate alteration at Ravlidmyran,
 437

Fig. 11 A Abundance of BaO in muscovite from the Kristineberg

area. B Abundance of BaO in biotitephlogopite solid solutions.
BaO concentrations in muscovite range from 0.1 to 1.0 wt% and
reach a maximum of 6 wt%. Biotite and phlogopite have somewhat
lower BaO concentrations
Fig. 10 A Histogram of Fe/(Fe+Mg) ratios in chlorite and
muscovite from the Kristineberg area (all data). B Comparison of
Fe/(Fe+Mg) ratios in coexisting chlorite and muscovite from the
Kristineberg area (all data). In most cases, Fe/(Fe+Mg) ratios are
higher in muscovite than in coexisting chlorite, consistent with
observed relationships in other metamorphically recrystallized
phyllosilicate assemblages (Laird 1988)

Horntrask and Nyliden where the principal magne-

sium-bearing minerals are dolomite, tremolite, garnet,
and vesuvianite.
The high uorine in the Kristineberg area is similar
to that observed in the altered felsic volcanic rocks of a
number of other VMS districts (e.g., Lavery 1985;
Koopman et al. 1999). The enrichment of uorine in
the alteration assemblage is consistent with its behavior
in modern seaoor hydrothermal systems (e.g., Seyfried
and Ding 1995) and in many subaerial geothermal
systems associated with felsic volcanic activity (e.g.,
Yoshida 1990). The presence of the high uorine in
Fig. 12 Comparison of uorine concentrations in coexisting
these systems appears to be signicant in delineating muscovite and chlorite from the Kristineberg area (all data). On
hydrothermal upow zones. At Kristineberg, the average, uorine concentrations are higher in chlorite than in
highest uorine is found in talc from the immediate coexisting muscovite. However, both occur in mineralized zones
hanging wall of the Kristineberg deposit, but notable
uorine enrichment is also found in chlorite throughout precursors. There is no evidence of uorine metaso-
the volcanic pile. The uorine in biotite and phlogopite matism associated with intrusion of the Revsund
appears to be inherited from uorine-rich chlorite granite.
438

Fig. 13 A Comparison of Fe/(Fe+Mg) ratios in coexisting chlorite

and biotitephlogopite solid solutions from the Kristineberg area
(all data). The close correspondence of Fe/(Fe+Mg) ratios in
biotitephlogopite and chlorite is consistent with most of the
chlorite being retrograde after biotite. B Comparison of Fe/
(Fe+Mg) ratios in coexisting muscovite and biotitephlogopite
solid solutions from the Kristineberg area (all data)

Signicance of aluminosilicate alteration

In the contact aureole of the Revsund granite, the

altered volcanic rocks of the Skellefte Group are ex-
tensively recrystallized and are characterized by an
abundance of coarse-grained muscovite, biotite,
cordierite, and andalusite. High-Al2O3, high-SiO2
alteration near the base of the felsic volcanic pile has
responded to the contact metamorphism by the notably
enhanced growth of these minerals, particularly and-
alusite. These assemblages are similar to andalusite-rich
zones which have been found in hydrothermally altered
felsic volcanic rocks in the contact aureoles of other
granitic plutons (e.g., near the Devonian Chessy, Sain-
Bel, and Chizeuil VMS deposits in France; Lemiere et al.
1986, 1988). As at Boliden, andalusite in other
VMS districts has been interpreted to be the metamor-
phic equivalent of advanced argillic alteration such as
Fig. 14 A Histogram of uorine concentrations in biotite and
phlogopite from the Kristineberg area (all data). Fluorine contents
of phlogopite are notably higher than in biotite, in part reecting
the Fe avoidance of F in the biotite structure. B Fluorine versus
FeO in biotitephlogopite solid solutions (all data). C Fluorine
versus MgO in biotitephlogopite solid solutions (all data)
quartzkaolinitepyrophyllite assemblages, similar to
that developed within high-suldation epithermal
systems (e.g., Carolina Slate Belt; Bousquet District,
Quebec; Sykes and Moody 1978; Valliant et al. 1983;
Stone 1990; Ririe 1990; Scheetz et al. 1991; Taner and
Martin 1993). Because the regional metamorphism in
most of these districts is only greenschist grade, the
 439

Table 4 Representative microprobe analyses of andalusite from the Kristineberg area and the Boliden mine
Sample SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Cr2O3 FeOtot MnO ZnO MgO CaO SrO BaO Na2O K2O F Cl Total

Kristineberg
KRC-926G-88.0 36.96 0.00 63.12 0.02 0.41 0.02 0.11 0.07 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 100.75
KRC-1033-1210.5 37.07 0.10 63.80 0.02 0.21 0.00 0.12 0.03 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 101.39
KRC-1732-17.4 37.36 0.00 63.24 0.02 0.75 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.03 0.01 0.07 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 101.57
NYE-2-645.0 34.76 0.09 63.85 0.07 0.19 0.04 0.12 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 99.23
NYF-14-544.5 36.68 0.02 60.38 0.00 0.46 0.00 0.17 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.03 0.02 97.87
MORK-71201 37.10 0.16 63.17 0.01 0.14 0.01 0.17 0.09 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.55 0.00 101.42
97HIB-SW10B 35.99 0.07 64.03 0.06 0.17 0.03 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 100.61
97HIB-SW16 34.48 0.04 63.98 0.01 0.12 0.00 0.22 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.43 0.01 99.46
97HIB-SW18 35.19 0.15 63.96 0.00 0.15 0.00 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.00 0.19 0.03 0.01 0.00 0.00 99.79
TAA97-SW21 36.51 0.06 63.69 0.00 0.20 0.00 0.03 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.17 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 100.72
TAA97-SW21 36.40 0.04 64.19 0.07 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.24 0.02 0.01 0.40 0.00 101.48
TAA97-SW30A 36.59 0.00 61.87 0.02 0.07 0.01 0.00 0.04 0.01 0.00 0.29 0.03 0.00 0.33 0.00 99.26
Boliden
BL354-40.25 35.86 0.00 62.42 0.04 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.02 0.31 0.01 98.77
BL354-40.25 36.87 0.00 63.35 0.02 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.03 0.21 0.00 100.61
BL354-40.25 36.79 0.04 63.63 0.03 0.03 0.06 0.00 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.05 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.02 100.73
BL354-40.25 36.93 0.07 63.43 0.00 0.03 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.14 0.00 100.68
BL355-23.5 35.96 0.00 63.72 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.02 0.00 0.07 0.01 99.96
BL355-23.5 36.62 0.00 63.55 0.00 0.09 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.14 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 100.48
BL355-23.5 36.25 0.00 63.34 0.06 0.06 0.01 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 99.77
BL355-24.2 36.81 0.00 63.83 0.01 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.32 0.01 101.12
BL355-24.2 36.50 0.00 64.04 0.03 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.25 0.00 100.98
BL357-41.0 36.91 0.00 64.22 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.00 0.05 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.11 0.00 101.44
BL357-41.0 37.12 0.01 64.20 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.01 0.00 0.22 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 101.68
BL354-7.9 36.82 0.09 63.48 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.00 100.48
BL354-7.9 36.58 0.04 62.37 0.02 0.09 0.03 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.06 99.32
BL357-11.2 36.00 0.04 64.29 0.01 0.11 0.02 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 100.53
BL357-11.2 35.37 0.00 64.43 0.06 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.00 0.02 0.07 0.01 100.28
BL357-11.2 35.24 0.04 64.98 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 100.53
BL357-11.2 35.43 0.00 63.79 0.01 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.30 0.00 99.77
BL357-11.2 35.27 0.10 63.64 0.00 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.27 0.00 99.51

aluminosilicates appear to have formed out of equilib-
rium with their host volcanic rocks. The andalusite-
bearing outcrops in the contact aureole of the Revsund
granite, south of Kristineberg, represent metamor-
phosed hydrothermal alteration associated with west-
ward-protruding salients of the Viterliden intrusion.
However, these rocks are no more aluminous than many
chlorite- or muscovite-rich alteration zones elsewhere in
the Kristineberg area, and the andalusite is not out of
equilibrium with other metamorphic minerals in the
contact aureole of the Revsund granite. The chemistry
of the andalusite is not signicantly dierent from that
found in metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks in
the contact aureoles of other intrusions, and the iron
contamination in the andalusite suggests that it did not
form as a result of extreme acid leaching of the volcanic
rock precursor.
Kyanite is a key indicator mineral in the alteration
pipes at Kristineberg and Horntrask. The distribution of
kyanite is similar to that found in several other meta-
morphosed felsic volcanic-hosted VMS deposits (e.g.,
the Mattabi deposit at Sturgeon Lake and metamor-
phosed deposits of the Sulitjelma district, Norway; Vogt
1927; Wilson 1973; Franklin et al. 1975; Hudak 1996).
Kyanite is generally considered to be a high-pressure
metamorphic mineral (>2.5 kbar at >400 C), but
there is little evidence for pressures exceeding the sta-
bility of andalusite anywhere in the Kristineberg area.
The unusual persistence of kyanite in the alteration pipes
at pressures below the andalusitekyanite polymorphic
transition may be explained by a number of factors re-
lated to the chemistry of the alteration pipe. Although
the precise eects have not been experimentally con-
strained, a number of studies have noted that certain
trace constituents such as iron, or variations in the ac-
tivity of aluminum may aect the polymorphic transi-
tions and expand the stability eld of kyanite to lower
pressures and temperatures (Kerrick 1990; Bucher and
Frey 1994; Pan and Fleet 1999; Pattison 2001). Several
of these authors also suggest that displacements in the
stability elds of the Al2SiO5 polymorphs may result
from dierences in the grain size of the aluminous pre-
cursors in the alteration pipes, or dierent strain rates
developed in the stockwork zones compared to the un-
altered country rocks during regional metamorphism.
Hemley et al. (1980) also pointed out that the Al2SiO5
triple point can be displaced to lower temperatures by
variation in the PH2O. This seems likely in a precursor
assemblage which is dominated by abundant hydrous
phyllosilicates.
Implications for exploration
This study shows that the alteration associated with
a Kristineberg-sized deposit (ca. 21 Mt) should be
440
Fig. 15 Comparison of trace iron contents in andalusite from the
Kristineberg area and from similar aluminosilicate-bearing schists
in other VMS districts. Preliminary data suggest that the
aluminosilicates associated with advanced argillic alteration have
very low concentrations of iron (e.g., andalusite from Boliden and
the Bousquet deposit, Quebec; kyanite from the Sturgeon Lake
volcanic complex, Ontario). By contrast, the relatively high iron
contents in andalusite from quartzmuscovite schists at Kristine-
berg resemble those of metamorphosed shales (e.g., range shown is
for andalusite from metasedimentary rocks of the Pretoria Group
in the contact aureole of the Bushveld complex). The comparison
suggests that the andalusite-bearing schists at Kristineberg are
mainly a product of contact metamorphism of the background
alteration and do not indicate extreme acid leaching of the volcanic
precursor. Data for Bousquet, Sturgeon Lake, and the Pretoria
Group are from M. Hannington (unpublished data). Bars indicate
ranges of data; arrows indicate mean of analyses (see text for
discussion)
mapable at scales of 1:20,000 to 1:50,000 and extend
well beyond the limits of the deposit. Although stan-
dard whole-rock alteration indicators (e.g., sodium
depletion) are suited to the characterization of altered
stratigraphy at the regional scale, alteration indicators
based on feldspar destruction are not reliable vectors
to mineralization within 23 km of the deposits. In
large-scale alteration zones such as these, detailed
mineralogy and mineral chemistry studies oer en-
hanced denition of hydrothermal upow zones. In the
Kristineberg area, prospective alteration includes (1)
widespread albite-destructive, quartzmuscovite as-
semblages at distances >2 km, (2) abundant magne-
sium-rich chlorite with elevated F, Mn and Zn within
2 km (Fig. 7), and (3) anomalous aluminosilicate-rich
alteration with talc or calc-silicate mineral assemblages
proximal to mineralization (Table 5). The largest al-
teration zones are clearly associated with the largest
deposits. Quartzchlorite alteration at Kristineberg
encompasses an area of at least 510 km2. However,
Table 5 Metamorphosed hydrothermal alteration in felsic volcanic
rocks of the Kristineberg area
Proximal alteration ( 2 km) Distal alteration (>2 km)
Alteration facies
Chloritequartz alteration Muscovitequartz alteration
(albite-destructive)
Phlogopitic mica
Calc-silicates
Talc
Kyanite
Mineral chemistry
Chlorite (Mg, F, Mn, Zn) Muscovite (F, Ba)
Phlogopite (F, Ba, Mn, Zn) Chlorite (Mg, F)
Muscovite (F, Ba)
Talc (F)
similar alteration associated with the much smaller
Kimheden, Horntrask, or Ravlidmyran deposits can-
not be traced for more than 1 km along strike. Im-
proved delineation of alteration zones which extend
upsection through the volcanic pile (e.g., discordant
zones of uorine-rich chlorite; Fig. 7) can help to
target drilling in the overlying volcanic rocks and also
may highlight areas of potential mineralization beneath
the cover of sedimentary rocks of the Vargfors Group
sediments.
In proximity to the deposits, metamorphism enhances
the outcrop signature of the hydrothermal alteration,
and even weak alteration zones can have a large visible
footprint where the rocks have been extensively recrys-
tallized. Mineral-chemical signatures in the alteration
are preserved through the regional and contact meta-
morphism, and original uorine-rich chlorite assem-
blages can be recognized by the presence of uorine-rich
biotitephlogopite solid solutions. The notably coarse-
grained aluminosilicates developed adjacent to the
Revsund granite may also be an indication of mineral-
ization at depth. For example, there could be room to
accommodate another large VMS deposit in the area if
the Revsund granite recedes towards the south, below
the present level of drilling. Similar metamorphic min-
eral assemblages adjacent to post-orogenic intrusions
elsewhere in the district may be an important guide to
buried mineralization.
Acknowledgements This study was funded by the Canadian Min-
ing Industry Research Organization (CAMIRO Project 94E07 on
the Use of Regional-Scale Alteration Zones and Subvolcanic In-
trusions in the Exploration for Volcanic-Associated Massive Sul-
phide Deposits). Boliden AB is thanked for their encouragement
and support during this project. We especially thank Wiking An-
dersson, Benny Mattsson, Rolf Jonsson, Roger Nordin, Sven-Ake
Svenson, Mats Willden, Bertil Sandstrom, Annika Wasstrom, Erik
Lundstam, Pia Fagerstrom, Hans Areback and Rodney Allen for
their help during eldwork. This project was made possible through
the considerable eorts of the sta at the Boliden core facility and
the SGU core library at Mala. An earlier version of this paper was
substantially improved by helpful comments from R. Springer,
D.F. Sangster, and R.J. Goldfarb. This is GSC Contribution No.
2001179.

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