CHAPTER 4

SMALL AMPLITUDE WAVE THEORY

The theories lying behind the coastal hydraulics are rather complicated. Thus a simplified
theory that omits most of the complicated factors is useful. The assumptions made in
developing the simple theory should be understood, because not all the assumptions are
justified in all problems. The basic assumption is that wave height compared to wave
length (H/L) and to water depth (H/d) is small. This leads to a wave theory that is variously
called small amplitude, theory linear theory, airy theory, first order theory. Since waves
occurring in nature have the wave steepness H/L usually at most 0.05 to 0.08, one could
believe that the linearization represents a good approximation for all practical purposes.
Thus all terms in the order of (H2 /L2) can be neglected in comparison with terms (H/L).
The theory developed by using this approximation which is called small amplitude wave
theory provides insight for all periodic wave behaviour and it is adequately used for most
coastal engineering problems.

4.1. Linearization of the Surface Wave Problem

For small amplitude waves: (waves are two dimensional)

H
<< 1
L
......(4.1)
H
<< 1
d

is valid. Accordingly;

a) The nonlinear terms of the boundary conditions u and ( u 2 + w 2 ) (Eq.3.6 and Eq.
x
3.7) are smaller than the other terms, and thus can be neglected.

b) It is accurate enough to satisfy the free surface boundary conditions at z = 0 instead of

z = (x, t) .

c) It is further assumed that: water depth (d) is constant (sea bottom is horizontal).
Equations and Boundary Conditions for the Linearized Wave Problem

Laplace Equation;

Then Laplace equation

2 2 x +
+ =0 ....(4.2)
x 2 z 2 d z 0

must be solved for two-dimensional case with the appropriate boundary conditions;

1. lim x = FiniteValue

2. w = =0 on z = d seabed....(4.3)
z

3. w = = on z = 0 free surface (kinematic condition)...(4.4)
z t

1
4. = on z = 0 free surface (dynamic condition)..........(4.5)
g t

5. Wave pressure will be solved from the Linearized Bernouille Equation

P
+ + gz = 0 ............................................................................................................(4.6)
t

4.2. Solution for the Velocity Potential

The complete boundary value wave problem is given by;

Differential equation

2 2
+ = 0 ..........(4.7)
x 2 z 2

Boundary condition

=0 on z = - d at the sea bed.........(4.8)

z

1
= on z = 0 at the free surface.....(4.9)
g t

A powerful method for the solution of partial differential equations is the method of
separation of variables in which a solution is assumed in product form, each term of the
product being only a function of one of the independent variables. For this case, we assume

(x, z, t) = X(x) Z(z) T(t) .....(4.10)

Where X is a function (to be determined) of x alone

Z is a function (to be determined) of z alone

And T is a function (to be determined) of t alone.

If Eq.(4.10) is substituted into Eq.(4.7), the result is

X '' Z T + X Z '' T = 0 ..(4.11)

where each prime denoted differentiation once with respect to the particular independent
variable. Dividing both sides of the above by X Z T gives

X '' Z ''
=
X Z

The test of whether the method of separation of variables will work is if the results can be
put into a form such as Eq.(4.11), in which each group of terms is a function of one
variable only. Since each group of terms in Eq.(4.11) depends upon only one variable, then
each variable (say x) can be varied without requiring any prescribed variation in the other
variable (z). It can then be stated that the ratios X '' X and Z '' Z cannot vary and
therefore must be equal to a constant. Calling this constant k2, Eq.(4.11) becomes

X '' Z ''
= = k 2 .....(4.12)
X Z

From which two differential equations are formed:

X '' + k 2 X = 0 ........(4.13)

Z '' k 2 Z = 0 .......(4.14)

The solutions of which are

X = A cos kx + Bsin kx

Z = Ce kz + De kz
Where A, B, C and D are arbitrary constants.

The solution, according to Eq.(4.10), can now be written in the form

( x , z, t ) = ( A cos kx + B sin kx ) ( C e kz + D e kz ) T ( t ) (4.15)

Since solutions are desired which are simple harmonic in time, it is reasonable to express
T ( t ) as cos t or sin t. where (i.e., =2 /T) , In order that the velocity potential

expressed by Eq.(4.15) be periodic in t with wave period T, it is necessary that the constant
(i.e., =2 /T) defined as angular wave frequency , will be given by ;

2
=
T

It is clear that as t increases by an increment equal to T, the sine and cosine functions
repeat and the velocity potential expressed by Eq.(4.15) is becomes periodic in time with
period T as shown in Fig.4.1.

0 2 t

Figure 4.1 Definition sketch

There are four separate elementary combinations of the terms which are periodic in x and t
which themselves are solutions to Laplaces equation:

1 = A 1 ( Ce kz + De kz ) cos kx cos t .(4.16)

2 = A 2 ( Ce kz + De kz ) cos kx cos t .(4.17)

3 = A 3 ( Cekz + De kz ) cos kx cos t .(4.18)

4 = A 4 ( Ce kz + De kz ) cos kx cos t .(4.19)

Breaking solution up in this manner facilitates evaluation of the unknown coefficients,

since Laplaces equation is linear, the separate solutions may later be recombined linearly
if necessary to achieve satisfaction of both Laplaces equation and the appropriate
boundary conditions.

The boundary conditions (4.8) and (4.9) will now be applied to the first of these
elementary solutions (1) to solve for the unknown coefficients

1
z = A1 cos kx cos t Cke kh Dke kh = 0
z = h

From Eq.(4.19) this must be zero for all x and t, thus

C = De 2 kh .(4.20)

and
ek ( d + z ) + e k ( d + z )
1 = 2A1 De kd cos kx cos t
2

(ex + e-x )
or using coshx =
2
1 = 2A1 De kd cosh k ( d + z ) cos kx cos t .(4.21)

Applying (4.9) to (4.21):

1 1 2A1 kd
= = De cosh kd cos kx sin t
g t z =0 g

The maximum value of is the wave amplitude a, and will occur when cos kx sin t = 1.
from this we obtain;
 ag
A1 De kd = .(4.22)
2 cosh kd

and thus

= a cos kx sin t

The velocity potential 1 is now;

ag cosh k (d + z)
1 = cos kx cos t ..(4.23)
cosh kd

In order that 1 be periodic in x with wave length L, it is necessary that the constant k, first
introduced in Eq.(4.12), will be given by ;
2
k=
L
which is commonly referred to as the wave number.

The constants in the other elementary ' s can be evaluated in a similar fashion, yielding,
in summary:

ag cosh k (d + z)
1 = cos kx cos t.................................................................(4.24)
cosh kd

ag cosh k (d + z)
2 = + sin kx sin t ..................................................................(4.25)
cosh kd

ag cosh k (d + z)
3 = sin kx cos t ..................................................................(4.26)
cosh kd

ag cosh k (d + z)
4 = + cos kx sin t..................................................................(4.27)
cosh kd

As was mentioned earlier, these elementary solutions may be combined linearly, and due
to the linearity of Eq.(4.2) the combination will also be a solution to the problem.
By subtracting Eq.(4.24) form Eq.(4.25) and making use of the trigonometric identity
cos kx cos t + sin kx sin t = cos(kx t)

We obtain
ag cosh k (d + z)
= 2 1 = cos(kx t) .......................................................(4.28)
cosh kd

is obtained.

From (4.9) the surface profile is;

1
= t = a sin(kx t) .....(4.29)
g z=0

which is periodic in x and (t). Moving along with the wave such that at all time (t), the
position relative to the wave form remains fixed as shown in Fig.4.2, then;

(kx t ) = constant

t1 t2
C
A A
X
X1 X2

2
kx1 t1 = kx2 t 2 k =
L

Figure 4.2 Definition sketch

And the speed with this is accomplished, is given by

dx L
= = = C ..(4.30)
dt k T
In the positive x direction, the profile moves with the speed of wave propagation velocity
C which is defined as wave celerity. Equation (4.28) thus represents the velocity potential
for a progressive wave traveling in the positive x direction. Note that this single equation
describes the complete velocity field beneath a wave, and through use of the integrated
equation of motion, the pressure field may also be determined.

In a similar fashion the corresponding velocity potential for a progressive wave traveling in
the negative x direction is obtained from the combination (1 + 2 ) . That is:
It is obvious that both (4.28) and (4.30) satisfy Laplaces equation and the boundary
conditions.

ag cosh k ( d + z )
= (1 + 2 ) = cos( kx + t ) ..(4.31)
cosh kd

It can be easily verified that the combinations (3 + 4 ) and (3 4 ) produce relations

identical to (4.28) and (4.31) except for a substitution of sine for cosine in the harmonic
term. This substitution amounts only to a shift in wave phase with respect to the origin of
the coordinates.

ag cosh k (d + z)
= (3 + 4 ) = sin(kx t) ....(4.32)
cosh kd

Using , from Eq.(4.9) the surface profile given in Eqn.4.29 can be written as;

= a cos( kx t ) .....(4.33)

With the expression for the velocity potential describing wave motion, wave characteristics
and the relationships between the various parameters involved in wave motion can be
investigated.

In the following chapters, equations related to particle velocities and trajectories will be
defined using Eq.(4.33).
4.3 Wave Profile

Wave profile can be expressed as:

2 2
= a cos(kx t) = a cos( x t) ..(4.34)
L T
The definition for the wave profile is given below with reference to Figure 4.1.

Definitions:

Wave profile ( ) : Vertical displacement of the sea surface from the still water level
(SWL) as a function of time and space.

Wave crest: The highest point of the wave profile.

Wave trough: The lowest point of the wave profile.

Wave amplitude (a): The vertical distance from the still water level to the wave crest.

Wave height (H): The vertical distance from wave trough to the wave crest. It is equal to
twice the wave amplitude (H=2a).

Wave length (L): The horizontal distance between two successive crests or troughs.

Wave period (T): The time interval between the passages of two successive crests past a
fixed point.

Wave frequency (f): The number of waves to pass a given point per unit time. It is equal
to the reciprocal of wave period (f=1/T).

Wave number (k): 2 times the number of the waves per unit horizontal distance. It is
equal to the reciprocal of the wave length times 2 (k= 2 /T).

Angular wave frequency ( ) : It is equal to the wave frequency times 2 ( = 2 / T ) .

Wave celerity (C): The speed at which a wave form moves. Since the wave moves one
wave length during a wave period, the wave celerity is equal to the ratio of wave length to
wave period (C=L/T).
Figure. 4.3 Definition Sketch for Sinusoidal
4.4 Wave Celerity, Length and Period

The wave celerity relationship may be determined by noting that waves are of very small
amplitude, which implies that the surface slopes are also small, and in this case the rate of
rise of the water surface at any point, i.e., t , is approximately equal to the vertical
velocity component w at the same point; i.e., on the surface
0
d x
w = = +
dt t x t
thus

w on z=0
t

but since

1
=
g t z = 0
and

w =
z

1 2
2
= on z = 0 ...(4.35)
g t z

is obtained.

From Eq.(4.29) (a progressive wave moving in the positive x direction)

1 2 cosh k(d + z)
2
= ag cos(kx t)
g t cosh kd

and

agk sinh k(d + z)

= cos(kx t)
z cosh kd

Applying (4.35) at z = 0;

gk
= tanh(kd)

2 = gk tanh(kd) .(4.36)
Since C = L / T = k / , then = k C , Eq.(4.36) may be written

g
C2 = tan h ( k d ) ..(4.37)
k

g
C= tan k(kd) ...(4.38)
k

Equation (4.37) expresses the rate of propagation of a surface wave as a function of water
depth and wavelength L. The manner which the wavelength varies with depth is found to
be (from Eq. 4.38) bearing in mind that C=L / T;

gT 2 2 d
L= tanh ...(4.39)
2 L

g= 9.81 m/s2
2 d
L=1.56T2 tanh .......................................................................................................(4.40)
L
Note that if the wave period T and water depth d are known, then it is a trial and error
procedure to determine the wavelength L and wave celerity C. In order to avoid this trial
and error procedure; special tables, Gravity Wave Table (GWT) and graphs are available.

4.5 Constancy of Wave Period

Wave characteristics (example: wave length, height, celerity etc.) vary as the wave
progresses in water of the gradually changing depths. The only wave characteristic, which
does not change with depth, and is therefore a convenient reference parameter, is the wave
period. The fact that the wave period is constant can be established by considering these
waves to enter the region through Sec.1 of figure (Fig.4.2) below and to leave the region
through Sec.2. Furthermore let the period of these waves entering be T1 and of those
leaving T2. After an arbitrary elapsed time interval t the number of waves which have
entered the region is n1=t/T1, while the number which has left is n2=t/T2. The number of
waves accumulated within the region is thus;
 1 1
number of waves accumulated within the region = n1-n2 = t
T1 T2

however, the time increment t is arbitrary and as t the number of waves

accumulated within the region is either (+)(-) , depending on whether T1>T2 or T1<T2
either case being physically unrealistic. The only realistic possibility, then, is for T1=T2=T
and, since the location or length of the region was not specified, this result must hold in
any depth. Thus, the result is proven

Sec1 Sec2

Direction of wave
propagation Beach

Decreasing depth

Figure 4.4 Definition sketch for constancy of wave period

For a simple harmonic wave train, the wave period is

independent of depth