Bangladesh: Taka 58.00 / Pakistan: Rs 58.00 / Nepal: Rs 38.00 / Sri Lanka: Rs 117.00 / Maldives: Rf 28.

00 Bhutan: Ngultrum 24 / Rest of the World (South): US $2.70 / Rest of the World (North): US $3.40

01Cover.indd 3
1-15 APRIL, 2016

SCIENCE AND ENVIRONMENT FORTNIGHTLY

DIRTY
How 1.75 million tonnes of
TRICKS
excreta is disposed of every day
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 AGENDA FOR

SURVIVAL JUNE 2016

See 2015 assi Special

gnment
FOOTPRINT (o discount for
nline) Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) is now accepting
https://goo.g students of faculty
l/kYOGPF applications for its 2016 summer course Agenda for Survival who attended
FOOTPRINT (p Knowledge
rint) (Wednesday 1st to Thursday, 30th). This four week innovative
https://goo.g Conclave
l/oKzmDw
program gives the youth of India an opportunity to evaluate
issues that lie at the interface of environment and development;
poverty; democracy, equity and justice.

Learning mode: This residential course
will give young minds an opportunity to
interrogate policy makers & activists, hear
leading academics, policy pundits, lawyers,
learn from the grassroots communities and
CSEs research and advocacy team. One of
the highlights of the course is the field-based
module to explore the community-led-eco-
restoration efforts of rural India
Course assignment: Assignments are
designed to help participants to polish their
communication skills, field based reporting
and writing to understand environment as a
subject of coverage. With the help of CSEs
publication unit, they get to publish their
own magazine at the end of the course.
Eligibility: This summer school is open to
applicants between the ages of 18-25 from
all streams.
The course will cover:
Fee: INR 26,000/ this covers cost of the course,
food and stay (shared accommodation) at a MODULE 1: State of Indias
walking distance from training venue. environment
MODULE 2: Urban growth
Kamla Chowdhry Fellowships: Awarded to
selected candidates to support stay in Delhi. challenges
MODULE 3: Climate change
How to apply: Click here to fill the form:
MODULE 4: Field visits and
https://goo.gl/ymrQd9
reporting
Contact:
Ranjita Menon (ranjita@cseindia.org)
Sharmila Sinha (sharmila@cseindia.org)

For more: Log on to http://cseindia.org/content/agenda-survival

02 apr15 2016
02Agenda for survival Ad 2016.indd 49 25/03/16 12:59 PM

WHY WE CANNOT
IGNORE THE POOR
S
OME FORTNIGHTS ago, I had discussed the issue of
poverty and environment. I had then said that the ques-
tion today is not whether the poor are responsible for
environmental degradation but whether environmental
management works if it does not address inequality
and poverty. Why?
Take air pollution in our cities. Today, a minuscule number of
people in Delhi and other cities of the emerging world drive a car. In
Delhi, the estimate is that only 15 per cent commute by car. But air
pollution is high and congestion is crippling. Can these cities com-
bat air pollution, given that more and more people will drive? Is it
possible to plan for the remaining 80-85 per cent? Is there space on
the road, or space in the air?
Clearly, it is not possible. Our research has
pointed out that unless we reinvent mobility at a
scale not seen before, we cannot have clean air. A
few years ago, in a landmark judgement the Delhi
High Court had ruled that roads need to be planned
taking into account equity of usethose who use
more, should get more space. Today, the bulk of our
cities population walks, cycles or takes a bus. It
does so because it is poor. But we need to take the
bus, cycle and walk when we are rich, and not wait
till cars have occupied all the roads. Therefore, un-
less the strategy to combat air pollution moves from
fixing the tail-pipe emissions of each car to plan-
ning for affordable and inclusive mobility, we will
not get clean air. This will not be easy. But one thing is clear that the
solutions must work for the poor, for them to work for the rich.
Take water pollution. Indian rivers are increasingly polluted,
but again the question is whether we can clean them when a large
number of people do not have access to sanitation and clean water.
Our report, Excreta Matters, showed why policy had to change. The
current system of water and waste management is capital-intensive
and it creates division between the rich and the poor.
The state has limited resources and can only invest in providing
for someinvariably the rich and not the poor. But if only a part of
the city has access to clean water and underground sewerage, pol-
lution control will not work. The reason is simple: the treated waste
of a few will be mixed with the untreated waste of many. The end re-
sult will be pollution.
It is also clear that the greater the pollution, the higher the cost
of cleaning water. Even the rich in our cities cannot afford the cur-
rent costs of delivering water, then taking back waste and treating
it before disposal into rivers. So, either water is not supplied to all or
1-15 APRIL 2016
03Editors.indd 3
EDITORS PAGE
www.downtoearth.org.in/blogger/sunita-narain-3
sewage is not treated. The solution has to be to invest in affordable
solutions for water and waste that meet the needs of all. Only then
can we have clean rivers.
Then take climate change, which is today hurtling the world to-
wards uncertain weather and crippling devastation. In 1990, my
colleague Anil Agarwal and I argued in our publication Global
Warming in an Unequal World that the world cannot combat cli-
mate change unless the agreement is fair and equitable. Today, the
same issue is on the table. If the solutions cannot meet the needs of
allis equitableit will not work. The global carbon budgetthe
amount of carbon dioxide that can be emitted without crossing the
threshold of temperature risehas been disproportionately appro-
priated by the already rich. Their current low level of ambition
means they continue to emit more, thus, take up
more space. But one should understand that eco-
nomic growth is linked to emissions, so tomorrow
the poor, who are getting richer, will also pollute.
In this way, all will be at risk.
The solution is not to ask the poor not to get
rich. This is what the Paris Agreement on climate
change, signed last December, is hoping to get
away with. It is built on the premise that last part
of the still developing world can build its future on
a limited and much too little share of the global
carbon budget. It assumes that this world will not
need to emit to grow, or not need to grow at all.
This is not possible. So, what will happen is that
India and many in Africa will add to the carbon dioxide in the at-
mosphere. This will mean that the world will not be able to keep the
temperature rise below the safe threshold. Climate justice is not a
luxury, but a pre-requisite for an effective deal.
It is then clear that the discourse on environment and develop-
ment must be reframed so that it is built on the premise that sus-
tainable development is not possible if it is not equitable. In other
words, growth has to be affordable and inclusive.
But most important is that we re-articulate that the environ-
mental challenge is not technocratic but political. We cannot
neuter politics of access, justice and rights, and still hope to fix en-
vironmental problems.
@sunitanar
www.downtoearth.org.in 3
25/03/16 1:38 PM
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letters

ARUN SHARMA
Not another Chennai
This refers to your comprehensive cover story on the Chennai floods, Chennai
apart (1-15 January, 2016). The article has accurately co-related the vanishing of
water bodies and urban flooding in India. Urban floods are bound to increase
given to the authorities' indulgence of land and builder mafias who encroach
upon lakes and ponds. Indeed, it is obvious that the callous and casual attitude of
the government of Tamil Nadu led to the catastrophe in Chennai in the first place.
As a scientist, I appreciate the stellar role played by the India Meteorological
Department (imd) in giving the best daily weather forecast as well as warning
signals to the whole of Tamil Nadu, including Chennai, during December, 2015. At
the same time, I feel that not much importance is given to the forecasting of the
Northeast monsoon by the Central as well as Tamil Nadu governments although it
plays an equally crucial role in the economics, planning, policy making and
agriculture of south India as the Southwest monsoon. In the current scenario,
when all adverse weather phenomena have become the norm, a more detailed
study is required to link the El Nio Southern Oscillation (enso) with the Northeast
as well as Southwest monsoons of India by analysing sufficient historical
databases. Also, a thorough analysis of Probable Maximum Precipitation (pmp)
with the return period of storms of 10, 15, 20 and 25 years should be made
and studied.
It is time the general public, non-profits and student communities became
Down To Earth welcomes involved in protecting and restoring lakes, ponds and other water bodies in
letters, responses and metropolitan cities. We also need an integrated approach between
other contributions from administrators, scientists, engineers, agriculturists and policy makers to avoid
readers. Send to Sunita disasters like the Chennai flood in the future. Unfortunately in India, natural
Narain, Editor, Down To
calamities like famines, earthquakes and floods are mostly handled in a curative
Earth, 41, Tughlakabad
Institutional Area,
mode rather than a preventive mode.
New Delhi - 110062. Email: K KAILASANATHAN
editor@downtoearth.org.in PRINCIPAL SCIENTIST (CLIMATE RESOURCES)
IC AR, IARI, NEW DELHI

1-15 APRIL 2016 www.downtoearth.org.in 5

05-07Letters.indd 5 21/03/16 4:27 PM

letters
Unfair selection
This refers to the article
Smarties to get smarter
(16-29 February, 2016). By
selecting certain cities and
leaving out others in its
recent list of smart cities,
the National Democratic
Alliance government led by the
Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)
has clearly shown its bias. It
has selected cities only from
states ruled by the BJP or its
allies. This is evident from the
fact that only two cities from
Andhra Pradesh and none
from Telangana made it to
THINKSTOCK PHOTOS
the final list. The same step-
motherly treatment was meted
out to Bihar. These actions of
the Central government have
hurt the states. One hopes
the Centre would correct the
anomaly by including more
cities from backward states in
the list without delay so that
there is equitable justice.
K R SRINIVASAN
SECUNDERABAD
The list of smart cities
unveiled recently by the
government shows the bias
of planners (who are mostly
urban) in India. About 70 per
cent of India's population
lives in villages but gets
step-motherly treatment
when funds are allocated
for development. We need
to make not just our cities
and towns but also our
villages smart. Villages
too deserve to have better
communication, transport
links, schools, hospitals and
employment opportunities
so that migration to towns
and cities in search of better
living and employment can be
reduced. Instead of investing
in smart cities, we should be
developing satellite towns and
decongesting cities to improve
citizens' quality of life. But is
anyone listening?
D B N MURTHY
BENGALURU
Clean up your act,
banks
This refers to the story Banks
at a loss (1-15 March, 2016).
As the piece points out, the
current crisis among Indian
banks has occurred because
they had acquired a large
quantum of non-performing
assets. These eat into profits

http://www.facebook.com/down2earthindia
Even if they have missed out on allocation,
does it make any difference? India tops global
malnutrition lists despite Central and state
schemes to eradicate malnourishment. These
schemes, then, are just to win elections.
Do you agree that RATIKANTA KUANR
the government It is unfair to single out the Centre on this issue.
missed out on fund The states must also contribute to eradicating
malnutrition from the money they are getting
allocation for fighting from the Centre.
malnutrition in this SASHANKA KABI SATPATHY
year's Budget? It is wrong to target the government. Because
while no one bats an eyelid on the utilisation
of allocated funds, everyone gets crazy over
reduced allocations.
NAKUL KORADE
According to the Finance Commission, states
get 42 per cent of the divisible tax pool.
Moreover, we should bother more about
utilisation than allocation.
SHARDENDU NARAYAN
Malnutrition can be tackled by the transparent
allocation and implementation of funds.
MUKUL DAGA

6 DOWN TO EARTH 1-15 APRIL 2016

05-07Letters.indd 6 21/03/16 4:27 PM


and that is why banks hide them. In fact,
banks further lend to corporates and help
them service their past loans. High level
of non-performing assets in Indian banks
is nothing but a reflection of the state of
health of the industry and trade. Credit
is the backbone of the banking structure.
Diminishing growth rates for credit with
rising non-performing assets are not good
news for the banking system. Measures
need to be put in place to arrest this
downward slide, and the deceleration of
lending is definitely not the answer.
VINOD DIXIT
AHMEDABAD
SORIT / CSE
loanees are required to furnish a 100 per
cent guarantee for the loan amount they
seek by way of pledging their immovable
assets plus a support of sound financial
guarantors, no such conditions are
mandatory for big industrialists who gulp
down crores of rupees of loans. Thanks
to the Supreme Court, the rot has been
unearthed and the Union government has
been directed to take measures to redeem
the public money. More than `3 lakh
crore of such bad loans termed as NPAS in
banking parlance cannot and should not
be waived off. In contrast, the small loans
given to farmers and petty entrepreneurs
are peanuts. In case of small loans, banks'
Get up, stand up
This refers to the column Sit up India,
start worrying (1-15 February, 2016).
It is unfortunate that even after two
years Prime Minister Narendra Modi has
failed to appreciate the ground realities
of India and its people. He is still selling
pipe dreams like bullet trains, smart
cities and the like while the majority of
Indians travel on rail coach roof tops and
live in slums around big cities without
even the most basic of amenities. Start
up India, stand up India is yet another
utopian dream which has been tailored
for the technology-driven elite but
lacks the most basic infrastructure.
Instead of this fancy scheme, the Modi
government should work on essentials for
rural India like education, employment,
TARIQUE AZIZ / CSE

The story is a startling revelation for

all investors and taxpayers whose hard-
earned money is being squandered by
nationalised banks in advancing huge
loans to unscrupulous industrialists. It
also shows a hopeless contrast between
petty and big loanees. While petty
recovery follow-up is so strong that
many farmers end their lives to avoid the
humiliation of not being able to repay
their debt in time. The big defaulters feel
no such compunction
KIRAN SHARMA
VIA EMAIL
skill development and entrepreneurial
incentives for small units for local
consumption based on local material like
food and fruit processing.
R M RAMAUL
PAONTA SAHIB

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1-15 APRIL 2016 www.downtoearth.org.in 7

05-07Letters.indd 7 21/03/16 4:28 PM

contents
24

11

More power
to her
Women's
18 representation in
panchayats crosses the
Prime farmland one-third
for industry reservation bar
Odisha government allows 28
industries to acquire
irrigated land after paying
compensation

THE FORTNIGHT
Raptor
conservation
India signs an MoU with
the United Nations to
protect migratory birds
of prey

Myanmar's
energy push
The Kodaikanal The country's bid to attain
challenge 100 per cent access to
Hindustan Lever agrees to compensate electricity pushes coal-
the victims of mercury poisoning in based generation
Kodaikanal. But what about the loss to
the environment?

Heat wave 26
warning
For the first time
in India, the Met
department will
issue a temperature
advisory for heat
waves this summer

20
16
22

Flip side of
cess
More cess and surcharge
levied by the Centre has
an adverse impact on
states because the money
collected is not shared

8 DOWN TO EARTH 1-15 APRIL 2016

08-09Contents.indd 8 25/03/16 11:22 AM

 52

Young or
healthy?
Instead of trying to
find cures to ageing,
science must try to
better the quality of
life of the elderly LIFE & NATURE
Staying afloat
Bangladesh is betting big on its
50 floating gardens
43 FOOD
Prickly, yet
SCIENCE sweet
Altering The prickly pear is rich in not
only historical legacy but
skills also medicinal qualities
Sustained use of
pesticides is making 46
bumblebees forget
their ability to
collect nectar and
pollinate flowers
56
OPINION

COVER STORY Value their

rights
Shit matters Reproductive healthcare
Indian cities have little idea how rights of displaced women
to handle the faecal sludge from in India must be protected
septic tanks

BJP's Misuse of
48 capitulation power
The government's Introduction
assurance to the US of the Aadhaar
that India will not issue Bill as a money
compulsory licences bill in the Lok
on drugs undermines Sabha was a
the law sheer display
of power

ANALYSIS
58
Open loot?
The government proposal to
open up degraded forests
to industries will deprive 20 GOOD NEWS
million people dependent on Playing rain god
forests for livelihood A new 24x7 call centre in Karnataka
informs farmers about the weather to
55
help them cultivate profitably
40
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GOBAR TIMES
LIFE SCIENCE
Shortage of 59-78
red gold Supplement Editor: Souparno Banerjee
Copy: Diksha Chopra and Arif Ayaz Parrey
There is an acute scarcity of agar, Design: Ajit Bajaj, Ritika Bohra and Surender Singh
a seaweed-derived product used Illustration: Sorit Gupto, Tarique Aziz and Ritika Bohra
in biology
labs worldwide
1-15 APRIL 2016 www.downtoearth.org.in 9

08-09Contents.indd 9 25/03/16 12:16 PM

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India signs treaty on raptors
INDIA HAS signed a memorandum
of understanding (MoU) with the
Convention on the Conservation of
Migratory Species of Wild Animals
for protecting migratory birds of
prey. The convention is an inter-
governmental treaty under the United
Nations Environment Programme.
The agreement, also called the
1-15 APRIL 2016
11-15The Fortnight.indd 11
CROSS HAIRS BY SORIT GUPTO
Raptors MoU, covers 93 species of
migratory birds of prey and extends
up to 131 range states in the African-
Eurasian Region. Over 50 species
of migratory raptors listed in the
agreement exist in India, which
became the 56th signatory to the
agreement. For more on this,
visit www.downtoearth.org.in
THE FORTNIGHT
POINT
70
The time it will take to
close the global wage gap
between men and women.
At present, women on an
years average earn 77 per cent
of what men earn
Source: Women at Work: Trends 2016, International
Labour Organization (ILO)
www.downtoearth.org.in 11
22/03/16 10:28 AM
 THE FORTNIGHT

1 ,0 0 0 WO R D S BY VIKAS CHOUDHARY

REALMS OF DESOLATION Farmers in Talavada village of Maharashtra's Beed district lay pipes in a dry canal in the hope that when water comes, they
would pump out for irrigation. The Marathwada region of the state has been reeling from a severe drought; in the past 15 months, 1,300 farmers
have committed suicide because of crop loss and mounting debt

IPR claims by Warm winter might cause power

firms affecting shortage in Uttarakhand, UP
woman farmers W A R M E R W I N T E R and less
snow in the mountains might spell
trouble for Uttarakhand, Uttar
A N E W United Nations (UN) study has said that Pradesh and neighbouring states,
big agricultural firms may be impacting women's with experts saying decreased water
right to food by taking legal action against farmers levels might sharply hit electricity
for breaching patent laws. Farmers traditionally generation and supply. Winter was
own seeds, but International Property Rights (iprs) unseasonably mild in Uttarakhand
in the agriculture sector are becoming a norm. and glaciers in the high Himalayas
Patent laws allow private firms to claim ownership have recorded less than normal
on seeds. The greatest implication of the ipr levels of snowfall. The result,
regime on women and their right to food relates according to scientists at the Wadia
to seed-saving, a practice that is predominantly Institute of Himalayan Geology, will
SHARADA PRASAD

controlled by women, UN special rapporteur be visible in summer when reduced

Hilal Elver told the media. Women, who comprise glacial melting will lead to lower
20-30 per cent of the agricultural workforce, water levels in mountain rivers.
are involved in seed-saving and sharing, and Since snowfall has been less this
would have to choose between discontinuing the year, it will affect power projects inevitable, said glacial expert D P
traditional practice and committing an ipr crime downstream and a power crisis is Dobhal from the Wadia Institute.

12 DOWN TO EARTH 1-15 APRIL 2016

11-15The Fortnight.indd 12 22/03/16 10:28 AM

 THE FORTNIGHT

I N FO C U S I N CO U RT On March 9, the NGT gave the go-ahead

A Martian decade On March 10, the National Green
Tribunal (ngt) was informed that the
Haryana government would identify
a proper dumping site and dump
municipal solid waste in accordance
with law.
On March 10, the state
Pollution Control Board
informed the ngt that M/s C.J.
Gelatine had installed the RO
(reverse osmosis) plant in
Bhopal, but few more things
were remaining to be done.
On March 2, an NGO Shree Gujarat
Mahila Charitable Trust filed
NASA
to the "World Culture Festival" organised
by Sri Sri Ravi Shankar's Art of Living
Foundation from March 11-13 on the flood
plains of the Yamuna after imposing an
initial fine of `5 crore.
On March 15, the NGT directed
the authorities to ensure that no
mining activity is permitted in
Saharanpur, under the Judgment
dated February 18, in the case of
Gurpreet Singh Bagga Vs. MoEF
& Ors.
Haryana
Delhi Assam
Uttar Pradesh
On March 7, the National
Madhya Pradesh Green Tribunal delivered a
final verdict on the project
Maharashtra Training of river Beki on L/B and

four petitions in the Gujarat activation of river Manas and

NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter
(MRO), designed for just three years of
scientific exploration, has completed 10 years
in orbit. It carries six scientific instruments to
explore the Red Planet.
It has encircled Mars 45,000 times and has
till now travelled 1,539 million kilometres.
Its ultra sophisticated cameras and
instruments have sent 2 16,000 images and
264 trillion bytes of data.
One of the biggest scientific explorations
of the MRO is the possibility of liquid water
being present seasonally on present-
day Mars.
It established the presence of diverse types
of watery environments on Mars. Some of
these are more favourable for life than
others.
MRO proved that Mars has fresh craters,
avalanches, dust storms, seasonal
freezing and thawing of carbon dioxide
sheets, and summertime seeps of brine.
The MRO is preparing proposed sites for
human landing in Mars. That is going to be
its next big contribution.
MRO is one of five operational spacecrafts
orbiting the Red Planet. The others are NASA's
Mars Odyssey and MAVEN probes;
Europe's Mars Express spacecraft; and
India's Mars Orbiter Mission spacecraft, which
is also known as Mangalyaan.
High Court against the Hakua at Mathanguri situated
government's decision to within the Manas National Park
choose spots within 500 Kerala and Manas Tiger Reserve, by
metres of habitation as imposing a fine of `50,000 on the
industrial dumping sites. state government.
On March 1, the Maharashtra
On March 3, the Kerala High Court asked
government informed Bombay High
the motor vehicles department and police
Court that two ministers would take
to take action against modifications being
a three-day tour of drought-hit
made to motorcycles, including silencers,
districts from March 4, to check how
tampered to make loud sound affecting
effectively welfare schemes for
the safety and health of road users.
farmers were being implemented.
SO FAR...
Total cases on SUPREME HIGH NATIONAL GREEN
environment and COURT COURTS TRIBUNAL
development tracked
since January 1, 2016 20 35 256
Apex court asks for scientific proof of
link between cigarettes and cancer
T H E S U P R E M E Court recently sought scientific proof to explain how smoking can lead
to lung or throat cancer. The court was responding to a public-interest petition filed by
Umesh Narain Sharma, a lawyer at the Allahabad High Court. The petitioner demanded
that cigarettes be sold in plain packets instead of attractive packaging often used by the
companies as a ploy to divert consumers' attention from the pictorial warnings on throat
and lung cancer printed on the cover. Issuing a notice to the Ministry of Health and Family
Welfare, the Bench comprising Chief Justice T S Thakur and Justice U U Lalit asked Sharma
if cancer was scientifically linked to smoking.
Compiled by DTE-CSE Data Centre. For detailed verdicts, visit bit.ly/1CIFrcf

1-15 APRIL 2016 www.downtoearth.org.in 13

11-15The Fortnight.indd 13 23/03/16 3:13 PM

 THE FORTNIGHT

Golden Temple to serve organic food

T H E G U R U Ramdas Langar Hall at Sri Harmandir Sahib
(popularly known as the Golden Temple), one of the world's
largest community kitchens, will soon be serving organic food.
The decision was taken by the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak
Committee (sgpc), which administers gurdwaras across India. The
Golden Temple's kitchen feeds 100,000 people daily, 24 hours a
day and seven days a week for free. Organic farming is the new
mission of sgpc to inspire farmers to cut down the use of chemicals
and pesticides and switch to sustainable agricultural practices, an
sgpc official said. He added the sgpc had started receiving one tonne
of organic produce every two days. EcoSikh, a non-profit, said it
hoped the other gurdwaras of Punjab would follow suit.

EXTREME Q & A

295 mm
Rainfall that the desert nation of the United
Arab Emirates (uae) received between March 5
and 9. There were floods resulting in closing of
schools, public places and airports. Dubai was
under water.
100 mm The annual average rainfall that
uae receives, making it one of the 10 driest
places in the world. UN warns similar extreme
rainfall for UAE due to climate change.
1 million Emirati Dirhams fine to be
imposed on rumour mongers who post
misleading information on social media about
the floods.
70 dams and canals promised to be built by
the government in the country to avert such
floods in the future.
A conflict of interest
W H O : Prakash C Gupta
Director, Healis-Sekhsaria
Institute for Public Health,
Mumbai
W H A T : A Parliamentary
Committee recently decided
to decrease the space of anti-
smoking warnings on cigarette
packets from 85 to 50 per cent.
W H Y : The report of the committee is
clearly riddled with conflicts of interest.
Those who authored the report include rich
individuals benefiting from the tobacco
business. In order to protect their profits,
they do not want to inform the public of the
facts, though 85 per cent pictorial warning
is a strategy supported by strong scientific
research. It seems immaterial to them that
85 per cent warnings would protect the
population, especially the underprivileged
section of society as they are the largest
tobacco users. They profess to protect the
interests of bidi workers but do nothing to
move manufacturing of bidi and handling of
a highly toxic and carcinogenic substance,
tobacco, to a controlled environment with
appropriate ventilation and to provide
protective gear to bidi workers. Bidi
workers, even if they do not use tobacco in
any form, are affected by tobacco.

OBCs most dependent on livestock

LIVESTOCK REARING,
which is the lifeline of the rural
economy along with agriculture, is
the principal source of livelihood
for Other Backward Classes (obc)
families in rural India. According
to the National Sample Survey
Office (nsso) data, 2.17 per cent
of OBC households are engaged
in livestock farming followed
by 1.67 per cent of general
VIKAS CHOUDHARY / CSE
households, 1.50 per cent of
Scheduled Caste families and
0.75 per cent of Scheduled Tribe
households. The nsso report also
points out that only less than 2
per cent (2.7 million) of total rural
households depend solely on
livestock as most families opt an
integrated approach wherein crop
production and cattle rearing go
hand in hand.

14 DOWN TO EARTH 1-15 APRIL 2016

11-15The Fortnight.indd 14 22/03/16 10:28 AM

 THE FORTNIGHT

A new category
of exemption
THE CENTRE has created a new
category of industries that would
be exempted from environmental
clearance. Termed as white industries,
this new category includes 36 types
of industry like bio-fertiliser, bio-
pesticide, organic manure, wind power
and mini hydel of less than 25 MW of
capacity. The decision was announced
recently at a function to release the
new categorisation of industries based
on their pollution load. Releasing the
new categorisation, Union environment
SYL canal in fresh crisis
minister Prakash Javadekar said, The T H E S U P R E M E Court has directed Haryana government submitting that
new category of white industries, maintenance of status quo on land the Punjab Assembly on March 14
which is practically non-polluting, will meant for the Sutlej-Yamuna Link passed a Bill against the construction
not require environmental clearance (syl) canal after Haryana alleged that of contentious syl canal, providing for
(EC) and consent. Under the new attempts have been made to alter transfer of proprietary rights back to
classification, 242 industries are its use by levelling it. The court has the land owners free of cost. The Bill
classified under four categoriesred, prevented Punjab from returning would negate the Supreme Court's
orange, green and white based on their to farmers around 1,619 hectares of 2004 decree calling for unhindered
air, water and soil polluting potential. As land acquired for the canal. A five- construction of the canal. The syl canal
per the new categorisation, there are 60 judge Constitution Bench headed by is meant for Haryana to draw its share
industrial sectors in the red category, 83 Justice A R Dave passed the order on of water from the Ravi and Beas rivers
in orange, 63 in green and 36 in white. an urgent application moved by the that flow through Punjab.

L AT I T U D E V E R B AT I M

Blues signify lower

speeds of the movement
of ice today as compared
to the 9,000-year
average. The map on left
shows the average speed "During the UPA
of movement of ice over
government, the
Source: Science, Feb 5

the last 9,000 years

while its current speed is average period for
shown in the centre environmental
map. The difference clearance was 600
between these is shown days. However, my
in the map on right.
ministry has now
removed the delay
Scientists have created the first map that shows how the Greenland Ice Sheet has moved over time, revealing that and reduced the
ice in the interior is moving more slowly than it has during the past 9,000 years. One of the reasons for this is that period to 190 days"
the ice that formed from snow in Greenland during the last ice age is about three times softer than the ice being Prakash Javadekar,
formed today and because of this, the ice sheet is slowly becoming stiffer and is unable to flow. Minister of Environment

1-15 APRIL 2016 www.downtoearth.org.in 15

11-15The Fortnight.indd 15 25/03/16 10:31 AM

 ENVIRONMENT
Well begun, still undone
While activists
N
EARLY 15 years after shutting
down its thermometer plant in
welcome Hindustan Kodaikanal in Tamil Nadu,
fmcg major Hindustan Uni-
Uniliver's decision to lever Ltd (hul) has finally agreed to pay up
compensate victims for health damage due to mercury pollution.
On March 4, the company entered into an
of mercury pollution, out-of-court agreement to provide undis-
closed ex-gratia amount to a group of 591
they say the company workers who had sued the company. The
must also clean the contaminated hul plant that was opera-
tional between 1982 and 2001 caused pre-
contaminated site at mature death of 45 workers and permanent
disability to 600 others. The petition filed by
Kodaikanal the workers says that children of many
workers were also born with birth defects
ANUPAM CHAKRAVARTTY (see Taking time p17).
| new delhi This is the first ever class action liti-
gation moved by industrial workers against
occupational health exposure where wor-
kers have received compensation, says R
Vaigai, the legal counsel of the workers. The
settlement has been hailed as a success by
people involved in the case. We are pleased
with all the terms of the agreement. We now
It took Hindustan Uniliver 15 years to have no more grievances against the com-
compensate these workers. How long will
the company take to clean up the site? pany in this regard, says S A Mahindra
16-17Environment.indd 16
Babu, president of the Ponds hll ex-Mer-
cury Employees Welfare Association. The
verdict gives hope to other worker associa-
tions who are fighting similar cases against
companies in the country. We have almost
lost faith in the judiciary. Only peoples mov-
ement (like in Kodaikanal) brings results.
We hope that Bhopal victims will also get
justice, says Satinath Sarangi, a trustee of
the Sambhavana Trust, which fought court
cases for the Bhopal Gas victims.
Though happy with the decision, activ-
ists warn hul has a larger task at hand. They
say the company now has to deliver on its
long-standing promise of cleaning up the
plant area that remains highly polluted. The
delayed settlement is great news, but Uni-
lever still has unfinished business in Kodai-
kanal. You can expect a high-decibel global
campaign in the coming months to ensure
that Unilever cleans up its mercury-contam-
inated site in Kodaikanal to international
standards, says Nityanand Jayaraman, a
Chennai-based activist who has been part of
the campaign since 2001.
While hul has in the past agreed to bri-
ng down mercury contamination in the soil
COURTESY: VETTIVER COLLECTIVE
25/03/16 11:18 AM

in areas near the plant, it has maintained the
levels will be 20 milligrams/kg of mercury
in soil, which is still unhealthy. Activists say
20 mg/kg of mercury in soil is 250 times
higher than the naturally occurring levels.
In the United Kingdom, where Unilever is
headquartered, the residential standard for
mercury in soil is 1 mg/kg20 times strict-
er than what hul is proposing for an eco-
sensitive area in India. The global average is
6 mg/kg.
The other concern is that the factory is
located on a ridge surrounded by the dense-
ly forested Kodaikanal Wildlife Sanctuary.
According to the World Health Organiza-
tion, prolonged exposure to mercury im-
pacts the nervous systems of animals. The
United State Environment Protection Age-
ncy says eating plants and animals which
contain traces of mercury often increases the
risk of poisoning. Even the proposed guide-
lines for assessment and remediation of con-
taminated sites in India, drafted under the
National Programme For Rehabilitation of
Polluted Sites in March 2015, say general
mercury clean-up standard of 6.6 mg/kg of
soil. Surprisingly the Tamil Nadu Pollution
Control Board (tnpcpb), which was part of
the drafting process of the national pro-
gramme, in August 2015 agreed to the hul
proposal of 20 mg/kg of soil in Kodaikanal.
State backing
The problem of contamination of the
Kodaikanal plant was first flagged by the
Supreme Court in 2003 while hearing a case
relating to the Bhopal Gas leak case. In 2004,
the court asked tnpcb to prepare a remedia-
tion plan for the company. The same year,
hul approached the National Environmental
Engineering Research Institute (neeri) to
suggest remediation measures for the con-
taminated site in Kodaikanal. In 2015, hul
submitted the neeri recommendations,
which the pollution board agreed to.
Activists say tnpcbs backing is one of
the main reasons hul has not acted all these
years. They allege tnpcb not only shied away
from drawing out a remedial plan for hul,
which the Supreme Court had asked in
2004, the pollution board blindly agreed to
hul remediation plan. Instead of commis-
sioning a study by itself, as directed by the
Supreme Court, tnpcb allowed Unilever to
engage neeri directly to set the standards,
1-15 APRIL 2016
16-17Environment.indd 17
TAKING TIME
1982: Hindustan Unilever (HUL)
acquires a thermometer factory set
up by Ponds India Limited in 1982.
The plant was set up in India after
the company faced serious protests
against the use of polluting
mercury in the US
1987: HUL acquires Ponds India's
parent company, Chesebrough-
Ponds, and starts importing mercury
from the US for the plant. It
exports the thermometers to
Europe and the US
2000: Workers start complaining
of health problems. So far, the plant
has caused premature death of
45 workers and permanent
disability to 600 others.
2001: In March, Tamil Nadu
Pollution Control Board (TNPCB)
shuts down HUL plant after wide-
spread protests by public interest
groups such as Tamil Nadu Alliance
Against Mercury and Greenpeace
2004: Supreme Court Monitoring
Committee of Hazardous Wastes
constituted to monitor 29 hazard-
ous sites, including the Kodaikanal
plant. The committee directs TNPCB
to draw a remediation plan for
HUL.The company approaches the
National Environmental Engineering
Research Institute (NEERI) to draw
plan, while TNPCB remains silent
2006: Ponds Hindustan Lever
Limited Ex-Mercury Employees
Welfare Association files a writ
petition in the Madras High Court
2009: NEERI submits report, which
says HUL should bring down the
mercury contamination levels to
20mg/km of soil. The global average
is around 6mg/kg
2015: HUL gives the NEERI plan to
TNPCB, which tells apex court the
recommendations are fine and that
the company should start the clean-
ing process. Move triggers protests
2016: HUL agrees to give ex-gratia
compensation to 591 workers
ENVIRONMENT
www.downtoearth.org.in/environment
says Jayaraman. The company says it start-
ed the remediation process with tnpcb in
2009, which got derailed because of protests
by non-profitsa version that is backed by
tnpcb officials. The pollution board officials
say they relied on neeri report because they
are understaffed to come out with an inde-
pendent report.
The task ahead
The company claims that since 2001, it has
already taken 28,000 kg of partially treat-
ed mercury sludge and sent it to the US and
only 360 kg remains at the site. It also claims
another 1.3 tonnes of mercury might have
been scattered in the factory premises. But
activists say the real figure is around 17
tonnes of mercury. Activist Shweta Narayan,
who was closely associated with the hul
workers movement, says that if the compa-
ny cleans up to 20 mg/kg levels, more than
one-third of the mercury dumped at the
plant premises will be left behind.
A lot has happened since the neeri re-
port came up, especially with the draft Nati-
onal Remediation Policy stipulating mercu-
ry levels up to 6 mg/kg. The regulators must
consider this before starting the remediation
process, says Chandra Bhushan, deputy di-
rector general of Delhi-based non-profit
Centre for Science and Environment.
Tapan Chakrabarti, who headed the
neeri study, still believes the 20 mg/kg lim-
it the report suggested is correct. We have
studied the measures adopted in various
countries across the world and found whats
best suited for hul, he says. Ironically, the
first draft of the report had suggested only
6 mg/kg as the permissible limit for mercu-
ry exposure to environment, but it was re-
vised to 20 mg/kg in the final report.
Chakrabarti says that the pressure that
has been mounted by the protestors has done
more bad than good. We had made these
recommendations about four to five years
back but they have not been able to start the
cleaning process because ngos are contesting
these standards. Activists, meanwhile, say
the way the issue has been handled is sad, es-
pecially because globally mercury is being
phased out. In fact, the Minamata Conven-
tion, where India is a signatory member, says
its members will phase out mercury products
by 2020.
@yield82
www.downtoearth.org.in 17
25/03/16 11:18 AM
 WAT E R
Eye on
irrigated pie
Farmers' organisations raise an alarm over Odisha
government's recent guidelines that allow industries
to acquire irrigated land
SAMARJIT SAHOO | bhubaneswar , odisha
O
N FEBRUARY 24, the Odisha gov-
ernment cleared the hurdles to
acquire irrigated land for indus-
trial purposes by announcing
the Guidelines for Compensatory Irrigation.
The guidelines say industries can acquire
irrigated or to-be-irrigated land by paying
the cost of setting up irrigation facilities in
an area double the land it acquires. While
the state government believes the guidelines
will push responsible development in the
state, environmentalists, farmers and citi-
zen groups think otherwise.
The guidelines, which were released by
the state water resource department, say,
Sometimes it may not be possible for an in-
dustry to avoid irrigation command area
completely and sometimes, in order to get a
continuous patch for setting up of indus-
tries, some irrigated command areas may be
required by some industries. It adds that
compensatory irrigation will be created
preferably in the same project area where
the ayacut (an area served by an irrigation
project such as a canal, dam or a tank) is lost
by way of extension of a canal system if pos-
sible or through pumped irrigation system.
The guidelines add that the rehabilitation
can also happen in the same district, or even
in the neighbouring districts. The Odisha
Lift Irrigation Corporation (olic) is respon-
sible for setting up the rehabilitation irriga-
tion projects that will be funded by the in-
dustries that acquire irrigated land.
While industries will be allowed to use
irrigated land only in unavoidable circum-
stances, experts fear the guidelines will
open the floodgates of proposals to acquire
irrigated landespecially at a time when the
18 DOWN TO EARTH
18-19Water.indd 18
impact of drought is worsening due to the
absence of assured irrigation facilities.
Legacy of failures
Their fears are not unfounded. Between
2009 and 2012, the state government had
decided to give irrigated land under the com-
mand area of the Rengali dam to three com-
panies on the same conditions stated in the
current guidelines. While work has started
in all the three projects, the rehabilitation
process has not started. In the first project,
gmr Energy Limited was awarded 460 ha of
land in Dhenkanal district in 2009. The
company deposited `3.02 crore with olic for
creating irrigation potential. While the gmr
project has started, the promised compensa-
tory work never took off. Finally, olic decid-
ed to return the money because the rehabili-
tation project is not feasible. Similarly, lanco
group submitted `3.51 crore for 500 ha of
land in the dam area in 2009. The project has
started without any rehabilitation plan. The
third project was awarded in 2012 to Pune-
based rsb Transmission Limited. The com-
pany acquired 31 ha land from farmers in
Mania, Shyamsundarpur and Naranpur vil-
lages in Cuttack district. Even though the
group has started operations, the compensa-
tory irrigation plans never took off.
Farmers organisations say the move
highlights the state governments misplaced
priorities. At a time when the area of agri-
cultural land is fast shrinking due to urbani-
The guidelines will open the floodgates of proposals to
acquire irrigated land, especially when farmers in the
state are already reeling from drought
The recent
compensatory
irrigation
guidelines
are a threat
to traditional
irrigation
practices in
Odisha
sation, the priority should be to protect
agricultural land from being diverted for
other purposes. Instead, the government is
giving away irrigated land to industries, says
Saroj Mohanty, convenor of Paschim Odisha
Krushak Sangathan Samanwaya Comm-
ittee. They allege the move will dilute the
importance of the state agriculture depart-
ment in matters of land acquisition, which
will make farmers more vulnerable. A 2014
report of the Comptroller and Auditor Gene-
ral of India says the process of allocating
12,047 ha of private land to 91 industries in
Odisha started without consulting district
agriculture officers, a mandatory step for
land acquisition in the state.
Groups that are opposing the scheme
1-15 APRIL 2016
25/03/16 11:18 AM

say the guidelines are similar to the rules set
under the poorly implemented Com-
pensatory Afforestation Fund Management
and Planning Authority (campa), a national
scheme meant to promote afforestation as a
way of compensating for forest land divert-
ed to non-forest uses. The methods adopt-
ed for diversion of irrigated land for indus-
trial purpose and its compensation have
strange similarities with campa, says Bis-
wajit Mohanty, an environmentalist from
Odisha. Under campa, the state created for-
ests which were generally mono-culture.
Many of these new forest areas were created
far away from the main forest so their conti-
nuity was not maintained. I apprehend the
compensatory irrigation might face a simi-
lar fate, he adds.
Mohanty says the reason campa is faring
poorly is because the bureaucracy does not
know how to spend the money. The officers
who are responsible for campa are not pre-
1-15 APRIL 2016
18-19Water.indd 19
SPECIAL
pared for the job, which leads to frequent
misapplication and misutilisation of funds.
Similar doubts have been raised over olics
capability in creating a robust alternative ir-
rigation system, he adds.
olic data suggests that the organisation
has developed around 46 per cent of all irri-
gation projects started in the state since
2010. The statistics, however, do not reflect
the problems with the projects. olic has so
far handed over 24,843 lift irrigation pro-
jects (lips) to Pani Panchayats, a body of vil-
lage farmers who maintain irrigation pro-
jects in the area. Of these, more than 5,000
are defunct and 1,800 cannot be repaired.
Of the remaining 18,000 lips, most have
outstanding electricity dues and are facing
management issues.
R S Gopalan, managing director, olic,
says the comparison between the guidelines
and campa are unfounded. campa fund is for
afforestation and it has no time frame for
REPORT
www.downtoearth.org.in/forests
RANJAN PANDA
spending. Under compensatory irrigation,
one has to submit a proposal immediately
and subsequently funds will flow. Fund al-
location is made against specific projects,
he says. Gopalan, however, admits manage-
ment issues are affecting several lift irriga-
tion projects. He blames lack of funds for
poor maintenance of lips.
Ranjan Panda, convenor of Water Ini-
tiative of Odisha, a forum for advocating
water rights, sees a larger conspiracy in
legalising acquisition of irrigated land for in-
dustrial purposes. Many irrigation projects
have now become targets of industries and
already lands have deliberately been given in
the command areas. With this notification,
most of the command areas of all dam pro-
jects will be under threat, he says. Panda
adds that the move ensures water security
for industries, while robbing farmers of their
right over irrigation.
@down2earthindia
www.downtoearth.org.in 19
25/03/16 11:18 AM
 SPECIAL REPORT
Alert to heat waves
This is the first year when
F
OR THE first time in its 140 year
history, the India Meteorological
city-specific temperature Department (imd) will issue tem-
perature advisories for heat waves
alerts will be issued to from April to June. The advisories will in-
prevent deaths due to clude an early warning, akin to the ones is-
sued for heavy rains and cyclones. The fore-
heat waves. Is our health cast will be for 15 days at a time, with updates
every fifth day. It will also include specific
infrastructure ready temperature forecasts and alerts for up to
100 cities and towns across the country. The
to make use of first forecast is expected to be issued in the
the forecasts? last week of March.
While governments and researchers
SHREESHAN VENKATESH have focussed on the changes in monsoon
| new delhi patterns due to climate change, efforts to
counter the impacts of heat waves had been
virtually non-existent. The National
Disaster Management Act, 2005, and the
National Policy on Disaster Management,
2009, do not consider them to be a natural
calamity. The government, therefore, does
not devote financial and infrastructure re-
sources to the problem. This despite the fact
that heat waves are the third biggest cause of
death in India (see Natural killers).
According to the National Crime Records
20 DOWN TO EARTH
20-21Climate change.indd 20
SUNIL KUMAR SINGH
Bureau, heat strokes caused 16,000 deaths
between 2000 and 2014. Just in 2015, an
abnormally long heat wave caused over
2,241 deaths in the country. With El Nio
expected to be on the wane this year, the heat
during summers in India (and in large parts
of Asia, Australia and southern Africa) is
likely to be severe.
With researchers predicting that heat
waves will become increasingly severe and
frequent, government agencies at Central,
state and local levels have begun to take
note of the problem. We now have the ca-
pacity to issue city-specific forecasts, alerts
and warnings and plan to roll out an expan-
sion to several cities in the near future.
While the advisories can help improve vital
services in agriculture, processed foods,
water and energy, the biggest benefit would
be the support they will provide to health-
care professionals and the public health
system during heat waves, says Sivananda
Pai, head of the Long Range Forecasting di-
vision at imd. Since heat waves are often
caused by a combination of local and large-
scale climaticfactors and are captured more
accurately with localised forecasts, city-
1-15 APRIL 2016
25/03/16 1:12 PM

Natural killers
Despite being one of the top three killers in the country, heat
waves are not considered a natural calamity by the government
Deaths according to causes (2000-2014)
32,743
14,593
13,548
12,258
Lightening Earthquake Heat Flood
stroke
Source: National Crime Records Bureau, Ministry of Home Affairs and Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation
specific advisories are likely to be a great
help for the agencies involved.
States take the lead
Initiatives to deal with heat waves have
mostly come from state governments. For
instance, following the devastating heat
wave of 1998, which claimed over 2,000
lives in Odisha, the state put in place dis-
trict-level disaster management centres.
Similarly, after the 2010 heat wave that
caused 1,344 deaths in Ahmedabad, a City
Heat Action Plan was launched in 2013 to
improve public awareness and promote in-
ter-agency coordination. In mid-March this
year, Nagpur and Bhubaneshwar also
launched their own city-level plans.
The experience with Ahmedabad has
been very positive. Local authorities are in-
creasingly realising the requirement of a
plan. City-specific data from imd will im-
mensely help in generating warnings and
predicting heat waves because it allows bet-
ter use of vital local factors such as humidi-
ty. In coming years, there are several new cit-
ies that we will assist in making such a plan,
says Anjali Jaiswal, director of the India
Initiative at New York-based non-profit
Heat wave-related
casualties in the country
are hugely underestimated
because of the difficulty in
linking the cause of death
with heat waves
1-15 APRIL 2016
20-21Climate change.indd 21
CLIMATE
5,607
(Punjab, Haryana, Delhi,
Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat
and Maharashtra)
11,695
5,056
4,207
772
Cold & Landslide Cyclone/ Avalanche
Exposure Tornado
Natural Resources Defense Council. The
non-profit has been a consulting partner in
all the three action plans (Ahmedabad,
Nagpur, Bhubaneshwar) that have been de-
vised so far in the country.
A difficult link to prove
The difficulty in linking mortality to heat
wave makes the task of formulating and
implementing relief measures difficult. For
instance, Andhra Pradesh announced a
compensation of R1 lakh to the kin of those
who had died in the heat wave last year. But
a majority of the families were denied the
compensation on the ground that the heat
wave could not be established as the cause
of death.
Medical practitioners determine the
cause of death on the basis of most evident
symptoms, which may be of some underly-
ing condition. They often fail to recognise
the role of heat. For example, a person with
cardiac problem would be adjudged to have
died of a cardiac arrest even if the cardiac ar-
rest was caused by exposure to heat, ex-
plains Dileep Mavalankar, director of the
Indian Institute of Public Health, Ahme-
dabad. The best way to ascertain the link is
to check the body temperature soon after
death and analyse for any correlation be-
tween heat and mortality, he adds.
The difficulty in linking cause of death
and with heat waves has led to a huge und-
erestimation of heat wave-related deaths in
the country. This could also be the reason
for the huge discrepancy in the number of
CHANGE
www.downtoearth.org.in/climate-change
Heat hot spots*
3,931
(Bihar, Jharkhand,
West Bengal and
Odisha)
2,277
(Andhra Pradesh
and Telangana)
*Map shows cumulative heat
stroke deaths during 2000-2014.
Only states with an average of
more than 20 deaths per year
have been considered
deaths associated with the disastrous 2003
heat wave that struck Europe and killed
over 70,000 and the 2015 Indian heat wave
in which 2,241 people died. Both the events
were of comparable duration and intensity.
In government records only deaths due
to heat strokes and heat exhaustion are
counted as heat wave deaths. Heat,
however, can cause death in several ways
from organ failures to strokes.
Heat strokes can be either exertional or
non-exertional. Exertional strokes happen
due to physical exertion in intense heat and
the effect is immediate. But non-exertional
strokes are caused by stress on internal or-
gans due to constant exposure to heat. They
exacerbate existing medical conditions and
the effects are not immediate. Due to a time
lag between the death and the heat wave, the
link is less apparent and more difficult to es-
tablish, explains Mavalankar.
Experts also say that the most common
victims of heat waves are also the ones that
are least likely to benefit from government
initiatives. We have found that slum dwell-
ers and labourers in big cities are the most
susceptible group. They are also least likely
to enjoy the benefits of action plans and tech-
nological innovations, says Vimal Mishra,
associate professor at the Indian Institute of
Technology, Gandhinagar. Mishra has ex-
tensively studied trends and health impacts
of heat waves. Unless relief measures target
them, we cannot hope to curb deaths due to
heat waves, he sums up.
@shreeshanV
www.downtoearth.org.in 21
25/03/16 1:12 PM
 ECONOMY

Cess mess
To earn revenue, the Union government is levying more cess and
surcharge. Is this putting states at a disadvantage?
KUNDAN PANDEY | new delhi

N
OT WITHSTANDING
the increased share
in the Central di-
visible tax pool,
states are smelling a deliberate at-
tempt by the Central government to
dodge a responsible allocation of their
share. A definite sign of this is the increas-
ing trend of the Centre levying cess and sur-
charge to raise revenue.
In the past three years, cess and sur-
charge have almost doubled (see Some-
thing fishy). The trend is unlikely to cha-nge
as the Union Finance Minister Arun Jaitley
has set a target to collect ~1,48,031 crore in
2016-17. He also proposed to abolish 13
cesses, levied by various ministries in which
revenue collection is less than ~50 crore in a
year to reduce multiplicity of taxes, associat-
ed cascading and cost of collection.
The Constitution enables the imposi-
tion of cess through Article 270, which
states that cess imposed by Parliament for
earmarked purposes need not be shared
with state governments.
Increased cess and surcharge has also
evoked a sharp reaction from states and ex-
perts, who argue that the lack of planning
and transparency has resulted in the mis-
management of money and, more impor-
tantly, a decline in the share of states earn-
ings even though the Central government
has increased its revenue through cess. Even
Finance Comm-issions have termed this a
recurring bad practice.
In the past few months, the government
SORIT / CSE

has imposed three cesses. The Swachh Bha-

rat cess of 0.5 per cent imposed in November
2015 is expected to raise ~10,000 crore in
the current financial year. The Krishi Kalyan
cess of 0.5 per cent proposed in the Union
Budget 2016-17 on all taxable services is
supposed to raise ~5,000 crore, and the
Infra-structure cess will raise ~3,000 crore.

22 DOWN TO EARTH 1-15 APRIL 2016

22-23Economy.indd 22 25/03/16 1:06 PM

 ECONOMY
www.downtoearth.org.in/economy

Jaitley also doubled the Clean Environment

cess on coal, ignite and peat from 200 per
Something fishy
tonne last year to 400 per tonne in this As the states' share in central divisible tax pool increases, Central
budget. government's earning from cess and surcharge increases sharply
Tax disguised as cess State's share Cess and surcharge
An official from the Bihar finance depart- (In % of divisible Central pool) (Meant only for Central government)
ment, who did not wish to be named, termed
50 1,60,000 1,48,031
it against the spirit of fiscal federalism. The
recommendations of the 14th Finance Com- 5,70,964 crore
40 1,20,000
mission have not been advantageous to

In crore
Bihar. In a letter to Prime Minister Narendra
In per cent

30
Modi, Bihars Chief Minister Nitish Kumar 3,18,385 crore 80,000
wrote that Bihars share in the overall 20 71,713
40,000
amount of Central taxes will go down from 10
10.9 to 9.6 per cent. The Centre camouflag-
0 0
es tax as cess, and this further deprives the

2013-14

2014-15

2015-16*

2015-16#

2016-17*
2013-14

2014-15

2015-16*

2015-16#

state, the official added.
As per the 14th Finance Commissions
recommendations, states were entitled to
get 42 per cent of the net divisible pool. The
total divisible pool collected in 2015-16 was
13,20,869 crore, against 11,53,094 crore
in 2014-15. However, only 38.3 per cent of
money, or 64,257.8 crore was allocated to
states. Each state on an average got an extra
yet paltry sum of 2,215.79 crore. If last
years budget is compared to the current, it
shows that the Union government gained
28,000 crore and the states share fell by
7,000 crore, says M Govinda Rao, member
of the 14th Finance Commission and emer-
itus professor, National Institute of Public
Finance and Policy, New Delhi. This shows
the practice of successive Union govern-
ments to resort to cess and surcharge to deny
the states share in additional resource mo-
bilisation, he adds.
After the recommendations of the
14th Finance Commission, states respon-
sibilities in implementing development
schemes increased, but the share of states
from the net divisible pool did not increase
proportionately, says Nilachala Acharya,
a senior research officer with the Centre
for Budget and Governance Account-
ability, a Delhi-based non-profit. If the
amount collected through cess was part of
"After the recommendations of the 14th Finance
Commission, states' responsibilities in implementing
development schemes increased, but their share from
the net divisible pool did not increase proportionately"
2016-17*
* BE=Budgetary estimates; # RE=Revised estimates
Source: Centre for Budget and Governance Accountability
the divisible pool, it could ease the burden
of states, he adds.
Misuse of cess
The question is not just about the share of
the states, but also how the Centre is spend-
ing the cess money.
A 2015 Comptroller and Auditor
General (cag) report, Union Gove-rnment
Account 2014-15, cites several examples of
inefficient handling of cess. Succe-ssive gov-
ernments have collected money through cess
and surcharge for primary and higher edu-
cation. In 2005-06, a non-lapsable fund for
elementary education, Praram-bhik
Shiksha Kosh (psk), was created to meet the
expenditure under Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan
(ssa) and the mid-day meal scheme. Against
1,54,818 crore collected during 2004-15,
only 1,41,520 crore was transferred to psk.
Moreover, there is no trail of the 64,228
crore, which was collected as secondary and
higher education cess, introduced in the
Finance Act, 2007, because no plan was de-
vised to spend this money.
Once imposed, the government gener-
ally does not withdraw a cess. Like the wel-
fare fund for employees of beedi establish-
ments created under Beedi Workers Welfare
Fund Act in 1976 has still not been removed.
Another example is the Research and
Development Cess Act, enacted in 1986 to
encourage the commercial application of in-
digenously developed technology. Through
this cess, 5,783.49 crore was collected from
1996 to 2015. However, only 549.16 crore
was disbursed as grant-in-aid, a mere 9.50
per cent of the total sum collected.
Experts also say that the Union govern-
ment is spending the cess money on develo-
mental schemes, which it was supposed to
spend from its own account. For instance, in
2010-11, cess contributed 48 per cent of the
total expenditure of ssa, and increased to 90
per cent in 2015-16. Contrast this with the
amount Centre allocated to the Right to
Education Act through ssaonly 10 per
cent. Instead of supplementing these pro-
grammes, the government replaces the ac-
tual allocation with cess, says Acharya.
Levying cess and surcharge to spend
revenue in a non-serious approach has put
the states in a difficult situation. If this re-
mains unresolved, it can become a serious
issue between the Centre and the states.
@kundanpandey158

1-15 APRIL 2016 www.downtoearth.org.in 23

22-23Economy.indd 23 25/03/16 2:53 PM

 SPECIAL
SAYANTONI PALCHOUDHURI / CSE
Her poll vault
I
Women's representation
in panchayats has crossed
the one-third reservation
bar, thanks to increased
quota and exposure to
self-help groups
JITENDRA | new delhi
24 DOWN TO EARTH
24-25Governance.indd 24
REPORT
N JANUARY, 58-year-old Laxmi Devi
won the village head election for the
fifth time. She has been winning
since 1991 from Huranj panchayat of
Solan district in Himachal Pradesh. Of
the five terms, Laxmi benefited twice from
reservation for women, first in 1996 and
then in 2015.
The January results show that women
won 57 per cent of the seats of village heads
and other positions in the panchayat elec-
tions, more than what the Himachal
Pradesh government had reservedup to
50 per cent. The increasing number of wom-
en in local governments or panchayati raj in-
stitutions is becoming a phenomenon across
The perception of women candidates as
honest individuals is one of the reasons
for the growing number of women
leaders in panchayat elections
the country (see Sharp rise). In Uttar
Pradesh, 44 per cent village heads were
women in last years election, against 33 per
cent reservation. In Jharkhand, 58 per cent
representatives were women in last years
election against the reservation of 50 per
cent. The recently concluded panchayat
elections in Haryana show that women won
42 per cent of the seats when only 33 per
cent were reserved for them.
The Constitution mandates one-third
reservation for women in seats and offices of
chairpersons in panchayats. Sixteen states
have increased the reservation beyond this.
Bihar was the first state which introduced
50 per cent reservation for women in the
1-15 APRIL 2016
23/03/16 10:39 AM

panchayati raj institutions. Uttarakhand is
the only state which provides 55 per cent res-
ervation to women.
According to the Ministry of Panchayati
Raj (mopr), there are 1.27 million elected
women representatives in panchayats. This
is 44 per cent of the total elected represent-
atives. Even in 2008 when the reservation
for women was limited to one-third, their
representation was around 37 per cent.
Why women are being elected
Although no study has analysed the rise in
the number of women in panchayats across
the country, experts say it is the result of in-
creased reservation and womens involve-
ment in grassroots movements.
Grassroots movements like micro fi-
nance, self-help group (shg), literacy, par-
ticipation in gram sabhas and government
schemes where village-level committees are
formed, have contributed to empowering
these women, says Bidyut Mohanty, head of
womens studies at the Institute of Social
Science (iss), New Delhi. He adds that the
trend will strengthen grassroots democracy.
S M Vijayanand, secretary, mopr, also
acknowledges the contribution of shgs in
strengthening local governance. In Kerala,
for instance, nearly 67 per cent elected wom-
en are from Kudumbshri, a government
programme for womens empowerment.
This trend is picking up in Andhra Pradesh
and Telangana as well, he says. A survey
conducted in 2008 by A C Nielsen org-
marg shows a direct link between shgs and
the empowerment of women.
The survey evaluated the impact of 1.05
million women in panchayati raj institu-
tions across India. It showed that a large
number of women decided to contest elec-
tions after having joined an shg because it
gave them the confidence and exposure to
take on challenging assignments. A survey
by mopr in 2008 found that thirty-five per
cent of the elected women representatives
came from open seats, instead of the re-
served seats.
Under the panchayati raj institutions, a
A survey which evaluated the impact of women in
panchayati raj institutions shows that many decided
to contest elections after joining self-help groups, as it
gave them the confidence to take on more challenges
1-15 APRIL 2016
24-25Governance.indd 25
GOVERNANCE
www.downtoearth.org.in/governance
number of working group committees relat-
ed to health, sanitation, livelihood and wa-
Sharp rise
ter are formed. And women are mandatory Though the Constitution mandates
members of these committees along with 33 per cent reservation for women in
civil society and government staff. This panchayats, they have surpassed the
helps them become politically active on lo- allocation in many states
cal issues, says P P Balan, director, Kerala
Institute of Local Administration. Total number of Total number of
Another reason behind the increasing panchayats representatives
acceptance of women in political sphere is
their image as incorruptible individuals who 238,617 2,800,000
are driven to solve local issues. People trust
Allocated reservation for women
women more than men at least at the local Current representatives
level. Our research shows women spend ex-
India
traordinary time on issues like sanitation, 33%
local traffic and drinking water, and are 44%
more likely to follow rules, says George Uttar Pradesh
Mathew, director of iss. 33%
Vijayanand quotes a paper published in 44%
Economic and Political Weekly, according Haryana
to which women representatives gave im- 33%
portance to development activities like
42%
Jharkhand
roads, kitchen-garden, and agriculture.
50%
But some fear that the absence of data 58%
establishing the link between development Bihar
activities in villages and womens represen- 50%
tation in local elections can impede not 55%
just local development initiatives, but also Uttarakhand
the empowerment of women. There is no 55%
data related to women representatives and 56.1%
their contribution to village development Source: Ministry of Panchayati Raj and Ministry of Statistics
and Programme Implementation
for the government to encourage this posi-
tive trend, says T R Raghunandan, former Territories except Nagaland, Meghalaya,
joint secretary, Union Ministry of Rural Mizoram, tribal regions of Assam and
Development. Tripura, and the hilly areas of Manipur.
This is not the first time that the govern-
From 33 to 50 per cent ment is trying to bring such legislation. In
Nonetheless the reservation for women at 2009, the Union Cabinet presided over by
the panchayat level is set to strengthen. then prime minister Manmohan Singh had
Tamil Nadu is the only state which provides cleared a proposal to amend Article 243 (D)
consecutive reservation to women. Now of the Constitution to increase reservation
Karnataka has also changed its laws to give from 33 per cent to 50 per cent. However,
elected women the opportunity to continue the bill lapsed with the dissolution of the
with the tasks they started in their first 15th Lok Sabha. mopr has now reintro-
term, Raghunadan says. duced the bill and if it is passed, the number
In early February, the Union govern- of women representatives will increase to
ment decided to increase the reservation for 1.4 million.
women in panchayats to 50 per cent. The However, the trend of increasing wom-
law will be applicable in all states and Union ens representation is restricted to panchay-
ats. In the last general elections, only 17 per
cent of the elected members of Parliament
were women. Their strength in Assemblies
drops to 9 per cent. Isnt it time to introduce
womens reservation in the upper levels of
democracy? @jitendrachoube1
www.downtoearth.org.in 25
23/03/16 10:39 AM
 ENERGY
Ambitious but unclean
Myanmar's plan to
I
N COASTAL (southern) Myanmar,
Kyaw Thu has to make sure all his ap-
achieve 100 per cent pliancesrefrigerator, lights and fans
are charged before neighbours line up
electricity access at his house to charge batteries to run their
pushes coal-based domestic appliances. Residents of 70 house-
holds in Shwe Taung Su village in Phyapon
energy generation. township, Ayeyar-wady district, meet their
power needs from the 160W solar panels
Environmentalists owned by 10 households. But Kyaw Thu says
are wary they still need the government to provide
constant access to electricity.
UMANG JALAN | myanmar Shwe Taung Su is a one-of-a-kind suc-
cess story in a country where about 67 per
cent of the population does not have access
26 DOWN TO EARTH
26-27Energy.indd 26
to electricity.
But the scenario is expected to change
with a new government this year. The gov-
ernment will finalise a plan to achieve uni-
versal electricity access by 2030. But the
plan has already evoked opposition from
both citizens and environmentalists as it
aims to increase electricity from coal-based
power plants (see Power share).
The National Electrification Plan, pre-
pared by the Ministry of Electric Power, the
Ministry of Livestock, Fishery and Rural
Development and the World Bank, was sub-
mitted in June 2014 to Parliament. The plan
is ambitious to say the least. The projected
1-15 APRIL 2016
25/03/16 4:53 PM

67 per cent of
the population
in Myanmar
does not have
access to
REUTERS
electricity
electricity demand is estimated to be about
14.5 GW by 2030, but the plan aims to pro-
duce around 27 GW. Out of this, 23.5 GW,
or 87 per cent would be for Myanmar and
the rest will be exported.
The plan aims to increase the installed
electricity capacity from coal from four to
33 per cent by 2030. At present, about 73
per cent of the electricity in the country is
generated from hydroelectric power plants.
The plan proposes a major shift from the
dependence on hydropower sector to coal.
Risks involved
Civil society organisations are opposing this
move as it ignores the detrimental effects to
the environment and economy.
Ko Lwin from Eco-Dev, a local organi-
sation that works with communities on sus-
1-15 APRIL 2016
26-27Energy.indd 27
Power share
The plan to provide 100 per cent electricity will increase installed electricity
capacity from hydro by four times and from coal projects by 66 times
Hydro Gas Coal Renewables
2013 120
2,259 715
2020 200
3,164 2,484 2,760
2030
8,896 4,758
Source: Ministry of Power, Myanmar
tainability and livelihood issues, says that
the fact that the Japan International Coope-
ration Agency (jica) was involved in the
drafting of the plan may be the reason for the
increased dependence on coal. One of the
worlds biggest bilateral aid agencies, jica is
helping countries like Indonesia, Thailand,
Egypt and South Africa in increasing their
installed power capacity with the help of
power plants that use clean coal technolo-
gies. Japanese companies like Toshiba and
Hitachi also hold a number of patents on
clean coal technologies, which are supposed
to be energy efficient. Experts believe this
approach ignores the climate change risks.
Though important to increase access to
electricity, clean coal technologies are not a
final solution because of climate risks from
the resultant greenhouse gas emissions,
says Priyavrat Bhati, programmer director,
Green Rating Project, Centre for Science
and Environment (cse), a New Delhi-based
non-profit. Locals say the quality of air will
further deteriorate and cause respiratory
problems. In 2015, Yangon, Myanmars
largest city, registered particulate matter
higher than the safe levels recommended by
the World Health Organization.
Moreover, to implement this plan,
Myanmar will have to import coal mainly
from China. The demand for coal is also slat-
ed to rise by about four times from current
levels by 2035, according to a study by the
Asian Development Bank. This may in-
crease Myanmars trade deficit.
Unplanned growth in
hydropower
The shift to coal-based projects will be ac-
companied by a fourfold increase in in-
stalled electricity capacity from hydropro-
ENERGY
www.downtoearth.org.in/energy
(Production in MW)
7,940 2,000
jects in absolute terms. In the wake of an
existing crisis in hydropower, this adds to
the concerns of people. The floods that be-
gan in July 2015 were caused by misman-
agement of weirs and deforestation. One
million lives were affected and 100 people
died. Moreover, the upcoming Myitsone
dam on the banks of Irrawady river, which
will provide electricity to Yunnan province
in China, is likely to submerge 4,800 hec-
tares of land and 48 villages in Kachin state
in Northern Myanmar, according to reports.
A growing number of people mistrust hy-
droelectric projects, says Nyi Nyi Naing
from Network Activities Group, a local en-
vironmental non-profit.
As of 2005, Myanmars gas reserves per
capita were the 33rd highest in the world,
according to the World Bank and the
International Energy Agency. Experts sug-
gest a modified plan that utilises the coun-
trys natural gas resources. The plan aims to
decrease power from gas from 23 to 20 per
cent by 2030. Civil society groups are also
demanding detailed environmental and so-
cial impact studies on hydro and thermal
power projects and less dependence on
coal-based projects.
A shift to non-polluting sources of ener-
gy is of paramount importance to Myanmar,
rated as the worlds second most vulnerable
country to climate change by German
Watch, a Germany-based organisation-
which works on environment and develop-
ment issues. The plan is awaiting finalisa-
tion from the new government. Pasquale
Cappizzi, chief technical advisor, UN
Habitat, Myanmar says, It would be inter-
esting to see how the new government tack-
les the countrys energy access issues.
@umang1106
www.downtoearth.org.in 27
25/03/16 4:53 PM
 COVER STORY

1-15 APRIL 2016

28-38Cover Story.indd 28 25/03/16 11:20 AM

 COVER STORY

URBAN
SHIT
Every four in 10 houses in Indian cities and
towns use latrines connected to septic tanks.
Most municipalities do not have a proper plan
to dispose of the faecal sludge collected in these
tanks. Where does this sludge go?
RESEARCH BY SURESH KUMAR ROHILLA,
BHITUSH LUTHRA, RAHUL SANKA VARMA,
SHANTANU KUMAR PADHI AND ANIL YADAV
REPORTING BY JIGYASA WATWANI

M
ANOJ KUMAR should know the national capitals dirty
little secret: where does the excreta of its residents not
connected to the sewer system go? He has been work-
ing as a septic tank cleaner for 20 years. By now he
owns three vacuum tankers that suck faecal sludge
from septic tanks. Accompanied by his helper Rajbir
Pal, he arrives at a house in Sangam Vihar locality in
south Delhi. Rajbir Pal hops off the tanker and lays out a pipe to the septic
tank in the house. He uses bare hands and laughs sarcastically at the idea
PHOTOGRAPHS: VIKAS CHOUDHARY / CSE

of using a gas mask. We have heard of instances where workers die when
they have to go deep into the tank where toxic gases are emitted. We should
at least be provided gloves, he says.
It is a two-storey building that houses seven families. Its septic tank
should ideally have two chambers, with an outlet connected to a soak pit
or some other treatment system for safe dispersal of effluent after the fae-
cal sludge has settled at the bottom. Instead it is a single-chambered tank
without any outlet, so its entire content has to be emptied. Small wonder

www.downtoearth.org.in 29

28-38Cover Story.indd 29 25/03/16 11:20 AM

 COVER STORY

Safe or unsafe? A shit flow diagram for Delhi that tracks excreta through five stages
End-use/
Containment Emptying Transport Treatment
disposal
ww not
delivered for
10%
44%
65% treatment

Wastewater
Off-site (ww) ww delivered
contained 55% to centralised ww treated 52%
sanitation
centralised treatment

2% ww not
ww not ww not treated
3%
contained 10% delivered for
treatment
10% 3%

28% Faecal sludge FS delivered

1% for treatment FS treated 1%
(FS) contained 14%
On-site FS not delivered
18%
sanitation
FS not
contained
FS emptied

FS not contained
for treatment
56%
not emptied
4%
Open
defecation 4% 2% 13% 20% 5%

44% Local area Neighbourhood City

Safely managed Unsafely managed For more information visit: www.sfd.susana.org/sfd-worldwide

the owner, Birender Singh, complains, We have
to empty it every month.
Amid the roar of the vacuum pump slurping
the sludge from the tank, Singh seems contented,
having managed to get rid of the excreta generat-
ed in his house. But does he know where the tanker
is headed? We dont know, madam. And frankly,
we dont care, he says. In seven minutes the tank
is emptied. He pays Rajbir Pal R1,000 and that for
him is the end of his problem.
Back on the vacuum tanker, Kumar and
Rajbir Pal head straight towards Batra Hospital,
Tughlakabad. They empty the sludge into the
drain outside the hospital which ends up in a big-
ger drain that opens into the Yamuna. When asked
why they do not go to one of the 36 sewage treat-
ment plants (stps) spread across 21 locations in
the city, Rajbir Pal minces no words. If we go to
a treatment plant, it will eat away into our earn-
ing time. We can cover three-four houses in that
time. But what if they are caught? We pay R100-
200 and get away.
Kumar is part of an informal union of cleaners
operating from outside Batra Hospital. He makes
10-15 trips in a day; in monsoons the number of
trips shoots up. His tanker is just one of the 350 to
400 vacuum tankers run by individuals or unions
in the National Capital Territory. So one can im-
agine the enormous amount of faecal sludge gen-
erated in the regionand India.
Only a third of urban houses in India are con-
nected to the sewer system. The majority of the
houses38.2 per cent, as per Census 2011use
toilets connected to septic tanks. The problem is
that the construction quality of the tanks, buried
underground in populated areas, is often poor. As
a result, the treatment of sewage is partial. Then
there is no system for the disposal of the faecal
sludge, which is in most cases emptied out surrep-
titiously into water bodies and municipal sewers.
It is not even practical to connect every house
to the sewer system. In India, over 1.2 billion peo-
ple generate nearly 1.75 million tonnes of excreta
daily. A large proportion of these then proceed to

30 DOWN TO EARTH 1-15 APRIL 2016

28-38Cover Story.indd 30 25/03/16 11:20 AM

 COVER STORY

release the lever on the flush attached to the toilet.

Ironically, this only aggravates the problem. Now
the volume of sewage has expanded several times
and the municipalities will have to separate the ex-
creta from water at a huge cost.
If the house is connected to sewerage this sew-
age will travel from the buildings internal waste-
water collection system to the municipal sew-
er system. Propelled by pumping stations, the
wastewater will finally reach an stp, if there is one.
Creating this infrastructure for all will be pro-
hibitively costly. Nor is it suitable to all terrains.
Management of excreta on the site by using sep-
tic tanks and pit latrines is, therefore, a necessity.
Census figures show that nearly 45.3 per
cent of urban houses depend on on-site systems.
A large part of the wastewater from these sys-
tems seeps into the soil. This may penetrate deep
enough to pollute groundwater. Emptied faecal
sludge should ideally be sent to a treatment facil-
ity, where it should be treated to meet the stand-
ards set by the Central Pollution Control Board
(cpcb). This, however, does not happen in most
cases. Census data shows 65 per cent of the cit-
ies in the country do not have a proper arrange-
ment for safe collection of human excreta, forget
about disposal.
India does not even have specific legal provi-
sions related to the management of faecal sludge,
also called septage in municipal parlance, al-
though a number of laws cover sanitation servic-
es and environmental regulations. It was only in
2013 that the Ministry of Urban Development is- the cse researchers involved in the exercise. This family at Balram Nagar
in Loni, Ghaziabad, has a big,
sued an advisory note on septage management in cse then prepared a shit flow diagram(sfd), partitioned septic tank but its
urban India. As per this note, city sanitation plans, which is a visual tool to understand how excreta is effluent is discharged into an
open drain
recommended by the National Urban Sanitation contained, emptied, transported, treated and dis-
Policy, should be supplemented with a septage posed of or reused, for each of these 11 cities (see
management sub-plan. Safe or unsafe?). These form part of a 50-city
report prepared under sfd Promotion Initiative.

Mismanagement Here are some observations related to different

stages of faecal sludge management in India.

at every stage Containment : Bureau of Indian Standards (bis)

Alarmed by these findings, Delhi non-profit Centre
for Science and Environment (cse) set out to fol-
low the trail of human excreta in 11 cities across
India (see Shit scan, p35). It selected the cities to
cover different agro-climatic zones. This is impor-
tant because the soil strata and the kind of aquifers
in a region as well as the extent of urbanisation de-
termine the waste containment and management
system best suited to it, says Bhitush Luthra, one of
specifies the guidelines for construction of septic
tanks in houses. The minimum liquid-holding ca-
pacity of a tank should be 1,000 litres. When the
capacity of a septic tank is more than 2,000 litres,
it must consist of two chambers separated by a
partition. The first chamber should be twice the
size of the second. bis also mandates that the floor
of the tank should be watertight. All in all, an ide-
al septic tank is a two-chambered lined contain-

1-15 APRIL 2016 www.downtoearth.org.in 31

28-38Cover Story.indd 31 25/03/16 11:20 AM

 COVER
Soak pits at this colony built
by a construction company for
its workers in Gurgaon have to
be emptied every day
32 DOWN TO EARTH
28-38Cover Story.indd 32
STORY
ment either connected to a soak pit to drain out the
effluent after primary treatment or connected to
some other secondary treatment system.
But these guidelines are only suggestive, not
binding. As a result, most septic tanks do not con-
form to the recommended design. A lot also de-
pends on the skills and experience of the mason
building a septic tank and the area available to
him. Consider the septic tank at the Sangam Vihar
house in Delhi. Given its volume of 6,000 litres, it
should have two chambers. But space constraint
in Singhs house meant a two-chambered septic
tank was out of the question. Sangam Vihar is a
clustered colony where the surface area of a house
is no more than 21 square metres.
In Delhi, the capacity of septic tanks var-
ies from 3,000 litres to 8,000 litres in individu-
al houses. But most septic tanks in Delhi are sin-
gle-chambered, says P K Jha, chairperson of the
Delhi-based ngo, Foundation for Environment
and Sanitation.
In areas like Meethapur and Pratap Vihar in
Delhi, the effluent from septic tanks is discharged
directly to an open ground. cse also found that
some tanks were designed with an outlet to an
open drain, such as in Harsh Vihar. This is when
the National Building Code, 2005, specifies that
under no circumstances shall effluent from a sep-
tic tank be allowed into an open channel drain or
body of water without adequate treatment. In
parts of Maidangarhi and Meethapur, cse found
cesspools, which are lined tanks with no outflow.
Poor houses have a storage tank in the name of a
septic tank, Jha says.
Some may think that a law to ensure compli-
ance with bis standards will serve the purpose.
But the field study in Agra showed this is not nec-
essarily the case. According to the Uttar Pradesh
Water Supply and Sewerage Act of 1975, the Agra
Nagar Nigam (municipal body) has the power to
fine the owner of an improper septic tank. Despite
this, septic tanks in Agra generally do not conform
to the design specified by bis and the effluent is
allowed to flow into open drains. Unlined pit la-
trines are also a prominent feature in the city.
It is the same case in Tiruchirappalli. Tamil
Nadus septage notification of 2014 states that
the owners of septic tanks that do not meet the
standards will be issued notices as per the Tamil
Nadu Public Health Act, 1939. Yet septic tanks
in Tiruchirappalli were not found to adhere to
the standards.
Then there are cases where a masons knowl-
edge of local conditions beats bis scientific stand-
ards, such as in Bikaner. In this city of Rajasthan,
septic tanks are mostly in the form of kuiis, lined
pits with semi-permeable walls and an open bot-
tom with no outlet or overflow. A slab is used to
cover a kuii, which gets filled in 20-30 years. It is
a common feature in peri-urban areas in Bikaner.
Although kuiis are not a scientifically viable solu-
tion because they have an open bottom and may
1-15 APRIL 2016
25/03/16 11:20 AM
 33 april15, 2016
33AMway ad.indd 33 25/03/16 1:00 PM
 COVER STORY
pollute groundwater, cse believes that in an area
like Bikaner, where the groundwater level is as-
tonishingly low, leachate from a kuii cannot per-
colate to groundwater. It is better to have the faecal
sludge contained in the soil where, microorgan-
isms can digest it, instead of having a convention-
al septic tank and risking discharge of effluent into
open drains or fields.
In coastal cities Cuttack and Srikakulam pits
outnumber septic tanks. This is because in these
cities pits are designed in the form of concrete
rings placed one over another which makes them
inexpensive and easy to close and replace.
Emptying: One stark fact illuminates how neglect-
ed septage management is in the country: most
septic tanks are emptied manually in Indian cit-
ies. cse observed manual emptying in Agra,
Cuttack and Aizawl. This, despite the fact that
India has enacted the Manual Scavengers and
Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act,
1993, which aims to eradicate manual scavenging.
So one can imagine how many people follow
directions on safety precautions and regular emp-
tying. As per bis standards, half-yearly or year-
ly emptying of septic tanks is desirable. A small
amount of sludge should be left in the tank to en-
sure the presence of microorganisms for anaero-
bic digestion of sludge. As regards the safety pre-
cautions a cleaner must follow, the Union urban
development ministrys manual on sewage and
sewerage states that workers must be provided
adequate safety gear: gloves, masks, safety belts
and jackets.
How do the 11 cities fare in terms of these
guidelines? In Delhi, sludge is removed from the
tanks only when they are choked or overloaded. In
Aizawl, the emptying frequency is three years but
there were instances where tanks were not emp-
tied for 10 years. In Gwalior also the emptying fre-
quency was once in three years.
According to the cse surveys, no safety precau-
tions were undertaken by cleaners in Delhi, Agra,
Dewas, Solapur, Cuttack, Srikakulam, Bikaner
Only three of the 11 cities
have taken steps to regulate
emptying of septic tanks. In
the rest, anyone can empty
tanks and charge any fee
34 DOWN TO EARTH
28-38Cover Story.indd 34
and Aizawl. Workers in Aizawl, however, said
they had not had health problems due to lack of
protective gear.
The country also needs standards/guidelines
on the equipment used to empty septic tanks. The
most satisfactory method is by vacuum tankers
mounted on trucks or tractors. A new technolo-
gy is in the offing which treats sludge in the vacu-
um tanker itself, says Amiya Kumar Sahu, founder
of the National Solid Waste Association of India, a
non-profit. It will be the next big thing in the emp-
tying business, he adds. However, the cost could be
a limiting factor in adopting this technique.
Only three of the studied cities have tak-
en steps to regulate operators involved in emp-
tying. In the rest of the cities anyone can empty
septic tanks and charge any fee. A comparison of
sludge management in different cities shows that
governments involvement can bring improve-
ments. Take the case of Dewas in Madhya Pradesh.
Emptying in this city is managed and regulated by
the Dewas Municipal Corporation. House own-
ers have to submit an application to the corpora-
tion for emptying their septic tanks. The clean-
ers charge only R500 per trip, though they have to
make more than one trip because the septic tanks
in Dewas are oversized.
Contrast this with Srikakulam, where the
private sector is responsible for emptying septic
tanks. Operators there follow no safety precau-
tions and charge between R1,500 and R2,500. In
Delhi they charge between R500 and R3,000.
The solution, it seems, is a public-private part-
nership. Collaboration would work best because it
would destroy the mafia of private cleaners, mak-
ing them accountable. Private cleaners, in turn,
would bring an experienced workforce.
In Delhi, where private operators dump fae-
cal sludge at their will and charge whatever they
like, the Delhi Jal Board recently got into action to
regularise the business. In August 2015, the water
body enacted the Delhi Water Board Septic Tank
Waste Management Regulations under the Delhi
Water Board Act of 1958. According to these reg-
ulations, faecal sludge can be collected and trans-
ported by only those private cleaners who have a
licence. If they fail to obtain a licence and still op-
erate, they will have to pay a fine. But the regula-
tion fails to specify the amount of fine.
It also lists the conditions for obtaining a li-
cence: only individuals and agencies with leak-,
odour- and spill-proof vehicle and proper vacuum
and discharging equipment will be given a licence.
1-15 APRIL 2016
25/03/16 11:21 AM
 COVER STORY

Agra 1
Aizawl 2
8
Bikaner 3
3 5
Cuttack 4 1
7 30 7
Delhi 5 2
6
Dewas 6
9 15 4
Gwalior 7
7 8 9
Solapur 8
16
Srikakulam 9
7 11
Tiruchirappalli 10

17
10
Tumkur 11

41
Off-site Safe disposal
sanitation systems Unsafe disposal

On-site Safe disposal

24
sanitation systems Unsafe disposal

50
Open defecation Unsafe disposal
39 2

All figures in %
52

24
23
40

SHIT SCAN
45

16

To get an idea of how human excreta

is being disposed of, researchers
4

looked at three channels. One is off-

13

22
site system that includes sewage going 7
8

into the sewer system. Second is on-site 42

19

system that includes septic tanks and pit 43 14 5

latrines. Third is open defecation. Turns out 64 69 11
a large part of excreta is not safely disposed 24
10

of. In Solapur and Srikakulam almost all the 3 4

excreta is unsafely disposed of 15
46 11 6
20 78
13
15
Prepared by DTE-CSE Data Centre
Infographics: Raj Kumar Singh
16 5
Data source: Shit flow diagrams, CSE 30 7
For more such infographics visit: www.downtoearth.org.in/infographics

1-15 APRIL 2016 www.downtoearth.org.in 35

28-38Cover Story.indd 35 25/03/16 11:21 AM

 COVER STORY

They must also have gas detectors, gas masks, pro-

tective gear, a first-aid box and an oxygen mask
and cylinder. Licensed cleaners can dispose of
sludge only at locations specified by the Board,
which will also prescribe the emptying fee. It is a
difficult procedure. It has been four months since
we applied for a licence. Only now has the process
started, says Yasin, owner of a union of cleaners
operating in and around the Loni border.
Tiruchirappalli also has operative guidelines
for septage management but monitoring is weak.
Krishna Chaitanya Rao, a researcher at the
International Water Management Institute, sug-
gests that cities municipalities should enforce
scheduled cleaning of septic tanks, contract emp-
tying activities to private cleaners through bids
and adopt a call centre-based model to stream-
line the process. This is of advantage to the house-
hold, as it receives improved and lowest cost ser-
vice; to the municipality as it can better regulate
tariffs and septage disposal; and to private clean-
ers as they can now have clear access to markets
and be a part of the formal sector, Rao says.

Transportation, treatment and disposal: Ideally,

the sludge collected should first be treated and then
either disposed of according to the standards pre-
scribed under the Environment (Protection) Act of
1986 or reused as fuel, soil conditioner or filling ma-
terial, depending on the treatment method.
In reality, most of the faecal sludge collected
from septic tanks is dumped into rivers, drains
and sewers or emptied untreated into agricultur-
al fields and low-lying areas. A tiny portion of it
reaches stps, though ideally it should not. Septage
is high in total solids, suspended solids, biological
oxygen demand (bod), chemical oxygen demand
(cod), nitrogen and potassium. stps are not de-
signed for this. Treatment of septage at stps can
only be an interim solution, says Luthra of cse,
adding that treatment can be as simple as drying
the feacal sludge for reuse in agriculture.
For using treated faecal sludge in agricultur-
al fields, who suggests a faecal coliform density of
Ideally, faecal sludge should
first be treated and then
reused as fuel, soil conditioner
or filling material. But this
is not the norm
less than 1,000 most probable number (mpn) per
gram of total dry solids, a salmonella density of less
than 3 mpn per 4 g and an E coli density of 1,000
mpn/g. The minimum one can do is let the sludge
out in the sun to dry. Using raw sludge as manure
is never recommended, says Sahu of the National
Solid Waste Association of India.
But use of raw sludge in fields is common as
seen on Ali Shers farm. It is 5 km from the site
where tankers from Loni in the National Capital
Region congregate. As a tanker releases faecal
sludge on his farm, Sher tells Down To Earth how
he has been fertilising his crops using raw sludge
for years. He grows wheat, sorghum and vegeta-
bles such as potato, cauliflower and turnip. I still
have to add some urea because the sludge is not
enough. But I get the sludge for free. Sometimes I
pay for it, he says.
No city has a treatment plant designed specif-
ically for septage. Dewas, Srikakulam and Solapur
do not even have a functional stp. In Srikakulam,
private cleaners dispose of faecal sludge outside
the town, where farmers use the dried sludge as
compost. The Solapur Municipal Corporation
dumps the faecal sludge it collects into a dump
yard 10-15 km from the town, while private clean-
ers dump it into open drains. In Dewas, the waste-

36 DOWN TO EARTH 1-15 APRIL 2016

28-38Cover Story.indd 36 25/03/16 11:21 AM


water from sewer lines ends up in the Kshipra and
Kali Sindh rivers, while tankers generally dis-
charge sludge into surface drains, nallahs, low-ly-
ing areas or agricultural fields.
In cities that have an stp not all sewage/sep-
tage reaches the plant, partly because of losses in
transportation, but mostly because cleaners refuse
to go to an stp.
In Aizawl cleaners transport sludge to private
land in Tuirial, Bethany and Mualpui localities
by paying R100 per trip. While Tuirial has an ox-
idation pond to partially treat the faecal sludge,
the sludge emptied in Bethany is sometimes used
for agriculture.
In fact, most stps in the country remain un-
der-utilised. Only 66 per cent3,126 million li-
tres per day (mld)of the actual treatment ca-
pacity of the 152 stps spread across 15 states in the
country is utilised, shows a 2015 report of cpcb. In
Tiruchirappalli, the 58 mld stp is underutilised,
so it treats sewage as well as septage. In Agra, the
nine stps have a capacity of 221.25 mld, while
the sewage delivered to them is only 175.75 mld.
Agra, too, can go the Tiruchirappalli way.In Delhi
as well, stps are under-utilised. Yet, the Yamuna
has become the major receptacle of treated, par-
tially treated and untreated sewage, while septage
1-15 APRIL 2016
28-38Cover Story.indd 37
A vacuum
tanker dumps
untreated
faecal sludge
in a wheat field
in the National
Capital Region
is disposed of in low-lying areas, vacant plots, wa-
ter bodies and agricultural fields. A private guard
in Okhla, who does not wish to be named, says he
often sees tankers empty sludge on the banks of
the Yamuna.
Then there are stps that treat sewage but the
quality of treatment is not according to the pre-
scribed norms. As per cpcb, 49 of the 152 stps in
the country exceed the bod standard, while seven
stps violate cod standards. Thats how Tumkurs
treated sewage discharged into Bommasandra
lake ends up choking it.
And what about effluent? cse observed soak-
aways connected to individual septic tanks only
in Aizawl. The saving grace in many cities is that
their groundwater level is low, so leachate from pit
latrines and soak pits poses no threat there.
Simple steps to
sanitation
India cannot do away with septic tanks. The best
it can do is to fix the gaps in handling excreta. One
step the authorities can take is to train masons in
the design and construction of a tank. Then, the
regulation of private cleaners is equally important.
www.downtoearth.org.in 37
25/03/16 11:21 AM
 COVER STORY
STP at home Five-step treatment at a decentralised wastewater treatment system
SETTLER TANK | HORIZONTAL BAFFLED ANAEROBIC FILTER |
Stabilises settled sludge REACTOR | Anaerobic Water passes through
by anaerobic digestion; degradation of filter media; enhanced
dissolved and suspended suspended and dissolved digestion of organic
matter remain untreated; solids; removal of COD matter; removal of COD
removal of COD 20-25%, 25-30%, BOD 30-35%, 20-25%, BOD 15-20%,
BOD 15-20%, TSS* 50-55% TSS 10-15% TSS 15-20%
* Total suspended solids
It can be done through a public-private partner-
ship. Such a partnership would give houses access
to improved service, the municipality can better
monitor and regulate emptying activities and pri-
vate cleaners get access to markets and formal em-
ployment, wherein they are also made aware of
safe sites for disposal of faecal sludge.
As for safe disposal, Suresh Kumar Rohilla,
programme director, urban water management,
cse, suggests decentralised wastewater treatment
system, which basically brings an stp home (see
diagram above). Such systems can be used at dif-
ferent scales; in houses, schools and colonies.
Rohilla gives the example of Aravind Eye Care
Hospital at Abhishekapakkam in Puducherry that
adopted a decentralised system in 2003. It did so
because its water demand for horticulture was
very high. Primary treatment at the hospital is
similar to an improved septic tank, called anaero-
bic baffled reactor with filter. It is basically a series
of chambers where filter material is installed in the
last few chambers. The organic matter is degrad-
ed by microorganisms attached to the filter media.
This decreases bod by about 90 per cent.
Secondary treatment is achieved through a
planted gravel filter bed. It consists of a gravel bed
over which reeds are grown. The roots absorb ni-
trates and phosphates and inject oxygen in the
wastewater. This results in more than 50 per cent
reduction in bod, nitrates and phosphates. Finally,
tertiary treatment is achieved in a polishing pond.
It is basically a shallow pond in which ultraviolet
38 DOWN TO EARTH
28-38Cover Story.indd 38
CONSTRUCTED POLISHING POND |
WETLANDS | Open Open shallow basin for
shallow basin with reeds; removal of stabilised or
reduces organic contents inactive suspended
and act as a filter; substances; exposure to
Removal of COD 15-20%, UV rays; removal of
BOD 20-25%, TSS 5-10% pathogens and odour
light can penetrate deep enough to kill pathogens.
The system at Aravind Eye Care Hospital
treats 270-320 kilolitres of wastewater every day
and reduces dependence on fresh water.
Residents of the Ravindra Nagar colony in
Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh, have built a reed bed
covering 42 square metres for treating 13 kiloli-
tres of sewage a day.
Wherever community-level solutions are not
possible cities may need independent septage
treatment plants. Such plants can be set up and
maintained by charging a user fee.
Most importantly, cities should reuse the
treated faecal sludge. Septage is 100 per cent or-
ganic. If it is discharged into a sewer line, it will be
mixed with toxic effluents, restricting its reuse,
says Jha of the Foundation for Environment and
Sanitation. Janicki Bioenergy Omni Processor in
Dakar, Senegal, is a fitting example of reuse. This
processor, funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates
Foundation, takes one-third of the sludge in the
city and converts it into electricity, ash and even
drinking water. It produces up to 10,800 litres of
clean drinking water every day from 12.3 cubic
metres of sludge.
Cities can opt for a combination of these op-
tions depending on their topography, extent of
urbanisation, population, land availability, prox-
imity and availability of stps, and proximity to res-
idential areas. One good way to begin is by prepar-
ing the septage management sub-plan. After this
one can flush and forget.
1-15 APRIL 2016
25/03/16 11:21 AM
 A Down To Earth ANNUAL

STATE OF INDIA'S
ENVIRONMENT
2016
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39DTE Annual 2016 Ad.indd 39 25/03/16 1:01 PM

 ANALYSIS
Open for takeover
F
A government proposal ORESTS PROVIDE sustenance to
300 million Indians and cover
to open up "degraded" 21.34 per cent of the countrys
geographical area. They are also a
forests to industries source of raw material to industries. As a
will adversely affect result, a people v industry tussle has long
existed over the use of forests. A recent
20 million people proposal of the Central government has
brought the issue into focus again. In
involved in farm forestry September 2015, the Union Ministry of
Environment, Forest and Climate Change
AJAY KUMAR SAXENA | (moefcc) issued Guidelines for participa-
new delhi tion of private sector in afforestation
of degraded forests that propose to open
AMIN WAR / CSE
40-42Analysis.indd 40
degraded forests to private investors. If
implemented, the proposal will convert
natural forests into largely monoculture
plantations which will be of use only to
wood-based industries.
The moefcc guidelines, which have
been issued to states and Union Territories
without any larger public consultation,
propose to give forests with canopy densi-
ty of less than 10 per cent to private agen-
cies (see The great land loot). The propos-
al says that 8590 per cent of such forests
will be developed as industrial plantations
and the remaining 1015 per cent will be
The government is planning to
convert 85-90 per cent of degraded
forests into industrial plantations
23/03/16 10:39 AM
 ANALYSIS
www.downtoearth.org.in/forests

developed by industry for local communi-

ties. It also mentions that the move will
improve productivity of degraded forests,
enhance forest financing, create jobs, in-
crease raw material availability and
The great land loot
The problem | The government has proposed to open "degraded forests" to the
private sector for regeneration and use at the cost of people and ecology

10% 43%
provide carbon benefits. or less canopy cover density of all forests in the country
Delhi-based non-profit Centre for forests categorised as can come under the
Science and Environment (cse) has ana- "degraded". Previously they "degraded" category as per
lysed the proposal and finds that these were labelled "scrubs" the new proposal
so-called degraded forests have been al-
lowed to degrade over decades by apathet- The reality | In 2011-12, most big paper mills in the country sourced up to 99 per cent
ic governments and are now being doled
of their raw material from farm forestry
out to industries to promote their commer-
cial interests. The forests appear degraded Farm forestry Government forests Government plantations Captive plantations Open market
because they are used beyond their sustain- BILT-Ballarpur
able capacity due to excessive biomass ex-
TNPL
traction by people. But they continue to
provide a variety of ecosystem services that ITC Ltd
are far more valuable than any commercial
Sirpur Paper
benefits they can provide to industries. cse
has opposed forest diversions to paper and Star
wood-based industry for decades and has
advocated utilising farm forestry model to West Coast Paper
produce raw material for industry. JK Papers
While state-promoted Joint Forest (Rayagada)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Management (jfm) and social forestry In %
programmes have been largely unsuccess-
ful, farm forestry has flourished in the past The options | The government has not explored other options to source raw material
few decades across the country. Farmers
have started growing wood for wood-based Agroforestry | JFM forests | Around Tree cooperatives | Forestland | About
industries. If the moefcc proposal is al- Practised only on 8 24 million ha of This model has 1.9 mln ha has been
lowed, it will destroy livelihoods of an per cent of country's forests in the country been successful in given to people under
estimated 20 million farmers involved in cultivated area, it has are under JFM. They producing wood but the Forest Rights Act,
farm forestry. a proven potential to can supply raw has failed to gain 2006. They can be
The guidelines are also not in conso- supply enough wood material to the popularity because of incentivised to grow
nance with the National Forest Policy of for all industry restrictive regulations and sell wood
1988 which stipulates maintenance of for-
ests for environmental stability, meeting Source: DTE-CSE Data Centre
forest products requirements of rural and
tribal populations, and sourcing industrial Fake shortage mand for wood of 10 million tonnes is al-
wood from farmers. The proposal is also at While the guidelines mention that the most completely met through farm forest-
odds with the Forest Rights Act, 2006, move would help meet the shortage of raw ry plantations. Moreover, the yield in farm
which grants forest-dependent communi- material by regenerating degraded forests, forestry is much higher. Industries are
ties rights over forests. it is evident that there is no such shortage. making farmers grow up to 200 tonnes of
If implemented, the proposal will also Several Indian paper mills are successfully wood per hectare compared to 610 tonnes
have severe ecological consequences. Tho- sourcing wood from farm forestry and meet per ha from government forests. Even on
ugh the guidelines mention using a mix of up to 95 per cent of their raw material from unirrigated farm lands, yields go up to 50
plant species, maintaining ecological func- farms. A 2013 estimate by itc Ltd, an 70 tonnes per ha.
tions and complexity of natural forests in Indian conglomerate involved in farm for- Yet another reason cited by the indus-
plantations will remain a daunting task. estry, says that 27 paper mills in the coun- try in favour of industrial plantations is that
The decision will also pose threats to many try were able to produce 39.43 million the price of wood in open market in India is
endangered animal and plant species, such tonnes of wood from farm forestry over a very high. But this argument too is mislead-
as the Great Indian Bustard and Commi- four-year felling cycle (2008-12) against a ing. The price difference is largely due to the
phora wightii (gugal tree), which inhabit total annual demand of 10.09 million fact that wood in open market is transport-
these degraded forests. tonnes. Hence, the annual industrial de- ed from faraway places at huge costs. In

1-15 APRIL 2016 www.downtoearth.org.in 41

40-42Analysis.indd 41 25/03/16 10:33 AM

 ANALYSIS
fact, transportation costs are nearly 3050
per cent of the total wood cost. For instance,
Mysore Paper Mills sourced pulpwood
from nearby captive plantations at R2,127
per tonne against R5,288 per tonne in the
open market in 2013-14.
Despite these constraints, area under
farm forestry is growing in India. This is
also confirmed by a 2014 study by cse. In
2001, the industry produced around 1.7
MT [million tonnes] of pulp and paper
from 3.4 MT of wood and bamboo. In 2011,
3.1 MT of paper was manufactured from
approximately 6.5 MT of wood, a bulk of
which was produced by large-scale inte-
grated mills. Clearly, the two-fold increase
in consumption of wood has been possible
as these mills had opted to take the farm
forestry route. This move is bringing the in-
dustry closer to a sustainable model of
wood sourcing, says the study. It also found
that the proportion of farm forestry in sam-
pled paper mills was 61 per cent in 2013. As
per a 2014 report by the World Agroforestry
Centre, an intergovernmental research
centre, 65 per cent of Indias wood demand
and half of its fuelwood demand are being
met by trees grown on farms. Thus, farm
forestry is already bearing most of the na-
tional wood burden.
Plenty of alternative land
A 2014 working paper of the erstwhile
Planning Commission says that according
to industrys own admission, its wood
requirement can easily be met from
2 million ha of degraded land. Against this
requirement, about 35 million ha of
farmer-owned uncultivated wasteland is
lying unutilised in the country. Industries
can take up the challenge of greening these
areas in partnership with local commun-
ities by adopting suitable reclamation/
plantation technologies.
There are other options too. Agro-
forestry, which is practised only on eight
per cent of the countrys cultivated area has
a proven potential to supply enough wood
for all. Forests under jfm (around 24 mil-
While state-promoted Joint Forest Management
and social forestry programmes have been largely
unsuccessful, farm forestry has flourished in the past
few decades to sustain industrial growth
42 DOWN TO EARTH
40-42Analysis.indd 42
SUNITA NARAIN / CSE
Instead of converting forests into monoculture plantations, the government should incentivise people
lion ha) can become another inexhaustible
supplier of raw material for industries. Tree
cooperatives in India have also been a suc-
cessful model, but have failed to gain pop-
ularity because of the governments restric-
tive regulations. The forestlands given to
people under the Forest Rights Act, 2006,
provide another alternative to grow wood
(about 1.9 million ha given so far). If farm-
ers and local communities are persuaded by
the industry and the government and giv-
en the right prices for wood grown on their
farms and village common land, enough
wood can be grown to meet the country's
requirements.
Fuelwood dilemma
The guidelines further argue that regener-
ating degraded forest would help overcome
the shortage of fuelwood in the country.
But should we allow village residents to
continue with the drudgery of collecting
and burning fuelwood or provide them
cleaner sources of energy such as lpg, elec-
tricity, solar and wind power? Fuelwood,
which is highly polluting, consumes 90 per
cent of the total wood produced in the
country, with paper/pulp and wood indus-
tries consuming the rest 10 per cent. If the
demand of fuelwood can be reduced even
by a fraction, the demand on forests will fall
to grow wood on farms and wastelands
drastically. Diverting forests to industries
will only aggravate the fuelwood shortage.
The governments argument about the
decision bringing carbon benefits to the
country also does not carry weight because
short-cycle harvests of quick-growing tree
species by industries will curtail carbon se-
questration potential of long-rotation na-
tive trees. India must not convert its forests
into carbon sinks for the world at the cost of
local forest-dependent people.
No doubt the productivity of degraded
forests needs to be increased to meet the
growing industrial wood demands as well
as to improve the livelihoods of forest-de-
pendent people. But ecological and socio-
economic considerations must be kept in
view while moving forward. Simplistic for-
est diversions to industry for captive plan-
tations will not solve the problem. The idea
of monoculture-captive plantations must
be replaced by bio-diverse forests which are
sustainably harvested using suitable silvi-
culture techniques. The industry must
strengthen its partnership with farmers to
grow wood on their farms. Failures of jfm
and social forestry programmes in India
have taught us that improving forest pro-
ductivity will not happen unless people are
made in charge. Forests, that have been
wrongly classified as degraded on the basis
of simplistic canopy cover criterion, have
a huge productivity potential. They must
be regenerated for forest dependent com-
munities and not allowed to be exploited
by industries.
@ajay_ecologist
1-15 APRIL 2016
25/03/16 10:33 AM
 SCIENCE
BYTES
www.downtoearth.org.in/science-and-technology H E A LT H

Sourcing urinary tract

infections
Skill kill R E S E A R C H E R S H A V E discovered that
the bacterium, Escherichia coli , the main
cause of recurrent urinary tract infections,
Pesticides are affecting the bumblebee's enters the urinary tract and attaches itself
ability to learn skills needed to extract to the surface causing inflammations. This
new finding could help in the formulation
nectar and pollen of new drugs and treatment, as almost
every second woman suffers from a bladder
infection at some point in her life. Men too
are affected, though less frequently. Nature
Communications, March 7

ECOLOGY

Impacting ecology
N U T R I E N T P O L L U T I O N can create
an imbalance in the interactions between
partneralso known as mutualisticspecies
across a variety of ecosystems. Researchers
say the blame squarely lies with nitrogen
fertilisers and fossil-fuel combustion. They
say humans have short-circuited the tight
recycling of nutrients between mutualistic
species, and this in turn, has changed the
balance of how such partners interact.
Analysing data from more than 300 different
experiments, they found the same pattern
THINKSTOCK PHOTOS
occurring across continents and various ocean
locations. Ecology Letters, January 2016

P
ESTICIDE EXPOSURE can impact the foraging behaviour
of bumblebees on wildflowers, changing their floral
preferences and hindering their ability to learn the
skills needed to extract nectar and pollen. The study by
Canada's University of Guelph is the first to explore how
pesticides may impact the ability of bumblebees to forage
from common wildflowers. Bees and other insects pollinate
many of the world's important food crops and wild plants,
and their dramatic decline worldwide has raised serious
concerns about food security and biodiversity. Effect of low
levels of pesticide on the bees' ability to learn may impair
the essential pollination services bees provide to both crops
and wild plants. Functional Ecology March 14
ZOOLOGY
The fungal difference
WHY ARE Asian bats surviving the white-nose
syndrome that is wiping out populations in
North America? Researchers say the fungus
that causes the disease is endemic in Asia, so
bats have coexisted with it. Also, the Asian bats
have lower levels of infection as compared
to their North American counterparts
and, therefore, are resistant to the fungus.
Proceedings of the Royal Society B, March 9

1-15 APRIL 2016 www.downtoearth.org.in 43

43S&T Bytes.indd 43 21/03/16 4:30 PM

 SCIENCE
LIFE SCIENCES
THINKSTOCK PHOTOS
Red gold crisis
Acute shortage of
a seaweed species
could affect biology
research worldwide
JIGYASA WATWANI | new delhi
44 DOWN TO EARTH
44-45Life Science.indd 44
Turbulent waters and
a rocky seabed are
needed for the growth of
Gelidiumconditions that
are hard to emulate in
seaweed farms
B
IOLOGY LABS across the world are facing
an existential problem. There is an
acute shortage of agar, a product wide-
ly used in the culture media. Derived
from a red seaweed species belonging to the ge-
nus Gelidium, agar, which is also known as the
red gold, has in the past, enabled researchers to
isolate TB, cholera and other disease-causing
bacteria. It is also used in tissue culture as well as
in the cosmetics and food industry. As a result,
manufacturers worldwide have cut down pro-
duction. The shortage has put the scientific com-
munity in a crisis. Microbiologist Adam Roberts
of ucl Eastman Dental Institute in London, says:
Microbiologists beware! This could go quite bad
1-15 APRIL 2016
25/03/16 10:33 AM

Restricted access
Morocco, which controls 75 per cent of global
exports, has curtailed harvesting
Morocco
Countries that have
imposed restrictions on
the harvest of Gelidium
from the wild
fast. The impact is already visible: whole-
sale prices of agar are at an all-time high, US
$35-45 per kg, nearly triple the price before
the shortage began in late March and early
April of 2015 (see Restricted access). Labo-
ratories worldwide would now have to re-
duce the number of experiments.
Why the shortage
The genesis of the crisis can be traced to
Morocco, which controls 75 per cent of the
global seaweed exports. On July 25, 2014,
the Moroccan government ordered restric-
tions fearing that overharvesting of the ma-
rine plant will prove a death knell for the
marine environment. It limited annual har-
vest to only around 6,000 tonnes, limiting
foreign exports of the algae to around 1,200
tonnes. Earlier, it used to harvest as much as
14,000 tonnes per year.
Not just Morocco, Mexico, France, the
Philippines, Ireland, Canada, Norway and
44-45Life Science.indd 45
www.downtoearth.org.in/science-and-technology
Areas in India
where the seaweed
is found
many states in the US too have imposed re-
strictions on harvesting the seaweed. This
has significantly increased production cost.
India too is slowly stepping into a short-
age situation. Of the 30 companies manu-
facturing agar in Tamil Nadu, 26 were shut
down due to the shortage, says P Kalidharan,
principal scientist at the Central Marine
Fisheries Research Institute (cmfri), Kochi.
Marine Chemicals, a Kerala-based compa-
ny, says it depends on imports from Indo-
nesia, Sri Lanka and Morocco for the supply
of red seaweed, and trade restrictions could
affect its production. Other manufacturers
such as Hi-Media, Mumbai, and Thermo Fi-
sher, Bengaluru, have refused to comment
on the issue.
Though Gelidium yields the best qual-
ity agar, it is difficult to cultivate, says Swap-
naja A Mohite, associate professor at the
College of Fisheries, Dr Balasaheb Sawant
Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Ratnagiri. Tur-
bulent waters and a rocky seabed are need-
ed for the growth of Gelidiumconditions
that are hard to emulate in seaweed farms
(see Hard to replace).
Another reason is that seaweeds grow
very slowly. Thats why harvesting from the
wild is preferred over cultivation, giving rise
to concerns about overharvesting. The
shortage of Gelidium is so widespread that
Gelidium is being harvested even before it
has grown fully, adds Kalidharan.
@jigyasawatwani
Hard to replace
Only isabgol comes close as an
alternative to Gelidium
IN THE 1950s, Xanthan gum, a gelling
agent made from a plant bacterium
known as Xanthomonas campestris,
was discovered as a substitute to agar
as it is stable over a wide range of
temperatures. However, it does not
form good gels on its own. Xanthan
remains a viscous liquid. It is not a
gel, says Shashi Bhushan Babbar,
a professor at the Department of
Botany, Delhi University, adding that its
efficacy increases only when it is used
in combination with agar. This can at
least limit, if not completely restrict, our
consumption of agar, he says.
In 1978, gellan gum, made from
the bacterium, Sphingomonas sp,
was introduced as a reagent. Gellan
gum gels faster and is of higher
quality than agar. But it came in the line
of fire because of its hyperhydracity
tissues cultured on gellan gum tend to
retain water. It is also costlier than agar.
Then in 1997, isabgol, a husk
derived from the seeds of Plantago
ovata, was tested as a gelling agent. It
melts at a temperature greater than
1000 C. However, the problem with
isabgol is that it is highly viscous at high
temperatures and forms a gel even
with cold water. Moreover, the isabgol
available in the market is not pure
and impurities can affect the quality
of culturing.
Most recently, guar gum, the
ground endosperm of guar beans, was
proposed as a reagent. But guar gum is
highly viscous at high temperatures.
It has less clarity because of the
presence of impurities. But the problem
with guar gum is that it cannot be
poured from one vessel to another.
It has to be lifted by a spatula, making
the process of transfer of culture
medium extremely cumbersome,
Nothing works as well as agar. At the
same time, I believe that isabgol is the
best substitute available at present,
adds Babbar.
www.downtoearth.org.in 45
25/03/16 10:33 AM
 FOOD
www.downtoearth.org.in/food
Relish O
history
Rich in its mythological
antecedents, the prickly pear
has many medicinal merits
CHAITANYA CHANDAN
RAJIT SENGUPTA / CSE
46-47Food.indd 46
N A recent trip to Rishikesh I chanced upon a strange fruit
being sold by a roadside vendor. Known as ramphal, the
fruit was reddish-purple and pear-shaped. The fruit had
a shallow depression at the top and several tufts of small
barbed bristles. The vendor served the fruit after cutting it in two
portions and sprinkling some powdered sugar over it.
I later found out that the fruit is called prickly pear (Opuntia
dilleni), a cactus from southeastern usa. But there are references
of this fruit even in India mythology. It is said that when Lord Ram
killed Ravan, the demon king of Lanka, he rushed to Rishikesh for
penance for killing a Brahmin. At that time he ate this fruit, and so
the fruit began to be called ramphal.
The prickly pear has relevance in other countries too. The
Mexican government uses the symbol in official documents. It
depicts a Mexican golden eagle perched on a prickly pear cactus
devouring a snake. To the people of Tenochtitlan, this fruit has
The fruit induces
hypoglycemia by
reducing the intestinal
absorption of glucose
21/03/16 4:49 PM
 THINKSTOCK PHOTOS
strong religious connotations. The Euro-
peans interpret this fruit as a triumph
of good over evil. The fruit was also the
second-most valuable export from Mexico
to Spain in the 1600s. It grows at the very
edge of the spiny leaves of these imposing
cacti, which are some of the hardiest lowland
cacti in the world.
Considering the hardiness of the plant,
it is not surprising that it is found in abun-
dance in various parts of the world. It can
grow in semi-arid, sub-tropical, tropical as
well as in warmer temperate regionsfrom
the US and Mexico to India and Africa. It
may inhabit open woodlands, rangelands,
grasslands, pastures, coastal environs, gar-
dens and even, wastelands. And it can be eat-
en and prepared in a number of ways (see
recipe Prickly pear jam).
In central Africa, the juice from the
padsleaves of the cactihas long been
used as an effective mosquito repellent. It
also attracts an insect called cochineal
(Dactylopius coccus), from which the natu-
ral carmine dye is derived. Women during
the Inca and Mayan period used to paint
their hands and breasts with this dye.
The insect produces carminic acid, which
is used as a colourant in the food and lip-
stick industries.
Medicinal value
In the traditional form of medicine, all of its
parts are used, though its stem, flower and
roots are of special importance. Research re-
veals the prickly pear reduces inflammation;
it is an antioxidant; it has anti-depressant
properties; it reduces blood pressure; it is
used to treat acute liver injury; it is effective
against TB; and, it is also an antimicrobial.
1-15 APRIL 2016
46-47Food.indd 47
The fruit protects nerve cells and is used for
the treatment of Alzheimers disease, Park-
insons disease and heart ailments.
Studies published in Diabetes Care and
Archives of Investigative Medicine also indi-
cate that consuming 100 g to 500 g of cooked
pads helps in treating diabetic patients.
Results showed a drop of between eight and
31 per cent of blood glucose readings.
Another study found that the fruit in-
duces hypoglycemia by reducing the intesti-
nal absorption of glucose, but other mecha-
nisms of action cannot be excluded, say, for
example, the presence of an orally active in-
sulin-like compound. The study was pub-
lished in the International Journal of Phar-
macognosy in 1996.
Studies also reveal that the fruit contains
high amino acids and the prickly pear cactus
is said to be high in fibre, magnesium and
iron. It is also believed that the prickly pear
can be consumed as a hangover cure.
But physicians recommend precau-
tions: it is not suitable for pregnant women,
and diabetics can consume the extract only
after consulting a physician. Importantly,
before eating a prickly pear, it is essential to
remove the skin and peel so that all the
spines are removed, or the glochidshair-
like spines or short prickles of the cactican
stick on your lips, gums, and throat, which
can be very painful.
The fruit protects nerve
cells and is used for the
treatment of Alzheimer's
disease, Parkinson's disease
and heart ailments. It is also
an antioxidant
RECIPE
Prickly pear jam
INGREDIENTS
About 10 prickly pears
2 1/2 cups of granulated sugar
1 cup water
Juice of 1 lemon
METHOD
Peel the prickly pears. Cut them into
small pieces and put them in a pot
along with a cup of water. Place the
pot on the stove on medium low heat.
Allow it to simmer/low boil, and cook
until the fruit becomes soft. Remove
the fruits from the stove and pass
them through a food mill to break
down the fruit and remove the seeds.
Once again place the fruits on
the stove on low heat to bring
the fruit pulp mixture to a gentle
boil. Add sugar and keep stirring.
Add the lemon juice and allow
the mixture to simmer until the
sugar is dissolved. Let the mixture
thicken considerably. It should take
approximately 40 minutes to achieve
fine consistency. Store in sterile jelly
jars, and if canned properly, your
prickly pear jam should last for at
least six months.
Its medicinal value can be ascertained
from the fact that European travelers often
carried the fruit during their long voyages
in the 18th century to prevent scurvy, a
disease caused by Vitamin C deficiency,
which affected poorly nourished sailors.
In many ways, the prickly pear has come a
long way. @chaitanya_dte
www.downtoearth.org.in 47
21/03/16 4:32 PM
 GOOD NEWS
Will it
rain?
As states across India are reeling
from drought, for the first time,
a 24x7 call centre in Karnataka
informs farmers about weather
conditions, enabling them
to cultivate profitably
JITENDRA | mysuru
48 DOWN TO EARTH
48-49Good News.indd 48
PHOTOGRAPHS: JITENDRA / CSE
K
ALASWAMY, 35, a marginal farmer from Antharasan vil-
lage of Mysuru, is dialing Varun Mitra, a government
call centre helpline which issues weather forecasts for
panchayats every 15 minutes. The receiver asks him to
name his panchayat and district, and then responds, There is no
possibility of rain for the next three days in your panchayat. The
answer makes Kalaswamy a little disappointed, but ends his un-
certainty about rain. In absence of proper information last year,
Kalaswamy had invested his meager resources in irrigation, and
when rains arrived the next day, it destroyed his crops.
Thanks to Varun Mitra (friend of rain), this year he is not
living in uncertainty. The paddy crop is the only source of food
security for my five member family, he says. After this forecast,
I will replace half my farm with short duration crops like mil-
let or maize, which need less water and grow quickly, he adds.
Like Kalaswamy, thousands of farmers in Karnataka have
tapped into this helpline to know about the weather in their
respective panchayats. Karnataka is the only state in India
which has developed a mechanism of recording and dissem-
inating weather information right up to the panchayat level,
and in real time too, through a 24x7 call centre, which is locat-
ed in Bengaluru. It provides weather and rainfall updates every
15 minutes.
1-15 APRIL 2016
21/03/16 4:32 PM

Forecast for planning
Automatic weather stations are installed
at all 747 hoblis (group of panchayats) and
rain-gauge meters at 5,625 gram panchay-
ats under a programme called the Weather
Monitoring Forecasting and Dissemi-
nation System. National weather broad-
casts do not provide regional monsoon def-
icit, so local farmers do not get a warning
about the local rainfall scenario. According
to the Karnataka State Natural Disaster
Monitoring Centre (ksndmc), 10 out of 33
hoblis are rain deficit.
The success of the initiative can be as-
sessed by the record number of phone calls
made by farmers since its inception in 2011.
By September 2015, more than 388,820
calls were being made annually. July is the
crucial month for cropping, but the state
had a rainfall deficit of more than 40 per
cent in the last monsoon, says C Prabhu,
executive director of ksndmc.
An impact evaluation of the initiative
1-15 APRIL 2016
48-49Good News.indd 49
sources, time, materials and labour, and
more importantly, are able to plan their
agricultural activities according to the
weather updates, adds Prabhu. Generally,
small and marginal farmers call us on
the helpline, says Srinivas Reddy, director
of ksndmc.
A unique initiative
The initiative assumes significance as
more than two-thirds of the districts in
the state have been reeling from a severe
drought for the past 15 years. This year too,
the state government declared drought
in 27 of the 30 districts. What makes the
situation worse is that Karnataka has
the second largest arid zone in the coun-
(Extreme try, only next to Rajasthanonly 20 per
left) Weather
monitoring
cent of land is cultivable. This forced the
stations at gram state to establish the countrys first Drought
panchayats
transfer data
Monitoring Cell in 1988. It was renamed
to the server; ksndmc in 2007.
Famers like
Kalaswamy
The programme was funded by the ag-
(left) now get riculture flagship programme, Rashtriya
specific weather
information by
Krishi Vikas Yojana (rkvy), under which
interacting with the Karnataka government established the
the help desk
officers at the
telemetric weather stations. The data is au-
call centre tomatically transferred to the server, and
subsequently, information is updated every
by Bengaluru-based Institute for Social 15 minutes. The forecasts also record wind-
and Economic Change (isec) in 2013 found speed, humidity, temperature and rainfall.
that 90 per cent of farmers, who had called Besides, a daily 24-hour rainfall alert
the centre, had called more than five times, is sent to all panchayat offices, as well as
and a majority of them had discussions the chief ministers office, the agricultural
with the help desk officers about the weath- department and the disaster management
er conditions. department. Our forecasts have proved
About 40 per cent farmers used this in- correct in more than 80 per cent of the
formation to take a decision on when to sow cases, so farmers have started trusting us,
the seeds. And more than 26 per cent farm- says Prabhu.
ers used this information to take a decision As per isecs analysis, most of the
on irrigation, crop harvesting and thresh- callers are from drought-prone areas of
ing timing. north Karnataka, where dry sowing due
Farmers are now able to save their re- to black soil is widely practised. Farmers
sow seeds expecting rains the following
An impact evaluation of week. So our role becomes vital in sug-
the initiative shows that gesting when to sow the seeds or go for dry
sowing, adds Prabhu. Experts say that
about 40 per cent farmers
since rkvy funds are available to other
took a decision on when states, they too should adopt Karnatakas
to sow the seeds using weather forecasting system and help the
weather information drought-stricken farmer.
from the call centre @jitendrachoube1
www.downtoearth.org.in 49
21/03/16 4:32 PM
 COLUMN
H E D G E H O G TA L E S RAKESH KALSHIAN
The eternal genie
More than finding cures for ageing, science must
first solve the niggling problems of the elderly
I
F YOU are getting older before time, you were proba-
bly starved of oxygen or antioxidants in your mothers
womb. In a recent study carried out on rats, research-
ers found that offspring of mothers plied with enough
antioxidants and oxygen aged more slowly as they grew
older. Researchers say the finding opens a new window
on cracking the ageing code in humans.
The Cambridge University study underscores a sud-
den spurt in research on ageing. Till recently, the quixot-
ic quest for the elusive fountain of youth was limited to
culinary or herbal concoctions, such as in Ayurveda and
Chinese medicine, or to modern cosmetic interventions,
such as Botox shots and plastic surgery. One may also
include in this vade mecum modern prescriptions such
as meditation, regular exercise, and sangfroid. But these
nostrums are at best restorative; they
bypass the fundamental question of
what causes ageing. Besides, scien-
tific evidence for such interventions
is at best statistical with no theoreti-
cal basis in science. In contrast, mod-
ern-day anti-ageing druids are scan-
ning and scouring genetic mines for,
as it were, the varicose veins of age-
ing. Received theory posits that age-
ing happens as the dna gets cut and
TARIQUE AZIZ / CSE
bruised because of chronic slip-ups
in the cell-division algorithm. More the errors, quicker
the ageing.
Scientists suspect the dna is scarred by all manner of
injuries. But by far the most damaging are the telomer-
estiny crowns at the head of each our 46 chromosomes.
They are often likened to plastic caps at the tip of shoe-
laces. Like them, they protect the dna strands from fray-
ing, thus allowing cells to reproduce smoothly. The trou-
ble is that every time a cell divides, the telomeres shrink.
When they become too short, the cell simply ages and
dies, which is a miniature of our own senescence and
eventual death. Apparently, the most prolific cells, such
as skin and lung cells, bear the brunt of the telomere ta-
pering. Studies have also shown that telomere span is af-
fected by our lifestyle choiceswhat we eat, how we sleep,
what we think, and so on.
These ideas have found many a wealthy patron,
50 DOWN TO EARTH
50Column.indd 50
mostly from the Silicon Valley. Googles biotech ven-
ture called Calico has invested $1.5 billion in anti-age-
ing research, while Larry Ellison of Oracle has set up the
Ellison Medical Foundation with a grant of $350 mil-
lion. Geneticist-entrepreneur, Craig Venter, and Paypal
founder, Peter Thiel, are other big funders of the life-ex-
tension projects. As scientists unravel the network of
agents that aid and abet ageing, no one quite knows yet
what is the best way to trick the genie of ageing into hi-
bernation. While scientists may have slowed down the bi-
ological clock in model creatures like bacteria and mice
using brakes like calorie restriction and genetic editing
in the lab, one cant say the animals were enjoying the ex-
tended lease.
Ultimately, when it comes to living longer, what mat-
ters more is the quality of life, as il-
lustrated by the tragic Greek myth-
ical figure of Tithonus. Smitten with
him, Eos, the goddess of spring, asked
Zeus to make him immortal. But,
alas, an endless life doesnt mean
youth eternal. So the poor boy was
condemned to grow old forever with
all the suffering and pain that comes
with it. Besides quality of life, any
programme of life-extension raises
questions about class in an uncon-
scionably unequal world, and of Malthusian fears in an
age of drawn-out lifespans. But, more importantly, it pro-
vokes us to honestly confront the philosophical question
of why would anyone want to live longer. Czech composer
Leos Janaceks opera The Makropulos Affair throws some
light on this age-old conundrum. Elina Makropulos, the
protagonist, extends her life by 300 years, thanks to a
magic potion. After three centuries elapse, she has the
option of taking the elixir again but chooses to die instead
as she is bored to death.
Its very unlikely anyone will find themselves in
Tithonus shoes or in Makrupulos. However, as exis-
tential allegories on time, self and the banality of desire,
both challenge us to rethink what it means to prolong
existence. It probably makes more sense for science to
solve niggling problems of the elderly first, such as incon-
tinence, before flirting with fantasies of immortality.
1-15 APRIL 2016
21/03/16 5:05 PM
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25/03/16511:01 PM
 L I F E & N AT U R E
Floating farms of Bangladesh
have been recognised as globally
important agricultural heritage
Resort to heritage
Bangladesh is betting
big on its traditional
form of farming:
floating gardens. Can it
help climate-proof
the country?
ARCHANA YADAV
| PABNA, BANGLADESH
52 DOWN TO EARTH
52-54L&N.indd 52
L
AND IS an ephemeral presence here.
In the low-lying wetlands of south-
central Bangladesh surrounded by
unstable rivers, vast swathes of
land go under water for over four months
every year. So people have learnt to make
the most of flood water. During monsoon
when their land is submerged, they gather
water weeds like hyacinth or paddy stalks
and pile them up in thick strips on stagnant
water, beating them into compact shape by
stamping their feet. On these rafts called
dhap or baira they grow vegetable seed-
lings and spices. These floating farms are
10 times more productive than the tradi-
tional ones and the organic beds are rich in
plant nutrients. When water recedes, they
break the rafts and use them as compost to
COURTESY: ATIQ RAHMAN / MUSLEM UDDIN MIAH, BCAS
grow winter crops on land (see How float-
ing gardens are created).
People have been making floating gar-
dens in this tiny region of 25 square kilome-
tres, covering parts of Gopalganj, Barisal
and Pirojpur districts, for ages, some say for
300-400 years. Much like the floating gar-
dens in Kashmirs Dal lake or Myanmars
Inle lake. Then, around the turn of the last
century, came the big bang moment of
floating garden in Bangladesh. In the past
15 years, several non-profits have taken it
to all over the country. Haseeb Md Irfan-
ullah, an aquatic ecologist and develop-
ment practitioner, calls it a case of mass
fascination. He has been involved in pro-
moting floating farms for a decade.
The government of Bangladesh saw in
1-15 APRIL 2016
23/03/16 10:40 AM

this traditional practice a way to adapt to
the changing climate that is likely to result
in prolonged floods and water-logging in
the country. In 2013, it approved US $1.6
million to take it up on a massive scale in-
volving 12,000 families in eight districts.
While the governments approach is
commercial, involving big and mid-level
farmers, ngos have promoted floating farms
to overcome starvation and poverty. They
have involved landless people and marginal
farmers. Like Rajeda Khatun of Hariabari
village. She lives by the Gumani river in the
Chalan Beel region, a large marshy depres-
sion north-west of Dhaka. She has a hus-
band, two children and little land. We used
to work as labourers in other peoples hous-
es. For a days work I would get 120 taka
(R100) but work was available for only five-
six days in a month, she says, sitting inside
a duck coop the size of a storeroom floating
on the Gumani in Pabna district.
The coop is part of a floating garden
with a twistit combines poultry and fish-
ery with farming. Five families take care of
How floating gardens are created
Still water protected from strong waves in canals, ponds, rivers,
lagoons and wetlands is a good place for floating beds or baira
6
Winter crop
When floodwater
recedes in late
autumn, the
platforms are
broken, mixed with
soil and gardening
plots are prepared
on land
4 3
5
Vegetables are
harvested, while
seedlings are used
for early cultivation
of the winter crop
1-15 APRIL 2016
52-54L&N.indd 53
this farm that functions round the year.
Now I spend two hours a day here, taking
care of the ducks and fish, Khatun says,
wrapping a shawl tightly around her. Ano-
ther woman wades through waist-high wa-
ter to tend egg plants in blue pots and
country beans hugging bamboo structures.
Together we make a profit of one lakh
taka (R85,800) in a year from this farm,
Khatun says. With a little extra income
she could for the first time lease 20 decimal
(800 sq m) land.
This floating farm is part of a pilot pro-
ject launched by the Natore-based non-
profit Shidhulai Swanirvar Sangstha. In
the past three years Shidhulai has built 45
such units on the Gumani, Atrai and Barnoi
rivers. It plans to create another 400 units
in the next three years.
International organisations iucn and
care have also trained about 2,000 fami-
lies in floating farming in 10 districts since
2007. Another non-profit Practical Action
has trained some 800 families displaced by
river erosion and living on embankments
After a week, when the seedlings are 15 cm
long, the balls are transferred to the raft. In
some areas, seeds are sown directly in the
coconut husk spread over the rafts. Vegetables
grown are okra, cucumber, gourds, amaranth,
red amaranth, egg plant, pumpkin, spinach
www.downtoearth.org.in/agriculture
along the Brahmaputra in the north-west
of the country.
To understand the appeal of floating
gardens one has to look at the topographi-
cal map of Bangladesh. It is a delta of large
rivers descending from the Himalayas that
are constantly shaping it like moving fin-
gers in sand. Eighty per cent of the country
is floodplains. And when the rivers swell in
monsoons, they engulf large swathes of the
country, at times two-thirds of it. Several
parts of Bangladesh remain submerged for
three to eight months, leaving millions of
people with little land to grow food on.
Add to this the fact that Bangladesh is
among the most densely populated coun-
tries and also among the most vulnerable to
climate change as recognised by the Inter-
governmental Panel on Climate Change.
Scientists warn that the rising sea level will
reduce the gradient of rivers, slowing down
the drainage to the sea, thus, increasing the
risk of floods and water-logging. They also
predict that higher rainfall in the Ganga-
Meghna-Brahmaputra river basins and
1
Bed preparation
During monsoon, water hyacinth is
gathered and compacted into rafts. At
intervals of 8-10 days, more layers are
built using water lettuce, duckweed
and salvinia. In some places coconut
husk or soil is spread over the bed.
Top layer provides the compost
2
The organic bed is
allowed to rot for
15 to 30 days. It is
then anchored by
placing bamboo
poles around it
Vegetable cultivation
Seeds are placed inside small balls made
of aquatic plants like creeping grass durali
and salvinia fern. These plants are dried
and moistoned before making balls
ILLUSTRATION: TARIQUE AZIZ / CSE
www.downtoearth.org.in 53
25/03/16 10:34 AM

This modern avatar of floating garden in Pabna also has a fish enclosure and a duck coop
greater glacier melt in the Himalayas may
result in more devastating floods.
There is no getting away from water in
this country and the pressure on land is go-
ing to be immense. Planners and develop-
ment practitioners understand this very
well. In Bangladesh, 48 per cent of the peo-
ple are landless and one-fifth of the country
is under water. Thats why we thought float-
ing garden is a good idea, says Mohammed
Rezwan, the founder of Shidhulai.
But introducing floating farm to a new
area is easier said than done. Shidhulai went
through rounds of trial and error for years to
evolve a system that worked in Chalan Beel.
We tried using water hyacinth. It could not
withstand heavy rains, says Rezwan. Then
we switched to plastic pots filled with soil,
ash and manure. These floating farms are
very different from the traditional ones. The
entire unit floats on empty drums and a
tightly knitted bamboo platform rather than
an organic bed. Other ngos have also exper-
imented with the techniques, material and
crops to adapt to new areas.
Down south where floating farming is
traditionally done, raising vegetable seed-
lings on floating beds is a thriving business.
People sell the seedlings to brokers or farm-
ers who grow vegetables on a commercial
scale for urban markets like Dhaka. In the
north, there is hardly any market for seed-
lings as water stagnation is not that pro-
longed, says Irfanullah, a programme coor-
54 DOWN TO EARTH
52-54L&N.indd 54
Although floating gardens
are seen as an adaptive
measure to the changing
climate, they are also
sensitive to climate change
dinator with iucn. In newer areas farmers
mostly grow vegetables for local consump-
tion. Absence of organised agro-business
probably explains why many farmers lose in-
terest in floating gardens once the promot-
ing agency withdraws. I have seen in the
north-west when a project is supporting the
initiative people show interest but very few
continue with their own money, says Naz-
mul Islam Chowdhury, head of the extreme
poverty programme of Practical Action.
Irfanullah thinks that in the enthusiasm
for promoting floating gardens, agencies of-
ten overlook their inherent limitations.
Though it is seen as an adaptive measure to
the changing climate, it is also sensitive to
climate change because it depends on natu-
ral elements like hyacinth, when the water
comes and when it recedes, he says.
Floating beds cannot withstand waves
or heavy rains. Efforts to scale up floating
farms in saucer-shaped depressions called
haor in north-eastern Bangladesh, for ex-
ample, were hampered by the unusual
floods of 2007 that came in two waves.
Farmers had to rebuild their destroyed
beds. The delay meant they could grow only
ARCHANA YADAV / CSE
one crop in the monsoon instead of three.
Repeated flooding also reduced hyacinth
availability because only mature hyacinth
is suitable for making beds.
Then there is the threat of salinity. As
sea water is entering rivers their salinity is
increasing. Water hyacinth cannot survive
in saline water. Unpredictable rainfall,
shifting of seasons and salinity are going to
affect hyacinth. We have to look into alter-
natives, Irfanullah stresses.
Chowdhury agrees more research is
needed but points out that floating gardens
can be a good option for areas that are fre-
quently or untimely flooded. There farmers
can grow seedlings quickly on floating beds
to replace damaged crops on land. We have
tested this in 2004 and 2007. Farmers did
very well in replacing seedlings in the dam-
aged fields, he says. It can be an enterprise
option in such areas.
No doubt floating farms offer a tre-
mendous opportunity. My fear is that lack
of proper research could lead to maladap-
tation, adds Irfanullah. How much Ban-
gladesh makes of this opportunity de-
pends on how quickly it learns from its
initiatives. On December 15, 2015, it got a
shot in the arm when UNs Food and
Agriculture Organization declared float-
ing gardens Globally Important Agri-
cultural Heritage Systemone of the 34 in
the world. It adds to buoyancy.
@down2earthindia
1-15 APRIL 2016
23/03/16 10:40 AM
 COLUMN
PAT E N T LY A B S U R D L AT H A J I S H N U
BJP turns anti-national on CLs
The government's assurance to the US that India will not
issue compulsory licences on drugs undermines the law
T
HE ALARM bells should have rung much earli-
er. When the US suddenly went easy on India
about its contested patent laws towards the end
of 2014 there was cause for unease but it slipped
largely under the radar. When the office of the US Trade
Representative and the many powerful trade lobbies that
had been campaigning vigorously against some aspects
of Indias patent regime muted their high-decibel cam-
paign launched in 2009, it was generally construed as
a response to certain measures announced by the new
Bharatiya Janata Party (bjp) government.
Prime amongst these was the setting up of a six-
member think tank to draft a National
Intellectual Property Rights (iprs) pol-
icy. Although vehemently opposed by
patent law experts and public health ac-
tivists across the country, it was seen as
a conciliatory effort by the bjp govern-
ment to take the edge off US criticism, in
particular that by its drug majors.
All that, it turns out, was a red her-
ring. The real reason it transpires was
a verbal assurance given by India to US
industry that it would not issue compul-
SORIT / CSE
sory licences (CLs) for overriding pat-
ents on drugs. CLs are permitted under World Trade
Organisation (wto) rules and are used by governments
the world over, not least by the US, to meet health emer-
gencies. Indias Patent (Amendment) Act of 2005 lists
the grounds under which CLs can be issued and fix-
es a royalty rate. However, originator drug companies
have been fighting CLs since these cut into their profits.
Newspaper reports three weeks ago quoted American in-
dustry lobbies to reveal a shocking capitulation by India.
The reports said that Delhi had assured US industry
that it would not use CLs. These quoted a submission by
the US Chamber of Commerce to the United States Trade
Representative which said: While the Government of
India has privately reassured industry that it would not
use CLs for commercial purposes, a public commitment
to forgo using (this) would enhance legal certainty for in-
1-15 APRIL 2016
55Patently Absurd.indd 55
novative industries.
What lends credence to the impression that the Modi
regime may have buckled to US pressure is the rejection
of at least two CL applications in recent times. The irony
is that India so far has issued only one CL and that was
in 2012 for a cancer drug, Nexavar, to Natco Pharma of
Hyderabad. Cancer has assumed epidemic proportion in
India and the Controller General of Patents issued the CL
since Natco offered to make the drug available for `8,800
per month against patent holder Bayers price of `2.88
lakh per month. The CL has also successfully withstood
the legal challenge mounted by Bayer with the courts
upholding the validity of the Patent
office order.
Yet, in the propaganda of PhRMA,
the influential Pharmaceutical Rese-
arch and Manufacturers of America,
India has been portrayed as a serial
user of CLs on indiscriminate grounds.
If the government has, indeed, given in
to the US demand, it would reinforce
this perception.
In fact, PhRMA is celebrating the
Indian governments more measured
and cautious approach in responding
to recent CL cases, including the denial of two CLs this
year. We are encouraged by this trend. But it is seeking a
legal clarification on CLs will not be used except for what
it terms legitimate health emergencies. Public health or-
ganisations such as Mdecins Sans Frontires are ex-
tremely troubled by the consequences of such a capitu-
lation, such as the non-working of a patent in the country.
Knowledge Ecology International, a non-profit calls it a
declaration of war on poor cancer patients.
The worrying issue is how the Modi regime can sur-
render a public health safeguard enshrined in the law.
Sections 84 and 92 of the Patent Act makes clear that
CLs are a legal entitlement that cannot be bartered away
to bullying trade partners.
Ominously, the government has not responded to the
news reports. The silence is sinister.
www.downtoearth.org.in 55
25/03/16 11:21 AM
 OPINION

THE CRIES
WITHIN
Why are reproductive healthcare rights of
displaced women not protected in India?
MADHULIKA SAHOO and JALANDHAR PRADHAN

SORIT / CSE

1-15 APRIL 2016

56-57Opinion.indd 56 21/03/16 4:34 PM

 I
NTERNALLY DISPLACED Persons (idps) are those affected by nat- healthcare services and contraceptive supplies, according to a study
ural or human-made disasters and armed conflicts. They expe- conducted by the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Heal-
rience a terrible life, where insecurity, fear and livelihood loss are th and the International Federation of Red Cross and Rest Crescent
their only companions. Thats why they are considered to be one Societies. Worse, idps survive in over-populated relief camps with
of the worlds most vulnerable groups. Displaced women face even scarce water, clothing and food facilities, as was the case in Assam,
greater problems, given their special health needs. where 200,000 people were displaced due to ethnic violence in
Global trends reveal that around 80 per cent of such people in 2014. Unhygienic environments due to poor sanitation made them
the world live in Afghanistan, India, Myanmar and Pakistan. But susceptible to malaria, jaundice, influenza and dysentery and oth-
collating their numbers in India remains a challenge as there is no er diseases. Pregnant women were reportedly giving birth to pre-
central agency monitoring the number of displaced people. mature babies due to inadequate healthcare facilities.
According to the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, a glob- There are other problems related to healthcare access. In
al information institution working on internal displacement, Kashmir, displaced women face distance barriers to avail health-
650,000 people in central India (Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh care facilities necessary during pregnancy. There are instances of
and West Bengal), Northeast (Assam, pregnant women who tripped and fell
Mizoram-Tripura and Manipur), Jammu leading to miscarriages. Further, women
& Kashmir, Odisha and Gujarat were dis-
Though countries such who had a caesarean delivery were found
placed due to armed conflict and ethnic as Kenya, Afghanistan to suffer from infection due to septic
or communal violence in 2009 and dur- and Pakistan have recently stitches. A study in 2009 by Friedrich-
ing the first half of 2010. An unknown ratified policies for internally Ebert-Stiftung, India, revealed women
number of displaced people were living in displaced persons, India displaced due to development projects in
cities. In South Asia, about 42-52 per cent does not have a law to protect Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Uttra-
of the idps are women, estimates the So- their rights khand, and Rajasthan had lost access to
uth Asian Forum for Human Rights, a livelihood. Another study in Lanjigrah
public forum working for human rights. block of Kalahandi district, Odisha, fou-
In India, many displaced communities are categorised as migrants nd that displaced women were being forced into trafficking and
and not as idps. sexual abuse due to land alienation. Increased workload for dis-
placed women in the rehabilitation colonies had undermined their
Helpless victims reproductive health. With little awareness about rehabilitation
Studies on gender issues in displacement indicate displaced wom- schemes, destitution is common among idps.
en in India face a host of predicaments. They suffer more than dis- The Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land
placed men because of gender inequalities in terms of ownership Acquisition, Rehabilitation & Resettlement Act, 2013, is the only
of productive assets, access to resources, control and decision-mak- national law that seeks to address problems faced by people dis-
ing over usage of assets. Even inside the relief camps, displaced placed due to development. But there are no provisions to address
women have fewer rights compared to men. the reproductive healthcare rights for displaced women under the
In many cases, displaced women are forced to stay in a violent law. Though the UNs Guiding Principle on Internal Displacement
and abusive marital relationship as the rent or ownership of the of 1998 underlines their reproductive rights, these guidelines are
house is controlled by the abuser. The loss of livelihood and income, not legally binding. So the issue is left entirely in the hands of the
as well as changes in social roles and status, often result in domes- affected country to enact laws to protect and rehabilitate them.
tic violence. Marginalised both socially and economically, they are Countries such as Kenya, Afghanistan and Pakistan have recently
prone to exploitation. ratified national policies for idps. It is time India too constituted a
More than displaced men, what makes the lives of displaced governing body not just to record the number of idps, but to formu-
women even more painful is that they do not have access to repro- late a policy to protect their basic rights, importantly, their repro-
ductive rights; they suffer from poor health amid threats of eviction. ductive rights.
The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees says that Sahoo is Doctoral fellow at the Department of Humanities
globally about 15 per cent of displaced women experience compli- and Social Sciences, National Institute of Technology (NIT)
cations during pregnancy or during delivery and require emergen- Rourkela, and Pradhan is Assistant professor at the Department
cy obstetric care. In the relief camps, they face unwanted, un- of Humanities and Social Sciences, NIT Rourkela
planned, and poorly spaced pregnancies due to lack of access to @madhulika01 @jpp_pradhan

1-15 APRIL 2016 www.downtoearth.org.in 57

56-57Opinion.indd 57 21/03/16 4:34 PM

 LAST WORD
R I G H T TO D I S S E N T L AT H A J I S H N U
Aadhaar Bill and Hitler's law
By pretending the Aadhaar regulation is a money bill, the Modi
government has used Nazi tactics to avoid parliamentary debate
O
N MARCH 16, something unusual occurred in
the Indian republic. A Bill that has widespread
social and economic ramifications and con-
tains a set of rules that would have far-rang-
ing consequences on the lives of 1.3 billion Indians was
approved by the Lok Sabha after bypassing the Rajya
Sabha. Masquerading as a money bill, the Narendra
Modi government was able to safely steer the Aadhaar
(Targeted Delivery of Financial and Other Subsidies,
Benefits and Services) Bill, 2016, through the shoals of
parliamentary debate in a shrewd strategy that has left
the Opposition fuming.
By calling it a money bill, Finance
Minister Arun Jaitley was practising
a subterfuge. Under Article 110 of the
Constitution, it does not qualify as a
money bill because it did not con-
tain ONLY provisions dealing with
the matters listed therein. Worse, the
Speakers decision endorsing it as
a money bill only compounded the
wrong. The Bill, ostensibly, aims at
better targeting of subsidies through
TARIQUE AZIZ / CSE
the Aadhaar Unique Identity
Number (uid) issued to the residents of Indiait does
not claim to verify citizenship who provide biometric
(iris scan, fingerprints) proof of identification.
Targeting of subsidies is something few would quar-
rel with. So why is there so much concern and criticism of
the Modi governments move to bypass the Rajya Sabha?
Thats because the Upper House can only recommend
amendments to a money bill but cannot make these man-
datory. That is why the five critical amendments pro-
posed by the Rajya Sabha after a passionate debate were
rejected by the Lok Sabha.
Ergo, a smooth passage for Jaitleys sleight of hand
on a controversial law. It is controversial because a host
of critics from economists and legal experts to campaign-
ers on privacy have warned about the dangers of Aadhaar
on several grounds. To start with, the authorities have yet
58 DOWN TO EARTH
58Last Word.indd 58
to produce any hard evidence of the benefits of plough-
ing subsidies and cash benefits through Aadhaar. One of
the enticing figures being tossed around is the `12,700
crore to be saved annually on lpg subsidy. Ditto for oth-
er direct benefit transfers, such as scholarships and ker-
osene subsidy. However, field reports by Down To Earth
(Unique identity crisis, 15 May, 2012) showed that it is
not a foolproof system and is rife with problems.
The Aadhaar storys irony is that it is the ruling par-
ty which is vehemently opposed to the uid project. Its
ministers have described it as a fraud and a game
played on the poor. Most damning has
been former finance minister Yashwant
Sinha who, as chairperson of the Standing
Committee on Finance, raised concerns on
Aadhaar. None has been addressed so far.
Nor the concerns that were raised in Who
owns our identity? (Down To Earth,
15 June, 2013).
Reluctant as one is to compare the
Modi government to the Nazi regime as
critics often do, there is an uncomfortable
similarity here with what Hitlers Third
Reich did in Germany. In March 1933, it
pushed through the Act for the Removal of the Distress of
the People and the Reich, commonly called the Enabling
Act, that vested his government with almost unlimited
powers to enact laws, even in cases where the legislation
impinged upon core provisions of the Constitution. It
allowed the Nazis to enact laws without the consent of
the Reichsrat (upper house) or approval of the president.
Hopefully, we are not going entirely down that road.
But what prompted the Modi regime to exclude the
Rajya Sabha from a very important debate, especially
since most of its senior ministers, including Jaitley, come
from the upper house? The fact is that the pith and sub-
stance of the Bill is about identification of citizens and not
about monies to be appropriated from the Consolidate
Fund of India. That could have been done by a budget-
ary allocation.
1-15 APRIL 2016
25/03/16 11:21 AM
 Body Burden 2015
NEW RELEASE

Chronicles the impact of the environment on India's health

The theme-based, yearly

publication investigates
how our health is a victim of
environmental degradation.
This year, we will untangle
the web between the
environment and diseases,
both chronic and infectious.

ORDER NOW !!!

Price: ` 250
Send the payment by way
of a DD/Cheque drawn
in favour of Society
for Environmental
Communications.

Society for Environmental Communications

41, Tughlakabad Institutional Area, New Delhi 110 062
Phone: 91-11-4061 6000
Fax: 91-11-29955879. Email: sales@cseindia.org

In case of any query, please write to

Ramachandran at: rchandran@cseindia.org

79DTE Health book ad.indd 79 25/03/16 1:01 PM

 R.N.I. NO. 53588/92 POSTAL REGN. NO. DL(S)-17/3109/2015-2017
ISSN 0971-8079. Licensed to Post without Pre-payment U(SE)-44/2015-2017 at Lodhi Road HO,
New Delhi-110003. Published on 1st of every month. POSTED ON: 2-3 of the same fortnight.

First-ever
environment impact
study of Indias coal
thermal power sector,
covering 47 plants
with 55% of the
countrys thermal
electricity capacity
Y T O D AY
U R CO P
GE T Y O

You can order this or

other CSE books by
visiting our online store
http://csestore.cse.org.in

For further details contact rchandran@cseindia.org

Centre for Science and Environment, 41, Tughlakabad Institutional Area, New Delhi-110 062
Tel: 91-11-40616000, 29955124 Website: www.cseindia.org

80BC Heat On Power ad.indd 3 25/03/16 1:01 PM