Geology (from the Ancient Greek , g, i.e. "earth" and -o, -logia, i.e.

"study of,
discourse"[1][2]) is an earth science concerned with the solid Earth, the rocks of which it is
composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Geology can also refer generally
to the study of the solid features of any terrestrial planet (such as the geology of the Moon or
Mars).

Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth by providing the primary evidence for plate
tectonics, the evolutionary history of life, and past climates. Geology is important for mineral
and hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation, evaluating water resources, understanding of
natural hazards, the remediation of environmental problems, and for providing insights into past
climate change. Geology also plays a role in geotechnical engineering and is a major academic
discipline.

Geologic materials[]
The majority of geological data comes from research on solid Earth materials. These typically
fall into one of two categories: rock and unconsolidated material.

Rock[]

This schematic diagram of the rock cycle shows the relationship between magma and
sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rock
Main articles: Rock (geology) and Rock cycle

The majority of research in geology is associated with the study of rock, as rock provides the
primary record of the majority of the geologic history of the Earth. There are three major types of
rock: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The rock cycle is an important concept in geology
which illustrates the relationships between these three types of rock, and magma. When a rock
crystallizes from melt (magma and/or lava), it is an igneous rock. Igneous rock can be weathered
and eroded, and then redeposited and lithified into a sedimentary rock, or be turned into a
metamorphic rock due to heat and pressure that change the mineral content of the rock which
gives it a characteristic fabric. The sedimentary rock can then be subsequently turned into a
metamorphic rock due to heat and pressure and is then weathered, eroded, deposited, and
lithified, ultimately becoming a sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rock may also be re-eroded and
redeposited, and metamorphic rock may also undergo additional metamorphism. All three types
of rocks may be re-melted; when this happens, a new magma is formed, from which an igneous
rock may once again crystallize.
Minerals

To study these three types of rocks, geologists evaluate the minerals that make up the rock. All
the colors you see in rocks are the different minerals crystallized within. Each mineral has
distinct physical properties and there are multiple tests that a geologist can do to determine each
one. The Mineral Identification tests are:

Luster: Measurement of the amount of light reflected from the surface. Luster is broken
up into Metallic and Non-metallic.
Color: Minerals are grouped by their color. Mostly diagnostic but impurities can change a
minerals color.
Streak: Performed by taking a porcelain plate and scratching the mineral on it. The color
of the streak can help you name the mineral.
Hardness: The resistance of a mineral to scratch.
Breakage Pattern: A mineral can either show fracture or cleavage. Fracture being
breakage of uneven surfaces and cleavage being breakage along closely spaced parallel
planes.
Specific Gravity: the weight of a specific volume of a mineral.
Effervescence: Involves dripping HCL on a mineral to test for fizzing.
Magnetism: Involves using a magnet to test for magnetism.
Taste: Minerals can have a distinctive taste like Halite (tastes like salt).
Smell: Minerals can have a distinctive odor. For example, sulfur smells like rotten eggs.[3]

Unconsolidated material[]

Geologists also study unlithified material (commonly referred to as drift) which typically comes
from more recent deposits. These materials are superficial deposits which lie above the
bedrock.[4] Because of this, the study of such material is often known as Quaternary geology,
after the recent Quaternary Period. This includes the study of sediment and soils, including
studies in geomorphology, sedimentology, and paleoclimatology.

Whole-Earth structure[]
Plate tectonics[]

Main article: Plate tectonics

Oceanic-continental convergence resulting in subduction and volcanic arcs illustrates one effect
of plate tectonics.
In the 1960s, it was discovered that the Earth's lithosphere, including the crust and rigid
uppermost portion of the upper mantle, is separated into tectonic plates that move across the
plastically deforming, solid, upper mantle, which is called the asthenosphere. This theory is
supported by several types of observations, including seafloor spreading,[5][6] and the global
distribution of mountain terrain and seismicity.

There is an intimate coupling between the movement of the plates on the surface and the
convection of the mantle: oceanic plate motions and mantle convection currents always move in
the same direction, because the oceanic lithosphere is the rigid upper thermal boundary layer of
the convecting mantle. This coupling between rigid plates moving on the surface of the Earth and
the convecting mantle is called plate tectonics.

On this diagram, subducting slabs are in blue, and continental margins and a few plate
boundaries are in red. The blue blob in the cutaway section is the seismically imaged Farallon
Plate, which is subducting beneath North America. The remnants of this plate on the Surface of
the Earth are the Juan de Fuca Plate and Explorer plate in the Northwestern USA / Southwestern
Canada, and the Cocos Plate on the west coast of Mexico.

The development of plate tectonics provided a physical basis for many observations of the solid
Earth. Long linear regions of geologic features could be explained as plate boundaries.[7] Mid-
ocean ridges, high regions on the seafloor where hydrothermal vents and volcanoes exist, were
explained as divergent boundaries, where two plates move apart. Arcs of volcanoes and
earthquakes were explained as convergent boundaries, where one plate subducts under another.
Transform boundaries, such as the San Andreas Fault system, resulted in widespread powerful
earthquakes. Plate tectonics also provided a mechanism for Alfred Wegener's theory of
continental drift,[8] in which the continents move across the surface of the Earth over geologic
time. They also provided a driving force for crustal deformation, and a new setting for the
observations of structural geology. The power of the theory of plate tectonics lies in its ability to
combine all of these observations into a single theory of how the lithosphere moves over the
convecting mantle.

Earth structure[]

Main article: Structure of the Earth

The Earth's layered structure. (1) inner core; (2) outer core; (3) lower mantle; (4) upper mantle;
(5) lithosphere; (6) crust (part of the lithosphere)

Earth layered structure. Typical wave paths from earthquakes like these gave early seismologists
insights into the layered structure of the Earth

Advances in seismology, computer modeling, and mineralogy and crystallography at high

temperatures and pressures give insights into the internal composition and structure of the Earth.

Seismologists can use the arrival times of seismic waves in reverse to image the interior of the
Earth. Early advances in this field showed the existence of a liquid outer core (where shear
waves were not able to propagate) and a dense solid inner core. These advances led to the
development of a layered model of the Earth, with a crust and lithosphere on top, the mantle
below (separated within itself by seismic discontinuities at 410 and 660 kilometers), and the
outer core and inner core below that. More recently, seismologists have been able to create
detailed images of wave speeds inside the earth in the same way a doctor images a body in a CT
scan. These images have led to a much more detailed view of the interior of the Earth, and have
replaced the simplified layered model with a much more dynamic model.

Mineralogists have been able to use the pressure and temperature data from the seismic and
modelling studies alongside knowledge of the elemental composition of the Earth to reproduce
these conditions in experimental settings and measure changes in crystal structure. These studies
explain the chemical changes associated with the major seismic discontinuities in the mantle and
show the crystallographic structures expected in the inner core of the Earth.

Geologic time[]

Geological time put in a diagram called a geological clock, showing the relative lengths of the
eons of the Earth's history.
Main articles: History of Earth and Geologic time scale

The geologic time scale encompasses the history of the Earth.[9] It is bracketed at the old end by
the dates of the earliest Solar System material at 4.567 Ga,[10] (gigaannum: billion years ago) and
the age of the Earth at 4.54 Ga[11][12] at the beginning of the informally recognized Hadean eon.
At the young end of the scale, it is bracketed by the present day in the Holocene epoch.