Biological Report 85 (14)

December 1987

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CANAL AND

LEVEE DENSITY AND COASTAL
LAND LOSS IN LOUISIANA

Fish and Wildlife Service

U.S. Department of the Interior
 Biological Report 85(14)
December 1987

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CANAL AND LEVEE DENSITY

AND COASTAL LAND LOSS IN LOUISIANA

by

R. Eugene Turner
Center for Wetland Resources
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge, LA 70803

Project Officer
Carroll L. Cordes
National Wetlands Research Center
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
1010 Gause Boulevard
Slidell, LA 70458

This study was conducted in

cooperation with
Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium
Star Route, Box 541
Chauvin, LA 70344

Prepared for
U.S. Department of Interior
Fish and Wildlife Service
Research and Development
National Wetlands Research Center
Washington, DC 20240
 DISCLAIMER

The opinions and recommendations expressed in this report are those of the
author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, nor does mention of trade names
constitute endorsement or recommendation for use by the Federal Government.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Turner, R. E. (Robert Eugene), 1945-

Relationship between canal and levee density and
coastal land loss in Louisiana.
(Biological report ; 85 (14) (Dec. 1987))
11
Prepared for U.S. Department of Interior, Fish and
Wildlife Service, Research and Development, National
Wetlands Research Center ...
11
Th is study was conducted in cooperation with
Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium ...
Bibliography: p.
Supt. of Docs. no.: I 49.89/2:85 (14)
1. Coast changes--Louisiana--Gulf Region. 2. Canals
--Louisiana--Gulf Region. 3. Levees--Louisiana--Gulf
Region. I. Cordes, Carroll L. II. National Wetlands
Research Center (U.S.) III. Louisiana Universities
t4arine Consortium. IV. Title. V. Series: Biological
report (Washington, D.C.) ; 85-14.
GB459.25.T87 1987 551.4'57'09763 87-619886

This report should be cited as:

Turner, R.E. 1987. Relationship between canal and levee density and coastal
land loss in Louisiana. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Rep. 85(14). 58 pp.
T
l
PREFACE
Louisianas coastal wetlands are
regressing at a rate of about 0. 8%
annually. This situation will have a
great, and potentially grave, impact
for several reasons. These eco-
systems produce approximately 30% of
the national fish harvest, provide
habitat for two-thirds of the
Mississippi Flyways wintering water-
fowl population, and yield the
largest fur harvest of all the
states. Coastal lowlands absorb the
physical impacts of violent storms,
thereby protecting the inland areas.
In these lowlands many of the noxious
by-products of modern industrial life
are naturally buried through sedi-
mentation; nutrients entering the
water from agricultural fields and
urban areas may be transformed into
less-damaging forms when water and
wetlands meet. Coastal wetlands and
barrier islands are inti mate ly
involved in the local, regional, and
even global balance of nature.
Humans benefit from wetlands
esthetically, culturally, and through
numerous consumptive processes.
is important to understand the signi-
ficance of these enormous habitat
changes to fish, wildlife, and
humans.
A Cooperative Agreement ( 14-16-
0009-81-1016) between the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service and the
Louisiana Universities Marine
Consortium allowed the author to
prepare this manuscript to improve
our understanding of how these
changes occur and what steps may be
taken to possibly reduce the magni-
tude of habitat change. The shortest
path to a solution is to understand
the problem. I hope that this
publication contributes to our under-
standing and encourages cooperation
among those addressing the problems
in the years ahead.
Any questions or comments about,
or requests for, this publication
should be directed to the fo ll owing
address.
Information Transfer Specialist
National Wetlands Research Center
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
It NASA/Slidell Computer Complex
1010 Gause Boulevard
Slidell, LA 70458
iii
 SUMMARY
This report summarizes the rela-
tionships between canals and their
associated spoil levees and coastal
1and 1oss in Louisiana. Suggestions
for mitigating, reducing, or revers-
; ng 1and-1 oss trends are discussed.
Each chapter contains a summary and
an annotated 1i st of materia 1s for
further reading.
Chapter 1 is a brief description of
the hi stori ca 1 changes in 1and 1oss
in the Louisiana coasta 1 zone and a
preliminary discussion of why canals
and can a 1 1evees may influence the
rate of land loss.
Chapter 2 is a discussion of the
geological and biological forces
leading to coastal land gain.
Chapter 3 is a description of
canals, their density and growth, and
iv
a comparison of canals with natural
channels.
Chapter 4 contains some of the
empirical evidence that documents the
ro 1e of canals in promoting coastal
land loss. Unintentionally im-
pounded areas and the life of a canal
are described. Canal impacts are
compared to natural geologic pro-
cesses.
Chapter 5 is a discussion of the
impacts of mosquito ditches, which
are smaller, but better studied,
analogues of canals.
Chapter 6 summarizes the preceding
chapters, contains historical
experience that may be applied to
Louisiana, and offers various manage-
ment alternatives.
 CONTENTS

Page

PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . X
CONVERSION TABLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi i

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Balance of Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

CHAPTER 2. GEOLOGICAL, HYDROLOGICAL, AND BIOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK........ 9

Delta Growth and Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Biological and Hydrological Interactions .. . .. . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 13
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Further Readi.ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

CHAPTER 3. CANAL AND LEVEE GROWTH.................................... 16

Canal Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Levee Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

CHAPTER 4. CANALS, SPOIL BANK LEVEES, AND COASTAL EROSION............ 25

Empirical Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Holes in the Marsh............................................... 28
Levees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Impoundments ...... : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

CHAPTER 5. MOSQUITO DITCHES AS ANALOGUES............................. 37

Mispillion River (Delaware) . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Cleaver Marsh (De 1aware) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Wequetequock-Pawcatuck Tidal Marshes (Connecticut) ............ ... 40
Other Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

v
 Page

CHAPTER 6. OPTIONS FOR MANAGEMENT.................................... 44

Management Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Management A1ternat i ves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

REFERENCES CITED AND FURTHER READING.................................. 51

vi
 FIGURES

Number
1 Land loss rates in the Mississippi deltaic plain from the
beginning of the century to the present .................... . 1

2 Coastal changes in the Isles Dernieres between 1853

and 1978 ................................................... . 2

3 A comparison of the land area in the Mississippi Delta

in 1956 and in 1978 ........................................ . 2

4 Wetland erosion in the Mississippi deltaic plain from

1955 to 1978 ............................................... . 3

5 Wildlife and fish depend on wetlands for food, refuge from

predators, and nesting sites ............................... . 6

6 The deltaic lobes formed by the Mississippi River during

the past 6, 000 years ....................................... . 10
7 The chronology of the delta lobes shown in Figure 6, as
reconstructed by Frazier ................................... . 10
8 A schematic model of delta building and subsidence along the
Louisiana coast ............................................ . 11

9 The formation of interdistributary ponds, lakes, and bays

during delta growth and decay .............................. . 11
10 Land loss in the Mississippi River deltaic plain as a
function of the age of the delta and distance to the coast 12
11 Interactions between biological, hydrologic, and geologic
factors in maintaining marsh equilibrium ................... . 14
12 Soil accretion in streamside and inland marshes of four
vegetative types in Barataria Bay .......................... . 14
13 Examples of canals in various environments ................. . 17
14 A schematic cross section of a natural channel levee and
a canal spoil bank levee ................................... . 18

vii
Number Page
15 The oil and gas fields in southern Louisiana in 1941,
1964, and 1981 ............................................. . 19

16 The recovery of oil and gas in Louisiana from 1922 to 1981 20

17 The density of canals in the Mississippi River deltaic

plain from the beginning of this century to the present 20
18 Canal area in the Golden Meadow oil field in 1940, 1953,
and 1969 ................................................... . 21
19 An example of canal widening in the Leeville oil field
(southern Barataria Bay) over 28 years ..................... . 22

20 Canal-widening rates in the Leeville oil field from 1957

to 1978 .................................................... . 22
21 The area of canals added each year in the Mississippi
River deltaic plain from the beginning of this century
to present ................................................. . 24
22 The growth of canals and spoil bank levees in the deltaic
and chenier plain .......................................... . 25

23 A dense network of oil field canals in Barataria Bay,

Louisiana .................................................. . 26

24 A linear canal and spoil bank arising from the end of

a natural channel .......................................... . 26

25 A canalized wetland in the Louisiana chenier plain ......... . 27

26 The relationship between the total land loss and the land
loss which is not canal surface area ....................... . 28

27 The relationship between the annual land loss from 1955

to 1978 and canal density in a moderately old deltaic
substrate far from the coast ............................... . 29

28 The relationship between the annual land loss from 1955

to 1978 and canal density in a moderately old deltaic
substrate close to the coast ............................... . 29

29 The general relationship between canal density (hence

spoil bank levee density) and land loss for old and new
deltaic substrates near and far from the coast ............. . 29

30 The open water area in the Belle Chasse, Louisiana,

quadrangle map in 1955 ..................................... . 30

viii
 ----- -------------------------------

Number
31 Land loss in the Belle Chasse, Louisiana, quadrangle map
from 1955 to 1978 .......................................... . 31
32 Land loss in the Larose, Louisiana, quadrangle map from
1955 to 1978 ............................................... . 32
33 Land loss in the Golden Meadow Farms, Louisiana, quadrangle
map from 1955 to 1978 ...................................... . 33
34 A levee formed over a marsh in New Jersey in July 1903 and
in December 1903 ........................................... . 34
35 Levee dimensions, relative to marsh level, for four
different levees on the Rockefeller Refuge ................. . 34
36 An example of a canal and spoil levee cutting across
a natural channe 1 .......................................... . 35
37 The relationship between canal density and the density of
natural channels for an area near Leeville, Louisiana ...... . 36
38 Changes in the vegetation of the Mispillion marsh following
drainage by mosquito ditches ............................... . 38
39 Changes in the water table and ground level following
construction of mosquito ditches in the Cleaver Marsh
studied by Stearns et al. (1940) ........................... . 40
40 Changes in the distribution of muskrat houses in the
Cleaver Marsh following construction of mosquito ditches 41
41 Examples of levee-parallel pond formation in two
hydrologically altered environments ........................ . 42

42 Two examples of vegetation changes in a Florida

impoundment when the levee was broken and the natural
hydro 1ogy was restored ..................................... . 45
43 An example of the effect of the open water to land ratio
in a freshwater marsh ecosystem ............................ . 46

ix
 TABLES

Number Page
1 Area and change in four habitat categories in the Mississippi
deltaic plain from 1955 to 1978 for each of seven hydrologic
units in Louisiana ......................................... . 4

2 Area of canals and wetland losses in the six basins in the

chenier plain of Louisiana and Texas .... ~ ............... . 5

3 Land loss per vegetative type and percent of total land loss
in the management units of the Louisiana coastal zone from
1890 to 1960 ............................................... . 5

4 Estimates of changes in marsh elevation in coastal Louisiana

relative to sea level resulting from changes due to impound-
ment, the sinking of land due to geologic processes, from
compensatory sedimentation rates, and from actual sea-level
rise ....................................................... . 7

5 The ratio of spoil banks to canal area in the Mississippi

River deltaic plain from 1955 to 1978 for each of seven
hydrologic units ........................................... . 20

6 The annual increase in canal width for five canals in

southern Louisiana ................._......................... . 23

X
 CONVERSION TABLE

Metric to U.S. Customary

Multiply ~ To Obtain
mi 11 i meters (mm) 0.03937 inches
centimeters (em) 0.3937 inches
meters (m) 3.281 feet
meters (m) 0.5468 fathoms
kilometers (km) 0.6214 statute miles
kilometers (km) 0.5396 naut i ca 1 miles
square meters (m 2) 10.76 square feet
square kilometers (km 2 ) 0.3861 square miles
hectares (ha) 2.471 acres
1 iters (1) 0.2642 gallons
cubic meters (m3) 35.31 cubic feet
cubic meters (m3) 0.0008110 acre-feet
mi 11 i grams (mg) 0.00003527 ounces
grams (g) 0.03527 ounces
kilograms (kg) 2.205 pounds
metric tons (t) 2205.0 pounds
metric tons (t) 1.102 short tons
kilocalories (kcal) 3.968 British thermal units
Celsius degrees (C) 1. 8(C) + 32 Fahrenheit degrees
U.S. Customary to Metric
inches 25.40 millimeters
inches 2.54 centimeters
feet (ft) 0.3048 meters
fathoms 1. 829 meters
statute miles (mi) 1. 609 kilometers
nautical miles (nmi) 1. 852 kilometers
square feet (ft 2) 0.0929 square meters
square miles (mi2) 2.590 square kilometers
acres 0.4047 hectares
gallons (gal) 3.785 1i ters
cubic feet (ft 3) 0.02831 cubic meters
acre-feet 1233.0 cubic meters
ounces (oz) 28350.0 milligrams
ounces (oz) 28.35 grams
pounds (lb) 0.4536 kilograms
pounds (lb) 0.00045 metric tons
short tons (ton) 0.9072 metric tons
British thermal units (Btu) 0.2520 kil oca 1ori es
Fahrenheit degrees (F) 0.5556 (F- 32) Celsius degrees
xi
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study was supported through ing the manuscript and providing many
a co operative agreement between the positive suggestions for improving
Louisiana Universities Marine editorial consistency, factual
Consortium, Dr. Donald F. Boesch, accuracy, and readabi 1i ty. Chris
Executive Director, and the U.S. Fish Neill, Scott Leibowitz, and Erick
and Wi 1dl i fe Service, Nation a1 Swenson helped with the computer
Wetlands Research Center, Dr. Carroll drawing of wetland loss; Diane Baker
L. Cordes, Project Officer. and staff completed many of the
drawings. I have probably learned
more from my students than they have
Colleagues at the Center for learned from me; Bill Scaife who
Wetland Resources, Louisiana State indirectly taught me much about
University, assisted this effort subsurface geo 1ogy was no exception.
through discussion, review, 1ocat ion Karen McKee, Irv Mendelssohn, Jean
of documents, and scientific Sikora, Walt Sikora, and Erick
interest. I wish to thank Robert Swenson, in sharing their field's
A11 en, Don Boesch, Carro 11 L. expertise, made my task pleasant and
Cordes, and Mary Pen 1and for read- rewarding.

xii
 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Louisianas coastal wetlands com- 50 130

pose 41% of the U.S. total (Turner STUDY AREA 11,500 mi 2

and Gosselink 1975) and are a State,
national, and international natural
resource. For 7, 000 years there has a: a:
>-
been net land gain along this coast ~
~ ~:>::
together with periods and l oca 1i zed ~
(/) 25 65 ;;;
z
instances of land loss. At the (/)

s (/)
0
beginning of this century the net 0
z
...J

0
z
land gain was about zero; now the :5 :5
rate of loss is approaching 0.8% 1~91

annually (Figure 1). The annual -----<

19 1:t. 1-Q-----------i

regression rate is presently about - _,....- 6.7 MI 2 /YR

50 square miles for the whole coastal

zone and is climbing geometrically 1900 1920 1940
YEARS
1960 1980

with time. At that rate the State of

Rhode Island would be lost within
21 years, the District of Columbia
withi n 7 years, and within 55 years
the Netherlands would lose to the sea
all of the land it had reclaimed over
the last 800 years.
Some segments of the Louisiana
coast are eroding faster than others.
Barrier island retreat and erosion is
severe (Figure 2). The modern
Mississippi River Delta has one of
the highest erosion rates in the
State (Figure 3). Parts of Barataria
Bay and areas near Lake Pontchartrain
are eroding as fast as in the delta.
Although there is land gain in some
areas (Figure 4), overall loss rates
are very significant in all of the
hydrologic units within both the
deltaic plain (Table 1) and the
chenier plain (Table 2). The highest
rates of change are within the saline
and brackish marshes in the deltaic
plain and within the brackish and
fresh marshes of the chenier plain
(Table 3).
1
Figure 1. Land loss rates in the
Mississippi deltaic plain from the
beginning of the century to the
present (modified from Gagliano et
a 1. 1981). The hori zonta 1 lines
represent the beginning and ending
dates for the maps used to estimate
land loss in different periods. Land-
loss estimates for the early 1900 1 s
are too high because the stylized
mapping used then underestimated
actual open-water areas. When these
maps were compared to later maps that
more accurately depicted open-water
areas, land loss was overestimated.
Land losses are increasing geometri-
cally; since 1980, they were esti-
mated to be about 39 mi 2 annually.
Recent estimates of land loss in the
chenier plain are 10 mi 2 annually
(Gagliano et al. 1981).
As the marsh turns into open
water, the shoreline retreats inland.
As it retreats, a. positive feedback
loop occurs. The amount of water
 cesses occurring in these lowlands,
and nutrients entering the water from
Terrebome
Bay agri cultural fields and urban areas
~'

Terrebonne
a.,
By

~ ~
H
O..of-
0 0
11174

Figure 2. Coastal changes in the

Isles Dernieres (a barrier island)
between 1853 and 1978 (Penland et al.
1981).

moving into and out of the estuary

increases with the enlargement of the
tidal inlets and the bay fo ll owing
land loss; the higher flushing rate
deepens the bay, leading to further
erosion of the barrier islands and
marshes.
Large habitat changes will even-
tually have an enormous impact on
Louisianas natural resource base.
The impact on commercial fisheries
landings alone already amounts to
about $50 million annually, and is
not projected to decrease over the
next 20 years (Turner 1982).
Louisianas coastal wetland eco-
systems produce approximately 28% of
the national fisheries yield,
provide habitat for about 66% of the
Mississippi Flyways wintering water-
fowl population, and produce the
largest fur harvest of all the
states. The coastal lowlands absorb
the physical impact of storms, there- Figure 3. A comparison of the land
by protecting inland areas. Also, area in the Mississippi Delta in 1956
many of the noxious by-products of and 1978 (from the U.S. Fish and
modern industrial life are naturally Wildlife Service, National Wetlands
buried through sedimentation pro- Research Center, Slidell, Louisiana).
2
are transformed into less-damaging
forms when water and wetlands meet.
If land erodes into a navigable
waterway, private land may become
State-owned water bottoms, or State
water bottoms (and mineral rights)
may become Federal outer continental
shelf lands. Coastal wetlands and
barrier islands are therefore inti-
mately involved in the local, region-
al, and even global balance of nature
and economies (Figure 5). Humans
benefit from wetlands esthetically,
culturally, and through numerous con-
sumptive processes. Thus, the coastal
zone is the site of both re-creation
and recreation. It is important to
understand the significance of these
enormous habitat changes to fish,
wildlife, and humans. The more we

% WETLANDS LOSS/YEAR

4.2 - 2.5 Mill 1.9- 1.0

LOSS
2.4 - 2.0 0 0.9-0.4

0 GAIN

Figure 4. Wetland erosion in the Mississippi deltaic plain from 1955 to 1978.
Four categories of land loss and one category of land gain are shown (areas
with no data or insignificant land-surface area are clear). The squares
correspond to 7.5-minute quadrangle maps shown in the upper figure. Data are
from a computer file described by Wicker (1980). The habitat class i fi cation
system is based on Cowardin et al. (1979). Note that land loss rates are high
(and low) both near (and far from) the major sources of sediment--the
Mississippi River and the Atchafalaya River.
3
Table 1. Area (acres) and change in area in four habitat categories in the
Mississippi River deltaic plain from 1955 to 1978 for each of seven hydrologic
units in Louisiana (from east to west, unit I to VII; data from location map
in Wicker 1980; 1 ha = 2.47 acres).

Unit Land Open water Canals Spoil Total

Unit I - Lake
Pontchartrain
1955 302,578 478,322 265 485 781,650
1978 295,991 482,322 993 2,331 781,637
change -6,587 +4,000 +728 +1,846 -13
Unit II -
Breton Sound
1955 1,093,003 2,084,041 8,774 5,415 3,192,033
1978 983,000 2,169,788 18,200 23,359 3,194,347
change -110,003 +85,744 +9,426 +17,944 +2,314
Unit III - Mississippi
River Delta
1955 157,937 507,241 3,191 2,141 670,510
1978 90,156 567,371 3,138 8,629 669,267
change -67,781 +60,130 -53 +6,488 -1,243
Unit IV - Barataria
Bay
1955 658,405 498,003 10,562 7,431 1,174,401
1978 546,156 587,220 19,529 22,201 1,175,106
change -112,249 +89,217 +8,967 +14,770 +705
Unit V - Timbalier and
Terrebonne Bays
1955 780,865 639,611 6,279 5,223 1,431,978
1978 634,013 764,952 16,822 15,354 1,431,141
change -146,852 +125,341 +10,543 +10,131 -837
Unit VI - Atchafalaya
Delta
1955 110,785 263,952 2,039 2,619 381,619
1978 112,110 260,704 4,188 5,004 382,006
change +1,325 -3,248 +2,149 +2,385 +387
Unit VII - Vermilion
Bay
1955 451,423 426,985 4,834 2,727 885,969
1978 432,579 437,213 9,897 6,093 885,800
change -18,844 +10,228 +5,063 3,366 -169

4
Table 2. Area of canals and wetland losses in the six basins of the
chenier plain of Louisiana and Texas (from Gosselink et a 1. 1979).

Canal area in
Wetland loss
1952 1974 1952 to 1974
Basin unit (acres) (ha) {acres) {ha) {acres) th~J

East Bay 811 328 782 317 1,423 576

Sabine 3,375 1,366 2,826 1,144 20,532 8,309
Calcasieu 2,485 1,006 2,026 820 19,029 7,701
Chenier 1,754 710 1,164 471 13,768 5,571
Mermentau 4,399 1,780 3,889 1,574 20,132 8,147
Vermilion 1,664 673 1,114 451 6,800 2,752

Table 3. Loss of each vegetative type and of tota 1 wet 1and area
in the management units of the Louisiana coastal zone from 1890 to
1960 (adapted from Craig et al. 1980).

Vegetative t~Ee
Saline Brackish Fresh Swamp
Management units marsh marsh marsh forest

Pontchartrain-St. Bernard 24% 65% 1% 11%

Mississippi River 1% 37% 62% 0%
Barataria Basin 40% 44% 9% 7%
Terrebonne Basin 30% 31% 28% 11%
Atchafalaya Rivera 1% 9% 78% 12%
Vermilion Basin 3% 84% 6% 7%
Cheneir Plain 6% 55% 39% 0%
Total wetland loss 25% 49% 18% 8%

aDoes not include the current delta building in Atchafalaya Bay.

learn about the causes and conse- BALANCE OF FORCES

quences of these changes, the better
our understanding of possible options
for managing sedimentary coast 1i nes.
To begin, we shall examine the causes
for the recent increase in erosion
rates.
5
Land gains and losses are the
resu 1t of many interacting factors.
In a natura 1 rna rs h, mi nera 1 matter
from rivers, reworked sediments, and
p1ant debris are required to bui 1d
Figure 5. Animals and fish depend on wetlands for food, refuge from preda-
tors, and nesting sites. Compared to other ecosystems, wet 1ands are very
efficient 11 protein factories. 11 They serve to buffer storm surges, and their
boundaries may influence the disposition of mineral property rights in
Louisiana; wetlands moderate local climate and transform and bury agricultural
fertilizers and noxious by-products of modern industrial life.

land. At the same time, land in the
sedimentary coast sinks (e.g.,
because of compaction), and sea level
rises. In Louisiana, these land-
bui 1ding and eroding forces are
nearly in balance (Table 4). The
amount of sediment being deposited on
a natural marsh appears slightly less
than that required to match the
rel at i ve rise in sea 1eve 1 and the
downward movement of 1and (sub-
sidence); however, the rates vary
widely across the coast. Any factor
6
that significantly alters either
subsidence, sedimentation, organic
deposition, or relative sea level can
easily determine whether an area
gains or loses land.
Human activities in wetlands also
have a direct bearing on land loss or
gain. While many natural forces can-
not be managed to prevent land loss,
most human activities can be. Canals
are one human impact that is manage-
ab 1e. Can a 1s have an obvious direct
Table4. Estimates of changes in marsh elevation in coastal Louisiana result-
ing from changes due to sea level, the sinking of land due to geologic pro-
cesses, impoundment, from compensatory sedimentation rates, and from actual
sea-level rise.

Estimate
Change of change Reference

1. Worldwide le~-level rise -0.12 cm/yr Gornitz et al. 1982;

(eustatic rise) average of 700 stations
worldwide
2. Land sinking (subsidence),
corrected for sea-level rise,
calculated from tidal gauge
records at:
Eugene Island -0.73 cm/yr Hicks and Crosby 1974
Grand Isle (Bayou Rigaud) -0.9 cm/yr Baumann 1980
Humble Oil Platform "A" -0.9 cm/yr Hicks and Crosby 1974
3. Land sinking on the Caminada -0.16 cm/yr Gerdes 1982
coast, calculated from dated
buried deposits (1,000-yr
history)
4. Land sinking due to forced -3.0 cm/yr Turner and Neill 1984
drainage for 70 years
5. Sedimentation rate in a
natural marsh in Barataria
Bay:
a. 1975-79
Inland marsh +0.91 cm/yr Baumann 1980
Streamside marsh +1.52 cm/yr Baumann 1980
b. 1963-78
Inland salt marsh +0.75 cm/yr Delaune et al. 1978
Streamside salt marsh +1.35 cm/yr Delaune et al. 1978
c. 1963-79
Inland marsh +0.59-0.75 cm/yr Hatton 1981
Streamside marsh +1.06-1.40 cm/yr Hatton 1981

7
Figure 5. Ani rna l s and fish depend on wetlands for food, refuge from preda-
tors, and nesting sites. Compared to other ecosystems, wetlands are very
efficient 11 protei n factories. 11 They serve to buffer storm surges, and their
boundaries may influence the disposition of mineral property rights in
Louisiana; wetlands moderate local climate and transform and bury agricultural
fertilizers and noxious by-products of modern industrial life.

land. At the same time, land in the
sedimentary coast sinks (e. g.,
because of compaction), and sea level
rises. In Louisiana, these land-
building and eroding forces are
nearly in balance (Table 4). The
amount of sediment being deposited on
a natural marsh appears slightly less
than that required to match the
rel at i ve rise in sea level and the
downward movement of land (sub-
sidence); however, the rates vary
widely across the coast. Any factor
6
that significantly alters either
subsidence, sedimentation, organic
deposition, or relative sea level can
easily determine whether an area
gains or loses land.
Human activities in wetlands also
have a direct bearing on land loss or
gain. While many natural forces can-
not be managed to prevent land loss,
most human activities can be. Canals
are one human impact that is manage-
able. Canals have an obvious direct
Table 4. Estimates of changes in marsh elevation in coastal Louisiana result-
ing from changes due to sea level, the sinking of land due to geologic pro-
cesses, impoundment, from compensatory sedi mentation rates, and from actual
sea-level rise.

Estimate
Change of change Reference

1. Worldwide le~-level rise -0.12 cm/yr Gornitz et al. 1982;

(eustatic rise) average of 700 stations
worldwide
2. Land sinking (subsidence),
corrected for sea-level rise,
calculated from tidal gauge
records at:
Eugene Island -0.73 cm/yr Hicks and Crosby 1974
Grand Isle (Bayou Rigaud) -0.9 cm/yr Baumann 1980
Humble Oil Platform 11 A11 -0.9 cm/yr Hicks and Crosby 1974
3. Land sinking on the Caminada -0.16 cm/yr Gerdes 1982
coast, calculated from dated
buried deposits (1,000-yr
history)
4. Land sinking due to forced -3.0 cm/yr Turner and Neill 1984
drainage for 70 years
5. Sedimentation rate in a
natural marsh in Barataria
Bay:
a. 1975-79
Inland marsh +0.91 cm/yr Baumann 1980
Streamside marsh +1.52 cm/yr Baumann 1980
b. 1963-78
Inland salt marsh +0.75 cm/yr Delaune et al. 1978
Streamside salt marsh +1.35 cm/yr Delaune et al. 1978
c. 1963-79
Inland marsh +0.59-0.75 cm/yr Hatton 1981
Streamside marsh +1.06-1.40 cm/yr Hatton 1981

7
impact on land loss because they
change marsh to open water. The rise
of canal density has been coinciden-
tal with the exponential rise in
1and-1 oss rates (discussed in 1ater
chapters). Si nee cana 1 construction
in Louisiana usually results in spoil
bank levee construction, both canals
and canal levees are probably signi-
ficant 1y i nvo 1ved in promoting wet-
land loss.
State and Federal laws require the
regulation of activities (such as
canal construction) that impact wet-
lands and thus potentially affect
pub 1i c resources. Regulation may
reduce wet 1and 1osses if
conditions producing the losses are
understood (Lindall and Saloman 1977;
Gosse 1ink and Baumann 1980; Linda 11
and Thayer 1982). This report dis-
cusses how can a 1s and spoi 1 1evees
contribut~ to coastal erosion and
out 1i nes how the impact of present
and future canals and levees might be
mitigated. Flood control structures,
agricultural practices, and
construction of navigation channels,
which also lead to land loss, will
be discussed as contributing
influences in later chapters.
SUMMARY
The coasta 1 1and-1 oss rate in
Louisiana is rising progressively and
now approaches 0.8% annually.
Coastal lands, particularly coastal
wetlands, are an extremely important
regional, State, and national natural
resource. Their 1oss influences
other natura 1 resources, economic
activities, and cultural attributes.
The balance between land gain and
1and 1oss is a tenuous ba 1a nee of
several interacting forces. Canals
and the spoi 1 1evees resulting from
can a 1 construction are human-made
factors i nfl uenci ng this ba 1a nee.
Canal density has increased in
proportion to local wetland loss
rates suggesting that there may be a
causal link between the two. Besides
the obvious direct impact on land
loss (hence a reason for regulation),
canals may also have an indirect im-
pact. These direct and indirect
relationships between canals and
coastal ero.sion are the subject of
this report.
the
FURTHER READING
A 1982 symposium on coastal habitat
changes in Louisiana explored the
causes and consequences of 1and
1osses (Boesch 1982). As one might
expect, not a 11 cont ri but i ng authors
completely agreed on every issue; it
the is equally clear that there are
enough data to warrant both detailed
further study and complementary
action to address the problem.
I ndi vi dua 1 papers discussed geo 1ogy,
fisheries implications, cultural
aspects, and economic issues of
coastal land losses.
Craig et al. (1980) presented a
synthesis of the data obtained up to
1979 on the rates of land loss,
impacts, causes, and potentia 1
management options.
Gagliano et al. (1981) briefly pro-
vided the most recent estimates of
land loss for the deltaic plain and a
description of regional geology.
8
 CHAPTER 2. GEOLOGICAL, HYDROLOGICAL,
AND BIOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK
Coastal land gain and loss are the
net result of interacting geo 1ogi c,
hydro 1ogi c, and bi o1ogi c factors.
Sediment accumulation is encouraged
by vigorous plant growth, which adds
to substrate mass. The resulting
changes in marsh elevation influence
water currents that deposit or erode
sediments from one area to another.
Organisms, particularly those around
rooted macrophytes, play an important
role in sediment stability. Whatever
effect a canal, or any other factor,
has on land loss, its impact will be
modified by prevailing geologic,
hydrologic, and biologic inter-
actions.
DELTA GROWTH AND DECAY
The Louisiana coast is sedimentary
and predominantly of deltaic origins.
Land formation on this coast has been
we 11 studied by geo 1ogi sts, part i cu-
larly petroleum geologists, for
obvious economic reasons. Although
their interests are understandably
focused on buried materials, their
research results can be profitably
ex ami ned to understand the geo 1ogi c
and geomorphic aspects of 1and gain
and loss.
The coastal sediments are primarily
either riverine deposits or those
carried by littoral currents. The
firmest deposits are from the
Pleistocene era and are 1ocated as
far as 150 m (ca. 492 ft) below the
surface. Most of the Louisiana coast
overlies the gulf coast geosyncline;
the coastal zone tends to tilt down-
9
ward with time. Downwarping, sedi-
ment deposition, and consolidation
occur simultaneously across the
coast.
River deltas like those on the
Louisiana coast are dominated by
riverine processes, in the absence of
strong wave, tidal, or longshore
currents (Coleman 1976). The present
Louisiana coastal marshes were formed
from an overlapping series of
riverine deltas extending onto the
continental shelf (Figure 6). The
presently emerging Atchafa 1aya de 1ta
was preceded by 16 major deltas over
the 1ast 6, 000 years. Of the o1der
de 1ta comp 1exes, the Maringouin and
the Sale-Cypremort, became inactive
about 4,000 years ago when the river
switched its position to the east
(Figure 7; the numbers in Figures 6
and 7 are coincidental). This
process of delta growth and abandon-
ment continued unt i 1 the modern
bi rdfoot de 1ta was formed about 900
years ago.
Growth in the deltaic plain is
cyclical (Figure 8). In the con-
structional phase, seaward prograda-
tion causes delta muds to be overlain
by s i 1ts and sands which, in turn,
are topped by delta marsh sediments,
including organic deposits (Fisk
1960). In the destructional phase,
the river abandons its channel in
favor of a shorter route to the sea.
The upper layers erode, exposed sedi-
ments may be reworked, and marine
transgression may occur. Individual
crevasses may deposit sediments up to
14 m (46 ft) thick and the entire
 ,,, ?$' \ ') l' -t
! AUUVIA~~ c.-;- '\_
~
"~~:,'jl.F 1_,~
-.--~-: /,0/?f,y'

,.:~'~-l
' "~
,....._, - . \ ', _. [r'. \'-
'\ .., ,\ \ \ -"' ~~~ . ~ f;// ~~
( ?\. \ \ ',
~ ~ -~"""""-"''- ~'~-00-,' :?<,
1iH

..- , w 1 , . . .,) )
1
t<. :. \ {I
~.
.,., )"'-.>?":J'-">
~v- 1 -
-/ .. "
1 ~
'

, w,!1'.1-~;,7;:;,)hl!%.,/ ),/o/ .,/ ~.J~\:.,-,: ~ ~ ~/

""":PLAIN ""''

,-.
-~~'-~I

I j .-./( /, 1~ . ,. , '"
. ~:;\ .;;.._.'-,~
'"
. ~ : ' -!_.-
'1\
\ '-..:
l .r
""~
'
' ( ' ' ~ <;.;
!1-..
'~
'
,~
I - ''l',t;,>}'~'
'' \
'l

. . )
TECHE: 1,2,~
ST. II ERHARD: J, 5,7 ,I, 9, 11
' LAFOURCHE: 6, 10, 12,
: I'LAQUEMIHES-MOOERH. 13, 16
...,....~ ~ .............. ~
. . ..f\J o
:.t-'
f
u 15
{

,

-u-' .J~\ , "':., , )).
~-
','\f
~~;~ .
::\~ ....
L ~,;, . ~ .... ~ : ,:..,~. 'i ...
I

,
J

"-./'~~:[".::;_(~-\.f.,-,~-~
, .... , ,
'
1

'<"-'~-~'''\
./'\
.

,
"' 3 .
(';) ~-"""':.'
.'J
~:--.:\''''~1-'~ ':. ....._
.. .. :........ A-~,
)?.~/' .........
1' 1 1

. "., '+'" ....: .,

_
'(

'. .
qJ~.'~
I . . ,... -'./ '.
/
/'-""

11
-.::::"::
~

s-~1...
~-~
> .,,

} ',,.:
~ '~C. Y. _
I

_,~--....
,,/,..,.~:> .. ~,,!.;7:. :-::---I
,
,
.
-._
\
',
I 8

I~;\.;. ~~~~:~. .' I '
"2i.p..,

.~ ~- ~"-- ( '~'
.\ . . .S~~
VI ' '-1 j '!' '> ......_,,,,, , - ) " ' . --
rr>f<-_- ;.6 ...~:~;:::~ _'":~:::.~~.' '' \
I ''..J
. -~--). -- ~. /~ ~
1
...

4 /
~ ~' '' ~ l
\: ~' .:\. '-"'. '\ ~\. . >-
' 1",
.. \._
;_r )
c.::- '
. . . . ., ; " r ( ">o< \
'"' ,r- ,
1 '
..
'\
U
.._,-:-....,, w
' . ''
.; -~ ....:_ ''"~ ~-~r:;
' ,.,
. . ~.. ~ 1\.:_>\ : :--;.._~ ~; ..
< "' '-. ' ,.
---::6 ."'' l r.' "\i ,. . -.
~-~t_,/ -,-' ... , ' . . .~'-" ~1\, . '., ....:.-;:-:::<
.~,1-vr._. ~~c:~ . J',~
//
"/ #

,.
-,,

-\....r.(

'
..-

...
- <a ,".,.'
~12~1-,'"~... -~
)J
.r...oi~':, >..: ~-""'o\
.~.6~.-. '~iJ''-
\ 7 ~ . :..".-.
~.:13;:.. "'- J
.... ~.. h -~! -' , J
2 ...., .., '~ (',.~-
)1. ), ... \... ... .,
. '-' ,.,u_ ;"., -:-1. I . '!\,
~2~,-
J\~:;)'~.~'\..~/71(1.;)~: ~<;.\.'.,\\:~~., .,/1/j~\';\_.,.~~
, . .
./ , !. ,~..-:- 1 ,. ' JJ..;r.l \~ ::.- ~- ,, .... 10 ... ';" '~\\,":~..;-.~ .' ~ 9
.r')16/
/
1
(
\.
t; lit,
,
"' 1.,.~;
.. -\ -c. J'li!'' '\t;.~>'>J,
..... ,.. I /( ,. 1' .
:-::. .A!
,,,,1.'' ;~' -,).. " I'':~
... u--.
)1
,~~,c t, .. ~-
14' '. ~ '.'' '': '~"' ' ~~r::'':
+1 \ .....
0 ,.

II
'
.. '
' ',
~_,...,11~':'
~',~
~ ._ .. t:/,\151
,_.._. /.)<

'i':
\~'"
y~"'.~ .,;;-
. .,_,,'.}
,u . . .: ..&.i..----~- ~ ~ ., r v
r--
' .... I(.' ' !.-' 1,. \)nr''-"
....... 0 ~ -!\<< .....- --, - ,..,
41-clf,~
t_~
~
........ _
........

. , : - ._ .__
cou,,

DELTA COMPLEX
___ , , - -

/
#

Figure 6. The deltaic lobes formed by the Mississippi River in the past 6,000
years (from Frazier 1967).

1
13 16 , LAOUEMINES-
MODERN
DE LTA COMPLEX

15.
MISSISSIPPI Rll'ER
I
I H,l)"OU 1-AI:OUHC//E

IU\'01 ..\. lo~li'OUHCI/Ii A!O:I> TEHHI'/ION/\1' 1411111

f L AFOURCHE
)12 llAnJU BI.ACK DELTA
COMPLEX
10 I JjJl)'(H' /1/.r:I:

6 /J,l)'OI' TI:RHEHOSNii

11-
/1~\l'OU
l s~ I
.I'Af'I'At.E
I

8 ,\f/SSI,UII'I'I-I.A LOUTHE Sl
BERNARD
I I DELTA
COMPLEX
7 --RAYOU DES FAMILIES
1
5 - /JAl'Ot TliHHii AUX noiuFS
I I

2-
31 I
MISSISSII''i' R/1'/:'H AND l!,,l"OU LAPOURCIIE

4 ~ RAYOll CYPRE.~ORT
1 RA l'OU SALE D ELTA
TECHE
COMPLI!X
1 1!:1 YOU TECHE

I I MARINGOUIN
DlELTA COMPLEX

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Figure 7. The chrono 1ogy of the de 1ta 1obes shown in Figure 6, as recon-
structed by Frazier (1967).

10
 PROGRADATION INITIAL CYCLE Deltas in which the rate of sub-
FLOODPLAIN DELTA MARINE BASIN lEGEND sidence is less than that of net
flOODPlAIN
DHOSIIS
IUnchffrenltatdl
sedimentation develop seaward. If
subsidence and erosion are greater,
0
JUMiTS
c , ...
O..lft.ftllJ'
Clet1u;1
progradation occurs into the lateral
~~~~~~lti::kll~catr:~d~ DELTA fiONT
distributary basins and inland
-- DHOSITS
hlletMclo
Grode Clallu:t
(Morgan 1970).
SU&SIDENCE

As the distributary channels

_ PAlUDAl
become smaller and the delta is
DEPOSITS
Swamp And Marth
Organc Dtrlvl
abandoned, interdistributary ponds,
PROGRADATION
levee flank lakes, and bays form
F_L0-;;;0;;;-DP....::_L:..:_AI...:.._N-==""_;D:_:E;,:.:LT:_:_:A--.._~____:fl..--:_fA__;..R_;.::IN~E...:;_B.:..:_AS;:.:..IN~--.J
___
B 000,~"::.:~
s~Nbsns
from
(Figure 9). The levee gradually
Mor.ne
Tron1(pe1toon sinks into the surrounding marsh,
0 RMi'l~(~cE
which covers it, leaving only a
A8ANDONMENT
OF
SUBSIDENCE
{Compocton)
reduced surface expression of its
larger buried form.
The overlying deltaic deposits are
SU8SIDENCE
susceptible to erosion at rates which
are influenced by the geologic
structure beneath. In general, land-
v-O loss rates are highest in young
deposits near the coast and lowest in
Figure 8. A schematic model of delta older sediments far from the coast
building and subsidence along the (Figure 10). There is considerable
Louisiana coast (from Morgan 1970). scatter in the plots and there are
quadrangles with virtually no land
loss in all categories of age and
distance. Scaife et al. (1983)
delta sequence 150 m ( 492 ft) deep.
As smaller distributaries criss-cross
previously-buried di st rib uta ri es and
marshes, a vertical mosaic of char-
acteristic sediment
of heavier materials and organic
deposits
develops. Bay bottoms are typically
!

~~
~

-<!~
~

!
,
-DISTRIBUTARY
eve-e - C'hanntl

t!~~a~~ _
S'ANDS
- -~ 7
'-~~~
_;;_s::
__
-= _ _
INTERDISTRIBUTARY-

ORGANICS, SilTS & ClAYS

SPG 15-1 7
DISTRIBUTARY

-~~Uf _
Chan""/

:':~-""--z___._' ~-' _:::

_,-

rna rs h muds of finer materials. The

prodelta clay deposits are usually
highly organic. The sediments of the
delta abandonment phase are generally
coarser because of wave attack during Abandontd
Channtl
INTERDISTRIBUTARY
abandonment. Sand concentrations ft BAY ~
Wa:t;;\M,-o/'t _./. ~ .
develop as a result, which allows 1

accurate mapping of buried deltas.

Littoral currents carry materials
along shore, resulting in prograda-
tion of mudflats, as seen in the Figure 9. The formation of inter-
chenier plain of western Louisiana. di stri butary ponds, lakes, and bays
The present barrier islands are sandy during delta growth and decay. ( sp.
remnants of the retreating edge of gr. = specific gravity) (from Morgan
former delta lobes. 1970).
11
 r-r""""'
f4T4
T l if2T3T3lJl
r T l
r I l
ll5T5Tslslslsls T l glolol9 a 1 6 s 4 3 2 2 2 2 , 1 o 1o 1o 1o 1o 1
ele191919 a 1 6 s 4 3 2 2 2 1 oBolol
61616161616 L:J ls776544332[:Jololol
61616161616 31313131313 , 6 6 s s 4 3 2 2 , , Uo I o I ol
l6 16161616161 611 1<121' 1212121212 s s 4 4 3 2 2 , o o o 1 o o II
l6 1616161 6l6lt It I t I 4 141 414 I 4 I 4 14 I 4 I sl s 31313131515158515 ~~ l 1 I, I t i l 1211 11 2 I 3 141 41 sIs I 5 I sl4 I 4 I 41 3 I 3 I 21 t I o I o I o I o I o
16 1616161 616 It I 1 I 1 I 1 141 414 I 4 I 4 14 I 41 41 4 51313131313151515 loiOIOIOIOitltlt ti21314141414141'41'3I'21212121111IOIOIOIO
tlllll414141414141414141415l51313131212 2121313131313131212111111
414141414141414141415151312121212 ' I 'I 1 I 21 2 I 2 I 21 21 21 21 1 I o I o I o It I 1
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
~~ ~
o I' I' I' I' l' I'
~L.
ililliiliJ
0 1 0 0 0 0

DELTA AGE
DISTANCE FROM COAST
1. ATCHAFALAYA 4. LAFOURCHE (miles)
2. MODERN IBIRDFOOn 5. ST. BERNARD
3. PLAQUEMINE 6. TECHE

2.6
A
4.0 A
2.4 A

2.2 A 3.6

A = 1 OBSERVATION A = 1 OBSERVATION
2.0 B = 2 OBSERVATIONS B = 2 OBSERVATIONS
c = 3 OBSERVATIONS 3.2
A D = 4 OBSERVATIONS
c =3 OBSERVATIONS
o =4 OBSERVATIONS

A.
1.8 A
A E = 5 OBSEAVA TIONS
2.8
1.6 A
en en
en A en
0 A
A 0 A
....J 2.4 A
....J 1.4 A
Cl Cl A
z B z
<(
A
<(
....J 12 A ....J 2.0
A
i'/i!. c i'/i!. A
....J A ....J A
:5 1.0 A A
B : A
~
z B
c
A
z 1.6
z A
z
<(
A A
<(0.8 R D A

c ~ A
A
c 12 A
A A
0.6 B A
B A A
~ A
A
I A 0.8
A A
A
0.4 A A
A
o
c c
B
A
: I B B
A
. A

l ~
A A A A
B A
~ ..
0.2 A
c A C
~ ~
A ' 'A 'A
~ H A~ j~ _ _~
A 0.4 A

0
a
A
A c A 8.,
......................................,. ........... l--..........o-...........g---
D
C
C
C
8
E C
A___ ~---E
__A A
lB
B
.______ _____
A
A~
A
A A+
A
.a _____ _

A --
0~---B- E

-0.2 -Q2
2 3 4 5 6 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
DELTA SYSTEMS DISTANCE FROM COAST

Figure 10. Land loss in the Mississippi River deltaic plain as a function of
the age of the delta and distance to the coast. The data points correspond to
land loss rates from 1955 to 1978 as measured in 7.5-minute quadrangle maps.
The relative distance to the coast was assigned as shown in the map above.
The delta age (youngest delta =1, oldest delta =10) was qualitatively assigned
a number based on Frazier 1 s map (Figure 6), as depicted in the map above. The
arrows are the median value for each category (adapted from Scaife et al.
1983).
12
provided several reasons for this
result. First, as a delta grows,
overlaps, and extends seaward, the
underlying deposits nearest the sea
are necessarily the youngest. The
more deeply buried material nearest
the Pleistocene surface, is older and
has had longer to compact (con soli-
date). These latter sediments tend
to have lower subside nee rates and
are more resistant to erosion.
Second, because the seaward edge is
thicker, consolidation, dewatering,
and downwarpi ng are greatest there.
Third, the seaward edge is more
subject to wave attack, currents, and
redistribution of sediments. Lastly,
older deltas have had more time to
stabilize through consolidation or
grain sorting: 11 Rates of subsidence
and erosion of abandoned deltas
follow a decelerating pattern.
Immediately after abandonment,
interstitial water losses in sediment
are high, as are resulting subsidence
rates. As connate fluids are lost,
the rate of compaction gradually
diminishes as does the rate of sub-
sidence ... 11 (Morgan 1963, p. 70).
Subsurface fluid withdrawal and
oxidation may encourage subsidence.
Surface drainage has resulted in a
lower water table, soil oxidation,
and consequently lowered land surface
in New Orleans (Snowden et al. 1977;
Traugher et al. 1979) and is gen-
erally a worldwide phenomenon in
agricultural reclamation projects
(Darby 1956; Stephens and Steward
1976). Oil and gas withdrawal has
resulted in measurable increases in
subsidence outside of Louisiana
(Castle et al. 1969; van Kesteren
1973) but little is known about these
impacts in Louisiana soils (Boesch
et al. 1983).
Geologic equilibria are rna i nta i ned
simultaneously. Price (1947)
investigated all the major bays in
the northern Gulf of Mexico to
13
determine relations between bay-
bottom depth and width. He reached
the fo ll owing cone l us ions concerning
basins of similar climatic and
physiographic regimes (e.g., of
comparable plant environment and
substrate): 11 Modification of form is
most evident after great storms or
major engineering works. In spite of
postulated eustatic sea-level rise
during the present century, the tidal
basins have maintained width-depth
ratios, in some cases actual depths,
during equilibrium conditions in the
cartographic period. Some bays sank
10+ feet in recent centuries but now
have equi l i bri urn of form 11 (Price
1947, p. 1610).
Marsh erosion (widening) is there-
fore encouraged by deepening bays,
and stable marshes may encourage
stable bay depths.
BIOLOGICAL AND HYDROLOGICAL
INTERACTIONS
Although geologic factors clearly
influence the rates of land loss
(Figure 10), other factors are
important as well. In each of the
delta age-and-location categories
shown in Figure 10, some quadrangles
have relatively low land-loss rates,
and the variability is high. Sedi-
ment accumulation is not simply the
result of sediment supply, but also
of the interaction of plants and the
prevailing hydrologic regime (shown
schematically in Figure 11). Besides
trapping mineral matter, plants add a
substantial amount of organic
material to the soil. Fresh marsh
soils are mostly organic debris
deposited in situ, not brought in by
currents. Even salt marsh soils may
be composed of up to 50% organic
matter. Second, as the organic
material is laid down, usually below-
ground, the weight per unit volume
(measured as bulk density) decreases.
 ACCRETION RATE SINCE 1963
1.5 ... D Streamside ~ Inland

...>- ,..... r-
-
E
(.) 1.0
L ..-
....tU
Q)

a:
c
0

uport
io.sl-
...
(.)
(.)
c(

Figure 11. Interactions between bi o-

logic, hydrologic, and geologic 0' I

Fresh Intermediate Brackish Salt

factors in maintaining marsh equili-
brium (adapted from Gosselink and
Turner 1978).
Thus, marshes need less mineral
matter than bay bottoms to maintain
elevation in the face of a rising sea
level or a sinking substrate.
Plants, in turn, are influenced by
hydrologic relationships, including
belowground water movements. When
King et al. (1982) increased subsur-
face drainage via an underground
pipe, the marsh plants located inland
were more productive. At some point
as plant production results in
organic matter deposition, the marsh
elevation may rise enough to have a
negative impact on sedimentation
rates. The opposite may also occur.
Too much flooding may lower plant
production, and decrease the decom-
position of buried organic material.
Although subsidence rates, soil
organic content, salinity, and
vegetation vary widely across the
coast, 11 natural 11 plant communities
maintain a remarkably similar sedi-
ment accumulation rate (Figure 12).
It is as though the total physical
and biological system were responding
through different pathways to reach
the same equilibrium point relative
to flooding. The details of how this
14
Marsh Type
Figure 12. Soil accretion in stream-
side and inland marshes of four vege-
tative types in Barataria Bay. Note
that the rates in inland or stream-
side marshes are similar, despite the
large differences that exist in vege-
tative morpho 1ogy, production rates,
soi 1 organic content, and soi 1 bulk
density (adapted from Hat ton 1981).
happens are sketchy. Wetland plants
are sensitive to waterflow patterns,
particularly as they influence soil
chemistry, and they respond both
metabo 1i ca lly and morpho l ogi ca lly to
altered hydrologic regimes (Linthurst
1979; Mendelssohn and McKee 1981;
Mendelssohn et al. 1981). Goodman
and colleagues (Goodman et al. 1959;
Goodman 1960; Goodman and Williams
1961) have proposed that the
increased soil sulfide concentrations
occurring in standing waters may be
implicated in the physiological
demise of some marsh plants. Because
the reciprocal feedback loops (shown
in Figure 11) are balanced in a
stable marsh, the disturbance of any
one of many factors may result in
marsh erosion. Soil pH-redox equili-
brium, soil aeration, and plant water
requirements are complexly i nterre-
lated, but these relationships are
not completely understood, even in
laboratory settings (Sasser 1977;
Mendelssohn 1979; Delaune et al.
1981; Jakobosen et al. 1981;
Mendelssohn et al. 1981).
SUMMARY
The Louisiana coast has largely
been built with alternating layers
and sequences of deltaic growth and
decay. During the deltaic cycle,
sediment sorting, compaction, and
consolidation occur, resulting in
areas of greater and lesser suscepti-
bility to erosion. In general, the
areas of greatest land loss (erosion)
consist of younger sediments over-
lying deep deltaic accumulations (for
example, in modern deltaic sediments
near the coast). Marsh elevation,
however, also depends on bi ol ogi cal
and hydrologic factors that are con-
nected via positive and negative
feedback loops.
FURTHER READING
Frazier s (1967) much-cited paper
on the geology of the Mississippi
15
River deltaic plain is short, cam-
pl ete, and the one paper to read on
technical aspects of this subject.
Morgan (1970) provides a short and
useful discussion of deltas for a lay
audience.
Penland et al. (1981) and Penland
and Boyd (1981) offer useful and
readable discussions of the evolu-
tionary sequence of modern deltaic
barrier islands of the northern Gulf
of Mexico.
Colemans (1976) brief book is
generally unavailable, unfortunately.
It contains a l anger discussion of
deltas around the world, with con-
siderable attention given to the ma-
jor delta of his academic backyard--
the Mississippi River delta.
Boesch et al. (1983) reviews the
genera 1 nature and causes of
subsidence in Louisiana.
r
CHAPTER 3. CANAL AND LEVEE GROWTH
In an aerial view of the marsh,
canals appear as straight lines with
a parallel spoil bank on either side
(Figure 13). Some exist singly, and
others are built in dense networks.
In contrast to canals, anastomotic
natural channels form a dendritic
drainage pattern with a naturally low
levee on either stream bank (Figure
14). The natural channel levee has a
higher soil organic content and lower
bulk density than the harder and
wider-dredge spoil bank levee. A and eight to 10-feet-deep 11 (Davis
canal itself may be 200 years old
(Davis 1973), but the spoil bank
lifetime may be only 30 to 50 years
(Monte 1978).
Canals in coastal Louisiana, built
with various dredging methods, facil-
itate navigation, belowground mineral
recovery, pipeline construction and
trapping (see Allen and Hardy [1980]
and Davis [1973] for a complete
description). Most canals (in
Louisiana) are constructed to service
the oil and gas industry (Adams et
al. 1976). Each field in the coastal
wetlands has numerous canals, dug to
float in drilling equipment, and the
residual dredging materials left on
either side of the canal, called
spoil banks. Gas right- of-way pipe-
lines are often filled in immediately
after the pipeline is laid (backfill-
; ng); these frequently revegetate
enough to make the new plant cover
indistinguishable from the surround-
ing marsh.
CANAL GROWTH
The first canals built in Louisiana
were used mostly for navigational
purposes near the port of New
16
Orleans. Smaller canals or
11
trainasses 11 were cut by trappers and
hunters, using specialized instru-
ments or paddles. These trainasses
may erode into a very wide channel if
dug in the wrong places: 11 50 years
ago Mathew Creppel used a pirogue
paddle to cut a 40-inch-wide, 12-inch
deep ditch between two bayous in the
vicinity of bayou St. Denis in
Barataria Bay. Today this trainasse
has eroded into a bayou 200-feet-wlde
1973, p. 77). 11 The effect of arti-
ficial canals and levees on marshland
drainage is in many cases tremendous.
For example, on the U.S.C. and G.S.
chart No. 200 (1893) the water body
now called Fearman Lake is shown as
two lakes separated by a strip of
marsh three quarters of a mile in
width. The 1921 U.S.C. and G.S.
chart No. 1277 indicated that a
narrow cut or pirogue trail had been
made joining the two lakes. Today
this cut, through natural enlarge-
ment~ is about 1600 feet wide and
three and a half feet deep 11 (Van
Lopik 1955, p. 36).
Although there were some canals
and trainasses present before the
1900 1 s, virtually all the present-
day, man-made waterways were con-
structed to aid in the recovery of
oil and gas deposits belowground.
Oil and gas fields were not numerous
in southern Louisiana before World
War II. By 1964 the industry was
very active and by 1981 had expanded
into every parish and major water
body in the coastal zone (Figure 15).
Oil and gas annual production rates
peaked about 10 years ago and have
Leeville oilfield canals Canal cutting across a natural chan-
ne 1 in a Barataria Bay fresh marsh

Marsh impounded by canal levees

Canal between Lake Pontchartrain and a swamp

Figure 13. Examples of canals in various environments.
17
 A. NATURAL MARSH

~ 2-3M 1< 25M

l
INLAND

1"--------..---..-'.' STiiEA~SiiiE'
25~ .
,.... :..';,~
,!:~~ ~ ~ fS.. ~ ,~~~\.( \t #;~"' ~ iL
>-::.:.:::: :;..-:: .:: ::: ~:
ORGANIC . :. : \ .. , >> .''.~:.~>;:;: 7
1 Spartlna altern/flora
:::_:. : >: ~:. ~-.:\
WATER
50~ WATER 70% ORGANIC
0 .1.3 laCG/CM2 85~ WATER2
::.~:/ 0.27 G/CM3 0.10 KG/CM
0.12 GJCM-3

B. CANALED MARSH
50 M

INLAND
' ... _...........:-J.J; ,'. _.,-_ ~

<", 'r' SPOIL BANK. ' <' !. .

. ; .... ~

_.... ---,j
... . 10% ORGANIC
..-:~;:~~t~ (jj O.V~~~'f~~~~~r~l~lo~S.
.."- .~:::: :::.~:~.:~. :. _; --~-::: >.:-::.: _. : ...
28% WATER
WATER 60% ORGANIC
2
1.1 KG/CM 86" WATER
0,10 KG/C~
2
0.97 G/CM3
0.14 G/CM

Figure 14. A schematic cross section of a natural channel levee and a canal
spoil bank levee showing comparative soil density (g/volume (cm 3 )) and
resistance to a penetrometer (kg/area (cm 2 )) (from E. Swenson, unpubl. rep. to
the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service, 1983).

declined since, in spite of the area ranges from 0.6 to 2.4 (Table
deregulation of prices that occurred 5). Overall, the total area of spoil
in the late 1970 1 s (Figure 16). Con- bank levees plus canal surface is
sequently, fewer canals were built about 9.5% of present wetland area in
in recent years although the cumula- the Mississippi River deltaic plain.
tive total canal area created con- The natural channel density in a
tinues to climb (Figure 17). At natural marsh is about 8% to 10% of
present, the surface area of canals the marsh. There is hardly a place
is equivalent to 2.3% of wetland in the Louisiana coastal zone where
area: every hydrologic unit has a canals are absent and they are
significant percentage of its area in undoubtedly causing major hydrologic
canals. The area has increased over adjustments. Davis (1973) wrote that
the last 25 years (Table 1). The 11
Louisiana 1 s coastal area is
ratio of spoil bank to canal-surface criss-crossed, ringed, cut and
18
 ...
10 20 f !\
Miles

.~)'
r /
I

G u l F
1941 0
,..

..
,.,

1981 ... ..
' ~'! ~ 7Ct
., ....
(... "0

" Oil and Gil!> Production (J Depleted 011 and Gas Areas One Oil Well ~ Oil and Gas Production-Area Not Delineated

Figure 15. The oil and gas fields in southern Louisiana in 1941, 1964, and
1981 (adapted from maps published by the Louisiana Geological Survey). Note
that some fields have not been abandoned nor reduced in size.
19
 ....
9,
LOUISIANA OIL AND GAS PRODUCTION
i LOUISIANA NATURAL GAS PRO~UCTION 1000 LOUISIANA OIL PRODUCTION
"
. ..
81
I

1 . ..
900

800'
.. 1

I
TOTAL

.
TOTAL
6. OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF NATURAL GAS
1 6,
ONSHORE ?OO ' ONSHORE OIL
STATE OFFSHORE : STATE OFFSHORE
t /.
..... .
5r 600'
J... ~
..-..
I

4j
I -~"
;I~ 'OO

400
.. .. .
..........
-~
4 ,!' ..
+ ..
~
...
...
.... ,.- 1/ ...
3;

. .. " \

~/
... - \
.... .~-
..
I 300
~~ .-~
....,. .&

......
2'
200
,....,.. \
"
0~~
100
~~:.----- oJ .___,... ~ ..__
1920 11130 11140 1950 1960 1970 11180 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 11120 11130 11140 1950 11160 11170 11180
YEAR YEAR YEAR

Figure 16. The recovery of oil and gas in Louisiana from 1922 to 1981 (data
from the Louisiana Geological Survey). Note the peak in production in the
early 1970 1 s and the effect of deregulating prices in the late 1970 1 s.

Table 5. The ratio of spoil banks to

canal area in the Mississippi River
4r deltaic plain from 1955 to 1978 for
each of seven hydrologic units
CANAL DENSITY (adapted from Wicker 1980).
I
c
z
....w~ Spoil bank area/canal
~
Unit area
LL 1955 1978
0
:!!.

II
0
2
en 1 1.83 2.35
~
~
w
2 0.61 1.28
a: 3 0.67 2.47
~
4 0.70 1.14

./
...I
~
z 5 0.83 0.90
~
(.) 6 1.28 1.19
0
I
---
1900 1925 1950 1975
7 0.56 0.61

YEAR

Figure 17. The density of canals in otherwise dominated by a massive grid

the Mississippi River deltaic plain of human-made canals. Interest,
from the beginning of this century to time, technology and population
the present (adapted from Turner et characteristics have changed, but
a l. 1982). Note that the rise in canals endure, many for over 150
canal area is similar to the geo- years. Their influence continues to
metric rise in land loss rates (as have a decisive and cumulative impact
shown in Figure 1). on the wetlands environment. 11
20
 Canals erode over time as the
result of many factors. Maps of the
Golden Meadow oil field in 1940 and
in 1969 illustrate the general
development of the oil field and the
enlargement of older canals during
the interval (Figure 18). The rela-
tionship between canal width and
t
N
l
1940 .
21
canal age is a general one (Figure
19) and found in other locations.
The enlargement of canals in the
Leeville oil field (Figure 20) was
faster in major navi gat i ona l canals
than in smaller canals. In general,
though, there are few data upon which
to base a sound conclusion about
~~:::r:tt:t'l Natural Water Bodle
C=:J Canals
l~"::;,; ~1 Forested Levee or Swmp
1;.:-:-:-;1 Agriculturl
~Urban
----=======i1MI
Figure 18. Canal area in the Golden
Meadow oil field in 1940, 1953, and
1969. Note the general enlargement
of canals throughout the area as well
as the general increase in density of
canals. Many canals interlock,
thereby impounding marshes. Each
canal has a continuous spoil bank on
either side (adapted from Adams et
al. 1976).
E CANAL WIDTH = 0.704 (CANAL AGE) + 41.492 specific causal factors. Whatever
~ .-2 = 0.79 the cause, the rate of canal enlarge-
1-- 60
0 --
------ ment is steady and high (Figure 19;
. -------------- Table 6). Estimates of the annual
~w ------
enlargement of five major canals
<( I ---- range from 2% to 14.8%. The doubling
~ :..---~--- . rate ranges from about 5 to 35 years.
0 40~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Enlargement of the older canals now
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 approaches the area of new canals
CANAL AGE (yrs) added each year. At the present,
land directly lost to the expansion
Figure 19. The relationship between of canal surface area represents
canal width and age in the Deep Lake- about 5 square miles or 10% of the
Constance Bayou canal system. total coastal land erosion rate (ca.
50 square miles annually; see Chapter
1). Within 20 years this land loss
rate may be doubled, simply through
the continued widening of the exist-
; ng canals. "The scars 1eft on the
coasta 1 landscape in south Louisiana
by mineral extraction industries are
comparable in many ways to the vast
open pit mines of Appalachia. It is
doubt fu 1 that they wi 11 ever heal"
(Gagliano 1973, p. 98).
2.0
...
I

~ LEVEE GROWTH
!
Q)
..... It is more di ffi cult to estimate
e
C) the growth and erosion of spoil bank
c
;: 1.0 levees, since they apparently have an
"C
Q)
average lifetime of less than 50
~ years (Monte 1978). New 1evees are
created through dredging while others
are eroding with age. Because the
ratio of spoil banks to canals
0
increased from 1955 to 1978, and
2 3 4 5 total canal surface area also
Canal type increased (Tab 1e 6; Figure 21), the
1 = Non-major canals removed from regular boat traffic net result has been that total spoil
2 = Oil-field canals directly off major navigation canals
3 = Side extensions (widenings) of existing navigation canals
levee area increased.
4 = Side extensions (widenings) of minor navigation canals
5 = Major navigation canals

SUMMARY
Figure 20. Can a 1-wi deni ng rates in
the Leevi ll e oil fie 1d from 1957 to The first canals were built for
1978 (adapted from Johnson and local navigation and for hunting and
Gosselink 1982). The major naviga- trapping. Can a 1 area has increased
tional canals, which are the largest coincidentally with the oil and gas
type of canals, widen at the fastest field development occurring since the
rate. 1940 1 s. The natural levee of a
22
-------------~---

Table 6. The annual increase in canal width for five canals

in southern Louisiana (adapted from Craig et al. 1980).
Measurements were taken at several locations along each
canal. The increase varies from 2% to 14.8% annually. The
doubling rate ranges from 5 to 35 years.

Annual increase
Canal and of canal width Doubling time
years of study Source (%/yr) (yr)

Bayou st. Denis Davis 8.2 8.4

1926-76 1973
Humble Canal Nichols 8.3 8.3
1953-58 1959 7.5 9.3
6.9 10.1
6.5 10.7
Superior Canal Nichols 14.8 4.7
1959 12.4 5.6
13.9 5.0
12.4 5.6
Golden Meadow Craig 2.0 34.6
1940-53 et al. 1980 3.7 18.5
and 4.0 17.2
1953-69 2.0 34.6
3.0 23.1
4.0 15.0
3.0 23.1
2.0 34.6
4.6 15.0
Falgout Canal Davis 4.6 15.0
1905-70 1973

23
 waterway is both lower and narrower
-ACTUAL
than the spoil bank levee usually
10 I Johnson & ~ 4
Gossellnk,
built along both sides of the canal.
19821 The area of canals, and of canals and
spoil levees combined, is now about
/ -PERMITTED, 2. 3% and 10% of the wetland a rea,
~
1981
I preliminary
I
1
~
N
respectively, or an area equal to
N
estimate, LA, h :i that of the natural drainage network.
:1
::.::
5
DNRI
Canals erode over time for various \
reasons and soon become a major cause
of wetland habitat erosion.
'I
OL---~~------~----~~----~----~ 0
1900 1925 1950 1975 2000 FURTHER READING
YEAR

Davis (1973) completed a mostly

Figure 21. The a rea of canals added unpublished dissertation on
each year in the Mississippi River Louisiana's canals, written from a
deltaic plain from the beginning of geographer s perspective. It is an
this century to present (adapted from excellent source of information on
Turner et al. 1982). The horizontal the historical development of the
bar represents the beginning and end canal network in Louisiana. He
of the inventory used to obtain the interviewed local residents, con-
mean area of canal for the interval sulted historical maps, and reviewed
(shown as a dot). The estimate for the early hi story of drainage pro-
1981 is from the Louisiana Department jects in southern Louisiana. It
of Natural Resources and is for the is long, generally only available
area for which a permit was received. through interlibrary loan, but is
If widening of existing canals is full of insightful quotations from
included, the amount added is much people who live in the marsh and earn
larger (upper estimate). a living there.

\
1

24
 CHAPTER 4. CANALS, SPOIL BANK LEVEES,
AND COASTAL EROSION
\
t The historic growth and decline of adjustments in natural hydrology, we
the Mississippi River deltas within might question whether the relation-
the coastal zone have resulted in ship between total land loss and
almost continuous net land building canal density is primarily the result
for the entire coast for over 6, 000 of subtle indirect relationships.
years. (Locally some areas have After all, coastal wetlands are, in a
eroded over this period, but there way, neither land nor water, but both
has been coastwide land building for influence wet 1and characteristics.
a very long time.) For the last 100 Land building at the water's edge
years, however, there has been a net affects water movement; wetland
land loss, which is coincidentally hydrology affects plant, sediment,
rising at the same rate as the growth and animal distribution. The quali-
in cana 1 and cana 1 spoi 1 bank 1evee tative change in wet 1and 1andscapes
density (Figures 1 and 22). The following human-made drainage
entire area of canals and spoil bank construction is evident in aerial
levees now equals the area of drain- views of the marsh (Figures 23, 24,
age channels in a natural marsh. and 25). Vegetation in an area that
Wetland characteristics depend on was homogenous before a levee was
hydrologic regimes. In view of these built changes abruptly at the levee/
can a 1 interface. Areas impounded by
spoi 1 1evees are now open water; in
some circumstances, ponds form behind
2 10 the edge of the can a 1 1evee. This
G
~CD
relationship between human-made
CD 8 aso features and coastal erosion has been
-.
oas
as CD
~-
UJ.I: 6
.all
_.c
as
.;t/1!-
c ..
as :::::I
noted by individuals, but has not
been widely recognized:
past, pipeline canals
"In the
traversed

-~-
-II
:; ~ 1 o ..
c. as
marshlands and embayments without
ase 4 liE regard for changes in natural drain-
+~ age pattern. Also disregarded were
as II Gil resultant disruption of currents in
;as
0
2 .,cas bays and water flow in marshlands and
0 the direct loss of animals and plants
0 0 within the right-of-way. The long
1900 1950 range effects of such canals involve
2000 accelerated erosion of unstable
Year marshes" (St. Amant 1972, p. 388).
"Many oi 1 company cana 1s, with their
Figure 22. The growth of can a 1s and flanking spoil banks, cross the marsh
spoil bank levees in the Mississippi giving rise to changes in drainage,
River deltaic and chenier plain hence, vegetation. Although the
(adapted from Turner et al. 1982). trappers of the region are probably
25
Figure 23. A dense network of oil field canals in Barataria Bay,
Louisiana. Note the spoil bank levees lining the canals.

Figure 24. A 1 i near cana 1 and spoi 1 bank arising from the end
of a natura 1 channe 1. Note that the marsh is disintegrating
on the right side of the canal.
26

~~-
Figure 25. A canalized wetland in the Louisiana chenier plain. The straight
and narrow canals and levees stand out in contrast to the irregularly curved
natura 1 channe 1s. Note the abrupt changes in vegetation at the boundaries of
the 1evees and how the spoi 1 1evees cross the natura 1 channe 1s, effectively
impounding wetlands. The zipperlike feature in the middle of the photograph
is a cat t 1e wa 1kway bu i 1t from 1and dredged from a 1ternat i ng sides of the
1evee.

prone to exaggerate the effects of characteristics, usually improving

such canals on the vegetation of
their trapping lands, there can be no
doubt that changes do occur as a
result of their construction. In
addition, art i fi cia 1 1evees dam many
streams and cause modification of
drainage ... Thus, relatively minor
modifications in marshland drainage
may create many unforeseen prob 1ems 11
(Van Lopik 1955, p. 36). 11 Canaliza-
tion of natural streams invariably
alters their flow regime. In upland
areas canals may change runoff
27
drainage. In lowlands they alter
both runoff and storage and may also
seriously upset natural circulation
patterns and water chemistry. In
general, although the effects of ca-
nals on wetland environments are more
difficult to evaluate, it is likely
that they are more pronounced than in
upland areas 11 (Gagliano 1973, p. 1).
The relationship between canal den-
sity and coastal erosion probably
plays an important role in land loss
even though conversion of land to found by Scaife et a 1. (1983); the
open water during dredging is a rela- substrates ex ami ned were of simi 1ar
tively small proportion of the total age and content. Where canal density
land lost in most coastal areas and spoil bank levee density is
(Figure 26). Indirect land loss, high, land loss is high; where canal
attributed to changes in hydrological density is low, land loss is low;
regime caused by spoil levees and where can a1 density is nearly zero,
other factors, also contributes to 1and 1oss is nearly zero. Two
coastal erosion. examples of this relationship are
shown in Figures 27 and 28. The
latter figure is particularly inter-
EMPIRICAL RELATIONSHIPS esting because it inc 1 udes 12 1oca-
t ions (indicated in the inset map),
Variation in deltaic substrate age, and the intercept is almost zero.
distance to the coast (hence physical The point where canal density is zero
regime), and subsidence, etc., are is a rough ~stimate of land-loss
expected to influence the suscept i- rates in the absence of canals.
bi 1i ty of coasta 1 soi 1s to erosion
(see discussion in Chapter 2). In genera 1, the newer substrates
However, a positive relationship near the coast erode faster than
between land-loss rates from 1955 to o1der substrates far from the coast
1978 and canal density for almost all (Figure 29). In the Atchafalaya
of the Louisiana deltaic plain was de 1ta, 1and bui 1ding occurs more
s 1owly in areas with can a 1s than in
areas without canals. Although
specific biological and geological
reasons for the relationship are not
14
N: 31 entirely clear, the continuous spoil-
r = 0.991 bank 1evee (common 1y formed on both
12 SLOPE = 0.97 sides of the canal) is probably
en INTERCEPT = -0 03
influent i a 1 s i nee it interrupts the

VJ
0 10
...J
0 couplings between water and land
z which determine wetland character-
:3
eft.
...J
OB
. '.

istics.
~
1-
06

~ HOLES IN THE MARSH
04

If one examines the quadrangle maps
0.2
depicted in Figures 27 and 28, a
familiar pattern emerges: wetlands
0 usually erode near canal levees, not
~~~~----r--r--.-.----.---
0 0.2 04 06 08 10 12 14
INDIRECT% LANDLOSS
far from them. In 1955, for example,
the Belle Chasse 7.5-minute quad-
Figure 26. The relationship between rangle was mostly marsh, but the
the total land loss and the 1argest area of open water present
11
i ndi rect 11 1and 1oss which is not was surrounded by canals (Figure 30).
attributed to new canal surface area. Between 1955 and 1978, numerous holes
Most of the 1and 1oss (ca. 95%) is in the marsh opened up near the
not due to the actua 1 surface area cana 1s, but none away from can a 1s.
dredged (adapted from Scaife et al. Considering the new ponds of differ-
1983). ent sizes as indicative of the amount
28
en
~ 3.5
:
~

I ~' I
i.

f.-'
.,_~

I
I
>
r---: v.
.~~f\~
~~:...~~
r:
~~ ~

V-i'.
!;/
n
1--F
1'-;1
lol
I

_,.-:
-~
Ill

~ ...
:.0!
"t:""t
;

'. J

-
I

1 I
rl

..J fitf<llJ, I Jr I ~~:

0 3.0 1-r ~"""" 1.,.11'
~ J!.5 r 0.110
u....,_ L-J ._I" ~
...J

~-------------
tu 2.0 OLD DELTA
:: 1.6 INLAND
~
...J ID

~ 0.5
z
< 0 --
o o.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 .:.s J.o :l.s .1 o t.s 5.o 5.5 e.o 6.5 1 .o 7.5 e.o Canal Density
CANAL AREA/LAND AREA 100 (1978)
Figure 29. The genera 1 re 1at i onshi p
Figure 27. The relationship between between canal density (and also spoil
the land-loss rate from 1955 to 1978 bank levee density) and land loss for
and canal density in a moderately old old and new deltaic substrates near
deltaic substrate far from the coast. and far from the coast.
Each point on the graph represents
data from one of the 7~-ft quad-
rangles blackened in the inset above
(adapted from Scaife et al. 1983). of erosion, the relationship between
marsh loss and human-made features
becomes obvious (Figure 31). The
smallest ponds in the Belle Chasse
quadrangle are scattered throughout
the area, but the 1arger ponds
I I I II 1.i I II appeared near the canals, especially
near corners where canals crossed
each other. The largest ponds
(greater than 150 acres) formed where
fit
~J.S ''I
the spoil levees impound an area.
...J J.Q. I
The same pattern emerges in the
0
~ 2.5
I

I
I
Larose quadrangle (Figure 32). Here
...J
1-2.0
I
I
I
I
the entire area was basically wet-
w
3::u
I
I
I
1and. The only sites of erosion for
-
I
all
..J 1.0
I
I
I
I
the entire area are located where
<(

~ 0.5
I
I
I
I
z I
< G ---:--------------------------------------------------------------
0 0.5 1.0 1.!: 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 .o -4..5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0
Figure28. The relationship between
the land-loss rate from 1955 to 1978
and canal density in a moderately old
deltaic substrate close to the coast.
Each point on the graph represents
data from one of the 7~-ft quad-
rangles blackened in the inset above
(regression statistics unavailable;
adapted from Sea i fe et a l . 1983).
there were cana 1 s and spoi 1 1evees.
o
In the Golden Meadow quadrangle, most
of the 1arger ponds formed next to
CANAL AREA/LAND AREA 100 (1978) spoil bank levees (Figure 33).
The conclusion is clear: coastal
erosion rates are directly related to
canal and spoil levee density. Canal
and spoil levee density influence
most of the various vegetational,
geologic, and hydrologic character-
; st i cs of the coasta 1 zone. Whereas
it may appear that the can a 1 is the
agent of charge, the spoil bank levee
29

graph poles were placed alongside the
'(I
BELLE CHASSE , LA (1955)
Figure 30. The open water area in
the Belle Chasse, Louisiana, quad-
rangle in 1955 (open water area is
black). The canals present in 1955
are recognizable as the straight
lines. Some natural channels are
also shown. Compare this with the
habitat changes shown in the next
figure (adapted from Turner et a l.
(1984), (unpubl. rep.)
itself is the major hydrologic
obstacle preventing sediment exchange
between water and wetland and is the
barrier influencing water movement
over and through the marsh.
LEVEES
When a canal is dredged, the spoil
material is usually placed on both
sides of the canal to form a con-
tinuous linear levee between canal
and marsh. Once deposited the
dredged materials lose water, organic
content, and, consequently, bulk. Up
to 50% of the volumetric change may
30
occur within 6 months in saline soils
(Nichols 1959) and the lifetime of a
levee may be only 50 years (Monte
1978).
The weight of the levee compacts
the material beneath it. A particu-
larly clear example of this phenom-
enon was documented for a New Jersey
wetland (Figure 34) by Warren (1911).
In this case, a small levee was
placed over a marsh and later tel e-
levee. In 1903 a heavier levee
supporting a railroad was constructed
on top of the first levee. The
poles, which previously leaned out-
ward, were pulled inward as the levee
sank and the 1evee toe pushed out.
In another example, Nichols (1959)
ex ami ned the morpho 1ogy of severa 1
1evees on Rockefe 11 er Refuge in
Louisiana following construction.
In each case the 1evee shrank con-
siderably within six months, and the
levee pushed into the material
beneath (Figure 35). Ni cho 1s docu-
mented that the material beneath the
levee became compressed. Belowground
water not only had a smaller cross-
sectional area to pass through, but
also a more highly compacted and
impenetrable material. These find-
ings indicate that the presence of a
levee effectively isolates the marsh
from nearby water bodies from both
above and below.
When the area of the natural drain-
age features is equalled by the area
of the canals and spoil bank levees,
as is the average condition for the
Louisiana coastal zone, then an
adjustment of the natural drainage
features is expected. Some streams
widen at the tips of formerly smaller
headwaters (Figure 36). In the
Leeville, Louisiana, region, the area
of natural drainage channels de-
creased with an increase in can a1s
(Figure 37). As the canals and
levees cross them, the channels often
....
Figure 31. Land 1oss in the Be 11 e Chasse, Louisiana, quadrangle from 1955 to
1978. Four different sizes of new 11 holes 11 (black) formed in what was marsh in
1955. Sizes shown are a comparison of four size categories of open water
ponds: <20 acres, 20-50 acres, 50-150 acres, and >150 acres. The figures
depict a-pattern of larger ponds forming near canals.

31

( of this century, many impoundments
LAROSE. LA (1955-1978)
Figure 32. Land loss in the Larose,
Louisiana, quadrangle from 1955 to
1978. New 11 holes 11 in the marsh are
shown in black, representing pond
sizes of less than 1 acre to greater
than 150 acres. Canals present in
1978 are recognizable as straight
lines. In 1955, 95% of the area was
land (of which 99% was wetland).
Notice how the only erosion that has
occurred in the interval has taken
place near the canals and spoil bank
levees, not where the levees are
absent.
close off, silt in, or erode into
open ponds. In Puerto Rico, a trans-
portation levee constructed through a
mangrove swamp resulted in the death
of the trees and pond formation
within the hydrologic unit. A com-
parable mangrove ecosystem nearby
remained healthy.
IMPOUNDMENTS
The cumulative impact of construc-
ting many small individual canals and
32
levees is to impound marshes, often
uni ntent ion ally. Although we do not
have much information on uninten-
tionally impounded areas in
Louisiana, there are 1essons to be
1earned from studies of intention a 1
impoundments. During the beginning
were bui 1t on the east coast of the
United States and in Louisiana for
the purpose of rec 1aiming marsh for
agriculture. Smith (1907), Warren
(1911), and Okey (1918a,b) described
these projects, and Turner and Neill
(1984) examined some of their data.
Two significant processes occurred
simultaneously following impoundment:
soil shrinkage and vegetation
changes.
These changes might have been the
result of better drainage during low
water conditions (due to the depth of
the straight canals) or restricted
drainage within the impoundment
leading to increased flooding during
high water. Smith reported, 11 Where
the marshes have been embanked and
improved they have shrunk consider-
ab ly. Instances have been noted
where this shrinkage of settlement
amounts to three feet 11 (Report of the
State Geologist of New Jersey, 1895;
cited in Smith 1907, p. 5). 11 As the
salt water drains out of the turf
layer and fresh water takes its
place, disintegration of the root
mass begins. If the soi 1 is turned
or plowed or otherwise cultivated
this process is increased in
rapidity, and what was a high spongy
turf becomes a thin 1ayer of very
rich vegetable mold. Six inches of
turf will reduce to one inch of soil,
as the water drains out of the lower
layers the soil becomes more compact 11
(Smith 1907, p. 17). 11 Forty years
ago the Elizabeth marshes, containing
about 2, 200 acres, were quite gen-
erally cut over and good crops of hay
were obtai ned. There was consider-
able ditching done, but it was not
.
Figure 33. Land loss in the Golden Meadow Farms, Louisiana, quadrangle from
1955 to 1978. Four different sizes of new 11 holes 11 (black) formed in what was
land in 1955. Sizes shown are ponds <20 acres, 20-50 acres, 50-150 acres, and
larger than 150 acres. -

33
Figure 34. A levee formed over a marsh in New Jersey in July 1903 (left) and
in December 1903 (right). In the left photo the telegraph poles are leaning
outward. Following the addition of weight to the levee, the telegraph poles
lean in as a result of the levee's sinking (shown in the right photo) which
spreads the material beneath outward at the levee toe (Warren 1911).

+8
+ + + +8 + + +

mean
gulf level

1 month Headquarters Canal (south levee) 3 months South Canal Lakes 2 and 3 (south levee)
I
+8 + + + +8 + + +
+4 + +4

0~--
mean gulf
level
0~151~~~1'71'}:
_$,. .J1'/~ meangulflevel

3 months Bertranas Canal Lake 3 (east levee) 12 months Headquarters Canal (south levee) resectioned

Organic matter
(surface layer)
[-:::;:::::::?'~
~
Oxidized humic
gray clay (ridge) cs;J Levee IZJ Gray black clay 12:] shiny gray clay
11 water
L____l (canal)

Figure 35. Levee dimensions, relative to marsh level, for four different
levees on the Rockefeller Refuge. The levee not only became smaller on the
surface with time, but the soil beneath the levee was also compressed (Nichols
1959).
34

..-
 Figure 36. An example of a canal and spoil levee cutting
across a natural channel. Although natural channels normally
become smaller upstream from the bay, this channel is enlarg-
ing at the headwaters, probably as a result of being cut in
two by the canal.

kept up and as the marsh was crossed
and cut up by the rail roads without
regard to the drainage system,
matters became gradually worse; the
meadow rotted, the black and salt
grass was replaced by sedges and
other useless stuff, and less and
less was cut each year until, for a
decade past, little or nothing has
been cut from the area west of the
Central railroad 11 (Smith 1907, p.
13).
In Louisiana, marsh shrinkage
amounted to 3 em annually (Turner and
Neill , 1984), or about 40 times the
present rate of sea-level rise and
35
three times the m1n1mum sediment
accretion rates estimated for 1963 to
1978 in Barataria Bay marshes (Figure
12). Impounding or partially im-
pounding marshes may have a very
significant, direct impact on coastal
erosion rates, but little work has
been done on the subject. The
impounded marshes formed 70 years ago
in southern Louisiana have mostly
remained as open water following
abandonment of agricultural enter-
prises (Turner and Neill , 1984).
Soil chemistry changed and sub-
sidence increased following the tidal
 10.0 SUMMARY
7
.4
Coastal erosion rates are r1s1ng
geometrically and coincidentally with
the rise in canal and canal spoil
irl
z levee areas. The area of these
z human-made features is roughly equal
~ a 2
to the area of natural drainage
features. A decrease in natural
~
a:: 1.0 drainage features is associated with
:::> an increase in canal density. The
ti
z impact of canals and their levees
~ appears to be greater in younger
.3 deltaic substrates near the coast
than in older substrates far from the
coast. The graphical and statistical
interpretation of data collected from
1955 to 1978 supports the conclusion
0.1 I I I '
that canals and their spoil bank
0 10 20 30 40 levees are a strong direct and causal
%CANAL influence on coastal erosion rates.
The impact is apparently an indirect
Figure 37. The relationship between result of the cumulative hydrologic
the proportion of area occupied by influences of the levees, which cut
canals and the proportion of area off water flow both aboveground and
covered by natural channels for an belowground between the marsh and
area near Lee ville, Louisiana. The nearby water bodies. The histor-
data are averages of replicate 1-.km ical evidence is that in impound-
square grids (number of replicates ments, which may form as a result
shown next to each dot) in a saline of interlocking spoil bank levee
marsh (adapted from Craig et al. construction, spoils invariably
1980). shrink and change to open water
habitats.

FURTHER READING

Scaife et al. (1983) and Turner et

restrictions in a California salt
marsh. This was accompanied by
altered plant distributions (Eilmers
1980). Even when impounded marshes
retain their vegetative character-
istics, the commercial fisheries that
depend on them (Turner 1977, 1982) do
not have access to the marsh (because
of the levee), and the fish fauna
becomes depauperate (Harrington and
Harrington 1982).
al. (1982) each contain a synthesis
and analysis of the statistical
relationships between coastal land
losses and canal density for the
period from 1900 to 1978.
Boesch (1982) summarized the pro-
ceedings of a local conference on the
implications, causes, and management
options of land loss. It is a useful
compilation of data, opinion, and
discussion.

36

....
 CHAPTER 5. MOSQUITO DITCHES AS ANALOGUES
Only recently has the magnitude and
impact of coastal erosion been
recognized for the tremendous manage-
ment problem it is and will continue
to be. This fact is one reason why
there are no published long-term,
field-oriented studies in Louisiana
of the management issues surrounding
future impacts and alternatives. We
sadly lack fully-documented examples
of what scientists constantly redis-
cover as the shortest path to under-
standing required for solutions--the
experimental method. In this type of
study, the system is pushed and
probed by various means to discover
how it 11 works 11 ; the replicated field
manipulations are then analyzed. The
process of discovery may seem slow
and expensive, but consider the
impact of the undocumented and
largely-ignored experiments (uninten-
tional, perhaps) of the last hundred
years. The cost may be even greater
for not understanding the couplings
between action and reaction, between
changes to wetland hydrology and
coastal erosion, and between commer-
cial fisheries and wetland plants.
However, studies of analogues of
canal and canal spoil bank levees do
exist. Beginning at the turn of this
century, mosquito ditches were con-
structed to reduce mosquito larvae
habitat. Millions of marsh acres
were ditched to increase drainage.
The resulting tensions arising amidst
agricultural, health, wildlife, and
conservation groups, among others,
led to several studies of interest
here. Mosquito ditches and their
levees, as constructed then, were of
similar geomorphology to most canals
37
and spoil bank levees now being
constructed in southern Louisiana.
The ditches were often 0.6 m (1.9 ft)
wide and deep. They criss-crossed
the marsh, and emptied into a larger
water body. Canals, though often 40
m (131 ft) wide and 5 m (16 ft) deep
and much longer, also had the dredged
material piled high on either side of
the levee. Mosquito ditches and
their levees are analogues of canals;
a review of their impacts is useful
to understand the influence of canals
and canal spoil banks on coastal
erosion in Louisiana. Three studies
are reviewed here.
MISPILLION RIVER (DELAWARE)
Bourn and Cottam (1950) conducted a
classic study of mosquito-ditching
impacts on coastal marshes near the
Mispillion and Herring rivers in
Delaware. Vegetation changes
following ditching operations in the
Mi spill ion River site from 1936 to
1946 were documented. Lesser et a l.
(1976) later reexamined the same area
and attributed the vegetation changes
observed during Bourn and Cottams
study to deepening of a navigation
channel, not mosquito ditches.
Daiber (1982, pp. 45-46) refuted
Lesser et al. s alternative
explanation as unsupported by the
available facts.
Figure 38 is a series of
reconstructed maps of the vegetation
cover from before the growing season
and ditching (1936) and after
ditching for the next several years.
The vegetation was initially 90%
 1e3e 1938
Before Ditching After Ditching

1948

SCALE: 1" 2.4 MILES

M2 2!.- .-!a 1~2

Legend
a~e MILES

l '
r~;:~{);l SpartN alternfflora Bacctaarte hallmtfolia /Iva fruteacena Other p lanta

Partially dud ordead Ruppla maritima ~ Ponda

Spartlna attemlflora
-

Figure 38. Changes in the vegetation of the Mi spill ion rna rs h fo ll owing drain-
age by mosquito ditches (adapted from Bourn and Cottam 1950).

38
Spartina alterniflora, the same
species occurring in the saline
marshes of Louisiana. Following
ditching, dead and dying plants
appeared, particularly at lower marsh
elevations in soft mud. By the end
of the first growing season, shrubs
recolonized these sites. In later
years shrubs invaded the areas
between the ditches, and some ditches
became clogged and supported the
reinvasion of S. alterniflora.
Within 10 years, 11 [The] whole floral
picture of the Mispillion marsh had
changed ... from that of a decade
before, when Spartina alterniflora in
pure stand covered 90 percent of the
area. In 1946 the shrub Bacchari s
hal i mi flora was the dominant plant,
with Spartina alterniflora limited to
low areas near the center of the
marsh. Even there, Iva and Baccharis
had spread along the-ditches, and in
time, with the deposition of silt and
the accumulation~ of organic matter,
these species might be expected to
take over the intervening spaces
between the ditches. The spread of
Baccharis was accelerated in the
later years of the study by the
erosion of the ditches near their
points of discharge into the
river ... Originally 20 inches wide and
20 inches deep, some of these ditches
eroded until they were several feet
in both width and depth near their
mouths 11 (Bourn and Cottam 1950, p.
6). Submerged macrophytes, such as
Ruppi a mariti rna, were replaced
following drainage. Bourn and Cottam
also documented the marked reduction
in invertebrate populations after
ditching.
Two important processes took place.
First, some of the vegetation died
following the manipulation of the
hydrologic regime; other plants then
recolonized the area. The plant
response occurred within 1 year and
persisted for at least 12 years
before the ditches began to fill in,
39
clearly following changes in the
hydrologic patterns. (This same
process can be detected in aerial
photographs of Louisiana marshes.)
Second, S. alterniflora reinvaded
after the- ditches were filled in.
The importance of these observa-
tions becomes especially s i gni fi cant
when one realizes that at least
50% of the vertical accretion in
Louisiana salt marshes, and greater
than 50% in fresh marshes, is
dependent on the belowground accumu-
lation of organic matter produced by
the plants. Therefore, hydrologic
changes affecting plant vigor have
a direct influence on sediment
accumulation. The rate of subsidence
in Mi spill ion marshes is much lower
than the approximately 0.7 to 0.9
cm/yr rate occurring in southern
Lou i s i an a ( Fi gur e 12) . The l os s of
belowground organic- production for
only a few years may result in the
permanent conversion of wetland to
open water because the system may not
be able to adjust to the accretion
deficit accompanying artificial
drainage in a rapidly subsiding
coast.
CLEAVER MARSH (DELAWARE)
Stearns, Daigh, and colleagues
(Daigh et al. 1938; Daigh and Stearns
1939; Stearns et al. 1940) carefully
studied the impacts of mosquito
ditching on a Delaware marsh during
the late 1930 1 s and intermittently
for several years thereafter. The
muskrat population was their main
interest, but much information on
vegetation and water levels was also
collected. Little comparable work
has been done since. The marshes
studied are similar to those found in
Louisiana.
One of the principal impacts of
ditching was the lowering of the
 water table and the ground level drainage was reversed. Wetland
(Figure 39). When the ditches were hydrology, and hence soil accumu-
deliberately filled with sediments lation was clearly influenced by
after two years, both the water level the ditches. Whether the same amount
and the ground level rebounded. of chanae would occur in Louisiana
Stearns et al. also documented an following similar treatment is now
invasion of shrubs into the unknown.
previously fresh marsh, a change in
soil pH, and a negative impact on the
muskrat population. The muskrat, WEQUETEQUOCK-PAWCATUCK
reacting to both the lowering of the TIDAL MARSHES (CONNECTICUT)
water table and the ground surface,
and to the the vegetation changes, Miller and Eglers (1950) study of
virtually abandoned the ditched area a ditched New England salt marsh is
within one year (Figure 40). enlightening for the obvious
However, muskrat returned the year parallels with Louisiana marshes.
after the ditches were filled. The sod line formed from the ditching
operations is analogous to the larger
Two relevant points emerged from canal spoil bank. The description of
the Stearns et al. study. First, ditch enlargement also corresponds to
fresh marsh vegetation was affected the erosion of canals observed in
by artificial drainage features with southern Louisiana, except for the
similar potential impacts that might scale and geographic location. Of
occur in salt marshes. Second, the particular interest is the way that
water table changed, which affected the ditch-levees formed from the
plant and animal distributions and ditch turf line to convert the entire
habitat value and resulted in inter-ditch marsh into a panne
increased subsidence. The water (Figure 41 a,b). 11 Such a panne then
table rose after the art i fi cia l tends to hold the water and to
produce the very kind of pool which
the ditch was originally designed to
drain. These new pannes are
Ditches D1tches rectangular in shape, and alternate
Built Filled
regularly with the ditches and their
0 0 levees 11 (Miller and Egler 1950, p.
1936 1937 1936 1939
-; ... 168). Miller and Egler (1950)
g! -1 -2
-a:l , _ _ __
Ground Level ~ (Figure 41a) also noticed that the
:~::t: .c
.s?:t: -4 !! ditches tended to enlarge and that
~.!:? -2 ...Q) vegetation patterns were altered,
cnc:
Q)a:l
-6 a; particularly near the levees. In a
3: related study, Kuenzl er and Marshall
.g ~ -3
-8
.5 (1973) noticed that circular ponds
-4 -10
formed around the circular spoil
piles.
Figure 39. Changes in the water One consequence of the impoundment
table and ground level fo ll owing was that the turf line trapped salt
construction of mosquito ditches in water washed onto the marsh during
the Cleaver Marsh studied by Stearns high tides. Following evaporation,
et al. (1940). When the ditches were additional pannes developed when the
filled in 1938, the changes in water plants that could not withstand
table and ground level reversed. longer periods of exposure to saltier

40

..-
 Legen

Figure 40. Changes in the di stri but ion of muskrat houses in the Cleaver
Marsh following construction of mosquito ditches (adapted from Stearns et al.
1940). Each circle is an inhabited muskrat house. The dashed lines represent
grids used to measure muskrat house usage. The shaded area contains these
grids near the ditches. The sampling units for muskrat house usage, and the
shaded areas were study areas for ditching. The larger and darker the circle,
the longer the house was occupied. Ditching commenced in April 1936, and the
earliest census recorded houses present at that time.

41

A. Pannes developing by the levee
alongside a mosquito ditch in the
Wequetequock-Pawcatuck tidal marshes
of Connecticut (from Miller and Egler
1950).
B. Pond formation at the tip of a
cana 1 spoil bank levee in south
Barataria Bay, Louisiana.
Figure 41. Examples of levee-
parallel pond formation in two hydro-
logically altered environments.
42
conditions died. Ditches had been
dug long before to bring salt water
farther up into the marsh, turning
high marshes on the east coast into
coastal hay fields. Eliot described
this process as follows: "Last fall
I began upon it and drew (dug) a
Ditch of four Foot wide from a large
Salt Creek, and carried it up in
the middle of the Cove sevent~ ~ds,
in order to turn it into Salt Meadow,
that being the best that I could do
with it: It so far answers the
design, that the Tide flows regularly
into it, to the upper end of it;
the Tide now flowing, where I suppose
it never reach d before" ( J. Eliot
1748, as quoted by Nixon 1982,
p. 50).
In addition to results paralleling
the other studies, one important and
relevant point emerges from Miller
and Egler's study: that panne
formation, which is similar to what
occurs alongside Louisiana canal
spoil bank levees, may sometimes be
caused by entrapment of storm waters
behind the levee (Figure 4lb).
Plants that can adapt to short
periods of higher-than-normal
saltwater content die during the long
exposure to salty water. Saltwater
entrapment may be just as signifi-
cant as saltwater intrusion into
mostly freshwater marshes in
determining vegetation community
characteristics.
OTHER STUDIES
Change in the balance of erosional
and accretional forces is probably
indicated when the vegetation or
animal community changes in a marsh.
Other studies on mosquito ditching
are summarized in Daiber's book on
animal communities in salt marshes
(Daiber 1982). Changes in vegetation
have been documented in Christopher
and Bowden (1957), Lasalle and Knight
(1973), Shisier and Jobbins (1977b),
and Balling and Resh (1983); a change
in the waterfowl populations in
Bradbury (1938), MacNamara (1949),
and Catts et al. (1963); and possible
influence on organic carbon flux from
the estuarine tidal creeds in Resh
and Balling (1979).
SUMMARY
Although substantial long-term
field studies about the impacts of
hydrologic changes on coastal erosion
are generally lacking, studies of
mosquito ditching on the east coast
of the United States are useful as
analogue systems. Mosquito ditches,
though much smaller than canals, are
of similar geomorphology and usually
also have a continuous spoil bank
levee alongside. Following ditching,
characteristically (1) the ditches
enlarged in the absence
substantial local subsidence; (2) the
vegetation and animal communities
changed; (3) the water table dropped
with a corresponding depression in
marsh elevation (induced subsidence);
(4) some areas were flooded more
often than previously; and (5) the
impacts may be reversible if the
artificial hydrologic changes are
removed quickly enough.
FURTHER READING
All three studies mentioned above
are valuable for their completeness,
for hi stori cal interest, and for
their general application to coastal
erosion problems in Louisiana.
Daiber 1 s (1982) book contains
several excellent discussions of
mosquito ditching, within the
framework of a larger treatise on
of animals in salt marshes.
43
 CHAPTER 6. OPTIONS FOR MANAGEMENT

The growth of canals in coastal increased subsidence following

Louisiana in the 1ast 80 years has impoundment.
been accompanied by an increase in
land loss rates. Where canal and
spoil levee density is high, land
losses are high; land loss is gen- MANAGEMENT EXPERIENCE
erally 1ow where can a 1 dredging is
low. Local erosion is often isolated Examples from other areas indicate
around the 1evees, or within areas steps to mitigate the present
partially or wholly impounded by the negative impacts of canals and their
spoi 1 1evees. Regi ona 1 variation in levees. For example, when levees
the direct re 1at i onshi p between 1and forming an impoundment in Florida
1os s and can a 1 and spo i 1 1evee den- were broken, the vegetation returned
sity can be largely attributed to (Figure 42). When the 1evees were
differences in substrate age, compac- initially constructed, the resulting
tion potentia 1 , and erosive forces. b1ockage of natura 1 hydro 1ogi c flows
There is little doubt that canals and resulted in dead-and-dying
their spoi 1 1evees greatly influence vegetation. When the hydrologic
land-loss rates. flows were restored, the vegetation
recovered. Marsh vegetation a 1so
reappeared when dikes were breached
This conclusion is supported by in two 200-acre marsh 1ands near San
evidence from many studies. Experi- Francisco (Farber 1982; Josselyn and
ence with impoundments and ditches on Perez 1982). Experiments with
the east coast provides illustrations mosquito ditching in Delaware
of the empirical, if not causal, (Chapter 5) had the same results.
relationships between wetland hydro- Subsidence, as well as vegetation and
logic changes and coastal erosion. groundwater level, was reversed when
The parallels to canal and spoil bank the ditches were refi 11 ed from the
levee impacts on coastal erosion in existing turf 1 i ne created from the
Louisiana include (1) canal widening, ditching. If past experience is any
(2) vegetation changes following guide some, but not all, of the
hydrologic modifications, (3) levee subsidence may be reversed in
compaction and panne formation along- Louisiana. 11
Undrained Louisiana
side ditches or canals, (4) saltwater muck shrinks about 60% in volume when
entrapment and increased saltwater completely dry, and ... it will retain
residence time over the marsh, (5) only 70% of its original volume when
impoundment fo 11 owed by changes from saturated for a long time 11 (Okey
1and to open water, ( 6) water flow 1918a, p. 399).
b1ockage overland between marsh and
water, (7) b1ockage of the natura 1 Another so 1 uti on is to fo 11 ow the
drainage features, (8) loss of example of those who constructed the
dentritic channel network, (9) first levees built to move cattle out
groundwater 1eve 1 changes, and (10) into the marsh or who dug the first
44

___,J.
 Before After

Figure 42. Two examples of the response of vegetation in a

Florida impoundment when the levee was broken and the natural
hydrology was restored. Photographs of before and after
impoundment are shown for two sites (adapted from Gilmore et
al. 1981).

linear transportation networks: 11 The interference with natural hydrologic

first walkways were built from spoil processes is the main pathway for
removed from an excavation interruptions in sediment
paralleling the length of the accumulation. This conclusion about
project. This method of construction water management in general is not
proved to be detrimental to the uncommon among wetland ecologists;
11
marsh. To reduce the possible for example: Several lines of
environmental impact, staggered evidence suggest that water levels
ditches were built (Interview with represent the single most important
Eugene Broussard, Oct. 12, 1971; in variable in defining the extent,
11
Da vi s 19 7 3 , p . 148) . [ Tr a i nasses ] species composition, and stability of
were often dammed, so a trapper could coastal wetlands along Lake Ontario
control the water on his land and and the St. Lawrence River ... it must
prevent erosional enlargement of his be noted that our current under-
ditches 11 (Davis 1973, p. 78). standing of wetland-water relation-
ships is not consistent with wide-
spread and finely tuned application
The strong implication of all of of this important management too 111
these study results is that (Geis 1979, p. 539).

45
 The marsh surface must accrete Some management practices deli ber-
vertically to accumulate enough ately change the marsh to open water.
organic and inorganic matter to For example, waterfowl reserves
compensate for sea-level rise and typically aim for a 50/50 mixture of
subsidence. Alteration of the open water and marsh since that seems
natural hydrology affects wetland to be an ide a l balance for creating
plant vigor, and in fresh marshes, waterfowl habitat (Figure 43).
which accrete largely via belowground Water-level manipulations are an
and surface organic matter deposi- increasingly important waterfowl
tion, this can have disastrous management tool.
results. Healthy marsh-plant com-
munities do not normally erode
quickly. Erosion occurs most fre- MANAGEMENT ALTERNATIVES
quently where the plants are dying,
pond formation has occurred, and Coastal land erosion is not solely
sediment accumulation is reduced. the result of increased canal and
Additionally, because of their spoil bank engineering. It is,
height, canal levees block the however, strongly influenced by
transport of mi nera 1 sediments into canals, canal spoil levees, and other
the marsh during anything but the natural factors (subsidence, river
highest tides. Impounded marshes, levees, and rising sea level) that
in particular, receive very low are now largely unmanageable. Canals
amounts of sediment nourishment. can be managed. Minimizing canal

.WATER

~CATTAIL

E:;:;:;t H A R D s T EM
- ~

-
WATER DEPTH SHALLOW I MEDIUM I DEEP

VEGETATION DENSE MODERATE SPARSE

BIRD NUMEROUS MANY FEW

PO PULA TJONS INDIV INDIV. INDIV.

BIRD SPECIES I FEW

KINDS I
MANY
KINDS I
FEW
KINDS
RICHNESS

MUSKRATS I FEW I MANY I FEW

Figure 43. An example of the effect of the open

water to land ratio on a freshwater marsh ecosystem
(from Weller 1982). At intermediate land-to-water
ratios, the bird and animal populations that occur
in the marsh are highest.
46
------------ --~~~-
construction, using existing canals
to the maximum extent possible,
directional drilling to several
targets from one we 11- head location
(as is now being done in offshore
waters and in the Alaskan tundra),
changing canal spoil levee design
(including levee manipulations), and
backfilling or plugging canals can
improve the situation. Spraying the
spoil from some dredging operations
over the marsh rather than placing it
in a uniform spoil bank should be
considered. Of these management
options, two deserve further
discussion.
Backfilling requires that the levee
be pulled back into the canal after
the canal is no longer needed.
Directors of gas pipeline con-
struction frequently employ this
management approach with outstanding
success. Because the spoil material
is left exposed for only a few months
or less, vegetative recovery is often
excellent (Adkins and Bowman 1976).
Many buried gas pipelines are
unnoticeable except for right-of-way
signs nearby. There are fewer than
30 backfilled canals in the Louisiana
coastal zone. Examples of revege-
tation of backfilled canal are known.
The more important result, however,
may be that the spoil levee is no
longer present, not that the canal
is partially filled in. Breaking up
the levee means that much of the
overland flow patterns can continue
as before the canal (and levee) was
constructed. The canal may not be
completely filled in, but the maximum
water depth may be reduced enough to
eliminate the occasional low oxygen
levels that can develop in average
canals (Adkins and Bowman 1976).
Levee manipulation is a potentially
valuable management tool for some of
the existing levees and most of the
new canal spoil levees. Some old
impoundments are probably so far
47
below sea level that a vegetative and
geologic improvement in the net
sediment accumulation deficit is not
likely, but some of the newer levees
may be constructed in a discontinuous
manner so that much of the natural
hydrologic pattern is maintained. Of
course, too few breaks in a cont in-
uous levee may result in erosion at
the breaks if tidal water movements
are restricted to a narrow passage in
and out of the impounded marsh.
Finally, canals and dredging
operations may not even be needed.
An alternative to using canals
for navigation channels is the
Hovercraft, a self-propelled
air-cushioned vehicle that can
traverse uneven terrain at
considerable speed, and that impacts
the ground (or marsh) with only
about one-tenth the force of a
footprint. Hovercraft capable of
lifting drilling rigs are economical
(and financially depreciable),
currently in operation, and would
probably not require a permit to
operate s i nee no dredging would
take place (Sikora et al. 1983).
Marsh buggies, which damage the marsh
(Whitehurst and Blanchard 1977),
would not be needed (smaller
Hovercraft are also available), and
the value of the public's perception
of the company as environmentally
aware in its use of a constructive
alternative to dredging should be
important to a socially conscious
company. Although in use as
passenger ferries in Europe and for
oil and gas exploration in Alaska,
Hovercraft are not yet in operation
in southern Louisiana.
Whatever options are available,
there is i nsuffi ci ent data to make
conclusive decisions regarding these
options. Clearly something must be
done; data needs require a multi-
disciplinary study which includes
plants, sediments, wildlife, and
 aquatic organisms. Experience with
a variety of management systems has
repeatedly demonstrated the value of
observing the results of direct
mani pul at ion of ecosystems, of
replicating controlled conditions,
and of investigating competently and
inquisitively over long periods. The
tendency is to arrange for a qui ck
solution to a pressing problem.
This is short-sighted and,
ultimately, economically inefficient.
Conditions are always changing. Our
understanding must be constantly
improved and reevaluated in light of
new circumstances. From a management
perspective, there are typically two
approaches to solution development.
The first, described as an
11
engi neeri ng approach, assumes that
the necessary 11 equations 11 needed for
a solution already exist, that the
system is understood (as though all
that is needed are equations, steel,
and a river to cross), and that
conditions will not change. This
approach works well for building a
slightly different version of the
same bridge, dam, or road. It does
not work well with biological systems
because of nonlinear relationships
between an enormous number of parts,
natural disorder in climatic events,
random or eye l i c perturbations from
outside the system, and i nsuffi ci ent
understanding or data resources. The
enormously successful and influential
Hubbard Brook forest ecosystems study
is an example of the ide a l approach
to solving large natural resource
management problems. It is best
described by the chief program
managers, Gene Likens and Herbert
Bormann: Generally, the method we
used to guide the growth of the
Hubbard Brook research proposals was
as follows: First, based on our own
perceptions or feedback from ongoing
studies, from cooperating scientists,
or from outside advisors, we
recognized research problems that
were timely and particularly
48
pertinent to our overall research
goals. Some of the studies were
launched under our direction, others
were brought to the attention of an
established investigator working in
that research area. We then sought
a mutually satisfactory arrangement
to allow the investigator to work at
Hubbard Brook. From the beginning we
have called attention to the kinds of
information a cooperative study might
produce, but always we have encour-
aged individuality in the design and
execution of the research. We deem
this individual research freedom one
of the greatest assets of the Hubbard
Brook Study. Individuality in
selection of problems and conduct of
research is also encouraged among
graduate students at Hubbard Brook.
Not only does this contribute to the
intellectual ferment and sound growth
of the Hubbard Brook Study, but as
educators, we feel this approach
absolutely necessary if the Hubbard
Brook Study is to contribute to
graduate educat i on (G. E. Likens and
F.H. Bormann, p. viii; in Likens et
al. 1977; authors emphasis).
Not all problems require such
organized or well-funded study as
Hubbard Brooks. But how many
problems could be so important to
Louisiana as the disappearance of
wetlands? Management alternatives
for canals and levees must be
developed soon. Funding, good
management and administration, and
innovative research will be required.
At the present rates, 50% of the
southern Louisiana wetlands and 25%
of the U.S. coastal wetlands will be
gone in 100 years or less. The
proper management of the research
approach is at least as important as
the recognition of the necessity for
a solution. We must begin now, and
begin well. It makes little sense to
attempt to place bl arne on this or
that industry, or on this or that
agency. A concerted, interactive,
_____,..
group effort is needed to solve the their discussions, and we might ask
problem, or, at least, to minimize 11
could it happen again? 11
the impact of the legacy we have been
given and will pass on. Okey (1918a,b) surveyed the various
impoundments in southern Louisiana
and Florida at the beginning of
this century. It is a remarkable
FURTHER READING survey because of the difficulties
he must have encountered and because
Harrison and Kollmorgen (1947) have it is a rare source of data on
written a wonderfully concise the actual projects in effect
hi stori cal review of the record of at the time. Turner and Neill
land reclamation efforts in southern (1984) analyzed the data. Most of
Louisiana over the past 100 years. the projects were the result of
Many of the property exchanges were forced drainage (pumping). All
based more on hope for good lands subsided, mostly as a result
management results than could be of the shrinkage following
possibly realized. In hindsight the oxidation and lowering of the water
folly of it all seeps through in table.

49
 REFERENCES CITED AND FURTHER READING

Adams, R.D., R.B. Barrett, J.H. Baumann, R. H. 1980. Mechanisms of

Blackmon, B.W. Gane, and W.G. maintaining marsh elevation in a
Mcintire. 1976. Barataria Basin: subsiding environment. M.S.
geologic process and framework. Thesis. Department of Geography.
Center for Wetland Resources, Louisiana State University. , Baton
Louisiana State Univ., Baton Rouge. Rouge. 90 pp.
Sea Grant Publ., LSU-T-76-006. 117
pp. Boesch, D. F. , ed. 1982. Proc. of
the conference on coastal erosion
Adams, R.D., P.J. Banas, R.H. and wetland modification in
Baumann, J.H. Blackmon, and W.G. Louisiana: causes, consequences,
Mcintire. 1978. Shoreline erosion and options. U.S. Fish Wildl.
in coastal Louisiana: inventory Serv. Bi ol. Serv. Program
and assessment. Final Rep. La. FWS/OBS-82/59. 259 pp.
Dep. Transp. and Dev. 139 pp.
Boesch, D.F., D. Levin, D. Nummedal,
Adkins, G., and P. Bowman. 1976. A and K. Bowles. 1983. Subsidence
study of the fauna of dredged in coastal Louisiana: causes,
canals of coastal Louisiana. La. rates and effects on wetlands.
Wi l dl. Fish. Comm. Tech. Bull. 18. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv.
72 pp. Program FWS/OBS-83/26.
Allen, K.O., and J.W. Hardy. 1980. Bourn, W.S., and C. Cottam. 1950.
Influence of navigational dredging Some biological effects of ditching
on fish and wildlife: a literature tidewater marshes. U.S. Fish
review. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. \-!ildl. Serv. Res. Rep. 19. 30 pp.
Bi ol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-80/07.
81 pp. Bradbury, H.M. 1938. Mosquito
control operation on tide marshes
in Massachusetts and their effect
Balling, S.S., and V.H. Resh. 1983. on shore birds and waterfowl. J.
The influence of mosquito contra l Wildl. Manage. 2:49-52.
recirculation ditches on plant
biomass, production and composition
in two San Francisco Bay salt Castle, R.O., R.F. Yerkes, and F.S.
marshes. Estuarine Coastal Shelf Riley. 1969. A linear
Sci. 16:151-161. relationship between liquid
production and oil-field
Barrett, B. 1970. Water subsidence. Assoc. Int. Hydrol.
measurements of coastal Louisiana. Sci. Actes Colloq. Tokyo.
La. Wildl. and Fish. Comm., U.S. 1969:162-173.
Dep. of the Interior, Fish and
Wildl. Serv., Bur. Cammer. Fish. Catts, E. P. , F.H. Lesser, R.F.
Proj. 2-22 T, P.L. 88-309. Darsie, Jr., 0. Florschutz, and

51
 E.E. Tindall. 1963. Wildlife marshes. Proc. N.J. Mosq. Exterm.
usage and mosquito production on Assoc. 25:209-216.
impounded tidal marshes in
Delaware, 1956-1962. Trans. N. Am. Darby, H. C. 1956. The drainage of
Wildl. Nat. Resour. Conf. the fens. Cambridge University
28:125-132. Press, Cambridge. 314 pp.

Chabreck, R. 1972. Vegetation, Davis, D.W. 1973. Louisiana canals

water and soil chc.rac~c. ; st i cs of and their influence on wetland
the Louisiana coastal region. La. development. Ph.D Dissertation.
Agric. Exp. Stn., AEA Inf. Ser. 25. Louisiana State University Baton
Baton Rouge. 72 pp. Rouge. 199 pp.

Christopher, G. S. , and N. W. Bowden. Delaune, R. D., W. H. Patrick, Jr., and

1957. Mosquito control in R.J. Buresh. 1978. 13 jedimentation
reservoirs by water level rates determined by Cs dating in
management. Mosq. News 17:273-277. a rapidly accreting salt marsh.
Nature 275:532-533.
Coleman, J.M. 1976. Deltas: Delaune, R.D., C.N. Reddy, and W.H.
processes of deposition and models Patrick, Jr. 1981. Organic matter
for exploration. Continuing decomposition in soil as influenced
Education Publishing Company, by pH and redox conditions. Soil
Champaign, Ill. 102 pp. Biochem. 13:533-534.
Cowardin, L.M., F. C. Golet, and E.T. Delaune, R.D., R.H. Bauman, and J.G.
LaRoe. 1979. Classification of Gosselink. 1983. Relationships
wetland and deep-water habitats of among vertical accretion, coastal
the United States. U.S. Fish submergence, and erosion in a
Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program Louisiana gulf coastal marsh. J.
FWS/OBS-79/31. 103 pp. Sedment. Petrol. 53:147-157.
Craig, N.J., R.E. Turner, and J.W. Eilmers, H.P. 1980. Ecology of a
Day, Jr. 1980. Wetland losses and coastal salt marsh after long-term
their consequences in coastal absence of tidal fluctuation.
Louisiana. Z. Geomorphol. Suppl. Bull. S. Calif. Acad. Sci.
Bd. 34:225-241. 314 pp. 79:55-64.

Daiber, F.C. 1982. Animals of the 17 48. Essays upon field

El i ot , J .
tidal marsh. Van Nostrand Reinhold husbandry in New England.
Company, New York. 422 pp. Reprinted by the Columbia
University Press, H.J. Carman
Daigh, F. C., and L.A. Stearns. 1939. and R.G. Tugwell, eds. 1924.
Effect of ditching for mosquito 261 pp.
control on the pH of marsh soils. Farber, P. 1982. Muzzi marsh
Proc. N.J. Mosq. Exterm. Assoc. restoration, a mitigation project.
26:39-43. Page 100 in M. Josselyn. Wetland
restoration! and enhancement in
Daigh, F. C., D. MacCreary, and L.A. California. Calif. Sea Grant
Stearns. 1938. Factors affecting Prog., University of California, La
the vegetative cover of Del aware Jolla. Rep. T-CSGCP-007. 110 pp.

52
Fisk, H.N. 1960. Recent Mississippi Geis, J.W. 1979. Shoreline
River sedimentation and peat processes affecting the
accumulation. 4th Int. Congress. distribution of wetland habitat.
Carboniferous stratigraphy and Trans. N. Am. Wi 1dl. Nat. Res our.
geology. Heerlen, Holland, 1958. Conf. 44:529-542.
Compte. Render. p. 187-199.
Gerdes, R.G. 1982. Stratigraphy and
Frazier, D.E. 1967. Recent deltaic hi story of deve 1opment of the
deposits of the Mississippi River, Cami nada-Moreau beach ridge p1a in,
their development and chronology. southeast Louisiana. M.S. Thesis.
Trans. Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Soc. Department of Geology, Louisiana
17:287-315. State University, Baton Rouge. 185
pp.
Gagliano, S.M. 1973. Canals,
dredging, and 1and rec 1amat ion in Gilmore, R.G., D.W. Cooke, and C.J.
the Louisiana coastal zone. Donohoe. 1981. A comparison of
Hydrologic and geologic studies, the fish populations and habitat in
Rep. 14. Cent. for Wetl. Resour., open and closed salt marsh
Louisiana State University, Baton impoundments in east-central
Rouge. 104 pp. Florida. Northeast Gulf Sci.
5:25-37.
Gagliano, S.M., and J.L. Van Beek. Goodman, P.J. 1960. Investigations
1970. Geologic and geomorphic into 11
die-back 11 in Spartina
aspects of deltaic processes, townsendii Agg. II. The
Mississippi Delta system. Vol. 1. morphological structure and
Hydro 1ogi c and geo 1ogi c studies composition of the Lymington Sward.
of coastal Louisiana. Coastal J. Ecol. 48:711-724.
Studies Institute, Louisiana
State University, Baton Rouge. Goodman, P.J., and W.T. Williams.
140 pp. 1961. Investigations into
Gagliano, S.M., H.J. Kwon, and K. L.
11
die-back 11 in Spartina townsendii
Van Beek. 1970a. Deterioration Agg. III. Physiological correlates
and restoration of the coastal of 11
die-back. 11 J. Ecol.
wetlands. Proc. 12th Coastal 49:391-398.
Engr. Conf. 3:1767-1781. Goodman, P.J .. , E.M. Braybooks, and
J.M. Lambert. 1959.
Gagliano, S.M., H.J. Kwon, and K. L. Investigations into 11 die-back 11 in
Van Beek. 1970b. Salinity regimes Spartina townsendii Agg. I. The
in Louisiana estuaries. Hydrologic present status of Spartina
and geologic studies of coastal townsendii in Britain. J. Ecol.
Louisiana, Rep. 2. Coastal 47:651-677.
Resource Unit, Cent. for Wet 1 .
Resour., Louisiana State Gornitz, V., S. Lebedeff, and J.
University, Baton Rouge. Hansen. 1982. Gl oba 1 sea-l eve 1
trend in the past century. Science
Gagliano, S.M., K.J. Meyer-Arendt, 215:1611-1614.
and K. M. Wicker. 1981. Land 1oss
in the Mississippi River deltaic Gosse 1ink. J.G., and R.H. Baumann.
plain. Trans. Gulf Coast Assoc. 1980. Wetland inventories:
Geol. Soc. 31:295-300. wetland 1oss a 1ong the United

53
 States coast. Z. Geomorphol. N.F. Hicks, S.D., and J. E. Crosby. 1974.
34:173-187. Trends and variability of yearly
mean sea-level, 1983-1972. Nat.
Gosselink, J.G., and R.E. Turner. Oceanic and Atmos. Adm. Tech. Memo.
1978. The role of hydrology in the NOS 13.
ecology of freshwater wetland
ecosystems. Pages 63-78 in R.E. Jakobosen, P., W.H. Pattrick, Jr.,
Good, D. Wihigham, and R. Simpson, and B.G. Williams. 1981. Sulfide
eds. Freshwater marshes: present and methane formation in soils
status-future needs. Academic and sediments. Soil Sci. 132:279-
Press, New York. 378 pp. 287.
Gosselink, J.G., C.L. Cordes, and Johnson, W.B., and J.G. Gosselink.
J.W. Parsons. 1979. An ecological 1982. Wetland loss directly
characterization of the Chenier associated with canal dredging the
Plain coastal ecosystem in Lousiana Lousiana coastal zone. Pages 60-72
and Texas, Vol. 1. U.S. Fish in D.F. Boesch, ed. Proceedings of
Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program the conference on coastal erosion
FWS/OBS-78/9. 302 pp. and wetland modification in
Louisiana: causes, consequences,
Goudie, A. 1982. The human impact. and options. U.S. Fish Wildl.
MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. 316 Serv. Bi o l. Serv. Program
pp. FWS/OBS-82/59. 259 pp.
Harrington, R.W., Jr., and E.S. Josselyn, M., ed. 1982. Wetland
Harrington. 1982. Effects on restoration and enhancement in
fishes and their forage organisms California. Calif. Sea Grant
of impounding a Florida salt marsh Prog., University of California,
to prevent breeding by salt marsh La Jolla. Rep. T-CSGCP-007.
mosquitos. Bull. Mar. Sci. 110 pp.
32:523-531.
Josselyn, M., and R. Perez. 1982.
Harrison, R.W., and W.M. Kollmorgen. Salt marsh restoration from salt
1947. Past and prospective evaporation ponds: vegetation
drainage reclamations in coastal establishment and sediment
marshlands of the Mississippi River properties. Page 100 in M.
Delta. J. Land Public Utility Josselyn, ed. Wetland restoration
Econ. 23:297-320. and enhancement in California.
Cal if. Sea Grant Prog. University
of California, La Jolla. Rep.
Hatton, R. 1981. Aspects of marsh T-CSGCP-007. 110 pp.
accretion and geochemistry:
Barataria Bay, Louisiana. M.S. King, G.M., M.J. Klug, R.G. Wiegert,
Thesis. Louisiana State and A.G. Chalmers. 1982. Relation
University, Department Marine of soil water movement and sulfide
Sciences, Baton Rouge. 117 pp. concentration to Spartina
alterniflora production in a
Georgi a salt marsh. Science
Hicks, S.D. 1978. An average 218:61-63.
geopotential sea-level series for
the United States. J. Geophys. Kuenzler, E.J., and H. L. Marshall.
Res. 83:1377-1379. 1973. Effects of mosquito control
54
 ditching on estuarine ecosystems. alterniflora in North Carolina.
Water Resour. Res. Inst. Univ. N.C. Estuaries 2:106-112.
Rep. 81. 83 pp.
Mendelssohn, I.A., and K.L. McKee.
Lasalle, R.N., and K.L. Knight. 1981. Determination of adenine
1973. The effects of ditching on nucleotide levels and adenyl ate
the mosquito populations in some energy charge ratios in two
sections of Juncus salt marsh in Spartina species. Aquat. Bot.
Carteret County, North Carolina. 11:37-55.
Water Resour. Res. Inst. Univ. N.C.
Rep. 82. 162 pp. Mendelssohn, I. A., K. L, McKee, and
W.H. Patrick, Jr. 1981. Oxygen
Lesser, C.R., F.J. Murphey, and R.W. deficiency in Spartina alterniflora
Lake. 1976. Some effects of grid roots: metabo 1i c adaptation to
system mosquito control ditching anoxia. Science 214:439-441.
on salt marsh biota in Del aware.
Mosq. News 36:69-77. Miller, W. R., and F. E. Egler. 1950.
Vegetation of the Wequetequock-
Likens, G. E., F. H. Bormann, R.S. Pawcatuck t ida 1-marshes, Connect i-
Pierce, J.S. Eaton, and N.M. cut. Ecol. Monogr. 20:143-172.
Johnson. 1977. Bio-geo-chemistry
of a forested ecosystem. Mock, C.R. 1967. Natural and
Springer-Verlag, New York. altered estuarine habitats of
146 pp. penaeid shrimp. Proc. Gulf Caribb.
Fish. Inst. 19:86-98.
Lindall, W.N., Jr., and C. H. Saloman.
1977. Alteration and destruction Monte, J.A. 1978. The impact of
of estuaries affecting fishery petroleum dredging on Louisianas
resources of the Gulf of Mexico. coastal landscape: a plant bio-
Mar. Fish. Rev. 39:1-7. geographical analysis and resource
assessment of spoil. Ph.D.
Li nda l l , W. N. , and G. W. Thayer. Dissertation. Louisiana State
1982. Quanti fi cation of National University, Baton Rouge. 334 pp.
Marine Fisheries Service habitat
conservation efforts in the Moore, D., and L. Trent. 1971.
southeast region of the United Setting, growth and mortality of
States. Mar. Fish. Rev. 44:18-22. Crassostrea virginica in a natural
marsh and a marsh altered by a
Linthurst, R.L. 1979. The effects of housing development. Proc. Natl.
aeration on the growth of Spartina Shellfish. Assoc. 61:51-58.
a l terni flora Loisel. Am. J. Bot.
66:685-691. Morgan, J.P. 1963. Louisianas
changing shoreline. Coastal
MacNamara, L.G. 1949. Salt-marsh Studies Institute, Louisiana State
development at Tuckahoe, New University, Baton Rouge. Tech.
Jersey. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Rep. 16, Part D. 13 pp.
Resour. Conf. 14:100-117.
Morgan, J.P. 1967. Ephemeral
Mendelssohn, I.A. 1979. The estuaries of the deltaic
influence of nitrogen level, form, environment. Pages 115-120 in
and application method on the Estuaries. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci~
growth response of Spartina Washington, D.C.
55
Morgan, J.P. 1970. Deltas--a Penland, S., R. Boyd, D. Nummedal,
resume. J. Geol. Educ. 18:107-117. and H. Roberts. 1981. Deltaic
barrier development on the
Morgan, J.P. 1977. The Mississippi Louisiana coast. Trans. Gulf Coast
River delta l ega 1-geomorpho l ogi cal Assoc. Geol. Soc. 31:471-476.
evaluation of hi stori cal shoreline
changes. Geosciences and man, Vol. Price, W.A. 1947. Equilibrium of
XVI. Louisiana State University, form and forces in tidal basins of
School of Geosciences, Baton Rouge. the coast of Texas and Louisiana.
Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol.
31:1619-1663.
Morton, T. 1973. The ecological
effects of water-control structures
on an estuarine area, White Lake, Reimold, R.J., and W.H. Queen. 1974.
Louisiana 1972-1973. M.S. Thesis. Ecology of halophytes. Academic
University of Southwestern Press, New York. 605 pp.
Louisiana, Lafayette. 43 pp.
Resh, V.H., and S.S. Balling. 1979.
Ecological impact of mosquito
Nichols, L.G. 1959. Rockefeller control recirculation ditches on
Refuge Levee Study. La. Wildl. San Francisco Bay marshlands:
Fish. Comm. Refuge Div. Tech. Rep. preliminary considerations and
17 pp. experimental design. Proc. Calif.
Mosq. Vector Control Assoc.
Ni xon , S. W. 1982 . The ecol ogy of a 47:72-78.
New England high salt marsh: a
community profile. U.S. Fish St. Amant, L.S. 1972. The petroleum
Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program industry as it affects marine
FWS/OBS-81/55. estuarine ecology. J. Petrol.
Tech., April:288-289.
Okey, C.W. 1918a. The subsidence of
muck and peat soils in southern Sasser, C.S. 1977. Distribution of
Louisiana and Florida. Am. Soc. vegetation in Louisiana coastal
Civil Eng. 82:396-422. marshes as response to tidal
flooding. M.S. Thesis. Louisiana
State University, Baton Rouge. 40
Okey, C. W. 1918b. The wet lands of pp.
southern Louisiana and their
drainage. USDA Bull. 652. Prof. Scaife, W., R.E. Turner, and R.
Pap. 67 pp. Costanza. 1983. Coastal Louisiana
recent land loss and canal impacts.
Penfound, W. T., and J.D. Schneidau. Environ. Manage. 7:433-442.
1945. The relation of land
reclamation to aquatic wildlife Shisler, J.K., and D.M. Jobbins.
resources in southeastern 1977a. Tidal variations in the
Louisiana. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. movement of organic carbon in New
Resour. Conf. 10:308-318. Jersey salt marshes. Mar. Biol.
(N.Y.) 40:127-134.
Penland, S., and R. Boyd. 1981.
Shoreline changes in the Louisiana Shisler, J.K., and D.M. Jobbins.
barrier coast. Oceans. Sept. 1977b. Salt marsh productivity as
1981:209-219. affected by the selective ditching
56
 technique, open marsh water Turner, R.E. 1977. Intertidal
management. Mosq. News 37:631-636. vegetation and the commercial
yields of penaeid shrimp. Trans.
Sikora, W., J.P. Sikora, and R.E. Am. Fish. Soc. 106:411-416.
Turner. 1983. Marsh buggies,
erosion and the air-cushioned Turner, R.E. 1982. Wetland losses
alternative. Pages 323-336 in R.J. and coastal fisheries: an
Varnell, ed. Proceedings -water enigmatic and economically
quality and wetland management significant dependency. Pages
symposium. New Orleans, La. 112-120 1n D.F. Boesch, ed.
Proceedings of the conference on
Smith, C.J., and R.D. Delaune. 1983. coastal erosion and wetland
Gaseous nitrogen losses from Gulf modification in Louisiana:
Coast marshes. Northeast Gulf Sci. causes, consequences, and options.
6:1-8. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol.
Serv. Program FWS/OBS-82/59.
Smith, J. B. 1907. The New Jersey 259 pp.
salt marsh and its improvement.
N.J. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. Turner, R.E., and J.G. Gosselink.
207:1-24. 1975. A note on standing crops of
Spartina alterniflora in Texas and
Snowden, J.O., W.B. Simmons, E. B. Florida. Contrib. Mar. Sci.
Traugher, and R.W. Stephens. 19:113-118.
1977. Differential subsidence of
marshland peat as a geologic hazard Turner, R. E., and C. Nei 11. 1984.
in the greater New Orleans area, Revisiting the marsh after 70 years
Louisiana. Trans. Gulf Coast of impoundment. Pages 309-322
Assoc. Geol. Soc. 27:169-179. in R.J. Varnell, ed. Water
qua 1 i ty and wetland management
Stearns, L.A., D. MacCreary, and F. C. conference symposium proceedings.
Daigh. 1940. Effect of ditching New Orleans, La., August 4-5
for mosquito control on the muskrat 1983.
population of a Delaware tidewater
marsh. University of Delaware Turner, R.E., R. Costanza, and W.
Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 255:1-55. Scaife. 1982. Canals and wetland
erosion rates in coastal Louisiana.
Stephens, J.C., and E. H. Steward. Pages 73-84 in D.F. Boesch.
1976. Effect of climate on organic Proceedings of lfhe conference on
soil subsidence. Pages 647-655 in coastal erosion and wetland
Proceedings second international modi fi cation in Louisiana: causes,
symposium on land subsidence, consequences, and options. U.S.
Anaheim, Calif. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv.
Program FWS/OBS-82/59. 259 pp.
Traugher, E. B., J.O. Snowden, and
W.B. Simmons. 1979. Differential Turner, R.E., S. Leibowitz, and C.
subsidence on reclaimed marshland Neill. (1984). A study design for
peat in metropolitan New Orleans, the application of the U.S. Fish
Louisiana. Pages 479-499 in S.K. and Wildlife Service geographical
Saxena, ed. Evaluation and information system in a study of
prediction of subsidence. American the impacts of dredged spoil levees
Society of Civil Engineers, New on habitat changes in coastal
York. Louisiana. Div. of Biol. Serv.,
57
 U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Weller, M.W., and L.H. Frederickson.
Washington, D.C. (Unpubl. tech. 1974. Avi an eco 1ogy of a managed
rep.) glacial marsh. Living Bird
12:269-291.
van Kesteren, J. 1973. The analysis
of future surface subsidence
resulting from gas production in Whitehurst, C. A., and W.A. Blanchard.
the Groningen field. Verh. K. Ned. 1977. The use of color infrared
Geo 1. Mi jnbouwk. Gen. 28: 11-28. imagery for the study of
marsh buggy tracks. Photogram.
Van Lopik, J.R. 1955. Trafficability Eng. and Remote Sensing 43:1049-
and navigability of Louisiana 1050.
coastal marshes. Recent geology
and geomorphic hi story of centra 1
coastal Louisiana. Coastal Stud. Wicker, K.M. 1980. Mississippi
Ins. La. State Univ. Tech. Rep. 7. Deltaic Plain Region ecological
88 pp. characterization: a habitat
mapping study. A user's guide to
Warren, G.M. 1911. Tidal marshes the habitat maps. U.S. Fish Wildl.
and their reclamation. U.S. Dep. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program
Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 240. FWS/OBS-79/07.
99 pp.
Weller, M.W. 1982. Freshwater Zucca, C.P. 1982. The effects of
marshes. University of Minnesota road construction on a mangrove
Press, Minneapolis. 146 pp. ecosystem. Trop. Ecol. 23:105-123.

58

____,.,.r.
-
50272 101
REPORT DOCUMENTATION 11. REPORT NO.
2. S. Recipient's Accession No.

PAGE Biological Report 85(14)

4. Title and Subtitle 5. Report Date
Relationship Between Canal and Levee Density and Coastal December, 1987
Land Loss in Louisiana
7. Author(s) I. Performlnc o,..anlzatlon Rept. No.
R. Eugene Turner
9 Author's Affiliation 10. Projec:t/T..k/Work Unit No.

11. Contract(C) or Grant(G) No.

Center for \~etl and Resources
Louisiana State University (C)

Baton Rouge, LA 70803 (G)

12. Sponsorlnc D,..anlzatlon Name and Addrus 13. Type of Report & Period Covered

14.

15. Supplementary Notes

16. Abstract (Limit: 200 words)

Nearly 1% of Louisiana's coastal land becomes water each year. This land loss affects
everything from wildlife, fisheries, and recreation to the economy and culture. A part of
this loss results from natural, unmanageable factors, but manageable factors are also
responsible. This report discusses one of the manageable factors: canals and their
dredged-material levees.
In coastal Louisiana wetlands, canals are constructed primarily to facilitate naviga-
tion and oil and gas recovery. The density of canals in this region is now about equal to
the natural network of bayous and creeks. The primary effect of these canals and associ-
ated levees is to alter the process of flooding and drainage.
The influence of canals and their levees on coastal Louisiana erosion rates are modi-
fied by local geologic, hydrologic, and biologic interactions. The empirical relationship
between canals and erosion is, however, clear; land loss is directly related to canal
density. Comparisons with mosquito ditches, which are smaller analogues of canals, reveal
similar patterns of wetland changes and suggest management options.

17. Document Analysis a. Descriptors

Coasts
Erosion
Land loss
b. Identifiers/Open-Ended Terms

Wetlands
Oil and gas canals

c. COSATI Field/Group

18. Availability Statement 19. Security Class (This Report) 21. No. of Pa~es

Unclassified 58
~--------------------~-----~----------
20. Security Class (This Page) 22. Price
Unlimited Unclassified
(See ANSI-Z39.18 OPTIONAL FORM 272 (4-77)
{Formerly NTIS-35)
Department of Commerce
Turner, R.E., 1987. Relationship between canal and levee density and coastal land
loss in Louisiana (No. BR-85 (14)). Louisiana State Univ., Baton Rouge (USA).
Center for Wetland Resources.
 As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the Department of
the Interior has responsibility for most of our nationally owned
public lands and natural resources. This includes fostering the
wisest use of our land and water resources, protecting our fish
and wildlife, preserving the environmental and cultural values .of our
national parks and historical places, and providing for the enjoy-
ment of life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses
our energy and mineral resources and works to assure that their
development is in the best interests of all our people. The Depart-
ment also has a major responsibility for American Indian reservation
communities and for people who live in island territories under U.S.
administration.

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR I.S.

FISII &WII.III.IFt:
St:H\'Ut:

FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE

TAKE PRIDE
in America

UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE
National Wetlands Research Center
NASA-Slidell Computer Complex
101 0 Gause Boulevard
Slidell, LA 70458