Tiberius

This article is about the Roman Emperor. For the 1.1 Background
personal name, see Tiberius (praenomen). For other
persons named Tiberius and other uses, see Tiberius Tiberius was born in Rome on 16 November 42 BC to
(disambiguation). Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla.[5] In 39 BC
his mother divorced his biological father and remarried
Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus shortly thereafter, while
Tiberius (Latin: Tiberius Caesar Dv August Flius Au-
[1][2] still pregnant with Tiberius Neros son. In 38 BC his
gustus; 16 November 42 BC 16 March 37 AD)
brother, Nero Claudius Drusus, was born.[6]
was a Roman Emperor from 14 AD to 37 AD. Born
Tiberius Claudius Nero, a Claudian, Tiberius was the Little is recorded of Tiberiuss early life. In 32 BC
son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla. His Tiberius made his rst public appearance at the age of
mother divorced Nero and married Octavian, later known nine, delivering the eulogy for his biological father.[7] In
as Augustus, in 39 BC, making him a step-son of Octa- 29 BC, both he and his brother Drusus rode in the tri-
vian. umphal chariot along with their adoptive father Octavian
in celebration of the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra at
Tiberius would later marry Augustus daughter (from his
Actium.[7]
marriage to Scribonia), Julia the Elder, and even later
be adopted by Augustus, by which act he ocially be- In 23 BC Emperor Augustus became gravely ill and his
came a Julian, bearing the name Tiberius Julius Caesar. possible death threatened to plunge the Roman world into
The subsequent emperors after Tiberius would continue chaos again. Historians generally agree that it is during
this blended dynasty of both families for the following this time that the question of Augustus heir became most
thirty years; historians have named it the Julio-Claudian acute, and while Augustus had seemed to indicate that
dynasty. In relations to the other emperors of this dy- Agrippa and Marcellus would carry on his position in the
nasty, Tiberius was the stepson of Augustus, grand-uncle event of his death, the ambiguity of succession became
of Caligula, paternal uncle of Claudius, and great-grand Augustus chief problem.[8]
uncle of Nero. In response, a series of potential heirs seem to have been
Tiberius was one of Romes greatest generals; his con- selected, among them Tiberius and his brother Drusus.
quest of Pannonia, Dalmatia, Raetia, and temporarily, In 24 BC at the age of seventeen Tiberius entered poli-
parts of Germania, laid the foundations for the northern tics under Augustus direction, receiving the position of
frontier. But he came to be remembered as a dark, reclu- quaestor,[9] and was granted the right to stand for elec-
sive, and sombre ruler who never really desired to be em- tion as praetor and consul ve years in advance of the
peror; Pliny the Elder called him tristissimus hominum, age required by law.[10] Similar provisions were made for
the gloomiest of men.[3] Drusus.[11]
After the death of Tiberius son Drusus Julius Caesar in
23 AD, he became more reclusive and aloof. In 26 AD
1.2 Civil and military career
Tiberius removed himself from Rome and left adminis-
tration largely in the hands of his unscrupulous Praetorian
Shortly thereafter Tiberius began appearing in court as
Prefects Lucius Aelius Sejanus and Quintus Naevius Su-
an advocate,[12] and it is presumably here that his inter-
torius Macro.
est in Greek rhetoric began. In 20 BC, Tiberius was sent
Caligula, Tiberius grand-nephew and adopted grandson, East under Marcus Agrippa.[13] The Parthians had cap-
succeeded Tiberius upon his death.[4] tured the standards of the legions under the command
of Marcus Licinius Crassus (53 BC) (at the Battle of
Carrhae), Decidius Saxa (40 BC), and Marc Antony (36
BC).[10]
After a year of negotiation, Tiberius led a sizable force
1 Early life into Armenia, presumably with the goal of establishing it
as a Roman client-state and ending the threat it posed on
the Roman-Parthian border. Augustus was able to reach
See also: Julio-Claudian dynasty a compromise whereby the standards were returned, and
Armenia remained a neutral territory between the two

1
2 1 EARLY LIFE

powers.[10] itary commissions in Pannonia and Germania; both areas

highly volatile and of key importance to Augustan policy.

The campaigns of Tiberius, Ahenobarbus, and Saturninus in

Germania between 6 BC and 1 BC.

In 6 BC, Tiberius launched a pincer movement against

the Marcomanni. Setting out northwest from Carnuntum
on the Danube with four legions, Tiberius passed through
Quadi territory in order to invade the Marcomanni from
the east. Meanwhile, general Gaius Sentius Saturni-
A bust of Vipsania Agrippina, Tiberius rst wife, recovered from nus would depart east from Moguntiacum on the Rhine
Leptis Magna. with two or three legions, pass through newly annexed
Hermunduri territory, and attack the Marcomanni from
After returning from the East in 19 BC, Tiberius was the west. The campaign was a resounding success, but
married to Vipsania Agrippina, the daughter of Augus- Tiberius could not subjugate the Marcomanni because
tuss close friend and greatest general, Marcus Vipsa- he was soon summoned to the Rhine frontier to protect
nius Agrippa.[14] He was appointed to the position of Romes new conquests in Germania.
praetor, and sent with his legions to assist his brother
He returned to Rome and was consul for a second time in
Drusus in campaigns in the west. While Drusus focused
7 BC, and in 6 BC was granted tribunician power (tribuni-
his forces in Gallia Narbonensis and along the German
cia potestas) and control in the East,[18] all of which mir-
frontier, Tiberius combated the tribes in the Alps and
rored positions that Agrippa had previously held. How-
within Transalpine Gaul, conquering Raetia. In 15 BC
ever, despite these successes and despite his advance-
he discovered the sources of the Danube, and soon af-
ment, Tiberius was not happy.[19]
terwards the bend of the middle course.[15] Returning to
Rome in 13 BC, Tiberius was appointed as consul, and
around this same time his son, Drusus Julius Caesar, was 1.3 Retirement to Rhodes (6 BC)
born.[16]
Agrippas death in 12 BC elevated Tiberius and Drusus In 6 BC, on the verge of accepting command in the
with respect to the succession. At Augustus request in 11East and becoming the second most powerful man in
BC, Tiberius divorced Vipsania and married Julia the El- Rome, Tiberius suddenly announced his withdrawal from
der, Augustus daughter and Agrippas widow.[4][14] This politics and retired to Rhodes.[20] The precise motives
event seems to have been the breaking point for Tiberius; for Tiberiuss withdrawal are unclear.[21] Historians have
his new marriage with Julia was never a happy one, and speculated a connection with the fact that Augustus had
produced only a single child who died in infancy.[14] adopted Julias sons by Agrippa Gaius and Lucius, and
Reportedly, Tiberius once ran into Vipsania again, seemed to be moving them along the same political path
and proceeded to follow her home crying and begging that both Tiberius and Drusus had trodden.[22]
forgiveness;[14] soon afterwards, Tiberius met with Au- Tiberiuss move thus seemed to be an interim solution: he
gustus, and steps were taken to ensure that Tiberius and would hold power only until his stepsons would come of
Vipsania would never meet again.[17] Tiberius continued age, and then be swept aside. The promiscuous, and very
to be elevated by Augustus, and after Agrippas death and public, behavior of his unhappily married wife, Julia,[23]
his brother Drusus death in 9 BC, seemed the clear can- may have also played a part.[18] Indeed, Tacitus calls it
didate for succession. As such, in 12 BC he received mil- Tiberius intima causa, his innermost reason for departing

Remnants of Tiberius villa at Sperlonga, on the coast midway
between Rome and Naples
for Rhodes, and seems to ascribe the entire move to a
hatred of Julia and a longing for Vipsania.[24] Tiberius
had found himself married to a woman he loathed, who
publicly humiliated him with nighttime escapades in the
Forum, and forbidden to see the woman he had loved.[25]
Whatever Tiberiuss motives, the withdrawal was almost
disastrous for Augustuss succession plans. Gaius and Lu-
cius were still in their early teens, and Augustus, now 57
years old, had no immediate successor. There was no
longer a guarantee of a peaceful transfer of power af-
ter Augustuss death, nor a guarantee that his family, and
therefore his familys allies, would continue to hold power private.[37] Augustus died in AD 14, at the age of 75.[38]
should the position of princeps survive.[25]
Somewhat apocryphal stories tell of Augustus pleading
with Tiberius to stay, even going so far as to stage a se-
rious illness.[25] Tiberiuss response was to anchor o the
shore of Ostia until word came that Augustus had sur-
vived, then sailing straightway for Rhodes.[26] Tiberius re- 2 Emperor (1437 AD)
portedly regretted his departure and requested to return
to Rome several times, but each time Augustus refused
his requests.[27]
1.4 Heir to Augustus
With Tiberiuss departure, succession rested solely on
Augustus two young grandsons, Lucius and Gaius Cae-
sar. The situation became more precarious in AD 2 with
the death of Lucius. Augustus, with perhaps some pres-
sure from Livia, allowed Tiberius to return to Rome as a
private citizen and nothing more.[28] In AD 4, Gaius was
killed in Armenia, and Augustus had no other choice but
Tiberius
to turn to Tiberius.[29][30]
The death of Gaius in AD 4 initiated a urry of activity
in the household of Augustus. Tiberius was adopted as
full son and heir and in turn, he was required to adopt
his nephew, Germanicus, the son of his brother Drusus
and Augustus niece Antonia Minor.[29][31] Along with his
adoption, Tiberius received tribunician power as well as a
3
share of Augustuss maius imperium, something that even
Marcus Agrippa may never have had.[32]
In AD 7, Agrippa Postumus, a younger brother of
Gaius and Lucius, was disowned by Augustus and
banished to the island of Pianosa, to live in solitary
connement.[30][33] Thus, when in AD 13, the powers
held by Tiberius were made equal, rather than second,
to Augustuss own powers, he was for all intents and pur-
poses a co-princeps with Augustus, and in the event of
the latters passing, would simply continue to rule without
an interregnum or possible upheaval.[34]
However, according to Suetonius, after a two-year stint
in Germania, which lasted from 1012 AD,[35] Tiberius
returned and celebrated the triumph which he had post-
poned, accompanied also by his generals, for whom he
had obtained the triumphal regalia. And before turn-
ing to enter the Capitol, he dismounted from his char-
iot and fell at the knees of his father, who was presid-
ing over the ceremonies.[36] Since the consuls caused
a law to be passed soon after this that he should govern
the provinces jointly with Augustus and hold the census
with him, he set out for Illyricum on the conclusion of the
lustral ceremonies.[37]
Thus according to Suetonius, these ceremonies and the
declaration of his co-princeps took place in the year
12 AD, after Tiberius return from Germania.[35] But he
was at once recalled, and nding Augustus in his last ill-
ness but still alive, he spent an entire day with him in
He was buried with all due ceremony and, as had been
arranged beforehand, deied, his will read, and Tiberius
conrmed as his sole surviving heir.[39]
2.1 Early reign
The Senate convened on 18 September, to validate
Tiberiuss position as Princeps and, as it had done with
Augustus before, extend the powers of the position
to him.[40] These proceedings are fully accounted by
Tacitus.[41] Tiberius already had the administrative and
political powers of the Princeps, all he lacked were the
4 2 EMPEROR (1437 AD)

titlesAugustus, Pater Patriae, and the Civic Crown (a Problems arose quickly for the new Princeps. The Ro-
crown made from laurel and oak, in honor of Augustus man legions posted in Pannonia and in Germania had not
having saved the lives of Roman citizens). been paid the bonuses promised them by Augustus, and
Tiberius, however, attempted to play the same role as Au- after a short period of time mutinied when it was clear [49]
gustus: that of the reluctant public servant who wants that a response from Tiberius was not forthcoming.
nothing more than to serve the state.[42] This ended up Germanicus and Tiberiuss son, Drusus Julius Caesar,
throwing the entire aair into confusion, and rather than were dispatched with a small force to quell the uprising
[50]
humble, he came across as derisive; rather than seeming and bring the legions back in line.
to want to serve the state, he seemed obstructive.[43] He Rather than simply quell the mutiny however, German-
cited his age as a reason why he could not act as Princeps, icus rallied the mutineers and led them on a short cam-
stated he did not wish the position, and then proceeded to paign across the Rhine into Germanic territory, stating
ask for only a section of the state.[44] Tiberius nally re- that whatever treasure they could grab would count as
lented and accepted the powers voted to him, though ac- their bonus.[50] Germanicuss forces crossed the Rhine
cording to Tacitus and Suetonius he refused to bear the ti- and quickly occupied all of the territory between the
tles Pater Patriae, Imperator, and Augustus, and declined Rhine and the Elbe. Additionally, Tacitus records the
the most solid emblem of the Princeps, the Civic Crown capture of the Teutoburg forest and the reclaiming of
and laurels.[45] Roman standards lost years before by Publius Quinctil-
[51]
This meeting seems to have set the tone for Tiberiuss en- ius Varus, when three Roman legions and its auxiliary[51]
tire rule. He seems to have wished for the Senate and the cohorts had been ambushed by Germanic tribes.
state to simply act without him and his direct orders were Germanicus had managed to deal a signicant blow to
rather vague, inspiring debate more on what he actually Romes enemies, quell an uprising of troops, and returned
meant than on passing his legislation.[46] In his rst few lost standards to Rome, actions that increased the fame
years, Tiberius seemed to have wanted the Senate to act and legend of the already very popular Germanicus with
on its own,[47] rather than as a servant to his will as it had the Roman people.[52]
been under Augustus. According to Tacitus, Tiberius de- After being recalled from Germania,[53] Germanicus cel-
rided the Senate as men t to be slaves.[48]
ebrated a triumph in Rome in AD 17,[51] the rst full
triumph that the city had seen since Augustuss own in
29 BC. As a result, in AD 18 Germanicus was granted
2.2 Rise and fall of Germanicus
control over the eastern part of the empire, just as
both Agrippa and Tiberius had received before, and was
clearly the successor to Tiberius.[54] Germanicus sur-
vived a little over a year before dying, accusing Gnaeus
Calpurnius Piso, the governor of Syria, of poisoning
him.[55]
The Pisones had been longtime supporters of the Claudi-
ans, and had allied themselves with the young Octavian
after his marriage to Livia, the mother of Tiberius. Ger-
manicuss death and accusations indicted the new Prin-
ceps. Piso was placed on trial and, according to Tacitus,
threatened to implicate Tiberius.[56] Whether the gover-
nor actually could connect the Princeps to the death of
Germanicus is unknown; rather than continuing to stand
trial when it became evident that the Senate was against
him, Piso committed suicide.[57][58]
Tiberius seems to have tired of politics at this point.
In AD 22, he shared his tribunician authority with his
son Drusus,[59] and began making yearly excursions to
Campania that reportedly became longer and longer ev-
ery year. In AD 23, Drusus mysteriously died,[60][61]
and Tiberius seems to have made no eort to elevate a
replacement. Finally, in AD 26, Tiberius retired from
Rome altogether to the island of Capri.[62]

A bust of the adopted son of Tiberius, Germanicus, from the

Louvre, Paris.
2.3 Tiberius in Capri, with Sejanus in Rome
2.3 Tiberius in Capri, with Sejanus in
Rome
Lucius Aelius Sejanus had served the imperial family for
almost twenty years when he became Praetorian Prefect
in AD 15. As Tiberius became more embittered with the
position of Princeps, he began to depend more and more
upon the limited secretariat left to him by Augustus, and
specically upon Sejanus and the Praetorians. In AD 17
or 18, Tiberius had trimmed the ranks of the Praetorian
Guard responsible for the defense of the city, and had
moved it from encampments outside of the city walls into
the city itself,[63] giving Sejanus access to somewhere be-
tween 6000 and 9000 troops.
The death of Drusus elevated Sejanus, at least in
Tiberiuss eyes, who thereafter refers to him as his 'So-
cius Laborum' (Partner of my labours). Tiberius had stat-
ues of Sejanus erected throughout the city,[64][65] and Se-
janus became more and more visible as Tiberius began to
withdraw from Rome altogether. Finally, with Tiberiuss
withdrawal in AD 26, Sejanus was left in charge of the
entire state mechanism and the city of Rome.[62]
Sejanuss position was not quite that of successor; he
had requested marriage in AD 25 to Tiberiuss niece,
Livilla,[66] though under pressure quickly withdrew the
request.[67] While Sejanuss Praetorians controlled the
imperial post, and therefore the information that Tiberius
received from Rome and the information Rome received
from Tiberius,[68] the presence of Livia seems to have
checked his overt power for a time. Her death in AD
29 changed all that.[69]
Sejanus began a series of purge trials of Senators and
wealthy equestrians in the city of Rome, removing those
capable of opposing his power as well as extending the
imperial (and his own) treasury. Germanicuss widow
Agrippina the Elder and two of her sons, Nero Caesar
and Drusus Caesar were arrested and exiled in AD 30 and
later all died in suspicious circumstances. In Sejanuss
purge of Agrippina the Elder and her family, Caligula,
Agrippina the Younger, Julia Drusilla, and Julia Livilla
were the only survivors.[70]
2.3.1 Plot by Sejanus against Tiberius
In 31, Sejanus held the consulship with Tiberius in ab-
sentia,[71] and began his play for power in earnest. Pre-
cisely what happened is dicult to determine, but Se-
janus seems to have covertly attempted to court those
families who were tied to the Julians, and attempted to
ingratiate himself with the Julian family line with an eye
towards placing himself, as an adopted Julian, in the po-
sition of Princeps, or as a possible regent.[71] Livilla was
later implicated in this plot, and was revealed to have been
Sejanuss lover for a number of years.[72]
The plot seems to have involved the two of them over- peror has been challenged by several modern historians.
throwing Tiberius, with the support of the Julians, and The prominent ancient historian Edward Togo Salmon
5
Ruins from the Villa Jovis on the island of Capri, where Tiberius
spent much of his nal years, leaving control of the empire in the
hands of the prefect Lucius Aelius Sejanus.
either assuming the Principate themselves, or serving as
regent to the young Tiberius Gemellus or possibly even
Gaius Caligula.[73] Those who stood in his way were tried
for treason and swiftly dealt with.[73]
In AD 31 Sejanus was summoned to a meeting of the
Senate, where a letter from Tiberius was read condemn-
ing Sejanus and ordering his immediate execution. Se-
janus was tried, and he and several of his colleagues
were executed within the week.[74] As commander of the
Praetorian Guard, he was replaced by Naevius Sutorius
Macro.[74]
Tacitus claims that more treason trials followed and that
whereas Tiberius had been hesitant to act at the outset of
his reign, now, towards the end of his life, he seemed to
do so without compunction. Hardest hit were those fam-
ilies with political ties to the Julians. Even the imperial
magistracy was hit, as any and all who had associated with
Sejanus or could in some way be tied to his schemes were
summarily tried and executed, their properties seized by
the state. As Tacitus vividly describes,
Executions were now a stimulus to his fury,
and he ordered the death of all who were ly-
ing in prison under accusation of complicity
with Sejanus. There lay, singly or in heaps,
the unnumbered dead, of every age and sex,
the illustrious with the obscure. Kinsfolk and
friends were not allowed to be near them, to
weep over them, or even to gaze on them too
long. Spies were set round them, who noted
the sorrow of each mourner and followed the
rotting corpses, till they were dragged to the
Tiber, where, oating or driven on the bank,
no one dared to burn or to touch them.[75]
However, Tacitus portrayal of a tyrannical, vengeful em-
6 3 LEGACY

notes in his work, A history of the Roman world from refused to vote him divine honors, and mobs lled the
30 BC to AD 138: streets yelling To the Tiber with Tiberius!"in refer-
ence to a method of disposal reserved for the corpses of
In the whole twenty two years of Tiberius criminals.[85] Instead the body of the emperor was cre-
reign, not more than fty-two persons were mated and his ashes were quietly laid in the Mausoleum
accused of treason, of whom almost half es- of Augustus, later to be scattered in AD 410 during the
caped conviction, while the four innocent peo- Sack of Rome.[86]
ple to be condemned fell victims to the exces-
In his will, Tiberius had left his powers jointly to Caligula
sive zeal of the Senate, not to the Emperors
and Tiberius Gemellus.[87][88] Caligulas rst act on be-
tyranny.[76]
coming Princeps was to void Tiberius will and have
Gemellus executed.[88]
While Tiberius was in Capri, rumours abounded as to
what exactly he was doing there. Suetonius records Tiberius heir Caligula not only spent Tiberius fortune of
the rumours of lurid tales of sexual perversity, in- 2,700,000,000 sesterces but would also begin the chain
cluding graphic depictions of child molestation, and of events which would bring about the downfall of the
cruelty,[77] and most of all his paranoia.[78] While heavily Julio-Claudian dynasty in AD 68.[89]
sensationalized,[79] Suetonius stories at least paint a pic-
ture of how Tiberius was perceived by the Roman sen-
atorial class, and what his impact on the Principate was
during his 23 years of rule.
3 Legacy

3.1 Historiography
2.4 Final years
The aair with Sejanus and the nal years of treason tri-
als permanently damaged Tiberius image and reputation.
After Sejanuss fall, Tiberius withdrawal from Rome was
complete; the empire continued to run under the inertia
of the bureaucracy established by Augustus, rather than
through the leadership of the Princeps. Suetonius records
that he became paranoid,[78] and spent a great deal of
time brooding over the death of his son. Meanwhile, dur-
ing this period a short invasion by Parthia, incursions by
tribes from Dacia and from across the Rhine by several
Germanic tribes occurred.[80]
Little was done to either secure or indicate how his
succession was to take place; the Julians and their sup-
porters had fallen to the wrath of Sejanus, and his own
sons and immediate family were dead. Two of the
candidates were either Caligula, the sole surviving son
of Germanicus, or his own grandson, Tiberius Gemel-
lus.[81] However, only a half-hearted attempt at the end
of Tiberius life was made to make Caligula a quaestor,
and thus give him some credibility as a possible succes-
sor, while Gemellus himself was still only a teenager and
thus completely unsuitable for some years to come.[82]

2.4.1 Death (37 AD) Photograph of a bust of Tiberius, housed in the Louvre.

Tiberius died in Misenum on 15 March AD 37, at the
age of 78.[83] Tacitus records that upon the news of his
death the crowd rejoiced, only to become suddenly silent
upon hearing that he had recovered, and rejoiced again at
the news that Caligula and Macro had smothered him.[84]
This is not recorded by other ancient historians and is
most likely apocryphal, but some historians consider it
indicative of how the senatorial class felt towards the Em-
peror at the time of his death. After his death, the Senate
Were he to have died prior to AD 23, he might have been
hailed as an exemplary ruler.[90] Despite the overwhelm-
ingly negative characterization left by Roman historians,
Tiberius left the imperial treasury with nearly 3 billion
sesterces upon his death.[88][91] Rather than embark on
costly campaigns of conquest, he chose to strengthen
the existing empire by building additional bases, using
diplomacy as well as military threats, and generally re-
fraining from getting drawn into petty squabbles between
3.2 Gospels, Jews, and Christians
competing frontier tyrants.[63]
The result was a stronger, more consolidated empire. Of
the authors whose texts have survived, only four describe
the reign of Tiberius in considerable detail: Tacitus,
Suetonius, Cassius Dio and Velleius Paterculus. Frag-
mentary evidence also remains from Pliny the Elder,
Strabo and Seneca the Elder. Tiberius himself wrote an
autobiography which Suetonius describes as brief and
sketchy, but this book has been lost.[92]
3.1.1 Publius Cornelius Tacitus
See also: Tacitus
The most detailed account of this period is handed down
to us by Tacitus, whose Annals dedicate the rst six books
entirely to the reign of Tiberius. Tacitus was a Roman
senator, born during the reign of Nero in 56 AD, and con-
sul suect in AD 97. His text is largely based on the acta
senatus (the minutes of the session of the Senate) and the
acta diurna populi Romani (a collection of the acts of the
government and news of the court and capital), as well
as speeches by Tiberius himself, and the histories of con- His account is more sensationalist and anecdotal than that
temporaries such as Cluvius Rufus, Fabius Rusticus and
Pliny the Elder (all of which are lost).[90]
Tacitus narrative emphasizes both political and psycho- less, Suetonius also reserves praise for Tiberius actions
logical motivation. The characterisation of Tiberius during his early reign, emphasizing his modesty.[95]
throughout the rst six books is mostly negative, and
gradually worsens as his rule declines, identifying a clear
breaking point with the death of Drusus in 23 AD.[90]
The rule of Julio-Claudians is generally described as un-
just and 'criminal' by Tacitus.[93] Even at the outset of
his reign, he seems to ascribe many of Tiberius virtues
merely to hypocrisy.[83] Another major recurring theme
concerns the balance of power between the Senate and the
Emperors, corruption, and the growing tyranny among
the governing classes of Rome. A substantial amount of
his account on Tiberius is therefore devoted to the treason
trials and persecutions following the revival of the maies-
tas law under Augustus.[94] Ultimately, Tacitus opinion
on Tiberius is best illustrated by his conclusion of the
sixth book:
His character too had its distinct periods.
It was a bright time in his life and reputation,
while under Augustus he was a private citi-
zen or held high oces; a time of reserve and
crafty assumption of virtue, as long as German-
icus and Drusus were alive. Again, while his
mother lived, he was a compound of good and
evil; he was infamous for his cruelty, though
he veiled his debaucheries, while he loved or
feared Sejanus. Finally, he plunged into ev-
ery wickedness and disgrace, when fear and
shame being cast o, he simply indulged his
own inclinations.[83]
7
3.1.2 Suetonius Tranquillus
An example of Indo-Roman trade and relations during the pe-
riod: silver denarius of Tiberius (1437) found in India and In-
dian copy of the same, 1st-century coin of Kushan king Kujula
Kadphises copying a coin of Augustus.
Suetonius was an equestrian who held administrative
posts during the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. The
Twelve Caesars details a biographical history of the prin-
cipate from the birth of Julius Caesar to the death of
Domitian in AD 96. Like Tacitus, he drew upon the
imperial archives, as well as histories by Audius Bas-
sus, Cluvius Rufus, Fabius Rusticus and Augustus own
letters.[77]
of his contemporary. The most famous sections of his
biography delve into the numerous alleged debaucheries
Tiberius remitted himself to while at Capri.[77] Neverthe-
3.1.3 Velleius Paterculus
One of the few surviving sources contemporary with the
rule of Tiberius comes from Velleius Paterculus, who
served under Tiberius for eight years (from AD 4) in Ger-
many and Pannonia as praefect of cavalry and legatus. Pa-
terculus Compendium of Roman History spans a period
from the fall of Troy to the death of Livia in AD 29. His
text on Tiberius lavishes praise on both the emperor[9][96]
and Sejanus.[97] How much of this is due to genuine ad-
miration or prudence remains an open question, but it has
been conjectured that he was put to death in AD 31 as a
friend of Sejanus.[98]
3.2 Gospels, Jews, and Christians
The Gospels mention that during Tiberius reign, Jesus
of Nazareth preached and was executed under the au-
thority of Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor of Judaea
province. In the Bible, Tiberius is mentioned by name
only once, in Luke 3:1,[99] which states that John the Bap-
tist entered on his public ministry in the fteenth year
of his reign. Many references to Caesar (or the em-
peror in some other translations), without further spec-
ication, would seem to refer to Tiberius. Similarly,
the "Tribute Penny" referred to in Matthew[100] and
8 7 NOTES

3.4 In ction
Tiberius has been represented in ction, in literature, lm
and television, and in video games, often as a periph-
eral character in the central storyline. One such mod-
ern representation is in the novel I, Claudius by Robert
Graves,[111] and the consequent BBC television series
adaptation, where he is portrayed by George Baker.[112]
In the 1968 ITV historical drama The Caesars, Tiberius
The tribute penny mentioned in the Bible is commonly believed (by Andr Morell) is the central character for much of the
to be a Roman denarius depicting the Emperor Tiberius. series and is portrayed in a much more balanced way than
in I, Claudius.
He also appears as a minor character in the 2006 lm
Mark [101]
is popularly thought to be a silver denarius coin The Inquiry, in which he is played by Max von Sydow. In
of Tiberius.[102][103][104] addition, Tiberius has prominent roles in Ben-Hur (played
by George Relph in his last starring role),[113] and in A.D.
During Tiberius reign Jews had become more prominent (played by James Mason).
in Rome and Jewish and Gentile followers of Jesus began
proselytizing Roman citizens, increasing long-simmering Played by Ernest Thesiger, he featured in The Robe
resentments.[105] Tiberius in 19 AD ordered Jews who (1953). He was featured in the 1979 lm Caligula, por-
were of military age to join the Roman Army.[105] trayed by Peter O'Toole. He was an important character
Tiberius banished the rest of the Jews from Rome and in Taylor Caldwell's 1958 novel, Dear and Glorious Physi-
threatened to enslave them for life if they did not leave cian, a biography of St Luke the Evangelist, author of the
the city.[105] third canonical Gospel.
There is considerable debate among historians as to when
Christianity was dierentiated from Judaism.[105] Ac-
cording to Tertullian, a Roman lawyer who had access 4 Children and family
to the archives of the Empire, Tiberius had requested the
Senate, a few years after Jesus crucixion, to publicly Tiberius was married two times, with only his rst union
recognize Christianity.[105] Most scholars believe that Ro- producing a child who would survive to adulthood:
man distinction between Jews and Christians took place
around 70 AD.[105] Tiberius most likely viewed Chris- Vipsania Agrippina, daughter of Marcus Vipsanius
tians as a Jewish sect rather than a separate, distinct Agrippa (1611 BC)
faith.[105]
Drusus Julius Caesar (13 BC 23 AD)

Julia the Elder, only daughter of Augustus (116

BC)
3.3 Archaeology

The palace of Tiberius at Rome was located on the 5 Ancestry

Palatine Hill, the ruins of which can still be seen today.
No major public works were undertaken in the city dur- (See also Julio-Claudian family tree)
ing his reign, except a temple dedicated to Augustus and
the restoration of the theater of Pompey,[106][107] both of
which were not nished until the reign of Caligula.[108] In 6 See also
addition, remnants of Tiberius villa at Sperlonga, which
includes a grotto where the important Sperlonga sculp-
Clutorius Priscus
tures were found in fragments, and the Villa Jovis on top
of Capri have been preserved. The estate at Capri is said
by Tacitus to have included a total of twelve villas across
the island,[62] of which Villa Jovis was the largest. 7 Notes
Tiberius refused to be worshipped as a living god, and
[1] Classical Latin spelling and reconstructed Classical Latin
allowed only one temple to be built in his honor at
pronunciation of the names of Tiberius:
Smyrna.[109] The town Tiberias, in modern Israel on
the western shore of the Sea of Galilee was named in (a) TIBERIVS CLAUDIVS NERO
Tiberiuss honour by Herod Antipas.[110] IPA: [t'b.ri.s 'klau.di.s 'n.ro]
 9

(b) TIBERIUS IVLIVS CAESAR [29] Tacitus, Annals I.3

IPA: [t'b.ri.s 'ju.li.s 'kae.sar]
[30] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius
(c) TIBERIVS CAESAR DIVI AVGVSTI F[ILIVS] 15
AVGVSTVS
IPA: [t'b.ri.s 'kae.sar 'di.wi '.li.s au'gs.ts] [31] Cassius Dio, Roman History LV.13
[2] Tiberius regal name has an equivalent English meaning [32] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius
of Tiberius Caesar, Son of the Divine Augustus, the Em- 21. For the debate over whether Agrippas imperium after
peror. 13 BC was maius or aequum, see, e.g., E. Badian (De-
cember 1980 January 1981). Notes on the Laudatio
[3] Pliny the Elder, Natural Histories XXVIII.5.23; Capes, p. of Agrippa. Classical Journal 76 (2): 97109, pp. 105
71 106.
[4] Tiberius. 2006. Retrieved 2011-02-17. [33] Cassius Dio, Roman History LV.32
[5] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius [34] Seager p. xv
5
[35] Speidel, Michael Riding for Caesar:The Roman Empero-
[6] Levick pp. 15 rors Horse guards19
[7] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius [36] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius
6 20
[8] Southern, pp. 119120. [37] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius
21
[9] Velleius Paterculus, Roman History II.94
[38] Velleieus Paterculus, Roman History II.123
[10] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius
9 [39] Tacitus, Annals I.8
[11] Seager, p. xiv. [40] Levick, pp. 6881.
[12] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius [41] Tacitus, Annals I.911
8
[42] Seager 2005, pp. 4445.
[13] Levick, p. 24.
[43] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius
[14] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 24
7
[44] Tacitus, Annals I.12, I.13
[15] Strabo, 7. I. 5, p. 292
[45] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius
[16] Levick, pp. 42. 26
[17] Seager 2005, pp. 20. [46] Tacitus, Annals III.32, III.52
[18] Cassius Dio, Roman History LV.9 [47] Tacitus, Annals III.35, III.53, III.54
[19] Seager 2005, pp. 23. [48] Tacitus, Annals III.65
[20] Seager 2005, pp. 2324. [49] Tacitus, Annals I.16, I.17, I.31
[21] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius [50] Cassius Dio, Roman History LVII.6
10
[51] Tacitus, Annals II.41
[22] Levick, pp. 29.
[52] Shotter, 3537.
[23] Velleius Paterculus, Roman History II.100
[53] Tacitus, Annals II.26
[24] Tacitus, Annals I.53
[54] Tacitus, Annals II.43
[25] Seager 2005, pp. 26.
[55] Tacitus, Annals II.71
[26] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius
11 [56] Tacitus, Annals III.16

[27] Seager 2005, pp. 28. [57] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius
52
[28] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius
13 [58] Tacitus, Annals III.15
10 7 NOTES

[59] Tacitus, Annals III.56 [87] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius
76
[60] Tacitus, Annals, IV.7, IV.8
[88] Cassius Dio, Roman History LIX.1
[61] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius
62 [89] Caligula would kill Tiberius Gemellus and Antonia Mi-
nor before being killed by his own personal guard.
[62] Tacitus, Annals IV.67
Tiberius nephew Claudius succeeded Caligula and exe-
[63] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius cuted Caligulas sister Julia Livilla and in turn would be
37 murdered by Livillas sister Agrippina the Younger after
they married and her son was of an age to become em-
[64] Tacitus, Annals IV.2 peror. Agrippina would be executed by her son Nero, who
would later commit suicide in 68 AD with no heirs to suc-
[65] Cassius Dio, Roman History LVII.21 ceed him. Only Caligulas sister Julia Drusilla died of nat-
[66] Tacitus, Annals IV.39 ural causes.

[67] Tacitus, Annals IV.40, IV.41 [90] Tacitus, Annals IV.6

[68] Tacitus, Annals IV.41 [91] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula
37
[69] Tacitus, Annals V.3
[92] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius
[70] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 61
53, 54
[93] Tacitus, Annals, I.6
[71] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius
65 [94] Tacitus, Annals I.72, I.74, II.2732, III.4951, III.6669

[72] Cassius Dio, Roman History LVII.22 [95] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius
2632
[73] Boddington, Ann (January 1963). Sejanus. Whose Con-
spiracy?". The American Journal of Philology 84 (1): 1 [96] Velleius Paterculus, Roman History, II.103105, II.129
16. doi:10.2307/293155. JSTOR 293155. 130

[74] Cassius Dio, Roman History LVIII.10 [97] Velleius Paterculus, Roman History II.127128
[75] Tacitus, Annals VI.19 [98] Syme, Ronald (1956). Seianus on the Aventine. Her-
mes (Franz Steiner Verlag) 84 (3): 257266. JSTOR
[76] A history of the Roman world from 30 BC to AD 138,
4474933.
Page 183, Edward Togo Salmon
[99] Luke 3:1
[77] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius
43, 44, 45 [100] Matthew 22:19
[78] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius [101] Mark 12:15
60, 62, 63, 64
[102] Sir William Smith (1896). The Old Testament History:
[79] Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew (1984) Suetonius: The Scholar From The Creation To The Return Of The Jews From Cap-
and His Caesars, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300- tivity (page 704). Kessinger Publishing, LLC (22 May
03000-2 2010). ISBN 1-162-09864-3.
[80] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius
[103] The Numismatist, Volume 29 (page 536). American Nu-
41
mismatic Association (3 April 2010). 2010. ISBN 978-
[81] Tacitus, Annals VI.46 1-148-52633-1.

[82] Cassius Dio, Roman History LVII.23 [104] Hobson, Burton (1972). Coins and coin collecting (page
28). Dover Publications (April 1972). ISBN 0-486-
[83] Tacitus, Annals VI.50, VI.51 22763-4.
[84] Tacitus, Annals VI.50 [105] Jossa, Giorgio (2006). Jews or Christians. pp. 123126.
ISBN 3-16-149192-0.
[85] Death of Tiberius: Tacitus Annals 6.50; Dio 58.28.14;
Suetinus Tiberius 73, Gaius 12.23; Josephus AJ 18.225. [106] Tacitus, Annals IV.45, III.72
Posthumous insults: Suetinus Tiberius 75.
[107] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius
[86] Platner, Samuel Ball; Ashby, Thomas (1929). Mau- 47
soleum Augusti. A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient
Rome. London: Oxford University Press. pp. 332336. [108] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula
Retrieved 30 June 2011. 21
 11

[109] Tacitus, Annals IV.3738, IV.5556
[110] Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XVIII.2.3
[111] "I, Claudius: From the Autobiography of Tiberius
Claudius Robert Graves. Booktalk.org. Archived from
the original on 18 June 2008. Retrieved 2008-09-20.
Southern, Pat (1998). Augustus. London: Rout-
ledge. ISBN 0-415-16631-4.
Syme, Ronald (1986). The Augustan Aristocracy.
Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814859-
3.

[112] BBC Four Drama I, Claudius". BBC. Retrieved 2008-

09-20. 9 External links
[113] Emperor Tiberius Caesar (Character)". Imdb.com. Re-
trieved 2008-09-20. Tiberius (42 BC 37 AD)" at the BBC
[114] born Appius Claudius Pulcher

8 Bibliography

8.1 Primary sources

Cassius Dio, Roman History Books 5758, English
translation

Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book 18, espe-

cially ch.6, English translation

Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Life of

Tiberius, Latin text with English translation

Tacitus, Annals, IVI, English translation

Velleius Paterculus, Roman History Book II, Latin

text with English translation

8.2 Secondary material

Ehrenberg, V.; Jones, A.H.M. (1955). Documents
Illustrating the Reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. Ox-
ford.

Capes, William Wolfe, Roman History, Longmans,

Green, and Co., 1897

Levick, Barbara (1999). Tiberius the Politician.

Routledge. ISBN 0-415-21753-9.

Mason, Ernst (1960). Tiberius. New York: Bal-

lantine Books. (Ernst Mason was a pseudonym of
science ction author Frederik Pohl)

Seager, Robin (1972). Tiberius. London: Eyre

Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-27600-1.

Seager, Robin (2005). Tiberius. Blackwell Publish-

ing. ISBN 1-4051-1529-7.

Shotter, David (1992). Tiberius Caesar. London:

Routledge. ISBN 0-415-07654-4.

Salmon, Edward (1968). History of the Roman

World, 30 B.C.-A.D.138, Part II: Tiberius. Methuen.
ISBN 978-0-416-10710-4.
12 10 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

10.1 Text
Tiberius Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius?oldid=700354738 Contributors: MichaelTinkler, Mav, Zundark, Taw, Andre En-
gels, Danny, Phil Bordelon, William Avery, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Panairjdde~enwiki, Isis~enwiki, Tbarron, Renata, Lisiate, Llywrch, Gabbe,
IZAK, Looxix~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier, Stan Shebs, Muriel Gottrop~enwiki, Poor Yorick, John K, Ylpow, Schneelocke, Dwo, Adam
Bishop, Spino~enwiki, EmphasisMine, Doradus, Tempshill, Jackson~enwiki, Morn, Lord Emsworth, Carbuncle, Dimadick, Jason Pot-
ter, Robbot, Pigsonthewing, ChrisO~enwiki, PBS, Schutz, Jmabel, Yelyos, Romanm, Mirv, Wjhonson, Caknuck, Sunray, Bean shadow,
Lupo, Sethoeph, JamesMLane, DocWatson42, Jyril, Everyking, No Guru, Michael Devore, Ezhiki, Per Honor et Gloria, CharlesS, Gol-
bez, Fishal, CryptoDerk, Gdr, LiDaobing, GeneralPatton, Antandrus, Cioxx, Jesster79, Kuralyov, Pmanderson, Icairns, Gscshoyru, Neale
Monks, Ukexpat, Grm wnr, M1ss1ontomars2k4, Zondor, Lacrimosus, Alkivar, EugeneZelenko, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Brutan-
nica, Dbachmann, Paul August, Stbalbach, Bender235, S.R. Heller, Closeapple, Steerpike, Brian0918, The dilemma, QuartierLatin1968,
Bill Thayer, Bobo192, Circeus, Smalljim, Mikythos, .:Ajvol:., Franey, Elipongo, Slugguitar, JW1805, Kaganer, Rajah, Pperos, Hespe-
rian, Polylerus, Jonathunder, Roman Emperor, Red Winged Duck, Alansohn, Gary, Arthena, Andrew Gray, RoySmith, Snowolf, Zsero,
Ksnow, Bucephalus, Binabik80, HenkvD, King Bowser 64, BDD, Avram Fawcett, Fdewaele, Siafu, Angr, Boothy443, Woohookitty,
FeanorStar7, MrAndersonofPofo, WadeSimMiser, HSTiberius, Tckma, MONGO, Tabletop, Hailey C. Shannon, Mangojuice, Xiong Chi-
amiov, Mandarax, Graham87, Ryoung122, Kbdank71, Tokle, Saperaud~enwiki, Koavf, Vary, Mentality, Ttwaring, MarnetteD, Titoxd,
FlaBot, Old Moonraker, Mark J, Str1977, Tedder, King of Hearts, Chobot, DTOx, Jaraalbe, DVdm, Whay912, Roboto de Ajvol, Mer-
cury McKinnon, YurikBot, Vess, Darsie, Hede2000, BTLizard, Pigman, Eupator, Mike Young, Cryptic, Wiki alf, Danteferno, Grafen,
Jaxl, Dijxtra, Johann Wolfgang, Mathae, Expensivehat, Dppowell, Mlouns, EEMIV, Gadget850, Alpha 4615, Sandstein, Zello, Mike Dil-
lon, Nikkimaria, Closedmouth, Jwissick, Chris Heaton, JoanneB, Philip Stevens, GrinBot~enwiki, Somedumbnoob, Eog1916, SpLoT,
Attilios, SmackBot, Scorpiona, PiCo, Erictj, Iacobus, Smitz, Piccadilly, Syndicatetiger, Ribbet32, Eskimbot, Aivazovsky, TharkunColl,
Daddyjimsf, Gilliam, Portillo, Ingsoc, Cabe6403, Izehar, Bluebot, Jlao04, Kidigus, CSWarren, Je5102, Gracenotes, Modest Genius,
Shalom Yechiel, Cplakidas, Onorem, Striderdemme, Clinkophonist, Konczewski, Pookster11, Andy120290, Elendils Heir, Grover cleve-
land, Stevenmitchell, Dharmabum420, PrometheusX303, KRBN, Itzar, Smerus, SashatoBot, Esrever, Nishkid64, CFLeon, ArglebargleIV,
Zaxius, Anriz, Robertg9, Spartanfox86, Hadrians, Octiforce, Kevinkazan~enwiki, PseudoSudo, The Man in Question, RandomCritic, A.
Parrot, Interlingua, Neddyseagoon, Jam01, Ryulong, Cyril Washbrook, Joseph Solis in Australia, Tawkerbot2, Revcasy, Ghaly, Ohthe-
lameness, Bobby B'Stard, Scohoust, AlbertSM, Camblunt100, The Font, Joe Geranio, Neelix, Anthony Bradbury, Icek~enwiki, Cydebot,
Wcstockton13, Elune, Amandajm, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Garik, Robertsteadman, , Rougher07, FrancoGG, Thijs!bot,
Epbr123, Lord Hawk, PyroMithrandir, Varavour, Marek69, Amity150, Astynax, Tellyaddict, Phoe, Bunzil, Nick Number, Escarbot, An-
tiVandalBot, Jusenkyoguide, Majorly, Quintote, D. Webb, Danger, JAnDbot, Deective, BobSevenEleven, Instinct, Wumbo, Panarjedde,
TAnthony, Montyramon, Matthew Husdon, Dr mindbender, Cynwolfe, Magioladitis, DMOinLA, Rmorrish, TheLetterM, PoliticalJunkie,
DerHexer, JaGa, GregU, Kayau, Edton, Gwern, MartinBot, Nehwyn, Hoshidoshi, Keith D, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, DrKay,
Ginsengbomb, Eliz81, DrusMAX, It Is Me Here, Bot-Schafter, Johnbod, LordAnubisBOT, Jeepday, Gurchzilla, Chiswick Chap, Ma-
lerin, Heyitspeter, Perlseven, Sagemenscircle, Bendodge, Ja 62, AnDy ArR, PacicWonderland, TheNewPhobia, Bdviets, VolkovBot,
TallNapoleon, Censusdata, Butwhatdoiknow, AlnoktaBOT, Ipso2, Director, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Rei-bot, Ann Stouter, Tibey, Gekritzl,
IronMaidenRocks, Persiana, Naravorgaara, Brianga, AlleborgoBot, Veeraane, Blood sliver, RedRabbit1983, EmxBot, Kabir10, StAnselm,
Scarian, Samsonite07, BotMultichill, Bluedawe, Pedee, Tataryn, KevinMK, Calabraxthis, Lachrie, GlassCobra, Keilana, Flyer22 Reborn,
Lorenzo.homeboy, Wachholder, Oda Mari, Man Its So Loud In Here, Moonraker12, Redmarkviolinist, Vikimach, Oxymoron83, Demack,
SpellingGuru, Coolfellow13, T.M. Productions, Iain99, BenoniBot~enwiki, Fratrep, Vanished user ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf,
Tradereddy, Dabomb87, Nergaal, Denisarona, Shlimozzle, Jwk3, Velvetron, ObfuscatePenguin, Ratemonth, Martarius, ClueBot, Fyyer,
EoGuy, Jan1nad, RashersTierney, Enthusiast01, CyrilThePig4, Der Golem, F-j123, CounterVandalismBot, Niceguyedc, Dracinking,
Blanchardb, Dozols, TypoBoy, DragonBot, Abrech, Matthew Dillenburg, Dekisugi, Neroqs, Catalographer, Thingg, Sperpick, Biblioq,
Versus22, SoxBot III, Egmontaz, Pitt, XLinkBot, Avoided, NellieBly, Masterhasbar, Surtsicna, Addbot, Razr Nation, Some jerk on the In-
ternet, DOI bot, Me so bored, Slavegladiator, Ultrahawkeye, Tree of Life Time, Leszek Jaczuk, CarsracBot, Favonian, LinkFA-Bot,
Wanyman, Brainmachine, Prothumia!, Caseman3355, Erutuon, Lightbot, Glauco92, Teles, Gail, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Frag-
gle81, Mauler90, KamikazeBot, Againme, Tempodivalse, Catiline63, N1RK4UDSK714, AnomieBOT, IRP, AloysiusLiliusBot, King-
pin13, Ulric1313, Linzbeth, Materialscientist, AerialTakeo, MithrasPriest, Octavian 1977, Frankenpuppy, Xqbot, Clohuigt, JimVC3,
Fisker323, 10civerso, XZeroBot, Khruner, Skarl the Drummer, C+C, GrouchoBot, Moreton Plunkett, RibotBOT, Peanutcactus, Mattis,
Flaviusvulso, Methcub, Haploidavey, Buchraeumer, Xophist, Scaleshombre, Oatley2112, Diegriva, EdwardHumphrys, Citation bot 1, Di-
was, Mediatech492, Serols, Cmguy777, Cole Jester, DReifGalaxyM31, IJBall, Arsenanuf, Dgarq, Gaius Octavius Princeps, Shagyman,
Reaper Eternal, Andrea105, Weijiya, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, P Aculeius, DASHBot, Mukogodo, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot,
Mushroomcap77, Smitty1337, LRP;840, TuHan-Bot, K6ka, Italia2006, Carsonkaan, Misty MH, F, Josve05a, KeithTalent1, Bountonw,
Whippedcow7895, Aeonx, H3llBot, JonahDWilson, SporkBot, Makecat, Mcmatter, Tolly4bolly, Peace is contagious, Senjuto, Donner60,
Evarist93, Chewings72, Orange Suede Sofa, VictorianMutant, FAM1885, ClueBot NG, Zerotime99, Piast93, Ashwin99100, Rezabot,
Rhodydog6, PT14danang, SEE-SCAN, Theopolisme, Moobeepmuma, Helpful Pixie Bot, Calabe1992, Wbm1058, Gradboat, Lowercase
sigmabot, BG19bot, TCN7JM, Nhale1776, MusikAnimal, Davidiad, Marcocapelle, Rm1271, FutureTrillionaire, AdventurousSquirrel,
Smeat75, Arminden, Glacialfox, Michaelsmith8580, Jacknicholson123, Shibingeorge, Justincheng12345-bot, Several Pending, Griot-de,
ProfessorOcelot, Wikihuman123, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, 23 editor, Scientist1642, Dexbot, LAYLA EVANS, Lugia2453, LeoXXVI,
Dschslava, Luminatia, Eleventwenty, Claudio790, Tommyandliz, Aclany, Iamnofool6, Sotkil, ArmbrustBot, LouisAragon, Bever, Gin-
suloft, Shearyer, Quenhitran, Gasteropod1, JoshNEWK1998, Francois-Pier, Gorillachair, Ithinkicahn, TJxSJ, Louisonze, Howunusual,
Fligity og, Pankarth, WKDx417, DByns, Monkbot, Jko123456, Filedelinkerbot, Ddunn801, TheFireRises, Joshuajely, Marcelo Armando,
Crazynyancat, Chrisac 87, Dlwc0724, MirandaKramer02, Zortwort, GMarxx, Roman999911000, KasparBot, VinzHu, Mama homies,
Maltrpa, Max Bini, SireWonton, Dux femina, Cj adamsjr and Anonymous: 661

10.2 Images
File:Aureus__l'effigie_de_Tibre.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Aureus_%C3%A0_l%
27effigie_de_Tib%C3%A8re.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://www.cgb.fr/tibere-aureus,v34_0421,a.html Original artist:
cgb
10.3 Content license 13

File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-

tors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Emperor_Tiberius_Denarius_-_Tribute_Penny.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Emperor_
Tiberius_Denarius_-_Tribute_Penny.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Photograph
Previously published: Web Original artist: DrusMAX
File:Germania_Enobarbo_e_Tiberio.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Germania_Enobarbo_e_
Tiberio.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Cristiano64
File:Germanicus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Germanicus.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-
3.0 Contributors: English Wikipedia, original upload 4 June 2004 by ChrisO under same lename Original artist: Un-
known<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https:
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