U.S.

HistoryStudy
Guide

FatimaSaleh

TableofContents
UnitedStatesGeography.23
ColonialAmerica(16001776).........................37
Section2.1TheNativeAmericansandTheColonists
Section2.2PreAmericanRevolution
Section2.3TheAmericanRevolution
PostRevolutionaryWarandTheU.SConstitution(17761815).......712
Section3.1TheArticlesofConfederation
Section3.2TheU.SConstitution
Section3.3PoliticalPartiesandPresidential/PoliticalPartyEras
TheMarketRevolution(18151860)........1219
Section4.1UnityandTensions
Section4.2GrowingSectionalism
Section4.3FactorsBeforetheCivilWar
TheCivilWarandReconstruction(18601877)..........1923
Section5.1TheCivilWar
Section5.2TheStartofReconstruction
Section5.3TheEndofReconstruction
TheSecondIndustrialRevolutionandProgressiveEra(18701920)..................2346
Section6.1TheRiseofBusiness,IndustryandLabor
Section6.2AmericanSocietyAdjuststoIndustrialization
Section6.3TheProgressiveMovement
Section6.4AmericanImperialismandWorldWarI
TheRoaringTwentiesandGreatDepression(19201940)..................................4655
Section7.1TheRoaringTwenties
Section7.2TheGreatDepression
Section7.3FDRandTheNewDeal
WorldWarIIandTheColdWar(19401970)....5560
Section8.1WorldWarII
Section8.2TheColdWar
SecurityintheModernEra(1950Present)..............................................................6073
Section9.1DwightD.Eisenhower
Section9.2TheCivilRightsMovement
Section9.3JohnF.KennedyandLyndonB.Johnson
Section9.4RichardNixonandGeraldFord
Section9.5JimmyCarterandRonaldReagan

UnitedStatesGeography
Location:
Geographersdescribethelocationofanareainabsoluteandrelativeterms.
AbsoluteLocations:theexact/morepreciselocationofaspecificplace/area.
TheU.Sislocatedinthenorthernandwesternhemisphere.
BorderedbytheAtlanticOcean(east)andPacificOcean(west).
RelativeLocations:whereanareaislocatedinrelationtootherplaces.
U.SislocatedsouthofCanadaandnorthofMexico.
Place:Geographersstudythephysicalandhumancharacteristicsofplaces.
Illustrates
Physicalmaps:landfeatures(ex.riversormountains).
Politicalmaps:governmentalboundariesofstatesorcountries(ex.countiesorcities).
Demographicmaps:theplacementofgroupsbydiff.categories(ex.ageorincomelevel).
PhysicalCharacteristics:includeslandforms,waterbodies,vegetation,andclimate
TheG reatPlains(relativelyflat,grassyregionoftheU.S.btwntheMississippiRiverandthe
RockyMountains)andC entralPlainsoccupytheM idwest(middleregionsofU.S).
TherichsoilsandclimateoftheMidwestencouragedAmericanstomovetothese
regionsinwhichtheycouldacquireinexpensivefarmland.
Thestateswithareasofrelativelyflatterrain(land)hadthelargestpercentageofland
usedforagriculture.
MississippiRivercutsthroughtheCentralPlainsandflowssouthtotheGulfofMexico.
TheAppalachianMountains,locatedintheeast,servedasthewesternboundaryforBritish
colonialsettlements.
TheRockyMountains,locatedinthewest,andarecordillera(arelatedsetofmountainranges)
thatstretchesfromnorthernAlaskatoMexico.
PeoplefromallregionsoftheworldhavesettledintheU.Ssotheitshumancharacteristics(language,
religionandcustoms)arevaried.
Movement:G
eographersstudythemovementofpeople,goodsandideaswithinanarea.
BeringStraitLandBridge:aflatbridgeoflandbetweenAlaskaandEasternAsia.
GeographersbelievethatduringtheIceAgemuchofearthswaterwasfrozenintoglaciersand
icesheets.
HuntersandgatherersfromEastAsiacrossedthelandbridgeandgraduallyspreadout
overNorthandSouthAmerica.
ThePaleoIndianswerethefirsthumansintheAmericas(ancestorsofallN.A).
EuropeanExplorationandSlaverybettershipsandnavigationmethodsallowedEuropeanexplorersto
findtheirwaytoNorthAmerica.
Early English/colonial settlements in the NewWorldweresimilarinthateachdevelopednearthe
coastlineoronrivers.
Jamestown(1607),Plymouth(1620)andNewAmsterdam(1625)
Naturalharborscontributedtothedevelopmentofcommerce(trade).
AppalachianMountainslimitedthemovementofcolonistswestwarduntilthemid1800s.

Migration from East to West: the promise of land and gold led many Americans of European descent to
movewestward.
Farmers along the Ohio and MississippiRiverValleybenefittedfromtheLouisianaPurchaseand
theacquisitionofNewOrleansasaportforAmericanagriculturalgoods.
ThefertilefarmlandoftheGreatPlainswasagreatattractionandtheH
omesteadActof1862
providedforthedevelopmentofadditionalfarmsinthearea.
The Atlantic Ocean(east) and the PacificOcean(west)enhancedtheabilityoftheU.Stomaintain
aforeignpolicyofneutralityformanyyears.
SunBeltthesouthernstatesstretchingfromFloridatoCalifornia
Duringthe1950smanyAmericansmovedfromtheindustrialcitiesoftheNorthandMidwestto
theSunBelt.
Thispopulationshiftalongwithitscorrespondingreappointmentofcongressionalseatsgavethe
SouthagreaterinfluenceinAmericanpolitics.
HumanEnvironmentalInteraction:geographersexaminehowhumansuseandaltertheenvironment
EarlyLandUsePatterns:humansinteractwiththeirenvironmentinordertosurvive
WhenEuropeansbegantosettlealongtheAtlanticcoast,theyfacedarangeofclimaticand
geographicconditions.
AtlanticcoastalplainfosteredagriculturaldevelopmentintheM iddleAtlanticRegion,while,
furtherSouththelong,hotsummersgaverisetotobaccoandcottonindustries.
SettlersofcoastalSouthCarolinadrainedswampstocreatethrivingriceplantations.
The waterfalls in the Middle Atlantic states encouraged the development of factories that could
benefitfromwaterpower.
The rocky soil of New England discouraged extensive farming, but the rich coastal waters
encouragedthedevelopmentoffishingandshipbuilding.

ColonialAmerica(16001776)
Section2.1TheNativeAmericansandTheColonists
NativeAmericans: N
OTE:NativeAmericans=N.A
Lived in numerous societies livelihood and lifestyle was influenced on geography and environment
basedonagriculture,huntingandfishing.
TheI roquoisConfederacywasthemostpowerfulgovtofN.Aandmadeitpossibleforthemto
holdontotheirlandagainstEuropeanpressure.
TheNewWorld:
Colonies were often given charters from the King which gave the colonies legal rights to exist andgave
permissiontoestablishacolony.
TheNavigationAct(1663):requiredallEuropeangoodsboundforAmericatobeshippedthrough
Englandfirst.
ColonialImmigration fromthearrivaloftheclientsthroughtheDeclarationofIndependence.
MostlypeoplefromEnglandbuttherewasalsoScottishIrish,GermanSwedishandDutchthatcamein
significantnumbers.

CameinconflictwithN.Aandhadtoovercomethechallengeofbuildinghomes,farmsandanewwayof
lifeinanunfamiliarregion.
TheimmigrantssucceededinestablishingaculturemuchliketheonetheyhadleftinEuropeyetheavily
influencedbythegeographicfactors
PeoplefromEnglandoftenbroughttheirlanguage,formsofgovt,religion,traditionsand
economicpatterns.
ReasonsforComing
ReligiousReasonsAfterEnglandbrokeawayfromtheRomanCatholicChurch,theycreatedthe
ChurchofEngland.
Pilgrims,orSeparatists,lefttheChurchofEnglandandthenfearedimprisonment.
PuritanssoughttopurifytheChurchofEnglandfromtheirtooCatholicpractices.
EconomicReasonssettlersinallcoloniesweredrawnbytheavailabilityoflandandthe
opportunitytoownit.
PoliticalReasonssettlersfeltapoliticaldisfavorb/coftheirobjectionstotheestablishedChurch
ofEnglandandthekingwhoheadedit
Quakers,CatholicsandJewsrefugedtothecoloniestoescapereligiousintolerance.
Somecolonistsfacedandgovernmentalpersecution.
TheThreeColonialRegions:The13originalcoloniesweredividedinto3regions
Geography/Climate Economy

NewEnglandColonies rockysoil smallscalefarming

Theabsenceoflargescalefarmingdueto forests furtrade
lackoffertilesoilandashortgrowingseason naturalharbors lumbering
causedtheretobealowslavepopulation. poor/lackoffertilesoil shipbuilding
shortgrowingseason fishing

MiddleColonies rivervalleys mediumscalefarming(wheatandbarley

richandfertilesoil andrye)
intermediategrowingseason urbanemployment

SouthernColonies warmtemperatures largescalefarming/plantations

Largescalefarmingduetotherichsoiland regularrainfall highlyagricultural:abundanceofcash
longgrowingseasoncausedaneedfora rich/fertilesoil crops(rice,tobacco,indigo,cotton)
largepopulationofslaveandtheirlabor. longgrowingseason

TheAfricans: NOTE:AfricanAmericans=A.A
OriginsoftheA
tlanticSlaveTrade(akaTheTransatlanticSlaveTrade)
N.AwerethefirstenslavedpeoplebytheSpanishandPortuguese(forcedthemtoworkinmines
andonsugarplantations)
AfterNativeAmericanpopulationdeclined(b/cofEuropeandiseases)theSpanish,Portugueseand
FrenchbeganenslavingWestAfricans
Britishcoloniesbeganparticipatingand,eventually,controlledtheAtlanticSlaveTrade.
DevelopmentofSlaveryintheColoniesFromIndenturedServitudetoRacialSlavery
Aracebaseddefinitionofaslavedwaswrittenintolawthroughthes ystemofpermanentslavery(a
legalsystemthatdiscriminatedagainstandexploitedtheAfricansandA.A).
SlaveryResistance:

OnslaveshipsduringtheM iddlePassage(thevoyagefromAfricatoAmerica)somestagedrevolts
likechoosingstarvationordrowningasanalternativetoenslavement.
Evenintheriskofseverepunishment,someenslavedAfricansattemptedescape.
Subtleresistanceincludeslowwork,pretendingillnessordamagingtoolsandcrop.
FreedomofPress:In1935,J ohnPeterZengerwastriedfors editiouslibel(publishedstatementsthatinfluence
peopletorebelagainsttheauthority)foraccusingthegovernorofthecolonyofwrongdoing.
Zengerarguedthatnocrimewascommittedb/cwhatheprintedwastrueandthejuryfoundhimnot
guiltyThecasehelpedestablishtheprincipleoffreedomofthepressintheU.S.

Section2.2PreAmericanRevolution
ColonialSelfGovernment:
Virginia House of Burgesses/Mayflower Compact/Town Hall Meetings = Early colonial efforts for/steps
towardsdemocracyandrepresentativegovt.
Earlyeffortsfor/stepstowardsdemocracyandrepresentativegovt
1. VirginiaHouseofBurgessesVirginiacolonistsinstitutedthecoloniesfirst
representativelawmakingbody.
2. MayflowerCompactacontractinwhichthecolonistsconsentedtobegovernedbya
govtthattheycreated.
3. TownHallMeetingsallowedcitizenstogovernthemselvesthroughdirectdemocracy
TheBritishgovernedthecoloniesunderthepolicyofS alutaryNeglect(16091763)whichignoredthe
coloniesb/cBritainwaspreoccupiedbytherivalryofpowerbetweenFrance.
Colonists=gainedmoreindependenceintheirtradepractices
Britain=benefittedfromthecolonieseconomicprosperity
Resultedinthedevelopmentofindependentcolonialpracticessincetheimperialauthority
(Britain)didnotassertthepowerithad.Thus,colonistswerelefttogovernthemselvescausing
themtodevelopanidentitythatconsidereditselfindependent.
AlbanyPlanofUnion(1754):AttemptbyBenjaminFranklintounitethe13colonieswasrejectedby
theBritishgovt.
Worriedthatthiswouldgivetoomuchpowertoaunifiedgroupofcolonialleaders.
colonialassemblies.
Fearedalossoflocalpowerandindependence.
TheFrenchandIndianWar(17541763):akatheS evenYearsWar
Conflict between the French(and Indians) and the British caused by disputed land claims in the Ohio
Rivervalley.Britishwonw/thehelpoftheIroquoisnations.
TheTreatyofParisof1763:markedBritainsvictoryoverFrance.
Colonists felt their war efforts earned them the right to move into the newly acquired lands and
sawlessneedfortheprotectionsoftheBritishgovt.
However
WiththeFrenchoutofway,Britainchangeditsimperialpolicytowardsthecolonies.
ProclamationLineof1763prohibitedtheexpansionwestoftheridgeoftheAppalachian
Mountainsb/ctheBritishwantedtoavoidconflictsbetweenthecolonistsandN.A.
EconomicCausesoftheAmericanRevolution:B ritainwasleftwithahugetaxburdenanddebtfromthe

FrenchandIndianWar.Believingthatthecoloniesshouldpay,theBritishParliamentbegantoenforcepolicyof
mercantilismandinstillnumerousacts.
Mercantilism: economic policy where colonies exist to provide raw materials to the mother country
coloniesexportmorethanimportinstilledrestrictionsontrade.
UsedbyEnglandtocontrolthecoloniesandprosperfromthegoodsexported.
TheStampAct(1765):passedbytheBritishParliamentandrequiredthecoloniststhateveryprinted
materialsproducedmustcarryastamp.
ThemoneyfromthestampswouldhelppaythedebtfromtheFrenchandIndianWar.
TownshendActs(1767):taxedimportsand,asaresult,importsdropped.
WritsofAssistance(openended,transferablesearchwarrants)wereissuedtosearchforsmuggled
goodinmerchantsships,warehousesandhomes.
ConnectionwiththeBillofRights4thAmendment:protectionagainstunreasonable
searchandseizure.
PoliticalCausesoftheAmericanRevolution:
Colonistsreactedtothenewtaxeswithpetitions,boycottsandothermoreviolentprotests.
SamuelAdams,aBostonpoliticalorganizerandjournalist,helpedcreatetheSonsofLibertyand
theMassachusettsCommitteeofCorrespondence.
ColonistsviewedthesenewtaxesasathreatoftheirlibertiesandbelievedthatBritainviolated
theirn aturalrightsasBritishcitizens.
B/ccolonisthadnorepresentationintheParliament,theyreasonedthattaxationcould
onlycomefromthecoloniallegislatures.
NoTaxationWithoutRepresentation:colonistsbelievedtheycouldnotbetaxedbythe
Britishb/ctheyhadnorepresentativesintheBritishgovtBritishdidnothavethe
consentofthegoverned.
TheBostonMassacre(1770):amobofAmericancolonists(Patriots)gatheredinBostonandbegan
protestingtheoccupationofBritishtroops,whoweresenttoenforcetheunpopulartaxes.
Britishsoldiersbeganfiringandleftfivecolonistsdead.
TheBostonTeaParty:InBostonHarbor,agroupofMassachusettscolonistsboardBritishteashipsand
dumpedBritishteaintothewaterinreactiontotheTeaAct.
Tarandfeatherswasaoldformofpunishmentusedontaxcollectors.
TheBritishgovtreactedusing,whatthecolonistscalled,theI ntolerableActsof1774whichpunished
Massachusettsby
1. ClosingtheportofBoston
2. Forbiddingtownmeetings
3. Reducingthepowersofthelegislatures
MoreBritishtroopsweresenttooccupythecolonyandenforcetheacts
SocialandIdeologicalCausesoftheAmericanRevolution:B
ritaindidnotunderstandthecolonistsfears
ofthepoweroftheBritishgovtanddidnotrecognizethatthecolonistsdevelopedindependentpoliticallives.
Separationb/ctheAtlanticOceanledasenseofselfsufficiencyandindependenceinthecolonists.
Feelingofindependencewasreinforcedbythecolonistsbeliefintheirnaturalrights.
GreatAwakeningreligiousmovement,encouragedpeopletoquestionauthorityandincreasesasenseof
equalityamongpeople.

2.3TheAmericanRevolution
TheAmericanRevolution:
FirstContinentalCongress(1774):ameetingofdelegatesfromtwelveofthethirteencoloniesthatmetin
PennsylvaniaandwascalledtoplanaresponsetotheseBritishactions.
TheBattlesofLexingtonandConcord(1775):conflictcausedbytensionsbuildingupbetweenofthe13
AmericancoloniesandtheBritishauthorities
CommonSensebyThomasPaine:apamphletthaturged/persuadedundecidedcoloniststosupport
declaringindependencefromBritain.
SecondContinentalCongress(1775):ameetingheldtomanagethecolonialwareffortandmovetowards
independence
Tories/LoyalistssupportedkingandobedienttoEnglishlawsopposedindependence.
DeclarationofIndependence:FormalstatementwrittenbyThomasJeffersonintheSecondContinental
CongressmeetinginPhiladelphiaonJuly4,1776thatannounces(declares)thatthe13Americancoloniesarethe
13newlyindependent,sovereignstatesandnolongerunderBritishrule.
ThePurposeoftheDeclaration:
Liststheabuses,injusticesandreasonsforseparatingfromBritain.
Announcetotheworldthatthecolonieswereanew,independentnation.
TheKeyIdeasoftheDeclaration:
Influenced by the Enlightenment(reflects John Lockes ideas of natural rights, people are sovereign
andconsentofthegoverned)
Similar to theBillofRightsb/cbothdocumentssupportlimitationsongovernmentalpowerandstressthe
importanceofindividualliberty

PostRevolutionaryWarandTheU.SConstitution(17761815)
Section3.1TheArticlesofConfederation
TheArticlesofConfederation:F
irstformofgovtandplanofunionusedafterindependence.
ManyAmericansdistrustedastrongcentralgovtb/coftheirexperiencesundertheBritish.Hence,they
wantedtolimitthecentralgovernmentsopportunitiestoinfringeuponthepeopleslibertiesand
establishedad ecentralizedgovt(powerisbrokenupanddividedamongmanygroups)inwhichstate
govtshadmostpower.
AllianceBetweenIndependentStates:Th earticlessetupac onfederation(anallianceofindependentstates
inwhichthestatesgaveasmuchpowerastheychoosetothecentralgovt)
AchievementsoftheConfederationGovt:
PassageoftheL andOrdinanceof1785andtheN orthwestOrdinanceof1787that
1. SetapatternofdevelopmentoftheNorthwestterritory.
2. Providedtheguidelinesbywhichnewstatescouldjointhenationonabasisofequality
w/the13originalstates.
3. Prohibited(banned)slaveryintheNorthwestTerritory.
WeaknessesoftheConfederationGovt:
Thenationalgovtdependedonthestatesformoneytopaythedebtfromtherevolutionbutstates

hadthepowertocoinmoney,collecttaxesandcontroltrade.
TherewasnosinglenationalcurrencyThestateshadtheirowncurrencywhichcaused
complications.
CongresscouldnottaxdirectlybuthadtoaskthestatesforfundingThestateswere
notwillingtogivefinancialsupportthenationalgovt(nostableeconomy).
Thegovtlackedapresidentandanationaljudiciary.
Congresscouldraiseanarmyonlybyrequestingtroopsfromthestates.
ConstitutionalConvention(1787):Americandelegates(politicians)metinPhiladelphiatorevisethe
weaknessesoftheArticleofConfederation
Thecentralgovtneededmorepower(stateshadtoomuchpower).
ShaysRebellion:convincedmanyAmericansoftheneedforastrongernationalgovtb/citexposedthe
overallweaknessesoftheArticleofConfederation.

Section3.2TheU.SConstitution
U.SConstitution:DocumentcreatedtoreplacetheweakandineffectiveArticleofConfederation.
ManyAmericanssawaneedforastrongernationalgovtandsupportedforthecallforaC
onstitutional
ConventioninPhiladelphia,1787
Theinitialpurposewastoamend/changetheA.O.Cbutendedupcreatinganewgovtratherthanfixing
theexistingone. Noterepresentatives=delegates
CompromisesmadeinordertoratifyU.SConstitution

Name Issue Side1 Side2 Solution

TheGreat Representationin TheVirginiaPlanbyJames TheNewJerseyPlanby Bicamerallegislature(2housesof

Compromiseo r Congress Madison: WilliamPatterson: Congress)
The (Legislative 2chambers/houses 1chamber/house HouseofRepresentatives(based
Connecticut Branch)btwn #ofdelegatesforboth Equal#ofdelegatesper onpopulation)
Plan largeandsmall housesdependsonstate state Senate(Equalforallstates2
states. population senators)
Allbillsdealingw/moneystarts
intheHouseofReps(thelower
house)butneedsapprovalofthe
Senate(theupperhouse)

The Ifslaveswould SouthernStates:Wantedtheir NorthernStates:Opposedfor 3/5oftheslavepopulationwould

ThreeFifths countinthe largepopulationofslavesto slavestobecountedb/c becountedforrepresentation
Compromise numberofrepsin beincludedinthecountin slavescouldnotvotefeared
theHouseofReps ordertoincreasetheir
andElectoral representation(more thattheSouthwouldbenefit
College. delegates) fromtheincreasein
representation.

TheCommerce Howthefederal SouthernStates:Fearedthat NorthernStates:Wantedthe Congresscannotpassexport

Compromise govtcould importingslaveswouldbe
regulatetrade prohibitedandtheir
agriculturalexports,which
theireconomydepends
heavilyon,wouldbetaxed.
govttoregulatetradeand duties/taxesonexportandcannot
restrictforeigncompetition prohibittheslavetradeuntil1807
forrawgoodsbytaxing
importsandexports.

ThePresidency Presidentstermin FavoringaStrongNational DelegatesFavoringStates Afouryeartermandanindirect

Compromise officeandthe Govt:Wantedapresident Rights:WantedaPresident electionthroughtheE
lectoral
methodof electeddirectlybythepeople electedbystatelegislatures College
election. withalongtermofoffice withashorttermofoffice.

PrinciplesofGovernment:
PopularSovereignty:theauthorityofthegovtiscreatedbytheconsentofitspeoplethrough
votingthesourceofallpower/authoritytogovernisthepeople(WeThePeople)
LimitedGovernment:Thegovtdoesnothaveallthepowerinthenationlikeadictator/kingand
hasrestrictions(BillofRights)
SeparationofPowers:Thedivisionofpowerbetween3brancheseachwithcertainpowersand
responsibilities.
ExecutiveBranch(President)makestreaties,commanderinarmy,suggestsSupreme
Courtnomineesandvetolaws
LegislativeBranch(Congress)makeslaws,approvesSupremeCourtnominations,
ratifiestreaties,declareswar,coinsmoney,andraisetaxes
JudicialBranch(SupremeCourt)Interprets/determinesifalawisconstitutional
ChecksandBalance:Brancheshavetheabilitytocontroltheauthorityoftheotherbranchesand
preventonebranchfrombecomingtoopowerful
Federalism:Thedivisionofpowerbetweenstateandnationalgovt
Madeupof3typesofpowers:
DelegatedPowers(Onlytothen ationalgovt)
ReservedPowers(Onlytothes tategovts)
ConcurrentPowers(Boththenationalandstategovts)
TheFlexibilityofTheConstitution:Itsalivingdocumentsoitcanbeadapted/alteredtomeettheneeds
ofthechangingtimesandbroadensthepowerofthenationalgovt.
ElasticClause:allowsCongresstomakelawstheyfeelarenecessaryandproper
AmendmentProcess:anamendmentrequiresamajorityvoteinbothHousesoraconstitutional
conventioncalledforbyofStatelegislatures)
DeniedPowers:powersthataredeniedtothenationalgovtandstategovt.
ImpliedPowers:powersnotexplicitlystatedbutassumedtoexistb/coftheirnecessity.
UnwrittenConstitution:partsofUSg ovtthatcameaboutb/cofcustomandtradition
Ex.Presidentscabinet,politicalparties,judicialreviewandlobbying
JudicialReview:poweroftheSupremeCourttodeterminetheconstitutionalityofalaw.
Marburyv.Madison:establishedthepowerofjudicialreviewandstrengthenedthepower
ofthefederalgovt.

Section3.3PoliticalPartiesandPresidentialEra
Federalists AntiFederalists
JohnJay,JamesMadisonandAlexanderHamilton PatrickHenry,GeorgeMasonandThomasJefferson

Believedinstrongcentralgovt Believedinstatesrights
Did not believe Bill of Rights was needed b/c the Fearedthatstrongcentralgovtwouldinfringeontheircivil
Constitutionalreadylimitsthepowerofthecentralgovt liberties

throughchecksandbalancesandseparationofpower. UrgedfortheoftheBillofRightstotheConstitution
FederalistPaper:writtenprimarilybyAlexanderHamilton BillofRights:First10AmendmentsofConstitutionstatestherights
topersuadeAntiFederaliststoratifytheconstitution. thegovtcannottakeawayactedasasafeguardtoindividualliberty.

ThePoliticalPartySystem:
DemocraticRepublicanParty FederalistParty
ThomasJefferson AlexanderHamilton

minimalgovtinvolvementlaissezfaire maximumgovtinvolvement
emphasisonagricultureagrarianeconomy emphasisonmanufacturingandcommerce
strictinterpretationofConstitution looseinterpretationoftheConstitution
believedinstaterightsweakcentralgovt believedinastrong,centralgovt
supportedbyfarmersandlandowners supportedbybusinessmenandmerchants

FederalistEra(17891801):AtimewhentheFederalistPartywasdominantinU.Spolitics.
GeorgeWashington:FirstPresidentoftheUnitedStatesandRevolutionaryWarGeneral.
ForeignPolicy:SettheprecedentofAmericanneutrality,butnotisolationism,b/ctradewas
necessaryforthenewnationbutthatalliancesmightforceitintowar.
Didnotwanttobecomeentangled(involved)withEuropeanaffairs.
ProclamationofNeutralitytheU.SwouldnotofferaidduringtheFrenchRev.
FarewellAddressurgestheU.S.tofollowapolicyofn eutralitybyavoidingEuropean
conflictsandwarnsthedangersofpoliticalalliances.
Usedtheunwrittenconstitutiontoformthefirstc abinet(adviserstothePresident)
WhiskeyRebellion:Hamiltonproposedanexcisetaxonwhiskeyinordertoraiseoperating
revenues/helppaywardebt.
LedtoarebellionoffarmerswhoprotestedtopaythetaxinwesternPennsylvania.
Washingtonusedstatemilitia(army)tocrushtherebellion.
Demonstratedthatthenewnationalgovtintendstoenforcefederallaws
AlexanderHamilton:FirstSecretaryofTreasuryoftheU.S.
HamiltonsFinancialPlan:UsedalooseinterpretationofConstitution
1. Payoffnation'sdebt
2. Createanationalbank
3. Instillaprotectivetariff(taxonforeigngoods/exports)toencourageU.Smanufacturing
4. Implementexcisetaxonwhiskey
Believedthegovtshouldexerciseallpowersnecessaryandpropertomeetitsresponsibilities.
TheAlienandSeditionActs(1798):FederalistspassedtheactsinordertostrengthentheFederalistPartyand
weakentheRepublicanopposition.
Madeitmoredifficulttobecomeacitizen(byincreasingtheresidencyrequirement)
ImmigrantswereusuallypartofRepublicanPartysoFederalistsextendedtheresidency
requirementtobecomeacitizensotheywouldnotbeabletovoteassoonasbefore.
Madeiteasiertoarrestanddeportanynoncitizenthoughttoendangernationalsecurity.
MadeiteasiertoarrestapersonforcriticizingthegovtsotheFederalistscouldstayinpower.

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MadisonandJeffersondeclaredintheV irginiaandKentuckyResolutionsthattheactsare
dangeroustocivillibertiesandrepresentativegovt.
TheConstitutionestablishedonlyaSupremeCourtsoCongresspassedJ udiciaryActof1789creatingthe
restofthefederalcourtsystem.
Lobbying:peoplerepresentingspecialinterestgroupswhoacttoinfluencelegislationandelectpeoplewho
supportthelobbygroupsviews.
ProtectedbytheFirstAmendmentsrighttopetitionbutregulatedbyfederallaw.
Strictvs.LooseConstruction:
Strict:favoredanarrowinterpretationoftheConstitution,holdingthatthegovtcanonlydothe
thingsthedocumentspecificallyspellsout.
Loose:favoredafreerreadingoftheConstitutionthatgivesthegovtmoreroomtoact.
Activismvs.Restraint:
Activism:TheCourtshoulduseJudicialReviewtohelpmakepublicpolicy.
Restraint:TheCourtshouldo nlyuseJudicialReviewwhenthereisanobviousviolationofa
particularpartoftheConstitution(opposesapolicymakingrolefortheCourt).
JohnMarshall:ChiefJusticeoftheU.S.
Helpedcreateasenseofnationalunitybystrengtheningthepowerofthefederalgov'tatthe
expenseofstategov't.
HelpedmaketheConstitutionmoreflexiblebyinterpretingtheConstitutionbroadly.
TheJeffersonianEra:P
artofDemocraticRepublicanPartyandmarkedendoftheFederalistEra.
ThomasJefferson:ThirdPresidentoftheUnitedStates.
OpposedHamiltonsnationalbankplanb/citusedalooseinterpretationofConstitution.
SoughttoavoidinvolvementinEuropeanaffairs(isolationist)
AuthorizedtheLewisandClarkexpeditioninordertoexplorearoutetothePacificOcean.
LouisianaPurchase:WhendecidingtopurchasetheLouisianaTerritory,Jeffersonhadtoovercomethe
issueofcontradictinghisbeliefinastrictinterpretationoftheConstitution.
UsedtheElasticClauseandimpliedpowerstomakethepurchase.
Purchasemadeb/chewasworriedaboutastrongFrenchandSpanishpresenceandwanted
AmericancontrolofN ewOrleansPortwhichwasavaluableport.
SecuredU.S.controloftheMississippiRiver.
FarmersneededawaterroutetohelpshiptheirproductstomarketfarmersintheO hioRiver
Valleygainedagreateconomicbenefitasaresultofthepurchase.
Relatedtowestwardexpansion.
Warof1812:c onflictbetweenU.S.andBritainovertradeintheAtlanticOcean.
WhileBritainandFrancewereatwar,BritainoutragedtheU.SbyseizingAmericanmerchantships
tryingtoreachFrance(BritishattemptstorestrictU.S.trade)
CongresspassedtheE mbargoActof1807(prohibitedtradewithEuropeannationsinanattempttoforce
BritainandFrancetolifttheirblockades)
NewEngland,withitstradebasedeconomy,washithard.
SincetradeisimportantfortheU.Seconomy,unemploymentincreasedandimports/exports
plummeted,soCongressrepealstheactin1809.

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BritaincontinuedtoviolateAmericanfreedomoftheseasbyseizingAmericanshipsand
impressing(forcing)AmericansailorstoservetheBritishnavy.
WarHawks:AgroupfromtheSouthandWestwhosupportedtheWarof1812andwereinterested
inexpandingintoBritishCanadianandSpanishFlorida.
EffectsoftheWar:EndedinadrawbytheTreatyofGhentin1814
ReinforcedthebeliefthatapolicyofneutralityregardingEuropeanaffairswasjustified.
Americanmanufacturingbegantogrow,particularlyinNewEngland,whentheU.Swascutoff
Europeanimports/goods.
Opposingthewar,inthefaceofagrowingsenseofAmericannationalism,weakenedthe
FederalistParty,whichsoonstoppedtobeamajorfactorinnationalpolitics.
Begananeraofpartisanagreementandnationalpride.
*PartisanAgreement:whenopposingpoliticalpartiesfindcommongroundthroughcompromise.

TheMarketRevolution(18151860)
Section4.1UnityandTensions
MonroeDoctrine(1823):becamethefoundationofU.Sforeignpolicyuntil1900s.
Calledfor
anendtoEuropeancolonizationintheWesternHemisphere.
nointerventioninexistingnationsintheWesternHemisphere.
adeclarationthatEuropeaninterferencewasdangeroustoourpeaceandsafety
apromisebynoninterferencebytheU.SinEuropeanaffairsandEuropeancolonies.
warnedEuropeanpowerstoremainoutofaffairsofnationsintheWesternHemisphere.
FactorsUnifyingtheUnitedStates:InthedecadesbeforetheCivilWar,someforcescontributedtonational
unitywhileotherssplittingthenationapart.
Thef irstandsecondtwopartysystemshelpedunifytheU.Sb/ctheywerenational,notsectional.
ThefirsttwopartysystemsconsistedoftheF ederalistsandtheD emocraticRepublicans.
ThesecondtwopartysystembecamethenewW higPartyandtheD
emocraticParty.
Thedevelopmentofam arketeconomyandincreasedinterstatecommerce(tradebetweenstates)helped
stimulateeconomicgrowthnationwide.
Revolutionsintransportationandtechnologyledtoindustrializationandurbanization.
Specializationwaspossibleb/cpeoplecouldnowpurchasewhattheydidnotmake/grow.
Southernandwesterncropswereexchangedfornorthernmanufacturedgoods.
AmericanSystem:aneconomicplanandlegislativeprogramdesignedbySenatorHenryClaythat
benefitedtheNorth,theSouthandtheWestandunifiedthenationby
establishingabetternationaltransportationsystemtoaidtradeandnationaldefense.
settingthefirstprotectivetarifftoencourageAmericanmanufacturingandprovidefundsfor
improvednationaltransportationnetworks.
creatingasecondnationalbanktopromotethenecessaryfinancialsupport.
UrbanandIndustrialPatternsintheNorth:Bythe1800s,newtechnologiesinmanufacturing,suchas
steamenginesandmachinestospinthreadandweavecloth,reachedtheU.S.
TheT ransportationRevolutionbroughtnewtechnologies,innovationsandinventionsthatstimulatedthe
developmentoftransportationsystems.

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TheE rieCanalinNewYorkStateencouragedthegrowthofindustryandconnectedtheAtlantic
Ocean(atN.Y.S)throughtheGreatLakestotheinterioroftheU.S.
ResultedinlowershippingcostsandrailroadslaterconnectedNewYorktoothermajor
citiesandtotheWest.
MostAmericanmanufacturingwasnolongerdoneinhomesandsmallshopsbutinsteadbasedonthe
factorysystem(amethodofmanufacturingusingfactorieswithworkersandmachines)
Duringthe1850s,mostimmigrantscamefromnorthernandwesternEurope,particularlyIrelandand
GermanyThisisknownasO ldImmigration.
ImmigrantswouldgenerallysettleintheNorth(theIrish)andtheWest(Germans)b/cofgreater
economicopportunities,startingfarmsintheWestand,sinceindustrialeconomywascreating
jobs,therewerefewrestrictionsonimmigration.
ReasonsforImmigration:
between1845and1850,millionsofIrishpeoplecametotheU.Sb/cofthep otatofamine(a
periodofmassstarvationcausedbyfailureofthepotatocrop).
ManyGermanscameseekingpeaceandstabilityafterthefailed1848rev.inGermany.
Mostimmigrantarrivedinsearchforbettereconomicopportunities.
DifficultiesFaced:
IrishandGermanCatholicimmigrantsoftenfacedhostilityfromnativebornAmericans,some
ofwhomfearedeconomiccompetitionfromthenewcomers.
OthersresentedtheCatholicorJewishImmigrantsatatimewhenthenationwasmostly
Protestant.
Nativism(antiimmigrantfeelings)wassostrongthatapoliticalpartycalledtheK now
Nothingswasformedtosupportthenativistpoliticalprogramcampaignedtorestrict
immigrationanddidwellinlocalelectionsintheNorth.
Contributions:
Irishworkershelpedbuildrailroadsandlaboredinfactories.
GermansandScandinaviansbroughtadvancedfarmingtechniquesandnewideason
educationssuchaskindergarten.
PatternsofSouthernDevelopment:IncontrasttotheNorth,theSouthremainedagriculturalinwhichits
wealthcontinuedtobeinvestedinlandandslavesanditseconomywasdependentmainlyonitscottoncrop
grownwithslavelabor.
Thesouthernpopulationgrewslowlyb/citfailedtoattractimmigrants.
TheclimateandgeographyoftheSouthfavoredtheplantationsystemofagriculturewhererice,tobacco
andsugarweregrown.
In1793E liWhitney'sinventionofthec ottongin(removedtheseedsfromcotton)turnedcotton
intoasuccessfulcommercialcropandmadecottonmanufacturingmoreprofitable.
TheopportunityforwealthprovidedbycottondirectlyaffectedtheSouthby
allowedthegrowthofslaverybylinkingitevenmorefirmlytoSoutherneconomy.
promotingwestwardmigrationofplanterswiththeirslaveslookingfornewlandinorder
togrowcotton.
makingcottonthemostvaluablecashcropfortheSouthandimportanttothenational
economybymakinguphalfofallexports.

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TheSouthsagriculturalbasekeptthemeconomicallydependentontheNorthasamarketforits
cropsandasourceofneededmanufacturedgoods.
Lifeunders laverywasverydifficultb/cslaveshadnocontrolovertheirownlivesortheirchildrenslives
andtheywereatthemercyoftheslaveholderoroverseer.
Slaveswereafinancialinvestmentwhichaffectedtheirtreatment
ThereligiouspracticeofslaveswereamixtureofProtestantChristianandAfricanelements.
Resistanceagainstslaverytookmanyformsandlevelsofintensity
Mosttypeofprotestswereescaping,selfharm,sabotageorworkslowdowns.
Open/violentrebellionswererareandtheyinstilledfearwithinthewhiteslaveholdingsociety.
Notableslaverevoltsinclude:
GabrielProssersConspiracyinVirginiawasdiscovered.
DenmarkVeseysplanstoleadaSouthCarolinarevoltwereuncovered.
NatTurner,anenslavedA.A,ledarevoltinVirginia.
Rebellionsledsouthernlawmakerstopassincreasinglystrictlawstomaintainslavery.

Section4.2GrowingSectionalism
TheAgeofJackson:AndrewJacksonranunsuccessfullyforpresidentin1824when,outoffourpresidential
candidates,nonereceivedamajorityoftheelectoralvotes.
DespiteJacksonhavingthemostpopularvotesandthemostelectoralvotes,theHouseofRepselectedJ ohn
QuincyAdamsaspresident.
Jacksonsparty,theDemocrats,gotitssupportfrommiddleclass,urbanworkersandsmallfarmersofthe
SouthAdamspartywasstrongestintheNorth.
Therewasar iseofmasspoliticssincebythemid1820s,moststateshaddroppedtheirproperty
qualificationsforvotingsothenumberofvoteswasmuchlarger.
Jackson,apopularherooftheWarof1812,appealedtothesenewvoters.
Selectingapresidentialcandidatebecamemoredemocraticin1832sincecandidateswerechosen
byanationalconventionratherthanafewpartyleaders.
Secretballotsbecamepopularbutpartiesprintedthemincolorssoitwaseasytotellforwhom
apersonvoted.
DatingbackfromthepresidencyofAndrewJackson,thes poilssystem(whengovtjobsaregivento
peoplewhohadworkedtohelptheirpoliticalpartywintheelection)emerged.
ApartyworkerwhohadfailedtogetagovtjobkilledPresidentJamesGarfield
PeoplebegantodemandreformandChesterArthursupportedthischange.
TheP endletonActof1883(establishedthatpositionswithinthefederalgovtshouldbe
awardedbasedonqualityinsteadofpoliticalconnections)markedthebeginningofc ivil
servicereform.TheAct
providedthatcompetitiveexamsmustbeusedtohiresomegovtworkers.
setupacommitteetoconductthetests.
bannedthecommonpracticeforforcinggovtemployeestogivemoneyto
politicalparties.
IncreaseofSectionalism:Duringthe1850saseconomic,socialandpoliticaldifferencespulledthenationin
oppositedirections,s ectionalism(theloyaltytotheinterestsofone'sownregionorsectionofthecountryinstead

14


oftothecountryasawhole)developed.
Debateoverthelackofbalanceofpowerbetweens tatesrightsandfederalgovtfocusedonnullification,
protectivetariffsandthespreadofslavery.
Southernstatesopposedprotectivetariffsb/citmeanthigherpricespaidforimported
manufacturedgoods.
WiththepassageofthehighT ariffof1828,calledtheTariffofAbominationintheSouth,
tensionsincreased.
V.PJohnCalhounofSouthCarolinaarguedthatastatehadtherightton ullify(make
legallyinvalid)anyfederallawthatthestateconsideredunconstitutional.
Claimedthatitwasthestate'srighttointerpretfederallaws.
Inresponsetoaslightlylower1832tariff,SouthCarolinaenactedtheO rdinanceof
Nullificationthatrepealedboththe1828and1832tariffs.PresidentJackson:
defendedfederalsupremacyandcriticizednullificationasteasenous.
requestedaForceBilltoallowhimtousefederaltroopsinSouthCarolinato
enforcethelaw.
proposedtheCompromiseTariffof1833thatgraduallyloweredtariff.
JacksonssolutionresolvedtheimmediatecrisisandSouthCarolinawithdrewitstariffnullificationbutthen
nullifiedtheForceBillsothefundamentalissueremained.
TheS econdBankoftheUnitedStatesprovokedsectionaldifferences.
MostoppositiontotheNationalBankcamefromsouthernersandwesternerswhowanted
agreatersupplyofmoneyincirculationandresentedthenationalbankscontrolover
statebanking.
In1832,PresidentJacksonvetoedabilltorecharterthebankandthenwithdrewfederal
moneyfromthebank,effectivelykillingit
RelationswithNativeAmericans:AsAmericansettlersmovedfurtherwestwardinthe1800s,conflict
continuedwiththeN.Awholivedintheseterritories.
N.Atriedavarietyofc ulturalsurvivalstrategiesinordertocopeandretaintheirlandandculture.
Intheearly1800s,twoShawneebrothers,ProphetandTecumseh,triedtobuildaP anIndian
MovementintheOldNorthwest,butitdiedwithTecumsehintheWarof1812.
Cherokeesattemptedtosurviveandretaintheirculturethroughc ulturaladaptationbycombining
elementsofN.AandEuropeanculture(ex.awrittenconstitution),however,itdidnotsavethem.
ThefederalgovtusedacombinationoftreatiesandforcetomoveN.AtolandswestoftheMississippi
Riverinwhichtheywereforcedrepeatedlytogiveuptheirland.
In1830s,JacksonbeganhisR emovalPolicythatforcedallN.AtomovewestoftheMississippi.
In1832,theCherokeewenttocourttopreventGeorgiafromtakinglandinW orcesterv.
GeorgiainwhichChiefJusticeMarshallruledthatGeorgiahadnoauthorityover
CherokeeterritorybutGeorgiasimplyignoredtheruling.
TrailofTears(1838)U.SArmyroundeduptheCherokeeandmovedthemwestofthe
MississippiRiverinaforcedmarchinwhichmanydiedalongtheway.
AmericanReformTradition:Intheearly1800s,theIndustrialRevolution,urbanization,growthin
immigration,westwardexpansionandthecottonbasedsoutherneconomycreatedopportunitiesandissues.
TheS econdGreatAwakening(areligiousrevivalmovement)motivatedreformwithitsemphasison
selfrelianceandtoimprovetheworldthemovementcalledforselfimprovementandforjoiningto
15


fightforcesofevil.
ManyareasofAmericanlifeinspiredreformmovements
Reformersrecognizedthatifthepeopleweretogovern,theyneedtobeeducated.
HoraceMann,Massachusettsledthedriveforpubliceducation.
Mannbelievedthateveryonehadtherighttoaneducation.
Intheearly1800s,mostmentallyillpeoplewerekeptlockedupinprisonsbut,inthe1840s,
DorotheaDixstudiedthepoortreatmentofthementallyillandreportedherfindingstothestate
legislaturewhichauthorizedfundsforstatementalhospitals.
Reformerspushedforthecreationofprisons,hospitalsorphanagesandinstitutionstocarefor
physicallydisabledpeople.
Strongtemperancemovementwasorganizedtoeliminateexcessalcoholconsumption.
Inthe1820s,thea bolitionist(antislavery)movementgrewascottonproductionbecamemoreprofitable
andslaveryspread.
TheabolitionistmovementattractedawidevarietyofactivistssuchasA.AlikeFrederick
DouglassandwhiteactivistslikeAngelinaandSarahGrimk.
AbolitionistsorganizedtheU ndergroundRailroad(aseriesofsafehouseswhereescapingslaves
couldrestsafelyastheymadetheirwaynorthandintoCanada)
HarrietTubmanmadenineteentripstoescortrunawaysandwasafamousleaderofthe
UndergroundRailroad.
Bythe1830s,reformmindedwomenrecognizedthattheyfaceddiscriminationandthew omensrights
movementbeganofficiallyin1848whenElizabethCadyStantonandLucretiaMottorganizedthe
WomensRightsConventioninSenecaFall,NewYork.
There,theD eclarationofSentimentswasissuedinwhichoneofthegoalsofthismainlymiddle
classmovementwastoendlegalinequalitiesfacedbymarriedwomen.
Atthattime,ahusband'slegalrighttocontrolwifesproperty,earningsandchildren.
In1853,SusanB.AnthonyjoinedStantoninthedriveforwomensrightsand,bythe1850s,the
womensrightmovementbeganfocusingonwomen'ssuffrage.
TerritorialExpansion:F
rom1803to1853,theU.Sexpandeditspresentcontinentalboundaries.
ManifestDestinytheconceptthattheU.Shasthejustifiedandinevitabledivinemissiontoexpandtothe
PacificOceanandspreadtheideasoffreedomanddemocracy.
ThefirstAmericanstomovewestwardweree xplorerssuchasLewisandClark.
TheMissouriCompromise:Imaginary3630latitudelinewasdrawntoseparatefreestatesandslave
statesinordertomaintainbalanceofpowersinCongress.
MissouriappliedtoentertheUnionasaslavestatedespitetheentryconflictingwiththebalance.
However,Mainealsoappliedbutasafreestate,thuspreservingthebalanceinCongress.
Resolvedissueregardingfuturestatesb/callstatesabovethelinearefreestates(except
forMissouri)andbelowthelinewereslavestates.
By1853,thecontinentalU.Shadexpandedtoitspresentboundaries.
LouisianaPurchase(1803)whenJeffersonboughttheLouisianaTerritory,whichstretchedfrom
theRockyMountainstotheMississippiRiverandincludedtheGreatPlains,fromFrance.
JeffersonsentLewisandClarktoseekawaterroutetothePacificOceanexplorethe
economicresourcesandstrengthentheU.Scontroloftheterritory.

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Floridaterritorywasacquiredin1819viatreatyfromSpainsatisfiedsouthernexpansionists.
TheU.SacquiredT exas(1845)andpartsoftheFarWestfromMexicobya nnexation(the
conqueringoflandespeciallyaterritory)
TheSpanishhadalreadyestablishedmissionsandsettlementsinTexasandafterMexico
declareditsindependencefromSpainin1821,southernslaveholdersandotherAmerican
settlersmovedintoTexas.
In1836,thesettlersdeclaredindependencefromMexicoandcreatedtheRepublicof
Texaswhich,lateron,TexasRequestedadmissiontotheUnion.
JacksonandM artinVanBurenwereconcernedaboutthepoliticaleffectofadmittinga
slavestateandthediplomaticeffectsofadmittinglandclaimedbyMexico.
TheareasnearthePacificOcean,suchasCalifornia,NevadaandUtah,becamepartoftheU.Sby
theT
reatyofGuadalupeHidalgowhichendedtheM exicanWar(18461848)whenMexico
stronglyobjectedtotheTexasannexation.
TensionsincreasedwhenPresidentJamesPolksentarepresentativetoMexicowithan
offertobuyCaliforniaandmovedfederaltroopsintotheRioGrandeareasthatwasthe
centerofaborderdisputebetweentheU.SandMexico.
Whenthewarbegan,nationalopinionwasdividedinwhichexpansionistswelcomedan
opportunitytoacquiremorelandwhilenorthernersfearedthefutureadditionofmore
slavestateswoulddisrupttheb alanceinCongress.
ConstitutionalDebatesOverSlavery:U
ntiltheCivilWar,theConstitutionhadrecognizedandprotected
slaveryinthreewaystheThreeFifthsCompromise,theprovisionthatCongresscouldnotendtheimportingof
slavesbefore1808andthefugitiveslaveclause.
NorthernViews:Northernerswhosoughttostopthespreadofslaveryusedseveralarguments:
TheConstitutiongaveCongressjurisdictionorpowerovertheterritories.
Precedents(previousacts)justifiedcongressionalactionsuchas
theN orthwestOrdinancebywhichtheConfederationCongresshadbannedslaveryinthe
territorynorthoftheOhioRiver.
theM issouriCompromiseof1820whichbannedslaveryinthatpartofLouisiana
Purchasenorthofthe3630latitude.
SouthernViews:B/coftheearlierconstitutionalcompromises,Southernersinsistedthatslaverybe
permittedinthenewterritories.
Constitutionalequality,southernersbelieved,appliedonlytowhite.
Slaveryintheterritorieswaslegalb/cCongresshad
noauthoritytopreventtheextensionofslaveryintotheterritories.
aconstitutionaldutytoprotectslavery.

Section4.3FactorsBeforetheCivilWar
TheCompromiseof1850:B
efore1850,therewasanequalnumberoffreeandslavestatesandabalanceof
powerinCongress(anequalamountofrepresentativesoffreeandslavestates).
On1850thisbalancewasthreatenedwhenCalifornia,b/cofitsrapidpopulationgrowthduetothe
CaliforniaGoldRush,appliedtobecomeafreestate.
Thisissueregardingslaveryinthenewterritorieswassettledbyacompromisethat:

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EnteredCaliforniatotheUnionasafreestate.
InstilledastricterF ugitiveSlaveLawthatrequiredescapedslavesmustbereturned.
SlavetradewasprohibitedinWashingtonD.C.
PopularsovereigntywoulddeterminewhetheraterritoryintheMexicanCessionwastobea
slaveorfreesatebypeoplelivinginthoseterritoriesvoting.
TheCompromiseof1850,however,didnotfullypleaseeveryone.
SomeNorthernersengagedincivildisobedienceagainsttheFugitiveSlaveLawbyhelpingslaves
tryingtoreachthesafetyofCanada.
ThepassageoftheFugitiveSlaveLawmotivatedH arrietBeecherStowe,anabolitionist,towrite
UncleTomsCabinwhichexposedandrevealedthestrugglesfacedbyslaves.
TheKansasNebraskaAct:thelawoverturnedtheMissouriCompromise,thatprohibitedslaveryinthelands
thatmadeupKansaandNebraska,byallowingtheseterritoriestodecidebypopularsovereignty.
ViolenceeruptedwhenproslaveryandantislaverypeoplerushedintoKansastovoteontheissue.
BleedingKansasdescribesaseriesofviolentpoliticalconfrontationsandconflictsbetween
peopleforandagainstslavery.Forinstance
JohnBrownsgroupkilledproslaverysettlersatPottawatomieCreek.
ViolenceextendedtotheU.SSenatewhensoutherncongressmanPrestonBrooks,angeredata
speechSumnermade,beatabolitionistSenatorCharlesSumnerintheSenatechamber.
ReactionstotheKansasNebraskaActledther iseoftheRepublicanPartyandchangesinthepolitical
partysystem.
TheWhigs,onemajorparty,splitintonorthernandsouthernwingsandsoondiedout.
TheDemocratswereextremelyweakenedintheNorth.
TheRepublicans,anewparty,wasfoundedtoopposethespreadofslaveryandwassectional
rathernthananationalparty.
TheirproclaimedplatformwasFreeSoil,FreeLabor,FreeMen
TensionsLeadingtotheCivilWar:
SupremeCourtruledtheissueofslaveryintheterritoriesintheD
redScottv.Sanford(1857)
TherulingheldthatnoA.A,slaveorfree,werecitizens,therefore,theywerenotentitledto
constitutionalprotections.
TherulingheldthattheMissouriCompromisewasunconstitutionalb/cCongresscouldnot
deprivepeopleoftheirrighttoproperty(slaves)bybanningslaveryinanyterritory.
LincolnchallengedSenatorStephenDouglas,authoroftheKansasNebraskaAct,inthecampaignfor
U.SSenateintheL
incolnDouglasDebates(aseriesofdebatesheldbetweenLincolnandDouglas).
ThedebatesmadeLincolnanationalpridefigureunacceptabletotheSouthb/cofhisposition
againsttheextensionofslavery.
In1859,JohnBrownledasmallgroupinaraidagainstafederalarsenalinpresentdayWestVirginiain
whichhisplanwastoseizeweaponsandleadaslaveuprising.
AlthoughJ ohnBrownsraidatHarpersFerrywasunsuccessfulandlaterexecutedfortreason,he
becameaNorthernhero.
TheincidentincreasedSoutherndistrustoftheNorth.
TheE lectionof1860showedclearlyhowdividedtheU.Swasespeciallysincetheonlyremaining
nationalparty,theDemocraticParty,splitbetweentheNorthandSouthwitheachwingrunninga
candidateandtheotherpoliticalpartiesweres ectionalparties.
18


Lincoln(Republican)wontheElectoralCollegebutreceivedlessthanhalfthepopularvote.
TheelectionofLincoln,aNorthernerwhoopposedtheextensionofslavery,ledsome
Southernerstothreatens ecession(theactofformallywithdrawingfromanation)
Topreventsecession,SenatorJohnCrittendenofKentuckyproposedtheC rittendenCompromise
whichwouldhavedividedthenation,slaveversusfreeterritoryallthewaytoCaliforniaalong
theMissouriCompromiseline.
Thecompromisewasdefeatedb/ccongressionalRepublicanswouldnotsupportit.
InDecemberof1860,theU.Ssfacedas ecessioncrisisstartingwhenSouthCarolinadecidedto
secede(leave)theUnionand,byFebruary1861,sixmoreSouthernstatesalsosucceeded.
ThesixSouthernstateslikeSouthCarolinaformedtheC onfederateStatesofAmerica.
PresidentJamesBuchanantooknoactiontostopthestatesandbelievedthatneitherhenor
CongresshadthepowertopreservetheUnion.
Lincolndisagreedanddeniedthestatescouldsecede.

TheCivilWarandReconstruction(18601877)
Section5.1TheCivilWar
StartoftheCivilWar:
LincolnspolicywastoopposesecessionbuttonottakeanymilitaryuntiltheSouthstartedfighting.
InApril1861,theSouthseized(tookcontrolof)F ortSumterinCharlestonHarbor,S.C.
SowhenLincoln,whorefusedtoacceptthatastatecouldsecedetheUnion,sentshipsto
resupplythefort,asitwashisresponsibilityaspresidenttosupplyhissoldiers,Southerners,who
believedthatFortSumterwasundertheConfederatecontrol,attacked.
Afterfourmoresouthernstatesseceded,theCivilWarbegan.
WhenstatesweresecedingtheUnion,c onstitutionaldebatesoverwhetherornotastatehastherightto
leaveanationemerged.
TheSoutharguedthattheyhadarighttoleaveb/ctheU.SdidnotprotectSouthernrights.
LincolnbelievethatstatescouldnotleavetheUnionb/cnominoritycouldacttodestroythe
nationanditsgovt.
InordertohelpfinancetheCivilWarg overnmentalpolicieswereinstilledsuchasanewfederalbanking
systemthatestablishedanationalcurrency.
In1862,neartheendoftheCivilWar,Congresspassedmajoractstofacilitateeconomicgrowth
primarilybyencouragingdevelopmentoftheMidwestandfarwest.
Congress:
passedthePacificRailwayActauthorizingthebuildingofthetranscontinentalrailroad,
financedwithpubliclandgrantsandcashloans.
passedtheH omesteadActthatprovidedthesettlementofWesternlands.
approvedtheM orrillLandGrantActwhichgavepubliclandstostatesandterritoriesto
foundagricultural,mechanicalartsandmilitarysciencecolleges.
WarStrategies:
Fromthestartofthesecessioncrisis,LincolnsgoalwastopreservetheUnion.Lincolntobolde xecutive
actionssuchas:

19


Callingoutstatemilitia,increasedthesizeofthenavy,orderedanavalblockadeoftheSouthand
approvedfundsformilitaryexpenseswhileCongresswasnotinsession.
Suspendingthewritofh abeascorpus(requiresapersontobebroughtbeforeacourttodetermine
ifthatpersonisbeinglawfullyjailed)inareasnotinrebellion.
Censoringnewspapersandarrestingpublishersandeditors.
Bothsides,theNorthandSouth,tookm ilitarystrategiesinhopeofwinningthewar.
TheConfederatestrategy:
Attackrepeatedly,inflictingcasualtiesandwearingitdownuntilitlostthewilltofight.
HopedtogainaidanddiplomaticrecognitionfromGreatBritainandFrancesincethey
reliedonSoutherncotton.
TheUnionstrategy:
ReliedonitssuperiorresourcesandtechnologyUnionshipsblockadedSouthernports,
preventingtheConfederacyfromimportingfoodandmilitarysupplies.
OnJanuary1,1863LincolnissuedtheE mancipationProclamation.
ThemilitaryorderdecreedthatallslavesintheConfederacyagainsttheUnion(rebellionstates)
wereforeverfree.
Note:theproclamationdidnotfreeslavesintheborderstatesinordertokeepthosestates
ontheUnionsideandpreventthemfromseceding.
TheproclamationhelpedsatisfyNorthernabolitionistsandturnedawayBritishrecognitionofthe
Confederacy.
ItweakenedtheeconomicfoundationoftheConfederacybyincreasingtheamountofslave
leavingplantations.
IntheNorth,manpowerinthearmyincreasedwiththeenlistmentofthousandsofA.A.
TheCivilWarbecamebothawartorestoretheUnionandafighttoendslavery.
EndoftheCivilWar:
TheBattleofGettysburgaturningpointinthewarsinceitwasthelasttimethattheSouthattemptedto
invadetheNorth.
Fromthenon,LeefoughtadefensivewarinwhichitendedwithLeesurrendering.
LackofindustrialsupportandagoodtransportationnetworkcontributedintheSouthsdefeat.
NorthernblockadeofSouthernportsledtofoodshortagesandinflationsoared.
ResultsoftheCivilWar:
TheissueofsuccessionwassettledandtheUnionpreservedbutalegacyofresentment,bitternessand
divisivenessremained.
Withthe13thAmendment,slaveswerefreedbuttheircivilandpoliticalrightswereunresolved.
Thefederalgovtwasstrengthened.
ThewarstimulatedeconomicgrowthandincreasedmanufacturingintheNorth.
TheSouthwaseconomicallyandfinanciallydevastatedwiththelostoftheirfreelabor,slaves.

Section5.2TheStartofReconstruction
Reconstruction:thefederalplanregardingtheefforttorebuildtheSouthernstatesandrestoretheUnion
Requiredtherebuildingofthenationseconomyanditsgovt.
PlansforReconstruction:

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LincolnsPlan:basedontheideathattheSouthernstateshadneverlefttheUnion.Itfeatured:
pardonstoSouthernerswhosworeoathsofloyaltytotheU.S.
recognitionofnewSouthernstategovtswhen10%ofthosewhohadvotedhadvoted1860
electiontooktheseoathsandwhenthestatesadoptedanewconstitutionabolishingslavery.
concernthathealingthenationswoundsquicklywasessential.
LincolnsassassinationinApril1865meantthathewouldnevercarryouthisprogram
JohnsonsPlan:VicePresidentAndrewJohnsonbecamepresidentafterLincolnsdeath.
RadicalRepublicanscontrolledCongressandtheywantedharshertermsofR econstruction.
JohnsonsfailuretoconsidercongressionalviewsonReconstructionandhiseffortstoblock
radicalplansledRepublicansinCongresstoattempt,butlost,toimpeachhim.AlthoughJohnson
wasacquitted(declarednotguilty),hispoliticalpowerwasgone.
TheRepublicancontrolledCongresseventuallydictatedthetermsofReconstruction.ThisR adical
Reconstructionincludedthe:
divisionofthesouthintof ivemilitarydistrictscontrolledbytheU.SArmy,whilethenewstate
constitutionsandgovtswerebeingsetup.
requirementofthenewstategovttograntAfricanAmericansmalestherighttovote.
requirementofSouthernstatestoratifythe14thAmendment(prohibitedmanyformer
Confederategovtofficialsfromholdingoffice).
DuringReconstruction:
ImmediatelyaftertheCivilWarended,whiteSoutherners,whohadserveinleadershippositionsbefore
andduringtheconflicttriedtoreasserttheircontrolofs tateandlocalgovts
Theywereconcernedwithlimitingthefreedomandmovementofformerslaves.
WhentheradicalplanofReconstructiontookeffect,mostoftheformerConfederateleaders,
mostlyDemocrat,wereprohibitedfromholdingofficeandvoting.
Republicanscommandedbythenewstategovtsthatemergedandtheywereoverwhelmingly
supportedbyA.A,whohadrecentlywontherighttovote.
ManywhiteSouthernersdeeplyresentedthefederalgov'timpositionofRadicalReconstruction.
scalawags:awhiteSoutherneractiveinnewReconstructiongovts/supportsReconstruction.
carpetbaggers:RepublicannorthernerswhocametheSouthtotakepartinReconstruction.
DuringReconstruction,thestatesratifiedthreen ewconstitutionalamendments:
13thAmendment(1865):abolishedslaveryintheU.S
14thAmendment(1868):
1. Declaredallnativebornornaturalizedpeople,includingA.A,werecitizens.
2. Forbadestatestomakelawsthatviolatedtheprivilegesofcitizensordeprivedanyoneof
life,libertyorpropertywithoutthedueprocessoflaw.
3. LimitedtherightsofformerConfederateofficersandgovernmentalofficials.
4. PromisedtopayCivilWardebtsowedbythefederalgovtbutdeclaredConfederatedebt
tobevoid(invalid).
15thAmendment(1870):declaredthatstatescouldnotkeepcitizensfromvotingb/cofrace,
color,orpreviousconditionofservitude(slavery)
*THINK*13,14,15Free,Citizens,Vote
ThefirstpresidentialelectionaftertheendoftheCivilWarin1868andUnionwarheroGeneralU
lysses
S.Grantranaspresidentandwon.

21


Grantsstrengthswereofamilitaryleader,notapoliticianorgovtleader.
ScandalsandcorruptiondamagedGrant'sadministration,asbusinessownersinthebooming
postwareconomyofferedbribestopoliticianswhowoulddofavorsforthem.
Politicalcorruptionwascommonatstateandlocallevels.
OneofthemostnotoriousfigureW illiamBossTweed,whorantheTammanyHallpolitical
machineinNewYorkCityinthe1860sand1870s.
TheartistThomasNastattackedTweedsbehaviorinaseriesofstingingpoliticalcartoonsthat
helpedpublicopinionagainstTweed.

Section5.3TheEndofReconstruction
CorruptionintheGrantAdministrationandalmostallConfederatescouldvoteagainweakenedthepolitical
strengthoftheRepublicanparty
MostwhiteSouthernmalesvotedDemocratic,inreactiontoRadicalRepublicanReconstruction.
SolidSouth:referstowhentheDemocraticpartywoulddominatevotingintheSouth.
EventhoughnearlydyingoutintheSouth,theRepublicanpartyremainedstrongintheNorthand
Midwestb/citfocusedonissuesofintereststobusinessmanandfarmer,suchaskeepingmoneytightand
tariffonimportshigh.
TheElectionof1876:T
heemergenceofthesolidSouthgavetheDemocratsgreaterpowerinpoliticsat
nationallevelespeciallyfortheelectionof1876.
DemocratsnominatedSamuelTildentorunforpresidentagainstRepublicanR utherfordB.
Hayes.
Tildenwonthepopularvotebuttheelectoralvotewascontestedb/cfourstatessentindisputed
electionreturns.
AnelectoralcommisionwasappointedtocountthevotesbuttheRepublicanmajorityonthe
commisiongavealltheelectoralvotestoHayes,guaranteeinghisvictory.
IntheC ompromiseof1877,Democratsagreedtogoalongwiththecommission'sdecisionin
returnforpromisesbyHayesto:
removethefivemilitarydistrictsandwithdrawremainingfederaltroopsfromthe
Southernstates,thus,m arkingtheendofReconstruction.
nameaSouthernertohiscabinet.
supportfederalspendingoninternalimprovementsintheSouth.
WhiteControlintheSouth:
ThewithdrawaloffederaltroopsenablewhiteSouthernerstoeliminateanypoliticaladvancesA.Amade
duringReconstruction.VariousmethodswereusedtorestraintherightsofA.Asuchas:
BlackCodes:lawspassedinmostSouthernstatesaftertheCivilWarbasedonoldslavecodes
andaimedtokeepA.AinconditionsclosetoslaveryproducedanangryreactionintheNorth
thathelpedthepassageoftheRadicalReconstructionprogram.
SecretSocieties:WhiteSouthernersoriginallyformedgroupsliketheK luKluxKlantofrighten
A.AandtheirsupportersoutfortakingpartofReconstructiongovts.
PollTaxes:Southernstatesimposedataxoneveryvoterandthosewhoweretoopoortopay,
includingmanyA.Aespeciallycomingoutofslavery,couldnotvote.

22


LiteracyTests:Somestatesrequiredcitizenstodemonstratethattheycouldreadandwritebefore
theyvoted.FewA.Acouldpassthesetestsb/ctheyreceivedlittleschooling.
EventhoughtheF reedmansBureau(programcreatedbyCongresstoaidformerslaves)
establishedmanyschoolsforyoungA.A,itlastedonlyafewyears.
StatelawsforcedA.Achildrentoattendpoorlyequippedandfundedseparateschools.
GrandfatherClauses:Polltaxesandliteracytestscouldhavekeptpooranduneducated/illiterate
whitefromvotingthus,inordertopreventthis,Southernstatesaddedgrandfatherclausestotheir
constitutionsthatallowedthesonorgrandsonofamanthatwasabletovotein1866or1867to
voteevenifhecouldneitherpaythetaxnorpassthetest.
FewA.Acouldvotein1866or1867sotheclausebenefittedthewhitesexclusively.
JimCrowLaws:theselawsforbadeA.Afromsharingfacilitieswithwhites(ex.railroadcarsor
waterfountains)andrequiredtheseparationofA.Aandwhitesinschools,parks,publicbuildings
andpublictransportation.
Southernstatesalsopassedlawsestablishingsocialandlegals egregation(theseparation
ofpeoplebasedonrace).
DeclaredlegalbySupremeCourtcaseP lessyv.Ferguson(1896)decision.
TheSupremeCourtsResponses:theSupremeCourtdidnotinterferewitheffortstorestorewhitecontrol
intheSouth.
Inthe1883C ivilRightsCases,thecourtruledthatthe13thAmendmentabolishedslaverybutdid
notprohibitdiscriminationandthe14thAmendmentprohibiteddiscriminationbygovtbutnot
byindividuals.
InthelandmarkcaseP lessyv.Ferguson(1896),theCourtruledthatsegregationwaslegalaslong
asA.Ahadaccesstos eparatebutequalfacilities.
TheCourtsrulingintheP lessyc asesetaprecedentthatjustifiedsegregationinallpublic
facilities(ex.schools,hospitals,bathrooms)untilthe1950s
InthepivotalcaseofB rownv.BoardofEducationofTopeka,K ansas( 1954),theSupreme
CourtreversedthefindingintheP lessyv.Ferguson(1896).
TheBrowndecisionsstatedthateducationalfacilitiesseparatedsolelyonthebasisof(based
on)racewerebytheirnatureunequal.
AfricanAmericansDebatetheirFuture:twoprominentleadersofferedcontrastingstrategiestoimprove
thelivesofA.A. *vocational:relatingtoemployment
BookerT.Washington W.E.BDuBois

UrgedA.Atogetvocationaltraininginordertoestablishthemselves SharedWashingtonsviewoftheimportanceofeducationbut
economicallybelievedthisstrategyincreasestheselfesteemandearn rejectedaccommodationfeltthatA.Ashouldprotestunfair
themrespectfromwhitesociety(accomodation) treatmentandreceiveabroad,liberaleducationratherthana
vocationalone.

A.Ashouldtemporarilyputasidetheirdesireforpoliticalequalityand BrightestA.Ashouldgainanadvancedliberalartseducation,rather
focusonbuildingeconomicsecuritybygainingusefulvocationalskills. than*vocational,andthendemandsocialandpoliticalequality.

TheSecondIndustrialRevolutionandProgressiveEra(18701920)
Section6.1TheRiseofBusiness,IndustryandLabor

23


EconomicDevelopmentintheNorth:Theindustrializationthatstartedbeforethewaracceleratedas
northernfactoriesrushedtokeepupwiththeUnionsdemandforguns,ammunitions,uniformersandother
necessaryproductsforwar.
Improvementsinrailroadsystemshelpedspeedtroopmovements.
Sincesomanynorthernfarmworkersenteredthearmy,farmsbecamemoreheavilymechanized,suing
fewerworkerstoproducemorecrops.
LittleofthefightingtookplaceintheNorthandtheregionwassparedmuchphysicaldestruction
fromthewar.
Growingnorthernfactorieslookedoverseasmarketsfortheirgoodsandthecompletionofthe
transcontinentalrailroadopenednewmarketsintheWest.
Thefederalgovtencouragedthebuildingofthetranscontinentalrailroadbygivinglandtothe
railroadcompanieswhosometimessoldthelandataprofit.
EconomicDevelopmentintheSouth:TheCivilWarruinedtheSouthseconomybyendingslavery,thus
eliminatingtheplantationsystemonwhichsouthernwealthwasbasedon.
Duringthefighting,plantationshadbeenburned,railroadsrippedupandtheregionsfewfactories
destroyed.
Afterthewar,manyfarmersandplantershadtoselloffpartsoftheirlandtopayoffdebts.
SomesouthernleadersbelievedthattheSouthseconomyshouldnotrestsimplyonagricultureandbegan
tocreateaN
ewSouthwithrebuiltrailroads,newtextileandsteelmillsandnewindustriessuchasoiland
coalproduction.
TheSouthlaggedbehindtheNorthineconomicgrowthsinceagriculturestillofferedthemostjobsand
manysoutherners,includingmanyformerslaves,hadtofarmlandownedbyothers.
Theselandlessfarmersincludeds harecroppers(gavepartofeachyearscroptothelandownerand
receivedtherestaspayment).
Emergedprimarilyasawaytoprovidealaborsupplytoplantationownersandkept
formerlyenslavedpeople*economicallydependent*.
Tenantfarmers:apersonwhofarmsrentedlandpaidcashtorentland.
BusinessDevelopments:BeforetheCivilWar,sikeproprietors(singleowners)andpartnershipshadcontrolled
mostAmericanbusinesses.Themillsandfactoriesthatcamewithindustrializationusuallyrequiredgreater
capital(moneyforinvestments)thatonepersonorafewpartnerscouldraise.
Toraisecapitalforexpansion,manybusinessesbecamec orporations(abusinessinwhichmanyinvestors
ownshares,calledstocks).
Inexchangefortheirinvestments,eachstockholderreceivesadividend(partofthecorporation's
profits).
Asthenationseconomyboomedandindustriesgrewlargerotherwaysoforganizingbusinesses
appeared.Thesebusinessusuallyaimedtoeliminatecompetitionanddominateaparticularareaofthe
economy.
Monopoly:acompanyorsmallgroupofcompaniesthathascompletecontroloveraparticular
fieldofbusiness.
Havingamonopolyinafieldoftenallowedthecompanytoraisepricestoalmostany
levelitdesiredsuchabusesledfederallegislationaimedatcurbingmonopolies.
Conglomerate:acorporationthatownsagroupofunrelatedcompanies.

24


Theyareusuallyformedbym erger(theprocessbywhichonecompanyacquiredlegal
controloveranother)botharelegalandcommontoday.
Pool:agreementsbtwncompetingcompaniesinonefieldtofixpricesanddividebusiness.
Trust:agroupofcorporationsinthesameorrelatedfieldagreetocombineunderasingleboard
oftrusteesthatcontrolledtheactionsofallthemembercorporations.
Bothpoolsandtrustswereoutlawedandwereusedbybigbusinessesinanefforttolimit
competitions.
HoldingCompanies:amethodusedbycorporationstogetaroundtheoutlawingoftrustsinwhich
itbroughtcontrollingamountsofstockindifferentcorporations.
Entrepreneurs(peoplewhotakeresponsibilityfortheorganizationandoperationofanewbusiness
venture)contributedtoindustrygrowththeirbusinessknowledge.
Theyoftenriskedlargesumsofcapitalinhopesofmakingenormousprofit.
Suchentrepreneursinclude:
AndrewCarnegieEnteredthethesteelindustrywhichwasboomingb/cofthegrowthof
railroads.
JohnD.RockefellerEnteredtheoilrefiningbusinessbelievedcompetitionwaswasteful
andusedruthlessmethodstoeliminateit.FormedtheStandardOilTrusttocontrolmore
aspectsofoilproduction.
J.PierpontMorganprofitedbymakingloanstogrowbusinesses.Hetookcontrolof
manybankruptrailroads,reorganizedthemandmadeprofit.
HenryFordanentrepreneurthatrevolutionizedautomakingbyusingamoving
assemblylinethatallowedmassproductionofcars,significantlyloweringthecostof
production.Hepaidworkershigherwagesandsetastandardthatenabledlaborersto
affordsuchpurchases.
IndustrializationandthechangesassociatedwithitcausedAmericana ttitudestowardbusinesses.
Before,manybelievedinthePuritanworkethicwhichpromotestheconceptthathardwork
buildscharacterandisitsownreward.
Thetremendouswealthsomeentrepreneursgainedandthecruelbusinessmethodsledsome
Americanstorethinktheirideasononthemeaningofbusinesssuccess.
Philosophiestriedtoexplainandjustifythelargewealthandpracticesusedtoachieveit.
LaissezFaireEconomistAdamSmith,inhisnovelT heWealthofNations,supportedthe
principlethatthegovtshouldnotinterfereineconomicandbelievedthataf reeenterprise
system(privateindividualsmaketheeconomicdecision)ismostefficient.
SocialDarwinismbelievedthatlifewasastruggleforthesurvivalofthefittest.
Unregulatedbusinesscompetitionshowsweakbusinessfailingandhealthyonesthrivingany
govtprogramtoaidthepoorandworkerswouldviolatenaturallaws
RobberBaronvs.PhilanthropistsSomecriticizedthewealthyentrepreneursasr obber
barons(thosewhogaintheirwealthbyruthlessmethodsintheirdealingswithcompetitorsat
theexpenseofthepoorandworkingclass).
GildedAgeatimeperiodwhichtheU.Sseemedprosperousandboomingontheoutsidebuttherewasmuch
economicandsocialcorruptionsuchashazardousworkingandlivingconditionsandmonopoliesintheinside.
GovtPoliciesTowardBusiness:Thefederalgovtheldalaissezfaireattitudejustifiedbyexpanding
industriesandgrowingforeigntrade.

25


Severalfactorsledthegovttotakestepstowardbusinessregulation:
periodicdownturnsinthenationaleconomy.
criticismofpracticesthatsawbigbusinessprofitattheexpenseofthepoorandworkingclass.
increasingpoliticalpressureforchange.
SupremeCourtDecisions:railroadsdevelopedpoliciesthatdiscriminatedagainstfarmersandsmall
hippers.Thesegroupspressuredsomestatestopasslawsregulatingrailroadpracticesandtherailroads
suedtohavesuchlawsoverturned.
Munnv.IllinoisSupremeCourtupheld(approved)anIllinoislawcontrollinggrainratesb/cit
recognizedastatesrighttoregulateprivateproperty.
However
InW abash,St.Louis&PacificRailwayv.Illinois,theCourtruledthatstatescouldnotregulate
railroadratesb/conlythefederalgovtcanregulateinterstatetrade
Meantthatstatescoulddolittletoregulatetherailroads.
PublicpressureforreformofrailroadpoliciesledCongresstopasstheI nterstateCommerceActwhich
setuptheI nterstateCommerceCommision(anagencyinchargewithendingrailroadabusessuchas
pools,rebatesordiscountsavailableforspecialcustomers).
Althoughcourtdecisionskeptthecommisionineffectiveforseveralyears,itsestablishmentseta
precedentforfederalregulationofinterstatecommision.
B/clargecorporationsandtrusthadeliminatedmostcompetitionandwonalmosttotalmonopoliesin
theirfields,theS hermanAntitrustAct(1890)wasinstilledtoprohibitmonopoliesbydeclaringany
businesscombinationortrustillegal.
Although,whenthefederalgovttriedtoenforcetheact,theSupremeCourt,inU nitedStatesv.
E.C.KnightCompany(1895)ruledthatmanybusinesseswereexemptfromthenewlaw.
Someothercorporationscircumventedtheactbyformingholdingcompaniesratherthantrust.
LaborOrganizations:BusinessgrowthbroughtgenerallyhigherwagestoAmericanworkersbutperiodic
unemploymentandpoorworkingconditionsremainedacommonissue.
Toimproveworkingconditions,workersformedlaborunionsApopularsloganthatpromotedamajorgoal
oflaborunionwas8hoursforwork,8hoursforsleep,8hoursforwhatwewill
Collectivebargainingunionmembersrepresentedworkersandnegotiatelaborissueswithmanagement.
KnightsofLaboralaborunionthatwelcomedskilled,unskilledworkers,womenandA.Aand
foughtforbroadsocialreformssuchasaneighthourdayforworkers,anendtochildlaborand
equalopportunitiesandwagesforwomen.
AntilaborfeelingsweptthenationaftertheH aymarketRiotandtheKnightsdeclinedin
influenceb/cofmanyunsuccessfulstrikes.
AmericanFederationofLabor(AFL)acollectionofmanydifferentcraftunionsofskilled
workersinsimilartradesformedbySamuelGompers.
IncontrasttotheKnightsofLabor,theAFLfoughtimmediategoalssuchasbetter
wages,hoursandworkingconditions(breadandbutterunionism).
Groupssuchaswomen,immigrantsandA.Awerenotwelcome.
InternationalLadiesGarmentWorkersUnion(ILGWU)Womenmadeupthemajorityofworkers
inthegarmentindustriesandtheunionwasformedtorepresentthelaborers.

26


In1911,afireattheTriangleShirtwaistCompanyinNewYorkCitykilledmanyand
someleaptfromtheirdeathstoescapetheburningbuildingduetolockedexitsand
inadequatefireescapes.
LaborConflicts:Ifcollectivebargainingfailed,laborunionssometimesusedboycottsagainsttheemployeror
resortedtostrikestoachievetheiraimsusedtoforceactionbythecompany.
Sometimesendedinunionvictoriesbutoftenledtoviolenceasbusinessownerssoughtstateandevenfederal
supporttoendwalkouts.
Whenmosteffortsatcollectivebargainingfailed,bigbusinessesoftenusecourtordersagainstlabor
unionstoforceworkersbacktowork.
Tacticsusedbybigbusinesses:
Ifaworkersnamewasputonab lacklist,itmeantthatthenamewascirculatedtoother
companiesoremployerssothatthepersonwouldnotbehiredb/coftheiractionsofbelief.
Yellowdogcontractsforcedworkerstosignagreementsstatingthattheywouldneverjoinalabor
union.
Somestrikesincludethe
GreatRailwayStrike(1877)aseriesofpaycutsforrailroadworkerledtoastrikeand,atthe
requestofstategovernors,PresidentRutherfordB.Hayessentfederaltroopstohelpendthe
strike.Theworkersgainedlittlebenefitfromthestrikeandownerstookharderpositionsagainst
union.
HaymarketRiotalaborrallythatendedwithabombblastandriotthatkilledmany.
HomesteadStrike(1892)unionmembersattheCarnegiesteelplantwentonstriketoprotesta
wagecut.Whenmanagementbroughtinsecurityguardstoprotecttheplant,violencefollowed
leavingpeopledead
PullmanStrike(1894)astrikebyrailwaycarmakersinIllinoisspreadandtiedupotherraillines
soPresidentGroverClevelandsentinfederaltroopstoendthestrike.
Clevelandsactionsconfirmedthebeliefofmanythatthegovtfavoredtheinterestsof
businessoverthoseoflabor.
TheIndustrialWorkersoftheWorld(IWW)aradicalunionofskilledandunskilledlaborersled
ahugestrikeagainstthetextilemillsinMassachusettswhichprovedoneofthegreatestsuccesses
ofthateraandworkerwonmostoftheirdemands
UnionleaderEugeneV.DebswasjailedforhisinvolvementinwhichtheSupremeCourt,inthe1895
caseI nreDebsruledthatthepresidenthadtherighttodeploythetroopsevenovertheobjectionofthe
governorofIllinoisfaceddirectgovtintervention.

Section6.2AmericanSocietyAdjuststoIndustrialization
IndustrializationandUrbanization(thegrowthofcities):Citiesofferedlargenumbersofworkerfornew
factoriesandprovidedtransportationforrawmaterialsandfinishedgoods.
NegativeEffectscrowded,unsanitarylivingconditionforworkerandcorruptcitypolitics.
Constructionofdecenthousenoftenlaggedandmuchcityhousingconsistedof
tenements(multifamilybuildings)thatusuallyimmigrantsandworkingclassfamiliescouldpay
littleforrent.

27


Urbancrowdinghelpsspreaddiseaseespeciallysincewaterandsanitationfacilitieswereoften
inadequate(lackingthequality/quantityrequired).
Politicalmachinestookcontrolofmanycitygovtsbyprovidinghelptomanypoorimmigrant
votersandtherebygainingtheirsupport.
Politicalreformerssoughttounseatcorruptpoliticalmachinesandseethatpublicmoneywasspenton
improvedservicessuchaspolice,firedepartmentsandnewhospitals.
InChicago,JaneAddamsstartedHullHouse,amodelprojectthatledas ettlementhouse
movementtoprovideeducationandservicestothepoor.
TheUrbanMixture:thepeopleofthesegrowingcitiesgenerallycouldbedividedinto
WorkersandthePoorthelargestgroupcontainedthemostimmigrantswhosememberslivedin
slumsandpoorneighborhoodslivingconditionsgenerallywerebetterinc ompanytowns(built
andownedbyasingleemployerbutmadeworkersinthesetownsdependentontheiremployer
fromhousing,foodandpoliceprotection).
TheMiddleClassmostlydoctors,lawyers,officeworkersandskilledlaborershadmoneyand
leisuretimecouldaffordnewconsumergoodsbecomingavailable.
TheWealthyentrepreneursandwealthybusinesspeoplemadeupthesmallestsegmentof
societylivedinmansionsorelegantapartmentbuildings.
ManyAmericansbelievedthattheidealwomandevotedherselftohomeandfamily,eventhoughusually
onlywealthywomencoulddedicatethemselvesfulltimetosuchtasks
Inthelate1800s,morewomenbegantakingjobsoutsidethehomesomeoutofeconomic
necessityandothersoutofadesireforalargerroleinsociety.
NewEmploymentOpportunitiesforWomen:workingclasswomenoftenhadtoholdjobsoutside
thehomesuchastraditionaljobs(householdservices,sewingorlaundering)andnewjobscreated
byrecentinventionslikethetypewriterandtelephone.
Manymiddleandupperclasswomenhadlongbeenactiveinreformsmovements,including
abolitionandtemperance,andhadattendedcollegeinwhichtheirsoughttoapplytheir
educationsandsocialconcernsinthejobmarket.
Togainpoliticalpowertoforcechangewomenfirstneededtowins uffrageandthewomen's
suffragemovementgrewmoreactive.
Immigration:U.ShadalwaysbeenanationofimmigrantsaftertheCivilWar,industrializationdrewagreater
floodofimmigrants.Duringthe19thcentury,therewerefewrestrictionsonimmigrationasthegrowingnumbers
offactoriesprovidedjobopportunitiesforcheaplabor.
ColonialImmigrationperiodlastedfromthearrivalofthefirstpeoplefromEnglandthroughthe
DeclarationofIndependenceLookatpage3
OldImmigrationyearsfromtheestablishmentoftheU.Suntilthe1850slookatpage13
NewImmigrationthetimefrom1870tothe1820smostcamefromsouthernandeasternEuropesuchas
Italy,PolandandRussiaands ubstantialnumbersofJapaneseandChinese.
Immigrantshopedforgreatereconomicopportunity,seekingpoliticalfreedomandsought
religiousfreedom.
Mostnewimmigrantssettledincities,especiallyindustrialcentersandports,andoftenwere
concentrateding hettos(usuallypoorurbanareasdominatedbyasingleethnicgroup)andAsian
immigrantstendedtosettleonthewestcoast,usuallyinCalifornia.

28


AdjustingtolifeintheU.Scausedstrainsinimmigrantfamilies.Atschool,immigrantchildren
learnedEnglishandAmericancustomswhileimmigrantparentsfearedthattheirchildrenwere
losingtheirreligiousandculturalheritage.
Growingnumberofimmigrantsproducedreactionoffearandhostilityamongmanynativeborn
Americanwhoseancestorshadcomefromverydifferentbackgrounds.
Newcomersfaceddiscriminationinjobsandhousinginadditionto,aslowwageworkers,they
competedagainstotherminoritygroupslikeAfricanAmericans.
Thenewimmigrantsfoundanabundanceofjobsinthenationsexpandingindustries,yetthe
steadystreamofincomingworkerstofillsuchjobskeptwageslow.
ReactionAgainstImmigrationfloodofimmigrationinthelate1800sbroughtinn ativism(beliefthat
nativebornAmericansandtheirwaysoflifeweresuperiortoimmigrants).
BelievedthatimmigrantlanguagesandtraditionwouldnegativelyimpactAmericansociety
workersbelievedthatthenewimmigrantscompetingforjobskeptwageslow.
Aseriesofdownturnsintheeconomyaddedtofearsthatimmigrantswouldtakejobsfrom
nativebornAmericans.
KnowNothingParty Thepartysmembersworkedtolimitthevotingstrengthofimmigrants,keepCatholicsoutofpublic
(AmericanParty) officesandrequirealengthyresidencebeforecitizenshipachievednoneofthesegoalsanddiedout
bythelate1850s

ChineseExclusionActof UnderpressurefromCalifornia,CongresspassedthislawsharplylimitingChineseimmigrationsome
1882 nativebornAmericanslabelledimmigrationfromAsiaayellowperil

Gentleman'sAgreement In1907,PresidentRooseveltreachedaninformalagreementwithJapanunderwhichthatnationnearly
haltedtheemigrationofitspeopletotheU.S

LiteracyTests In1917,Congressenactedalawbarringanyimmigrantwhocouldnotreadorwrite

EmergencyQuotasof1921 SharplylimitedthenumberofimmigrantstotheU.Seachyear.

NationalOriginsActof1924 FurtherreducedimmigrationandbiaseditinfavorofthosefromnorthernandwesternEurope.
Sociologistswhostudiedimmigrationdevelopedtheoriesonhowimmigrantswereabsorbedinto
Americansociety:
MeltingPotTheorypeoplefromvariouscultureshavemetintheU.StoformanewAmerican
culturethecontributionsofindividualgroupsarenoteasilydistinguishedtheresultingcultureis
moreimportantthanitsparts
AssimilationimmigrantsgaveuphomelandlanguagesandcustomstobecomeA mericanized
(adoptingtheappearanceandattitudesofthelargersocietyinordertobeaccepted)
Pluralism(SaladBowlTheory)recognizedthatgroupsdonotalwayslosetheirdistinctive
characterstheycanlivesidebysidewitheachgroupcontributingindifferentwaysofsociety
groups(likedifferentingredientsinasalad)remainidentifiablebutcreateanew,largerwhole.
NativeAmericansandWestwardExpansion:
The westward expansion continued to create problems for the N.A who stood in its path. By the 1840s,
most N.A lived west of the Mississippi River on lands that few whites wanted. However, with the
California goldrush,thebuildingofthetranscontinentalrailroadandthediscoveryofrichfarmlandinthe
GreatPlainswhitepeoplebegantomoveontoN.AlandsintheWest.

29


IndianWarsN.Afoughtbackfromthe1850sto1890inmanywarsthatragedintheWest.
GraduallytheN.Awereforcedtoaccepttreatiesthatcrowdedthemintor eservation.
N.Aresistancewasweakenedbythegreaternumberofwhiteswithsuperiortechnologyand
divisionsamongN.Apeoplethatpreventedunification.
ThefederalgovtcontinuedtodisplaylittleunderstandingorrespectforN.Aculture.
N.Aweregivenreservationslandthatrarelycouldproduceadequatecropsorsupportthepeople
livingonit.
CongresspassedtheD awesAct(1887)thataimedtoAmericanizetheN.A.Itproposedto
breakuptribesandreservations
grantlanddirectlytoN.Aasindividualsandfamilies.
giveN.AwhoabandontribalwaysdeedstotheirlandandU.Scitizenship.
RelativelyfewN.AacceptedthetermsoftheDawesActand,by1900,theeffectofthesegovt
policieshadgreatlyreducedthesizeoftheN.Apopulation
TheAmericanWestintheLate1800s:FrederickJacksonTurnerwroteinhispaperTheSignificanceofthe
FrontierinAmericanHistoryandclaimedthatlifeintheWesthadgivenrisetoinventiveness,independenceand
uniqueAmericancustomIn1890,thegovtannouncedthattheWestwasclosed.
AnA griculturalRevolutionwithnewtechnologieshelpedpeoplewhomovedontoN.Alandsexploitthe
wealthoftheWest.
Railroadsbroughtpeople,carriedwesterncropsandproductstoeasternmarkets.
IntheGreatPlains,ranchersturnedcattleraisingintobigbusinessesb/cofitstopsoiland
overcameheat,droughts,andoccasionalconflictswithrancherstoraisecrops.
Farmers,PopulistsandPolitics:F armersgainedmoreinfluencethroughtheGrangeandPopulistParty.
TheGrangeconsistedofmanyfarmersfacingthehardshipsandisolationofrurallife.
Pooreconomicconditionsmadefarmersawarethatrailroadcompanies,whichoftenstored
farmerscropsandcarriedthemtomarket,hadgreatcontrolovertheirlivelihoods.
Towinbacksomeofthiscontrol,theGrangebegantopressforpoliticalchangestolimitthe
poweroftherailroads.
PressurefromtheGrangeandothergroupsledtothestatelawsregulatingrailroadsthatwere
upheldinM unnv.IllinoisandtofederalcreatingtheInterstateCommerceCommission.
*THINK*GrangerangelikeintheWest
PopulistPartyfarmersandmanyfactoryworkersrealizedthatthebestwaytoachievemorereformswas
theformationofanewpoliticalparty.
Believedinpowerdirectlyfromthepeopleratherthanestablishedpoliticalfigure.
Manyoftheideasandgoalseventuallybecamelaws
Theirprimarygoalswas
agraduatedincometax
directelectionofU.Ssenators
govtownershipofrailroads
eighthourday
ThePopulistPartymadetheirstrongestshowingintheelectionof1896,thefirstelectiontofollowan
economicdepressionthathadbegunin1893.
ThemainPopulistissueinthecampaignwasf reesilver

30


Ashiftfromtheg oldstandard(thesystembywhichthevalueofacurrencywasdefined
intermsofgold)tosilverstandard.
Thefreecoinageofsilverwouldproducecheapmoneyandallowcurrencytoinflatein
valuewhichwouldmakeiteasierforfarmerstopayoffdebts.
AfterRepublicancandidateWilliamMcKinleywontheelection,thePopulistPartysoon
disappeared,however,someoftheideaswerelateradoptedbytheotherpoliticalparties
ThedefeatofthePopulistsymbolizedthegreatchangesthathadsweptthenation.
Theeconomyhadchangedfromagrariantoindustrial
TheU.Sbecameanationofcitiesratherthanfarmsandvillages.
TheWestwasclosinganditsinfluencecomingtoend.

TheSecondIndustrialRevolutionandP
rogressiveEra(18701920)
Section6.3TheProgressiveMovement
PressureforProgressiveReform:B
y1900,theU.Swasapowerfulnationduetoindustrialization,
urbanizationandimmigrationwhichtransformedthenationintoamajorworldeconomy.However,changesin
AmericanlifebroughtproblemsthatledtotheP
rogressiveErawhichwasreactionto:
powerfulmonopoliesrestrictingcompetitionandcontrollingprices.
laborunrestandviolence
unhealthyandunsafelivingandworkingconditions
increasinggapbetweenlivingstandardsfortherichandpoor
politicalcorruptionandlackofgovtresponsiveness
abuseofthenationsnaturalresources
Thecorporateworldgrewincreasinglywealthyandmorepowerful.Industrialleadersbelievedthat
economicsuccessdemonstratedfitnesstolead.
BasedonSocialDarwinism,thosewhosucceededearnedtheirpositionandthosewhofailed
deservedtheirfailure.
SocialDarwinistsalsobelievedthatgovtshouldnotinterveneinthisnaturaloccurringprocess.
Workingconditionsforfactoryworkerswereharshinwhichmanymanylaborersworked60hourweeks
onmachinery,ofteninunsafe,hazardousconditions.
Gettinghurtonthejoboftenresultedintheworkerbeingfired.
Workersearnedlowwagesandwomenandchildrenwerepaidevenlessthanmaleworkers.
Workershadlittlesecurityb/ctheiremployerscouldfirethematanytime.
Soon,workersgrewlesstolerantoftheseterribleconditionssosometriedtoorganizelabor
unionsbutemployersoftenfiredthosewhodidandstrikesfacedarmedattacksfromfactory
securityguardsandsometimesevenfederaltroops.
Thegapbetweenlivingstandardsoftherichandpoorincreasedwidelyinwhichthisgapwasmost
apparentinthecities.
Astherichgrewricher,livinginlavishtownhousesinrelativelysafeandcleanneighborhoods,
thepoorgrewevenpoorerinwhichtheylivedinurbanslumswithpoverty,crime,congestions
andpoorsanitation.
Housinginthecitiesweresegregatedbysocialandeconomicstatus,byraceandoftenbyethnic
background.

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Govtremainedrelativelyunresponsivetotheimpactofindustrializationandurbanization.
Industrieswereunrestrainedbyfederalandmanystategovtsandthecourtsoftenfailedto
supportfairstandardsofbusiness.
Thepublicreceivedlittlehelpfromitselectedrepresentative
SeveralU.SSupremeCourtrulingsshowthemixedresponseofthefederalgovt:
Lochnerv.NewYork(1905)CourtruledthataNewYorklawlimitingbakershourswas
unconstitutionalb/citinterferedwiththecontractbtwnemployerandemployee.
Mullerv.Oregon(1908)SupremeCourtallowedanOregonlawthatlimitswomentoa
tenhourworkday,rulingthatthelawwasjustifiedb/citprotectedwomenshealth.
However,theeffectwastokeepwomenoutofbetterpayingjobs.
TheProgressives:didnotformonesinglegroupbutratherwasmadeupdifferentkindsofAmericansdidnot
formasinglegroup.
TheProgressiveswereinfluencedbythePopulistsbutdifferedfromthem.
PopulistslivedinthecountryorsmalltownswheretheProgressivesmostlylivedinthecities
MostPopulistswerefarmerssotheywerefocusedonfarmproblemswhiletheProgressivestends
tobeeducatedprofessionals(doctors,lawyers,socialworkers,clergyandteachers)withawide
rangeofconcerns
Theprogressivemovementdemonstratedtherisingpowerandinfluenceofthemiddleclass.
Progressivesbelieved
thatabusesofpowerbygovtandbusinesscouldbeended.
thatnewdevelopmentsintechnologyandsciencecouldbeusedtoimprovethebasicinstitutions
suchasbusiness,govt,educationandfamilylife.
thatincapitalismandwereconcernedaboutthegrowthofsocialismasamoreradicalreactionto
theeffectsofindustrialization.
tobypasspartypoliticswhichtheyviewedascorruptbuttheyhadfaiththatastronggovtcould
andshouldcorrectabusesandprotectrights.
TheMuckrakersandReforms:Manyreformmovementsdevelopedfromthe1890stothe1920s.
Muckrakersjournalists,writers,orphotographersthathelpedexposeissuestotheattentionofthepublic.
Theyinvestigatedandexposedcorruptionandinjusticesthrougharticlesinmasscirculation
magazinesSomewrotenovelsdramatizingsituationsthatdemandedreform.
In1906,theworkofthemuckrakersresultedinthepassageoftheP ureFoodandDrugActand
theM eatInspectionAct,thefirsttwoactsofconsumerprotectionlegislation.
ThefederalgovtpassedtheselawsaftertheunsanitaryconditionsexposedbyU pton
Sinclair'snovelT heJunglewererevealed.
Muckraker Book/Article SubjectExposed

FrankNorris TheOctopus( 1901) MonopolisticrailroadpracticesinCalifornia

IdaTarbell HistoryOfStandardOilCompany( 1904) RuthlesspracticesoftheStandardOilCompany

LincolnSteffens TheShameOfTheCities( 1906) Politicalcorruptionincitygovt

JacobRiis HowTheOtherHalfLives( 1890) ConditionsofthepoorinNewYorkstenements

UptonSinclair TheJungle( 1906) Dangerousandunsanitaryconditionsinthemeatpackingindustry

32


OtherpeopleandgroupsworkedtobringProgressivereformsinAmericansociety.
Oncethegermtheoryofdiseasewasaccepted,citiesputmoreeffortintoimprovingwaterand
sewagesystems.
AwellknownurbanreformerswasJacobRiiswhosewritingsandphotographsshowed
theneedforbetterhousingforthepoor.
Agoalofurbanreformerswasbuildingcodes/rulesthatwouldrequiresafer,
betterlighted,betterventilated,andmoresanitarytenements.
SocialSettlementMovementagroupofProgressiveurbanreformersthatprovidedsettlement
houseslocatedinworkingclassslumswhichofferedpeople,especiallyimmigrants,education,
childcare,socialactivitiesandhelpinfindingjobs.
SettlementhousessuchastheHullHouseinChicagofoundedbyJaneAddams.
ThePeaceMovementAddamsandLillianWaldwereamongtheAmericanswholedpeace
groups,liketheWomansPeaceParty,
Supportofp acifism(thepolicyofoppositiontowarandfighting)weakenedwith
AmericasentryintoWorldWarIin1917butwaslaterrevived.
PacifistJeannetteRankin,thefirstwomenelectedtoCongress,votedagainsttheentryof
theU.SintoWWIandWWI
TemperanceandProhibitionthetemperancemovement(opposedtheuseofalcoholicbeverages)
beganinthe1820sand,overtheyears,itsmaingoalbecamep rohibition(outlawingthe
manufactureandsaleofalcoholicbeverages).
UndertheleadershipofFrancesWillard,theW omansChristianTemperanceUnion
(WCTU)wasastrongadvocateforprohibition.
WCTUjoinedtheAntiSaloonLeagueandthetwogroupssoughtmoralreformthrough
prohibition.
Theybelievedthatthroughprohibition,problemsofpovertyanddiseasecouldbeeased,
familylifeimprovedandthenationaleconomymademoreproductive.
Thetemperancecampaignledtonationalprohibitionwiththeadoptionofthe1 8th
Amemenedemt(bannedthemanufacture,saleandtransportationofalcoholicbeverages)
NationalLaborCommitteewasformedin1904tobringpublicopinionagainstchildlabor.
Despite the court's opposition against child labor laws as expressed in the Supreme
Courts freedom to contract verdict in Lochner v. New York (1905), the committee
successfully influenced the federal govt to create a Federal Childrens Bureau(1912) to
investigate child labor and pressured most states to set minimum wages and maximum
hoursforchildren.
WomensRights:Suffrageforwomenwasamaingoalforthewomensrightsmovementandwomenwhohad
experiencedsuccessinotherreformactivitieswantedtobeabletovoteandmanysuffragiststhoughtthatthe
womensvotewouldservetocorrectvarioussocialissues.
Thewomenssuffragemovementbeganaspartofalargerdriveforwomensrightsinthe1848atSeneca
Falls,NewYorkwiththeintellectualleaderElizabethCadyStanton,authoroftheD eclarationof
Sentiments.
SusanB.Anthonyprovidedthedrivingleadershipifthemovement.
Inthe1860s,thewomenssuffragemovementsplitoverthebestwaytoachieveitgoals.
ThemoreradicalorganizationwasledbyStantonandAnthony.

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ThemoremoderateorganizationwasheadedbyLucyStoneandherhusband.
In1890,thegroupsmergedtoformtheNationalAmericanWomanSuffrage
Association(NAWSA)
WhenStatonandAnthonydied,theProgressivespiritgavethemovementanewsurge.
Intheearly1900s,leadershipofNAWSApassedtoCarrieChapmanCattwhodevisedthe
strategythatwastosecurewomen'ssuffrage.
Sheconcentratedonachievingsuffrageforwomenbyaconstitutionalamendmentwhile
coordinatingthenationaleffortwithastatebystatemovementtoputmorepressureon
Congressandbuildsupportforratificationwhenthetimeforitcame.
AlicePaulledthemoremilitantCongressionalUnionuntilshewasexpelledfromNAWSAand
thenformedtheNationalWoman'sParty
Intheend,thehighlyvisibleactivityofwomenduringWWIthatbroughtthemthefinalpublic
supportneeded.
In1920,the1 9thAmendmentwasratifiedandgavewomentherighttovote.
Thewomensmovementalsoincludedacampaignforfamilyplanningthroughbirthcontrol.
ItwasledbyMargaretSanger,whobeganherworkasanursecaringforpoorimmigrantwomen
andfoundedtheAmericanBirthControlLeaguethatlaterbecamePlannedParenthood
Federation.
Sangersmovementwascontroversialandshewasarrestedseveraltimesforsendinginformation
aboutcontraceptionthroughthemail.
TheRightsofAfricanAmericans:
ThedecadesfollowingtheCivilWarwasdifficultforA.Ab/coflawsthatpreventedthemfrom
exercisingtheirrighttovote.
InP lessyv.Ferguson(1896),theSupremeCourtupheldthattheJimCrowlaws,whichrequired
segregated,separatebutequal,publicfacilitiesforA.Aandwhites.
MarcusGarveyfoundedtheUniversalNegroImprovementAssociation,anA.Anationalistand
separatistgroup,whichwantedaseparateA.AeconomyandurgedA.AtoemigratetoAfrica.
ProgressivismandGovtAction:DuringtheProgressiveEra,politicalreformtookplaceatalllevels c ity,
stateandnational.
ReformofCityGovtGiventhatProgressivewereurban,middleclass,theyfirstconcentratedtheir
effortsonthegovtsofthecitieswheretheylived.
Theyattackedpoliticalmachineswheretheycontrolledgovtatthecityandstatelevels,allowing
practicessuchasacceptingbribesinreturnforfavors.
TwonewtypesofcitygovtareassociatedwiththeProgressivemovementandwerepopularin
smallandmediumsizedcities:
Inthecitycommissionplan,thecityisrunbyagroupofcommissionersratherthanbya
mayorandcitycouncil.
Inthecitymanagerplan,thecitycouncilhiresaprofessionalcitymanagertorunthe
variousmunicipaldepartments.
Progressivesactstolimitthepowerofpoliticalmachinesandpowerfulbusinessinterestsatthestate
level.Progressiverecognizedthatstatesexercisedcontrolovermanyoftheircities.
Reformswereoftendifficulttoenforceb/cofoppositionfrombusinessinterestandthecourts.So
changesinthewaystategovtsworkerswerepartoftheProgressiveprogram.
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Changesaimedatincreasingcitizenparticipationingovtinclude:
Thesecretballotlessenthechanceofintimidationb/citpreventspartybossesfrom
knowinghowpeoplevote.
initiative=systemthatallowsvoterstopetitionthelegislaturethatconsideraproposedlaw.
referendum=whenvoters,notthelegislature,decidewhetheragivenbillorconstitutional
amendmentshouldbepassed.
recall=aformofpetitionusedbyvoterstoforceelectedofficialsoutofoffice.
directprimary=allowsvoters,ratherthanpartyleaders,toselectthecandidateswhowill
runforoffice.
Ratifiedin1913,the1 7thAmendmentthatreplacedtheelectionofU.SSenatorsbystate
legislatureswithdirectelectionsofsenatorsbythepeopleofeachstate.
Note:thesecretballots,initiative,referendumandd irectelectionofsenatorswereallpartofthe
Populistpartyprogram.
Adoptionofthesereformsexemplifyhowthirdpartiescaninfluencemajorparties.
TheodoreRooseveltandtheSquareDeal:R ooseveltwasknownasaProgressivePresidentbecame
PresidentwhenPresidentMcKinleywasassassinated1901andelectedPresidentin1904.
WantedtoleadthenationbasedonpublicinterestandbelievedthatthePresidenthadanypowersnot
specificallydeniedtotheexecutiveintheConstitution.
SquareDealtermforRooseveltsadministrationb/cofthemanyreformsmadeduringhispresidency.
ConsumerProtectionRooseveltdidnothesitatetousehispresidentialpowertodealdirectlywithsocial
andeconomicproblems.
Recognizingtheneedtoprotectpublichealthandsafety,heinfluencedthepassageofthePure
FoodandDrugActandtheMeatInspectionActin1906.
RegulatingBusiness
StrengtheningRailroadLegislationUnderpressurefromRoosevelt,CongresspassedtheElkins
Act(1903)andtheHepburnAct(1906).TheobjectiveofbothwastostrengthentheInterstate
CommerceCommission(ICC)andallowittosetrailroadshippingrates.
TheICCspowerswereexpandedtoincluderegulationofpipelines,ferries,bridgesand
terminals.
Rooseveltsawadifferencebetweengoodtrusts,whichwouldonlyfaceregulations,andbad
trusts,whichwouldbedissolved.
Actionshetookagainstbigbusinessesearnedhimareputationasatrustbuster
In1903,RooseveltconvincedCongresstoformtheBureauofCorporationswithinthe
DepartmentofCommerceandLabor.
Usedthebureautopressurecorporationsthroughinvestigationandpublicityabouttheir
activities.
Bytheendofthe1800s,theNorthernSecuritiesCompanycontrolledtherailroadsysteminthe
PacificNorthwestandin1901theJusticeDepartmentbeganprosecutionofNorthernSecurities
undertheShermanAntitrustAct.
NorthernSecuritiesv.UnitedStates(1904)SupremeCourtupheldthejudgmentsagainst
thecompanyandorderedthecompanytobedissolved.
BeefTrustgovtactiondirectedagainstagroupofmeatpackers.
ProsecutionwasupheldbytheSupremeCourtinS wift&Co.v.UnitedStates(1905)

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DecisiongavegovtbroaderpowersundertheConstitution'sinterstatecommerceclause.
Rooseveltachievedimportantreformsinworkingandlaborconditions.
TheAnthraciteCoalStrikeIn1902,Pennsylvaniacoalmineownersrefusedtonegotiatewith
strikingworkerssoRooseveltthreatenedtosendthearmytotakeoverthemines.
ThemineownersthenagreedtosettlethedisputeandtheU.SsMineWorkerswon
shorterhoursandhigherwages.
Notably,thiswasthefirsttimethefederalgovtwasinvolvedinalabordisputeanddid
notfavorthesideofmanagement.
AProgressivegoalwastomakeemployerstohavemoreliability(responsibility)fortheir
workers.TheEmployersLiabilityActof1906providedaccidentinsuranceforworkerson
interstaterailroadsandinWashington,D.C.
Asanaturalist,Rooseveltwasinterestedinconservation(protectingthenationsenvironmentand
wilderness)andhispolicieswereinfluencedbyconversationalistsGiffordPinchot.
BeforeRoosevelt,thegovernment'slandpolicyputlandintheprivatehandsofhomesteaders,
railroadsandcolleges.
Rooseveltshiftedthispolicyandkeptsomelandunderfederalgovtprotection.
RooseveltusedtheForestReserveActof1891toplacenationalforestsunderthecontrolofthe
U.SForestService.
WhenRooseveltleftoffice,hehadincreasedtheamountoflandsetasideforthepublicas
nationalforests,nationalparks,wildliferefugesandnationalmonuments.
TheNational(Newlands)ReclamationActof1902setasidemoneyfromthesaleofpubliclands
tobuilddamsandirrigationsystemsintheWest.
ProgressivismUnderTheTaftPresidency:WilliamHowardTaftsucceededhimin1909.Taftbeganhis
presidencywiththesupportofRooseveltandtheProgressivewingoftheRepublicanParty.
UnderTaft,theJusticeDepartmentbroughttwiceasmanysuitsagainstbigbusinessesasithadunder
Roosevelt.
IntheS tandardOilCo.ofNewJerseyv.UnitedStates(1911)case,theSupremeCourtruledthat
themonopolyshouldbedissolved
TaftsoonranintoproblemsthatsplittheRepublicanPartyintoaTaftandProgressivefaction.
TaftwantedtolowertariffsbutwasunabletostanduptotheRepublicanCongressthatraised
themwiththePayneAldrichAct.
HeangeredProgressivesbycallingitthebestbillthattheRepublicanpartyeverpassed
TaftranintomoretroubleswhenhedismissedForestServiceheadGiffordPinchot.
Taftssecretary,RichardA.Ballinger,allowedagroupofbusinesspeopletoobtainAlaska
publiclandsandPinchotprotestedtheactionandTaftfiredhim.
Ballingerwaidentifiedwithmining,lumberingandranchingintereststhatwantedto
developthelandforpersonalprofit.
WoodrowWilsonandtheNewFreedom:R ooseveltchallengedTaftfortheRepublicanpresidential
nominationbutwhenthenominationwenttoTaft,Rooseveltranasthecandidateofathirdparty,theProgressive
orBullMooseParty.
WoodrowWilsonwastheDemocraticcandidateandwontheelection.
RooseveltofferedwhathecalledtheN ewNationalism,whileWilsoncalledhisprogramtheN ewFreedomand
bothwereProgressivephilosophies
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Rooseveltacceptedsociallegislationandbusinessregulationwhile,themoretraditional,Wilsonaimedfora
returntocompetitioninthemarketplacewithenforcementofantitrustlaws.
In1913
WilsonsecuredpassageoftheUnderwoodTariffAct,whichloweredtariffs.
Thelawincludedag raduatedincometaxthattaxedlargerincomesatahigherrate(6%)
thanitdidlowerones(1%).
The1 6thAmendmentwasratifiedthatauthorizedCongresstoimposeanincometax.
TheF ederalReserveSystemwasanationalbankingsystemdividedinto12districtseachwitha
FederalReservebank.Thefederalgovtcouldnow..
issueanewcurrency
controltheamountofmoneyincirculationandinterestrates
shiftmoneyfromonebanktoanotherasneeded
TheFederalReserveBoardlowersinterestratestostimulateconsumerspendingintimesofrecessionor
raisesinterestratestocontrolinflation.
Wilsonalsoachievedtwoimportantbusinessregulations:
TheFederalTradeCommissionActof1914aimedtopreventunfaircompetitionbycreatinga
commissiontoinvestigatesuchpracticessuchasfalseadvertisingandmislabeling.
TheClaytonAntitrustActof1914strengthenedthegovernment'spowertocontrolbusiness
practicesthatthreatenedcompetition.
Actprohibitedcompaniesfrompricefixingandfrombuyingstocksincompetingfirms.
AttemptedtoendthepracticeofusingantitrustlawsagainstunionsbutlaterSupreme
Courtdecisionsundercutthisprovision.
OtherReformsUnderWilson:
TheAdamsonAct(1916)setaneighthourdayforworkersonrailroadsininterstatecommerce.
TheFederalFarmLoanAct(1916)madelowinterestloansavailabletofarmers.
TheKeatingOwenChildLabor(1916)triedtooutlawchildlaborbuttheSupremeCourtruled
thelawunconstitutionalintheH ammerv.Dagenhart(1918).
Ratificationin1919ofthe18thAmendmentprohibitedthemanufacture,saleortransportationof
liquor.
Ratificationin1920ofthe19thAmendmentgavewomentherighttovote.
EndofProgressiveEra:TheProgressiveEracametoanendwhentheU.SenteredWorldWar1.

Section6.4AmericanImperialismandWorldWarI
EmergingGlobalInvolvement:Inthelate1800s,Americanexpansionwasinmanywaysresumingthedrive
toexpandwhenhaltedbytheCivilWar.FactorsleadingtheU.Sintoglobalinvolvementinclude:
DriveforMarketsandRawMaterialsEconomicslinkedthedomesticandforeignpolicygoals.
Businessleaderswantedrawmaterialsfromabroad.
Bothbusinessleadersandfarmerswantedoverseamarketsb/ctheyprovideeconomicstability,
especiallywhendomesticconsumptioncouldnotabsorbthenationsoutput.
InternationalcompetitionincreasedasEuropeannations,JapanandtheU.Ssoughtrawmaterials
andmarkets.
U.SNavyexpandedin1880s,buildingsteelhulledwarshipswithsteamenginesandthelatestweapons.

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ExpansionistAlfredT.Mahanurgedthatasforeigntradegrew,anationneededastrongnavyto
protectshippingroutes.
SocialDarwinismthelawofnatureresultedinthesurvivalofsuperiorpeoplethesamelawledtothe
survivalofsuperiornationswhicharemeanttodominateinferiornations.
TheMissionarySpiritamotiveforexpansionattemptstointroduceChristianityandcivilizationto
others,mainlyinChina.
Themissionaryimpulsedidresultincertainimprovements,suchasthebuildingofschoolsand
hospitals.
However,itfosteredapaternalisticview(viewedtheU.Sasaparentsupervisingweaker,less
developedpeopleofanothernation)
U.SasaWorldPowerinAsiaandthePacific:T heroleoftheU.SinAsiaexpandedb/cofthe
establishmentoftradewithChinaandJapanandtheacquisitionofHawaii,PacificbasesandthePhilippines.
ChinaBythelate1800s,Americanswereafraidthattheireconomicopportunitiesinmightbelimited.
ChinahadbeensubjectedtoimperialistdemandsbyJapan,Germany,BritainandFranceb/ceach
nationgainedas phereofinfluence(aregioninwhichithadexclusivetrade,miningorother
economicrights)
In1899,SecretaryofStateJohnHaytriedtoensureeconomicopportunityfortheU.S
AskedtheEuropeanpowerstokeepanopendoortoChinab/chewantedtoensure
throughhisO penDoorPolicythattheU.SwouldhavefairaccesstotheChinesemarket.
In1900,asecretpatrioticChinesesocietycalledtheBoxersattackedmissionaries,diplomatsand
otherforeignersinChina.
TheBoxerswererevoltingagainsttheManchuDynastyandagainsttheinterventionof
Westernpowers.
JapandevelopedintoamajoreconomicpowerafterCommodoreMatthewPerryin1854endedJapans
isolationbynegotiatingatreatyopeningtwoJapaneseportstoshipsfromtheU.S.
AkeyaimofAmericanpolicyinAsiabecameprotectingAmericaneconomic,politicaland
territorialinterestsbyprovidingthebalanceofpowertorestrictJapaneseexpansion.
JapandisplayeditsgrowingstrengthbydefeatingRussiaintheRussoJapaneseWar.
PresidentRooseveltmediatedtheTreatyofPortsmouthinanefforttoprotectAmerican
possessionsandinterestsinAsia.
JapancouldremaininManchuriaandannexKorea.
U.SagreementtotheJapanesetakeoverofKoreawasformalizedintheTaftKatsuraAgreement
Inreturn,JapanwouldnotthreatenthePhilippines.
In1906,theSanFranciscoschoolsplacedAsianchildreninseparateclassesandtheJapanese
govtcondemnedthissegregation.
PresidentRooseveltachievedacompromisewithJapaneseofficialsintheG entlemens
AgreementwhichendedschoolsegregationinSanFranciscobutalsorestrictedJapanese
immigrationtotheU.S.
Hawaiifromtheearly1800s,Americantraders,whalersandmissionariescametoHawaii.
DescendentsofsomemissionariesdevelopedimportantbusinessinterestsinHawaii,mainly
sugarplantations.
In1887,theU.SgainedtherighttoestablishanavalbaseatPearlHarborandbythe
1890sAmericansdominatedtheislandspolitically,economicallyandmilitary.

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ButHawaiiremainedanindependentcountryruledbyamonarch.
In1890,atarifflaweliminatedthefavoredstatusgiventoHawaiiansugarimports.
ThenewlawallowedallsugartoentertheU.Sdutyfreebutgavesugarcaneproducersin
theU.Sanincentivethatencouragedtheindustryathome.
ThismeantthatAmericanswouldbemorelikelytobuydomesticsugarrather
thanHawaiiansugarandAmericanplantersinHawaiiwouldlosemoney.
AmericansinHawaiifearedHawaiiannationalismchallengedbotheconomicallyandpolitically,
AmericanplanterscarriedoutasuccessfulrevolutionagainsttheHawaiianruler.
TheywereaidedbythechiefU.SdiplomattoHawaiiandbyAmericanmarines.
AgainstthewishesoftheHawaiianpeople,theAmericansugargrowersaskedthattheU.Sannex
Hawaiisothattheirsugarwouldbeconsidereddomesticandnotforeign.
However,PresidentGroverClevelandopposedexpansionbyforce.
WithSanfordB.Doleaspresident,HawaiiremainedinthehandsoftheAmericansugar
interestsastheindependentRepublicofHawaii.
In1898duringtheSpanishAmericanWarHawaiiwasunderU.Spossession.
HawaiibecameanimportantmilitaryandcommerciallinktothePhilippinesandrestof
EastAsia.
ImperialismandTheSpanishAmericanWar:Inthelate1800s,theU.Sbegantoacquirenewterritories,most
resultedfromtheSpanishAmericanWar,makingitanimperialpower.
Therewereseveralu nderlyingcausesofthewarbetweenSpainandtheU.S
EconomicTheU.Sbusinessinterestshadinvested$50millioninCubasoalmostallofCubas
sugarwasexportedtotheU.S.
In1894,theU.SplacedahighprotectivetariffonCubansugarwhichwaspreviously
enteredthenationdutyfree.
GrowersinCubalostmillionsb/ctheirsugarwasnolongercompetitivelypriced
TheresultedineconomicchaoscombinedwithresentmentofSpanishrulesetoffa
CubanrevolutionagainstSpain.
HumanitarianManyAmericanssympathizedwiththeCubanrev.andwerehorrifiedbythe
tacticsoftheSpanishmilitarycommander,ValerianoWeyler,usedsuchasimprisoningmany
Cubanciviliansincampswheresomediedfromdiseaseandstarvation.
Americane xpansionists,suchasTheodoreRoosevelt,SenatorHenryCabotLodgeandSecretary
ofStateJohnHay,recognizedthatwarofferedanopportunitytoseizeterritoryfromSpain,a
weaknation.
ImmediateeventsarousedAmericansemotionsandfedagrowingjingoism(asuperpatriotismand
demandforaggressiveaction)thatcreatedwarlikemood.
YellowJournalismjournalismbaseduponsensationalism(theuseofexcitingorshockingstories
toprovokepublicinterest).
Inthelate1890s,twoofthemostfamousAmericanpublishers,WilliamRandolphHearst
oftheN
ewYorkMorningJournalandJosephPulitzeroftheN ewYorkWorldwere
battlingforreadersinacirculationwar.
Bothnewspapersprintedthemostsensationalstoriesandpicturestheycouldfindout
aboutthehorrorsoftheCubanrev.
Thestoriesexaggerated,lackedinaccuracyandtwistedeventsforemotionaleffect.

39


ThedeLmeLetterapersonalletterwrittenbytheSpanishminister,DupuydeLme,totheU.S
wasprintedintheN ewYorkJournalinthelate1800s.
DeLmesunfavorablecomments,suchascallingPresidentMckinleyweakand
cateringtotherabble,madeithardforthepresidentandotherpoliticalleaderstoresist
demandsforwar.
TheSinkingoftheM aineTheU.SbattleshipM aineexplodedandsankintheharborofHavana,
Cubawhichkilled266Americans.
ThepublicblamedSpain,although,alaterinvestigationdidnotdeterminethecauseof
theexplosionnorassignresponsibility.
FightingtheSpanishAmericanWarInApril1898,despiteSpainsagreementtoanarmistice(an
agreementmadebyopposingsidesinawartostopfightingforacertaintimeatruce),McKinleyasked
CongresstodeclarewarandCongressapproved.
ThewarlastedfourmonthswithfightingontheCaribbeanSeaandPacificOcean.
TheResultsoftheSpanishAmericanWarInDecember1898thetermsoftheTreatyofPariswere
negotiatedwithSpain:
grantedCubaitsindependence.
gavethePhilippinestotheU.Sinreturnfor$20million.
ceded(gaveup)PuertoRicoandGuamtotheU.S
FortheU.S,theTreatyofParisof1898:
ledtotheacquisitionofmanyformerSpanishterritories.
setoffanationaldebateamongimperialistsandantiimperialist.
increasedAmericaninvolvementinLatinAmericaandAsiaasthenationsoughttoprotectits
newlands.
TheDebateOverImperialism:R atificationoftheTreatyofParissetoffagreatdisputeregardingthe
fundamental question whether the U.S should pursue imperialism(the policy of expanding a nations power by
foreignacquisitions).
AcquiringthePhilippinesbyAnnexationandWarIn1899,EmilioAguinaldo(foughttheSpanishfor
Philippineindependence)resistedannexationbytheU.SanddeclaredthePhilippinesarepublic.
AUnitedStatesFilipinoWarfollowedinwhichatrocitieswerecommittedbybothsides.
Attheendofthewar,thePhilippineswereunderU.Scontrol.
TheConstitutionandtheTerritoriesImperialismwassupportedbytheSupremeCourtwithdecisionsin
theInsularCases(seriesofopinionsbytheU.S.SupremeCourtin1901aboutthestatusofterritories
acquiredintheSpanishAmericanWar).
TheCourtruledthattheconstitutionappliedonlyinthoseterritoriesthatCongressdecidedwould
beincorporatedintotheU.S.
HeldthatpeopleinannexedterritoriesdidnotautomaticallyhavetherightsofU.Scitizens.
GoverningtheTerritoriesTheU.Ssetupdifferentmeansofgoverningitsnewterritories.
Hawaiiwasmadeaterritoryin1900.
In1916,theJ onesActpromisedtheP hilippinesindependencebutdidnotnameadate.
In1934,thePhilippineswaspromisedindependenceintenyears,however,thepromise
wasdelayedb/cofWWIIbutwashonoredin1946.
TheF orakerActof1900providedforaP uertoRicolegislatureelectedbythepeoplewitha
governorandcouncilappointedbytheAmericanpresident.

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PuertoRicansreceivedU.Scitizenshipin1917and,in1952,theislandbecamea
commonwealth(anindependentdemocraticrepubliccountry)whichgivesPuertoRico
manyrightsofastateexcludingsendingrepresentativestoCongress.
U.StroopsremainedinC ubauntil1902.
CubanindependencewaslimitedbytheP lattAmendment(1901)which
requiredthattheU.SapprovetreatiesbetweenCubaandothernations.
gavetheU.StherighttoleasenavalbasesinCuba.
allowedtheU.StointerveneinCubatopreserveorderandpeace.
U.SasaWorldPowerinLatinAmerica:Havingacquiredanempire,theU.Sfounditselfincreasingly
involvedaroundtheglobeasitprotecteditsnewterritoriesandinterests.
TheMonroeDoctrineof1823warnedforeignpowerstostayoutofWesternHemisphereandforseveral
decadetherelativelyweakU.Srarelyenforcedthedoctrine.
UsedtosupporttheAmericanannexationofTexasaswellastheMexicanWar.
UsedattheendtheCivilWaragainstFrance,whichsetupapuppetgovtinMexicoandrefused
togiveintoAmericandemandstowithdraw.
FrancewithdrewonlyaftertheU.SmassedtroopsalongtheMexicanborder.
TheVenezuelanBorderDisputeIn1895,theU.Shadanopportunitytoreaffirmandexpandthe
MonroeDoctrine.
BritainandVenezuelawereinaquarrelovertheboundarybetweenVenezuelaandBritish
Guiana.
TheU.Sofferedarbitrate(helpsettle)thedisputebutwhenBritainrefused,theU.S
claimedthattheBritishwereviolatingtheMonroeDoctrineandforcedthemtonegotiate
bythreateningwar.
TheRooseveltCorollaryRooseveltfurtherreinforcedandextendedtheMonroeDoctrine.
EconomicproblemsinVenezuelaandtheDominicanRepublicledthreatsofEuropean
intervention.
Inbothcases,theU.Ssteppedintorestoreorder.
RooseveltexplainedAmericanpolicyinamessagetoCongress.
IfanationintheWesternHemisphereisguiltyofconsistentlybehavingwrongly,
theMonroeDoctrinerequiresthattheU.Sinterveneandactasaninternational
policepower.
TheBigStickPolicyU.SintervenedinLatinAmericanaffairstomaintaineconomicstability,
protectAmericaninvestmentsandpreventEuropeaninvolvementintheWesternHemisphere.
ExamplesoftheBigStickforeignpolicybytheU.S:
TheDominicanRepublichadtroublepayingitsdebtstoEuropeannationsso,when
theEuropeansthreatenedforce,theU.StookoverDominicanfinancesand
supervisedthem.
DollarDiplomacyPresidentTaftsforeignpolicyapproach.
TheU.ScouldhelpmaintainorderinothercountriesbyincreasingAmerican
investmentinforeigneconomies.
TheseinvestmentstendedtoincreaseAmericaninterventioninforeignaffairs.
InterventioninMexicoDuringtheMexicanrevolution,PresidentWilsonintervenedinMexicos
affairsinordertoprotecthugeU.Sinvestmentsthere.

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PresidentWilsonbelievedinm oraldiplomacy(conductingforeignaffairsintermsof
judgementsaboutrightandwrong).
In1913,afterVictorianoHuertaoverthrewtheMexicanpresident,Wilsonrefusedto
recognizeHuertasgovt.
Later,theU.SNavyseizedtheportofVeraCruztopreventaGermanshipfromlanding
itscargoofarmsforHuerta.
TheGoodNeighborPolicyOnlyunderPresidentsHooverandRooseveltfrom1929to1945did
theU.StrytoimproverelationswithLatinAmerica.
Rooseveltsponsoredthegoodneighborpolicywhichputlessemphasisonintervention
andmoreoncooperation.
However,U.Seconomicdominanceoftheregioncontinued.
ThePanamaCanalInthemid1850s,theadvantagesofbuildingacanalacrossthe
isthmus(narrowpieceoflandconnectingNorthandSouthAmerica)wererecognized.
GrowthofU.Scommerceandtheexpansionofitsnavyincreasedpressuretobeableto
movenavyandmerchantshipsquicklybetweenAtlanticandPacificOcean.
TheU.SsettledonarouteacrossPanama,whichwaspartofColombia.
WhenColombiaseemedreluctanttoagreetofinancialterms,Rooseveltencouraged
Panamanianstorevoltanddeclaretheirindependence.
U.Squicklynegotiatedatreaty,whichgavethema99yearrenewableleaseonthe
widestripoflandofthePanamaCanalZone,withthenewnation.
TheU.SandWorldWarI: WWIbeganinEuropefrom1914to1918inwhichtheU.Sdidnotenterthewar
until1917thefinancialandhumancostsofthisconflictwasdevastatingandenormous.
CausesofWW1therewereseveralfactorsthatledtotheoutbreakofthewarinEurope.
StrongnationalisticcompetitionhaddevelopedamongFrance,Britain,AustriaHungaryand
Germany,especiallyaftertheunificationofGermanyin1871.
Therewasalsoethnicunrestwithinnations.Forinstance,theCzechsandSlovakswanted
tofreethemselvesfromAustroHungariancontrol.
TheAllianceSystemAsnationalandimperialconflicted,twogroupsofnationsorganized
againsteachotherinanefforttomaintainabalanceofpower.
Iffightingbrokeout,membersofeitheralliancewerepledgedtohelpeachother.
TripleAlliance(beforeWWI) TripleEntente(beforeWWI)
Germany,AustroHungaryandItaly(laterjoinedopposingalliance) Britain,FranceandRussia

CentralPowers(duringWWI) AlliedPowers(duringWWI)
GermanyandAustroHungaryand,lateron,theOttomanEmpireandBulgaria Russia,France,Englandand,lateron,ItalyandBritain

Militarismtheearly1900switnessedacontinualbuildupofarmiesandnavies.ExGermany
triplednavalconstructioninordertochallengeBritainscontroloftheseas.
U.SEntryintoWWIWarbrokeoutinEuropein1914afterArchdukeFranzFerdinandofAustria,the
heirtotheAustroHungarianthrone,wasassassinated.
B/cofthealliancesystem,mostEuropeannationsjoinedtheconflictbuttheU.Swasofficially
neutral.
ReasonsforU.SEntryinWWITheU.Sin1917wasdrawnintothewarforseveralreasons:
FewAmericansweretrulyneutral.
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MostGermanAmericans(b/cofconnectionstoGermany)andIrishAmericans(b/cof
antiBritishfeeling)sympathizedwiththeCentralPowers.
ThemajorityofAmericansfavoredtheAlliesb/coflongexistedculturaltieswithBritain
andfeltloyaltytotheirfirstally,France.
TheU.ShaseconomiclinkswiththeAllies.
ABritishblockadeeffectivelyendedAmericanexportstoGermany.
ThevalueoftradewithAlliesincreasedandAmericanbusinessandagriculture
benefittedfromhistrade.
PropagandaTheAlliesconductedaneffectivepropagandacampaignintheU.S.
Theypicturedthewarasoneofcivilized,democraticnationsagainstthebarbaric
monarchyofGermany.gg
In1915,determinedtouseitssubmarinestostoptradebetweentheAlliesandtheU.Sandto
breaktheBritishblockade,GermanyannouncedawarzonearoundBritain
TheGermanUboats(submarines)wouldsinkenemyshipsinthewarzone.
Toavoidattackbyerror,neutralnationsandtheircitizensshouldavoidthezone.
B/csubmarinesarevulnerablewhensurfaced,Germanyignoredinternationallawthat
requiredthatawarshiptostopandidentityitself,thenboardamerchantorpassenger
shipsandremoveitscrewandpassengersbeforesinkingit.
Unrestrictedsubmarinewarfarewhensubmarinessinkvesselsw/outwarninganddo
notfollowinternationallaw(giveciviliansachancetoexitvesselsandabandonship
beforesinkingit).
WilsoninsistedthatAmericaasaneutralnationhadtherighttotradewithnationsatwar
andtosenditsciviliansonshipsintowarzones.
Hedefendedtheprincipleoff reedomoftheseas(therightofallnationsto
unrestrictedtravelininternationalwatersintimesofpeace,exceptwhenlimitsare
placedbyinternationalagreements,andtherightofneutralnationstotradeandits
citizenstotravelduringwar)
Aseriesofeventsearlyin1917finallyledtoAmericasentryintoWWI.
Germanyannouncedapolicyofunrestrictedsubmarinewarfare(wouldattackw/out
warningallvesselsheadedforAlliedportsincethewarwasatastalemate
GermanyknewthatthistacticwouldprobablybringtheU.Sintothewarbut
believedthatitsUboatscouldbreaktheblockadeanddefeattheAlliesbefore
theU.Scouldgettroopstothebattlefields.
TensionandsuspicionincreasedwiththeZ immermannnote(asecretdiplomatic
communicationbetweenGermanforeignsecretary,ArthurZimmermann,andMexico
thatpromisessupportinregainingtheirlostterritoryofTexas,NewMexico,and
Arizonainexchangeforamilitaryalliance).
Whenthemessagewasmadepublic,Americansreactedangrily.
TheU.SbrokediplomaticrelationswithGermany.
RoleoftheU.SintheWar
In1916,passageoftheNationalDefenseActandtheNavyActbegantheexpansionofthearmed
forces.
TheRevenueAct(1916)wasalsopassedtopayformilitaryexpansions.

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WWIbroughtuptheissueregardingthewaytoraiseanarmy.
ThosefavoringthedraftinwhichallAmericansservetogetherthoughtitwasfairand
democratic.
Thoseopposingthedraftpreferredthatmilitaryserviceshouldbevoluntary.
Theyviewedthedraftasanexampleoftherichandeducatedexercisingpowerover
thepoor,workingclassandimmigrants.
In1917,CongresspassedtheSelectiveServiceActwhichestablishedadraft.
MobilizingtheEconomyTogetthenationseconomygearedupforwar,certaineconomic
operationswerecentralizedandconcentratedthroughaseriesofgovtagencies.
Relyingonthebroadwartimepowersofthepresident,WilsonusedtheCouncilof
NationalDefensetooverseetheseagencies.
GovtcontrolovertheU.SeconomyincreasedduringWWI.
Thegovtenteredfieldssuchashousingandlaborrelationsandsupervisedvariouspublic
utilitiessuchasthetelephoneandtelegraph.
PatriotismToPresidentWilson,WW1wasacrusadeinwhichhebelievedthattheAllieswere
fightingthewartoendallwarsandtomaketheworldsafefordemocracy.
TheseidealisticgoalshelpedmobilizetheAmericanpeopletosupportthefirstconflict
theU.ShadeverfoughtoutsidetheWesternHemisphere.
ApropagandacampaignorganizedbytheCommitteeofPublicInformationencouraged
patriotism.
Songs,postersandpamphletsattackedGermany,urgedthepurchaseofLiberty
Bondsandencouragedtheconservationofresources.
Patriotismcamew/anoutbreakofantiGermanandantiimmigranthysteria.
WartimeConstitutionalIssues
WellknownAmericanswereagainsttheU.Senteringthewar,includingProgressivessuchas
RobertLaFolletteandJaneAddams.
Theseemotionsoftenledactionsthatrestrictedsomepeoplescivilrightsinthenameof
nationalsecurity.
ThoseofGermanbackgroundandimmigrantsingeneral,socialists,pacifistsandanyone
questioningthewarbecamesuspectaspossibletraitors.
Nativismwasexpressedina1917lawpassedthatrequiredaliteracytestforimmigrants.
ItsobjectivewastorestrictimmigrationfromSouthernandEasternEurope.
Twobroadlywordedactsservedtocontrolandpunishthosewhoopposedthewareffort.
TheE spionageAct(1917)madeitillegaltowriteorspeakanythingcriticalofAmerican
involvementinthewarandallowedthepostmastergeneraltoforbidtreasonous(guiltyof
thecrimeofbetrayingone'scountry)materialsfromthemail.
TheS editionAct(1918)madeitacrimetospeakorpublishanythingdisloyalorprofane
aboutthegovt,Constitution,flagormilitaryservicesoftheU.S.
Schenckv.UnitedStates(1919)Courtruledthatfreespeechcouldberestrictedduringwartime.
JusticeOliverHolmesclaimedthatfreespeechwouldnotprotectamanfalselyshouting
fireinatheaterandcausingapanic.
ClaimedCongresshastherighttopreventspeechthatisaclearandpresentdanger.
In1917,asecondrevolution,bytheBolsheviks(communists)tookplaceinRussia.

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Thecommunistsystemwasopenlyhostile(bitter)toAmericanvaluesandbeliefssuchas
capitalism,privateownershipofpropertyandcertainfreedoms.
AnintensefearofcommunismswepttheU.SandmanyAmericansbeganurgingforthe
imprisonmentorexileofcommunistsintheU.Sdespitethefewamount.
Therewasfearanddistrustinforeigners,socialists,anarchists,laborleaders,
immigrantsandothersseenasdissidents(apersonwhoopposesgovtpolicy).
TheSearchforPeaceandArmsControl:WWIendedin1918withtheanAlliedvictoryandtheU.S,
particularlyPresidentWilson,playedamajorroleinthepeacemakingprocess.
TheFourteenPointsWilsonhadfirstsuggestedhisownpeaceproposalwhichincluded:
Open,notsecret,diplomacy
Freedomoftheseseas
Armsreduction
Selfdetermination(lettingvariousnationalgroupsmaketheirownpoliticaldecisions)
Anassociationofnationstoguaranteepoliticalindependenceandterritorialintegrity.
Europeannations,whohadsufferedfarmorethantheU.S,werewillingtoWilsonsplan.
Wantedtoberepaidforsomeoftheirlossesandsomehadmadesecretwartimedealsinvolving
territorialchangesandmoneysettlementsthatcontradictedprovisionsoftheFourteenPoints.
TheT reatyofVersaillesrequiredGermanyto:
acceptcompleteresponsibilityforcausingthewar
payhuger eparationstotheAllies
giveupitsmilitaryforces
giveupitsoverseascolonies
WilsonopposedmanyprovisionsoftheVersaillesTreatyandtreatiesw/othercentralPowers.
However,hewaswillingtocompromiseb/cthetreatiesprovidedfortheL eagueofNations,a
newworldorganization.
WilsonbelievedthattheLeaguewouldcorrectanyproblemscausedbythepeacetreaties.
TheLeagueofNationsTheU.SSenatehadtoapprovetheVersaillesTreatythatincludedtheLeagueof
NationswhichWilsonmetwithopposition.
WilsonangeredRepublicans,eventhoughtheyhadthemajorityofseatsintheSenate,by
excludingthemfromtheAmericandelegationtotheVersaillesConference.
WilsonandthechairmanoftheSenateForeignRelationsCommittee,HenryCabotLodge,
distrustedanddislikedeachother.
Thismutualhostilitywasafactorintheirfailuretocompromise.
IsolationistsintheSenateworriedthatjoiningtheLeagueofNationswouldinvolvetheU.Sin
futureforeignaffairsandwar.
FearedthattheU.Smightbeobligatedtoprovidetroopsanddefendmembernations.
WilsonstubbornlyrefusedtoallowanybutthechangestotheTreaty.
Hisillnesspreventedhimfromplayinganactiveroleinthetreatydebate.
Thenationvotedtoretainitstraditionalforeignpolicypreferringnoninterventionand
actingalonewhenitdidchoosetoplayarole.
TheU.SfailedtojointheLeaguebutwasstillgreatconcernintheU.Saboutkeepingpeace.
DuringtheParisPeaceConferencemanyAmericanwomenmetwithothersfromaroundthe
worldtoformtheW omensInternationalLeagueforPeaceandFreedom.

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Theorganizationwasagainstpeacetermsthatwouldcreateadditionalhostilityamong
nations.
OpposedtheTreatyb/cofitssuggestedlegacyofonlycausingmorewar.
Before,U.Swasad ebtornation(itowedmoremoneytonationsthantheyowedtotheU.S)buta fter
WW1U.Swasthealeadingc reditornation(othercountriesowedmoretotheU.SthanitowedtheU.S).
Thenationwasalsotheworldsleadingindustrialproducer,exporterandfinancer.
DuringWWI,theEuropeanAlliesborrowedagreatdealofmoneyfromtheU.Sinordertobuy
warsuppliesfromAmericanmanufacturers.
Afterthewar,thesedebtsbecameasourceofconflictinwhichEuropeannationsargued
thattheirdebtsshouldbecanceledb/c,althoughtheU.Shadcontributedmoney,Europe
hadpaidaheavypriceinlivesbuttheU.Sinsistedonrepayment.
U.SprotectionistpolicymaderepaymentdifficultinwhichhighAmericantariffslimited
EuropeantradewiththeU.Sandthusreducedearningsthatmighthavebeenusedtopayoffwar
debts.
DawesPlaninstructsthattheU.SlendfundstoGermanysothatitcouldmakewar
reparations(moneyitowedtotheEuropeanAlliesaspaymentforeconomiclosses)andtheAllies
wouldusethefindstomakepaymentsonthewardebtstheyowedtheU.S.
In1921,PresidentWarrenG.HardinghostedtheWashingtonNavalConferenceinwhichtheU.S,Britain,
France,ItalyandJapanagreedtosetlimitsonthenumberofwarshipseachnationcouldbuild.
PledgedtokeeppeaceinAsiaandtoprotecttheindependenceofChinabutfailedtoestablishany
meansofenforcement.
In1928,somenationsmetinParistosigntheKelloggBriandPactwhichoutlawedwarexceptin
selfdefense.

TheRoaringTwentiesandGreatDepression(19201940)
Section7.1TheRoaringTwenties
TheImpactandAftermathofWar:W
WItriggeredmanyimportantchangesinAmericansociety,most
notableforsomewomen,manyimmigrantsandA.A.
AsmanymenwentofftofightinEurope,therolesandresponsibilitiesofwomenwereaffected.
Familyresponsibilitiesincreasedandtheycontributedtothewareffortasvolunteers.
ThewarhadharshconsequencesforimmigrantfamiliesinwhichfurtherimmigrationtotheU.S
cametoahalt.
Manyimmigrantfamiliesalreadyinthecountryfacedfiercesocialandjobdiscrimination
inanantiforeignclimatewhippedupbythewar.
MostA.AcivilrightsleaderssupportedWWI.A.Asoldierswereassignedtosegregatedunitsand
oftenworkedaslaborerssodiscriminationwascommon.
ManyreturningA.Asoldiersquestionedwhythelibertiesandfreedomstheyhadfought
topreserveinEuropewheredeniedtothemintheirowncountry.
MigrationtotheNorthWWIacceleratedthemigrationofA.Atonortherncities.
ThemigrationbeganaftertheCivilWarinwhichfromabout1910to1920,southernagriculture
jobswerelosttofloodsandcropdamage.
MeanwhileintheNorth,workerswereneededtomeetwarproductiongoals.

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Theflowofimmigrantlaborwasendedbytheconflictandfightingwhichcreated
additionalneedforworkerstoreplacethem.
Afterthewar,thisG reatMigrationcontinuedagaininthe1940.
Usuallyabletoimprovetheireconomicsituationbutstillfacedw/segregationand
discriminationCompetitionforjobsandhousingproducedracialtensionsthatat
timesledtoindividualviolenceandriots.
TheReturntoNormalcy19181921AfterWWI,Americans,disappointedwithinteractingwith
foreignconflict,wantedtoreturntothetraditionalforeignpolicyofisolationism.
The1920electionelectedRepublicanWarrenG.Hardingwhorepresentedthedesireofmany
Americanstoremovethemselvesfromthepressuresofworldpoliticsandtheidealisticgoalsof
theProgressivesdespitetheirslowerpacebutremainingexistence.
BusinessBoomorFalseProsperity:FormanyAmericans,postwarlifedidreturnton ormalcy( returntopeace
afterWWI)but,beneaththesurface,politicalandeconomicproblemsdeveloped.
HardingwasanOhionewspaperpublisherwithlittleexperienceinpoliticsandresponsibleforseveral
scandalsexposedtothepublicafterhisdeath.
HegainscreditforpardoningsocialistEugeneV.Debs(whowasjailedforopposingwar)andfor
supportingantilynchinglegislation.
However,healsogavepoliticaljobstomembersoftheOhioGang,corruptassociateswhotook
advantageofhim.
CalvinCoolidgebecamepresidentwhenHardingdied.
Hadalaissezfaireapproachtotheeconomyandstrongcommitmenttobusinessinterest.
TheendofWWIwasfollowedbyarecessioncausedbytheshiftfromawartimetoapeacetime
economy.
AperiodofeconomicrecoverybeganwhenCoolidgebecamePresident.
Withlittleinflationandactualpurchasingpower,thestandardoflivingincrease.
BigcorporationsandthewealthybenefittedgreatlyfromCoolidgeprosperity.
Ex.businessesandthewealthywerehelpedbytaxlawsthatreducedpersonalincometax
rates,particularlyforupperincomegroups.
Coolidgeprosperitywasnotforeveryoneinwhichkeysegmentsofthepopulationfailedtoshareinthe
generalriseoflivingstandards.
StrikeshadsharplydroppedduringWWI,mainlyb/ctheWilsongovtsupportedcollective
bargaininginreturnforanostrikepledge.
Strikesinthesteel,miningandrailroadindustriesfailedb/cthegovtusedtroops.
Theeconomicrecoveryhelpedproduceasurgeofinvestmentinthestockmarket.
Optimisticbusinessandgovtleaderssawnoendtotheboominwhichtheyencouragedeveryone
toplaythebullmarket(risingstockmarket).
Although,thenewwealthflowedfromastockmarketwithadeeplyflawedstructure.
Manystocksweretradedonmargininwhichbuyerscouldpurchasestocksbymakingonlysmall
downpaymentsincash.
MassConsumption:The1920swasatimeinwhichhugequantitiesofmanufacturedgoodswereavailableand
manypeoplehadmoremoneytospendonthem.
TechnologyandnewmarketingstrategiesexplainsthetransformationofAmericansociety.

47


Newtechnologiesmadeaconsumerorientedeconomyinwhichmoregoods,costingless,were
availabletomoreAmericans.
Encouragedtheboominadvertising,familiesspentlessonnecessitiesandmoreonconsumer
goods.
Americansocietyexperiencedastrugglewithsocialchangesasitbecameanurban,industrialnation.
Changesinlifestyles,valuesandmoralsincreasedtensionandconflict.
Wealth,possessionsandhavingfunwerethenewnorms.
Withashorterworkweekandmorepaidvacation,Americanshadmoreleisuretimes.
flapperapopularimageofyoungayoung,prettywomanthatdrankalcoholandsmoked.
Anexpressionofwomensnewsenseofindependenceandstatementofchange.
Representedanotherexampleinthedebateovertraditionalversusmodernvalues.
HarlemRenaissanceaninfluentialculturalmovementthatwasledbyagroupofA.AwritersintheNYC
neighborhoodofHarlem.
Creativeintellectualfigures,suchasL angstonHughes,feltalienatedfromsociety.
IntheirworkstheycalledactionforactionagainstbigotryandexpressedprideinAfrican
Americancultureandidentity.
EdwardK.DukeEllingtonisafigureinjazzwhorecordedandcomposedmusic.
Thisnewmusicbecamesopopularthatthe1920sisoftencalledtheJ azzAge.
Thenumberofwomenintheworkforceincreasedsteadily.
Animportantgainforworkingwomenwasthecreationin1920oftheWomensBureau,partof
thefederalDepartmentofLabor.
Triedtoimproveworkingconditionsforwomenfrominsidethegovt.
ConstitutionalandLegalIssues:Manyissuesreflectedthestrugglebetweenmodernandtraditionalvaluesand
showedhowinternationalaffairsaffecteddomesticpoliciesandattitudes.
TheRedScareandtheKuKluxKlanexploitedfearsaboutpeoplewhowereconsideredunAmerican,often
threateningtheircivilliberties.
TheR edScare(whenAmericanfearandsuspicionofcommunismwasatitsheightduringthe1 920sand,
later,the1 950s)wasfueledbytheNovember1917BolshevikRevolution.
TherewerefewCommunistsintheU.Sandweretargetedbythecrackdownbutgroupswere
viewedasunAmericansuchassocialists,anarchists,laborleadersandimmigrants.
WasledbyAttorneyGeneralA.MitchellPalmerandwassparkedbyseveraleventsthattook
placeafterWWIthatwereseenaspartofaCommunistconspiracy.
Raceriotseruptedinmanycities.
InBoston,aseriesoflaborstrikesclimaxedwithawalkoutbythepolice.
Severalunexplainedbombingsaddedtothehysteria.
PalmerorderedthesocalledPalmerRaidsinwhichpolicewithoutwarrantsraidedthe
headquartersofCommunistsandotherorganizations.
Palmersextremeactionsandstatementssoonturnedthepublicagainsthim.
TheRedScarediscouragedmanyAmericansfromspeakingtheirmindsfreelyinopen
debate,thuslesseningtheirconstitutionalrighttofreedomofspeech.
CloselytiedtotheRedScarewasthecaseofN icolaSaccoandB
artolomeoVanzetti,twoItalian
immigrantswhichadmittedtobeanarchists,thatwereconvictedofmurderin1921inconnectionwitha
Massachusettsrobbery.

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ManypeoplequestionedtheevidenceagainstSaccoandVanzetti,concludingthatthetwomen
wereconvictedmorefortheirbeliefsandItalianoriginthanforacrime.
Despiteofmassdemonstrations,theywereexecuted.
AntiforeignattitudescontributedtotherevivaloftheKuKluxKlan.
TheKlanofthe1920stargetednotonlyA.AbutalsoCatholics,Jewsandimmigrants.
TotheKlan,theonlytrueAmericanswerewhite,ProtestantandAmericanborn.
RestrictionsonImmigration:ThenativismexpressedintheRedScare,theSaccoVanzetticaseandthenew
Klanwasevidentin1920simmigrationlegislation.
ImmigrationhadresumedafterWWI,buttherewaslesofanewforworkers.
Inthepostwarrecession,immigrantswereseenastakingjobsfromreturningsoldiers.
ThenativistclimateledtotheImmigrationActof1924whichestablishedasystemofnational
quotas(limitedthenumberofimmigrantsfromeachcountry).
TheydeliberatelykeptthetotalsforeasternandsouthernEuropelowandexcludedall
immigrationfromAsia.
Therewasastrugglebetweenold,ruralAmericanvaluesandnewvaluesofachangingurban,
industrializedculture.
The18thAmendment(allowedProhibition)wasratifiedin1919.
CongresspassedtheVolsteadActtoimplementProhibitionbutwasnotsuccessful.
MostAmericansweresimplyunwillingtoacceptatotalbanonalcohol.
Prohibitionstimulatedcrimebyencouragingsmugglingandbootlegging(theillegal
manufactureandsaleofalcoholicbeverages).
In1933,the2 1stAmendmentwasratifiedandendedProhibition.
The1925S copesTrialinTennesseereceivednationwideattentionb/citmarkedthescientificideasof
DarwinianevolutionagainsttheProtestantfundamentalistviewofbiblicalcreationism.
JohnScopes,abiologyteacher,deliberatelyviolatedstatelawforbiddinganyonetoteachthe
theoryofevolution.

Section7.2TheGreatDepression
heendoftheprosperityofthe1920swasmarkedbyaseriesofplungesin
TheGreatStockMarketCrash: T
thestockmarketin1929.
Thestockmarkethadgrownonspeculationbypeoplewhoboughtonmarginandownedonlyasmall
portionoftheirstocks.
Whenmanycouldnotmeetmargincalls,demandstoputupthemoneytocovertheirloans
resultedinapanicselling.
OnOctober29(BlackTuesday)stockvaluesextremelyfellatfourteenbilliondollars.
Fromthatpointtheydroppedlowerandlowerreachingbottomin1932.
ThestockmarketcrashtriggeredthestartoftheG
reatDepressionandshatteredthenationalsenseof
optimismandconfidenceofthe1920s.
Thecrashdramaticallyexposedthefactthatthenationaleconomyhadextremeweaknesses.
CausesoftheGreatDepression:Overproductionandu nderconsumption(peoplebuyfewergoods
thanproducedsupplyisgreaterthandemand),overexpansionofcreditandfragilestructurescombinedwith
ineffectivegovtaction.

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WeaknessesinOverallEconomy
Theagriculturesectorhasbeendepressedthroughoutthe1920sandworldwidedropinprices.
Unemploymentplaguedtherailroad,coalsandtextileindustriesbefore1929.
Speculationinrealestateandtheresultingboomhaddeclined.
Thenumberofbankfailureswasrisingasfarmer,peoplespeculatinginstocksandconsumers
buyingoncredittheirloans.
UnequalDistributionofIncomeandWealth
Inthe1920s,afamilyneededanannualincomeof$2500tohaveamodelstandardofliving.
Although,over60percentofAmericanfamilieslivedononly$2000peryear,justenoughto
coverbasicneeds.
Atthesametime,theonly24,000richestfamiliesinthenationhadatotalincomethreetimesas
largeasthetotalincomeofthe6millionpoorestfamilies.So1percentofthepopulation
owned59percentofthenationswealthwhile87percentofthepopulationownedonly10
percentoftheweath.
Asaresult,theeconomywasdependentonthespendingofaverysmallpositionofthe
population.
Thissmallpopulationofwealthyindividualsbenefitedfromincreasedoutputofworkers.
Oftenworkerscouldnotbuywhattheyproducedand,asaresult,demanddropped.
Astheeconomyweakened,thisnonpurchasinggroupgrewinsizeandbecamelessand
lessabletobuyeventhenecessitiesoflife.
ExcessiveBuyingonCredit
The abundance of new products, the sense that these good times would never end and the
availabilityofeasycreditencouragedpeopletospendmoneybeyondtheirmeans.
As the economy slowed, people bought less in order to pay their installment loans and
homemortgages.
WeakCorporateandBankingStructure
Businessconsolidationsresultedinafewlargecompaniescompaniesineachindustry.
Holding companies controlled the stock of many different corporationsanddependedon
theearningsofthevariouscompaniestheyhad.
This was a fragile system b/c when one company collapsed, it affected the result of the
holdingcompany,likeadominoeffect.
Manyfailedbankswereruralbanksthatfailedwhenfarmerswereunabletorepayloans.
Large banks were vulnerable b/ctheyheldinadequatereserves,investingtoomuchinthe
stockmarketandmakingriskyloans.
HooversResponsetotheGreatDepression:HerbertHooverwaspresidentfrom1929to1933duringtheGreat
Depression.DuringandafterWWI,hehadinternationalreputationasaleaderofasuccessfulreliefefforttoaid
starvingEuropeansandtohelpEuroperecovereconomically.
HooversEconomicPlanInordertoimproveeconomicconditions,Hoover
triedtorestoreconfidenceintheAmericaneconomywithstatementssuchasProsperityisjust
aroundthecorner.
alteredhisviewthatgovtshouldnotbecomedirectlyinvolvedintheeconomy.
Promotedprogramsthataidedbusiness,onthetheorythatasbusinessesrecovered,
economicbenefitswouldtrickledowntotheworkersandconsumers.

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allowedtheorganizationoftheReconstructionFinanceCorporationtolendmoneytorailroads,
insurancecompaniesandbanksonthevergeofbankruptcy.
haltedthepaymentofwardebtsbyEuropeannations.
Hooversrefusaltoprovidedirectreliefandinsistence,despiteworseningconditions,thattheeconomy
wasactuallyimprovingdamagedhisimageasthenationsleader.
BonusArmythousandsofunemployedWWIveteransandtheirfamiliessetupcampsin
WashingtonD.Ctodemandearlypaymentofthebonusduetotheirwarservice.
Whenthebillwasdefeated,theyrefusedtoleavetown.
HooverinsistedthattheveteranswereinfluencedbyCommunistsandotheragitators(a
personwhourgesotherstoprotest/rebel).
Sentthearmytobreakupthecampsanddisperse(spread/scatter)theveterans.
Newspaperphotographsshowingtanksandteargasbeingusedagainsttheveterans
destroyedthelittlepopularityHooverhadleft.
EventhoughHoovertookmanystepstousethepowerofthefederalgovttostopthegrowing
depression,intheend,hiseffortsweretoolittle.
Onlyuntil1932didHooverchangesomeofhisviewsinwhichheagreedtoincrease
federalspendingtofightthedepression.
Although,atthesametime,heremainedopposedtodirectreliefforthehomelessand
unemployedandsupportedraisingtaxestobalancethefederalbudget.
Hooversabilitytoactwaslimitedbyhisinabilitytohandlethesuchlargedepthofthe
economiccrisisandbyhisbeliefs.Forexample,he
hadgreatfaithintheAmericaneconomicsystem,insistingthattheforcesofthe
marketwouldeventuallysettheeconomyrightagain.
HumanImpactoftheGreatDepression:
UnemploymentBy1932,25percentoftheAmericanlaborforcewereunemployed.
Thehumantollwasseeninlongbreadlinesatsoupkitchens.
Asbanksfailed,peoplelosttheirsavingsandascompaniesfailed,peoplelosttheirjobs.
A.Aandunskilledworkerswerethefirsttoexperienceunemployment.
Womenwerecriticizedforworkingwhilemencouldnotfindjobs.
Thebirthrateandcollegeenrollmentdropped.
Hoovervillescommunitiesinmanycitieswherefamilieswhohaslosttheirjobsandhomeslivedin.
DustBowlakatheDirtyThirtiesinwhichthefarmersdesperatesituationworsened.
Aperiodinthe1930sofsevereduststormsandyearsofdroughtinpartsofTexas,Oklahoma,
Kansas,ColoradoandNewMexico.
DevastationcausedmigrantfarmerscalledOkiesmovetoCaliforniainsearchofwork.
In1935,theNewDealpassedtheSoilConservationActtohelptheregion.
TheauthorJohnSteinbeckwroteaboutthistimeperiod.

Section7.3FDRandTheNewDeal
FranklinDelanoRoosevelt(FDR):I n1932,Roosevelt,aDemocrat,waselectedthe32ndpresident.He
servedaspresidentthroughouttherestofthedepressionandmostofWWII,untilhisdeathin1945.
RestoringPublicConfidenceFDRinspiredsupportandconfidenceinpeople.

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Hismastercommunicationskillswasshownwhenheheldpressconferencesandeffectivelyused
theradioforfiresidechatswiththeAmericanpublic.
Heinvolvedthepublicemotionallyinhisexplanationsofwhathewasdoingtosolvethe
nationseconomicproblems.
TheNewDealandRelief,Recovery,Reform:
NewDealRoosevelt'sprogramtocombattheproblemscausedbythedepression.Thegoalswas
reliefforthosewhoweresuffering.
recoveryf ortheeconomysoitcouldgrowagain.
reformmeasurestoavoidafuturedepression.
Relief

EmergencyBankingAct(1933)Rooseveltclosedthenationsbanksbydeclaringab ankholidaytostopthecollapseofthenationalbanking
system.ThelawrequiredtheexaminationofbankstoensurethatonlyfinanciallysoundbankswereoperatingRoosevelttooktheU.Soffthe
goldstandard.

FederalEmergencyReliefAct FERA Gavemoneytostatesandcitiesfordirectreliefworkprojectsforthehungry,homelessand

unemployed.

PublicsWorksAdministration PWA Lasted until 1939 in which it provided jobs through construction projects such as bridges,
housing, hospitals, schools and aircraft carriers. It moved govt money into the economy and
hoped this pump priming would create jobs, revive production and lead to more consumer
spending.

CivilianConservationCorps CCC Providedjobstoyoungmentoplanttrees,buildbridgesandparksandsetupfloodcontrol

projects.

WorksProgressAdministration WPA Employedmenandwomentobuildhospitals,schools,parksandairportsemployedartists,

writersandmusicians.

Recovery

NationalIndustrialRecoveryAct
NIRA The National Recovery Administration(NRA) had the authority to work w/ businesses to help
them recover. The NRA set codes of fair competition within industries to maintain prices,
minimum wages and maximum hours. The public was encouraged to buy from companies that
followed NRA codes. However, itwasnotpopularandsomeconsumerscomplainedthattheplan
raised prices. Companies opposed the provisions of giving unions the right to organize. The act
wasdeclaredunconstitutionalin1935.

HomeOwnersLoanCorporation HOLC Createdtohelphomeownerssavetheirhousesfromforeclosure.Itprovidedfundstopayoff

mortgagesandfinancedmanynewlongtermmortgagesatlower,fixedinterestrates.

TheFederalHousingAdministration(FHA)wascreatedbytheNationalHousingActtoinsurebankmortgages.

FirstAgriculturalAdjustmentAct AAA Aimedtoraisefarmersincomebycuttingtheamountofsurpluscropsandlivestocksotheycan

selltheirproductsathighprices.Todoso,thegovtpaidthemtoreducethenumberofacresthey
planted.Thepublicwasoutragedatthedestructionofcropsandanimalstokeepproductiondown
andwasdeclaredunconstitutional.Although,itwasreplacedwithalawthatencouragedusing
soilconservationmethods.

TheSecondAgriculturalAdjustmentActwaspassedinresponsetoadropinfarmprices.Thegovtpaidfarmerstostoreportionsof
overproducedcropsuntildemandincreasedandpriceswerehigher.DespiteofNewDealsefforts,farmersdidnotregainprosperityuntil
the1940swhenWWIIbroughtincreaseddemand/needforfood.

Reform

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FederalDepositInsurance FDIC CreatedfromtheGlassSteagallBankingActandinsuressavingsaccountsinbanksapprovedby

Corporations govtandseparatedcommercialandinvestmentbanking.

SecuritiesandExchange SEC CreatedfromtheSecuritiesExchangeAct.Hastheauthoritytoregulate/overseestockexchanges

Commission andinvestmentadvisorsandtherighttobringactionagainstthosefoundpracticingfraud.

SocialSecurityAct SSA Wasacombinationofpublicassistanceandinsurance.Thelaw

Providedoldageinsurance,paidbyataxontheemployerandemployeewhiletheemployee
wasworking.Theworkersandemployer,notthegovt,fundedthis.
Providedunemploymentinsuranceforworkers,paidbyemployers.
Gaveassistancetodependentchildren,theelderly,illandhandicapped/disabled.

NationalLaborRelationsAct NLRA Guaranteedtherighttoformunionsandpracticec ollectivebargaining.CreatedtheNational

(WagnerAct) LaborRelationsBoard(NLRB)toensurethatelectionstoselectunionswereconductedfairly.
Haltedpracticessuchasblacklistingwhichwasmadeillegalbythislaw.

FairLaborStandardsAct(Wages FLSA Setaminimumwageandmaximumworkweek.Bannedchildlaborininterstatecommerce.

andHoursAct)

TheNewDealandOrganizedLabor:
Rooseveltwasinterestedinhelpingworkersprimarilythroughsociallegislationandwantedtowork
cooperativelywithbusiness.
WhentheNRAwasruledunconstitutional,whichensuredlabortherighttoformunions,heused
theWagnerActtoaidlabor.
ThisprolaborattitudeoftheNewDealresultedinanincreaseinunionmembership.
TheAmericanFederationofLabor(AFL),whoseunionsofskilledworkersdominatedthelabor
movementsince1886,waschallengedforcontrolbyanewunionorganizedbyindustry.
Thesenewunionsorganizedallworkerssuchaswomen,A.A,immigrantsfromsouthernand
easternEuropeandskilledorunskilled,
TheindustrialunionslaterformedtheCommitteeforIndustrialOrganization(CIO)concentrated
onbreadandbutterissuesofwages,hoursandworkingconditions.
The1930swasmarkedbyaseriesofbitterstrikesastheCIOattemptedtounionizelargeindustriessuch
asthesteelandautomobile.
Often,policeandcompanypaidguardsusedforceagainststrikers.
Workersusedthesitdowntacticinwhichtheyremainedintheplantbutrefusedtoworkuntil
theirdemandsweremet(ex.wantedcompaniestoentercollectivebargaining)
TheNewDealsEffectsonMinoritiesandWomen:
In1924,N.AweregrantedcitizenshipbyCongress.
N.AcontinuedtosufferunderthegovtpolicyofforcedassimilationenactedbytheDawes
Act(1887)whichaimedatbreakingupthetribalstructureofN.AlifeandforcingN.Atobecome
landowningfarmers.
UnderRooseveltandtheNewDeal,govtpolicychangedtooneoftribalrestoration.
The1934I ndianReorganizationAct(WheelerHowardAct)passedwhichaimedto
restoretribalselfgovtandN.Alanguages,customsandreligiousfreedom.
ProvidededucationforN.AchildrenundertheBureauofIndianAffairs.
Rooseveltwasnotastrongadvocateofcivilrightsmainlyb/chedidnotwanttoalienatesouthern
DemocratsinCongresswhosevoteswereneededtopassNewDeallegislation.
ManyLatinosworkedinagricultureandwerehithardbythedepression.

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OkiesfleeingtheDustBowlcompetedw/MexicansfarmworkinCalifornia.
The1936ElectionMandateInhisfirstterm,FDRwonthesupportoflargenumbersofpeople.
PopularbeliefinhimandinhisNewDealprogramthatseemedtooffersomethingtoeveryone
translatedintovotes.
TheNewDealcoalitionavotingblocthatembracedtheDemocraticSouth,immigrant
workers,organizedlaborandA.AandfarmerswhousuallyvotedRepublicanbefore.
Rooseveltreceivedamandate(clearendorsement)fromtheelectorate.
TheNewDealControversy:
Rooseveltwasapragmatistanddidnotcometoofficecommittedtoasingletheoryorsetofbeliefsbut
ratherwasinterestedinwhateverworkedtosolveaproblem.
ThushewasanexperimenterandtheNewDealshowedhiswillingnesstomakechoicesbasedon
trialanderrorinordertosolveproblems.
ConstitutionalIssues:
ThroughouttheNewDeal,theSupremeCourtmajoritypracticedjudicialrestraint,bynarrowly
interpretingtheinterstatecommerceclauseandstrikingdownmanyofFDRsprograms.
TheNRAwasdeclaredunconstitutionalinS chechterPoultryCorporationv.UnitedStates(1935)
b/cthelawillegallygaveCongresspowertoregulateintrastatecommerce(commercew/ina
state)andviolatedtheseparationofpowersbygivinglegislativepowerstotheexecutivebranch.
InU nitedStatesv.Butler(1936),theCourtstruckdowntheAAAb/cagriculturewasalocal,not
aninterstate,matterundertheprovisionsofthe10thAmendment.
TennesseeValleyAuthority(TVA)ThefederallyfundedTVAprovidedjobs,cheapelectricityandflood
controltopoorruralareasthroughdamconstructionontheTennesseeRiver.
Itwaspraisedasboldexperimentingovtinterventiontomeetregionalneedsbutalsoattackedas
creepingsocialism.
SupremeCourtoppositiontoRooseveltsprogramscontinuedwithconstantvetoingNewDeallegislation
andsomeviewedhimastakingondictatorialpower.
RooseveltaskedCongresstoapprovealawthatwouldpermitthepresidenttoincreasethe
numberofjudgesfromninetofifteenifthejudgesrefusedtoretireattheageof70.
TheJ udiciaryReorganizationBill(courtpackingplan)wasintendedtomaketheSupreme
CourtapprovetheNewDeallaws.
Itneverbecamelawb/citwouldhavethreatenedtheseparationofpowerandsystemof
checksandbalances.
TheThirdTermControversyConstitutionalquestionswereraisedwhen,in1940,PresidentRoosevelt
challengedtheunwrittenconstitutionwinningathirdandfourthterm.
In1951,the22ndAmendmentwhichsetatwotermlimitforpresidentwasratified.
PoliticalOpposition:A sfrustrationgrewb/coftheongoingdepression,individualsenteredthepoliticalscenein
whichtheycriticizedtheNewDealandofferedsimplersolutionstotheeconomiccrisis.
homegrowndemagoguesapoliticalleaderwhogainspowerandpopularitybytriggeringandappealing
totheemotionsandprejudicesofthepeople.
HueyLong,apowerfulU.Ssenator,whoproposedthatincomeandinheritancetaxesonthewealthybeused
togiveeachAmericana$2500income,carandcollegeeducation.
EvaluatingtheNewDeal:WWIIwaslargelyresponsibleforendingtheGreatDepression.

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TheNewDealimprovedbutdidnotsolveunemployment,thefarmcrisisandunderconsumption.
Although,itpreventedaworseeconomicdisasterthatessentiallywouldhaveoccurredw/outgovt
interferenceandassistance.
Preservedthefreeenterprisesystem,institutedreformstoprovidestabilityandencouragegrowth.

WorldWarIIandTheColdWar(19401970)
Section8.1WWII
IsolationismandNeutrality:
Isolationismremainingapartfrompoliticaltiesoreconomicentanglementswithothernations.
Neutralitydeliberatelynottakingsidesinadisputeorcontroversydoesnotlimittheirtradingactivities
withothernations.
SenatorGeraldNyeconcludedthattheU.SenteredWWIduetoencouragementoffinanciersand
armamentmakerseagerforprofits,thus,manyAmericanssupportedareturntoisolationism.
CongresspassedaseriesofN eutralityActsthatpreventedAmericansfrommakingloansto
nationsatwar.
DespiteRoosevelt'sdesiretohelptheallies(FranceandGreatBritain),theonlyexceptionwasto
allowthesaleofarmsandgoodstonationsatwaronac ashandcarrybasis.
EventsLeadingtoWWII:R iseoftotalitariangovtsinGermanyandItalysetthestageforWWII.
Intotal.govts,onepoliticalpartyhascompletecontroloverthegovtandbansallotherparties.
Totalitariangovtsrelyonterrortosuppressindividualrightsandsilenceopposition.
InGermanyandItaly,totalitariangovtswereestablishedbasedonthephilosophyof
fascism(placestheimportanceofthenationaboveallelseincludingindividualfreedoms).
NaziGermanyandfascistItalyhadextremenationalism,racismandmilitarism(desireto
gotowarandhavestrongmilitary).
HitlerandMussoliniprovidedmilitaryassistancetoFranciscoFranco,afascistleaderinSpain
whowasattemptingtooverthrowtherepublicangovt.
TheSpanishCivilWarthateruptedin1936becameadressrehearsalforWWIIin
whichSpainwasatestinggroundfornewweaponsandmilitarystrategies.
TheU.SgovtcontinuedtopursueapolicyofneutralityandCongresspassedaresolution
forbiddingtheexportofarmstoeithersides.
MunichAgreement(1938)GreatBritainandFranceresortedtothepolicyofa ppeasement.
GermanywasallowedtoannexSudetenland,aregionofCzechoslovakiaw/alarge
Germanspeakingpopulation,b/cBritishprimeminister,Chamberlain,andFrenchpremier
believedthattheywouldmakenomoreterritorialdemandinCzechoslovakia.
Afewmonthslater,HitlerseizedtherestofCzechoslovakia.
LendLeaseAct(1941)allowedtheU.Stoloanwarmaterialstoanycountrywhosedefensethe
PresidentdeemsvitaltothedefenseoftheU.S.
AlthoughtheU.Swasofficiallycommittedtoapolicyofneutrality,Rooseveltfoundaway
aroundtheNeutralityActstoprovideaidincludingwarships,toBritain.
Rooseveltcalledthenationthearsenalofdemocracysupplyingarmstothosewhowere
fightingforfreedom.
FDRpromisedthattheU.Swouldnotfightinawarsincethecountrywasnotdirectlyinvolved.

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In1941,JapanesewarplanesattackedtheU.SnavyfleetatPearlHarbor,Hawaii.
ThissurpriseattackshatteredtheAmericanbeliefthattheAtlanticandPacificOceanswould
safelyisolatetheU.SfromfightinginEuropeandAsia.
Thedayafter,CongressagreedtoRooseveltsrequesttodeclarewaronJapan.
AsthenationrecentlyrecoveringfromtheGreatDepression,theU.Sfinancedagreatpartofits
involvementinWWIIwiththesaleofgovtwarbonds.
WWIIinReview:W WIIbeganin1 939,whenGermanforcesinvadedPolandandtheU.Senteredthewarin
1941,aftertheJapaneseattackedPearlHarbor.Thewarendedin1 945.
AlliesBritain,USSR(SovietUnion),U.SandFrance AxisPowersGermany,ItalyandJapan

Duringthewar,leadersoftheAlliednationsmetinaseriesofconferencestodiscusswartimestrategies
andplansforthepostwarworld.
AtlanticCharterMeeting(1941)RooseveltandChurchillmettoagreeoncertainprinciplesfor
buildingalastingpeaceandestablishingfreegovtsintheworld.
Casablanca,Cairo,T ehranConference(Roosevelt,ChurchillandStalinmettodiscusswar
strategyandplansforthepostwarworld).
Yalta(1945)Roosevelt,ChurchillandStalinoutlinedthedivisionofpostwarGermanyinto
sphereofinfluenceandplannedforthetrialsofwarcriminals.
Inanefforttobringthewartoaquickerconclusionandtopreventfurtherdestructionandlossoflife,
Alliedleadersdecidedtoembarkonanatomicbomb.
TheManhattanProjectIn1943,agroupofscientistfromtheU.S,CanadaandBritainbeganto
workonthetopsecretatomicresearchprogram.
Afterthefirstatomictest,AlliedleaderswarnedJapantosurrenderorfacepromptandutter
destructionintheP otsdamConference.
JapanrefusedtosurrenderandP residentTruman(cameafterFDRdiedinoffice)decided
todropatomicbombsontheJapanesecitiesofHiroshimaandNagasaki.
Afterthedevastatingbombings,JapanformallysurrenderedandWWIIcametoanend.
TheU.SoccupiedJapanundertheleadershipofGeneralDouglasMacArthur.
Anewconstitutionalmonarchyanddemocraticreformswasestablished.
AmericanPatriotism:
RosietheRivetertermforwomenwhoworkedinwartimefactories(WeCanDoIt!).
TheexperienceofA.AduringthewaryearsprovidedthefoundationoftheCRMofthe1950s60s.
Militaryunitsweresegregatedand,initially,A.Asliderswerelimitedtosupportroles.
In1948,PresidentTrumanshowedhissupportforcivilrightsbyissuingExecutiveOrder
9981whichendedracialsegregationinthemilitaryandarmedforces.
JapaneseAmericansfacedhardshipandeconomiclossesaftertheattackonPearlHarbor.
Japaneseimmigrantsbeganarrivingintheearly1900sandmainlysettledonthewestcoast.
NiseipersonbornintheU.SascitizensandparentswereimmigrantsfromJapan.
AftertheattackofPearlHarbor,manyAmericansfearedthatJapaneseAmericanswereathreatto
nationalsecurity.
Demobilization:U .Sunderwentaperiodofd emobilization(thetransformationfrommilitary,wartimestatusto
civilian,peacetimesociety)

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ServicemansReadjustmentAct(TheGIBillofRights)authorizedbillionsofdollarstopayforveterans
benefitssuchascollegeeducation,medicaltreatmentandunemploymentinsurance.
TheTaftHartleyActWorkerswagescouldnotkeepupw/inflationafterthewar.Theact
providedan80daycoolingoffperiodinwhichthepresidentcoulddelayastrikethat
threatenednationalwelfare.
FairDealunderTrumansadministration,legislationwaspassedb/cofissuescausedbydemobilization
extendedreformsunderFDRsNewDeal.
Theprogramaimedatpromotingemployment,higherminimumwage,greaterunemployment
compensationforworkersw/outjob.
NationalSecurityAct(1947)waspassedunderTrumansadministrationandcreatedtheNationalMilitary
Establishment(laterbecameDepartmentofDefense)
TheBabyBoomThenationexperiencedalargepopulationexplosion.
TheeconomichardshipsoftheGreatDepressioncausedsmallerfamilies.
Familiesgrewlargercausingtheexpansionofmanypublicservices(ex.schools).
TheElectionof1948Trumanwonreelection.

Section8.2TheColdWar
TheUnitedNations:U
.SforeignpolicychangeddramaticallyasaresultofWWIIinwhichtheU.Sbegan
planningforaninternationalpeacekeepingorganization.
ContainmentinEurope:I n1939,GermanyandtheSovietUnionsignedanonaggressiontreatybutwhen
Germanyviolatedthepact,theUSSRsoughtanewalliancetoprotectitselffromGermany.
AlthoughtheU.SandUSSRwereenemies,itwasclearthatthesharedgoalwastodefeatAxispowers.
AfterWWII,theSovietUnionwasviewedasathreattothesecurityofthenoncommunistworld.
SovietsmovedtroopsintonationsofEasternEuropeandtheUSSRactivelysupportedcommunist
govtsinthosenations.
TheU.Semergedasasuperpower(aswellastheUSSRinwhichtheydominatedworldaffairs)andsoughtto
limitcommunistexpansion.
ThegoalwastoconfinecommunismonlytotheareasitalreadyexistedsotheUSSRandEastern
Europeannations.
Americanpresidentialpowerincreasedduringthistimeinordertocarryoutthispolicy.
TheIronCurtainTheprimeministerofBritain,WinstonChurchill,inaspeechcautionedtheworld
aboutthethreatofcommunistexpansion.
Churchill'sphraseironcurtainshowedtherecognizabledivisionbtwnthefreeWesternEurope
andthecommunistEasternEurope.
TrumanDoctrinegaveeconomicandmilitaryaidtonationsvulnerabletoadaptcommunismorunder
threatfromSovietforces.
BeforeWWII,Britainwasapowerfulforceintheworldbutthetremendouslossesandexpense
ofthewarweakenedBritainsinfluence.
USSRsoughttoextendBritainspreviousinfluenceintheareasneartheMediterranean.
TheSovietssupportedcommunistrebelsintheirattempttotopplethegovtofGreecewhich
causedtheU.Stotrytocontainthespreadofcommunism.
In1947,TrumanaskedCongressformillionsofdollarstoaidTurkeyandGreece.

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WWIIleftmuchofEuropeinruinsinwhichmajorcitiesweredestroyedandsurvivorsstruggledtofind
food,shelterandbasicneeds.
Dissatisfactionwithsuchconditionsgrewrapidlyandinmanywartorncountriescommunism
seemedtooffersolutions.
TopreventthespreadofcommunistinfluenceinEurope,GeorgeMarshall,secretaryofstate,
announcedtheM arshallPlanwhichwouldprovideeconomicaidprograms.
ThisaidenabledWesternEuropetobeginconsumerproductiononcemoreandtobuild
prosperouseconomies.
U.Sfeltthatstabilizingandimprovingeconomieswouldhaltcommunistexpansion.
GermanywasdividedintofourzonesofoccupationeachcontrolledbyBritain,France,USSRandU.S.
Berlinwasdividedintofoursections,eachcontrolledbyoneofthefourAllies.
DisagreementduringthistimemarkedthebeginningoftheC oldWar(endofWWIIto1991)
TheBerlinBlockadeU.S,FranceandBritaincooperatedingoverningthewesternsectorsofGermany.
UnabletoreachagreementwiththeUSSRoverunificationofGermany,thethreewesternpowers
unifiedtheirzoneswithouttheSovietzone.
TheFederalRepublicofGermany,orWestGermany,wasestablished.
TheSovietscutoffallaccesstoWestBerlinbyblockadingtheroadsleadingtothecityb/cthe
SovietshopedthattheblockadewouldforcewesternpowersoutofBerlin.
TheBerlinAirliftTheU.S,FranceandBritainunderstoodthatWestBerlincouldnotgetsuppliesby
roadsothesewesternpowersbegantransportingsuppliessuchasfood,clothing,coal,medicineandother
necessitiesbyaircrafttothecity.
SovietsannouncedtheformationoftheGermanDemocraticRepublic,orEastGermany.
U.SandsomeWesternEuropeannationsfoughtthespreadofcommunismbyformingalliances.
NorthAtlanticTreatyOrganizationIn1949,theU.Sandotherwesternnationssignedand
establishedacollectivesecurityagreement.
Thiswasasystemofmutualdefenseinwhichmemberpledgedthatanattackonanyone
ofthemwouldbeconsideredanattackonallofthem.
WarsawPactAnopposing,militaryallianceformedbytheSovietswithseveralEastern
Europeancommunistnations.
ContainmentinAsia:D uringWWII,theU.Swasalliedw/ChinaandenemyofJapan.Afterwards,theU.S
reverseditspoliticalalliancesinAsia.Withitsnewconstitutionaldemocracy,JapanbecameanAmericanallyand
acommunisttakeoverinChinamadetheU.Shostiletothenation.
Inthe1930s,ChinaplungedintothecivilwarinwhichMaoZedongsoughttodefeatthenationalist
regimeandtheCommunistforcesdefeatedthenationalist.
TheU.Swasalarmedbythisdevelopmentb/citfearedthatcommunism,wouldspreadbeyond
China.
B/ctheU.SoverseentheinitialrebuildingofpostwarJapanandhelpedputanewconstitutional
democracyinplace,itwantedtopreventcommunismfromspreadingthere.
TheKoreanWarDuringtheWWII,KoreahadbeenoccupiedbyJapanbut,bytheendofthewar,Korea
wasdividedalongthe3 8thparallel,orlineoflatitude.
ThenorthernzonewasundertheinfluenceoftheSovietUnionandcommunismwhilethe
southernwascontrolledbytheU.Sandfollowedaneconomicsystemofcapitalism.

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NorthKoreainvadedSouthKoreain1950inanattempttounifythecountryandTruman
respondedbycommittingAmericantroopstomajorinvolvementintheconflict.
Althoughtrucetalksbegan,noresolutionwasreachedbeforetheelectionof1952.
RepublicancandidateDwightD.Eisenhowerpromised,ifelected,thathewouldgoto
Koreatoaidinthepeacenegotiations.
Eisenhowerwontheelection.
AttheendoftheKoreanWar,Korearemainedadividednation.
ShiftinthePolicyofContainmentEarlycontainmenteffortsfocusedmainlyoneconomicaid
programs.However,aftertheKoreanWar,theU.Sshoweditswillingnesstoundertakemilitary
actiontocontaincommunismofitwasnecessary.
TheColdWaratHome:EvenastheU.Sdefendeddemocraticfreedomsworldwide,sometimesthosesame
freedomswereindangerathome.ThespreadingofcommunismintoAsiaandtheapparentgrowingstrengthof
theUSSledsometofearthatcommunismcouldspreadtotheU.S.ThisfearledsomeAmericanstotakeactions
thatviolatedthecivilrightsofothers.
In1938,theHouseUnAmericanActivitiesCommittee(HUAC)wasformedasaninvestigativeunitto
lookintocommunistactivity.
InW atkinsv.UnitedStates,theSupremeCourtruledtheHUACcouldnotpunishwitnesseswho
refusedtocooperatewithinvestigations.
In1940,CongresspassedtheS mithAct(madeitillegalforanyonetoadvocateoverthrowinganygovtby
forceoralignwithgroupsthatcallforsuchactions)
Dennisv.UnitedStates(1951)thecourtupheldtheSmithActinwhichEugeneDennis,secretary
oftheCommunistPartyintheU.S,andotherswereconvictedofadvocatingtheviolent
overthrowofthegovt.
Yatesv.UnitedStatesthecourtruledthattheSmithActappliedonlytothosewhoteachor
promotesdirectactiontooverthrowgovt,nottothosewhomerelyadvocateitsprinciple.
In1947,TrumanfueledanticommunistfeelingsbyorderingaLoyaltyReviewBoardtoconductsecurity
checksonmanygovtemployees.Thosewhoseloyaltyseemeddoubtfulweredismissed.
In1948,AlgerHiss,aformeradvisortoRoosevelt,waschargedwithhavingbeenaCommunistspy
duringthe1930swhichHissdenied.
InterstateHighwayActasaresultofs uburbanization(thepopulationshiftfromcitiestosuburbs[towns
surroundingcities])inwhichthegovtprovidedfundsfor44,000milenetworkofinterstatehighways.
McCarthyism:Theuseofunfairmethodsofinvestigationandaccusationtosuppressopposition.
SenatorJosephMcCarthyofWisconsinbeganhisownhuntforcommunist.
In1950,heclaimedhehadalistofStateDepartmentemployeesthatarecommunists.
Overthenextfewyears,hewentonanaccusationrampagebyassertingthatotherpeopleand
govtagencieswerecorruptedbycommunism.
Usedthewordinfiltratetodescribehowpeopleheaccusedsecretlyobtainedgovtpositions.
McCarthymadeboldaccusationwithoutanyevidenceandheruinedthereputationsandlivesofmany
peoplehecarelesslyaccusedofbeingcommunists.
In1950,EthelanJuliusRosenbergandMortonSobellwerechargedwithgivingatomicsecretstothe
SovietsduringWWII.
Afterahighlycontroversialtrial,theywereconvictedofespionage(spying).

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CongresspassedtheMcCarranInternalSecurityActwhichaimedatlimitingtheactionsofanyonethe
govtconsideredathreattoU.Ssecurity.
TheMcCarrenWalterActof1952restrictedtheimmigrationofpeoplefromcommunist
dominatednationsinAsiaandsouthernandcentralEurope.
In1954,McCarthychargedthateventhearmywasfullofcommunists.
HispublicsupportfadedandthefallofMcCarthyendedtheredscareofthe1950s.
ThetacticsofMcCarthywerecriticizedb/cheviolatedimportantconstitutionalliberties.

SecurityintheModernEra(1950Present)
Section9.1DwightD.Eisenhower
ontinuedTrumanspolicyofcontainmentw/somenewideas.
EisenhowersForeignPolicy: C
MassiveRetaliationEisenhowerworriedthatdefensespendingwouldbankruptthenationbutfearedthat
Sovietsmightseecutbacksinmilitaryspendingasasignofweakness.
TheU.Swillrelymoreheavilyonairpowerandnuclearweaponsthanongroundtroops.
TheU.Swouldconsidertheuseofnuclearweaponstohaltaggressionofitbelievedthenations
interestswerethreatened.
Thenationmustbereadytotothebrinkofwarinordertopreserveworldpeacebrinkmanship
TheU.SandSovietUnionbegananarmsraceinwhichbothnationsrushedtodevelopmissilescapableto
carryingnuclearweapons.
In1957,theSovietslaunchedasatellite,S putnik,intoorbitaroundtheearth.Thearmsracethen
becameaspaceraceastheU.Srushedtolaunchitsown.
ForeignPolicyinAsia:Asiabecameanareaofconcernb/coftheCommunistvictoryinChinaWhichraised
fearsoffurtherCommunistexpansion.
AsCommuniststookcontrolofthegovtsofChinaandlatersomenationsofSoutheastAsia,American
worriesaboutCommunistexpansionincreased.
TheDominoTheorytheideathatifoneAsiannationbecameCommunist,neighboringnations
surroundingitwouldaswell.
TheU.Susedalliancesasawaytoresistaggression.SimilartotheNATOinEurope,the
SoutheastAsiaTreatyOrganization(SEATO)pledgedtoopposedangerfromCommunistforces.
ForeignPolicyintheMiddleEast:
IranIn1954,theprimeministertriedtonationalizethecountrysforeignownedoilindustry.
TheU.Ssecretlyarrangedtooverthrowtheprimeministerandrestoretheshahtopowerinorder
tosecureAmericassupplyofoilbutcausedproblemsforthenationlater.
EgyptThepresidentGamalAbdelNasserreliedoneconomicsupportfromtheSovietUnionandthe
U.StobuildahugedamontheNileRiver.
NassersfriendlessnesstotheSovietUnionledthetheU.Stowithdrawitssupport.
NasserthennationalizedtheSuezCanalwhichwasrunbyaBritishandFrenchcompany.
BritainandFrancejoinedbyIsraelsenttroopstoseizethecanalbut,fearingthatfightingwould
spreadthroughtheregion,theU.SandSovietUnionsupportedaUnitedNationsresolution
againsttheaction.
EisenhowerDoctrineU.SwouldhelpanyMiddleEasternnationresistCommunistaggression.
ForeignPolicyinLatinAmerica:
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TheCIAstagedanoperationinGuatemalawhicharrangedarevoltthattoppledthegovtthatwas
consideredtoofriendlytoCommunists.
In1956,FidelCastrobeganarevoltagainstthegovtofCubandictatorFulgencioBatista.Castro
adoptedpoliciesthatangeredtheU.Sb/chelimitedcivillibertiesandimprisonedpoliticalopponents.
HenationalizedimportantindustriesandturnedtotheSovietUnionforaid.
U2Incident:SovietmilitaryshotdownanAmericanU2aircraftinSovietterritoryinwhichthepilotwas
spyingonSovietmilitarybases.
NikitaKhrushchev,leaderoftheUSSRafterStalindiedin1953,demandedanapologyinwhich
Eisenhowerrefused.
EisenhowersEconomyPolicy:Eisenhoweropposedastrongcentralgovtandbelievedthatpoliciesthat
weregoodforbigbusinessesbenefittedthenationasawhole.
Farmerswerereceivingpaymentsfromthegovttomakeupforchangesinmarketconditions.
WhenEisenhowerwantedtocutsuchpayments,farmersprotestedandCongressapprovedanew
programthatpaidfarmersnottoplantcrops.
Subsidiesdirectpaymentsbyagovttoprivateindividuals.

Section9.2TheCivilRightsMovement
NOTECivilRightsMovement=CRM
CivilRightsandtheWarrenCourt:In1953,anemptyspotwasintheSupremeCourtinwhichEisenhower
appointedEarlWarrenaschiefjustice.
Eisenhowerlaterregretshisappointmentb/cWarrenmademanyliberaldecisionsthatopposed
Eisenhowersconservativepoliticalviews.
InB rownv.BoardofEducationofTopeka,Kansas( 1954),theCourtcombinedfivecasesrelatedto
overturningstatelawsthatallowedforschoolsegregationinKansasandfourotherstates.
OliverBrownwasthefatherofLindaBrown,aA.Astudentthatrequestedtherighttoattenda
localallwhiteschool(SumnerElementary)inherTopekaneighborhoodinsteadofherallblack
school(MonroeElementary)thatwasmuchfurtherawayfromherhome.
ShewasdeniedadmissionandBrownsuedtheD.O.EandthecasewassenttotheSupremeCourt
TheCourtreverseditsrulinginP lessyv.Ferguson(1896)andheldthatsegregationisillegalin
publiceducationseparatepublicschoolsforblackandwhitestudentsareunconstitutional.
AlthoughtheBrowncaseopenedthedoorfordesegregation,integrationdidnotfollowimmediately.
IntheSouth,manyschoolopenlydefiedtheruling.
In1957,thegovernorofArkansasorderedthestatesNationalGuardtopreventnineA.A
studentsfromattendingCentralHighSchoolinLittleRock.
Eisenhowerwasreluctanttostepinbutthegovernor'sdefiancewasadirectchallengetothe
Constitution,thus,hesentfederaltroopstoescorttheLittleRockNineintotheschool.
GovernorOrvalFaubuscontinuedhisoppositionbyorderingallcityhighschoolsforthe
followingyearthistacticfailedandin1959thefirstraciallyintegratedclassgraduated.
OtherLandmarkCasesUndertheWarrenCourtr ed=increasedtherightoftheaccused

Mappv.Ohio 1961 Evidencefromunreasonablesearchandseizuresexcludedfromtrial

Gideonv.Wainwright 1963 Instateandfederalcriminalcasesalldefendantshavetherighttocounsel(lawyer).

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Escobedov.Illinois 1964 Requestforlawyer/attorneymustbehonored

Mirandav.Arizona 1966 Theaccusedmustbeinformedtheirrighttoremainsilentandrighttocounsel

Engelv.Vitale 1962 Govtsponsoredpublicschoolprayerunconstitutional

N.Y.TimesCov.Sullivan 1964 Statementsaboutpublicofficialsnotliableunlessmadewithactualmalice

Tinkerv.DesMoinesSchoolDistrict 1969 Upheldsymbolicstudentspeechwhennoevidenceofthreattoschooldiscipline

AfricanAmericanActivism:
InMontgomery,Alabamain1955,RosaParksrefusedtogiveupherseattoawhitemanandmovetothe
backofthebus,asrequiredbylaw.
Shewasarrestedforviolatingthelawandheractioninspiredaboycottofthecitybusses.
MartinLutherKingJr.emergedasamajorleaderoftheCRM.
Believedinnonviolentmethodsandtheuseofcivildisobedience(thedeliberatebreakingofalaw
toshowthelawisunjust).
Intheend,theSupremeCourtruledthatsegregationofpublicbuseswasillegal.
Thepushtointegrateeducationcontinuewhen,in1962,J amesMeredithtriedtoenrollattheallwhite
UniversityofMississippibutthegovernorofthestatetriedtostophim.
RiotsbrokeoutandfederalmarshalsandtheNationalGuardweresent,allowingMeredithenter
theschoolbutstillfacedharassment.
Sitinatlunchcounters(nowadaysfastfoodrestaurants)beganatGreensboro,NorthCarolinainwhicha
groupofA.Asatatawhitesonlylunchcounterandrefusedtoleaveuntilserved.
In1963,MLKandtheSouthernChristianLeadershipConference(SCLC)beganacampaigntobring
integrationtoBirmingham,Alabama.
Ataprotest,policeuseddogsandfirehosestobreakupthemarchersandarrestedmanypeople
includingMLKwho,injail,wrotehisfamousLetterfromaBirminghamJail.
Hedefendedhismethodsofnonviolentcivildisobedienceandrestatedtheneedfordirection
actiontoendsegregation.
CivilRightsandLegislation:
UniversityofAlabamaIn1963,GovernorGeorgeWallaceofAlabamavowedtostoptwoA.Astudents
fromregisteringatthestateuniversity.
PressurefromPresidentJFKandthearrivaloftheNationalGuardforcedWallacetobackdown.
MarchonWashingtonWiththegrowingCRM,PresidentKennedydeliveredaspeechtothenation
regardingtheneedtoguaranteecivilrightstoA.AinwhichhesentacivilrightsbilltoCongress.
CivilrightsgroupsorganizedahugemarchonWashingtonD.Dtoshowsupportforthebill.
Afewweekslater,whiteterroristsbombedonAchurchinBirmingham,killingfouryounggirls.
AftertheassassinationofJFKin1963,hisviceLyndonB.Johnsonrecognizedtheurgencyofpushing
forwardw/civilrightslegislation.
JohnsonsignedtheC ivilRightsActof1964whichcalledfor:
ProtectionofvotingrightsforAmericans.
Openingofpublicfacilities(restaurants,hotels,stores,restrooms)topeopleofallraces.
AcommissiontoprotectequaljobopportunitiesforallAmericans.
ItoutlawedracialdiscriminationinpublicaccommodationsincludingmotelsthatrefusedroomstoA.A.

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InH eartofAtlantaMotelv.UnitedStates(1964),racialsegregationofprivatefacilitiesengaged
ininterstatecommercewasfoundunconstitutional.
TitleVIIIoftheCivilRightsActof1968(theF airHousingAct)prohibitsdiscriminationinthe
sale,rentalorfinancingofpeoplebasedonrace,color,nationaloriginorsex.
TheVotingRightsActof1965ManySouthernstatescontinuedtoresistcivilrightslegislationand
SupremeCourtrulingswhichangeredJohnsoninwhichheproposednewlegislation.Thebill:
putanendtoliteracytests
authorizedfederalexaminerstoregistervotersinareassuspectedofdenyingA.Asuffrage
directedtheattorneygeneraloftheU.Stotakelegalactionagainststatesthatcontinuedtouse
polltaxesinstateelections.
24thAmendmentabolishedthepolltaxinfederalelections(afeethathadtobepaidinordertovote
whichpreventedpoorerAmericansincludingmanyA.Afromexercisingtheirlegalrighttovote)
ChangeintheCivilRightsMovement:Summerof1964wasknownasFreedomSummerb/cofitsmany
demonstrations,protests,voterregistrationdrivesandtheMarchonWashington.
Bythemid1960s,somecivilrightsactivistsbecamefrustratedthatthenewlegislationhadnotimproved
conditionenough.
BlackPowerthebeliefthatA.Ashouldtaketotalcontrolofthepoliticalandeconomicaspects
oftheirlives.
Someadvocatedtheuseofviolencewhilemoderateleaderscontinuedtocallfornonviolent
methodsofprotest.
ThisdivisionandsplitsofbeliefsweakenedtheeffectivenessandunityoftheCRM.
MalcolmX attractedA.AwhowerefrustratedbythepaceoftheCRM.
Spokeagainstintegrationinsteadpromotingblacknationalism(abeliefintheseparateidentity
andracialunityoftheA.Acommunity).
WasamemberoftheseparatistgroupNationofIslambutbrokeawaytoformhisownreligious
organizationknownasMuslimMosqueInc.
AfterhispilgrimagetoMecca,whenhesawmanyMuslimsofallracesworshippingpeacefully
together,hechangedhisviewsaboutintegrationandbelievedtowardsamoreunifiedCRM.
TheWomensRightsMovement:Despitethe19thAmendmentgrantingwomensuffrage,womenstillnot
achievedequalstatuswithmeneconomicallyandsocially.
BettyFriedansT heFeminineMystique:abookarguingthatsocietyforcedAmericanwomenoutofthe
jobmarketandbackintothehomeafterWWIIenergizedthewomensrightsmovement.
NationalOrganizationforWomen(NOW)formedtopushforlegislationgivingequalitytowomen.
CongressapprovedtheE qualRightsAmendment(ERA)in1972butwhenitsentittothestatesfor
ratification,itwasneverapproved.
EqualOpportunityActof1972(EqualPayAct)requiredemployerstopayequalwagesforequalwork.
InR oev.Wade,theSupremeCourtruledthatawomansrighttoterminateapregnancyisconstitutionally
protectedandlawsmakingabortionacrimewereoverturnedb/citviolatedawomansrighttoprivacy.
AffirmativeActiongivingpreferencetomembersofminoritygroupssuchaswomenandA.Awhen
hiringworkersoracceptingapplicantstoschools.
Criticsclaimedthattheseprogramswereatypeofreversediscriminationinwhichwhitemales
lostchancesatjobstolessqualifiedwomenandmembersofminoritygroup.

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RegentsoftheUniversityofCaliforniav.Bakke(1979)schoolusedracialquotaswhendeciding
onapplicantstomedicalschool.
AllanBakkewasrejectedadmissiontothemedicalschoolinfavoroflessqualified
applicants.
CourtruledthatBakkewasdeniedequalprotectionunderthe14thAmendment.
GlassCeilingmidlevelpositionwhichwomenmightbepromotedinmanyjobsbutallowedwomento
seeupperlevel,betterpayingpositionsthatwereheldbymenandnotopentowomen.
SomearguedthattheWomensRightsgoalsunderminedtraditionalvalues
In1971,Nixonvetoedabillthatwouldhaveprovidedforanationalsystemofdaycareforthe
childrenofworkingmothersb/chebelievedthatthefamilyratherthangovtshouldbe
responsibleforthecareofchildren.
OpponentsofERAclaimedthatthemovementledtorisingdivorcerates,increasingnumbersof
abortionsandgrowingacceptanceandrecognitionofhomosexuality
Threatstotraditionalvaluesandcustoms.
OtherGroupsStrugglingfortheirRights:
Latinosoftenweredeniedequalopportunitiesinemployment,educationandhousing.Thelargestgroup
ofLatinosisMexicanAmericans,oftenknownasChicanos.
Inthe1960s,largenumbersofChicanoswereemployedasfarmworkersandfacedproblemsof
discrimination,poorpayandhazardousworkingconditions.
In1962,aChicanonamedCesarChavezemergedaslaborleaderstartinganunionformigrant
farmworkerswhichbecametheU nitedFarmWorkers.
Hisworkwashelpfultograpesandlettucepickersintheirstruggleforhigherwagesandbetter
workingconditions.
Effortsatboycottsofgrapesandlettuceincreasedpublicsupportforthegoalsoffarm
workers.
NativeAmericans:ConditionswerepoorformanyN.Ainwhichtheirrateofalcoholism,suicideand
unemploymentwerethehighestofanyethnicgroup.
DuringtheJohnsonadministration,govttriedtoimproveconditionsbystartingprogramstoraise
thestandardoflivingandprovidemedicalfacilitiesandeducationalinstitutions.
N.Ademandedgreaterresponsibilityinmakingdecisionsthataffectedtheirlives.
CallforRedPowerandformedtheA mericanIndianMovement(AIM).
In1969,agroupofmilitantN.AseizedAlcatrazIslandinSanFranciscoBaywiththe
demandthatitbeturnedintoanIndianculturalcenter.
InC ountyofOneidav.OneidaIndianNationofNewYorkState(1985),theSupremeCourtruled
thatN.Ahadarighttosuetoenforcetheiroriginallandrights.
NewYorkspurchaseof872acresfromtheOneidaIndiansin1795wasillegalb/citwas
notwitnessedbyfederalagentsorapprovedbyCongresswhichwererequiredunderthe
federalIndianTradeandNonIntercourseActof1793.
DisabledAmerican:Americanswithdisabilitieshaveenduredalongstruggletogaintheirfullrightsin
Americansociety.
Educationalopportunitieswidenedforhearingimpairedandvisuallyimpaired.

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Nowadays,disabledstudentsattendregularschoolsunderm ainstreaming(thepracticeofbringing
handicappedstudentsoutoftheisolationofspecialschoolsandintothemainstreamofstudent
life)Programsofinclusion.
KennedybackedtheestablishmentoftheSpecialOlympicstoshowcaseandencourageathletes
withhandicappingconditions.
TheRehabilitationActof1973barreddiscriminationagainstpeoplewithdisabilitiesinany
programs,activitiesandfacilitiesthatweresupportedbyfederalfunds.
TheEducationforAllHandicappedChildrenActof1975ensuredafree,appropriateeducation
forchildrenwithdisabilitiessuchasspecialeducationandrelatedservices.
TheA mericanWithDisabilitiesActof1990prohibiteddiscriminationinemployment,public
accommodation,transportation,stateandlocalgovtservices.
Benefitsoftheactwasgreateraccessibilitytopublicbuildingsandtransportationfor
peoplewhousewheelchairsandtheavailabilityofelectronicdevicestoallow
hearingimpairedpeopleusetelephone.
Activismbydisabledveterans,especiallyfromtheVietnamWar,drewincreasedattention
totheneedsofpeoplewithdisabilities.

Section9.3JohnF.KennedyandLyndonB.Johnson
TheNewFrontier:
TheSpaceProgramAfterthesuccessfullaunchofaSovietastronaut,in1961,Kennedycommittedthe
nationtoaspaceprogramwiththegoaloflandingapersononthemoonbytheendofthe1960s.
ThePeaceCorpsSentthousandsofAmericanvolunteerstodevelopingnationswheretheytrainedlocal
peopleintechnical,educationalandhealthprogramswasintendedtooffsetthespreadofcommunism.
TheGreatSociety:
VolunteersinServicetoAmerica(VISTA)Programmeantasad omesticPeaceCorpsaidedpoorcitizens
inruralandimpoverishedareas.
OfficeofEconomicOpportunitydirectingagencyinJohnsonsWaronPoverty.Branchesincluded...
ProjectofHeadStartprovideseducationforpreschoolersfromlowincomefamilies.
ProjectUpwardBoundassistshighschoolstudentsfromlowincomefamiliestoattendcollege.
JobCorpsprovidesvocationaltrainingforhighschooldropouts.
ElementaryandSecondaryEducationActgavebillionsdollarsinfederalaidtoeducation,withthe
greatestsharegoingtoschooldistrictswithlargenumbersofofstudentsfromlowincomefamilies.
FoodStampProgramJohnsoncontinuedaprogramofassistanceforlowincomefamiliestobuyfood.
ItwasreplacedandincreasedbytheActof1964andadjustmentwerefurthermadetoFSP.
ThecurrentnameisSupplementalNutritionAssistanceProgram(SNAP)
ForeignPolicyinthe1960s:KennedyandJohnsoncontinuedTrumanscoldwarpolicyofcontainment.
KennedyhopedtoimproverelationwithLatinAmericaandstopthespreadofcommunismthroughthe
AllianceforProgresswhichprovidedbillionsofdollarstohelpeconomicdevelopmentintheregion.
Fundsoftenwenttoaidoppressivegovtssimplyb/ctheywereanticommunist.
JFKapprovedaCIAplantooverthrowFidelCastro,theCommunistleaderofCuba.Theplancalledfor...
Cubanexile,suppliedwithU.Sarmsandtraining,toinvadeCubaandstartanuprisingagainst
Castrotookplace1961attheB
ayofPigsnearHavana(capitalofCuba).

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NouprisingfollowedandCastro'stroopsquicklycrushedtheinvadingforces.
FearinganotherU.Sinvasionattempt,CastroagreedtoaSovietplantobasenuclearmissilesaimedatthe
U.SandCuba.
In1962,KennedyannouncedanavalblockadeofCubaanddemandedthattheSovietswithdraw
themissiles.TheSovietsbackeddownandwithdrewtheirmissiles.
In1963,theU.S,SovietUnionandBritainsignedaN uclearTestBanTreatyinwhichtheyagreednotto
testnuclearweaponsintheair,outerspaceorundertheseabutinsteadundergroundtestingwasallowed.
ThedivisionofCommunistEastGermanyandademocraticWestGermanyaddedtocoldwartensions.
KennedyandSovietPrimeMinisterNikitaKhrushchevmetinAustriatodiscussrelationsbtwn
theU.SandUSSR.
KhrushchevthoughtthattheBayofPigsdisasterrevealedAmericanweaknessandtriedto
threatenKennedyintoremovingNATOtroopsfromEurope.
Instead,KennedyincreasedU.SmilitaryandfinancialcommitmenttoWestGermany.
InresponsetoAmericanmoves,theEastGermangovtbuiltawallbtwnEastandWestBerlin.
TheB erlinWallwasmeanttostopthefloodofEastGermansescapingtofreedomintheWest
andbecameasymboloftyranny.
In1989politicalchangesweepingthroughEasternEuropeledEastGermanytoteardown
thewallwhich,later,ledtothereunificationofGermany.
ForeignPolicyintheAsia:
1945HoChiMinh,memberofCommunistParty,declaredtheDemocraticRepublicofVietnam.
19461949France,whichcontrolledVietnamsincethe1800sappointedapuppetleadernamedBaiDai,
whowasineffectiveagainstthepowerofHoChiMinh.
19501953U.SfoughtintheKoreanWarandprovidedtheFrenchwithfinancialaidinthestruggletohang
ontoVietnam.
1954TheforcesofHoChiMinhdefeatedtheFrenchtheGenevaAccordsdividedVietnamatthe17th
parallelNorthandSouthVietnamagreedtoholdelectionsin1956toreunitethecountrySEATOwascreated.
1956SouthVietnamesePresidentNgoDiem,fearingthepopularityofHoChiMinh,refusedtoholdelections
scheduledundertheGenevaAccords.
1960HoChiMinhrecognizedtheVietcong,Communistguerrillas(peoplewhoparticipateinaviolent
struggletooverthrowtheirgovt)inSouthVietnamastheNationalLiberationFront(NLF).
KennedybelievedinEisenhowersdominotheoryandsupportedtheDiemregime.
AmericanadvisorsurgedDiemtoadoptreformstobroadenhissupport,however,Diembrutally
oppressedallopponentsandruledasadictator.
In1963,SouthVietnamesemilitaryoverthrewDiemandU.Sannouncedthatitintendedto
withdrawmilitarytroopsby1965butJFKcouldnotkeepthispromiseb/chewasassassinated.
VietnamWarEscalation:UndertheConstitution,onlyCongresscandeclarewar.However,by1964theU.S
sentaidandtroopsintoVietnam.Eachdidsobyactingasthecommanderinchiefofthenationsmilitaryforces.
JohnsonintensifiedthewardramaticallyandannouncedthatAmericandestroyerswerethevictimofan
unprovokedattackbyNorthVietnamesegunboats.
JohnsonaskedCongressfortheauthoritytoorderairstrikesagainstNorthVietnam.
GulfofTonkinResolutionapproved/supportedthepresident,ascommanderinchief,totakeall
necessarymeasurestorepelanyarmedattackagainstU.Sforcesandpreventfurtheraggression.

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U.Smilitaryleadersexpectedthatthenationssuperiortechnologywouldguaranteevictorybutwassoon
losinginaguerrillawarfoughtinthejunglesofSoutheastAsia.
Theenemydidnotwearuniforms,noclearbattlefrontemergedandtheVietnamesewerefighting
ontheirownsoilandweremorefamiliarwiththeirgeography.
MassivecommitmentinVietnamraisedquestionsaboutthereasontheU.Swasinvolvedintheconflict.
TheadministrationarguedtopreventthefallofVietnamtocommunism,tostoptheriseof
aggressorgovtsandprotectthenationspositionasasuperpoweranddefenderofdemocracy.
ResistancetotheWarInCongress,thereweredifferencesofopinionconcerningthewar.
Hawksmemberthatstoodsolidlybehindthepresidentandarguedinfavorofvictoryatanycost.
Dovesmemberswhofavoredimmediatewithdrawalandanendtothewar.
CollegecampusbecamecentersofpoliticalprotestsagainsttheWar.
TheUniversityofCalifornia,BerkeleycampusbecamealeaderinantiVietnamWarprotests.
StudentsforaDemocraticSociety(SDS)strongantiwargroupagainstbigbusinessesandgovt.
Helddemonstrations,sitins,draftcardburningsandprotestsagainstuniversitieswith
proestablishmentregulation.
Manydraftresisters,peopleunwillingtoserveinthemilitaryafterbeingdrafted,fledtoCanada.
Thenation'syouthbecameincreasinglydividedassomechosetofightfortheU.SinVietnam
whileotherssoughttogotocollege.
CulturalChanges:SomeyoungpeoplebecamedisillusionedwithtraditionalAmericanvaluesinwhichmany
ofAmericansflauntedtheuseofillegaldrugs,oftenpopularizedinrockmusic.
ManyoftheseyoungAmericansreferredtothemselvesashippiesorflowerchildreninwhichtheyclaim
tobesearchingforafreer,simplerwayoflife.
CommunallivingattractedmanyyouthswhoadoptedlifestylesforeigntoolderAmericansandsome
spokeofgenerationgapbtwnyouthandpeopleoverthirty.

Section9.4RichardNixonandGeraldFord
NixonandVietnam:By1969,NixonfacedanationalcrisisinwhichtheVietnamWarturnedtheintothe
nationsmostcostlyandsupportwasatanalltimelow.
Nixondidnotendthewarimmediatelybut,infactwidenedAmericanmilitaryactivities,attackingNorth
VietnamesesupplyroutesoutofLaosandCambodia,countriesneighboringtheWestofVietnam.
NixoncalledforV ietnamization(withdrawingU.Stroopstransferringtheresponsibilityanddirectionof
thewarefforttothegovtofSouthVietnam.)ofthewar.
However,healsobombedCambodiaclaimingthatitservedasabaseforNorthVietnameseguerrillas.
BombingtriggeredalargestudentstudentprotestatKentStateUniversityinOhioinwhichthe
NationalGuardhadtobreakupthedemonstrationleavingfourstudentsdeadandmanyinjured.
NixoncontinuedtoincreasebombingraidsonNorthVietnamthroughout1970.
Forseveralyearsnegotiationsremainedatstalemateuntilin1973,Nixonannouncedthatpeacewith
honorwasreachedandaceasefire(temporarysuspensionoffighting)wouldsoontakeineffect.
TheWarPowerActIn1974,CongresspassedthisactoverNixonsveto.Ithelpedreversethe
precedentsetbytheGulfofTonkinResolutionwhichgavethePresidentsweepingpowers.
ThePresidenthadto...
notifyCongresswithin48hoursofsendingtroopsintoaforeigncountry.

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bringthetroopshomewithin60daysunlessbothhousesvotedforthemtostay.
PostVietnamWar:WhentheU.SwithdrewfromVietnam,theNorthVietnameseoverranSouthVietnam.
Fortwoyears,theU.SpouredbillionsofdollarsofaidintoSouthVietnambut,in1975,thegovtin
Saigon,nowknownasHoChiMinhCity,collapsed.
WhenthepresidentaskedforfundstoevacuateSouthVietnamesewhohelpedtheU.S,Congressrefused.
Intheconflict,about58,000Americansdied,300,000werewoundedandover$150billiononwareffort.
NotonlydidVietnamfalltocommunismbutalsodidCambodiaandLaos.
DtenteinAsia:
NixonDoctrineIn1969,NixonannouncedthattheU.Swouldnolongerprovidedirectmilitary
protectioninAsia,eventhoughtheVietnamWarwasnotyetconcluded,Nixonpromisedthatthisconflict
wouldnotrepeat.
U.ShadnothaddiplomaticrelationswiththePeoplesRepublicsincethe1949Communistrevolution.
In1971,NixonstunnedAmericansbyacceptinganinvitationtovisitChinainapeacemission.
Aftermorethantwentyyearsofhostility,NixonandChineseleadersMaoZedongandprime
ministerZhouEnlaiagreedtoopenthedoortonormaldiplomaticrelations.
However,Americanmanufacturersnowhadanewmarketfortheirproducts.
DtenteintheSovietUnion:NixonandHenryKissinger(secretaryofstate)shapedapolicyofdtentein
whichtensionsbetweentheU.SandSovietUnionwaseased.
DuringtheNixonadministration,theforeignpolicyoftheU.SwasbasedbyR ealpolitik(powerpolitics),a
politicalphilosophyfavoredbyKissinger.
WhendealingwithChinaandSovietUnion,theU.Smadeitsdecisionsbasedonwhatitneeded
tomaintainitsownstrengthregardlessofworldopinions.
InMoscow,1972,NixonopenedtheS trategicArmsLimitationTalks(SALT)withanagreementthatset
limitsonthenumberofdefensivemissilesitesandstrategicoffensivemissileseachnationwouldkeep.
NixonsDomesticPolicies:HefacedaCongresscontrolledbyaDemocraticmajorityand,b/cofthesystemof
checksandbalances,NixonrealizedthatitwouldbedifficulttopushRepublicanpoliciesthroughCongress.
In1970,theOccupationalSafetyandHealthAdministration(OSHA)wascreatedtoensuresafeand
healthfulworkingconditionsforallworkingAmericans.
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)establishedfederalprogramstocombatpollutionandprotectthe
environment.
CleanAirActof1970addressedtheissuesofairpollution.
In1973,NixonunitedexistingfederaldrugagenciesintotheDrugEnforcementAdministration(DEA)
whichenforcefederaldruglawsandconductinvestigationsofillegaldrugsoverseas.
In1974,theEnergyReorganizationActcreatedtheNuclearRegulatoryCommissiontoregulatenuclear
powerindustry.TheEnergyResearchandDevelopmentAdministrationmanagedthenuclearweapon,
nuclearreactorandenergydevelopmentprogramsofthefederalgovt.
NewFederalismpolicytoreducetheroleofthefederalgovtandgivemoreactivitiestothestates.
HecriticizedJohnsonsGreatSocietyastoocostlyandtriedtoreduceinvolvementofthefederal
govtinsocialwelfareprograms.
Nixoninstitutedrevenuesharing(apolicyinwhichthefederalgovtgavepartofitsincometothe
statestospendonsocialwelfareastheysawfit)

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TheVietnamWarhelpedtriggerinflationsoduringthe1968election,Nixonpromisedtoendinflation
andbalancethebudget.
Tobringtheeconomyundercontrol,Nixonimplementeda90daywagepricefreezein1971
whichimposedmandatorywagepricecontrols.
In1969,EarlWarrenretiredandNixonappointedWarrenBurgeraschiefjustice.
DuringNixon'sadministration,hehadtheopportunitytoappointthreeotherjustices.
Nixonsappointeeswerestrictconstructionists(believingthattheCongressandPresidentonly
havethepowersspecificallygiventothembytheConstitution).
TheNixonCourthoweverdidnotoverturnmanyoftheliberalrulingsofthe1960s.
DomesticEvents:
26thAmendmentin1971wasratifiedloweredthevotingagefrom21to18addedmillionsofnew
voterstotheAmericanelectorate.
Consumerrightsmovementdevelopedintheearly1970stoaddressabusesbymajorAmericanindustries
ledbyRalphNader,lawyerwhoorganizedaprotestinthe1960sagainsttheautomotiveindustry.
NadarattractedmanyyoungvolunteersknownasNader'sRaiderswhosupported
environmentalandconsumerprotection.
TheWatergateAffair:In1972,theRepublicansnominatedNixonforreelectionandtheDemocratsselected
GeorgeMcGovern.Nixonclaimedcreditforbringingdowninflationandscoringforeignpolicytriumphs.Hewon
reelectionbutlessthantwoyearslater,Nixonresignedfromoffice.
WhathappenedanillegalbreakintowiretapphonesintheDemocraticPartyheadquarterswithelectronic
surveillanceequipment.
WhereWatergateTowers,anapartmentcomplexinWashingtonD.C
WhoCommitteetoReelectthePresident,actingwiththeknowledgeofseveralhighlevelNixon'sadvisers
Whytosecureinfo.TounderminetheDemocraticcampaignagainstNixon
PolicecapturedtheburglarswhocarriedevidencelinkingthemtotheWhiteHouse.
Nixondidnotknowabouttheplanuntilafterithappened.
However,heorderedacoverup,whichwasacrimeunderfederallaw.
WashingtonPostreportersexaminedintothecase,buttheirreportsdidnothinderNixonsreelection.
In1973,theSenatesetupacommitteetolookintoillegal,improperorunethicalactivitiesin
the1972election.
Formorethanayear,theSenatecommitteecommitteecameclosertoimplicatingNixon.
WhiletheWatergatehearingswereunderway,theJusticeDepartmentchargedVicePresidentSpiro
AgnewwithincometaxevasioninwhichAgnewresignedandNixonappointedGeraldR.FordasVice.
Inthe1973,theSenatecommitteelearnedthattheWhiteHousekepttaperecordingsofimportant
conversionsbtwnNixonandhistopaidesregardingthecoverup.
Nixonrefusedtoturnoverthetapesbut,duringthesummer,thecommitteeopenedthehearingto
televisioninwhichmillionsofAmericanswatched.
ThesituationendedwhentheSupremeCourtorderedNixontosurrenderthetapesinitsrulinginU nited
Statesvv.RichardNixon.
Basedonevidenceinthetapes,theHouseJudiciaryCommitteebeganvotingonarticlesof
impeachmentagainstthepresident.
Toavoidimpeachment,Nixonresignedin1974andGeraldFordtookoathofofficethatday.
AlthoughNixonwasneverchargedwithanyspecificcrimes,PresidentFordpardonedhim.
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ManyofNixonsadvisorswerefoundguiltyofcrimesandsentencedtoprison.
ThesystemofchecksandbalancesstoppedNixonfromplacingthepresidencyabovethelaw.
AsaresultoftheWatergateScandal,therewasadeclineinthepublicstrustsingovt
NixonsadministrationwascalledtheImperialPresidencyb/cofhisdisregardoftheConstitution.
TheFordAdministration:FordtriedtorebuildtheimageofthePresidentbuttheaffairdisillusionedmany.
FordpardonedNixonwhilesomanyofhisadvisorsstoodtrialandwereconvictedandjailed.
FordofferedamnestytomanyyoungmenwhoavoidedmilitaryservicesinVietnambyviolatingdraft
laws,fleeingthecountryordesertingthemilitary.
In1973,theOrganizationofPetroleumExportingCountries(OPEC)placedanoilembargoontheU.Sb/c
ofitssupportofIsrael.
Thepriceofoilandgasolinemorethandoubledsettingoffaninflation.
KissingercontinuedworkingwiththeFordadministrationandhelpednegotiateaceasefireagreement
btwnEgyptandIsrael,thus,endingthe1973YomKippurWarandOPECoilembargo.

Section9.5JimmyCarterandRonaldReagan
CartersDomesticPolicies:
Stagflationongoinghighinflationwithhighunemploymentproblemsworsenedbymanywelfare
programsthatincreasedthecostofgovtwiththeeconomystalledinplace.
Astheworldsleadingindustrialpower,theU.Swasalsotheworldsleadingconsumerofenergy.
OPECkeptpriceshighandAmericandollarsflowedoutofthenation,worseningthetrade
deficit(anationbuysmoreforeigngoodsthatitexportsabroad).
In1977,Carterpresentedanationalenergyplanbasedontenprinciplessuchasconservation,
environmentalprotectionanddevelopmentofalternativesourcesofenergy.
SomeAmericancorporationswerehithardbystagflationandthedeclineinpurchasingpowerathome.
Fearingtheeffectofmassivelayoffsontheeconomy,thefederalgovtauthorizedhugeloansto
corporationstokeeptheminbusiness.
CartersForeignPolicies:
In1975,theU.SandothernationssignedtheH
elsinkiAccords,promisingtorespectbasichumanrights
CarterbelievedthattheU.Sshouldwithholdaidfromnationsthatviolatedhumanrights.
CampDavidAccordsapeacetreatybtwnEgyptandIsraelin1979.
In1977,EgyptianPresidentAnwarelSadatsurprisedthewordbyvisitingIsraeliPrimeMinister
MenachemBegin.
CarterseizedtheopportunityofbringingpeaceintheMiddleEastbyinvitingthetwoleadersto
CampDavid,thepresidentialretreatinMaryland.
CartersignedtwotreatiespromisingtoturnovercontrolofthePanamaCanaltoPanamain1999.
In1979,CartermetwithSovietleaderLeonidBrezhnevtonegotiatetheSALTIITreaty.
However,aSovietinvasionofAfghanistanthatyearendeddtente.
CartercutoffgrainshipmentstotheSovietUnionandboycottedthe1980summerOlympic
gamesheldinMoscow.
IranianHostageCrisisIn1989,arevolutionledbyIslamicfundamentaliststoppledtheproAmerican
shah,RezaPahlavi.
Theshah,sufferingfromcancer,requestedtreatmentintheU.SandCarteragreed.

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IslamicrebelsstruckbackbyseizingtheU.SembassyinTehranandholdingmorethan50
Americanhostages.
CarterDoctrineAnattemptbyanyoutsideforcetogaincontrolofthePersianGulfregionwillbe
regardedasanassaultonthevitalinterestoftheU.S
Duringthe1980presidentialcampaign,Carterwashauntedbythecontinuinghostagecrisis,persistent
energyshortagesandlingeringinflation.
TheconservativeRepublicancandidateRonaldReaganpromisedAmericansanewbeginning.
Reaganwonandonthedayofhisinauguration,Iranreleasedthehostagesaftermorethanayear
ofcaptivity.
Reagan'sFirstTermDomesticPolicies:He,likeEisenhowerandNixon,supportedNewFederalism.
ReaganomicsReagancalledforcutsintaxesonbusinessesandindividualswithlargeincomes.
Reaganbelievedthattheywouldreinvestinmorebusinesses.
Thesebusinesseswouldhiremoreworkersandincreasethesupplyofgoodsanservices.
Believedthats upplysideeconomicsorthetrickledowntheorywouldendinflationwithout
increasingnationaldebt.
Reagantriedtobalancethebudgetbyreducingmanysocialwelfareprogramsandmadesharpcutsinthe
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.
Hefeltnationalsecurityrestedondefenseandmadeeveryefforttofightoffcutsinthemilitarybudget.
Increasedspendingonmissiles,shipsandbombers.
AskedforfundingsfortheStrategicDefenseInitiative(SDI),amassivesatelliteshielddesigned
tointerceptanddestroyincomingUSSRmissiles.
SDIbecamepopularlyknownasStarWars
Inthe1980s,farmersexperiencedhardeconomicproblemsandworldwiderecessionmadeitimpossible
forfarmerstoselltheirsurplusesandrepaytheirloans.
TheReaganadministrationrespondedbypayingfarmersnottoplantmillionsofacresoflandto
reducethesupplyandraiseprices,butpricesdidnotriseandnationaldebtgrew.
InaneffortcutdownthenumberofundocumentedworkerslivingintheU.S,Congresspassedthe1986
ImmigrationReformandControlAct(forbadeemployersfromhiringillegalimmigrants).
Thelegislationdidnotsolvetheproblemandtheseimmigrantsoftenworkinsweatshopstype
factoriesandpaidverylowwages.
Reagan'sFirstTermForeignPolicies:R eaganadoptedatoughstandtowardcommunism,callingtheSoviet
Unionanevilempire
Reagan'sattitudetowardscommunismhardenedin1981whenthePolishgovtcrackeddownon
Solidarity,anindependentlaborparty.
Reafoncalledforeconomicsanctionsofroethecommunistbackgovttoendmartiallaw.
Reaganbelievedthatunstableeconomicconditionsopenedthedoortocommunismandaskedforaidto
LatinAmericangroupsfightingCommunismtakeoversandapprovedlimitedmilitaryintervention.
ReagansentarmsandmilitaryadvisorstoElSalvadortobackanticommunistforcesinacivilwar
andpressuredthegovttoholddemocraticelections.
In1979,MarxistguerrillascalledtheSandinistasoverthrewanticommunistdictatorAnastasio
SomozainNicaragua.
B/ctheSandinistasacceptedaidfromCubaandtheSovietUnion,Reaganapprovedaidtothe
contras(rebelsseekingtoousttheSandinistas).
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ActionsbyCIAtohelpthecontrasangeredCongressanditcutoffaidtothecontrasin1987.
ReligiousconflictintheMiddleEastincreasedtensionsinthealreadyunstableregion.
AninternationalpeacekeepingforcewentintoLebanontotrytoendfightingbtwnChristian
andMuslims.
In1983,U.Smarinesbecametargetforterroristswhenabombladentruckdroveintotheir
barrackskillingmany.
In1984,ReaganadmittedthepeacekeepingeffortfailedandwithdrewAmericantroops.
Reagan'sSecondTermDomesticPolicies:NicknamedtheGreatCommunicatorbysomejournalists.
Reaganbelievedthattaxcutswouldencourageeconomicgrowthwhilesomepeoplearguedthatthecuts
favoredtherichand,infact,bythelate1980s,wealthwasevenmoreunevenlydistributed.
Despitedrasticactionsbythefederalgovt,thenationaldebtincreasedinpartb/cofahugetrade
imbalance(situationinwhichanationimportsmoregoodsthatinexports)
Reagan'sSecondTermForeignPolicies:Reaganredirectedhisforeignpolicytomeetchangestakingin
placeintheSovietUnionandissuesaroseintheMiddleEastandLatinAmericaregardingtheU.S.
TheIranContraAffairIn1986,theAmericanpubliclearnedthatseveraltoppresidentialaidessold
weaponstoIraninexchangeforIranianhelpinfreeingAmericanhostagesheldinLebanon.
ThemoneyfromthesaleofarmswasthenusedtoNicaraguatosupportthecontras.
Reaganvowednevertobargainwithterroristsorkidnappers.
Notably,Congresspreviouslybannedaidtothecontras.
Acongressionalcommitteeclearedthepresidentofanywrongdoingintheaffairandconcluded
thattheactionswereillegallyundertakenatthedirectionofColonelOliverNorthandmembersof
theCIA.
In1985,MikhailGorbachevwasthenewleaderoftheSovietUnion.
GorbachevcriticizedReagan'spolicyofStarWarsandcalledforarenewalofdtente.
Gorbachevhelpedfurtherlationsbyannouncinghisnewpoliciesofg lasnostandp erestroika.
GlasnostcalledforgreateropennesssuchasincreasedpoliticalfreedomintheSovietUnion
andEasternEurope.
PerestroikaallowedsomefreeenterprisetoimproveeconomicconditionswiththeUSSR.

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