Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design
Power System Structure

Generation,
Transmission and
Distribution systems
are the main
components of an
electric power system.
Generating stations and
distribution systems are
connected through
transmission lines.
Normally, transmission
lines implies the bulk
transfer of power by
high voltage links Figure 1 Power System Diagram
between main load Figure 4 Transmission System
centers. On the other hand, distribution system is mainly Distribution networks are different than transmission
responsible for the conveyance of this power to the networks in many ways, quite apart from voltage
consumers by means of lower voltage networks. Electric magnitude. The general structure or topology of the
power is generated in the range of 11 kV to 25 kV, which is distribution is different and the number of branches and
increase by stepped up transformers ot the main sources is much higher. A typical distribution system
transmission voltage. At sub - stations, the connection consists of a step down transformer at a bulk supply point
between various components are made, for example, lines feeding a number of lines with varying length from a few
and transformers hundred of meters to several kilometers. Several three
and switching of phase step down transformes are spaced along these
these components feeders and from these, three phase four wire networks
is carried out. of consumers are supplied which gives 230 V, single phase
Transmission level supply to houses and simular loads.
voltages are in the
range of 66 kV to
400 kV (or higher).
Large amounts of
power are
transmitted from
the generating
Figure 2 Power System Structure
stations to the load
centers at 220 kV or higher.
The power supply network can be divided int two parts,
transmission and distribution systems. The transmission
system may be dividided into primary and secondary Figure 5 Distribution System
distribution system. Most of the distribution networks A complete circuit diagram of a power system for all the
operate radially for less short circuit current and better three phases is very complicated. It is very much practical
protective coordination. to represent power system using simple symbols for each
component resulting in what is called a Single Line
Diagram. The single line diagram of a power system
network shows the main connections and arrangement of
the system components along with their data (such as
output rating, voltage, resistance and reactance, etc.). In
case of transmission lines sometimes the conductor size
Figure 3 Components of Power System and spacings are given. It is not necessary tos how all the
components of the system on a single line diagram, e.g.
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 1
circuit breakers need not be shown in a load flow study but (input line voltage must be high so that the losses will
are must for protection study. In a single line diagram, the decrease and the area of conductor will also decrease)
system components are usually drawn in the form of their
symbols. Generators and transformer connections star,
delta and neutral earthing are indicated by symbols drawn
by the side of the representation of these elements. Circuit
breakers are represented by rectangular blocks.
Figure 6 Single Line Diagram of Power System

Power system engineers have devised the per unit
system such that different physical quatities such as Figure 7 How Electricity is transfer?
current, voltage, power and impedance are expressed as a (1) Electricity leaves power plant, (2) its voltage is increase
decimal fraction or multiple of base quantities. In this at a step up transformer, (3) the electricity travels along
system, the different voltage levels disapper and a power the transmission line to the area where the power is
network consisting synchronous generators, transformers needed, (4) there, in the substation, the voltage is
and lines reduces to a system of simple impedances. decreased with the help of a step down transformer, (5)
Major Sources of Electrical Energy again, transmission line carries the electricity, (6) Electricity
1. The Sun reaches the final consumption points
2. The Wind Electric Supply System the conveyance of electric
3. Water power from a power station to consumers premises.
4. Fuels Electric Supply System Components
a. Fossil Fuels 1. Power Station (Generators)
i. Coal 2. Transmission Lines
ii. Oil 3. Distribution System connects other part of the power
iii. Natural Gas system such as transmission line through the help of
b. Nuclear Energy SUBSTATION.
5. Thermal and Geothermal Energy Classification of Electric Supply System
Importance of Electrical Energy 1. AC or DC system
1. Convenient Form it can be easily converted into 2. Overhead or Underground system
other forms of energy such as light, heat, mechanical Parts of a typical AC Power Supply Scheme
energy, etc. (with the help of TURBINES) 1. Generating Stations
2. Easy Control the electrically operated machines 2. Primary Transmission
have simple and convenient starting, control and 3. Secondary Transmission
operation. (switches) 4. Primary Distribution
3. Greater Flexibility it can be easily transported from 5. Secondary Distribution
one place to another with the help of conductors. 6. System of Supply to individual consumers
(ASCR Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced) A system network (or grid) is the name given to that part of
4. Cheapness it is overall economical to use this form power system which consists of the sub stations and
of energy for domestic, commercial and industrial transmission lines of various voltage rating.
purposes. Transmission Systems
5. Cleanliness electrical energy is not associated with It includes all land, conversion structures and equipment at
smoke, fumes, and poisonous gases. the primary sources of supply, line switching and
6. High Transmission Efficiency the electrical energy conversions stations between a generating or receiving
can be transmitted conveniently and efficiently from the point and the entrance to a distribution center or wholesale
center of generation to the consumer with the help of point, all lines and equipment whose primary purpose is to
overhead conductors known as transmission lines. augment, integrate or tie together sources of power supply.

Two Types of Electrical Transmission the number of wires it should carry. Line supports
1. Electrical Power Transmission consist of:
2. Electrical Communication Transmission a. pole structures which are made of wood,
Typical Electric Power Transmission and Distribution reinforced concrete or steel are used up to 66 kV
Scheme b. steel towers are used for higher voltages.
2. Underground System this being especially suited
for densely populated areas though it is somewhat
costlier than the first method.
- employs insulated cables which may be single,
double or triple core etc.
Transmission Lines
These are connecting links between the generating stating
and distribution system.
Principle Elements of High Voltage AC Transmission Lines
1. Conductors (R, L, C)
2. Step Up and Step Down Transformers
3. Line Insulators
4. Supports
5. Protective Device (fuses, relays, breakers)
6. Voltage Regulating Device (surge protective device)
CHOICE OF SUPPLY
Comparisons of DC and AC Transmission and Distribution
Figure 8 Electric Power Transmission and Distribution Scheme Figure 9 Transmission and Distribution by means of AC and DC
Purposes of Transmission DC Transmission
1. To transmit power from a water power site to a market. A. Advantages
2. For bulk supply of power load center from outlying 1. It requires only two conductors as compared to
steam stations. These are likely to be relatively short. three for ac transmission. It is also possible to
3. For interconnection purposes, that is, for transfer of transmit power through only one conductor by
energy from one system to another in case of using earth as returning conductor, hence much
emergency or in response to diversity in the system copper is saved.
peaks. 2. There is no inductance, capacitance, phase
Two Methods of Transmission displacement and surge problem in dc
1. Overhead System transmission lines - power is transmission.
conveyed by bare conductors of copper or aluminum 3. Due to absence of inductance, the voltage drop in
which are strung between wooden or steel poles a dc transmission line is less than the ac for the
erected at convenient distances along a route. The same load and sending end voltage.
bare copper or aluminum wire is fixed to an insulator 4. There is no skin effect in a dc system. Therefore,
which is itself fixed onto a cross arm on the pole. The the entire cross section of the line conductor is
number of cross arms carried by a pole depends on utilized.

5. For the same working voltage, the potential stress The best method is to employ AC system for generation and
on the insulation is
1
times less in case of dc distribution and DC system for transmission.
2 Transmission of electric power by DC system became
system than that in ac system. Therefore, dc line
possible because of introduction of mercury arc rectifiers
requires less insulation. and thyratrons which can convert AC into DC and vice
6. A dc line has less corona loss and reduced
versa efficiently and at reasonable cost.
interference with communication circuits.
7. In dc transmission, there is no stability problems
and synchronizing difficulties.
8. The high voltage dc transmission is free from the
dielectric losses, particularly in case of cables.
9. Charging current, which contributes to continuous
loss even on no load, is eliminated.
10. Underground cables can be used because of less Figure 10 HVDC Transmission System
potential stress and negligible dielectric loss. The electric power is generated as AC; its voltage is
B. Disadvantages stepped up to high voltage by step up transformer and
1. Electric power cannot be generated at high dc converted into DC by some suitable rectifying device. The
voltage due to commutation problems. transmission of electric power is carried at high DC voltage
2. The dc voltage cannot be stepped up for (500 kV). At receiving end, DC power is converted back into
transformation of power at high voltages. three phase AC using suitable converters and then stepped
3. The dc switches and circuit breakers have their down to low voltage for distribution by suitable step down
own limitation. transformers.
AC Transmission The favorable conditions resulting from the use of
A. Advantages converters in the above system gives the following
1. The power can be generated at high voltages. additional advantages:
2. Maintenance of ac substation is easy and 1. Independence of frequencies at sending end and
cheaper. receiving end networks makes possible generation of
3. The ac voltage can be stepped up or stepped power at frequency different from that of load system.
down by transformers with ease and efficiency. 2. With the use of suitable converters, power can be
This permits to transmit power at high voltages reversed, increased or decreased in the system at will
and distribute it at safe potentials. and with rapidity i.e., the control is easy and rapid.
B. Disadvantages 3. Because of the absence of charging and stability
1. An AC line requires more copper than DC. problems, there is no limit to distance over which DC
2. The construction of an AC line is more power can be transmitted.
complicated than a DC transmission line. 4. Keeping in view the circuit breaker capacities, the short
3. Due to skin effect in the ac system, the effective circuit currents are not transmitted through lines and
resistance of the line is increased. hence a tremendous amount of saving is affected by
4. An AC line has capacitance, thus, there is a installing smaller circuit breakers.
continuous loss of power due to the charging 5. The smaller amount of power can be transmitted much
current even when the line is open. more economically.
5. In case of overhead lines spacing between the Comparisons of Overhead and Underground Systems
conductors is to be kept more to provide adequate Transmission and distribution of electric power can be
insulation and to avoid corona loss. carried out by overhead as well as underground systems.
6. The alternators are to be synchronized before Comparison between the two is given:
putting them in parallel. a. Public Safety: Underground system is safer than
7. The variation in speeds of alternators are to be overhead system.
controlled within very low limits. b. Initial Cost: Underground system is more expensive.
AC Distribution is undoubtedly superior to that by DC c. Flexibility: Overhead system is more flexible than
Distribution in terms of voltage control by the means of a underground system. In overhead system new
transformer. conductors can be laid along the existing ones for load

expansion. In case of underground system new and fog, per 160 km of a line a year. Most of the
conductors are to be laid in new channels. breakdowns which do occur are transient and none out of
d. Working Voltage: The underground system cannot be them can be rendered innocuous, as far as system is
operated above 66 kV because of insulation difficulties concerned, by using high speed automatic reclosing circuit
but overhead system can be designed for operation up breakers. Repairs, where necessary, can easily and quickly
to 400 kV or higher. be carried on site. The only real disadvantage of the
e. Maintenance Cost: Maintenance cost of underground overhead line is that it needs large electrical clearances and
system is very low in comparison with that of overhead it is sometimes not possible to get several circuits into
system. congested areas.
f. Frequency of Faults or Failures: As the cables are EHV power cables are used in congested or built up
laid underground, so these are not easily accessible. areas, near airfields, line terminations and transformer
The insulation is also better, so there are very few banking connections where the use of overhead lines is not
chances of power failures or fault as compared to permitted because of space limitations, safety
overhead system. requirements, amenities, etc. The major factor against a
g. Frequency of Accidents: The chances of accidents greater use of insulated cables is the high price of the
in underground system are very low as compared to equipment.
overhead system. Influence of Working Voltage on Size of Feeders and
h. Voltage Drop: In underground system because of less Distributors in DC System
spacing between the conductors, inductance is very 1. It reduces the size (area of cross section of the core
low as compared to overhead lines, therefore, voltage carrying the current) of the feeders and distributors.
drop is low in underground system. 2. It increases the efficiency of transmission
i. Appearance: Underground system of distribution or Examples:
transmission is aesthetic because no wiring is visible. 1. What is the percentage savings in feeder copper if the
j. Fault Location and Repairs: Though there are very line voltage in a 2 wire DC system is raised from 220 V
rare chances of occurring fault in underground system, to 400 V for the same power transmitted over the same
but if it occurs it is very difficult to locate the fault and distance and having the same power loss?
its repair is difficult and expensive. 2. What is the percentage saving in copper feeder if the
k. Charging Current: Because less spacing between the line voltage in a 2 wire DC system is raised from 220 V
conductors the cables have much capacitance, to 500 V for the same power transmitted over the same
drawing higher charging current. distance and having the same power loss?
l. Jointing: Jointing of underground cables is difficult so Various Systems of Power Transmission
tapping for loads and service mains is not conveniently In practice, three phase three wire AC system is universally
possible in underground system. used for transmission and three phase four wire AC system
m. Damage Due to Lightning and Thunderstorm: is used for distribution of electric power but for special
Underground system is free from interruption of service purposes other systems may also be used. The various
because thunderstorm, lightning and objects falling systems of power transmission are:
across the wires. 1. DC System
n. Surge Effect: In underground system surge effect is a. DC 2 wire
smoothened down as surge energy is absorbed by the b. DC 2 wire with midpoint earthed
sheath. c. DC 3 wire
o. Interference to Communication Circuits: In 2. Single Phase AC System
underground system, there is no interference to a. Single phase, 2 wire
communication circuits. b. Single phase, 2 wire with mid point earthed
High voltage transmission is carried out by overhead c. Single phase, 3 wire
system due to low cost. However, distribution in congested 3. Two Phase AC System
areas and in modern cities are carried out by underground a. Two phase, 4 wire
cables. b. Two phase, 3 wire
The overhead line as a mean of transmitting electrical 4. Three Phase AC System
power over long distances is cheap and efficient. It is a. Three phase, 3 wire
reliable there are only one or two breakdowns due to b. Three phase, 4 wire
lightning, and one or two due to other reasons, such as frost
The basis for comparison between the various systems of I1 =

P
Load Current
power transmission is usually economy. Since in a Vm
P 2
transmission system, the cost of the conductor material 2( ) l
accounts for a major part of the total cost, the best system WL = 2I12 R = Vm
Line losses
A1
for transmission of electrical power is that for which the A1 =
2P2l
Area of cross section of conductor
volume of conductor material required is minimum. Thus, V2mWL
4P2 l
the requirement of volume of conductor material forms the Vc1 = 2A1 l = Volume of conductor material
V2mWL
basis of comparison between various systems.
required
In making comparison of the volume of conductor material 4P2l2
required for various transmission systems, the basis will be Let K =
V2mWL
the equal maximum stress on the dielectric. This is because Note: This system will be the basis for comparison with
the voltage is only limited by the problem of insulating the other systems.
conductors against disruptive discharge. 2. 2 wire with midpoint earthed, DC system
For comparing the amount of conductor material required
for different system two case arises:
1. When overhead system is employed for P
I2 = Load Current
transmission of power. In overhead system, the 2Vm
conductors are insulated from the cross arms and WL = 2I22 R =
2
supporting towers and as the towers and cross arms 2(
P
) l
are earthed so the maximum voltage between each
2V m
Line losses
A2
conductor and earth forms the basis of comparison of P2l
volume of conductor material required. A2 = Area of
2V2m WL
2. When underground cables are employed for cross section of
transmission of power. In underground cables the conductor
maximum disruptive stress is between the two
conductors of the cable; the maximum voltage Figure 12 2 Wire with Midpoint Earthed,
between the conductors forms the basis of comparison DC Sy stem
of volume of conductor material required.
Comparisons of Various Systems Power Transmission K
Vc2 = 2A2 l = Volume of conductor material
(Overhead) 4
Assumptions: required
3. 3 wire, DC system
1. Same power (P watts) transmitted by each system.
2. The distance (l meters) over which power is
transmitted remains the same.
3. The line losses (WL watts) are the same in each case.
4. The max voltage between any conductor and earth
(Vm) is the same in each case.
Let:
cos = power factor; VC = volume of conductor material Figure 13 3 Wire DC System
l = length; WL = line losses; Vm = maximum voltage P
I3 = Load Current
P = power to be transmitted; = resistivity 2Vm
1. Two wire dc system with one conductor earth P 2
2( ) l
WL = 2I32 R = 2V m
Line losses
A3
P2l
A3 = Area of cross section of conductor
2V2m WL
Assuming area of cross section of neutral wire as half
of that any of the outers,
5
Vc3 = 2.5A3 l = K Volume of conductor material
16
required
Figure 11 Two Wire DC System with One Conductor Earth

4. Single Phase AC system, 2 wire, with one 7. Two phase, 4 wire, AC system
conductor earth
P 2P
I4 = V m = P
Vm cos
2
cos I7 = Load current
22Vm cos
Load current
Figure 14 Single Phase AC System,

2 Wire w ith Conductor Earth
Figure 17 Two Phase, 4 Wire
2 AC Sy stem
2P l
WL = 2I42 R = 2 ( ) Line losses
Vm cos A4 2 l
P
A4 =
4P2 l
Area of cross section of conductor WL = 4 ( ) Line Losses
22Vm cos A7
V2m cos2 WL P2 l
Vc4 = 2A4 l = 2
2K
Volume of conductor material A7 = Area of cross section of conductor
2V2m cos2 WL
cos K
required Vc7 = 4A7 l = Volume of conductor material
2 cos2
5. Single Phase AC system, 2 wire system with mid required
point earthed 8. Two phase, 3 wire, AC system
P
I5 = Load current I8 =
P
Load current
2Vm cos 2Vm cos
P 2 l
WL = 2I52R = 2( )
2Vm cos A5
Neutral current:
Line losses IN = I82 + I82 = 2I8
P2l
A5 = Figure 18 Two Phase, 3 Wire AC
V2m cos2 WL Sy stem
Area of cross section of
conductor Line losses:
2 2
P l P l
WL = 2 ( ) + (2 ( ))
Figure 15 Single Phase AC 2Vm cos A8 2Vm cos A8
Sy stem, 2 Wire with Midpoint
Earthed (2+2)P2l
K 2V2m cos2 WL
Vc5 = 2A5 l = Volume of conductor material Vc8 = 2A8 l + 2A8 l =
1.457K
Volume of conductor
2 cos2
cos2
required material required
6. Single phase AC system, 3 wire system 9. Three phase, 3 wire, AC system
P/2
I6 = V m Load current
cos
2
P 2
l 2P
WL = 2 ( Vm 2 ) A6
Line losses I9 = Load
cos 3Vm cos
2
current per phase
Figure 16 Single Phase AC
Sy stem, 3 Wire
P2 l
V2m cos2 WL Figure 19 Three Phase, 3 Wire AC System
Assuming cross section of neutral wire half of that of
any of the outers, 2P
2
l
5K WL = 3 ( ) Line losses
Vc6 = 2.5A6 l = Volume of conductor 3Vm cos A 9
8 cos2 2
2P l
material required A9 = Area of cross section of conductor
3V2m cos2 WL

0.5K 2P2l
Vc9 = 3A9 l = 2 Volume of conductor material A1 = Area of cross section of conductor
cos V2mWL
required 4P2 l
10. Three phase, 4 wire, AC system Vc1 = 2A1 l = Volume of conductor material
V2mWL
Assuming balanced required
load, there will be no 4P2l2
Let K = 2
current in neutral wire VmWL
and copper losses will Note: This system will be the basis for comparison with
be same as in three other systems.
phase, three wire 2. 2 wire with midpoint earthed, DC system
system
This system is the
same as a 2 wire DC
Figure 10 Three Phase, 4 Wire AC System system, so volume of
2P2 l conductor material
A10 = Area of cross section of required for this system
3V2m cos2 WL
conductor is the same as that in a
Taking cross section of neutral wire as half of either 2 wire DC system.
outer, Figure 22 DC 2 Wire Midpoint Earthed
7K (Underground)
Vc10 = 3.5A10 l = Volume of conductor
12 cos2 Vc2 = K Volume of conductor material required
material required 3. 3 wire, DC system
Comparisons of conductor material in Underground System
Conditions of Comparisons P
1. Same power (P watts) transmitted by each system. I3 = Load Current
Vm
2. The distance (l meters) over which power is 2(
P 2
Vm
) l
transmitted remains the same. WL = 2I32 R =
A3
3. The line losses (WL watts) are the same in each case. Line losses
4. The max voltage between any conductor and earth
(Vm) is the same in each case.
Comparisons of Various Systems Power Transmission Figure 23 3 Wire DC System
(Underground)
(Underground)
Let: 2P2l
cos = power factor V2m WL
VC = volume of conductor material Assuming area of cross section of neutral wire as half
l = length of that any of the outers,
WL = line losses Vc3 = 2.5A3 l =
5
Volume of conductor material
Vm = maximum voltage 4K
required
P = power to be transmitted 4. Single Phase AC system, 2 wire
= resistivity
1. Two wire dc system
P 2P
I1 =
P
Load Current I4 = V m =
cos Vm cos
Vm 2
Load current
P 2
2( ) l
WL = 2I12 R = Vm
Line
A1 Figure 24 Single Phase, 2 Wire AC
losses Sy stem (Underground)
Figure 21 Two Wire DC System 2P

2
l
(Underground) WL = 2I42R = 2 (V cos
) A Line losses
m 4

A4 =
4P2 l
Area of cross section of conductor 8. Two phase, 3 wire, AC system
V2m cos2 WL
2K
Vc4 = 2A4 l = 2 Volume of conductor material I8 = V
P
cos 2 m cos
required 2
5. Single Phase AC system, 2 wire system with mid Load current per
point earthed phase
This system is the same as a 2I8
2 wire single phase AC Current in middle wire
system, so volume of
conductor material of this Figure 28 2 Phase, 3 Wire AC System
(Underground)
case is also the same. 2 2
P l P l
WL = 2 ( ) + (2 ( ))
Vm A Vm A
Figure 25 Single Phase, 2 Wire w ith 2 2 cos 8 2 2 cos 8
Midpoint Earthed AC Sy stem
(Underground) Line losses
2K (2+2)P2l
Vc5 = 2 Volume of conductor material required A8 = Area of cross section of conductor
cos V2m cos2 WL
6. Single phase AC system, 3 wire system Vc8 = 2A8 l + 2A8 l =
2.194K
Volume of conductor
Assuming balanced load, cos2
the system reduces to a material required
single phase, 2 wire AC 9. Three phase, 3 wire, AC system
system except that a neutral
conductor of half the cross
section is provided in P
addition. I9 = 3Vm Load current
Figure 26 Single Phase, 3 Wire AC cos
6
Sy stem (Underground)
2.5K
Vc6 = 2.5A4 l = 2 Volume of conductor material Figure 29 Three Phase, 3 Wire AC
cos Sy stem (Underground)
required
7. Two phase, 4 wire, AC system 2
P l
WL = 3 (3Vm ) Line Losses
cos A9
6
2P2l
V2m cos2 WL
1.5K
Vc9 = 3A9 l = 2 Volume of conductor material
cos
required
10. Three phase, 4 wire, AC system
Assuming balanced load,
this system is reduced to a
3 phase AC system except
that an additional wire,
Figure 27 Two Phase, 4 Wire AC System (Underground)
called the neutral wire, is
In this system, each phase shares the half of the total
provided with half the cross
load. This system is equivalent to two wire AC system. In
Figure 30 Three Phase, 4 Wire AC section of the outer thus,
this case, cross section area of each conductor is taken Sy stem (Underground)
half of that of single phase two wire AC system but four 1.75K
wires are required in place of two wires, so the same Vc10 = 3.5A9 l = 2 Volume of conductor
cos
volume of conductor material is required. material required
2K
Vc7 = 2 Volume of conductor material required The following points may be noted:
cos 1. There is a great saving in conductor material if DC
system is adopted for transmission of electric power.
However, due to technical difficulties, DC system is not same cross section as the two existing conductors.
used for transmission. Calculate the percentage additional load which can
2. Two phase, three wire system is obviously quite now supplied if the voltage between wires and the
unsuitable for long distance transmission and need no percentage power loss in the line remains unchanged.
further consideration. 7. A DC 2 wire distribution system is converted into AC
3. Considering the AC system, the 3 phase AC system is 3 phase, 3 wire system by adding a third conductor of
most suitable for transmission due to two reasons. the same size as the two existing conductors. If voltage
Firstly, there is considerable saving in conductor between conductors and percentage power loss
material. Secondly, this system is convenient and remain the same, calculate the percentage additional
efficient. Considering other factors such as efficiency balanced load which can now be carried by the
of operation and convenience, three phase three wire conductors at 0.95 pf.
system is usually adopted. 8. A DC 2 wire system is to be converted into 3 phase, 3
Examples: wire AC system by adding a third conductor of the
1. A 50 km long transmission line supplies a load of 5 same size as the two existing conductors. Calculate
MVA at 0.8 pf lagging at 33 kV. The efficiency of the percentage additional balanced load that can now
transmission is 90%. Calculate the volume of be carried by the conductors at 0.96 pf lagging.
aluminum conductor required for the line when: Assume the same voltage between the conductors and
a. single phase, 2 wire system is used the same percentage power loss.
b. 3 phase, 3 wire system is used. 9. A 2 phase, 3 wire AC system has a middle conductor
The specific resistance of aluminum is 2.85 108 of same cross sectional area as the outer and
m. supplies a load of 20 MW. The system is converted into
2. A 3 phase, 4 wire system is used for lighting. 3 phase, 4 wire system by running a neutral wire.
Compare the amount of copper required with that Calculate the new power which can be supplied if
needed for a 2 wire D.C. system with same line voltage across consumer terminal and percentage line
voltage. Assume the same losses and balanced load. losses remain the same. Assume balanced load.
The neutral is one half the cross section of one of the 10. A single phase AC system supplies a load of 200 kW
respective outers. and if this system is converted to 3 phase, 3 wire AC
3. An existing single phase AC system comprising of two system by running a third similar conductor, calculate
overhead conductors is to be converted into a 3 phase, the 3 phase load that can now be supplied if the
3 wire system by providing an additional conductor of voltage between the conductors is the same. Assume
same size. Calculate the percentage of additional load the power factor and transmission efficiency to be the
that can be transmitted by the three phase system if same in the two cases.
the operating voltage and percentage line losses 11. A single phase load of 5 MW is transmitted by a pair
remain the same in both systems. of overhead conductors. If a third conductor of the
4. An existing DC three wire system is to be converted same cross section and material be added and 3
into a three phase 4 wire system by adding a fourth phase supply be thus substituted for the original single
wire equal in cross section to each outer of the dc phase, calculate the 3 phase load which can now be
system. Assuming the same supply and load voltages transmitted if the voltage between the conductors and
to neutral and balanced conditions find the extra power the percentage loss in the lines remains unchanged.
at unity power factor that can be supplied by the AC 12. A substation supplies power at 11 kV, 0.8 pf lagging to
system. a consumer through a single phase transmission line
5. A 3 wire DC system is converted to a 4 wire, 3 phase having total resistance (both go and return) of 0.15 .
AC system by the addition of another wire equal in The voltage drop in the line is 15%. If the same power
section to one of the outers. For the same effective is to be supplied to the same consumer by two wire DC
voltage between outers and neutral at the consumers system by a new line having a total resistance of 0.05
terminals and the same percentage loss, find the and if the allowable voltage drop is 25%, calculate
percentage additional load that can be supplied. the DC supply voltage.
Assume balanced load and in the AC system a power Choice of Working Voltage for Transmission
factor of 0.9. Advantages of High Transmission Voltage
6. A DC 2 wire system is to be converted into AC 2 phase, 1. Reduces the volume of conductor material and
3 wire system by the addition of a 3 rd conductor of the reduces the cost of the supporting structure materials.
2. Increase transmission efficiency since line losses and The present day trend is to follow certain empirical
line currents are reduced. formula for finding the economical transmission voltage
3. Decreases percentage line drop and leads to better KW km load in kVA
voltage regulation. KV = 5.5L + or KV = 5.5 +
100 1.6 150
Limitations of High Transmission Voltage where:
1. The increase cost of insulating the conductors and the KW power to be transmitted
earthed tower increases. This increases the cost of line L length of transmission line in miles
supports. With the increase in distance of transmission, the cost of
2. More clearance is required between conductors and terminal apparatus is reduced resulting in higher economic
ground; hence, higher towers are required. transmission voltage. Similarly, if the power to be
3. More distance is required between the conductors; transmitted becomes large, the cost per kW of the terminal
therefore, longer cross arms are required. station equipment is reduced.
4. The increased cost of transformers, switchgear and As a rough guide the voltage for transmission is chosen as
other terminal apparatus. 625 volts per km though in practice the voltage per km
Economics of Power Transmission varies from about 400 to 900 volts for longer to shorter
1. Economic Choice of Transmission Voltage distances. The choice is usually limited in practice by the
2. Economic Choice of Conductor Size requirement of standardization and for satisfactory
Economic Choice of Transmission Voltage regulation without excessive equipment cost.
The method of finding the economical transmission voltage The voltages normally adopted for transmission are given:
is as follows. Power to be transmitted, generation voltage Distance in km 15 30 60 100 200 300
30 60 100 200 300 400
and length of transmission line are assumed to be known. Transmission
11 33 66 132 220 400
We choose some standard transmission voltage and work voltage in kV
Table 1 Ty pical Voltage Rating for given distances
out the following costs:
The most common transmission voltages are 33 kV, 66 kV,
1. Transformers, at the generating and receiving ends of
132 kV, 220 kV, 400 kV and 765 kV.
transmission line. For a given power, this cost
Examples:
increases slowly with the increase in transmission
1. Estimate the weight of copper required to supply a load
voltage.
2. Switchgear. This cost also increases with the increase of 100 MW at unity pf by a 3 phase, 380 kV system
over 100 km. The neutral point is earthed. The
in transmission voltage.
resistance of the conductor is 0.045 ohm/cm 2/km. The
3. Lightning arrestor. This cost increases rapidly with the
weight of copper is 0.01 kg/cm 3. The efficiency of
increase in transmission voltage.
transmission can be assumed to be 90 percent.
4. Insulation and supports. This cost increases sharply
2. 30,000 kW at power factor 0.8 lagging is being
with the increase in transmission voltage.
5. Conductor. This cost decreases with the increase in transmitted over a 220 kV, three phase transmission
line. The length of the line is 275 km and the efficiency
transmission voltage.
of transmission is 90%. Calculate the weight of copper
The sum of all above costs gives the total cost of
required. Also, calculate the weight of copper had the
transmission for the voltage
power been transmitted over a single phase
considered. Similar
transmission line for the same line voltage and losses.
calculations are made for other
transmission voltages. Then, a Assume that the resistance of 1 km long conductor and
1 cm 2 is 0.173 and specific gravity of copper is 8.9.
curve is drawn for total cost of
3. Electric power of 50 MW is to be transmitted over a 132
transmission against voltage
KV, 3 phase, 3 wire transmission line. The length of the
as shown. The lowest point (P)
line is 300 km and the efficiency of transmission is
on the curve gives the
85%. Aluminum is used for conductor material which
economical transmission
voltage. Thus, in the present Figure 31 Capital Cost vs has resistivity of 3 109 m. Calculate the volume
Transmission Voltage of conductor material required for a power factor of 0.8
case, OA is the optimum
lagging.
transmission voltage. This method of finding the
Economic Choice of Conductor Size
economical transmission voltage is rarely used in practice
The cost of conductor material is generally a very
as different costs cannot be determined with a fair degree
considerable part of the total cost of a transmission line.
of accuracy.
Therefore, the determination of proper size of conductor for Limitations of Kelvins Law
the line is of vital importance. The most economical area of 1. The assumption that annual cost because interest and
conductor is that for which the total annual cost of depreciation on the capital outlay is in the form P1 +
transmission line is minimum. This is known as Kelvins P2a is strictly speaking not true. For instance, in cables
Law after Lord Kelvin who first stated it in 1881. The total neither the cost of cable dielectric and sheath nor the
annual cost of transmission line can be divided broadly into cost of laying vary in this manner.
two parts, annual charge on capital outlay and annual cost 2. This law does not consider several physical factors like
of energy wasted in the conductor. safe current density, mechanical strength, corona loss
Annual Charge on Capital Outlay etc.
- This is because interest and depreciation on the capital 3. The conductor size determined by this law may not
cost of complete installation of transmission line. In always be practicable one because it may be too small
case of overhead system, it will be the annual interest for the safe carrying of necessary current.
and depreciation on the capital cost of conductors, 4. Interest and depreciation on the capital outlay cannot
supports and insulators and the cost of their erection. be determined accurately.
Now, for an overhead line, insulator cost is constant, 5. It is not easy to estimate the energy loss in the line
the conductor cost is proportional to the area of cross without actual load curves, which are not available at
section and the cost of supports and their erection is the time of estimation.
partly constant and partly proportional to area of cross 6. In the case of cables there are sheath losses and with
section of the conductor. Therefore, annual charge high voltages dielectric losses also. Dielectric loss
on an overhead transmission line can be expressed as: occurs continuously therefore load factor of dielectric
Annual charge = P1 + P2 a loss is 100%. Hence the cost per unit of energy lost as
where P1 and P2 are constants and a is the area of dielectric loss is less than cost per unit supplying line
cross section of the conductor loss.
- A similar relationship exists for underground system. In Examples:
this system, the annual charge is because interest and 1. A 2 conductor cable 1 km long is required to supply
depreciation on the cost of conductors, insulation and a constant current of 200 A throughout the year. The
the cost of laying the cables. Now, the cost of insulation cost of cable including installation is Php (20a + 20) per
is constant and the cost of conductor is proportional to meter where a is the area of cross section of the
area of cross section of conductor. conductor in cm 2. The cost of energy is 5P per kWh
Annual Cost of Energy Wasted and interest and depreciation charges amount to 10%.
- This is because energy lost mainly in the conductor Calculate the most economical conductor size.
due to I2R losses. Assuming a constant current in the Assume resistivity of conductor material to be 1.73
conductor cm.
throughout the year, 2. Determine the best current density in A/mm 2 for a 3
the energy lost in phase overhead line if the line is in use for 2000 hours
the conductor is per year and if the conductor costing Php 3.0 per kg
proportional to has a specific resistance of 1.73 m and weighs
resistance. As 6200 kg/m 3. Cost of energy is 10 P/unit. Interest and
resistance is depreciation is 12% of conductor cost.
inversely 3. A 3 core, 11 kV cable supplies a load of 1500 kW at
proportional to the 0.8 pf lagging for 300 days in a year at an average of
area of cross 8 hours per day. T he capital cost per km of cable is
section of the Figure 32 Illustration of Kelvin's Law Php 8000 +20000a. The resistance per km of a cable
conductor, therefore, the energy lost in the conductor of cross sectional area 1 cm2 is 0.173 . If the energy
is inversely proportional to area of cross section. loss cost is 2 centavos per unit, and the rate of interest
Thus, the annual cost of energy wasted in an overhead and depreciation is 12%, calculate the most
transmission line can be expressed as: economical current density and diameter of the
P3 conductor.
Annual cost of energy wasted = 4. The cost per km for each of the copper conductor of a
a
where P3 is constant and a is the area of cross section a cm 2 for a transmission line is Php (2800a +
section of the conductor 1300). The load factor of the load current is 80% and
the load factor of the losses is 65%. The rate of interest most economical current density to use for a
and depreciation is 10% and the cost of energy is 50 transmission requiring full load current for 60% of the
centavos per kWh. Find the most economical current year. The cost of generating electrical energy is 5
density for transmission line using Kelvins law. = centavos/kWh. The resistance of the conductor one km
1.78 108 m. long and 1 cm 2 cross section is 0.18 .
5. The cost of a 3 phase overhead transmission line is 10. Describe the main limitations of Kelvins law. The cost
Php (25000a + 2500) per km where a is the area of of a 3 phase overhead transmission line having cross
cross section of each conductor in cm 2. The line is sectional area A cm 2 is Php (500+2000A) per km.
supplying a load of 5 MW at 33kV and 0.8 pf lagging Calculate the most economical current density for the
assumed to be constant throughout the year. Energy conductor if the rate of interest and depreciation is 12%
costs 4 centavos per kWh and interest and per annum. The cost of energy waste is Php 0.05/kWh.
depreciation total 10% per annum. Find the most The resistance of each conductor is 0.17/A /km.
economical size of the conductor. Given that specific Take the load factor for losses = 12%.
resistance of conductor material is 10 6 cm. Requirements of Satisfactory Electric Supply
6. A 2 wire feeder carries a constant current of 250 A The power station delivers power to consumers through its
throughout the year. The portion of capital cost which transmission and distribution systems. The power delivered
is proportional to area of cross section is Php 5 per must be characterized by constant or nearly constant
kg of copper conductor. The interest and depreciation voltage, dependability of service, balanced voltage, and
total 10% per annum and the cost of energy is 5 efficiency to give minimum annual cost, sinusoidal
centavos per kWh. Find the most economical area of waveform and freedom from inductive interference with
cross section of the conductor. Given that the density telephone lines.
of copper is 8.93 g/cm 3 and its specific resistance is Voltage regulation. A voltage variation has a large effect
1.73108 m. upon the operation of both power machinery and lights. A
7. Determine the most economical cross section for a 3 motor is designed to have its best characteristics at the
phase transmission line, 1 km long to supply at a rated voltage and consequently a voltage that is too high or
constant voltage of 110 kV for the following daily load too low will result in a decrease in efficiency. If the
cycle: fluctuations in the voltage are sudden, these may cause the
6 hours 20 MW at pf 0.8 lagging tripping of circuit breakers and consequent interruptions to
12 hours 5 MW at pf 0.8 lagging service. Usually the voltage at the generator terminals,
6 hours 6 MW at pf 0.8 lagging where this is done, in some cases the voltage variations at
The line is used for 365 days yearly. The cost per km the load may be made sufficiently small by keeping the
of line including erection is Php (9000 + 6000a) where resistance and reactance of the lines and feeders low.
a is the area of cross section of conductor in cm2. Dependability. One important requirement of electric
The annual rate of interest and depreciation is 10% supply is to furnish uninterrupted service. The losses which
and the energy costs 6 centavos per kWh. The an industrial consumer sustains due to the failure of electric
resistance per km of each conductor is 0.176/a. power supply are usually vastly greater than the actual
8. Determine the most economical size of a 3 phase line value of the power that he would use during this period. It
which supplies the following loads at 10 kV: is because the expense of idle workmen and machines and
100 kW at 0.8 pf (lag) for 10 hours other overhead charges. Interruptions to service cause
500 kW at 0.9 pf (lag) for 8 hours irritation and are sometimes positively dangerous to life and
100 kW at unity pf for 6 hours. property. For example, failure of power in hospitals, in
The above gives the daily load cycle. The cost per km crowded theatres and stores may lead to very grave
of the completely erected line is Php (8000a + 1500) consequences. Therefore, it is the duty of electric supply
where a is the area of cross-section of each conductor. company to keep the power system going and to furnish
The combined interest and depreciation is 10% per uninterrupted service.
annum of capital cost. Cost of energy losses is 5 Balanced voltage. It is very important that the polyphaser
centavos per kWh. Resistivity of conductor material = voltage should be balanced. If an unbalanced polyphase
1.72 106 cm. voltage is supplied to a consumer operating synchronous
9. If the cost of an overhead line is Php 2000 A (where A or induction motors, it will result in a decrease in the
is the cross section in cm 2) and if the interest and efficiency of his machinery and a decrease in its maximum
depreciation charges of the line are 8%, estimate the power output. Motors called upon to deliver full load when
their terminal voltages are unbalanced are liable to disturbance. This objective can be achieved only if the
considerable damage due to overheating. One method of transmission and distribution system is so designed and
maintaining balance of voltage is by having balanced loads constructed that it is an efficient, technically sound and
connected to the circuit. reliable system. The line should have sufficient current
Efficiency. The efficiency of a transmission system is not carrying capacity to transmit the required power over a
of much importance. The important economic feature of the given distance without an excessive voltage drop and
design being the layout of the system to perform the overheating. The line losses should be small and insulation
requisite function of generating and delivering power with a of the line should be adequate to cope with the system
minimum overall annual cost. The annual cost can be voltage. The line should have sufficient mechanical
minimized to a considerable extent by taking care of power strength to cope with the worst probable weather conditions
factor of the system. It is because losses in the lines and and provide satisfactory service over a long period without
machinery are largely determined by power factor. the necessity of too much maintenance.
Therefore, it is important that consumers having loads of Electric power can be transmitted by Underground Cables
low power factor should be penalized by being charged at or by Overhead Lines.
a higher rate per kWh than those who take power at high Two main reasons why underground cables are rarely
power factors. Loads of low power factor also require used:
greater generator capacity than those of high power factor 1. The insulation cost for underground transmission is
(for the same amount of power) and produce larger voltage very high.
drops in the lines and transformers. 2. It is very difficult to provide proper insulation to the
Frequency. The frequency of the supply system must be cable to withstand high voltage required for economic
maintained constant. It is because a change in frequency transmission.
would change the motor speed, thus interfering with the Main Components of Overhead Lines
manufacturing operations. 1. Supports this may be poles or towers and keep the
Sinusoidal waveform. The alternating voltage supplied to conductor at the suitable level above the ground. It
the consumers should have a sine waveform. It is because depends on the working voltage and region where
any harmonics which might be present would have these are used.
detrimental effect upon the efficiency and maximum power 2. Cross arms and Clamps this provides support to
output of the connected machinery. Harmonics may be the insulator and made of either wood or steel angle
avoided by using generators of good design and by section and are used on pole structures.
avoidance of high flux densities in transformers. 3. Insulators which are attached to support, take strain
Freedom from inductive interference. Power lines and insulate the conductors from the ground. It can be
running parallel to telephone lines produce electrostatic and pin, strain or suspension type.
electromagnetic field disturbances. These fields tend to 4. Conductors which carry electric power from the
cause objectionable noises and hums in the apparatus sending end station to the receiving end station. It can
connected to communication circuits. Inductive interference be composed of copper, aluminum, ACSR or of any
with telephone lines may be avoided by limiting as much as other composition depending upon the current to be
possible the amount of zero sequence and harmonic carried and the span of the line.
current and by the proper transposition of both power lines 5. Guys and Stays braces or cables are fastened to
and telephone lines. the pole at the termination or angle poles to resist
Mechanical Design of Overhead Lines lateral forces.
Transmission and distribution lines are vital links between 6. Lightning Arrestors to discharge excessive
generating stations and consumers as power from voltages built upon the line, to earth, due to lightning.
generating stations is transmitted at high voltage (such as 7. Fuses and Isolating Switches to isolate different
132, 220, 400 or 765 kV) over long distances to major load parts of the overhead system.
centers and then the power is distributed to various 8. Continuous Earth Wire is run on the top of the
substations located at various places and localities through towers to protect the line against lightning discharges.
distribution lines. Because of tremendous industrial growth, 9. Vee Guards are often provided below bare overhead
requirement of power has increased manifold. Hence it lines running along or across public streets to make the
becomes imperative that transmission and distribution of line safe if it should break.
power from the generating stations to the various 10. Guard Wires are provided above or below power
consumers is carried out with minimum possible loss and lines while crossing telephone or telegraph lines. The
guard wires and steel structures are solidly connected rigid anchoring towers at an interval of 1.5 km or so.
to earth. These anchoring towers are designed to withstand the
11. Phase Plates to distinguish the various phases. breaking of one wire in three on one side as well as the
12. Bird Guards a stick of ebonite with rounded top is transverse load.
fixed near the insulator on the cross arm to prevent - In case of rigid supports such as the lattice steel broad
flashover due to birds pecking on the conductors (on base structures equal strength is usually provided in
lines with pin insulators). both the longitudinal and transverse directions and every
13. Danger Plate it is provided on each pole, as a tower is designed to withstand the unbalanced load
warning measure indicating the working voltage of the because of breaking of one wire in three on the same
line and the word danger. It is provided at a height of side. In addition, anchor towers are often provided, in
2.5 m from the ground. which the support can withstand the failure of two
14. Barbed Wire is wrapped on a pole at a height of conductors out of three, or even all conductors on one
about 2.5 m from the ground for at least 1 meter. This side.
prevents climbing by unauthorized persons. Characteristics of Transmission Line Supports
15. Miscellaneous Items such as vibration dampers, 1. High mechanical strength to withstand the weight of
top hampers, beads for jumpers etc. conductors, wind loads etc.
Transmission Line Supports 2. Light in weight without loss of mechanical strength.
- These are the supporting structures of overhead line 3. Cheap in cost and economical to maintain.
conductors on various types of poles and towers. 4. Longer life.
- It can carry the load due to insulators and conductors 5. Good looking
including the ice and wind loads on the conductors along 6. Easy accessibility of conductors for maintenance.
with the wind load on the support itself. Types of Transmission Line Supports
- A distinction is drawn between straight poles which lie in 1. Wooden Poles
direct line of transmission and normally only support the - these are made of
conductors and the special poles which may carry some seasoned wood and
load due to conductor tension. These latter supports may are suitable for lines
be angle towers, terminal towers, towers at tee off of moderate cross
parts, anchor towers, or towers for some special such as sectional area and of
for crossing the rivers. In case of telegraph or railway line relatively short span
crossing special requirements are to be met with. up to 60 m.
- The choice of line supports for a situation depends upon - Such support is
the line span, cross sectional area, line voltage, cost cheap, easily
and local conditions. available, provide
- The design of an overhead line supports depends upon insulating properties
the fact whether the support is rigid or has a certain and therefore widely
amount of flexibility in the direction of the line. Wooden used for distribution
poles and some special types of steel structures are of purposes in rural
latter type and only the transverse wind pressure areas.
occurring upon the conductors and upon the support - In districts having a Figure 33 Single Pole Construction
itself is usually considered in their design. The plentiful supply of Show ing Installation of Three
Phase, 4 Wire Cable in Vertical
longitudinal pull of the conductors is normally balanced timber and where the Formation. A 2 Wire Serv ice Tapping
on either side of the support but in the event of breaking cost of transporting Supplies Consumers Homes
of one or more conductors on one side, there will be an steel towers is high single and H poles have been
unbalanced load which may be far in excess than used for overhead lines operating at voltages up to
transverse wind pressure. With flexible supports this 130 kV and average span lengths of 150 meters. Sal
unbalanced load is quickly absorbed by an increase in or chir wooden poles up to 11 meter length with
sag in undamaged span because of bending of the minimum circumference of 38 cm at the top and 66
supports on each side if the wrecked span towards the cm at the bottom are used.
adjoining spans. After three or four spans the longitudinal - are very eleastic and lines employing wooden
pull becomes negligible. A certain general rigidity in the supports are often designed throughout for the
longitudinal direction is provided for in practice by using transverse load. Longitudinal strength at terminals
and for anchor support is provided by means of guys. e. Required periodic inspection
Double pole structures of A and H types are often
employed by obtaining a higher transverse strength
than that could be economically provided by means
of single poles.
- The height of a wooden pole depends upon
clearance above the ground surface and secondly,
the number of cross arms and other equipment to
be attached. Normally, the height of wooden pole is
10 to 12 m.
Types of Wooden Poles
1. Single member poles are
ordinary poles and are used in
all positions where there is no
undue stress or tension and
where no transformer or
switchgear are to be mounted
on them.
2. A poles are used mainly
where bends in lines cause
strain and single poles are not
suitable. A poles consist of
two member poles spaced at
Figure 34 "A" Type Pole
the base and joined at the Utilized for 3 Phase 3
top, held together by cross Wire HT Transmission
bars in the form of letter A. w here route of cables
turns at an angle Figure 37 4 - Member Pole Construction with Transformer, Switchgear and
3. H poles comprising two Fuses. LT Four Wire, 3 Phase Distributor is Tapped Off Transformer Secondary
single poles strapped together by steel or wooden to Supply a Village
cross pieces are used 2. Steel Poles
mainly where transformers - are often used to substitute for wooden poles.
and switchgear are to be - It possesses greater mechanical strength, longer life
mounted on them. and permit longer span to be used (50 80m). Such
4. Four member poles poles are generally used for distribution in cities.
comprise of two H units in - It needs to be galvanized or painted or prolong its
the form of a square joined life.
by cross bars. They are - The average life of steel poles is more than 40 years.
used where extra heavy
transformers and
switchgear are required,
usually at the junction of
number of circuits.
Figure 35 "H" Pole
Supporting Transformer
DISADVANTAGES:
a. Tendency to rot below
ground level
b. Comparatively
smaller/shorter life
c. Less mechanical strength
d. Cannot be used for higher Figure 36 Wood Pole
voltage above 22 kV Figure 38 Steel Poles
w ith Protection Cap

Types of Steel Poles lattice steel towers are used for transmission
1. Tubular poles are of round cross section. The purposes at 66 kV and above.
advantages of tubular poles are that these are - The height of the
lighter in weight and easy to install though initial tower depends on the
cost is little more as compared to wooden poles. It line voltage and
does not require special equipment for its erection. length of span. The
Tubular poles in height of 9 to 11 m are generally legs of the towers are
used for distribution purposes in cities to give good set in special
appearance. concrete
2. Rail poles are of the shape of the track used for foundations. The
railways. Steel rail poles in height of 11 m and 13 forces to be
m are used for transmission purposes at 11 kV considered in the
and 33 kV respectively. design of a tower are
3. Rolled steel joints are of I cross section. vertical loads of Figure 40 500 kV DC Lattice Tower
3. RCC Poles conductors, insulators,
- the reinforced concrete poles fittings and tower itself, wind
become very popular as line pressure on conductors and
supports in recent years. wind pressure on tower itself.
- are extensively used for low - For protection against
voltage and high voltage corrosion the steel towers
distribution lines up to 33 kV. are periodically painted or
- It has a greater mechanical galvanized. The life of steel
strength, longer life and towers can be made almost
permit longer span (80 200 indefinitely large by a
m) than steel poles. reasonable amount of
- It gives good outlook, require Figure 41 Single Circuit attention to their
little maintenance and have Tow er maintenance.
good insulating properties. Figure 39 Concrete Pole Characteristics of Broad Base, Lattice Steel
Because of its heavy weight, Towers
such poles are often manufactured at the site to 1. Mechanically stronger and got longer life.
avoid cost transportation. 2. Long spans (300 m
- Their consruction should conform to the standard and above) can be
specification for RCC work, but in no case the used and are much
dimensions shall be less 25 cm 25 cm at the useful for crossing
bottom and 13 cm 13 cm at the top. fields, valleys,
- Prestressed concrete poles, called PCC poles, are railway lines, rive
less bulky and lighter than RCC poles. PCC poles etc.
are extensively used on 11 kV and its lines. 3. Even though these
Types of RCC Poles are two to four time
1. Square Cross Section costlier than wooden
2. Rectangular bottom and square top with poles, yet for tall
rectangular holes in it to facilitate insulating supports and longer
properties and resistance against chemical action. spans these prove
4. Lattice Steel Tower more economical. Figure 42 Double Circuit Tower
- Wooden poles are generally used for distribution 4. Reliability is of a high degree.
purposes in rural areas, the steel tubular poles and 5. Capable of withstanding the most severe
concrete poles are usually used for distribution in climatic conditions, and immune from
urban area to give good appearance and steel rails destruction by forest fires.
or narrow base, lattice steel towers are used for 6. The risk of service interruptions, due to broken
transmission at 11 kV and 33 kV and broad base or punctured insulators, is considerably reduced
owing to use of large spans.
7. Lightning troubles are also minimized as each Classification of Steel Towers

tower is a lightning conductor, whereas on 1. Tangent towers can be used for straight runs of
wooden pole lines shattered poles and wrecked the line and up to 2 - line deviation from the
line sections are not infrequent. straight run. The
8. Fabricated from painted or galvanized angle line is straight or
section which can be transported separately along the tangent
and the erection done on site. to the line route.
9. At a moderate cost these can be designed for In such towers
double circuit giving a further insurance against the stress is
discontinuity of supply. In case of breakdown to because of the
one circuit it is possible to carry out repairs while weight of the
maintaining the continuity of supply on the other conductors, ice
circuit. and wind loads. Figure 43 Steel Tower
The advantages and disadvantages of single circuit and In addition, extra
double circuit designs are given in the table: forces due to break in the line on one side of the
Single Circuit Design Double Circuit Design tower is also to be considered in the design of
Its structure is lighter in Its structure is heavier in towers. The base of such a steel tower may be
weight and required less weight and of more height. It square or rectangular. Insulators used with such
strong foundation because it requires relatively stronger towers are suspension types.
is subjected to low wind foundation. It is subjected to
2. Deviation tower are special angle towers with
pressure on conductors and more wind pressure.
structure itself.
line deviation exceeding 2. They are used
It need much lower support It needs taller structure but
where the transmission line changes direction.
for equal conductor less way leave for equal Such towers have broader base and stronger
clearance to earth but it number of circuits. members as they are to withstand the resultant
requires more way leave for force due to change in direction in addition to
same number of circuits. the forces to which the tangent towers are
Two earth wires are required Only one earth wire is subjected. Insulators used with such towers are
for single circuit as these required for two circuits and of strain type. The cost of deviation tower is
cannot be disposed at the more protection against larger than that of a tangent tower because it is
top. lightning is had due to its designed to withstand heavy loading as
disposition at the top.
compared to standard or tangent tower.
Danger of flashover is most There is always danger from
unlikely and repairs can be the other live circuit.
Deviation towers are further classified as:
carried out without danger to a. Small angle towers (2 to 15 change in
workmen from other circuits. direction)
Reliability regarding Reliability regarding b. Medium angle towers (15 to 30 change in
continuity of supply is less. continuity of supply is more. direction)
It is more expensive for two It is most economical and c. Large angle towers (30 to 60 change in
circuits than the double circuit cheaper. direction and dead end)
design. Conductor Materials
Greater spacing of Lesser spacing of conductor s The conductor is one of the important items in a
conductors is required is required; hence the transmission and distribution system of electric power, the
resulting in greater inductiv e inductive reactance is less. cost of the conductor material accounts for a major part of
reactance.
the total cost. So, proper choice of conductor material and
The phase performance It gives better approach to the
along the line is unbalanced triangular arrangement;
size of the conductor is of utmost importance.
as the central conductor hence the phase Characteristics of Conductor
passes at the top of the performance will be more 1. High electric conductivity or low specific resistance
support, which is an obvious balanced. 2. High tensile strength to withstand the mechanical
drawback. stresses
Table 2 Comparison of Single Circuit to Double Circuit Design 3. Low specific gravity to give low weight per unit volume
4. Low cost to be used over long distances usually
involved in transmission lines
5. Easy availability conductor has about 75% of the ultimate strength

6. Should not be brittle of the equivalent copper conductor.
The most commonly used conductor materials for overhead d. For the same conductivity aluminum conductor
lines are copper, aluminum, steel cored aluminum, having 1.66 times the cross section of copper is
galvanized steel and cadmium copper. Aluminum has required thus causes a greater surface for wind
replaced copper as the most common conductor metal for pressure and supporting structures are requiredto
overhead transmission. Although larger aluminum cross be designed for greater transverse strength.
sectional area is required to obtain the same loss as in a e. High towers must be employed with aluminum
copper conductor, aluminum has a lower cost, light weigh, conductors than would be required with copper
and the supply of aluminum is abundant. conductors having the same length of span.
Common Conductor Types f. The sag is greater in aluminum wires due to
1. Stranded Hard Drawn Copper is the best conductor reduced working stress permissible and because
owing to its high electrical conductivity and great the linear coefficient of expansion of aluminum is
tensile strength for all types of transmission. Through 1.4 times of the copper.
hard drawing (cold rolling and drawing) reduces the g. Aluminum conductors being liable to swing,
conductivity slightly but increase the tensile strength requires larger cross arms/
considerably. However, medium hard drawn copper h. Low melting point thus it cannot withstand short
is suitable for distribution lines and soft drawn copper circuits.
wires are suitable for secondary distribution circuits, i. Jointing is also difficult compared to copper.
and for service connections to buildings. Though AAC (All Aluminum Conductor) weighs only half as the
copper is ideally suitable for transmission and equivalent copper conductor and cost per unit length
distribution, but due to scarcity of materials, the trend of prevailing market rates, is considerably less. They
nowadays is to use aluminum in place of copper. The are mainly used for low voltage distribution overhead
use of cupper is being restricted for manufacturing of lines having short spans of up to 65 m.
the machines only. 3. AAAC (All Aluminum Alloy Conductor)
Characteristics: 4. ACAR (Aluminum Conductor Alloy Reinforced)
a. It does not corrode in normal atmosphere and is 5. Steel Cored Aluminum or ACSR (Aluminum Copper
not subjected electrolytic troubles. Steel Reinforced) or Alumoweld (Aluminum Clad
b. It has higher current density so lesser cross Steel Conductor) consists of layers of aluminum
sectional area of conductor is required and so strands surrounding a central core of steel strands.
lesser area is subjected to wind loads. The Steel strands are galvanized to prevent rusting
c. It is quite homogenous, durable and of high scrap and electrolytic corrosion; the cross section are in the
value. ratio 1:6 but in case of high strength conductors their
d. It has long life and ease of jointing. ratio may be 1:4.
2. Aluminum is cheaper in cost and lighter in weight but Characteristics:
is poor in conductivity and tensile strength as a. Steel core takes a greater percentage of
compared to copper. These days there is great trend mechanical stresses while the aluminum carries
towards the aluminum as conductor material, because the bulk of current.
of its greater availability and cheapness in comparison b. Has the largest diameter than any other type of
to copper. conductor of same resistance, so corona losses
Characteristics: are reduced, but stronger supports are required
a. Its conductivity is 60% of that of copper and for a given span.
density is 0.303 times that of copper. c. Has high tensile strength and lighter in weight
b. Has a diameter about 1.26 times that of copper produces small sag and therefore longer spans
conductor of equal resistance but due to its low can be used thus number of line supports may be
density only half weight of aluminum is required to reduced by 25% and frequency of occurrence of
that of copper. fault is reduced.
c. The tensile strength is much lower than that of d. Skin effect is very predominating hence the
copper (45% to that of copper), but the larger resistance of the composite conductor is taken
cross sectional area if metal neutralizes the equal to that of aluminum covering alone.
difference to some extent, and an aluminum
e. Reactance is taken to be equal to that of a non All conductors used for overhead lines are preferably
magnetic conductor having diameter equal to that stranded to increase flexibility. Solid wires, except of
outside of the conductor. smaller sizes, are difficult to handle and when employed for
f. Critical voltage limit of the conductor can be raised long spans tend to crystallize at the points of support
by 30 to 50% as compared to copper conductors. because of swinging in winds.
g. Gets deteriorated in service to the atmospheric Stranded conductors usually have a central wire around
corrosion due to bimetallic action of zinc and the which these are successive layers of 6, 12, 18, 24 wires.
aluminum, electrochemical in nature. For n layers, the total number of individual wire is 3n(n+1)
6. Galvanized Steel have been used to advantage for +1. If the diameter of each strand is d, then diameter of the
extremely long spans, or for short line sections stranded conductor will be (2n+1) d. In the process of
exposed to normally high stresses due to climatic manufacture adjacent layers are spiraled in opposite
conditions. These are found most suitable for lines directions so that the layers are bound together. The
supplying rural areas and operating at voltages of method of construction is called as concrete lay.
about 11 kV, where cheapness is the main With conductors of large cross section, however, another
consideration. They are not suitable for EHT lines for method known as rope lay is sometimes employed to give
transmitting large amounts of power over a long more flexibility.
distance due to poor conductivity (13 % of copper), Mechanical
Pr oper ties
Copper Aluminum Steel Aluminum and
Steel
high internal reactance and due to eddy current and 1:3 1:4
hysteresis. Nowadays, their use is limited to Specific Weight
(kg/m3)
8900 2700 7860 3450 3700
telecommunication lines, stay wires, earth wires and Young Modulus 13000 5600 20700 7500 8300
(kg/mm2)
guard wires. Ultimate Tensile 40 18 40 to 120 120
7. Cadmium Copper addition of 1 or 2% cadmium in Strength 320
(kg/mm2)
copper increases the tensile strength by about 40% Specific 0.01786 0.0287 0.178
and reduces the conductivity by 17% below that of pure resistance ( -
m/mm2)
copper. Use of Cadmium Copper will be economical for Resistance 0.0038 0.004 0.00496
a line with long spans and small cross section, where Temperature
Coefficient
the cost of conductor material is comparatively small in Table 3 Properties of Conductor Materials of Various Types
comparison to that of supports, etc. They are also Examples:
employed for telephone and telegraph lines where 1. A given amount of power is to be transmitted by an
currents involved are quite small. However, owing to overhead line. Compare the diameter and weight of
scarcity of copper, cadmium copper conductors on aluminum conductor with those of copper for the same
communication lines are being replaced by ACSR power loss in the line. The following data may be
conductors. assumed:
8. Copper Clad Steel is obtained by welding a copper Specific resistance of aluminum = 2.85 - cm
coating on a steel wire core. Line conductors made of Specific resistance of copper = 1.70 - cm
copper clad steel are preferably stranded, and have Specific gravity of aluminum = 2.71
a considerably large tensile strength than the Specific gravity of copper = 8.89
equivalent all copper conductors. The proportion of 2. Electric power of 30 MW at a pf of 0.8 lagging is to be
copper and steel is chosen that the conductivity of the transmitted by a 132 kV, 3 phase, 3 wire transmission
composite wire is 30 to 40% of that of copper conductor line over a distance of 120 km. The efficiency of
of equal diameter. Such material appears to be very transmission is 90 %. Calculate:
suitable for river crossings or other places where an a. Weight of material required in case of copper
extremely long span is involved. having resistivity of 1.78 x 10 -8 - m and specific
9. Phosphor Bronze use if harmful gases such as gravity of 8.9.
ammonia are present in atmosphere and the spans are b. Weight of material required in case of aluminum
extremely long. In this conductor, some strands of having resistivity of 2.6 x 10 -8 - m and specific
phosphor bronze are added to the cadmium copper. gravity of 2.
10. Expanded ACSR has filler such as fiber or paper Cross Arms
between aluminum and steel strands. The function of a line support (pole) is to support the line
Filler are used to increase the conductor diameter that will conductors at a safe distance from ground whereas the
reduce magnetic effects and reduce corona power loss.
function of cross arms it to keep the conductors at a safe with disc insulators. The cross arm is fixed to the pole
distance from each other and from the pole. Cross arm is a in such a manner that the load of the conductors is
cross piece fitted to the pole top end portion by means of taken by the cross arm and not the clamp or bolt that
brackets, known as pole brackets, for supporting insulators. fixes the cross arm to the pole.
Shape of Cross Arms
1. U Shaped
2. V Shaped
3. Zig Zag Shaped
To prevent arcing, the construction of the cross arms
should be such that under the worst conditions, the spacing
between conductors, when swinging, would never be less
than that given in Table 4.
Working Voltage Spacing
6.6 kV 76 mm
11 kV 101 mm
33 kV 190 mm and so on
Table 4 Spacing for Cross Arms dependent on Working Voltage
Pole Brackets and Clamps
Pole brackets of different types are shown in the Figure 45.
Figure 44 Cross Arms

Types of Cross Arms
1. Wooden Cross Arms are commonly employed on 11
kV and 33 kV lines. These are made of sal wood,
seasoned sheesam wood or creosoted fire wood. It
should be lengthwise and completely free from knots Figure 45 Various Types of Pole Brackets
and are preferred owing to their insulating property Clamps are made of flat iron and are used for fixing or
which provides safety to line staff and minimizes holding service line stay wires, earth wire, shackle
flashover due to birdage. The usual lengths and cross insulators, cross arms etc. In case of service lines, one end
sections in use are: 1.5 mm x 125 mm x 125 mm for 11 of the clamp is made longer and provided with an eye
kV lines and 2.1 mm x 125 mm x 125 mm for 33 kV section, as shown in Figure 46.
lines. Wooden Cross Arms need replacement owing to
decay every 5 7 years depending upon weather
conditions.
2. Steel Cross Arms are stronger and are generally used
on steel poles. For LV distribution, the angle iron or
channel iron cross arms shall have a size not less than
50 mm x 50 mm x 6.4 mm and 76 mm x 38 mm. Its
length shall be suitable for the spacing of the
conductors and strong enough to withstand the
resultant forces caused by insulators, their pins and
dead weight of insulator attachments etc. To avoid
birdage on HT lines, V shaped cross arms are used Figure 46 Various Types of Clamps

enough above the ground level so that the guy wire does
not meet the soil of the ground.
An egg type strain insulator is inserted in the guy wire for
safety. It isolates stay wire electrically from metal support.
The two ends of guy are threaded through the insulator in
such a way that the porcelain of the insulator is under
compression, making it possible to withstand a large pull.
Figure 47 Method of Fitting Cross Arm to Pole In case of breakage of porcelain, the guy will still be
Guys and Stays effective due to linking of two ends. Stay wires are
It becomes essential to stay overhead line supports at galvanized steel wires having a tensile strength of 7
angle and terminal positions as the poles takes the pull due tons/cm 2 and are usually of stranded section.
to the conductors. The theoretical angle between the pole The stays are provided to angle poles, terminal poles, H
and stay should be 45, but in general practice it is not pole structures, where the span on the two sides of the pole
always possible to obtain this, and so stay design is are very much different and to supports subjec ted to
generally based on a minimum angle of 30 between stay uprooting pressure. Stay wires are placed on the poles and
and pole. stay rods fixed before stretching of line conductors on the
poles. This is very important, otherwise, in case the line
conductors are placed first, the poles would be pulled out
of the position. The stay wire is held up on the pole either
by means of guy hook or through the bolt or may be fixed
to the clamp. The stay wire is drawn up until the pole is
pulled over slightly towards the stay to keep the proper
tension.
Different stay arrangements are shown in Figure 49.
Figure 48 Guys and Stays

Stay set consists of MS rod of 19 mm diameter, stay bow,
checknut, timbles, stay wire, stay clamp and CI anchor
plate 450 x 450 mm having 4.8 mm hole in the center.
Except the plate all other parts are galvanized. Stay rod is
embedded in cement concrete 1:3:6 to a depth of not less
than 1.67 m keeping length of 46 cm of the rod projected
above the ground level. One end of stay wire is fixed to stay
rod at the bottom and to the stay clamp to the pole by
means of well spliced joints with a strain insulator and turn
buckle inserted in the middle and near the top respectively.
The stay or guy is tightened by means of stay bow and
anchor rod to the required tension. Mild steel thimbles are
used at both ends of the stay wire, otherwise strands of stay
wire may get damaged. The anchor rod is projected far
Figure 49 Stay Arrangements

Conductors Configuration, Spacing and Clearances Table 5 shows some typical spacing values.
Conductor Configuration Line
Voltage in 0.4 11 33 66 132 220 400 765
Several conductor configurations are possible, but three kV
most common configurations are: Spacing in
0.2 1.2 2.0 2.5 3.5 6.0 11.5 14
a. Horizontal Configuration (horizontal disposition of meters
Table 5 Conductor Spacings
conductors) all the conductors are mounted over one
Conductor Clearances
cross arm and needs supports of smaller height but a
The minimum vertical clearances between the ground and
wider right of way. Most Economical for Single Circuit
the conductor are shown in Table 6.
Lines. Line Voltage in kV
b. Vertical Configuration use in congested areas where Clearance to 0.4 11 33 66 132 220 400
horizontal arrangement is not possible. The drawbacks Ground in meters
are taller towers and more lightning hazards. Most Across Street 5.8 5.8 6.1 6.1 6.1 7.0 8.4
Economical for Double Circuit Lines. Along Street 5.5 5.5 5.8 6.1 6.1 7.0 8.4
Other Areas 4.6 4.6 5.2 5.5 6.1 7.0 8.4
c. Symmetrical Delta or Triangular Configuration Table 6 Conductor Clearances
Span Lengths
Neglecting the influence upon the span length of such local
conditions as the necessity for the following the
configuration of roads, canals or railways, it is interesting to
note that there is one definite value for span length which
will give the minimum overall cost of the line. As the length
of span increases, the number of insulators and supports
decreases resulting in decrease in cost but at the same time
the height of the support will go up to allow for more sag
and the length of the cross arms must be increased to take
up increased spacing, this will cause increase in cost.
Figure 50 Triangular and Horizontal Formation Moreover, the insulators constitute the weakest part of
In unsymmetrical arrangement of conductors, the transmission line and reduction in number of towers per km
conductors are usually transposed at regular intervals to with the use of longer span increases the reliability of the
balance the electrical characteristics of various phases, and line. Thus, it is not possible to give any hard and fast rule
prevent inductive interference with neighboring as to the best span length to be adopted, and the only way
communication circuits. to determine it is to calculate the total cost per km for
Conductor Spacings several different span lengths, and plot the results to get the
The spacing of conductors is determined by considerations most economical span length.
partly electrical and partly mechanical. Larger spacing Many times, it happens that the conductor size determined
causes increase in inductance of the line and hence the from electrical calculations comes out rather small, it is
voltage drop, so that to keep the latter within a reasonable possible to reduce the total cost of line by using a thicker
value the conductors should be as close together as is and stronger conductor, and increasing the span length.
consistent with the prevention of corona. Sometimes it is not feasible to determine the height of the
The basic Consideration regarding Minimum Spacing line support and span length based on line cost alone as
between conductors are electrical clearances between lightning hazards increase greatly with the increase in
conductors under the worst condition (maximum height of conductors above the ground.
temperature and wind pressure) shall not be less than the The usual spans are:
limits of safety, particularly at the mid spans. Owing to the a. Wooden Poles: 40 50 m
action of the gusts of wind, conductor has tendency to move b. Steel Tubular Poles: 50 80 m
about in an elliptical path, therefore, in case of suspension c. RCC Poles: 80 200 m
insulators, the mechanical clearance to supporting d. Steel Towers: 200 400 m and above
structures should be calculated with a 45 swing of the For river crossings exceptionally long spans up to 800 m
suspension string toward the structure. or so have been satisfactorily employed.
Spacing = S + V/150
where S is sag in meters and V is line voltage in kV.

Sag and Tension (Stress) Analysis conductor from elastic stretching which tends to relieve
Overhead lines are supported on mechanical structures tension and sag increases.
consisting of components like insulators, cross arms, poles The elastic property of wire is measured by its modulus of
or towers etc. The strength of these components must be elasticity.
such that there is no mechanical failure of line, even under T
= kg/m2
the worst weather conditions. A
Analysis of sag and tension of conductor is an important where = stress per unit area
consideration in overhead transmission as well as T = conductor tension
distribution line design. The continuity and quality of electric A = actual cross section of conductor
service depend largely on whether the conductors have Elongation of the conductor due to the tension is
been properly installed. Thus, it must be determined in stress
e=
advance the amount of sag and tension to be given to the modulus of elasticity
conductor at a given temperature, maximum wind, and Elongation is high if modulus of elasticity is low. Thus, a
possible ice loading. To specify the tension to be used in small change in length of conductor causes large effect on
stringing the line conductors, the values of sag and tension sag and tension of conductor.
in summer and winter conditions must be known. Excessive Sag and stresses in conductors are dependent on the
tension may cause mechanical failure of the conductor itself following things:
because conductor tension contributes to the mechanical 1. Initial tension put on them when they are clamped in
load on structure angles in the line and at dead ends. place.
The main factors in the design and stringing of 2. Weight of the conductor themselves.
conductors on the supports 3. Ice or sleet changing on them.
1. Conductor load per unit length 4. Wind pressure.
2. Conductor tension (less than 50% of its ultimate tensile Stress depends on sag; any span can be used provided the
strength even when there is 12.7 mm radial coating of poles or towers are high enough and strong enough. The
ice and a wind pressure of the order 380 N/m 2) matter is merely one of extending the catenary in both
3. Span, that is, distance between supports directions. Cost of towers sharply increase with height and
4. Temperature loading.
For determining the conductor load, the factors that need to Example:
be considered are: A galvanized steel tower member has original length of 22
1. Weight of conductor itself cm and cross sectional area 13 cm 2. With working axial,
2. Weight of ice or snow clinging to conductor tensile load of 125 kN, the change in length was 0.2 mm.
3. Wind blowing against conductor Calculate:
The maximum effective weight of the conductor is the a. Stress
vector sum of the vertical weight of the conductor and b. Strain
horizontal wind pressure. It is extremely important to c. Modulus of elasticity
include the most adverse condition. From the design point d. Percent elongation
of view, it is considered that the wind is blowing at right e. If ultimate stress is 110000 N/mm 2, determine the
angles to the line and to act against the projected area of factor of safety.
the conductor, which includes the projected area of ice or Sag in Overhead Lines
snow that may be clinging to it. While erecting an overhead line, it is very important that
From the practical point of view, economic design dictates conductors are under safe tension. If the conductors are too
the following: much stretched between supports in a bid to save
1. Sag of conductor should be minimum to refrain from conductor material, the stress in the conductor may reach
extra pole height unsafe value and in certain cases the conductor may break
2. Sufficient clearance above ground level. due to excessive tension. To permit safe tension in the
3. To avoid providing excessive horizontal spacing conductors, they are not fully stretched but can have a dip
between conductors to prevent those swinging or sag.
together in mid span. SAG the difference in level between points of supports
Sag of the conductor decreases because its tension pull the and the lowest point in the conductor.
conductor up. But at the same time, tension elongates the

length of span, etc. remain the same. Working tensile

strength of the conductor is determined by multiplying
the ultimate stress and area of cross section and
dividing by a factor of safety.
4. Temperature. All metallic bodies expand with the rise
in temperature and, therefore, the length of the
conductor increases with the rise in temperature, and
Figure 51 Conductor Suspended in Equal Supports so does the sag.
Figure 51 shows a conductor suspended between equal Two conditions are considered in making sag tension
level supports A and B. the conductor is not fully stretched analysis:
but can have a dip. The lowest point on the conductor is O 1. At Minimum Temperature. The lowest sag and
maximum tension in conductor section occurs when
and the sag is S.
the temperature is minimum and wind maximum.
The following points can be considered: Tension on the conductor should not exceed the
1. When a conductor is suspended between supports at breaking strength of the conductor divided by a factor
the same level takes the shape of a catenary. of safety of 2.5.
However, if the sag is very small compared with the 2. At Maximum Temperature. On the other hand,
span, then the sag curve is said to be parabola. maximum sag occurs when temperature is maximum
2. The tension at any point on the conductor acts and there is no wind pressure.
tangentially. Thus, tension T O at the lowest pt. O acts wL2
horizontally as shown in Figure 52. S=
T
3. The horizontal component of tension is constant where w = weight of conductor in kg/m; L = length of the
throughout the length of wire. span in meters and T = tension in the conductor in kg
4. The tension at supports is approximately equal to the Calculation of Sag
horizontal tension acting at any point of the wire. Thus, In an overhead line, the sag should be so adjusted that the
if T is the tension at pt. B, then T = T O. tension in the conductors is within safe limits. The tension
is governed by conductor weight, effect of wind, ice loading
and temperature variations. It is a standard practice to keep
conductor tension less than 50 % of its ultimate tensile
strength. Thus, the minimum safety factor in respect of
conductor tension should be 2.
a. CATENARY CABLE (high sag)
- the unit weight is uniformly distributed along the cable
- for span of more than 300 meters
Figure 52 Conductor Tension

The factors affecting the sag in an overhead line are:
1. Weight of the Conductor. This affects the sag directly.
Heavier the conductor, greater will be the sag. In
locations where ice formation takes place on the
conductor, this will also increase in the sag. Figure 53 Free body diagram of portion cable
2. Length of the Span. Sag is directly proportional to the Consider Figure 53, If T O is the tension at the lowest point
square of the span length. Hence other conditions, (point O) on the wire and where the curve is horizontal and
such as type of conductor, working tension, T the tension at point B (distance l from the lowest point O),
temperature etc., remaining the same a section with the portion OB (length l) is in equilibrium under the action
longer span will have much greater sag.
of three forces, namely T O, T and the weight of the wire of
3. Working Tensile Strength. The sag is inversely
proportional to the working tensile strength of length l acting vertically downward through a center of
conductor if other conditions such as temperature, gravity, wl.

2 4 6
(wx) (wx) (wx)
TO TO TO TO
So y = (1 + + + 1)
w 2 4 6
T
If the fourth and higher order terms are neglected,
wl
wx 2 1 2
TO ( ) ( )=
TO 2 2
From Figure 55 the Tension T at point B is given by
Figure 54 The Force Triangle
The above three forces can be represented by a triangle T = (TO )2 + (wl) 2
shown in Figure 54 and from this triangle wx 2
wl T = (TO )2 + (TO sinh )
tan = TO
TO
From the above triangle, we can say dl = T, dx = T O and dy wx 2 wx
T = TO 1 + ( sinh ) = TO cosh
= wl. Thus, TO TO
dy
tan =
dx
dl 2 dy 2
and dl2 = dx 2 + dy 2 or ( ) = 1 + ( )
dx dx
dl 2 wl 2
( ) = 1 + tan2 = 1 + ( )
dx TO
Simplifying,
dl
dx = Figure 56
w 2 l2 If the line is supported between two points A and B at the
1 + 2
TO same level and the length of the span is L (Figure 56), then
L
Integrating both sides, we get at the supports x = and
2
TO wl wL
x= sinh1 + C T = TO cosh
w TO 2TO
From initial conditions when x = 0 and l = 0, we get C = 0, The sag ymax is the value of y at A or B and is given by
thus, w L 2 wL2
TO wl wl wx TO wx ymax ( ) =
x= sinh1 or = sinh or l = sinh 2TO 2 8TO
w TO TO TO w TO
dy wl w TO wx wx Length of line in a half span
Again = tan = = sinh = sinh
dx TO TO w TO TO 3 3
Integrating both sides, we get = sinh = [ + +]
2 2 483
TO
y= cosh +D Neglecting terms of order exceeding cube, we have
TO wL TO w 3L3 L w 2L3
From initial conditions when x = 0 and y = 0, we get D = + +
TO
w 2TO w 48TO3 2 48TO2
thus, or length of line in full span length
w
TO wx TO TO wx w 2 L3
y= cosh = (cosh 1) = L+
w TO w w TO 24TO2
This is the equation of the curve called the catenary. Tension, T = TO cosh
wx
The function cosh is the hyperbolic cosine and is such that TO
wx 2 wx 4 wx 6 w 2 x2 w 4x4 w 2 x2
( ) ( ) ( ) = TO (1 + + + ) TO (1 + )
wx T T T 2TO2 24TO4 2TO2
cosh = 1+ O + O + O +
TO 2 4 6
If x = L/2, then The maximum dip (sag) is represented by the

w 2L2 w 2L2 value of y at either supports A and B.
T = TO (1 + ) = TO + = TO + w(ymax) At support B, set x = L/2 and y = S
8TO2 8TO
L 2
The maximum tension occurs when x = L/2 and is given w( )
2
as S(sag) =
2T
Tmax = TO + w(ymax) wL2
S=
Approximation: 8T
w 2L 2 Where:
Neglecting , being very small compared with unity, T S = maximum sag
8TO
becomes nearly equal to T O and L = length of the span
wL2 w = weight per unit length of conductor
Sag, S = T = tension in the conductor
8T To get the approximate length of cable in the
w 2 L3 span,
Total length of wire = L +
24TO2 8y max2
LC = L +
b. PARABOLIC CABLE (Approximate Solution) 3L
(low sag) ymax = S
- for span of 300 m or less Tension at the point of supports,
- the unit weight is assumed uniformly
- distributed along the horizontal span l. wL 2
TA = TB = TO2 + ( )
- almost accurate for sag/span ratio less than 2
10% When the supports are at unequal levels (Parabolic
Cable)
Figure 57 Parabolic Cable

- assuming the curvature is so small that the
curve length is equal to its horizontal projection
(OP x). 2 forces are acting on portion OP.
1. The weight wx of conductor acting at a
distance x/2 from O. Figure 58 Unequal Level
2. The tension T acting at O. Let:
Getting the moments at pt. O. L = span length
MO = 0 w = weight per unit length of conductor
T = tension in the conductor
T = TO h = difference in levels between two supports
x
Ty = wx ( ) x1 = distance of support at lower level (horizontal)
2 x2 = distance of support at higher level (horizontal)
wx 2 S2 = vertical distance (sag) at point O from tower 2
y=
2T S1 = vertical distance (sag) at point O from tower 1
where: At x = x1 and y = S1
y = sag at any point y wx12
x = horizontal distance from the lowest point of Sag,S1 =
2T
the cable and S2 =
wx22
2T

Also, x1 + x2 = L 1 m above water level, the horizontal distance between

w
S2 S1 = ( ) (x2 x1 ) 2 the towers being 400 m. If the maximum allowable
2T
w tension is 2000 kg, find the clearance between the
= ( ) (x2 x1 )(x2 + x1 ) conductor and water at a point midway between the
2T towers. The weight of the conductor is 1 kg/m.
But, h = S2 S1
wL 2hT 5. The towers of height 30 m and 90 m respectively
h = ( ) (x2 x1 ) or ( ) = x2 x1 2 support a transmission line conductor at water
2T wL
Equate 1 and 2 crossing. The horizontal distance between the towers
If x1 = L x2 is 500 m. if the tension in the conductor is 1600 kg, find
2hT 2hT the minimum clearance of the conductor and water
x2 = x1 + ( ) = L x2 + ( )
clearance midway the supports. Weight of conductor is
wL wL
[2x2 = L + (2hT/wL) ] multiply by 1.5 kg/m. Bases of the towers can be at water level.
L hT 6. An overhead transmission line at a river crossing is
x2 = + ( ) supported from two towers at heights of 50 m and 100
2 wL
If x2 = L x1 m above the water level, the horizontal distance
2hT 2hT between the towers being 400 m. If the maximum
x1 = x2 ( ) = L x1 ( ) allowable tension is 1,800 kg and the conductor weighs
wL wL
2hT
[2x1 = L ( )] multiply by 1 kg/m, find the clearance between the conductor and
wL water at a point mid way between the towers.
L hT
x1 = 7. A conductor is strung across a river, being supported
2 wL at the two ends at heights of 20 m and 16 m
Examples: respectively, from the bed of the river. The distance
1. A transmission line conductor has been suspended between the supports is 375 m and the weight of the
freely from two towers and has taken the form of a conductor = 1.2 kg/m. If the clearance of the conductor
catenary that has c = 487.68 m. The span between the from the river bed be 9 m, find the horizontal tension in
two towers is 152 m, and weight of the conductor is the conductor. Assume a parabolic configuration and
1160 kg/km. Calculate the following: that there is no wind or ice loading.
a. Length of the conductor 8. A transmission line conductor at a river crossing is
b. Sag supported from two towers at heights of 20 m and 60
c. Maximum and minimum value of conductor m above water level. The horizontal distance between
tension using catenary method the towers is 300 m. If the tension in the conductor is
d. Approximate value of tension by using parabolic 1800 kg and the conductor weighs 1.0 kg per meter,
method. find the clearance between the conductor and the
2. A 132 kV transmission line has the following data: water level at a point mid way between the towers.
weight of conductor = 680 kg/km Use approximate method.
ultimate strength = 3100 kg 9. A transmission line over a hillside where the gradient
length of span = 260 m is 1:20, is supported by two 22 m high towers with 300
safety factor = 2 m between them. The lowest conductor is fixed 2 m
Calculate the height above ground at which the below the top of each tower. Find the clearance of the
conductor should be supported. Ground clearance conductor from the ground. Given that conductor
required is 10 meters. weighs 1 kg/m and the allowable tension is 1500 kg.
3. A transmission line conductor at a river crossing is 10. A transmission tower on a level ground gives a
supported from two towers at heights of 70 m above minimum clearance of 8 meters for its lowest conductor
water level. The horizontal distance between towers is with a sag of 10 m for a span of 300 m. If the same
300 m. If the tension in conductor is 1,500 kg, find the tower is to be used over a slope of 1 in 15, find the
clearance at a point midway between the towers. The minimum ground clearance obtained for the same
size of conductor is 0.9 cm 2. Density of conductor span, same conductor and same weather conditions.
material is 8.9 g/cm 3 and suspension length of the 11. A transmission line conductor is supported from two
string is 2 meters. towers at heights of 70 m above water level. The
4. An overhead transmission line at a river crossing is horizontal distance between the towers is 300 m. If the
supported from two towers at heights of 40 m and 90 tension in the conductors is 1500 kg, find the clearance
at a point mid way between the towers. The size of The density of ice is approximately 920 kg/m 3, so the weight
the conductor is 0.9 cm 2 and density of conductor of ice coating per meter length,
material is 89 gm/cm 3. wi = 920t(d + t) kg
12. An overhead line has a span of 260 m; the weight of = 2890.3t(d + t) kg/m
the line conductor is 0.68 kg per meter run. Calculate Due to weight of ice deposits on the line, and the wind
the maximum sag in the line. The maximum allowable pressure, the mechanical
tension in the line is 1550 kg. stress increases in the
13. A transmission line has a span of 150 m between the conductor and, therefore, the
level supports. The conductor has a cross sectional line must be designed to
area of 2 cm 2. The ultimate strength is 5000 kg/cm 2. withstand these stresses and
The specific gravity of the material is 8.9 gm/cm 3. If the tension. Under this condition,
wind pressure is 1.5 kg/m length of conductor, the weight of the conductor,
calculate the sag at the center of the conductor if factor together with weight of ice
of safety is 5. acts vertically downwards Figure 60 The Force Triangle
14. Two towers of height 40 m and 30 m respectively while the wind loading ww acts horizontally, as shown in
support a transmission line conductor at water Figure 60.
crossing. The horizontal distance between the towers Total weight of conductor per unit length
is 300 m. If the tension in the conductor is 1590 kg, find wt = (wC + wi )2 + (ww )2
the clearance of the conductor at a point mid-way ww = Wind force in kg per meter length
between the supports. Weight of conductor is 0.8 kg/m. ww = Wind pressure per m 2 of projected area projected
Bases of the towers can be at the water level. area per meter length
Effect of Ice and Wind Loading ww = p(d + 2t)
In areas where it becomes too cold in winter, there is a wt L2
possibility of formation of an ice coating on the line Maximum Sag =
conductors. The formation of an ice coating on a line 8T
When ice and wind are acting simultaneously, the lowest
conductor has a twofold effect increase in weight and point of the conductor does not remain vertically down but
effective diameter of the conductor. In this condition the away from it at an angle given by the expression
weight of conductor, together with weight of ice acts wc + wi
vertically downwards. Thus, the total vertical weight acting = cos 1
wt
on the conductor per meter length is w C + wi where wC is
The maximum sag will not be vertical but will be slant sag
the weight of conductor in kg per meter length and wi is the
and vertical sag will be obtained by multiplying the slant sag
weight of ice coating per meter length, w C is known wi is
with cos
determined as follows:
wt L2
Let the diameter of conductor be d meters and radial Vertical sag = cos
thickness of ice coating be t meter, as illustrated in Figure 8T
59. The overall diameter of ice covered conduc tor, as Effect of Temperature Change
obvious from Figure 59, becomes equal to (d + 2t) meter. Sag and stress vary with temperature because of the
thermal expansion and contraction of the conductor.
Temperature rise of conductor increase the length of
conductor, and hence sag increases and tension
decreases. A temperature fall causes opposite effect.
Maximum stress occurs at the lowest temperature, when
the line has contracted and is also possibly covered with ice
and sleet.
If conductor stress is constant while the temperature
changes, the change in length of the conductor is
Figure 59 Ice and Wind Loading
l = l0 t
Volume of ice coating per meter length of conductor
where t = t1 t 0 l = l1 l0
= [(d + 2t) 2 d2 ] t0 = initial temperature
4 l0 = conductor length at initial temperature

= [4dt + 4t 2 ] = t(d + t) m3 l1 = conductor length at t1
4
= coefficient of linear expansion of conductor /C supports are 600 m apart having 15 m difference of
If the temperature is constant while the conductor stress levels. Calculate the sag from the taller of the two
changes (loading), the change in length of the conductor is supports which must be allowed so that the factor of
l0 T safety shall be 5. Assume that ice load is 1 kg per
l = meter run and there is no wind pressure.
MA
T = T1 T0 8. A transmission line has a span of 214 meters. The line
where T 0 = initial tension of conductor conductor has a cross section of 3.225 cm 2 and has
M = modulus of elasticity of conductor an ultimate breaking strength of 2,540 kg/cm 2. If the
A = actual metal cross section of conductor line is covered with ice and provides a combined
Examples: copper and ice load of 1.125 kg/m while the wind
1. A transmission line has a span of 200 meters between pressure is 1.5 kg/m run.
level supports. The conductor has a cross sectional a. Calculate the maximum sag produced. Take a
area of 1.29 cm 2, weighs 1,170 kg/km and has a factor of safety of 3
breaking stress of 4,218 kg/cm 2. Calculate the sag for b. Determine the vertical sag
a factor of safety of 5 allowing a wind pressure of 122 9. A transmission line has a span of 150 m between level
kg per m 2 of projected area. What is the vertical sag? supports. The cross sectional area of the conductor
2. A transmission line has a span of 150 m between level is 1.25 cm 2 and weighs 100 kg per 100 m. The breaking
supports. The conductor has a cross sectional area stress is 4220 kg/cm 2. Calculate the factor of safety if
of 2 cm 2. The tension in the conductor is 2000 kg. If the the sag of the line is 3.5 m. Assume a maximum wind
specific gravity of the conductor material is 9.9g/cm3 pressure of 100 kg per square meter.
and wind pressure is 1.5kg/m length, calculate the sag. 10. A transmission line has a span of 250 m between
What is the vertical sag? supports, the supports being at the same level. The
3. A transmission line has a span of 150 meters between conductor has a cross sectional area of 1.29 cm 2.
supports, the supports being at the same level. The The ultimate strength is 4220 kg/cm 2 and factor of
conductor has a cross sectional area of 2 cm 2. The safety is 2. The wind pressure is 40 kg/cm 2. Calculate
ultimate strength is 5,000 kg/cm 2. The specific gravity the height of the conductor above ground level at which
of the material is 8.9. If the wind pressure is 1.5 kg/m it should be supported if a minimum clearance of 7m is
length of the conductor, calculate the sag at the center to be kept between the ground and the conductor.
of the conductor if factor of safety is 5. 11. A transmission line has a span of 150 m between level
4. The effective diameter of a line is 1.96 cm and it weighs supports. The conductor has a cross sectional area
90 kg per 100 meter length. What would be the of 2 cm 2. The ultimate strength is 5000 kg/cm 2. The
additional loading due to ice of radial thickness 1.25 cm specific gravity of the material is 8.9 gm/cm3. If the wind
and a horizontal wind pressure of 30 kg/m 2 of projected pressure is 1.5 kg/m length of the conductor, calculate
area? Also, find the total weight per meter run of the the sag if factor of safety is 5.
line. Density of ice is 920 kg/m 3. Location of Line
5. Two towers are supported at the same elevation. It has The routing of a transmission or distribution lines requires
a sag of 8 m when subjected to a tension T when a thorough investigations and for selecting the most desirable
wind load of 0.5 kg/m is considered. The sag increases and practical route, following points should be considered:
by 1.423 m maintaining the same tension. Determine 1. Cost of construction
the weight of the conductor. 2. Cost of easements
6. A transmission line has a span of 275 m between level 3. Cost of clearing
supports. The conductor has an effective diameter of 4. Cost of maintenance
1.96 cm and weighs 0.865 kg/m. Its ultimate strength Stringing Chart
is 8060 kg. If the conductor has ice coating of radial Under standard conditions, the sag is required to be
thickness 1.27 cm and is subjected to a wind pressure determined for worst probable conditions and the minimum
of 3.9 gm/cm 2 of projected area, calculate sag for a ground clearance is to be maintained for these conditions.
safety factor of 2. Weight of 1 cc of ice is 0.91 gm. At the time of erection, the severe conditions do not prevail,
7. An overhead transmission line conductor having a the temperature is usually higher, the designer, therefore,
parabolic configuration weighs 1.925 kg per meter of should know the sag to be allowed and the tension in the
length. The area of cross section of the conductor is line to be allowed, so that under no condition there should
2.2 cm 2 and the ultimate strength is 8000 kg/cm 2. The be any danger to the line.
Stringing chart is helpful in knowing the sag and tension at Various values of f2 and S2 are calculated repeatedly for
any temperature. This chart gives the data for sag to be different temperatures. Now the graph of tension vs
allowed and the tension to be allowed at a given temperature and sag vs temperature can be plotted, as
temperature. shown in Figure 61. This graph is plotted for a fixed span
For preparation of stringing or sag chart first calculate the and is called stringing chart. This stringing chart is very
sag and tension on the conductor under the worst useful while erecting the transmission line conductors for
conditions, maximum wind pressure and minimum adjusting sag and tension properly.
temperature, assuming a suitable factor of safety in fixing
the maximum working tension for the conductor. Now
evaluate the sag and tension for a series of temperature in
steps within the working range of temperatures.
The equation for determining stringing chart of a line is
derived as below:
wx2 wL2
We know that T = TO; y = ;S = and span length
2T 8T
w 2L 3
l =L+
24T2
Let w1, f1, l1, S1 and t1 be the load per unit length, the stress,
the span length, sag and temperature at the maximum load
conditions (with the ice and wind and low temperature
usually 5.5); w2, f2, l2, S2 and t2 be the values under
stringing conditions, a is the area of cross section of the
conductor, is the coefficient of linear expansion and E is Figure 61 Tension vs Temperature and Sag vs Temperature Graph
the modulus of elasticity. Example:
w 2L 3 w 2L 3 8S2
Span length, l = L + =L+ 22 = L+ An overhead line having a span of 250 m is to be erected
24T2 24a f 3L
The span length at maximum load condition is at a temperature of 40C in still air conditions. It is desired
w12 L3 that a factor of safety of 2 should be maintained under bad
l1 = L + weather conditions when the temperature is 10C and the
24a2 f12 wind load is 378 N/m 2 of projected area. The data for the
The temperature rise from t1 to t2 causes an increase in the ACSR conductor used for the line is: diameter: 1.95 cm,
span length of l 1(t1 t2) which is practically equal to L(t1 area: 2.25 cm 2, weight = 8.31 N/m, breaking load is 77,900
t2). The fall in stress from f1 to f2 causes a decrease in the N, linear coefficient is 18.44 x 10 -6 /C, Youngs modulus:
f f f f
length of ( 2 1) l1 ( 1 2) L 91.4 x 103 N/mm 2. Find the sag and tension under erection
E E
The new length l 2 is thus given by conditions.
f1 f 2 Sag Template
l2 = l1 L + (t 2 t1 )L For correct design and economy, the location of structures
E
w 2L 3 on the profile with a template is very essential. Sag template
But l2 = L + 22 2 is a convenient device used in the design of a transmission
24a f2
w22 L3 w12 L3 f1 f 2 line to determine the location and height of structure. Sag
L+ = L+ L + (t 2 t1 )l template can be relied upon to provide the following:
24a2 f22 24a2 f12 E
w 21L 2E w 22L 2E 1. Economic layout
or f 22 [ (f 2 f1 ) + + (t 2 t1 )E] = 2. Minimum errors in design and layout
24f21a2 24a2
The equation is a cubic one and can be solved graphically 3. Proper grading of structures
or analytically. From this equation erection tension T 1 = f1a 4. Prevention of excessive insulator swing
can be determined such that tension T 2 = f2a under worst Generally, two types of towers are used:
probable conditions will not exceed the safe limit of tension. 1. The standard or straight run or intermediate tower
After determining f2, the corresponding sag can be 2. The angle or anchor or tension tower
determined from the equation The straight run towers are used for straight runs and
w2 L2 normal conditions. The angle towers are designed to
S2 = withstand heavy loading as compared to standard towers
8f 2 a
because angle towers are used at angles, terminals and

other points where a large unbalanced pull may be thrown It is very tedious to make calculations of sag and tension
on the supports. for each span individually and then to make adjustment
For standard towers, for normal or average spans, the sag while erecting the transmission line. In the erection of a
and the nature of the curve (Catenary or Parabola) that the transmission line the conductors are run out through snatch
line conductor will occupy under expected loading blocks attached to the support arms equally tensioned at
conditions is evaluated and plotted on template. Template each end of a section of five or six blocks. When the
will also show the required minimum ground clearance by conductors are clamped to suspension insulator strings, the
plotting a curve parallel to the conductor shape curve. For equal tension is maintained by insulator swing. When the
the standard tower and same height, the tower footing line conductors are bound to pin type insulators, the flexibility of
can also be plotted on the template. Tower footing line is the support ensure equal tension.
used for locating the position of towers and minimum It is often convenient to make sag and tension calculations
ground clearance is maintained throughout. in terms of a hypothetical equivalent span, this tensions
being applied to each span within the section of overhead
line between the tensioning points. If there are n spans of
length L1, L2, L3, etc. which are to be given an equivalent
span Le, then the strung length of the equivalent line must
be the same as that of the individual spans. This may be
expressed as
w 2 L3e w 2 (L3 )
n (Le + ) = L +
24T02 24T02
Since L = nLe
L3 L3
Figure 11 Sag Template Used for Locating Towers So L2e = =
Figure 62 shows the sag template used for locating towers. nL e L
In fact, there are no clear cut guidelines for locating the or Le =

L 31+L 32+L33+
tower positions and several other alternatives may be L 1+L 2+L3+
examined. Ground clearance depends on voltage level and If the line tension T 0 is determined for the equivalent span,
it gives the span length and ground clearance at different the sag for the individual spans may be calculated using the
voltage levels: approximate value of span.
Minimum NOTE: The method of sag template for locating the towers
Span Length should not be used for long spans as well as where the
Voltage Level Ground
(m) slope of the profile is very steep. In such cases, actual
Clearance (m)
calculations for sag and tension should be made.
0.4 kV 80 4.6
Aeolian Vibration (Resonant Vibration)
11 kV 100 4.6
33 kV 150 200 5.2 Overhead conductors will subject to normal swinging in
66 kV 200 300 6.3 wind and apart from that, may subject to vibration known as
132 kV 350 360 6.3 Aeolian vibrations or resonant vibrations. Aeolian vibrations
220 kV 360 380 7.0 have low amplitude (20 mm to 50 mm) and high frequencies
(5 100 Hz). These are caused by the vortex phenomenon
400 kV 400 8.8
Table 7 Ground Clearance for Different Voltage Lev el
in the low wind speed (5 20 km/hr).
u
Equivalent Span f = 50 ( )
It may not be possible to have a section of transmission line dc
consisting of successive spans of equal lengths because where: u = wind velocity (km/hr)
the location of the towers depends upon the profile of the dc = diameter of conductor (mm)
land along which the transmission line is to be laid. The length of a loop (half wave length) depends on tension
Sometimes, the towers are forced to be located to give T and conductor weight w and is given by
spans of different lengths so that minimum interference is 1 T
caused with the use of land. When the successive spans
=
2f w
are of unequal lengths changes in tension in load or
temperature will cause unequal changes in tension in the These vibrations are very common to all conductors and
different spans. are always present. Since the vibrations are small in

magnitude, these are less harmful. The ACSR conductor Characteristics of Insulators
has high diameter to weight ratio and is subject to fatigue 1. High mechanical strength to withstand conductor load,
by these vibrations. wind load and ice loading if any.
A stock bridge damper is used 2. High insulation resistance to avoid leakage current to
to minimize these vibrations. It earth.
comprises of two masses at the 3. The insulator material should be non ferrous, free
end of a short length of Figure 63 Stock Bridge Damper from impurities and cracks.
stranded steel cable suspended from the conductor about 4. High relative permittivity so that dielectric strength is
midway between two point (nodes) of the vibrations. high.
Movement of the damper is caused by the vibration and 5. High ratio of puncture strength to flashover.
energy is absorbed by the inter strand friction in the steel 6. Ability to withstand large temperature variations, it
cable. The length of a typical damper is about 60 cm and should not crack when subjected to high temperatures
weighs about 5 kg or more. during summer and low temperatures during winter.
Galloping or Dancing of Conductors The dielectric strength should remain unaffected under
These vibrations are low frequency (0.25 2 Hz) and high different conditions of temperature and pressure.
amplitude (up to 6 m) and are generally caused by 7. The material used should not be porous and should be
asymmetrical layer of ice formation. This vibration is self impervious to fluids and gases in the atmosphere.
excited type. When the ice coated conductor is acted upon Insulator Materials
by a light drift wind particularly where the ground slopes at 1. Porcelain
right angles to the transmission line vibration is initiated - is produced by firing at a high temperature, a
because wind travels up the slope and appears to get mixture of Kaolin, feldspar and quartz.
underneath the conductor. The stranding of conductors - most commonly used material for overhead line
significantly contributes to these vibrations. These insulators.
vibrations may cause flashover between conductors. It is - is mechanically stronger than glass.
difficult to prevent these vibrations. These vibrations may - gives less trouble from leakage, and is less
cause flashover between conductors. It is difficult to prevent susceptible to temperature variations and its
these vibrations but horizontal configuration of transmission surface is not affected by dirt deposits.
line can be used to reduce the impact of galloping or - is not homogeneous as glass thus its satisfactory
dancing of conductors. performance in service depends to a considerable
INSULATORS extent on its preservation which is only of the order
- provides necessary of 25 microns in thickness.
insulation between the line - fault cannot be detected easily since it is not
conductors and supports. transparent.
And thus, prevent any - tension is usually weak and does not withstand
leakage current from tensile stresses exceeding 5 kg/mm 2.
conductor to earth. - dielectric strength and compressive strength of a
- are mounted on the cross mechanically sound porcelain are about 6.5
arms and the line conductors kV/mm.
are attached to the Figure 64 Parts of Insulator - complicated design for an operating voltage
insulators to provide necessary clearances between 2. Glass
conductors and metalwork. - cheaper than porcelain
- prevent short circuiting between the different phase - high resistivity and dielectric strength (14 kV/mm
conductors and provide necessary mechanical support of thickness of the material)
for the line conductors. - have simpler design and even one piece design
- one of the most important and vulnerable links in can be used for an operating voltage
transmission and distribution practice and, therefore, - quite homogeneous material and can withstand
proper selection is of utmost importance for the higher compressive stresses as compared to
successful operation of overhead transmission and porcelain
distribution system. - lower coefficient of thermal expansion which
minimizes the strains due to temperature changes
- transparent in nature
- moisture more readily condenses on its surface Flashover an arc occurs between the line conductor and
and facilitates the accumulation of dirt deposits earth and the discharge jumps across the air gaps in its
thus giving high surface leakage path.
- in large sizes, great mass of material combined Puncture the discharge occurs from conductor to pin
with irregular shape may result in internal strain through the body of the insulator.
after cooling Types of Insulators
- can be used in 25 kV under ordinary atmospheric 1. Pin Type Insulator
conditions and 50 kV in dry atmosphere - used for
3. Steatite transmission and
- naturally occurring magnesium silicate, usually distribution of
found combined with oxides in varying electric power at
proportions. voltage up to 33
- has much higher tensile and bending stress than kV.
porcelain - modern pin type Figure 65 Pin Type Insulators
- can be used at tension towers or when insulators are very reliable and inherent cracks in
transmission line takes a sharp turn porcelain are very rare and never occur with
4. Special artificial material toughened glass insulators.
- used in insulators for low voltages - life of modern
- can be easily molded into any shape without any porcelain insulators is
internal stress relatively long (expected
- metallic fittings can also be firmly embedded in the about 50 years)
material without difficulty - is designed to be
- they deteriorate rapidly in bad climatic conditions mounted on pin which in
and on being subjected to flashover their turn is secured to the cross
carbonized surface form a conducting path arm of the pole
Factors involved in Insulator Design - for lower voltages, one
1. Required to withstand both mechanical and electrical piece type of insulators are
stresses. Figure 66 One Piece Pin Type Insulator used.
2. Surface leakage path must have sufficiently high - for higher voltages,
resistance to avoid any current leakage to earth. stronger pin type insulators are used which
3. Design must be such that the stress developed owing consists of two or three pieces of porcelain
to contraction and expansion in any part of the cemented together
insulator does not lead to any defect. Advantages
4. In case of electrical breakdown due to flashover, the a. it is cheaper, since one piece pin insulator can do
insulator continues to act in its proper capacity after the work of two suspension insulators
event unless fractured by the heat of the arc, but after b. requires shorter pole to give the same conductor
a puncture, it is permanently damaged due to clearance above the ground since the pin insulator
excessive heat. raises the conductor above the cross arm while
5. Provide sufficient thickness of the porcelain in the suspension insulator suspends it below the cross
insulator to resist puncture by the combined effect of arm
the line voltage and any probable transient voltage rise c. its used above 50 kV is uneconomical since it
on the line. become very bulky and cumbersome when
6. The ratio of puncture strength to flash over voltage, designed on higher voltages
termed as factor of safety, must be high to provide a
good margin for the protection of insulators from
complete failure.
7. It is desirable that porcelain may not come in direct
contact with a hard metal screw thread. Normally,
cement is used between metal and the porcelain. The
cement used must not cause any fracture by
expansion or contraction. Figure 67 33 kV Pin Type Insulators Figure 68 66 kV Pin Type Insulator

2. Suspension Type Insulator consists of number of The disadvantage of suspension type insulators is that
porcelain discs connected in series by metal ink in the large spacing between conductors are required than
form of string. with pin type insulators due to large amplitude of the
Advantages swing of the conductors, but this is not a serious
a. Suspension type disadvantage.
insulators are cheaper Types of Suspension Insulators
than pin type insulator 1. Hewlett or Interlinking Type of Suspension
for voltages beyond Insulators
50 kV. - is one of the earliest design
b. Each unit of disc of - each disc consists only of one piece of
suspension type Figure 69 Suspension Insulators porcelain, the
insulator is designed central bulbous
for low voltages, usually 11 kV and can be used portion of which
by connecting them in series, the number is provided with
depending upon the working voltage. two curved
c. If any insulator is damaged, the whole string does tunnels lying in
not become useless, planes at right
damaged disc can be angles to each
replaced. other. The short Figure 72 Hewlett or Interlinking
Ty pe Suspension Insulators
d. It gives more flexibility steel strips
to the line and forming the connection between individual
mechanical stresses are discs are threaded through these tunnels and
reduced in this thus loop through each other, being
arrangement. The separated by a layer of porcelain which is
connection at the cross totally in compression.
arms is such that the - the main advantages are:
insulator string is free to a. simple in design
swing in any direction, b. high mechanical strength since the
and thus takes up a porcelain in between the two tunnels is
position where it under compression only
experiences only a pure c. no risk of breakage owing to the
tensile stress difference in expansion or contraction of
e. When used in the connecting links and the insulating
conjunction with steel materials
Figure 70 Suspension Insulator Parts supporting structures, d. no risk of interruption to the service in
has the advantage of case the porcelain between the links get
rendering the conductor less liable to be affected accidentally broken, since the links keep
by lightning disturbances. At every point of the the other units held together.
support the wire is hung below the earthed cross - are more liable to puncture than any other
arm, thus enabling the tower to function as a type of suspension insulators, owing to the
lightning rod. high electrostatic stress in the material
f. Additional insulation between the links.
required for the raise of 2. Cemented Cap Type
voltage due to increased Suspension Insulators
demand can be obtained by - is the most commonly
adding one or more discs to used type and consists
the string. of a single disc
g. In case of long spans Figure 71 Yoked Insulator shaped piece of
Strings
(river or valley crossings) porcelain grooved on
where heavy conductor load is to be sustained, the under surface to Figure 73 Cemented - Cap
two disc insulator strings can be yoked. increase the surface Ty pe Suspension Insulators
leakage path, and to a metal cap at the top, transmission lines, strain insulator consists of an
and to a metal pin underneath. assembly of suspension insulator.
- very uniform distribution of the electrostatic - The disc of strain insulator is used in vertical
stress in the material between the connecting plane.
link is obtained in such insulators
- main drawback has been that coefficients of
cubical expression of the three materials
porcelain, cement and steel are different and
no provision is made for their expansion and
the sudden temperature changes occurring in
service are sufficient to set up internal stress
which ultimately crack the porcelain leading to
electrical failure.
- the cement itself is subject to volumetric
changes depending on its moisture content,
has often materially assisted in the process of
the failure of the insulator
- one way of improving the design is by way of
substituting the cementing of the pin by purely
mechanical fixing, such as the spring ring.
3. Core and Link Type Suspension Insulators
- combines the advantages of the two previous
types and overcome their disadvantages
- each insulator disc is
symmetrically placed
and it conforms to
the electrostatic lines
of force, thus Figure 74 Strain Insulators
avoiding placing 4. Post Insulators
materials of different - are employed for supporting bus bars and
permittivities in isolating switches, etc.
series. Figure 73 Core and Link Type - is like pin type insulator but has a metal bases with
- metalwork consists Suspension Insulators metal cap so that more than one unit can be
of pressed steel spiders, the legs of which are mounted in series.
fastened into the porcelain by an alloy having - is mostly a solid core insulator made of resin
approximately the same coefficient of cubical - porcelain is also used
expansion as the porcelain. Thus, high 5. Shackle Insulators
mechanical stresses on the porcelain, - in early days, shackle
whether due to sudden temperature insulator was used as
variations or to the employment of cement are strain insulator.
eliminated. - frequently used for low
- it allows discs to be formed out of quite thick voltage distribution
porcelain thereby allowing the disc to be one lines. Figure 75 Shackle Insulators
piece only. - the wet flash over and dry flash over are 10 kV
- has high puncture strength and 25 kV
3. Strain Insulators - puncture voltage is about 35 kV
- it is used for dead end of the line or corner or sharp - operating voltage is 1 kV
curve, the line is subject to a greater tension. - its weight, transverse mechanical load and total
- For low voltage lines, shackle insulator is used as creepage distance are 0.5 kg, 1150 kg and 63 mm
strain insulator. However, for high voltage respectively.

- the tapered hole in the shackle insulator - the size used depends upon the tensile strength of
distributes the load more evenly and reduces the stay wire
possibility of breakage when heavily loaded. Failure of Insulators
- can be directly fixed to the pole with a bolt or to the 1. Cracking of Insulators
cross arm - very common in case of pin type insulators and
- are bell mounted to prevent water being held in cemented cap type suspension insulators.
contact with the spindle. - occurs due to unequal expansion of steel,
- is used at all positions, either intermediate, porcelain and cement during the varying
terminal or angle. Where the angle exceeds 60 conditions of cold and heat and dryness and
deviation they are generally used in conjunction dampness.
with shackle straps. - develops high stresses in the porcelain near the
joint and it results in tension failure.
- can be avoided to some extent by using elastic
cushions between the shells.
2. Porosity of Material
- due to under firing or other causes, always leads
to failure after a comparatively short period of
service.
- the pores usually absorb moisture from the
atmosphere or the cement, thereby decreasing
the insulation resistivity of the material.
- gives rise to leakage current flowing through the
porcelain, resulting in a gradual rise in the
temperature until porcelain is punctured.
- can be avoided by glazing the insulator, to some
extent.
3. Improper Vitrification
- another cause of puncture of the material
- can be avoided by carrying out suitable routine
Figure 76 Shackle Type Insulators Fitted to Poles tests during manufacture.
6. Stay Insulators 4. Flash Over
- are of egg shape, also called as guy insulators - most common cause of insulator failure
- causes unequal expansion of the porcelain
thereby shattering the insulator with big cracks
and causes interruption of the supply
- can be avoided by providing arcing horns or rings
Figure 77 Stay Insulators which take up the arc and divert it away from the
- consists of porcelain piece pierced with two holes insulator.
at right angles to each other through which two 5. Mechanical Stresses
ends of the guy wires are looped. This keeps the - very rare because defective pieces are weeded
porcelain out in the routine factory test
between - occurs if the compressive strength is quite high yet
two holes at the tensile strength is not adequate and the
right angles insulator is always weak in tension and usually
to each fails because of it.
other Figure 78 Cross Section of Stay Insulators 6. Short Circuits
through - birdage means the short circuiting of conductor to
which two ends of the guy wires are looped. earth through the large birds or similar objects.
- are provided at a height of about 3 m from the - can be avoided by providing bird guards near the
ground level insulator on the cross arm, by increasing the

clearance of the conductor from earthed parts or b. Power Frequency Wet Flash Over Test
using suspension insulators instead of pin type, - the insulator is mounted in a way it is to be
where the clearance between the earthed used and the voltage is applied gradually but
structure and the conductor is very large to in addition to this the insulator is sprayed with
warrant any birdage. water.
7. Deposition of Dust - the standard precipitation conditions are 3
- if the insulator material is not properly glazed, the mm per minute at an angle of 45, the water
water will stick over it resulting into deposition of having a resistance of 10000 per cm 3 at
dust over it which is partially conducting and normal atmospheric temperature and
reduces flash over distance. pressure. If the resistivity of pure water is
- the deposits of dust and like matter (salt, cement, more, it may be reduced by adding small
dust, etc.) on the interior surfaces can cause much quantities of a mineral salt or an inorganic
havoc under the condition of fog and mist. salt.
- can be easily avoided by cleaning the insulators - voltage should not be less than the given
periodically. standard.
Testing of Insulators c. Impulse Frequency Flash Over Test
An insulator should have good mechanical strength to - the generator developing lightning voltage is
withstand the load conditions, large dielectric strength to used. It develops very high voltages at
withstand the normal operating voltage and over voltages, frequency of several hundred kHz. Such a
but it should be free from any pores or voids that may lead voltage is applied to the insulator and spark
to breakdown. over voltage is noted.
Three distinct tests namely flash over, performance and Impulse ratio =
Impulse spark over voltage
routine tests are to be conducted. Spark over voltage at power frequen cy

- minimum acceptable flash over voltages are
1. Flash Over Tests
given in standards.
a. Power Frequency Dry Flash Over Test
2. Performance Tests
- is performed by gradually increasing the
a. Puncture Test
voltage between the electrodes of the
insulator mounted in a way it is to be used till - is performed to determine puncture voltage.
the breakdown of surrounding air with - the insulator is totally immersed in an
formation of a sustained arc occurs. insulating oil and is subjected to the voltage
- is repeated 5 or 10 times. being gradually increased till the puncture
- for 5 readings, the mean is taken as the takes place. The voltage at which conduction
begins is called the puncture voltage.
correct flash over voltage
- The puncture voltage for string should be at
- for 10 readings, commonly used method, the
least 30% higher than the power frequency
median is found by arranging 10 values in
wet flash over voltage and pin insulators
ascending order and taking the mean of 5 th
and 6th reading. The voltage obtained is should not be less than that given in the
known as 50% dry flash over voltage. standards.
- can also be performed by applying the same - as an acceptance test the voltage can be
voltage to 10 insulators together. The spacing rapidly increased to the value given in
between the insulators should be at least 4 standards for pin insulators and 1.3 times the
wet flash over voltage for string insulators.
times the length of each.
No conduction should take place.
- the voltage till which five insulators have
b. Porosity Test
flashed over is called the 50% power
- sample of every batch of freshly fired
frequency dry flash over voltage.
insulators are taken. The specimens are
- the voltage may be applied constantly and the
voltage which causes flash over after one broken into pieces and immersed in a 1%
minute is called one minute dry flash over solution of fuchsine dye in alcohol under
pressure of 150 kg/cm 2. After sufficient time
voltage.
(the product of test duration in hours and
- the voltage should not be less than the given
pressure in kg/cm 2 should not be less than
standard.
1800) the pieces are removed from the 3. Routine Tests

testing pot and examined. a. Proof Load or Mechanical Test
- the slightest degree of porosity is indicated by - all types of insulators are assembled and then
a deep penetration of the dye into the body of subjected to tensile load which is 20 25%
specimen. more than the normal tensile load which the
c. Temperature Cycle Test insulators are likely to encounter in actual
- the insulators are quickly and completely operation. The load is applied for a duration
immersed in a water bath maintained at the of 1 minute only.
temperature of 70C above that of the cold b. Corrosion Test
water and left submerged for a period of T - the insulators with its fittings is suspended in
minutes. They then are withdrawn and quickly a copper sulphate solution at 15.6C for one
and completely immersed without being minute. Then, the insulator is removed,
placed in an intermediate container, in a bath wiped, cleaned and again put in copper
of cold water for the same period of T sulphate solution. This is repeated four times.
minutes. This heating and cooling cycle is Now, an examination there should not be any
repeated 4 5 times and the insulators are deposition of metal over it.
then dried to observe any cracks in the c. High Voltage Test
glazing. - the pin insulators are inverted and are put into
T = (15 + 0.7M), where M is the mass of the water up to the neck. The water is also put
insulator in kg. into the spindle hole. Then high voltage is
d. Electromechanical Test applied for 5 minutes. There should be no
- performed with suspension type insulators damage to the insulator after carrying out this
only and in this test the insulators are test.
subjected to a power frequency voltage POTENTIAL DISTRIBUTION OVER SUSPENSION
equal to 75 % of their dry flash over voltage INSULATOR STRING
and simultaneously to a tensile load equal to For overhead lines operating at high voltages (33 kV and
of the specified minimum failing load. above) use of number of discs connected in series, through
- tensile load is then steadily increased at a metal links, is made. The whole unit formed by connecting
rate per minute of about 20% of the specified several discs in series is known as string of insulators. The
minimum failing load, until puncture or line conductor is secured to the bottom disc of the string
breakage occurs. and the top disc is connected to the cross arm of the pole
- puncture or breakage should not be less than or tower, as illustrated in the Figure. The number of discs
the specified minimum failing load. connected in series in an insulator string depends upon the
e. Mechanical Test line operating voltage and can be seen in Table 8.
- performed on pin type insulators to determine Number of Discs in
Operating
their ultimate mechanical strength. Suspension Tension or dead
Voltage in kV
- the insulator is mounted on a rigidly fixed pin Assembly end Assembly
capable of withstanding, without appreciable 11 1 1
33 2 3
deformation, the loads to which it is subjected
66 5 6
during test.
132 9 10
- it is subjected to a load equal to one half of
220 14 15
the specified minimum failing load applied 400 21 22
perpendicular to its axis in the plane of the Table 8 Minimum Number of Insulator Discs Required for Transmission Lines
side groove by means of a wire rope The number of disc indicated in Table 8 is the usual number
encircling the groove. The load is then used. However, in the case of transmission lines operating
increased at a rate per minute of about 20% at 66 kV or more, one disc less than the number indicated
of the specified minimum failing load until in Table 8 is used on about 8 suspension structures near
breakage occurs. the substation. This is accomplished so that in the event of
- breakage should not occur at a load less than a lightning surge appearing on the line, the insulator string
the specified minimum failing load.

will flash over and prevent the surge from travelling to the Important points in solving String Efficiency Problems
substation thus safeguarding the equipment there. 1. Maximum voltage appears across the disc nearest the
The following points may be noted regarding the potential conductor.
distribution over a string of suspension insulators: 2. The charging current is given by the equation =
1. The voltage impressed on each string of suspension
= .
does not distribute itself uniformly across the individual
disc due to the presence of shunt capacitance. 3. The voltage across the string is equal to the phase
2. The disc nearest to the conductor has maximum voltage.
voltage across it. As we move towards the cross arms 4. Line voltage = 3 x voltage across the string
the voltage across each disc goes on decreasing. The voltage distribution across different nits of an insulator
3. The unit nearest to the conductor is under maximum string and string efficiency can be mathematically
electrical stress and is likely to be punctured. determined with the help of an equivalent circuit of the
Therefore, means must be provided to equalize the insulator string as shown in the Figure 80.
potential across each unit.
4. If the voltage impressed across the string were dc, then
the voltage across each unit would be the same. It is
because insulator capacitances are ineffective in dc.
Each type of suspension
insulator forms a
capacitor C which is
known as mutual
capacitance or self
capacitance. If there
were mutual capacitance
alone, then the charging
current has been the
same through the entire
disc and consequently,
the voltage across each
unit would have been the
same. However, in
actual practice,
capacitance C also Figure 79 Arrangement of Insulator Strings
exist between metal fittings of each discs and tower or earth
which is also called shunt capacitance. Due to shunt
capacitance, charging current is not the same through all
the disc and the voltage across each disc would not be the
same.
The ratio of voltage across the whole string to the product
of the number of discs and the voltage across the disc Figure 80 Equiv alent Circuit for 4 String Insulator Unit
nearest to the conductor is called as String Efficiency. Applying Kirchhoffs current law to node A, we get
I2 = I1 + i1
= 1 + 2 + 3 + = = = CV2 = CV1 + C1 V1

voltage across the string V2 = V1 (1 + k)
string = Applying Kirchhoffs current law to node B, we get
Nvoltage acorss disc nearest to conductor
where: I3 = I2 + i2
N = number of disc in the string CV3 = CV2 + C1 (V1 + V2 )
String Efficiency is an important consideration since it V3 = V1 k + V2 (1 + k) = V1 (1 + 3K + K 2 )
decides the potential distribution along the string. The Applying Kirchhoffs current law to node C, we get
greater the string efficiency, the more uniform the I4 = I3 + i3
voltage distribution. CV4 = CV3 + C1 (V1 + V2 + V3 )
V4 = V1 k + V2 k + V3 (1 + k) = V1 (1 + 6K + when used on a 66 kV line. Also, calculate the string

5K 2 + K 3 ) efficiency.
Finally, voltage between line conductor and earth 3. A 3 phase transmission line is being supported by
V = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 three disc insulators. The potentials across top unit
V = V1 (4 + 10K + 6K 2 + K 3 ) (near to the tower) and middle unit are 8 kV and 11 kV
Similar derivation can be had for string insulators consisting respectively. Calculate:
of any number of units. a. the ratio of capacitance between pin and earth to
When the number of insulators in the string is large it the self capacitance of each unit
becomes laborious to work out the voltage distribution b. the line voltage
across each unit, for such cases standard formula may be c. string efficiency
used. 4. Each line of a 3 phase system is suspended by a
In general case if there are n units in the string, V is the string of 3 similar insulators. If the voltage across the
maximum voltage across the string, V1, V2, V3, Vn denote line unit is 17.5 kV, calculate the line to neutral voltage.
the voltage across the insulators starting from top, C is the Assume that the shunt capacitance between each
capacitance between the links and KC be the shunt insulator and earth is 1/8 th of the capacitance of the
capacitance between the links and earth, the voltage insulator itself. Also, find the string efficiency.
distribution across the mth unit (counted from top) is given 5. Each line of a 3 phase, 33 kV system is suspended by
as a string of 3 identical insulator discs. The capacitance
1 1 of each disc is 9 times the capacitance to ground. Find
2 sinh ( K) cosh [(m ) K]
Vm = V 2 2 voltage distribution across each insulator and the string
sinh(nK) efficiency.
and potential adjacent to the line conductor 6. An insulator string consists of three units, each having
1 1 a safe working voltage of 15 kV. The ratio of self
2 sinh ( K) cosh [(n ) K] capacitance to shunt capacitance of each unit is 8:1.
Vn = V 2 2
sinh (nK) Find the maximum safe working voltage of the string.
When the insulators are wet the value of mutual Also, find the string efficiency.
capacitance C increases while C 1 remains constant (except 7. A string of 4 insulators has a self capacitance equal
for the unit nearest the cross arm) so the value of K to 10 times the pin to earth capacitance. Find:
decreases, more uniform potential distribution is obtained a. the voltage distribution across various units
and the string efficiency increases. expressed as a percentage of total voltage across
The value of K varies and depends upon the length of the the string
insulator string. The larger the number of insulator discs in b. string efficiency
a string, the longer will be the string. The longer the string, 8. A string of 5 insulators is connected across a 100 kV
the greater must be the horizontal spacing between the line. If the capacitance of each disc to earth is 0.1 of
insulator disc and the support (pole or tower) to make an the capacitance of the insulator, calculate:
allowance of conductor swing. The greater the horizontal a. the distribution of voltage on the insulator discs
spacing between the insulator string and the support, the b. the string efficiency
lesser the shunt capacitance and vice versa. Thus, the 9. The three bus bar conductors in an outdoor substation
value of K is low for loner strings and high for shorter are supported by units of post type insulators. Each
strings. In practice, K varies from 0.1 to 0.1667. unit consists of a stack of 3 pin type insulators fixed
Examples: one on the top of the other. The voltage across the
1. In a 33 kV, overhead line, there are three units in the lowest insulator is 13.1 kV and that across the next unit
string of insulators. If the capacitance between each is 11 kV. Find the bus bar voltage of the station.
insulator pin and earth is 11% of self capacitance of 10. A string of 4 insulators is connected across a 100 kV
each insulator, find: line. If the capacitance of each disc to earth is 0.1 of
a. the distribution of voltage over 3 insulators the capacitance of the insulator. Calculate:
b. string efficiency a. The Distribution of voltage on the insulator disc
2. For a string insulator with four discs, the capacitance b. The string efficiency
of the disc is ten times the capacitance between the pin 11. Each conductor of a 3 phase high voltage
and earth. Calculate the voltage across each disc transmission line is suspended by a string of 4
suspension type disc insulators. If the potential
difference across the second unit from top is 13.2 kV b. string efficiency
and across the third from top is 18 kV, determine the 20. A string of four suspension insulators is connected
voltage between conductors. across a 285 kV line. The self capacitance of each
12. A string of four insulators has a self capacitance unit is equal to 5 times pin to earth capacitance.
equal to 5 times pin to earth capacitance. Find: Calculate:
a. the voltage distribution across various units as a a. the potential difference across each unit
percentage of total voltage across the string b. the string efficiency
b. string efficiency Methods in Improving String Efficiency
13. A three phase overhead transmission line is being The maximum voltage appears across the insulator nearest
supported by three disc suspension insulators; the to the line conductor decreases progressively as the cross
potentials across the first and second insulator from arm is approached. If the insulation of the highest stressed
the top are 8 kV and 11 kV respectively. Calculate: insulator breaks down or flashover takes place, the
a. the line voltage breakdown of other units will take place in succession.
b. the ratio of capacitance between pin and earth to 1. By using Insulators with Larger Discs or by
self capacitance of each unit providing each insulator unit with metal cap
c. the string efficiency - One method is to design the units such that the
14. A 3 phase overhead transmission line is supported mutual capacitance is much greater than the shunt
on 4 disc suspension insulators. The voltage across capacitance. This can be achieved by using
the second and third discs are 13.2 kV and 18 kV insulators with larger discs or providing each
respectively. Calculate the line voltage and mention insulator unit with a metal cap.
the nearest standard voltage. - The ratio K can be made 1/6 to 1/10 by this
15. In a 3 phase, overhead system, each line is suspended method.
by a string of 3 insulators. The voltage across the top 2. By using longer cross arms
unit (near the tower) and middle unit are 10 kV and 11 - The value of string efficiency depends upon the
kV respectively. Calculate: value of K, (K is the fraction of the self
a. the ratio of shunt capacitance to self capacitance capacitance in the string), thus to determine the
of each insulator shunt capacitance, Ce = KC. The lesser the value
b. the string efficiency of K, the greater the string efficiency. K can be
c. line voltage reduced by reducing the value of the shunt
16. Each line of a 3 phase system is suspended by a capacitance, to decrease it, the distance of
string of 3 similar insulators. If the voltage across the conductor from tower must be increased and thus
line unit is 17.5 kV, calculate the line to neutral voltage larger cross arms must be used.
and string efficiency. Assume that shunt capacitance - The limitation of cost and mechanical strength of
between each insulator and earthed metal work of line supports do not allow the cross arms to be too
tower to be 1/10th of the capacitance of the insulator. long and it has been found that in practice it is not
17. The three bus bar conductors in an outdoor substation possible to obtain the value of K less than 0.1.
are supplied by units of post insulators. Each unit 3. By grading insulators
consists of a stack of 3 pin insulators fixed one on the - In this method, insulators of different dimensions
top of the other. The voltage across the lowest are so chosen so that each has different
insulator is 8.45 kV and that across the next is 7.25 kV. capacitance. The insulators are capacitance
Find the bus bar voltage of the station. graded, they are assembled in the string in such a
18. A string of suspension insulators consists of three way that the top unit has minimum capacitance
units. The capacitance between each link pin and earth and increasing to the bottom limit.
is 1/6 of the self capacitance of each unit. If the - It can be shown that by this method complete
maximum voltage per unit is not to exceed 35 kV, equality of voltage across the units of insulator
determine the maximum voltage that the string can string can be obtained but this method needs
withstand. Also, calculate the string efficiency. many different sized insulators. This involves
19. A string of 4 insulators has self capacitance equal to maintaining spares of all varieties of insulator
4 times the pin to earth capacitance. Calculate: discs which is contrary to the tendency of
a. the voltage distribution across various units as a standardization.
percentage of total voltage across the string - This method is not used in practice below 200 kV.
Consider a 4 unit string. Let C be the capacitance of the Applying Kirchhoffs current law to node 1 in Figure 82, we
top unit and let the capacitances of other units be C 2, C3 get
and C4 as shown in Figure 81. I + i1 = I + i1
i1 = i1

Similarly, i2 = i2
Also i1 = C1 V = KCV
i2 = 2C1 V = 2KCV
The potential causing current i1 is 2V (voltage across two
units leaving the top one)
So i1 = C2 2V = 2C2
Thus,
KC
C2 =
2
The potential causing current i2 is V
So i2 = C3 V = C3
Thus,
C3 = 2KC
In general, if there are n units
i1 = KC1 V and i1 = (n 1)C2 V
Figure 81 Grading Insulators KC
Assume C1 = KC or C2 = 1
n1
2KC
Applying Kirchhoffs current law to node A, we get similarly, C3 = 1
n2
I2 = I1 + i1 or the capacitance of the pth metal link to the line is given
C2 v = Cv + C1 v as
C2 = C + KC = C(1 + K) pKC
Applying Kirchhoffs current law to node B, we get Cp =
np
I3 = I2 + i2 Arcing Horn and Grading Ring
C3 v = C2 v + C1 2v In the event of flash
C3 = C2 + 2KC = C (1 + K) + 2KC = C(1 + 3K) over the insulator is
Applying Kirchhoffs current law to node C, we get cracked or broken up due
I4 = I3 + i3 to the heat of the arc.
C4 v = C3 v + C1 3v Grading ring, in addition
C4 = C3 + 3KC = C(1 + 3K) + 3KC = C(1 + 6K) to equalization of voltage
4. By Static Shielding distribution across the
- The potential across each unit in a string can be insulator units, when
equalized by using a guard ring which is a metal used in conjunction with
ring electrically arcing horn fixed at the
connected to the top end of the string
conductor and serves the purpose of
surrounding arcing shield and protects FigureHorn
83 Insulator String with Arcing
and Grading Ring
bottom. The guard the insulator string from
ring introduces flash over whenever overvoltage (under normal or
capacitance abnormal condition) appears between the tower structure
between metal and the line conductor. They are designed to keep the arc
fittings and the line away from the insulator string until it is interrupted by the
conductor. The device protecting the line. The arrangement of the arcing
guard ring is Figure 82 Insulator with Guard horns on a 7 unit string of suspension insulators is shown
contoured in such a Ring in Figure 83. The combination of the arcing horn and
way that the shunt grading ring provides path through the air medium and
capacitance currents are equal to the line
capacitance currents.
discharges the energy contained in the abnormal voltage of the self capacitance of the unit. Derive the formula
and thus saves the insulator string. used (Figure 86).
Examples: 7. Each line of a 3 phase system is suspended by a
1. A string of 6 suspension string of 3 identical insulators of self capacitance C
insulators is to be graded to farad. The shunt capacitance of connecting metal work
obtain uniform distribution of of each insulator is 0.2 C to earth and 0.1 C to line.
voltage across the string. If Calculate the string efficiency of the system if a guard
the pin to earth capacitance ring increases the capacitance to the line of metal work
are all equal to C and the of the lowest insulator to 0.3 C.
mutual capacitance of the 8. In a transmission line
top insulator is 10 C, find the each conductor is at 20
mutual capacitance of each kV and is supported by a
unit in terms of C (Figure 84). string of 3 suspension
2. The self capacitance of insulators. The air
each unit in a string of three capacitance between
suspension insulators is C. each cap pin junction
The shunting capacitance of and the tower is 1/5 of Figure 87
the connecting metal work of Figure 84 the capacitance of each
each insulator to earth is 0.15 C while for line it is 0.1 insulator unit. A guard ring, effective only over the line
C. Calculate: end insulator unit is fitted so that the voltages in the
a. the voltage across each insulator as a percentage two units nearest the line end are equal (Figure 87).
of the line voltage to earth a. Calculate the voltage on the line end unit
b. string efficiency b. Calculate the value of capacitance C x required
3. Each of three insulators forming a string has self 9. Each of the three insulators forming a string has a self
capacitance of C farad. The shunt capacitance of capacitance of C farad. The shunt capacitance of
each cap of insulator is 0.25C to earth and 0.15C to each insulator is 0.2C to earth and 0.1C to line. A guard
line. Calculate the voltage distribution across each ring increases the capacitance of line of the metal work
insulator as a percentage of line voltage to earth and of the lowest insulator to 0.3C. Calculate the string
the string efficiency. efficiency of the arrangement:
4. It is required to grade a string a. with the guard ring
having seven suspension b. without guard ring
insulators. If the pin to earth Nominal
Voltage
Phase Conductors
capacitance are all equal to C, (kV) Number of Aluminum Bundle Minimum Clearance
determine the line to pin conductors
per Bundle
Cross
Section Area
Spacing
(cm)
Phase
to
Phase
to
capacitance that would give the per Phase Ground
Conductor (m) (m)
same voltage across each (ACSR)
insulator of the string. (kcmil)
69 1 - - - -
5. A string of 8 suspension 138 1 300 700 - 4 to 5 -
insulators is to be fitted with a 230 1 400 -1000 - 6 to 9 -
345 1 2000 2500 - 6 to 9 7.6 to 11
grading ring. If the pin to earth 345 2 800 2200 45.7 6 to 9 7.6 to 11
capacitance are all equal to C, Figure 85
500 2 2000 2500 45.6 9 to 11 9 to 14
500 3 900 1500 45.7 9 to 11 9 to 14
find the values of line to pin 765 4 900 1300 45.7 13.7 12.2
capacitances that would give a uniform voltage Nominal Suspension Insulator String Shield Wires
Voltage
distribution over the string (kV) Number of Number of Type Number Diameter
(Figure 85). Strings per Standard (cm)
phase Insulator
6. Define the string efficiency. Discs per
Calculate its value for a string Suspension
String
of 3 insulator units used if the 69 1 4 to 6 Steel 0,1 or 2 -
capacitance of each unit to 138 1 8 to 11 Steel 0,1 or 2 -
Figure 86 230 1 12 to 21 Steel or 1 or 2 1.1 to 1.5
earth and line be 20% and 5% ACSR

345 1 18 to 21 Alumoweld 2 0.87 to
1.5
- In case of ac system, the current due to corona is non
345 1 and 2 18 to 21 Alumoweld 2 0.87 to sinusoidal. In practice, this non sinusoidal current
1.5
500 2 and 4 24 to 27 Alumoweld 2 0.98 to
and the non sinusoidal voltage drop caused by it may
1.5 be more important than the power loss.
500 2 and 4 24 to 27 Alumoweld 2 0.98 to
1.5
Effects of Corona
765 2 and 4 30 to 35 Alumoweld 2 0.98 1. A violet glow is observed around the conductor.
Table 9 Ty pical Transmission Line Characteristics 2. It produces a hissing noise.
Corona 3. It produces ozone which can be readily detected by its
- Occurs when an alternating potential difference is characteristic odor.
applied across two conductors whose spacing is large 4. The glow is maximum over rough and dirty surfaces of
as compared to their diameter, there is no apparent the conductor.
change in the condition of the atmospheric air 5. It is accompanied by a power loss the wattmeter
surrounding the wires if voltage is low. However, when connected in the electric circuit will show a reading.
the potential drop is increased, then a point is reached 6. The charging current under corona condition increases
when a faint luminous glow of bluish color appears because the corona induces harmonic currents.
along the lengths of conductors and at the same time Factors Affecting Corona
a hissing sound is heard. This phenomenon is called 1. Atmosphere. As corona is formed due to ionization of
visual corona. air surrounding the conductors, therefore, it is affected
- Is always accompanied by the production of ozone by the physical state of atmosphere. In the stormy
which is readily detected because of its characteristic weather, the number of ions is more than normal and
odor. If the potential difference is further increased, as such corona occurs at much less voltage as
then the glow and hissing both increases in intensity till compared with fair weather.
a spark over between the conductors takes placedue 2. Conductor size. The corona effect depends upon the
to the breakdown of air insulation. shape and conditions of the conductors. The roughand
- The whole phenomenon the hissing noise, the violent irregular surface will give rise to more corona because
glow, and the production of ozone gas is known as unevenness of the surface decreases the value of
corona. breakdown voltage. Thus, a stranded conductor has
- This phenomenon is very much evident in transmission irregular surface and hence gives rise to more corona
lines of 100 kV and above. that a solid conductor.
- If the conductors are smooth and polished, the corona 3. Spacing between conductors. If the spacing
glow is uniform along their length but if there is any between the conductors is made very large as
roughness, they will be picked up by relatively brighter compared to their diameters, there may not be any
illumination. corona effect. It is because larger distance between
- In the case of conductors with spacing shorter as conductors reduces the electrostatic stresses at the
compared to their diameters (interaxial difference is conductor surface, thus avoiding corona formation.
less than 15 times the diameter of the conductor), 4. Line voltage. The line voltage greatly affects corona.
sparking may take place without any visible glow. If it is low, there is no change in the condition of air
- If the potential difference between wires is direct surrounding the conductors and hence no corona is
instead of alternating, there is a difference in the formed. However, if the line voltage has such a value
appearance of the two wires. The positive wire has a that electrostatic stresses developed at the conductor
smooth glow about it whereas the glow about the surface make the air around the conductor conducting,
negative wire is spotty. then corona is formed.
- Corona is accompanied by a loss of energy which Triple Harmonic Currents Due to Corona
increases very rapidly once the visual critical voltage is Corona forms when the voltage of a conductor passes the
exceeded. Power loss, due to corona, heavily depends disruptive critical voltage and disappears when the voltage
upon weather condition during humid and moist descends through the same value. This occurs on each
climate corona loss is much increased. conductor every half cycle, and develops a pulsation in the
- The energy loss accompanied by the phenomenon, voltage wave having three times the generator frequency.
called the corona, is dissipated in the form of light, In an earthed system, this triple frequency voltage causes
heat, sound and chemical action. a triple frequency current to flow through the capacitance of
the system to earth and back through the earthed neutral.
This effect is accentuated by the fact that the effective Dielectric Strength of Air
capacitance of the conductors pulsates at triple frequency The value of potential gradient at which complete disruption
due to the increase and decrease of effective diameter of of air occurs, is called the disruptive strength or dielectric
conductors caused by the corona. Because of corona triple strength of air.
frequency currents flow through the ground in case of a non The breakdown strength of air at a barometric pressure of
earthed system, the neutral has a voltage to earth of triple 760 mm, and temperature of 25C is 30 kV/cm (maximum)
frequency. or 21.1 kV/cm (rms) and is denoted by g 0 . The value of
Advantages of Corona dielectric strength of air depends upon the density of air
1. Due to corona formation, the air surrounding the g 0 is proportional to density of air over a wide range and
conductor becomes conducting and hence virtual thus directly proportional to the barometric pressure, and
diameter of the conductor is increased. The increased inversely proportional to the absolute temperature. Thus,
diameter reduces the electrostatic stresses between breakdown strength of at a barometric pressure of b cm of
the conductors. mercury and temperature of tC becomes g0 where
2. Corona reduces the effects of transients produced by b10 273 + 25 3.92b
surges. = =
760 273 + 273 + t
Disadvantages of Corona Disruptive Critical Voltage
1. Corona is accompanied by a loss of energy. This Let us consider the two
affects the transmission efficiency of the line. wire line shown in Figure
2. There is a definite dissipation of power although it is 88, where r is the radius
not so important except under abnormal weather of the line conductors and
conditions like storms etc. d is the distance between
3. Corrosion due to ozone formation. their centers, where d is
4. The current drawn by the line due to corona losses is very large compared to r.
non sinusoidal in character, hence it causes non If a positive charge of q
sinusoidal drop in the line which may cause some coulombs per meter of
interference with neighboring communication circuits conductor length is given
due to electromagnetic and electrostatic induction. to conductor A, then a Figure 88 Two - wire Line
Such a shape of corona current tends to introduce a negative charge of q coulombs per meter of conductor
large third harmonic component. However, it has been length will be induced on conductor B.
found that corona works as a safety valve for surges. Consider point P at x meters from conductor A.
5. Particularly intense corona effects are observed at a Electric field intensity at point P due to charge on conductor
working voltage of 35 kV or higher. Hence, designs A=
q
acting towards B as shown.
must be made to avoid any corona on the bus bars of 2 0x
substations rated for 35 kV and higher voltages during Electric field intensity at point P due to induced charge on
q
their normal operation. Corona discharge around bus conductor B = acting towards B as shown.
2 0(dx)
bars is extremely undesirable because the intense Resultant electric field intensity at point P,
ionization of the air reduces its dielectric strength, q q q 1 1
Ex = + = ( + )
makes it easier for the flashover to occur in the 2 0x 2 0(dx) 2 0 x dx
insulators and between phases particularly when the Potential Drop between conductors A and B,
dr dr
surfaces concerned are dirty or soiled with other q 1 1
deposits. The ozone produced due to corona V = Exdx = ( + ) dx
r r 20 x d x
discharge aggressively attacks the metallic q
components in the substations and switchgear, V= [log e x log e(d x)]d r
20 r
covering them with oxides. Moreover, the crackling q dr
sound of the corona discharge in a substation masks = log
0 e r
other sounds like light crackling noise due to arcing in
Now, since r is very small as compared to d, d r d
a loose contact, the sound of an impending breakdown
and, therefore,
or creepage discharge in the equipment, the rattling q d
noise due to the loosening of steel in a transformer V= log e
core etc. The timely detection of such sounds is very 0 r
important if any serious breakdown is to be avoided.
Now gradient at any point x from the center of the conductor Polished wires 1.0
A is given by Weathered wires 0.93 to 0.98
q 1 1 q d 7 strand cables, concentric lay 0.83 to 0.87
Ex = ( + )=
20 x d x 20 x(d x) Cables with more than 7 strands 0.80to 0.85
Substituting for q, we have Table 10 Irregularity Factor
0 V 1 d V d Examples:
Ex = = 1. A single phase overhead line has two conductors of
d 20 x(d x) d x(d x)
log e 2 log e diameter 1 cm with a spacing of 1 m between centers.
r r
where V is voltage between two conductors. If the disruptive critical voltage for air is 21.1 kV/cm, for
and Ex =
V d what value of the line voltage will corona commence.
d (
2 loge
r
)
x dx 2. A 3 phase line has conductors 2 cm in diameter
where V is the line to neutral voltage of the system. spaced equilaterally 1 m apart. If the dielectric strength
In case of three phase system, of air is 30 kV (max) per cm, find the disruptive critical
Line to Line Voltage VL voltage for the line. Take air density factor = 0.952
V = = and irregularity factor m0 = 0.9.
3 3
From the expression for the potential gradient for a given 3. A 3 phase, 220 kV, 50 Hz transmission line consists
transmission system, the potential gradient increases as x of 1.2 cm radius conductors spaced 2 m at the corners
decreases, the potential gradient is maximum when x = r, of an equilateral triangle. Calculate the disruptive
the surface of the conductor, and this value is given by critical voltage between the lines. Irregularity fac tor =
0.96; temperature at 20C. Barometric pressure 72.2
= = =
d

d cm of mercury. Dielectric strength of air = 21.1
( ) log e
r
log e
r kV(rms)/cm. Define the disruptive critical voltage.
where r is the radius of conductors in cm, d is the spacing 4. A 132 kV line with 1.956 cm diameter conductors is
in cm and V is the value of voltage of the conductors to built so that corona takes place if the line voltage
neutral, both gmax and V being expressed in rms values. exceeds 210 kV (RMS). If the value of potential
When the disruptive gradient of air is reached at the gradient at which ionization occurs can be taken as 30
conductor surface kV per cm, find the spacing between the conductors.
Vd0 5. Find the disruptive critical voltage for a transmission
g0 = line having:
d
r log e conductor spacing = 1 m
r
or disruptive critical voltage, conductor (stranded) radius = 1 cm
d barometric pressure = 76 cm of Hg
Vd0 = g 0 r log e
r temperature = 40 C
In practice, corrections must be applied to the above Air breakdown potential gradient (at 76 cm of Hg and
formula of air density and surface conditions of the at 25C) = 21.1 kV (rms)/cm.
conductor and thus the complete formula becomes 6. A 3 phase overhead transmission line operates at
d 132 kV, 50 Hz. The conductors are arranged in a 3m
Vd0 = g o m0 rlog e
r delta configuration. What is the minimum diameter of
d conductor that can be used for no corona under fair
Vd0 = 2.3g o m0 rlog10
r weather conditions? Assume air density factor of 0.95
Substituting the value of g 0, and irregularity factor of 0.85.
d 7. Taking the dielectric strength of air to be 30 kV/cm,
Vd0 = 21.1m0 r log e
r calculate the disruptive critical voltage for a 3 phase
d line with conductors of 1 cm radius and spaced
Vd0 = 21.1m0 r2.3 log10
r symmetrically 4 m apart.
The irregularity factor m 0 depends on the shape of cross 8. A conductor with 2.5 cm diameter is passed through a
section of the wire and the state of its surface. Its value is porcelain bushing having r = 4 and internal and
unity for a smooth wire of one strand of circular section and external diameters of 3 cm and 9 cm respectively. The
less than unity for wires roughened due to weathering as voltage between the conductor and an earthed clamp
shown in Table 10. surrounding the porcelain is 20 kV rms. Determine

whether corona will be present in the air space around stranded copper conductors spaced 2.5 m apart at the
the conductor. corners of an equilateral triangle. Air temperature and
Visual Critical Voltage pressure are 21C and 73.6 cm Hg respectively. The
In the case of parallel wires, it is found that visual corona conductor diameter, irregularity factor and surface
does not begin at the voltage Vd0 at which the disruptive factors are 10.4 mm, 0.85 and 0.7, 0.8 respectively.
gradient of air g 0 , but a higher voltage Vv0 , called the visual 3. Find the disruptive critical voltage and visual corona
critical voltage. voltage (local corona as well as general corona) for a
Visual Critical Voltage is defined as the minimum phase to 3 phase 220 kV line consisting of 22.26 mm diameter
neutral voltage at which glow appears all along the line conductors spaced in a 6 m delta configuration. The
conductors. Thus, when corona begins, the potential following data can be assumed: Temperature 25C,
gradient g V at the conductor surface is higher than the pressure 73 cm of mercury, surface factor 0.84,
disruptive gradient g 0 . Contrary to what might be expected, irregularity factor for local corona 0.72, irregularity
g v , the apparent strength of air is not constant but depends factor for general (decided) corona 0.82.
on the size of the conductors, air being apparently stronger 4. Find the disruptive critical and visual corona voltages
at the surface of smaller conductors than larger ones. of a grid line operating at 132 kV. The following data is
Peek states that the disruptive critical voltage must be so given: conductor diameter 1.9 cm, conductor spacing
exceeded that the stress is greater than the breakdown 3.81 cm, temperature 44C, barometric pressure 73.7
cm, conductor surface factor: fine weather 0.8, rough
value up to a distance of 0.3r cm from the conductor.
weather 0.66.
This visual corona will occur when the breakdown value is
Corona Power
attained at the distance r + 0.3 r from the axis, instead Formation of corona is always accompanied by dissipation
of at the distance r. this requires that the voltage to neutral of energy. This loss will have some effect on efficiency of
0.3
be 1 + times the disruptive critical voltage. Thus, the the line but will not have any appreciable effect on the line
r
visual critical voltage is regulation.
0.3 D This loss is affected both by atmospheric and line condition.
Vv0 = mv g 0 r (1 + ) log e Soon after the critical voltage is reached, the corona loss
r r
0.3 D increases as the square of the excess voltage.
Vv0 = 21.1mv r (1 + ) 2.3 log10 Under the fair weather conditions, the following empirical
r r
formula for corona power loss has been ascertained due to
where m v is another irregularity factor having a value of 1.0
Peek
for smooth conductors and 0.98 0.93 for rough conductor kw
exposed to atmospheric severities and 0.72 for local corona 244 r 2 km
PC = (f + 25)( ) (Vph Vd0 ) 10 5
on stranded conductors. D phase
Because of irregular surface of the conductor, the corona where Vph is voltage to neutral in kV, Vd0is the disruptive
does not start simultaneously on the whole surface but it
critical voltage to neutral in kV and f is the supply frequency
takes place at different points of the conductor which are
in Hz.
pointed and this is known as local corona. For this m v =
Under the stormy weather conditions, Vd0is taken to be 0.8
0.72. for decided or general corona along the length of the
conductor m v may be taken as 0.82. times its fair weather value and power loss due to corona
Examples: is given by
kw
1. Find the disruptive critical and visual corona voltage of 244 r 2 km
PC = (f + 25) ( ) (Vph 0.8Vd ) 10 5
a grid line operating at 132 kV. D 0
phase
conductor diameter = 1.9 cm As a matter of fact, with perfectly smooth and cylindrical
conductor spacing = 3.81 m conductors no loss occurs until the visual critical voltage is
temperature = 44 C reached. It then follows the quadratic law for higher
barometric pressure = 73.7 cm voltages. The empirical relation is derived by Peek has
conductor surface factor: certain limitations and holds good only under certain
fine weather = 0.8 rough weather = 0.66. conditions (the supply frequency lies between 25 and 120
2. Calculate the critical disruptive voltage and critical Hz; the conductor radius is greater than 2.5 mm and ratio
voltages for local and general corona on a three Vph
exceeds 1.8). Also, a small error in m 0, the irregularity
phase overhead transmission line, consisting of three Vd0

factor, will lead to wrong results when using the above 2440 m, corresponding to an approximate barometric
formula. pressure of 73.15 cm, operating voltage of 110 kV at
When the ratio
Vph
is less than 1.8 Petersons formula is to 50 Hz.
Vd0 7. Estimate the corona loss for a three phase, 110 kV, 50
be applied for determining the corona losses and is given Hz, 150 km long transmission line consisting of three
as conductors each of 10 mm diameter and spaced 25 m
2 kw apart in an equilateral triangle formation. The
21106 f(Vph )
PC = K km temperature of air is 30C and the atmospheric
d 2 phase pressure is 750 mm of mercury. Take irregularity factor
(log10 )
r as 0.85. Ionization of air may be assumed to take place
Vph
where k is a factor which varies with the ratio as given at a maximum voltage gradient of 30 kV/cm.
Vd0
in Table 11. 8. A 3 phase, 220 kV, 50 Hz transmission line consists of
Vph 1.2 cm radius conductors spaced 2 m at the corners of
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 an equilateral triangle. Calculate the corona loss per
Vd0 km of the line. The condition of the wire is smoothly
K 0.012 0.018 0.05 0.08 0.30 1.0 3.5 6.0 8.0 weathered and the weather is fair with temperature of
Table 11 K factor for Corona Pow er Loss
20 C and barometric pressure of 72.2 cm of Hg.
Examples: Factors affecting Corona Loss
1. A 3 phase, 220 kV, 50 Hz transmission line consists of 1. Effect of System Frequency Corona loss varies
1.5 cm radius conductor spaced 2 meters apart in
directly as the system frequency.
equilateral triangular formation. If the temperature is
2. Effect of System Voltage The electric field in the
40 C and atmospheric pressure is 76 cm, calculate the space around the conductors depends mainly in the
corona loss per km of the line. Take 0 = 0.85. potential difference between the conductors. Greater
2. A 3 phase 220 kV 50 Hz transmission line consists the potential difference, greater the electric field and
of 2 cm radius conductor spaced 2.5 m apart in therefore, greater is the power loss due to corona. In
equilateral triangular formation. If the temperature is the region near the disruptive critical voltage, the rate
20C and atmospheric pressure 75 cm, m 0 = 0.8, of increase in power loss with the increase in system
determine the corona loss per km of line. voltage is small but when Vph is large as compared
3. A certain 3 phase equilateral transmission line has a with Vd0 corona loss increases at a very fast rate with
total corona loss of 53 kW at 106 kV and a loss of 98
kW at 110.9 kV. What is the disruptive critical voltage? the increase in system voltage.
3. Effect of Conductivity of Air The conductivity of air
What is the corona loss at 113 kV?
depends on the number of ions per unit volume of air,
4. Determine (i) the critical disruptive voltage (ii) the
visual critical voltage; and (iii) the corona loss under the size and charge per ion. Both factors vary with
foul weather conditions for 3 phase line 160 km long, altitude and atmospheric conditions. During rain and
conductor diameter 1.036 cm; 2.44 m delta spacing. thunderstorms, ion content increases and therefore,
atmosphere becomes more conducting. High
Air temperature 26.6C, corresponding to an
conductivity leads to greater corona loss.
approximate barometric pressure of 73.15 cm of
4. Effect of Density of Air Corona loss increases with
mercury, operating voltage 110 kV at 50 Hz, surface
irregularity factor 0.85. Assume a value of m v = 0.72. the decrease in the density of air. The corona loss of a
Disruptive voltage under foul weather = 0.8 x fair transmission line passing through a hilly area is higher
weather value. than that of a similar line in planes due to reduced
5. A 3 phase, 50 Hz, 220 kV transmission line consists of value of at high altitudes.
conductors of 1.2 cm radius spaced 2 meters at the 5. Effect of Conductor Radius The electric field
intensity decreases with the increase in radius of
corners of an equilateral triangle. Calculate the corona
power loss per km of the line at a temperature of 20 C conductor. Hence with conductors of large radius,
and barometric pressure of 72.2 cm. Take the surface electric field intensity decreases resulting in lower
factors of the conductor as 0.96. corona power loss.
6. Determine the corona characteristics of a 3 phase 6. Effect of Conductor Surface The potential gradient
line 160 km long. Conductor diameter 1.036 cm, 2.44 at the surface of a stranded conductor is greater than
that for the equivalent solid conductor. So, breakdown
m delta spacing, air temperature 26.67C, altitude

voltage is low and corona loss is more for stranded Voltage Limitations of Lines
conductors. The basis for the design of a transmission line is essentially
- Roughness of the surface of the conductor causes financial, the most economical line being the most
a field of distortion and gives rise to high potential acceptable. It is because power loss due to corona is of no
gradient causing higher corona loss. great importance. It is considered satisfactory to design a
7. Effect of Atmospheric Conditions Corona loss, line for operation at a voltage just below the disruptive
particularly local corona discharges, increases in rain critical voltage for fair weather (taking = 1). It is
and bad atmospheric conditions, such as fog, sleet and economical to have a small corona loss in bad weather, for
snowstorms. The effect is more pronounced if the a fraction of the year (storms are experienced at intervals)
conductor is of larger diameter because on smaller rather than have large conductors and heavy supporting
diameter conductors, the radius of a rain drop may not structures to avoid corona entirely.
be very much smaller than the radius of the conductor Moreover, corona is considered beneficial because of its
itself. inherent advantages.
8. Effect of Load Current The heating of the conductor TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS (R, L, C)
due to flow of load current through it has an indirect Series Resistance is the most important cause of power
reducing effect on the corona loss. Heating of loss in a transmission line.
conductor prevents deposition of dew or snow on the l
surface of the conductor and reduces corona loss. R=
A
- During rains, the heating of conductors has no where R Resistance of the line in
effect on the corona loss but, after the rain it l Length of the line in meter
accelerates the drying of the conductor surface. A Cross sectional area of conductor in m2
The time duration for which drops remain on the resistivity of conductor in m
surface is reduced and so the corona loss is Copper 1.77x10-8 m @ 20C or 10.66 cmil/ft
reduced. Aluminum 2.38x10-8 m @ 20C or 17cmil/ft
- For long transmission lines passing through routes 1. In a single phase 2 wire dc line, the total resistance is
of varying altitudes, the average value of corona equal to double the resistance of either conductor
loss is determined by determining the corona loss known as loop resistance.
per km at several points and then taking out an 2. In case of a 3 phase transmission line, the resistance
average. per phase is the resistance of one conductor.
9. Bundling of Conductors A bundled conductor Conversions
consists of two or more parallel sub conductors at 1 inch = 1000 mils

spacing of several diameters. These group of 1 cmil = sq. mil
4
conductors form the phase conductors. Thus, the Quantity Symbol SI Units English
effective diameter of the bundled conductor is much Resistiv ity m cmil/ft
larger than that of the equivalent single conductor. The Length l m ft
Cross Sectional A 2 Cmil
value of large diameter will reduce the corona loss. Area
Methods of Reducing Corona Effect Resistance R dc
1. By increasing conductor size. By increasing Table 12 Comparisons of SI and English Units for Calculating Conductor
Resistance
conductor size, the voltage at which corona occurs is Skin Effect the tendency of the alternating current to
raised and hence corona effects are considerably
reduced. This is one of the reasons that ACSR concentrate near the surface of a
conductors which have a larger cross sectional area conductor. The skin effect
is used in transmission lines. depends on the following factors:
2. By increasing conductor spacing. By increasing the 1. Nature of the material
spacing between conductors, the voltage at which 2. Diameter of the wire
corona occurs is raised and hence corona effects can 3. Frequency Figure 89 Skin Effect
be eliminated. However, spacing cannot be increased 4. Shape of the wire
too much otherwise the cost of supporting structure Note: Skin effect is negligible when the supply frequency is
(bigger cross arms and supports) may increase to a less than 50 Hz and the conductor diameter is less than 1
considerable extent. cm.

The skin effect is much smaller with stranded conductors 1

0 =
than with solid conductors. It increases with the increase of T
cross section, permeability and supply frequency. 2 T + t 2
=
1 T + t1
2 = 1 (1 +1 (t 2 t1 ))
where:
R2 resistance at temperature 2
R1 resistance at temperature 1
1 temperature coefficient of resistance in temperature 1
in C
Temperature coefficient of resistance in temperature
t in C
0 Temperature coefficient of resistance in 0C
t2 temperature 2 in C
Figure 90 Stranded Conductor t1 temperature 1 in C
In practice, stranded conductors are invariably used for 2 specific resistance at temperature 2
transmission and distribution lines and hollow conductors 2 specific resistance at temperature 1
for solid bus bars. This is done to overcome the adverse The increase in resistance due to Spiraling
effects of skin effect. For stranded conductors, alternate layers of strands are
To get the number of strands, use the formula: spiraled in opposite directions to hold the strands together.
number of strands = 3x 2 3x 1 The strands make 1% or 2% longer than the actual length.
x = the number of layers including the single center strands. Thus, dc resistance will increase.
Due to skin effect 1 % increase in resistance for 3 strands
R ac = kR dc 2 % increase in resistance for concentrically stranded
where k =
1+1+F 2 conductors (4 or more).
2 Examples:
F = 0.105d2f for copper 1. A copper conductor has its specific resistance of 1.6 x
F = 0.0063d2f for aluminum 10-6 cm at 0 C and a resistance temperature
d = diameter in inches coefficient of 1/254.4 per C at 20 C. Determine the
f = frequency in cps or Hz following:
Material %conductivity m Temperature
x 10-8 cmil/ft Constant C a. The specific resistance @ 60 C
Copper 100 % 1.72 10.37 234.5 b. The temperature coefficient of resistance at 60 C
Annealed 2. Table of electrical characteristics shows of all
Hard 97.3 % 1.77 10.66 241.5
Draw n Aluminum Merigold stranded conductor list a dc
Aluminum 61 % 2.83 17.00 228.1 resistance of 0.01558 /1000 ft. at 20 C and ac
Hard resistance of 0.0956 /mile at 50 C. The conductor
Draw n
Brass 20 27 % 6.4 38.51 480 has 61 strands and its size is 1.113 x 106 cmil. Verify
8.4 the dc resistance and find the ratio of ac to dc
Iron 17.2 % 10 60 180
Silv er 18 % 1.59 9.6 243
resistance. Let specific resistance be equal to 17
Steel 2 14 % 12 72 180 980 cmil/ft.
88 530 3. An aluminum conductor is composed of 37 strands
Table 13 % Conductiv ity , resistiv ity and temperature constants of conductor each having a diameter of 0.312 cm and has a length
metals @ 20C
of 5.3 inches. Compute for the equivalent MCM cross
The resistance is also dependent upon the temperature sectional area and for the dc resistance of this
R2 T + t 2
= conductor.
R1 T + t1 Proximity Effect
R 2 = R1 (1 +1 ( t 2 t1 )) The inductance and, therefore, the current distribution in a
0 conductor is also affected by the presence of other
t =
1 + t 0 conductors in its vicinity. This effect is known as proximity
effect.

Effects of Proximity Effect capacitance are termed as the parameters of the line and
Affects the current distribution and results in: are uniformly distributed along the entire length of the line.
1. an increase in the resistance of the conductor For single phase line the parameters are usually
2. decrease of self reactance of the conductor represented on loop inductance basis and for 3 phase line
The proximity effect is dependent on the following: on per conductor basis.
a. Conductor Size Flux Linkages of a Conductor
b. Frequency of the Supply A long straight cylindrical conductor carrying a current is
c. Resistivity of the material surrounded by a magnetic field. The magnetic lines of force
d. Relative Permeability of the material will exist inside the conductor as well as outside the
The phenomenon is more noticeable for large conductors, conductor. Both fluxes contribute to the inductance of the
high frequencies and closer proximity. The magnitude of conductor.
the effect, at normal supply frequencies, in the case of the Flux Linkages of a Conductor Due to Internal Flux.
wide spacing of conductors required for overhead Consider a long straight cylindrical conductor of radius r
transmission lines, is so small that it can be ignored. meters and carrying a current of I amperes, as shown in
However, the effect is noticeable in case of cables where Figure 91.
the spacing between the conductors is small.
In the case of stranded conductors, each wire traverses
alternately weaker and stronger portions of the magnetic
field caused by the external current carrying conductor.
Thus, the average value of the field along the path of any
wire remains the same, and if the currents in the conductor
follow the paths of the individual wires, the effect is
substantially eliminated.
Line Inductance
- is the property by which a circuit opposes changes in
the value of a varying current flowing through it.
- causes opposition only to varying currents.
- does not cause any opposition to steady or direct
Figure 91 Internal Flux of a Conductor
current.
In overhead lines, it may be assumed without appreciable
- In case of transmission and distribution lines, the
error that the current is uniformly distributed.
current flowing is varying or alternating current, the
The current inside of a line of force radius x,
effect of inductance, in addition to that of resistance, is
I Ix 2
therefore to be considered. Ix = 2 x 2 = 2
- The opposition to the flow of varying current owing to r r
inductance is viewed as a voltage drop. Field strength inside the conductor at a distance x from the
It is well known fact that a current carrying conductor is center,
surrounded by concentric circles of magnetic lines. In case Current Ix 2 1 Ix
Hx = = 2 = AT/m
of AC system this field set up around the conductor is not 2distance r 2x 2r 2
constant but changing and links with the same conductor Flux density,
as well as with other conductors. Due to these flux linkages, Bx = 0 Hx Wbm2 or T where 0 = 4107
the line possesses inductance, defined as the flux linkages and is the relative permeability of the medium and for non
per unit current. Thus, for determination of inductance of a magnetic materials =1.
circuit, determination of flux linkages is essential. 0 Ix Wb
Mathematically, inductance is defined as flux Bx = m2
2r 2
linkages/ampere. Now the flux through a cylindrical shell of radial thickness
dx and axial length one meter,
= 0 x
d = Bx Idx = Idx webers
where: flux linkages in Wb turns 2r 2
I current in amperes But this flux links with only the current lying within the circle
Besides resistance, the transmission line has inductance as x2
of radius x, with Ix or I
well as capacitance. The resistance, inductance and r2

Linkages of the shell, Thus, inductance due to external flux,

0 x x2 0 Ix3 0 r d2 D
d = dx I = dx weber turns Lext = ln = 2107 ln (Hm)
2r 2 r2 2r 4 2 d1 r
Total flux linkages from center of the conductor and up to Inductance of a Single Phase Two Wire Line
the surface of the conductor, Consider a single phase line consisting of two parallel
r
0 Ix3 conductors A and B of radii r1 and r2 spaced d meters apart
int = 4 dx Wb turns/m (d being very large compared to r1 and r2). Conductors A
0 2r
0 I and B carry the same current in magnitude but opposite in
int = Wb turns/m directions, as one forms the return path for the other. The
8
Thus, inductance due to internal flux, inductance of each conductor is due to internal flux linkages
0 r 107 Henry and external flux linkages and the following points are to be
Lint = = noted regarding external flux linkages:
8 8 m
Flux Linkages of a Conductor Due to External Flux. 1. A line of flux produced due to current in conductor A at
Consider two points 1 and 2 distant d 1 and d2 from the a distance equal to or greater than (d + r 2) from the
center of the conductor. Since the flux paths are concentric center of conductor A links with a zero net current, as
circles around the conductor, whole of the flux between the current flowing in the two conductors A and B are
points 1 and 2 lies within the concentric cylindrical surfaces equal in magnitude but opposite in directions.
passing through these points 1 and 2. 2. Flux linkages at a distance (d r2) link with a current I
and those between (d r2) and (d + r2) link with a
current varying from I to zero.
As a simplifying assumption, it can be assumed that all the
flux produced by current in conductor A links all the current
up to the center of conductor B and that the flux beyond the
center of the conductor B does not link any current.
Figure 92 External Flux of a Conductor

The field strength at any distance x from the center of the
conductor (x > r),
I
Hx = AT/m
2x
Flux density,
0 Ix Wb Figure 93 Single Phase, Two Wire Conductor
Bx = 0 Hx = m2 The above assumption simplifies the calculations and
2r 2
So, the flux through a cylindrical shell of radial thickness dx results obtained are quite accurate specially when d is
and axial length one meter, much greater than r1 and r2, as is usually the case in
0 I overhead lines.
d = webers per meter Based on the above assumption flux linkages of conductor
2x
Now flux linkages per meter is equal to d since flux A due to external flux can be determined by substituting d 2
external to conductor links all the current in the conductor = d and d1 = r1. Thus, flux linkages of conductor A due to
once and only once external flux,
0 I d
d = dx Wb turns per meter Aext = 2107 I ln Wb turns/m
2x r1
Total flux linkages between points 1 and 2 Flux linkages of conductor A due to internal flux,
d2
0 I 0 d 1
ext = dx = I[ln x] 2 Aint = I107 Wb turns/m
d1 2x 2 d1 2
d2 Total flux linkages of conductor A
ext = 2107 I ln Wb turns/m A = Aext + Aint = (0.5 + 2 ln
d
)I107 Wb turns/m
d1 r1

Total inductance of conductor A, The current in each conductor sets up a certain flux due its
d own current. The sum of all these fluxes is the total flux of
LA = 210 (0.25 + 2 ln )
7
H/m
r1 the system and the total flux linkages of any one conductor
d H is the sum of its linkages with all the individual fluxes set up
LA = 2107 (ln 1
) by the conductors of the system.
m
r1 4 Now let us determine the flux linkages of conductor 1 due
If r is not equal to 1 then, to current I1 carried by the conductor itself and flux linkages
r D H to conductor 1 due to currents carried by other conductors
L = 1107 ( + 2r ln )
2 r m (2, 3, , n)
1

The product r1 4 is known as Geometric Mean Radius The flux linkages of conductor 1 due to its own current I1
(GMR) of the conductor is equal to 0.7788 times the radius (internal and external), up to point P
d1p
of the conductor. Let it be represented by r 1 where 1p1 = 2107 I1 ln Wb turns/m
1 = 0.77881 r1
d H The flux linkages of conductor 1 due to current in conductor
LA = 2107 (ln ) 2
r1 m
similarly, inductance of conductor B, d2p
d H
1p2 = 2107 I2 ln Wb turns/m
d12
LB = 2107 (ln )
r2 m Flux due to conductor 2 that lies between conductors 2 and
Loop inductance of the line, 1 does not link conductor 1 and therefore the distances
d d involved are d2p and d12.
L = LA + LB = 2107 (ln + ln )
Thus, the expression for flux linkages of conductor 1 due to
r1 r2
If r1 = r2 = r, the loop inductance of the line is given as currents in all conductors can be written as
d1p d2p d3p dnp
d 1p = 2107 [I1 ln + I2 ln + I3 ln + + In ln ] Wb turns /m
L = 4107 (ln ) H/m r1 d12 d13 d1n
r To account for the total flux linkages to conductor 1, the
The idea of replacing the original conductor of radii r by a
point P must approach infinity and in this condition
fictitious conductor of radii r is quite attractive because
d1p d2p d3p dnp d
streamlined equations for inductance can be developed
without bogging down in accounting for the internal flux. Then, lim (I1 + I2 + I3 + + In )ln d = 0
d
Flux Linkages of One Conductor in a Group of This simplifies the equation thus, the equation for the flux
Conductors linkages to conductor 1 becomes
1 1 1 1
Consider a group of parallel conductors 1, 2, 3 n carrying 1 = 2107 [ I1 ln
r 1
+ I2 ln
d12
+ I3 ln
d13
+ + In ln
d1n
] Wb turns/m
currents I1, I2, I3 In respectively, as illustrated in Figure Inductance of Composite Conductor Lines Self and
94. Let it be assumed that the sum of the currents in various Mutual GMDs
conductors is zero. Consider a single phase line consisting of two parallel
conductors A and B, conductor A consisting of x and
conductor B of y strands, as illustrated in Figure 95.
Let the conductor A and B carry currents I and I
respectively (since conductors of a 2 wire line carry the
same current but in opposite directions).
Figure 94 Cross - Sectional View of Group of n Conductors and Distances of

Conductors from a Remote Point P
Theoretically, the flux due to a conductor extends from the
center of the conductor right up to infinity but let us assume
that the flux linkages extend up to a remote point P and the Figure 95 Stranded and Parallel Conductors
respective distances are as marked in Figure 94.

Assuming uniform current density in both the conductors 2. A single phase line has two parallel conductors 2
the current carried by each strand of conductor A will be I/x meters apart. The diameter of each conductor is 1.2
while that carried by each strand of conductor B will be cm. Calculate the loop inductance per km of the line.
I/y. 3. A single phase line has two parallel conductors 1
The flux linkages of strand 1 in conductor A will be meter apart. The radius of each conductor is 0.5 cm.
I 1 1 1 1
1 = 2107 [ ln + ln + ln+ + ln ] Calculate the loop inductance per km of the line.
x r 1 d12 d13 d1x
I 1 1 1 1 4. A single phase transmission line has two parallel
2 10 7 [ln + ln + ln + + ln ] Wb
y r1 d12 d13 d1y conductors 3 m apart. The radius of each conductor
turns /m
being 1 cm. Calculate the loop inductance per km
Inductance of strand 1 of conductor A
y length of the line if the material of the conductor is:
1 7
d11 , d12 , d13 , , d1n a. Copper
L1 = I = 210 ln x H/m
r, d12 , d13 , , d1n b. Steel with relative permeability of 100.
x 5. Find the loop inductance per km of a single phase
Similarly, the expression for inductance of strand 2 can be overhead transmission line when conductors have
written as relative permeability of:
y
d21 , d22 , d23 , , d2n a. 1
L2 = 2107 ln x H/m
r, d22 , d23 , , d2n b. 100
Thus, we see that the different strands of a conductor have Each conductor has a diameter of 1 cm and they are
different inductances spaced 5 m apart.
L1 + L2 + L3 + Lx 6. One circuit of a single phase transmission line is
Lave = composed of three solid 0.25 cm radius wires. The
x
Therefore, inductance of conductor A, return circuit is composed of two 0.5 cm radius wires.
xy
(d11, d12 , d13, , d1y)(d21 , d22, d23 , , d2y ) (dx1 , dx2 , dx3, , dxy ) Find the inductance of the complete line in H/m.
LA = 2107 ln
x2
7. Two conductors of a single phase line, each of 1 cm
(d11, d12 , d13 , , d1x )(d21, d22 , d23 , , d2y ) (dx1 , dx2, dx3 , , dxx )
diameter, are arranged in a vertical plane with one
In the above expression, the numerator of argument of ln is conductor mounted 1 m above the other. A second
called the GMD (often called mutual GMD) between identical line is mounted at the same height as the first
conductors A and B and the denominator of argument ln is and spaced horizontally 0.25 m apart from it. The two
called GMR (often called self GMD). GMD (Geometric upper and the two lower conductors are connected in
Mean Distance) and GMR (Geometric Mean Radius) are parallel. Determine the inductance per km of the
denoted by Dm and DS respectively. resulting double circuit line.
Dm H
LA = 2107 ( ln ) 8. A 20 km single phase transmission line having 0.823
DsA m cm diameter has two line conductors separated by 1.5
similarly, inductance of conductor B, meter. The conductor has a resistance of 0.311 ohm
Dm H per kilometer. Find the loop impedance of this line at
LB = 2107 ( ln )
DsB m 50 Hz.
Loop inductance is 9. Calculate the GMR of a 6/3 mm Al, 1/3 mm Steel ACSR
L = LA + LB conductor.
If conductors A and B are identical
DsA = DsB = Ds
Dm H
L = 4107 (ln )
DsB m
Examples:
1. What is the inductance per loop meter of two parallel
conductors of a single phase system if each has a
diameter of 1 cm and their axes are 5 cm apart when
conductors have a relative permeability of (a) unity and
(b) 100? The relative permeability of the surrounding
medium is unity in both cases. End effects may be
neglected and the current may be assumed uniformly Figure 96 Cross - Section of a 7 Strand Conductors
distributed over cross section of the wires.
10. In a single phase line, conductors a and a in parallel Similarly,

form one circuit while conductors b and b in parallel 1 d2
form the return path. Calculate the total inductance of LB = 210 7 [ln + ln d1 d2 + j3 ln ] H/m
r d1
the line per km if current is equally shared by the two
parallel conductors. Conductor diameter in 2.0 cm. and
1 d3
LC = 210 7 [ln + ln d2 d3 + j3 ln ] H/m
r d2
Thus, we see that when the conductors of a 3 phase
Figure 97 Single Phase Parallel Conductors transmission line are not equidistant from each other, the flux
Inductance of Three Phase Overhead Lines linkages and inductances of various phases are different which
With Unsymmetrical Spacing. Consider a 3 phase line causes unequal voltage drop in the three phases and transfer of
with conductors A, B and C; each of radius r meters. Let the power between phases due to mutual inductances even if the
current in the conductors are balanced.
spacing between them be d 1, d2 and d3 and the current The unbalancing effect because of irregular spacing of
flowing through them be IA, IB and IC respectively. conductors is avoided by transposition of conductors, as shown
in Figure 99. In practice, the conductors are so transposed that
each of the three possible arrangements of conductors exist one
third of the total length of the line.
Figure 99 Transposition of a 3 - Phase Line

The effects of transposition are as follows:
a. Each conductor has the same average inductance,
Figure 98 3 - phase Transmission Line with Unsymmetrical Spacing which is given as
The flux linkages of conductor A due to its own current IA LA + LB + LC
and other conductors IB and IC L=
3
1 1 1 3
A = 2107 [ IA ln + I ln + I ln ] Wb turns/m d1 d2 d3
r B d1 C d3 L = 2107 ln H/m
Similarly, r
1 1 1 b. If conductors are equispaced (let the spacing be equal
B = 2107 [ IB ln + I ln + IC ln ] Wb turns/m
r A d1 d2 to d), the inductance of each conductor will be the
and same
1 1 1
C = 2107 [ IC ln + I ln + I ln ] Wb turns/m
r A d3 C d2 L = 2107 ln H/m
If the system is balanced, r
IA = IB = IC = I (say) in magnitude For stranded conductor r will be replaced by DS (self
Taking IA as a reference phasor, the currents are GMD)
represented, in symbolic form as c. When the conductors of three phase transmission
IA = I; IB = I(0.5 j0.866) and IC = I(0.5 + line are in the same plane, as shown in Figure 100.
j0.866)
Substituting these values of IB and IC in the expression for
A we get
1 d1
A = 2107 I [ln + ln d1d3 + j3ln ] Wb turns/m
r d3
and
1 d1
LA = 210 7 [ln + ln d1 d3 + j3 ln ] H/m
r d3
Figure 100

In this position d1 = d2 = d and d3 = 2d Calculate inductance per km of each conductor when

Thus, conductors are regularly transposed. The diameter of
d 1 each line conductor is 2 cm.
LA = 210 7 [ln ln 2 j0.866 ln 2] H/m
+ 6. The three conductors of 3 phase overhead line are
r 2
d arranged in a horizontal plane with a spacing of 4 m
LB = 210 7 ln H/m
r between adjacent conductors. The diameter of each
7 [
d 1 conductor is 2 cm. Determine the inductance per km
LC = 210 ln + ln 2 + j0.866 ln 2 ] H/m
r 2 per phase of the line if the lines are transposed.
d. When the conductors are at the corner of a right 7. A three phase transmission line has its conductors
angled triangle as shown in Figure 101. In this position arranged in a triangle so that two of the distances is 25
d1 = d2 and d3 = 2d ft. and the third distance is 42 ft. Determine the
inductance and the inductive reactance per phase per
mile. Assuming DS of conductors is 0.0284 ft.
8. Determine the inductance per km of a 3 phase
transmission line using 20 mm diameter conductors
when conductors are at the corners of a triangle with
spacing of 4, 5 and 6 meters. Conductors are regularly
transposed.
9. Determine the inductance of a 3 phase symmetrical
line whose conductors are placed at the corners of an
equilateral triangle of sides 1 meter. The diameter of
each conductor is 20 mm.
10. A three phase overhead line is designed with an
Figure 101
equilateral spacing of 3.5 m with a conductor diameter
Thus, of 1.2 cm. If the line is constructed with horizontal
d1
LA = 2107 [ln + ln 2 j0.866 ln 2] H/m spacing with suitably transposed conductors, find
r
2 spacing between adjacent conductors which would
d
LB = 210 7 ln H/m give the same value of inductance as in the equilateral
r
d 1 arrangement.
LC = 210 7 [ln + ln 2 + j0.866 ln 2 ] H/m 11. A three phase, 50 Hz, 30 km long line has four 4/0
r 2
Examples: wires (1.5 cm diameter) spaced horizontally 2 m apart
1. Find the inductance per km of a 3 phase transmission in a plane. The wires are carrying currents Ia, Ib, Ic, and
line using 1.24 cm diameter conductors when these the fourth wire is neutral that carries zero current. The
are placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle of phase currents are:
each side 2 m. Ia = 30 + j24 A
2. Find the inductance per km per phase of a 3 phase Ib = 20 + j26 A
overhead transmission line using 2 cm diameter Ic = 50 j50 A
conductor when these are placed at the corners of an The line is untransposed.
equilateral triangle of side 4 meters.
a. Find the flux linkages of the neutral wire.
3. The three conductors of a 3 phase line are arranged
at the corners of a triangle of sides 2 m, 2.5 m and 4.5 b. Find the voltage induced in the neutral wire.
m. Calculate the inductance per km of the line when c. Find the voltage drop in each of the three phase
the conductors are regularly transposed. The diameter wires.
of each conductor is 1.24 cm. Inductance of Three Phase Lines with more than one
4. Calculate the inductance of each conductor in a 3 circuit
phase, 3 wire system when the conductors are It is usual practice to run 3 phase transmission lines with
arranged in a horizontal plane with spacing such that more than one circuit in parallel on the same tower because
D31 = 4 m; D12 = D23 = 2m. The conductors are it gives greater reliability and a higher transmission
transposed and have a diameter of 2.5 cm. capacity. If such circuits are so widely separated that the
5. The three conductors of a 3 phase line are arranged mutual inductance between them becomes negligible, the
at the corners of a triangle of sides 4, 5 and 6 meters.
inductance of the equivalent single circuit would be half of Inductance of conductor A,

each of the individual circuits considered alone. But in 3d2
actual practice the separation is not very wide and the LA = 2107 ln H/m
2dr
mutual inductance is not negligible. GMD method is used Similarly, inductance of remaining conductors can be
for determination of inductance per phase by considering worked out, which will be the same as L A. This is because
the various conductors connected in parallel as strands of the conductors of different phases are symmetrically
one composite conductor. placed.
It is desirable to have a Since conductors are electrically in parallel, inductance of
configuration that provides each phase
minimum inductance to have 3d2
maximum transmission L = 1107 ln H/m
capacity. This is possible only 2dr
Inductance of 3 Phase Double Circuit Line with
with low GMD and high GMR. Unsymmetrical Spacing but Transposed
Therefore, the practice is to Now consider a 3 phase double circuit connected in
have the individual conductors parallel conductors A, B and C forming one circuit and A,
of a phase widely separated to Figure 102 Arrangement of B and C forming the other one, as illustrated in Figure 102.
provide high GMR and the Conductors in a Double Circuit 3 Since the conductors are thoroughly transposed, the
Phase Line
distance between the phases conductor situations in the transposition cycle would be, as
small to give low GMD. Thus, in the case of a double circuit illustrated in Figures 104(1), 104(2) and 104(3).
in vertical formation the arrangement of conductors would
be as illustrated in Figure 100.
Inductance of 3 Phase Double Circuit Line with
Symmetrical Spacing
Consider a 3 Phase Double Circuit connected in Parallel
Conductors A, B, C forming one circuit and conductors A,
B, C forming the other one, as illustrated in Figure 103
(conductors symmetrically spaced).
Figure 104
Flux linkages with conductor A in position (1)
1 1 1 1
A1 = 2107 [I A (ln + ln ) + I B (ln + ln )
r 4d21 + d22 d1 d21 + d22
1 1
+ I C (ln + ln )]
Figure 103 3 Phase Double Circuit 2d1 d2
Flux linkages of phase A conductors Similarly, flux linkages with conductor A in position (2) and
1 1 1 1
A = 210 7 [
IA (ln + ln ) + IB (ln + ln ) (3)
r 2d d 3d 1 1 1 1
1 1 A2 = 210 7 [IA (ln + ln ) + IB (ln + ln )
+ IC (ln + ln )] r d2 d1 d1 + d22
2
3d d
1 1 1 1
7 [
A = 210 IA ln + (IB + IC) ln ] + IC (ln + ln )]
2dr d1 d1 + d22
2
3d2
1 1 1 1 1 1
A = 2107 [ IA ln I ln ] A3 = 2107 [I A (ln + ln ) + I B ( ln + ln )
2dr A 3d 2 r 2 2
4d1 + d2 2d 1 d2
3d2 1
+ I C (ln + ln 2
1
)]
A = 2107IA ln Wb turns/m d1 d1 + d22
2dr

Average flux linkages with conductor A 4. Calculate the inductance per phase per meter for a
+ A2 + A3
A = A1 three phase double circuit line whose phase
1
3
1 conductors have a radius of 5.3 cm with the horizontal
23 d1(d21 + d22 )3 conductor arrangement as shown in Figure 108.
A = 2107IA ln 1 Wb turns per meter
r (4d21 + d22 )3
and inductance
1 1 Figure 108
2 3 d1 (d21 + d22 )3 Bundled Conductors
LA = 210 7 ln H/m
1 The demand of electric power is increasing throughout the
r ( 4d21 + d22 )3 world and in many countries, it is doubling every five to eight
Inductance of each phase, years. The power stations are usually located far away from
1 1
1 1 d
1 2 d21 + d22 6 the load centers. Thus, transmission of large amounts of
L = LA = 210 7 ln 2 6 ( ) ( 2 ) H/m power over long distances can be accomplished most
2 r 4d1 + d22
d21+d22
economically only by using extra high voltages (or simply
If the distance d2 is too large as compared to d 1, EHV) is necessary. Voltages more than 230 kV fall in this
4d21+d22
would tend to be unity and inductance per phase, category. An increase in transmission voltage results in
1 reduction of electrical losses, increase in transmission
7
1 d1
( ) H/m
2 efficiency, improvement of voltage regulation and reduction
L = 210 ln 26
r in conductor material requirement. At voltages above 300
Examples: kV, corona causes a significant power loss and interference
1. Figure 105 shows the with communication circuits, if round single conductor per
spacing of a double circuit 3 phase is used. Instead of going for a hollow conductor it is
phase overhead line. The preferable to use more than one conductor per phase which
phase sequence is ABC is called the bundling of conductors. Lines of 400 kV and
and the line is completely higher voltages invariably used bundled conductors.
transposed. The conductor A bundled conductor is a conductor made up of two or more
radius in 1.3 cm. Find the conductors, called the sub conductors, per phase in close
Figure 105
inductance per phase per proximity compared with the spacing between phases. The
kilometer. basic difference between a composite conductor and a
2. Find the inductance per bundled conductor is that sub conductors of a bundled
phase per km of double conductor are separated to each other by a constant
circuit 3 phase line shown distance from 0.2 m to 0.6 m depending upon designed
in Figure 106. The voltage and surrounding conditions throughout the length
conductors are transposed of the line with the help of spacers whereas the wires of a
and are of radius 0.75 cm composite conductor touch each other. The bundled
each. The phase sequence conductors have filter material or air space inside so that
is ABC. Figure 106
the overall diameter is increased.
3. A three phase double circuit line consists of 300,000 The use of bundled conductors per phase reduces the
cmil 26/6 ACSR Ostrich conductors arranged as voltage gradient near the line and thus, reduces the
shown in Figure 107. Find the 60 Hz inductive possibilities of the corona discharge.
reactance in ohm per mile per phase. Assume DS = Although bundled conductors are used on EHV
0.0229 ft. transmission lines primarily reduce corona loss and radio
interference, they have several other advantages over
single conductors such as:
1. Transmit power with reduced losses, thereby giving
increased transmission efficiency.
2. Have higher charging current which helps in improving
the power factor.
3. Since GMD or GMR is increased, the inductance per
phase is reduced.
Figure 107

4. Have comparatively lower surge impedance with a

corresponding increase in the maximum power
transfer capability as seen in Table 14.
Number of sub conductors 1 2 4 8
Relative power transfer 1.0 1.3 1.6 1.7 Figure 112
Table 14 Relativ e Power Transfer VS Sub Conductors 2. The bundled conductors of a line are arranged as
It is to be noted that there is a little to be gained by using shown. Each conductor has a radius r. Find the
more than four sub conductors per phase, two or three expression of the mean geometric radius in terms of r.
sub conductors per phase are sufficient for most of the
EHV lines.
For two strand bundle
Figure 113
3. A bundled and transposed 3 phase transmission line
Figure 109 2 Strand Bundle Conductor
has a conductor arrangement shown. The identical
DSB = Ds d
conductors have a radius of 0.74 cm. The spacing
Dm
L = 2107 ln B between phase conductors is 30 cm. Determine the
Ds
line reactance per phase per mile at 60 Hz.
For three strand bundle
4. Find the inductive reactance of a 3 phase bundled
conductor line with 2 conductors per phase with
spacing of 40 cm. Phase to phase separation is 7 m in
horizontal configuration. All conductors are ACSR with
Figure 110 3 Strand Bundle Conductor
diameter of 3.5 cm. compare the above value with that
3
DSB = DS d2 of an equivalent single conductor line.
Dm 5. Determine the inductance per km per phase of a single
L = 2107 ln B circuit 460 kV line using two bundle conductors per
Ds
For four strands phase as shown in Figure 113. The diameter of each
conductor is 5 cm.
Figure 111 4 Strand Bundle Conductor Figure 114

4
DSB = 1.09 DS d3 Shunt Capacitance of Transmission Lines
Dm As any two conductors of an overhead transmission line/s
L = 2107 ln B
Ds separated by air, which acts as an insulator, therefore,
Examples: capacitance exists between any two overhead line
1. A single phase transmission line uses bundled conductors. The capacitance between the conductors is
arrangement shown. Line A has its conductors situated defined as the charged per unit potential difference. The
at the corners of an equilateral triangle. All conductors capacitance is uniformly distributed along the whole length
are identical and each has a radius of 2 cm. Determine of the line and may be regarded as a uniform series
the following: capacitor connected between the conductors or a shunt
a. The inductance of each line and the total capacitance between any conductor and the earth. When
inductance in mH per km. an alternating voltage is impressed on a transmission line,
b. For operation of the line at a frequency of 60 Hz. the charge at any point increases and decreases with the
Determine the total line reactance in ohm/mile. increase and decrease of the instantaneous value of the

flow of voltage between the conductors at the point. Thus, q 1

VA = ln V
a charging current flow to the line even if it is open circuited. 20 r
It affects the voltage drop along the line as well as the Potential Charge at a Conductor in a Group of Charged
efficiency and the power factor of the line. Conductors
Capacitance = Q/V Consider a group of long straight conductors A, B, C, D, E,
where Q Charge in coulombs , F having charges q 1, q2, q3, q4, q5, , qf coulombs per
V Electric potential in volts meter length respectively (Figure 116).
C Capacitance in Farad
If the capacitance of an overhead line is high, the line draws
more charging current, which compensates or cancels the
lagging component of load current. Hence, the resultant
current flowing in the line is reduced. The reduction in
resultant current flowing in the line results in:
1. reduction of line losses and so increase of
transmission efficiency
2. reduction in voltage drop or improvement of voltage
regulation
The other advantages of a transmission line having high
capacitance are increased load capacity and improved Figure 116
power factor. Potential at A due to its own charge, q1
V
Charging Current: IC = = 2fCV q1
XC = ( ) dx/x (volts)
Electric Potential r 20
The electric potential at a point due to a charge is the work Potential at A due to charge q 2

done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that q2
= ( ) dx/x (volts)
point. d1 2 0
Potential Charge of a Single Conductor Potential at A due to charge q 3

Consider a long straight cylindrical conductor A of radius r q3
meters and having a charge q coulombs per meter of its = ( ) dx/x (volts)
d2 2 0
length.
Potential at A due to charge q n
The electric field intensity at distance x from the center of
qn
the conductor is given by the formula: = ( ) dx/x (volts)
q dn1 2 0
E= V/m
20 rx Overall potential difference between conductor A and
0 = permittivity of free space (8.85 x 10 -12) infinite neutral

plane.
q1 q q
VAN = ( ) dx/x + ( 2 ) dx/x + ( 3 ) dx/x
r 20 d1 20 d2 20

qn
++ ( ) dx/x
dn 1 2 0
Simplifying, assuming balanced load conditions,

q1 + q2 + q3 + + qn = 0.
1 1 1 1
Figure 115 VAN = {q1 ln + q2 ln + + qn ln }
20 r d1 dn1
Taking air as medium, r = 1
q Capacitance of Single Phase Overhead Line
E= V/m Consider a single phase overhead line with two parallel
20 x
As x approaches infinity, the value of E approaches zero, conductors, each of radius r meters placed at a distance of
thus, the potential difference between conductor A and the d meters in air. It is assumed that the distance d between
neutral wire is: the conductors is large in comparison to the radii of the
q conductors. Therefore, the density of charge on either
( ) dx
20 conductor will be practically unaffected by the charge on the
VA = V conductor and will be uniform throughout the length. A
r x
uniformly distributed charge on a conductor acts as though
it is concentrated on the conductor axis. Therefore, for our Examples:

present analysis it is assumed that the charge +Q coulombs 1. A single phase transmission line has two parallel
on conductor A and -Q coulombs on conductor B are conductors 3 m apart, the radius of each conductor
concentrated at the centers of the two conductors which are being 1 cm. Calculate the capacitance of the line per
separated from each other by d meters. km. Given that 0 = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m.
2. A single phase transmission line has two parallel
conductors 1.5 meters apart, the diameter of each
conductor being 0.5 cm. Calculate line to neutral
capacitance for a line 80 km long.
3. The length of transmission lines consisting of two
identical conductors with one cm radius is 50 miles. It
is desired that the capacitive reactance to be at least
Figure 117 10000 . Determine the separation distance needed
Potential at conductor A and Neutral Plane, between the lines to achieve this result @ 60 Hz.

Q Q Capacitance of Three Phase Overhead Line
VAN = ( ) dx/x + ( ) dx/x
r 20 d 20 Unsymmetrically Spaced Line
Q d For an untransposed unsymmetrical 3 phase line the
VAN = ln capacitances between conductor to neutral of the three
20 r
Potential at conductor B and Neutral Plane, conductors are different. Supposes that the line is, as

Q
Q shown in Figure 98, and that voltages VA, VB, VC are applied
VBN = ( ) dx/x + ( ) dx/x to the conductors with the result that the chargers per meter
20 20
r d length are q1, q2, q3 respectively.
Q d
VBN = ln Potential at conductor A and Neutral Plane,
20 r
q1
q
both potentials with respect to the same neutral plane. VAN = ( ) dx/x + ( 2 ) dx/x
r 20 d1 2 0
Since unlike charges attract each other, thus the potential
difference between conductor is: q3
+ ( ) dx/x
VAB = VAN VBN d3 2 0
Q d 1 1 1 1
VAB = ln VAN = [q1 ln + q2 ln + q3 ln ]
0 r 20 r d1 d3
Capacitance between conductors (for 1 phase, 2 wire line) Similarly,
1 1 1 1
VBN = [q2 ln + q1 ln + q3 ln ]
20 r d1 d2
and
1 1 1 1
VCN = [q3 ln + q1 ln + q2 ln ]
20 r d3 d2
Figure 118
Since q3=-(q1+q2),
0 1 d d
= = ( ) VAN = [q1 ln 3 + q2 ln 3 ]
20 r d1
d2
Multiplying by ln
Capacitance between conductor and neutral (for 1 phase, d1
1 d d d d
3 wire line) VAN = [q1 ln 3 ln 2 + q2 ln 3 ln 2 ]
20 r d1 d1 d1
and
1 d d
VBN = [q1 ln 2 + q2 ln 2 ]
20 d1 r
Figure 119 d3
Multiplying by ln
CN = 2CAB d1
20 1 d d d d
CN = CAN = CBN = (/) VBN = [q1 ln 2 ln 3 + q2 ln 2 ln 3 ]
d 20 d1 d1 r d1
ln
r
Simplifying VAN ln
d2
VBN ln 3
d Similar expression for CBN and CCN can be obtained.
d1 d1 Equilaterally Spaced Lines
d2 d
VAN ln VBN ln 3 For the equilateral spacing d1 = d2 =
r d1
q1 = d3 = d
d3 d2 d2 d3 20
ln ln ln ln
r r d1 d1 CAN = F/m
d
Capacitance of conductor A to neutral, ln
d V d r
ln 2 BN ln 3 Figure 121
r VAN d1 Examples:
CAN = 20 F/m
d d d d 1. A 200 km, 3 phase transmission line has its conductors
ln 3 ln 2 ln 2 ln 3
r r d1 d1 placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle of 2.5 m
Similarly, capacitance of conductor B to neutral, side. The radius of each conductor is 1 cm. Calculate:
d V d
ln 3 CN ln 1 a. line to neutral capacitance of the line
r VBN d2
CBN = 20 F/m b. charging current per phase
d1 d3 d d
ln ln ln 3 ln 1 if the line is maintained at 66 kV, 50 Hz.
r r d2 d2
2. A 3 phase overhead transmission line has its
and conductors arranged at the corners of an equilateral
d V d
ln 1 AN ln 2 triangle of 2 m side. Calculate the capacitance of each
r VCN d3
CCN = 20
d d d d
F/m line conductor per km. Given that diameter of each
ln 2 ln 1 ln 1 ln 2 conductor is 1.25 cm.
r r d3 d2
Unsymmetrical Lime with Transposed Conductors 3. Calculate the capacitance of a 100 km long 3 phase,
If the charge per unit length is same in every part of the 50 Hz overhead transmission line consisting of 3
conductors, each of diameter 2 cm and spaced 2.5 m
transposed cycle (Figure 120), average value of voltage of
at the corners of an equilateral triangle.
conductor A, will be
VAN1 + VAN2 + VAN3 4. A 3 phase, 50 Hz, 132 kV overhead line has
VAN = conductors placed in a horizontal plane 4 m apart.
3 Conductor diameter is 2 cm. If the line length is 100
km, calculate the charging current per phase assuming
complete transposition.
5. A 3 phase, 50 Hz, 66 kV overhead line conductors are
placed in a horizontal plane as shown in Figure 122.
Figure 120
The conductor diameter is 1.25 cm. if the line length is
Voltage of conductor A in positions (1), (2) and (3) we have 100 km, calculate:
1 1 1 1 a. Capacitance per phase
VAN1 = [q1 ln + q2 ln + q3 ln ] b. The charging current per phase, assuming
20 r d3 d2
1 1 1 1 complete transposition of the line.
VAN2 = [q1 ln + q2 ln + q3 ln ]
20 r d1 d3
and
1 1 1 1 Figure 122
VAN3 = [q1 ln + q2 ln + q3 ln ] 6. The three conductors A, B and C of a 3 phase line
20 r d2 d1
So, average value of voltage of conductor A, are arranged in a horizontal plane with D AB = 2 m and
1 1 1 DBC = 2.5 m. Find line to neutral capacitance per
VAN = [q ln + (q2 + q3 ) ln ] km if diameter of each conductor is 1.24 cm. The
60 1 r 3 d1 d2 d3
Simplifying, since q 1+q2+q3 = 0 conductors are transposed at regular intervals.
3 7. The three conductors of a 3 phase line are arranged
1 d1 d2 d3
VAN = [q1 ln ] at the corners of a right angled isosceles triangle. If
20 r each equal side of this triangle is 2 m, find line to
Capacitance of conductor A to neutral, neutral capacitance per km. T ake the diameter of each
20 conductor as 1.24 cm. The conductors are transposed
CAN = D F/m
ln m at regular intervals.
r
8. A 3 phase, 50 Hz, 132 kV overhead line has This is because the conductors of different phases are
conductors placed in a horizontal plane 4.56 m apart. symmetrical placed.
Conductor diameter is 22.4 mm. If the line length is 100 The capacitance per phase is
km, calculate the charging current per phase, 40
assuming complete transposition. C = 2CN = F/m
3d
9. Three conductors of a 3 phase overhead line are ln
2r
arranged in a horizontal plane 6 m apart. The diameter Flat Vertically Spaced Line
of each conductor is 1.24 cm. Find the capacitance of Consider conductors arranged, as shown in Figure 104,
each conductor to neutral per 100 km of the line. corresponding to different position in the transposition
Capacitance of Double Circuit 3 Phase Overhead Lines positions.
Normally used conductor configurations are of hexagonal Potential at conductor A with respect to infinite neutral
spacing and flat vertical spacing. It has been found that plane
modified GMD method holds good for determination of VAN1 = (
q1 q q
) dx/x + ( 2 ) dx/x + ( 3 ) dx/x
20 d1 20 2d1 20
capacitance of transposed double circuit 3 phase r

q q
overhead lines with equilateral spacing and with flat vertical + ( 1 ) dx/x + ( 2 ) dx/x
4d2 +d2 20 d2 + d2 20
spacing. It is reasonable to assume that the modified GMD
q3
1 2 1 2
method can be used for determination of capacitance of a + (

2 0
) dx/x
d2
line with any configuration intermediate between these two 1 1 1 1
VAN1 = [q ln + q2 ln + q3 ln ]
configurations. 20 1 r4d21 + d22 d1 d21 + d22 2d1 d2
In the case of calculations of inductance, determination of Similarly,
self GMD (or GMR) of conductor is necessary because of 1
[q ln
1 1 1
]
VAN2 = + q2 ln + q3 ln
internal flux linkages of the conductor. But in case of 20 1 rd2 d1d21 + d22 d1d21 + d22
calculations of capacitance, since all charges reside on the VAN3 =
1
[q ln
1
+ q2 ln ln
1
+ q3 ln
1
]
surface, actual radius of the conductor is used. 20 1 r4d21 + d22 2d1 d2 d1 d21 + d22
Symmetrically Spaced Line VAN1 + VAN2 + VAN3
VAN =
Consider a 3 phase double circuit connected in parallel 3
1 1
conductors A, B and C forming one circuit and conductors q1 23 d1 d12 + d22 3
A, B and C forming another circuit (conductors VAN = ln ( 2 ) V
symmetrically spaced). 20 r 4d1 + d22
Let the charge over conductors A, B and C be q 1, q2 and q3 Capacitance of conductor A,
coulombs per meter length and q 1 + q2 + q3 =0. 20
CAN = 1 F/m
Potential of conductor A with respect to neutral infinite 1
2 2
23 d1 d1 + d2 3
plane (Figure 103). ln ( )

q1
q2 r 4d12 + d22
VAN = ( ) dx/x + ( ) dx/x Similar expression for capacitance C BN and CCN can be
r 20 d 20

q3
q1 obtained.
+ ( ) dx/x + ( ) dx/x Capacitance per phase will be double of C AN
3d 2 0 2d 2 0

q2
q3 40
+ ( ) dx/x + ( ) dx/x CAN = 1 1 F/m
3d 20 d 20 2
23 d1 d1 + d2 32
ln ( )
q1 3d2 q1 3d r 4d12 + d22
VAN = ln = ln
20 2dr 20 2r Looking at the above expression the simplified form of the
The capacitance of conductor A to neutral, two cases is
20 2
CAN = D 0P F/m and C = 2CAN F/m
CAN = F/m
3d ln m
r
ln Examples:
2r
Similar expressions for CBN and CCN can be obtained and 1. Six conductors of a double circuit transmission line
we have are arranged in hexagonal formation. DAC = DCA = 7 m
20 and DBB = 9 m. The diameter of each conductor is 2.5
CAN = CBN = CCN = CN = F/m
3d cm. Find the capacitive reactance to neutral and the
ln
2r

charging current per km per phase at 132 kV and 50 3. A 50 Hz, 3 phase line (transposed) of an ACSR
Hz, if the line is regularly transposed. moose conductor (overall diameter = 31.8 mm) per
2. A 100 km double circuit transmission line with 7 phase has flat horizontal spacing of 10 m between
strand copper conductors having 5 mm diameter, has adjacent conductors. Compare the inductive and
6 conductors arranged in vertical formation. The line is capacitive reactances in ohm per km per phase of this
transposed at regular intervals. Find the capacitance line with that of a line (transposed) using a three
per phase of the line. d1 = 8 m and d2 = 6 m. conductor ACSR hyn x conductors (each having
3. Find the capacitance per phase per km of a double overall diameter = 19.6 mm) having 10 m spacing
circuit 3 phase line shown in Figure 123. The measured from the center of the bundles. The bundle
conductors are transposed and are of radius 1 cm conductor in each phase are arranged in an equilateral
each. The phase sequence is ABC. triangle formation with spacing between the
conductors in the bundle as 40 cm.
Effect of Earth on Capacitance of Transmission Line
So far, in determination of capacitance of transmission
lines, the presence of earth was ignored. But it is not true;
the presence of earth affects the electric field of a line and
so the capacitance. The effect of earth on capacitance can
be modelled by method of images.
Figure 123
Capacitance of Bundled Conductor Line
Same principle as inductance of bundled conductor line
except that radius is use instead of GMR.
20
CAN = D F/m
ln m
DS
where:
Dm = mutual GMD of the circuit
DS = self GMD of the circuit
For 2 bundle: D 2S = rd
3
For 3 bundle: D 3S = rd2
4
For 4 bundle: D 4S = 1.09rd3
Examples:
1. Find out the
capacitance per km
to neutral of the three
phase line as
Figure 124 Figure 126 Electric Field of Two Long Parallel, Oppositely Charged Conductors
shown in Figure 124.
The electric field of too long, parallel conductors having
The lines are regularly transposed. The radius of each
charge +q and -q per unit is such that it has zero potential
conductor is r = 0.5 cm.
between the conductors, as shown in Figure 126. If a
2. Figure 125 shows a completely transposed 50 Hz, 250
conducting sheet of infinite dimensions is placed at the zero
km long three phase line has flat horizontal spacing
potential plane, the electric field is not distributed. Further,
with 10 m between adjacent conductors. If the outside
if the conductor carrying charge q is now removed, the
radius is 1.2 cm and the line voltage is 220 kV,
electric field above the conducting sheet stays intact, while
determine the charging current, per phase and total
that below it disappears. Using these well known facts in
reactive power in MVAr supplied by the line capacitor.
reverse, the presence of ground below a charged conductor
can be replaced by a fictitious conductor having equal and
opposite charge and located far below the ground surface
as the overhead conductor above it such fictitious
conductors is the mirror image of the overhead conductor.
Figure 125

This method of producing the same electric field as in the the height of the conductor from the ground, therefore,
presence of earth is called the method of images originally d2
suggested by Lord Kelvin. r1 + and for all practical purposes the effect of
4h2
Effect of Earth on the Capacitance of Single Phase earth on line capacitance can be neglected.
Transmission Line Effect of Earth on the Capacitance of Three Phase
Considering the case of a single phase overhead line, Transmission Line
assume conductors A and B as image conductors of Figure 128 shows the conductors of a 3 phase line along
conductor A and B respectively, as shown in figure 127. Let with image conductors. The line is assumed to be
the height of conductors be h meters above the charge of transposed and in the first part of the transposition cycle
+q coulombs per meter length and -q coulombs per meter conductor A is in position 1, B is in position 2 and C is in
length on conductors A and B respectively. position 3. Let the charges on line conductors be q A, qB and
qC while those on image conductors be qA, - qB and qC
respectively as shown in the figure.
Figure 127 Single - Phase Transmission Line with Images

The equation for the voltage drop VAB as determined by two
charged conductors A and B, and their images A and B
may be written as follows: Figure 128 Conductors of a 3 - Phase Line w ith Image Charges
1 d r 4h2 + d2 The equation for the three sections of transposition cycle
VAB = [qA ln + qB ln + qA ln
20 r d 2h can be written for the voltage drop VAB as determined by
2h three charged conductors and their images. With conductor
+ qB ln ] in position 1, B in position 2 and C in position 3, we have
4h2 + d2 1 12 12 2
Since qA = q = qB and qB = - q = qA, we have VAB =
20
[qA ( ln

ln
1
) + qB ( ln
12
ln
12
)
q 2hd 23 23
VAB = ln + qC ( ln ln )]
0 r4h2 + d2 31 31
Capacitance between conductors A and B, Similarly, equations for VAB can be written for the second
0
CAB = and third sections of the transposition cycle. If the fairly
accurate assumption of constant charge per unit length of
d conductor throughout the transmission cycle is made, the
ln
1 + d 2
2 average value of three sections of the cycle is given by
[r
4h ] 1
12 23 31 3
1
The above expression for capacitance reveals that the VAB = [qA (ln ln ( ) )
presence of earth modifies the radius of conductor r to 20 1 2 3
1
d2
r1 + . The effect of earth on the capacitance of the 1 2 3 3
4h2 + qB (ln ln ( ) )]
12 23 31
system is to increase it. However, normally the distance of
separation between the conductors is much smaller than where: Dm = 3d12 d23 d31
The equation for the average value of the voltage VAC can supports twice over the total length of the line. In practice,
be determine din the same way. Using VAB + VAC = 3VAN the line conductors should be transposed that each of the
and qA + qB + qC = 0, the capacitance to neutral is three possible arrangements of conductors exist for one
20 third of the total length of line. This is illustrated in Figures
CAN = F/m 120 and 129.
Dm 3 h12 h23 h31
ln ln
r h1 h2 h3
The above expression for capacitance reveals that the
presence of earth increases the line capacitance by a small
amount. However, the effect is very very small because
the height of the conductors is large as compared to the
distance between them.
Examples:
1. The conductors in a single phase transmission line
are 6 m above ground. Each conductor has a diameter
of 1.5 cm and the two conductors are spaced 3 m
apart. Calculate the capacitance per km of the line (i)
excluding ground effect and (ii) including the ground
Figure 129 Transposition of Three Phase Lines
effect.
2. The conductors in a three phase transmission line An unbalanced system, may be of conductors,
are 6 m above ground. Each conductor has a diameter symmetrically placed, and cannot be represented by three
of 1.5 cm and the two adjacent conductors are spaced simple inductances, without making transposition. The
3 m apart. Calculate the capacitance per km of the line effect of unbalanced currents is neutralized in case of
(i) excluding ground effect and (ii) including the ground conductors being transposed regularly at intervals.
effect. The transposition of conductors also reduces the
3. The conductors in a single phase 10 km transmission disturbances to the nearby communication circuits. In
line are 6m above the ground. Each conductor is of 1.5 composite line, the line carrying telephone line conductors
cm diameter and the conductors are spaced 3m apart. below the power line conductors, it is also necessary to
If the supply voltage is 33 kV. Determine the following: transpose the telephone line conductors to keep down the
a. The capacitance of the line including the effect of disturbances.
ground.
REFERENCES:
b. The capacitance of the line neglecting the effect of
[1] Das, Debapriya (2006). Electrical Power System. New
ground.
Age International Publishers
c. The charging current between conductors.
[2] Glover, J. Duncan, Sarma, Mulukutla S. and Overbye,
Transposition of 3 Phase Lines
Thomas (2012). Power System: Analysis & Design.
The inductance and capacitance of each phase will be
CENGAGE Learning.
different in case of conductors of three phase line being
[3] Gupta, J.B. (2012). Transmission and Distribution of
spaced irregularly. The apparent resistance of the
Electrical Power. S.K. Kataria & Sons
conductors is also affected because transfer of power
[4] Mehta, V.K. and Mehta, R. (2005). Principles of Power
between the phases, which occur due to mutual
System. S.CHAND Publishing
inductance. Thus, all the three line constants are affected
[4] Ramar, S. and Kuruseelan, S. (2013). Power System
by irregular spacing of the conductors in a 3 phase line.
Analysis. PHI Learning Private Limited
Also, due to unsymmetrical spacing, the magnetic field
[5] Stevenson, William D. Jr. (1982). Elements of Power
external to the conductors is not zero, thereby causing
System Analysis. McGraw Hill Book Company
induced voltages in adjacent electrical circuits, particularly
[6] Theraja, B.L. and Theraja, A.K. (2003). A Textbook of
the telephone lines that may cause disturbances in the
Electrical Technology. S. Chand & Company LTD.
telephone lines.
The unbalancing effect because of irregular spacing of line
conductors can be avoided by transposition of line
conductors. Transposition of line conductors means
changing the position of the three phases on the line

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Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

Power System Structure

Figure 6 Single Line Diagram of Power System

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 2

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 3

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 4

The basis for comparison between the various systems of I1 =

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 6

Figure 14 Single Phase AC System,

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 7

Figure 21 Two Wire DC System 2P

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 8

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 16

7. Lightning troubles are also minimized as each Classification of Steel Towers

5. Easy availability conductor has about 75% of the ultimate strength

Figure 44 Cross Arms

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 21

Figure 48 Guys and Stays

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 22

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 23

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 24

length of span, etc. remain the same. Working tensile

Figure 52 Conductor Tension

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 25

If x = L/2, then The maximum dip (sag) is represented by the

Figure 57 Parabolic Cable

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 27

Also, x1 + x2 = L 1 m above water level, the horizontal distance between

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 31

In fact, there are no clear cut guidelines for locating the or Le =

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 32

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 34

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 36

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 37

routine tests are to be conducted. Spark over voltage at power frequen cy

1800) the pieces are removed from the 3. Routine Tests

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 39

V4 = V1 k + V2 k + V3 (1 + k) = V1 (1 + 6K + when used on a 66 kV line. Also, calculate the string

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 44

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 47

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 48

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 49

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 50

The skin effect is much smaller with stranded conductors 1

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 51

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 52

Linkages of the shell, Thus, inductance due to external flux,

Figure 92 External Flux of a Conductor

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 53

Figure 94 Cross - Sectional View of Group of n Conductors and Distances of

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 54

10. In a single phase line, conductors a and a in parallel Similarly,

Figure 99 Transposition of a 3 - Phase Line

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 56

In this position d1 = d2 = d and d3 = 2d Calculate inductance per km of each conductor when

inductance of the equivalent single circuit would be half of Inductance of conductor A,

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 58

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 59

4. Have comparatively lower surge impedance with a

Figure 111 4 Strand Bundle Conductor Figure 114

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 60

flow of voltage between the conductors at the point. Thus, q 1

Simplifying, assuming balanced load conditions,

it is concentrated on the conductor axis. Therefore, for our Examples: