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Introduction 9.1
Co-ordination procedure 9.2
Principles of time/current grading 9.3
Standard I.D.M.T. overcurrent relays 9.4
Combined I.D.M.T. and high set
instantaneous overcurrent relays 9.5
Very Inverse overcurrent relays 9.6
Extremely Inverse overcurrent relays 9.7
Other relay characteristics 9.8
Independent (definite) time overcurrent relays 9.9
Relay current setting 9.10
Relay time grading margin 9.11
Recommended grading margins 9.12
Calculation of phase fault overcurrent relay settings 9.13
Directional phase fault overcurrent relays 9.14
Ring mains 9.15
Earth fault protection 9.16
Directional earth fault overcurrent protection 9.17
Earth fault protection on insulated networks 9.18
Earth fault protection on Petersen Coil
earthed networks 9.19
Examples of time and current grading 9.20
References 9.21
• 9 • Overcurrent P rotection
for Phase and Earth Faults
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Protection against excess current was naturally the
earliest protection system to evolve. From this basic
principle, the graded overcurrent system, a discriminative
fault protection, has been developed. This should not be
confused with ‘overload’ protection, which normally
makes use of relays that operate in a time related in
some degree to the thermal capability of the plant to be
protected. Overcurrent protection, on the other hand, is
directed entirely to the clearance of faults, although with
the settings usually adopted some measure of overload
protection may be obtained.
has current settings equal to or less than the relays and E have time to operate. The time interval t1 between
behind it, that is, that the primary current required each relay time setting must be long enough to ensure
to operate the relay in front is always equal to or that the upstream relays do not operate before the
less than the primary current required to operate circuit breaker at the fault location has tripped and
the relay behind it. cleared the fault.
The main disadvantage of this method of discrimination
is that the longest fault clearance time occurs for faults
9.3 PRINCIPLES OF TIME/CURRENT GRADING in the section closest to the power source, where the
Among the various possible methods used to achieve fault level (MVA) is highest.
correct relay co-ordination are those using either time or
overcurrent, or a combination of both. The common aim
of all three methods is to give correct discrimination. 9.3.2 Discrimination by Current
That is to say, each one must isolate only the faulty Discrimination by current relies on the fact that the fault
section of the power system network, leaving the rest of current varies with the position of the fault because of
the system undisturbed. the difference in impedance values between the source
and the fault. Hence, typically, the relays controlling the
various circuit breakers are set to operate at suitably
9.3.1 Discrimination by Time tapered values of current such that only the relay nearest
In this method, an appropriate time setting is given to to the fault trips its breaker. Figure 9.2 illustrates the
each of the relays controlling the circuit breakers in a method.
power system to ensure that the breaker nearest to the For a fault at F1, the system short-circuit current is given
fault opens first. A simple radial distribution system is by:
shown in Figure 9.1, to illustrate the principle.
6350
• 9• I = A
Z S + Z L1
E D C B A
where Zs = source impedance
112
t1 t1 t1 = = 0.485Ω
F
250
ZL1 = cable impedance between C and B
Figure 9.1: Radial system with time discrimination
= 0.24Ω
Overcurrent protection is provided at B, C, D and E, that 11
is, at the infeed end of each section of the power system. Hence I= = 8800 A
3 ×0.725
Each protection unit comprises a definite-time delay
overcurrent relay in which the operation of the current So, a relay controlling the circuit breaker at C and set to
sensitive element simply initiates the time delay element. operate at a fault current of 8800A would in theory
Provided the setting of the current element is below the protect the whole of the cable section between C and B.
fault current value, this element plays no part in the However, there are two important practical points that
achievement of discrimination. For this reason, the relay affect this method of co-ordination:
TD ⎧
⎪ ⎛ 0.02394 ⎞ ⎫
⎪
US CO2 Short Time Inverse t = ⎨ ⎜ 0.02 ⎟ + 0.01694 ⎬
7 ⎪⎝ I r −1 ⎠ ⎪
⎩ ⎭
time
Table 9.1: Definitions of standard relay characteristics
Relay A operating
time
1.00
1000.00
0.10
100 1000 10,000 100.00
Current (A)
Relay A: Current Setting = 100A, TMS = 1.0
Relay B: Current Setting = 125A, TMS = 1.3
3
TMS
100.00 1.0
2 0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
Time (seconds)
1
0.4
Operating Time (seconds)
0.8
0.3
0.6
10.00 0.2
0.3
0.1
0.2
1.00 0.1
Moderately Inverse 1 2 3 4 6 8 10 20 30
Current (multiples of plug settings)
Figure 9.4 (b): IDMT relay characteristics 9.5 COMBINED I.D.M.T. AND HIGH SET
INSTANTANEOUS OVERCURRENT RELAYS
The mathematical descriptions of the curves are given in A high-set instantaneous element can be used where the
Table 9.1(a), and the curves based on a common setting source impedance is small in comparison with the
current and time multiplier setting of 1 second are protected circuit impedance. This makes a reduction in
the tripping time at high fault levels possible. It also
shown in Figure 9.4(a). The tripping characteristics for
improves the overall system grading by allowing the
• 9•
different TMS settings using the SI curve are illustrated
in Figure 9.5. 'discriminating curves' behind the high set instantaneous
elements to be lowered.
Although the curves are only shown for discrete values of
TMS, continuous adjustment may be possible in an As shown in Figure 9.6, one of the advantages of the high
electromechanical relay. For other relay types, the setting set instantaneous elements is to reduce the operating
steps may be so small as to effectively provide continuous time of the circuit protection by the shaded area below
adjustment. In addition, almost all overcurrent relays are the 'discriminating curves'. If the source impedance
also fitted with a high-set instantaneous element. remains constant, it is then possible to achieve high-
speed protection over a large section of the protected
In most cases, use of the standard SI curve proves circuit. The rapid fault clearance time achieved helps to
satisfactory, but if satisfactory grading cannot be
minimise damage at the fault location. Figure 9.6 also
achieved, use of the VI or EI curves may help to resolve
illustrates a further important advantage gained by the
the problem. When digital or numeric relays are used,
use of high set instantaneous elements. Grading with
other characteristics may be provided, including the
the relay immediately behind the relay that has the
possibility of user-definable curves. More details are
instantaneous elements enabled is carried out at the
provided in the following sections.
current setting of the instantaneous elements and not at
a lower TMS for the same setting current, and hence the
tripping time at source can be minimised.
0.1
100 1000
0 10,000
0 100.00
Source R1 R2 Ratio R3
250 MVA
11kV
400/1A 100/1A 50/1A
Fault level 13.000A Fault level 2300A Fault level 1100A
inverse
v s (EI)
E 9.10 RELAY CURRENT SETTING
An overcurrent relay has a minimum operating current,
known as the current setting of the relay. The current
setting must be chosen so that the relay does not
200A
A Fuse
us operate for the maximum load current in the circuit • 9•
0.1 being protected, but does operate for a current equal or
100 1000 10,000 greater to the minimum expected fault current.
Current (amps)
Although by using a current setting that is only just
Figure 9.8: Comparison of relay above the maximum load current in the circuit a certain
and fuse characteristics
degree of protection against overloads as well as faults
may be provided, the main function of overcurrent
9.8 OTHER RELAY CHARACTERISTICS protection is to isolate primary system faults and not to
User definable curves may be provided on some types of provide overload protection. In general, the current
digital or numerical relays. The general principle is that the setting will be selected to be above the maximum short
user enters a series of current/time co-ordinates that are time rated current of the circuit involved. Since all relays
stored in the memory of the relay. Interpolation between have hysteresis in their current settings, the setting must
points is used to provide a smooth trip characteristic. Such be sufficiently high to allow the relay to reset when the
a feature, if available, may be used in special cases if none rated current of the circuit is being carried. The amount
of the standard tripping characteristics is suitable. of hysteresis in the current setting is denoted by the
However, grading of upstream protection may become pick-up/drop-off ratio of a relay – the value for a modern
more difficult, and it is necessary to ensure that the curve relay is typically 0.95. Thus, a relay minimum current
R1A
R
2A
R
3A
R4A
Time (seconds)
T4
1 T3
T
2
Overcurrent Protection for Phase and Earth Faults
T
1
0.1
10 100 1
1000 10.000
Fault current (amps)
R1 R2 R3 R4
R1A R2A R3A R4A
Settings of independent (definite) time relay Settings of I.D.M.T. relay with standard inverse characteristic
R 300A 1.8s R 300A 0.2TMS
1A 1A
R 175A 1.4s R 175A 0.3TMS
R 100A 1.0s R 100A 0.37TMS
R set at 57.5A 0.6s R set at 57.5A 0.42TMS
4A 4A
• 9•
setting of at least 1.05 times the short-time rated ii. relay timing errors
current of the circuit is likely to be required.
iii. the overshoot time of the relay
iv. CT errors
9.11 RELAY TIME GRADING MARGIN
v. final margin on completion of operation
The time interval that must be allowed between the
operation of two adjacent relays in order to achieve Factors (ii) and (iii) above depend to a certain extent on
correct discrimination between them is called the grading the relay technology used – an electromechanical relay,
margin. If a grading margin is not provided, or is for instance, will have a larger overshoot time than a
insufficient, more than one relay will operate for a fault, numerical relay.
leading to difficulties in determining the location of the
Grading is initially carried out for the maximum fault
fault and unnecessary loss of supply to some consumers.
level at the relaying point under consideration, but a
The grading margin depends on a number of factors: check is also made that the required grading margin
i. the fault current interrupting time of the circuit exists for all current levels between relay pick-up current
breaker and maximum fault level.
Time (seconds)
the calculation of grading margin. 8
6
9.11.2 Relay Timing Error
4
All relays have errors in their timing compared to the
ideal characteristic as defined in IEC 60255. For a relay 3
specified to IEC 60255, a relay error index is quoted that
The A phase relay element is supplied with current Ia and at the relay are such that, in practice, the magnitude of
voltage Vbc displaced by 45° in an anti-clockwise the current input to the relay would be insufficient to
direction. The relay maximum sensitivity is produced cause the overcurrent element to operate. It can be
when the current lags the system phase to neutral shown analytically that the possibility of maloperation
voltage by 45°. This connection gives a correct with the 90°-45° connection is, for all practical purposes,
directional tripping zone over the current range of 45° non-existent.
leading to 135° lagging. The relay sensitivity at unity
power factor is 70.7% of the maximum torque and the
same at zero power factor lagging; see Figure 9.12. 9.14.3 Application of Directional Relays
This connection is recommended for the protection of If non-unit, non-directional relays are applied to parallel
transformer feeders or feeders that have a zero sequence feeders having a single generating source, any faults that
source in front of the relay. It is essential in the case of might occur on any one line will, regardless of the relay
parallel transformers or transformer feeders, in order to settings used, isolate both lines and completely
ensure correct relay operation for faults beyond the disconnect the power supply. With this type of system
star/delta transformer. This connection should also be configuration, it is necessary to apply directional relays
used whenever single-phase directional relays are at the receiving end and to grade them with the non-
applied to a circuit where a current distribution of the directional relays at the sending end, to ensure correct
form 2-1-1 may arise. discriminative operation of the relays during line faults.
This is done by setting the directional relays R1’ and R2’
Ia in Figure 9.13 with their directional elements looking
into the protected line, and giving them lower time and
TA
Va
V'bc is to set relays R1’ and R2’ to 50% of the normal full load
Zero torque line
of the protected circuit and 0.1TMS, but care must be
• 9• 45° taken to ensure that the continuous thermal rating of
45° the relays of twice rated current is not exceeded. An
example calculation is given in Section 9.20.3
135°
R1 R'1
Vbc
Source I>
Vc Vb I> Load
Fault
R'2 R2
A phase element connected Ia Vbc
B phase element connected Ib Vca
C phase element connected Ic Vab I>
I>
Figure 9.12: Vector diagram for the 90°-45° connection
(phase A element) Figure 9.13: Directional relays applied to parallel feeders
A
9.16 EARTH FAULT PROTECTION
In the foregoing description, attention has been B
Overcurrent Protection for Phase and Earth Faults
Secondary voltage
setting of 20% will have an impedance of 25 times that
20
of a similar element with a setting of 100%. Very
frequently, this burden will exceed the rated burden of
the current transformers. It might be thought that 10
correspondingly larger current transformers should be Current transformer
Vc Vb Vc Vb
9.18 EARTH-FAULT PROTECTION ON INSULATED
NETWORKS
(b) Balanced system (c) Unbalanced system
(zero residual volts) Occasionally, a power system is run completely insulated
fault (3Vo residual volts) from earth. The advantage of this is that a single phase-
earth fault on the system does not cause any earth fault
Figure 9.18: Voltage polarised directional earth fault relay
Vapf
9.18.1 Residual Voltage Restrain
Overcurrent Protection for Phase and Earth Faults
IR1
When a single phase-earth fault occurs, the healthy Ib1
IL
-IH1
-IIC IR1=IH1
Ib1
IL -I
A IR3 =-I +I
IR3 =- -IH2
-
-IIB Ia1
Vac Vab
N
Vres=-3V
VO Vres=-3V
VO
C B
Current vectors for A phase fault b) Unfaulted line c) Faulted line
Figure 9.21: Earth fault in Petersen Coil earthed system Figure 9.23: C phase-earth fault in Petersen Coil earthed
network: theoretical case –no resistance present in XL or XC
feeder
IROH Having established that a directional relay can be used,
Healthy two possibilities exist for the type of protection element
IROH feeders that can be applied – sensitive earth fault and zero
IL
sequence wattmetric.
IH3 IH2 IH1
3XL -VO
Xco 9.19.1 Sensitive Earth Fault Protection
To apply this form of protection, the relay must meet two
Key:
IROF=residual current on faulted feeder requirements:
IROH=residual current on healthy feeder
It can therefore be seen that: a. current measurement setting capable of being set
-IOF=IL-IH1-IH2-IH3 to very low values
IROF=IH3+IOF
So: b. an RCA of 0°, and capable of fine adjustment
-IROF=IL=IH1-IH2 around this value
Figure 9.24: Zero sequence network showing
The sensitive current element is required because of the
residual currents
very low current that may flow – so settings of less than
0.5% of rated current may be required. However, as
compensation by the Petersen Coil may not be perfect,
Resistive component Resistive component in feeder
(I 1+IH2+IH3)'
low levels of steady-state earth-fault current will flow
in grounding coil
I'L A 3VO and increase the residual current seen by the relay. An
often used setting value is the per phase charging
current of the circuit being protected.
N
Fine tuning of the RCA is also required about the 0°
• 9• setting, to compensate for coil and feeder resistances
C B and the performance of the CT used. In practice, these
a) Capacitive and inductive currents adjustments are best carried out on site through
with resistive components
deliberate application of faults and recording of the
Restrain resulting currents.
Operate IL
IR1=IH1 Zero torque line
for O° RCA
9.19.2 Sensitive Wattmetric Protection
-IH1-IH2
It can be seen in Figure 9.25 that a small angular
IR3
=I +I
IR3 F H3 difference exists between the spill current on the healthy
=IL-IH1-IH2 and faulted feeders. Figure 9.26 illustrates how this
Vres=-3VO Restrain
angular difference gives rise to active components of
Zero torque line for 0° RCA Vres=-3VO
Operate current which are in antiphase to each other.
b) Unfaulted line c) Faulted line Consequently, the active components of zero sequence
Figure 9.25: C phase-earth fault in Petersen Coil earthed power will also lie in similar planes and a relay capable
network: practical case with resistance present in XL or XC of detecting active power can make a discriminatory
IR1
Zero torque line Restrain
of residual current: for O° RCA
healthy feeder
Bus C
11kV
The current and RCA settings are as for a sensitive earth FS2 FS1
160A 125A
fault relay. F1
F2
150/5 I> 200/5 I>
IS = 120% IS = 110%
9.20 EXAMPLES OF TIME AND CURRENT GRADING TMS = 0.25 TMS = 0.1
Max load 130A Max load 190A Max load 90A
This section provides details of the time/current grading
of some example networks, to illustrate the process of Figure 9.28: IDMT relay grading example
relay setting calculations and relay grading. They are
based on the use of a modern numerical overcurrent The problem is to calculate appropriate relay settings for
relay illustrated in Figure 9.27, with setting data taken relays 1-5 inclusive. Because the example is concerned
from this relay. with grading, considerations such as bus-zone
By re-arrangement of the formula for the EI 2. for a fault at Bus C where the fault current seen by
10.00
Relay F1
Relay F2
Fuse FS1
Time (sec)
Relays 1/2
Relay 3
0.01
100 1000 10000 100000
Current (A)
100.00
10.00
Relay F1
Time (sec)
Relay F2
Fuse FS1
Fuse FS2
1.00
Relays 1/2
Relay 3 • 9•
Relay 4
0.10
0.01
100 1000 10000 100000
Current (A)
100.00
Relay F1
Relay F2
10.00 Fuse FS1
• 9• Fuse FS2
Relays 1/2
Relay 3
Time (sec)
1.00 Relay 4
Relay 5
0.10
0.01
100 1000 10000 100000
Current (A)
Figure 9.30: Final relay grading curves for overcurrent relay example
Time (sec)
10000MVA > F3 Relays 2/3
If Bus P
220k Relays 4/5
Bus Q 1 1.00
50MVA 110kV II>
Z=12.5% Relay 6
Ie b 0.10
5 3 100 1000 10000 100000
II> II>
Current (A)
4 2 (b) Relay grading curves - non-directional relays
I >
I Z=0.25puI
Bus Q I
I> The settings shown in Figure 9.32(a) can be arrived at,
Ie Ib with the relay operation times shown in Figure 9.32(b).
3 It is clear that for a fault at F3 with both transformer
II> I
I>
All impedances
p to feeders in service, relay 3 operates at the same time as
100MVA, 110kV base relay 2 and results in total disconnection of Bus Q and
(b) Impedance diagram
all consumers supplied solely from it. This is undesirable
– the advantages of duplicated 100% rated transformers
Figure 9.31: System diagram: Parallel feeder example have been lost.
By making relays 2 and 3 directional as shown in Figure
The example shows that unless relays 2 and 3 are made 9.33(a), lower settings for these relays can be adopted –
directional, they will maloperate for a fault at F3. Also they can be set as low as reasonably practical but
shown is how to calculate appropriate relay settings for normally a current setting of about 50% of feeder full • 9•
all six relays to ensure satisfactory protection for faults load current is used, with a TMS of 0.1. Grading rules
at locations F1-F4. can be established as follows:
Figure 9.31(b) shows the impedance diagram, to a. relay 4 is graded with relay 1 for faults at location
100MVA, 110kV base. The fault currents for faults with F1 with one transformer feeder in service
various system configurations are shown in Table 9.6. b. relay 4 is graded with relay 3 for faults at location
F3 with two transformer feeders in service
Fault System Currents (A)
Position Config. Fault Ia Ib Ic Id Ie If
c. relay 6 grades with relay 4 for faults at F4
F1 2 fdrs 3888 1944 1944 0 972 972 1944 d. relay 6 also has to grade with relay 4 for faults at
F1/F2 1 fdr 2019 2019 0 0 1009 0 1009 F1 with both transformer feeders in service – relay 6
F2 2 fdrs 3888 1944 1944 0 972 972 1944 sees the total fault current but relay 4 only 50% of
F3 2 fdrs 3888 1944 1944 1944 972 972 1944 this current.
F4 1 fdr 26243 0 0 0 26243 0 26243
Table 9.6: Fault currents for parallel feeder example Normal rules about calculating current setting values
of relays in series apply. The settings and resulting
T1
4 50MVA 2
I> 5MVA 5MVA
Id Z=12,5% I Ic
a Z=7.15% Z=7.15%
6 IF4 IF3
F4 F3 1000/1 1000/1
I> Bus P
If T2
220kV
220/110kV 1
Source I
I> 50MVA Bus Q A
I> F1 F1
10000MVA 3.3kV
Z Ib 110kV
e CB8 CB1
5 3 IF2 I> I>
I> R8 1000/1 1000/1 R1
I>
diagram F2
C1 C4
=1km =1.5km
Relay CT Primary Current setting TMS Characteristic CB7 1000/1 1000/1 CB2
Overcurrent Protection for Phase and Earth Faults
1 300 1 0.2 SI
2 300 0.42 0.1 SI
3 300 0.42 0.1 SI R7 I>
D I> R2 B
4 300 0.6 0.275 SI
5 300 0.6 0.275 SI
6 300 0.7 0.475 SI CB6 1000/1 1000/1 CB3
(b) Relay settings
100.00 Relay 1 3.3kV 3.3kV
Relays 2/3 R6 C2 C3 R3
Relays 4/5 I> =1.3km =2km I>
Time (sec)
10.00
Relay 6
(i) Fault current 3888A - R5 R4
1.00 I> 1000/1 1000/1 I>
0.10 faults F1, F2 - 1 feeder
100 1000 10000
(ii) (i) (iii) (iii) Fault current 26243A - CB5 CB4
Current (A) - referred to 110kV fault F4 - 1 feeder C
3.3kV
(c) Relay characteristics
All cables are 3 x 1c x 1200mm2, AI conductor, Z = 0.09 Ω/km
Figure 9.33: Relay grading for parallel feeder example – VT's omitted for clarity
directional relays
Figure 9.34: Ring main grading example – circuit diagram
Table 9.7 shows the fault currents at each bus for open
10.00
points at CB1 and CB8.
For grading of the relays, consider relays looking in a
Time (sec)
clockwise direction round the ring, i.e. relays R1/R3/R5/R7.
9.20.4.1 Relay R7
1.00