Professional Documents
Culture Documents
INTRODUCTION
Those wishing to study leadership to improve their effectiveness
need to be aware of three related facts: leadership is a complex
phenomenon; it varies significantly from one situation to the next; and
those wishing to study it must be willing to consider more sophisticated
-------------------------
* Montgomery Van Wart, Ph.D., is Professor and Chair, Department of Public
Administration, University of Central Florida. His research interest is in
training and organization behavior.
Van Wart
changes. How well do followers understand their roles, do they have all
the skills necessary, and are they motivated to work hard? Are
organizational processes supportive of productivity, teamwork, and
morale? Is the organization creative and innovative enough to stay
abreast of contemporary organizational practice? Does the organization
have an eye to the opportunities and threats occurring outside its
boundaries, and is it able to adapt quickly and flexibly? In addition,
leaders must know their constraints: by law, by position, by resources,
and by their own leadership limitations. They must also know how to
push these bounds back (with the exception of the law in the public
sector), when necessary over time, in order to meet the challenges
leaders face. Finally, in conducting this ongoing assessment, leaders must
be able to set goals and priorities for themselves and for their
organizations.
Leaders come to various situations in varying stages of readiness.
Leader characteristics are a large part of that readiness. While no
absolute set of characteristics is necessary in all leadership situations,
certain traits and skills tend to be significantly more important than
others. Traits are those characteristics that are primarily inherent and
become a part of ones personality, while skills are characteristics that are
primarily learned. This is not to say that traits cannot be enhanced,
especially through training and/or indoctrination; nor is it to say that
some people do not have a natural gift for some skills. Leaders tend to
be perceived as self-confident and this tends to be an innate personality
characteristic; nonetheless, those with excellent technical training and
substantial experience become far more self-confident. On the other
hand, while communication skills take practice and study to master,
some people clearly have native abilities in oral or writing skills.
Leaders also bring a leadership style set to situations. A style can
be thought of as the dominant pattern of a leader behaving in a position.
Rather than referring to all aspects of leadership, style normally refers to
decisional patterns of follower inclusion, although it can also refer to the
communication style, individual versus group team patterns of
leadership, and use of influence tactics. People have a preferred mode of
leadership. Good leaders generally have alternate modes so that they are
not dependent on a single style and can adjust to a variety of situational
needs. Like leader characteristics, styles are antecedent to leadership in
that they are prior aspects of the leaders repertoire and to some degree
are an explicit method of accomplishing specific goals. Yet styles, like
A COMPREHENSIVE MODEL OF ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP 177
FIGURE 1
An Overview of the Leadership Action Cycle
Leader assesses
organization, Leader uses
traits & skills Leader acts in Leader
environment,
three major evaluates his
leader
areas related own and
constraints; then
to task, organizational
sets personal & Leader uses people, and effectiveness
organizational style range organization
goals
Task Skills
Do subordinates have the education and training to do the job? Do
they have experience doing it? Is this education, training, and experience
well matched to the current job? Problems can occur in this area because
recruitment is faulty and people are hired with weak training and
experience, the formal training system is weak or nonexistent, and the
informal on-the-job system does not correct worker errors. Examples
A COMPREHENSIVE MODEL OF ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP 179
Role Clarity
Even if workers are skilled and have experience in their current jobs,
do they know what they are supposed to do and with whom? Does the
unit have areas where everybody seems to be responsible for some things
but other important work needs are unattended? This is generally less of
a problem in highly automated or formalized work systems that are well
organized. This is a problem, however, when such mechanized
systems must be retooled to accommodate new technologies or
mandates. Further, because so much front-line production work in
government today is contracted out, much of what is left is complex
work requiring extensive amounts of coordination. Role clarity is also a
problem when formal rewards are not well matched to important role
responsibilities.
It is rare for leaders to have all the resources they would like.
Resources include the manpower to accomplish the work, pay and
benefits for employees, tools and equipment, and the work environment
such as office space. Some leaders in chief executive officer positions
are nearly wholly focused on resource expansion while most line
supervisors can do little to change their bureaucratic allocation in this
respect. Resource expansion (or protection) is an important leader
function but one that is highly time- and energy-consuming. Support
services are also a kind of resource that, when missing, detract from an
organization or units ability to function at peak capacity. Support
services include line departments such as personnel, information
technology support, and specialized services such as transportation or
repair units.
Subordinate Effort
How hard do subordinates perceive they work? How hard do they
seem to work relative to standards using comparative output measures?
The difference in just 10% additional routine productivity in a unit of 10
people is a full-time equivalent position. Subordinate effort may play an
even more important function in problem solving, special project
accomplishment, and professional growth. Providing motivation through
direct actions and indirect system support is an enormous part of a
leaders generally perceived role.
TABLE 1
Leaders Assessment of the Organization and Leader Constraints
Organization and environment
1. task skills
2. role clarity
3. innovation and creativity
4. resources and support services
5. subordinate effort
6. cohesiveness and cooperation
7. organization of work and performance strategies
8. external coordination and adaptability
Constraints
1. legal/contractual constraints
2. limitations of position power
3. the availability of resources
4. limits of leadership abilities
Because time, energy, and money are always scarce, leaders must
select goals to achieve and then prioritize them. What will the primary
A COMPREHENSIVE MODEL OF ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP 183
possession of a select series of traits and skills. Yet that is not to say that
they are not important and that the possession of certain traits and skills
does not lead to the emergence of leadership far more frequently than
their absence. We now turn to a review of those more significant traits
and skills.
Traits
Many would like to think that physical traits do not, or at least
should not, bear on leadership. Research has shown that many physical
traits have generally positive but weak correlations, such as height, attire,
gender, and attractiveness (Bass, 1990). That is, there is a slightly better
chance of being in a leadership position if you are taller, well dressed,
male, and attractive. A more significant feature, however, is
comportment. An effective leaders physical presence tends to give
others a sense of confidence and well-being. Such comportment may
mean a rather measured and gracious demeanor for a chief executive
officer or simply the lack of annoying mannerisms in the case of others.
Personal traits are among the most powerfully correlated with
leadership. Some of the most commonly cited include: self-confidence,
decisiveness, resilience, flexibility, energy, and willingness to assume
responsibility. Yet despite their general importance, no traits are
absolute. Further, they may peak in the moderate range or they may be
highly linked with at least one other mitigating characteristic. Thus, self-
confidence leads others to want to follow (even if the leader has a poor
idea) but excessive self-confidence can turn into egotism, stubbornness,
or aloofness. Decisiveness is good because decisions have to be made so
that work can proceed; yet numerous situations call for deliberation and
slower participative processes such as those with poorly structured
problems, leader ignorance, and problems with longer time horizons
(Vroom & Jago, 1988). Resilience (or persistence) is an important trait
of leaders because long-term, higher range goals may mean hard work,
occasional failures to overcome, and a willingness to achieve certain
goals despite temporary discomfort. Yet excessive resilience may lead to
insensitivity of follower needs and an unwillingness to acknowledge
unproductive strategies. Resilience is normally softened and made more
pragmatic with flexibility. Flexible leaders will understand that
situations evolve, the types of resources may need adaptation, and
original plans may be improved with learning. Yet an excessively
flexible leader may be perceived as weak, indeterminate, or too willing
to compromise. Because of the demands of leadership it is hard to have
A COMPREHENSIVE MODEL OF ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP 185
Skills
Although a useful heuristic tool which we will employ here, in
reality it is impossible to sharply demarcate traits (innate and very early
imprinted characteristics) and skills (characteristics most susceptible to
improvement with learning, especially in adulthood). We will discuss
four skills: technical skills, communication skills, influence and
negotiation skills, and the skill of continual learning.
It has been understood for a long time that all leaders need technical
skills, but the amount and type of those skills tends to shift according to
the level of the position in an organization (Katz, 1955). Technical skills
include not only the content or generic knowledge of the subject, but also
the knowledge of the processes actually used in the organizational
setting. Technical credibility, also known as expertise, can be an
important source of power (French & Raven, 1959). A front-line
supervisor needs more technical skills because they are reviewing the
actual production of the service or product. Technical skills generally
become less important as mid-level managers focus on program
management and use more interpersonal skills, and conceptual skills
become more important for executives who must make sure that overall
systems are functioning smoothly. This old maxim was strongly
endorsed in the research of McCall, Lombardo, and Morrison (1988)
who studied the patterns that led executives to become derailed in their
careers. They found that one prevalent pattern was for technically
sophisticated front-line supervisors to become too reliant on narrow
technical expertise, which at higher levels led to insensitivity and
arrogance. An important exception to the rule of diminishing technical
expertise, however, is the entrepreneurial manager/executive whose
primary function is development of a breakthrough process or
technology in the reengineering (invention) tradition. Yet even here
technical brilliance can be quite insufficient for the entrepreneur who
completely ignores interpersonal and systems issues.
A COMPREHENSIVE MODEL OF ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP 187
In the extreme cases, some people wield power entirely through position
(and generally without much popularity) and, though less common, some
people wield considerable power without any position whatsoever. In
their classic analysis of social power, French and Raven (1959) further
specify types of social power. Position power includes legitimate power
which is the power of having an authorized position, coercive power
which is the power to punish people who do no comply, and reward
power which is the power to provide benefits to those who do. Personal
power stems from expert power, which is the power of knowledge, and
referent power, which is the power of being liked and/or trusted.
Weber (1946) pointed out long ago that public bureaucracies are
structurally inclined to emphasize legitimate power through finely
detailed authorizing processes and expert power because of the
preference to hire and promote based on merit. He also pointed out that
referent power (charisma) is generally required from leaders bent on
great changes, although it is substantially less critical in mature
organizations. From contemporary practice we know that coercive and
reward power are relatively difficult to exercise in the public sector, at
least in comparison to the private sector, and we will simply assert for
our current purposes that referent power is significantly underutilized.
Generalizing for simplicity, it is purported that leaders are best advised to
use positional power sparingly and strategically, and to try to rely most
heavily on their personal power (Barnard, 1938; Stone, 1945). This
affects the choice of influence strategies from legitimacy (using an
authority base) and pressure tactics (using coercive and reward powers)
more toward tactics such as rational persuasion (the use of logic),
consultation, exchange, emotional appeal (e.g., helping for the common
good), ingratiation (building personal goodwill over time), and personal
appeals (e.g., helping the individual requestor). This oversimplifies a
vast and complex area but does provide a reference point for the analysis
of leaders use of power.
Although continual learning has become a more popular concept
in the last decade and has been democratized to cover most of the
workforce, it has long been recognized as an important
executive/leadership skill (Argyris & Schn, 1974). At a minimum,
leaders are required to handle daily problems, and more often than not,
they have a number of major decisions that they are working on. Such
activities generally require large amounts of new data that must be
related to unique situations. Old solutions must be adapted, or entirely
A COMPREHENSIVE MODEL OF ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP 189
LEADER STYLES
Leader style refers to the dominant and defining behavioral patterns
of the leader. For simplicity one can talk of a single, overall style for a
TABLE 3
The Personal Traits and Skills of Leaders
Traits
1. Physical traits:
comportment
2. Personal traits (stable personality dispositions):
Self confidence
Decisiveness
Resilience
Flexibility
Energy
Willingness to assume responsibility
3. Motivational traits (desire for stimulus)
Need for achievement
4. Value traits
Fairness/integrity/honesty
Drive for excellence
Service motivation and customer service orientation
5. Aptitudes (inherent generalized capacities)
Emotional maturity
Skills
1. Technical skills (technical credibility)
2. Communication
3. Influencing and negotiating/power
4. Continual learning
leader, but in reality very few effective leaders have a single style that
they use all of the time. Effective leaders vary their styles from situation
to situation. Leaders may use styles consciously; as often they are
190 VAN WART
unconscious in their use of style and may even be oblivious to the fact
that many of their actions belie their espoused style (that is, the style they
think and state they have). Followers also attribute styles to leaders from
the behaviors they observe; again, these observations may or may not be
consistent with each other because of different observations and
perspectives of the leader. Effective leaders know what styles tend to be
needed in given situations, what their preferred and alternate styles are,
and are able to self-consciously adapt their style (Hersey & Blanchard,
1969) or the situation (Fielder, Chemers & Mahar, 1976) for maximum
success.
Many factors impinge upon leader styles: follower characteristics,
environmental contingencies, and power structures chief among them. A
leader generally should not use the same style with a group of new
employees as with a group of 25-year veteran employees. Nor would
one use the same style with an employee about to be suspended as one
would use with an award-winning employee. In terms of environmental
contingencies, the most prominent is the crisis, in which more directive
modes and greater decisiveness are generally called for. Even the culture
of the organization or unit will affect the style used. For example, it is
common in larger divisions or agencies where there are substantial
external contacts to maintain and develop for the CEO to focus nearly
exclusively on those external affairs, and the chief deputy to handle
internal operations, thereby resulting in a dual leadership model
substantially affecting the styles the respective leaders employ.
Just as all people have inherent personality characteristics that define
their preferred and secondary personality modes, people have preferred
and secondary leadership styles too. The preferred mode is the one that a
leader feels most comfortable with and will tend to rely most heavily on
in ambiguous situations. Secondary styles are those that the leader can
employ, but generally it is a more conscious activity. The style range is
the degree to which the leader can use multiple styles. Style capacity is
the ability of a leader to employ a style effectively, no matter whether it
is a preferred or secondary style. It is quite possible that one leader
would have great capacity only in one style, and rarely use any
secondary styles, and for another to have a relatively comprehensive
range and use all of them poorly and be less effective overall. Of course
highly effective leaders not only have competence in a wide style range,
but are able to shift styles strategically according to different situations.
There is debate about how much a given leader can change his or her
A COMPREHENSIVE MODEL OF ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP 191
LEADER BEHAVIORS
Although traits and skills provide the reservoir of talent, and styles
provide the approach to the leadership task, it is through specific
behaviors that leaders ultimately act to attempt to fulfill their goals.
Consistent with our focus thus far, behaviors are divided into task,
people, and organizational activities. Each of these domains or sets of
activities are further sorted into assessment/evaluation, formulation and
A COMPREHENSIVE MODEL OF ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP 193
FIGURE 2
Factors Relating to Leader Styles
Styles Chosen
Situational Factors 1. Communication style
1.Style
Follower
Rangecharacteristics 2. Decisional style
2.1.
Environmental
Style preference 3. Change-orientation
2. contingencies
Style capacity Transactional
3. Power structure Task-oriented management
People-oriented management
Organization-oriented management
Transformational
planning, implementation, Entrepreneurial leadership
and change functions. For Charismatic leadership
Visionary leadership
example, the assessment
activity for task behavior is monitoring the work; for people behavior it
is consulting; and for organizational behavior it is scanning the
environment. In all, 21 behaviors are defined in this taxonomy.
Task Behaviors
Monitoring, as with the assessment activities in each domain, is
generally critical for the effective use of other task behaviors such as
planning, clarifying, and problem solving as well as some people
behaviors such as motivating and developing as well. Internal
monitoring gathers operational information about individuals, service or
product quality, and the effectiveness of programs. It can be conducted
by direct observation of work, reviewing productivity data, reading
reports, attending progress or quality meetings, inspecting work samples,
or conducting after-work reviews. Effective managers will generally
have several sources of data for more important work areas. Insufficient
monitoring can lead to many problems such as individual workers with
inadequate work practices (fossilized behavior), poor or uneven program
quality, unresolved or unforeseen problems, unrealistic planning, and
lack of concrete coordination, among others. All effective
managers/leaders spend a good deal of time monitoring, although it may
be done indirectly while outwardly performing other functions.
There are many types of planning, but our interest here is work
process planning, also known as operations planning. It is the division
and coordination of work; that is, how will the work be divided by
194 VAN WART
Interpersonal Behaviors
Consulting is the act of soliciting ideas and sentiments from others
with an interpersonal, rather than an operations, thrust (as in monitoring).
That is, the enrichment of the individual being consulted is as important
as any information that may be gleaned by the leader. 5 Because they are
related, monitoring and consulting often occur simultaneously, but it is
possible, and sometimes desirable, to do one without the other. For
example, by focusing on consulting a supervisor can discover how best
to motivate a specific employee, what types of development that they
would benefit from, and discover miscellaneous suggestions that might
never occur in a monitoring mode. Consulting can occur in many ways
such as in meetings and through surveys, but is generally most powerful
A COMPREHENSIVE MODEL OF ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP 197
Organizational Behaviors
Environmental scanning is the assessment function at the
organizational level. It involves looking outside the specific unit or
organization at other units and organizations for opportunities and
threats. Some of the major sources of information for government
agencies may be other agencies at the same level of government,
agencies at a different level of government, organizations in the private
sector, clients and customers, and any legislative and oversight bodies
with influence over the agency. Effective leaders will evaluate what
types of information are essential and relevant, make sure that they
200 VAN WART
TABLE 4
The Actions of Organizational Leaders
Leader actions: behavior domains
Task People Organizational
Assessment/ 1. monitor and 1. consult 1. scan the environment
Evaluation assess tasks
Formulation 2. operations 2. plan and 2. strategic planning
and planning planning organize
functions personnel
Implementa- 3. clarify roles and 3. develop staff 3. network and partner
tion functions objectives 4. motivate 4. perform general
4. inform 5. build and management functions
5. delegate manage teams 5. articulate the mission
and vision
Change 6. problem solving 6. manage 6. decision making
functions 7. manage conflict 7. manage organizational
innovation and 7. manage change
creativity personal change
organizations technical performance, follower development, and
organizational alignment. Which areas need the primary focus of the
leader in the upcoming period?
In terms of change focus, leaders will examine the success of past
strategic initiatives and the concrete change management that
accompanied them. Is the overall strategy sound? Is the change
implementation at an operational level working? Leaders will also look
204 VAN WART
CONCLUSION
The purpose of the article was to provide a snapshot of a leadership
action cycle of moderate complexity. It is descriptive in that it is based
on research and observations about what effective leaders must attend to
as a class. The discussion is prescriptive at a very general level with
regard to broad issues that effective leaders should consider. It cannot
provide detailed recommendations or prescriptions because different
leaders situations, talents, and priorities vary too much. However,
leaders can use this framework as a powerful analytic and interpretative
tool as they move through cycles of leadership over time. Indeed,
without a fairly clear, comprehensive model in mind to discipline and
structure their interpretation of the complex leadership phenomenon, it is
highly likely that they will neglect important aspects or fail to move on
to new phases as the demands of leadership evolve.
NOTES
1. Much of this section is adapted from Yukl, 1998.
2. This is often seen in the professions in which it is common to return
to front line work after a stint in a leadership position.
3. In addition to achievement, McClelland was also highly interested in
the need for power and the need for affiliation.
4. In the decision making literature delegation refers to a more limited
area of worker participation in decision making, that is, when the
worker or workers have been given full authority for a decision.
A COMPREHENSIVE MODEL OF ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP 205
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