MOTIVATION AND SELF-CONCEPT 1

Student Motivation in Music Education in Connection to Self-Concept and Mindset Theory

Alexandra Finnie

Ithaca College
MOTIVATION AND SELF-CONCEPT 2

Contrary to popular belief, it is not the teachers job to motivate students (Silver, p.

5). Motivation is not something that can be forced on a student. In reality, motivation

develops internally, within each person (Silver, p. 5-6). Therefore, this paper will examine

how students self-concept influences their motivation. According to Pajares and Schunk,

self-concept is an individuals overall perceptions of him/herself, relating to self-esteem,

self-awareness, self-image, and other self-beliefs (Pajares & Schunk, p. 88). Based on this

definition, one can conclude that attribution theory and mindset theory also play a role in

forming ones self-concept because they both affect the way in which a person thinks about

themselves, and consequently influence their motivation.

Attribution theory can be linked to Banduras self-efficacy model, which is defined

as an individuals belief of his/her capabilities to learn or develop a particular skill (Pajares

& Schunk, p. 85). Past experiences strongly impact self-efficacy beliefs. Self-efficacy also

affects the likelihood of a persons willingness to persevere in order to overcome a

challenge or setback (Pajares & Schunk, p. 86). These beliefs are influenced by the causes to

which he/she attributes success or failure.

According to West, attribution theory indicates that the students perceptions of the

causes for their successes and failures, instead of the actual reasons, determine the level of

motivation to learn or tackle a challenge in similar situations in the future (West, p. 12).

Stipeks 1998 study reveals that the most frequently ascribed causes of success and failure

are ability and effort (ONeill & McPherson, p. 36). Students who attribute their successes

and failures to ability tend to believe that increasing effort will not have any positive effects

(ONeill & McPherson, p. 37). It is detrimental to students learning when they do not value

effort. More specifically, problems arise in music education experiences when students
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believe that they do not have musical skills because they lack musical talent (Cogdill, p. 50).

Similar to attribution theory, mindset theory focuses on students self-concepts and how

they view failure.

Susan ONeill explains a mindset is a set or system of assumptions, beliefs, and

values that once established informs the goals we pursue, the decisions we make, and the

way we come to view ourselves and others in the world (ONeill, p. 37). Carol Dweck

developed the mindset theory, which originated from her interest in understanding how

people handle and react to failure (Dweck, 2006, p. 3). Dweck states the view you adopt for

yourself profoundly affects the way you lead your life. It can determine whether you

become the person you want to be and whether you accomplish the things you value

(Dweck, 2006, p. 6). Dwecks mindset theory is comprised of two schools of thought, fixed

mindset and growth mindset.

Fixed mindset is characterized by an entity self-theory in which individuals view all

abilities and intelligence as stable, unchangeable qualities. A fixed mindset is based on the

belief that talent and abilities are innate, and that different people have different natural

gifts. According to Dweck, people with a fixed mindset are often consumed with appearing

smart and constantly proving themselves to others. They are also less likely to take risks

because they are anxious about failing or struggling with a task (Dweck, 2006, p. 6).

Additionally, studies have shown that individuals with a fixed mindset are generally not

very accurate in self-assessments. A likely explanation for this inaccuracy is that they do

not want to acknowledge or think about their weaknesses (Dweck, 2006, p. 11). Teachers

should be aware that when their students have a fixed mindset, it causes them to feel
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inadequate when something does not come automatically to them and when they need to

put extra effort into mastering a task (Dweck, 2007, p. 35).

Students with a fixed mindset often demonstrate a process called self-handicapping,

where they withhold effort by not adequately preparing for a test, or by procrastinating

because they believe that needing to exert effort means that they lack ability (Dweck, 2000,

p. 41). These students do not value effort at all, which can be damaging to the learning

process (Dweck, 2000, p. 41). When an individual with a fixed mindset fails, he/she often

blames other people or uncontrollable external forces, as to not feel badly about

him/herself (ONeill, p. 38).

ONeill shares a quote from a 17-year old girl to portray how a music student can

adopt a fixed mindset:

I see myself as a musician. Thats all I can see myself as. Um, I think a musician isnt

something you kind of develop over time its something thats there at the

beginning and although you can appreciate it learn to appreciate music and what

have you, but you can never really become a musician. (ONeill, p. 38).

This example demonstrates the characteristics of entity self-theory and fixed mindset

because the girl believes that her musical talent is innate and that not everyone has the

ability to become a musician, even through hard work, training, and dedication. ONeill

states that while people with a fixed mindset often thrive because they receive positive

affirmations of their abilities, they will eventually come across a challenge that will cause

them to doubt their ability (ONeill, p. 38). Applied to the previous example, this means that

the girl will probably be exposed to a new musical concept that will frustrate her, and she
MOTIVATION AND SELF-CONCEPT 5

will likely doubt that she has the power to learn and fully understand the concept. Having a

fixed mindset often leads to learned helplessness.

Learned helplessness is similar to the previously described trait of self-

handicapping. Learned helplessness results from a severe degree of negative attribution

characterized by low self-efficacy, pessimistic attitudes, an inability to recover from failure,

and a belief that one does not have any control over his/her life and abilities (Silver, p. 59).

This is problematic to students motivation because Bandura concluded that the foundation

for motivation is the belief of whether or not an individual has power over his/her life

(Silver, p. 4). Children with learned helplessness have a fixed mindset because they believe

that their abilities are stable and it is impossible for them to make progress towards

mastering a task. Silver explains that children with a sense of learned helplessness have the

capability to learn new information and acquire new skills, but their self-perceptions act as

roadblocks and prevent them from putting in the effort to improve. A childs perception is

their reality (Silver, p. 61). Therefore, teachers should help students overcome an attitude

of learned helplessness. It is imperative for teachers to encourage students to develop an

appreciation for effort over innate talent because accepting and adopting a helpless

attitude, self-handicapping behaviors, and a fixed mindset takes away from the learning

process.

Alfred Binet developed the IQ test to identify children who were not succeeding in

the Paris public school system, so that educators could create new programs to meet

student needs. He did not create the IQ test out of an effort to measure a childs

unchangeable intelligence. Binet believed that education and practice could bring about

fundamental changes in intelligence (Dweck, 2006, p. 5). This belief is tied to Dwecks
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growth mindset because it focuses on the ability to change and develop aptitude. People

who embrace the growth mindset believe that a persons true potential is unknown (and

unknowable); that its impossible to foresee what can be accomplished with years of

passion, toil, and training (Dweck, 2006, p. 7). Cogdill claims that believing in innate talent

can restrict and sometimes smother a students music learning potential (Cogdill, p. 53).

Today, most people believe that intelligence is determined by a combination of innate

ability and environmental influences (Dweck, 2006, p. 5).

Dwecks growth mindset incorporates an incremental self-theory in which

individuals have the capacity to improve their ability through effort (ONeill, p. 37). People

who adopt the growth mindset are typically passionate about learning, enjoy taking risks

and facing challenges, and believe that all qualities can be cultivated and changed through

effort and hard work (Dweck, 2006, p. 7). Contradictory to students with a fixed mindset

who tend to pick activities in which they have previously been successful, individuals with

a growth mindset typically seek out new challenges and try to develop strategies that will

help them learn and develop new skills and knowledge (Mueller & Dweck, p. 42-43).

Growth mindset focuses on dedication and persistence. Dweck writes the passion

for stretching yourself and sticking to it, even (or especially) when its not going well, is the

hallmark of the growth mindset (Dweck, 2006, p. 7). Contrary to the belief that only some

people have the gift of being artistic, Twyla Harp suggests that creativity can be developed

through hard work (Dweck, 2006, p. 70). Additionally, individuals with a growth mindset

generally have a higher level of self-insight because they can more accurately identify their

strengths and weaknesses than individuals with a fixed mindset (Dweck, 2006, p. 11).

Children who are able to recover from setbacks are described as having mastery
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motivation and incremental self-theories that are associated with growth mindset (ONeill,

p. 38-39).

Resiliency, the ability to recover from setbacks and failures, is an essential skill for

students to develop in order to continue learning after facing a challenge. Dweck found that

students who have a growth mindset are more resilient because they do not view failures

as negative portrayals of their ability, but as opportunities for learning and development

(Dweck, 2006, p. 9). Napoli links resiliency to questioning and curiosity, problem solving,

affirmative self-concept, a craving to improve, and the ability to regulate emotions (ONeill,

p. 39). Resilient children who have a growth mindset thrive in the process of learning

because they understand the importance of effort. Goal setting is often a helpful tool in the

learning process.

According to West, achievement goal theory is based on two main types of goals:

performance goals and mastery goals. Students who focus on performance goals are

concerned with external reinforcement such as the opinions and affirmations of others

(West, p. 13-14). This is similar to the attitudes associated with fixed mindset. West also

shares that students who focus on mastery goals are usually driven by intrinsic desires to

understand and learn (West, p. 13-14). To foster positive intrinsic motivation, it is

important for teachers to guide students towards being mastery-oriented by helping them

create learning-goals, rather than performance-based goals that put the focus on external

factors (Sanz & Orbea p. 387). Understanding and informing students about how the brain

develops can also help them develop their intrinsic motivation because it allows them to

see and comprehend that they are in control of their own learning.
MOTIVATION AND SELF-CONCEPT 8

In 1964, Bennet, Diamond, Krech, and Rosenzweig discovered that the brain is

malleable and can grow and make new connections in a process called plasticity (Cogdill, p.

51). Although people recognized this discovery, most did not see the implications that this

could have on teaching until more recently. More current research has unearthed new

information about brain development. Scientists are realizing that the brain is able to

develop and continue learning much more than was previously thought (Dweck, 2006, p.

5). Researchers often equate the brain to any muscle in the body because it changes and

improves as it is used (Cogdill, p. 51). Cogdill describes the findings of Fields (2008) brain

research about the role of myelin in sending messages in the brain. Cogdill applies this

information to music teaching by explaining that the more a student practices, the thicker

the myelin layer becomes, the faster signals are sent in the brain and the more automatic

the skills become (Cogdill, p. 52).

Cogdill explains that the new knowledge of brain functions is helpful because now,

teachers can give students reasons that support the importance of practicing, and can show

students how brains develop (Cogdill, p. 52). Dwecks research involving a group of

students entering 7th grade revealed that teaching students how the brain functions and

develops, and how this concept supports the growth mindset appeared to unleash

students motivation (Dweck, 2007, p. 38). Dweck created an interactive computer-based

learning program called Brainology to make this information available to students in a fun

way through blended learning methods (Dweck, 2007, p. 38). Based on this information

about the brain, teachers should emphasize the significance of becoming life-long learners

and highlight the importance of effort in the learning process (Cogdill, p. 51-52). This
MOTIVATION AND SELF-CONCEPT 9

information also supports the development of a growth mindset and mastery-oriented

learning goals, which can strongly influence how music students practice.

Students mindsets affect their approaches to practicing. Students who demonstrate

helpless patterns do not use their practice time efficiently (ONeill & McPherson, p. 38). The

results of ONeills 1997 yearlong study of 51 6-10 year old students demonstrate that

students who exhibited helpless patterns spent twice as much time practicing as the

mastery students, in order to achieve the same level. The students exhibiting self-

handicapping and helpless attitudes indicated that they spent most of their time practicing

music that they were comfortable with, or creating original music (ONeill, p. 36).

Contrarily, the mastery students shared that their practice time was mostly spent on

learning new and challenging music (ONeill, p. 36). By doing this, the mastery students

demonstrated aspects of the growth mindset. Students who focus on learning and working

towards mastery-goals in their practice sessions usually implement multiple strategies in

order to make progress (ONeill & McPherson, p. 38).

Silver also claims that self-regulation, which refers to an individuals ability to

postpone responses to needs, plays a key part in music students practicing and working

towards long-term goals (Silver, p. 38, 44-45). When practicing, students learn to self-

regulate by persevering without receiving immediate gratification or instant success

(Silver, p. 44-45). Persevering is also connected to the growth mindset and incremental

learning. Ericsson explains that in order to make progress, helpful practice through

significant, focused, and continuous effort on weaknesses is necessary (Silver, p. 46). Silver

supports the development of a growth mindset by promoting the idea of treating failure as

a standard part of growth and learning (Silver, p. 52). Another aspect that greatly affects
MOTIVATION AND SELF-CONCEPT 10

the ways in which students practice is the acceptance of either a fixed or growth mindset is

positive feedback.

Through Skinners and Thorndikes views on operant conditioning, teachers are

trained that positive feedback is beneficial to student learning. Dweck suggests that

teachers should be careful to monitor what mindsets they are reinforcing through their

praise. Teachers often try to boost students' self-esteem by inflating their successes and

ignoring or sugarcoating failures. In doing this, teachers direct students towards

developing an entity mindset, and encourage them to develop a feeling of entitlement and

the belief that everything in life should be easy (Dweck, 2000, p. 127). According to

Dwecks research, praising students abilities generally gives them a feeling of pride that

lasts for a short time, but then has many long-lasting negative effects (Dweck, 2007, p. 36).

Dwecks research revealed that children praised for their intelligence and abilities

tended to pick future activities or problems with which they were comfortable, instead of

choosing problems that challenged them to learn more (Mueller & Dweck, p. 48). According

to the results, children also exhibited more interest in comparing themselves to others by

finding out how their peers did with a particular task instead of wanting to learn strategies

that would help them improve their own learning. However, students who were praised for

effort were more interested in developing more effective learning strategies (Mueller &

Dweck, p. 48). Outcomes of this research also exposed that students complimented on their

intelligence tended to be less resilient in recovering from setbacks than children praised

for effort (Mueller & Dweck, p. 46). Dwecks results also indicate that children praised for

their intelligence after succeeding in a task are more likely to attribute their subsequent

failures to a lack of ability rather than a lack of effort (Mueller & Dweck, p. 45). Dweck
MOTIVATION AND SELF-CONCEPT 11

suggests that teachers should not show approval or give extra attention to students who

accomplish a task quickly and without much effort (Dweck, 2007, p. 37).

There are many ways for educators to help students develop a growth mindset and

mastery-oriented learning goals. Teachers should be aware of students who are

determined and diligent but still struggle. According to Dweck, one should encourage

students to continue working hard and develop effective learning strategies (Dweck, 2007,

p. 37). Teaching students specific strategies to help them accomplish new tasks, helping

them set short-term and long-term goals, and making sure that they are not overly anxious

for performances are great ways to develop mastery orientation (ONeill & McPherson).

West suggests that teachers can also model a mastery-oriented attitude and assess

students based on effort to show the benefits of mastery goals over performance goals

(West, p. 14).

West also proposes that teachers should strive to communicate to their students

that whatever their current achievement levels may be, they have the power and capability

to improve by exerting effort (West, p. 13). Educators should provide meaningful feedback

about where students are in the learning process, and what specific steps they should take

in order to continue improving (Cogdill, p. 54). West also mentions that competition, public

evaluation, and ability-based assessment negatively affect students motivation, so teachers

should avoid these teaching methods (West, p. 11). Instead, teachers can incorporate a

more humanist based approach by placing more focus on the individual learners (Cogdill, p.

54). It is helpful for teachers to devote energy to learning about students backgrounds in

order to understand the unique learning needs of their students (Cogdill, p. 53). Being
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aware of these learning needs is important because even the simplest forms of feedback

can have drastic effects on students musical self-perceptions (Cogdill, p. 53).

Educators can also help students develop a growth mindset by teaching them about

the different types of self-theories and asking students to reflect on them (ONeill, p. 40).

Dweck explains that people often experience a Gestalt Aha! moment when they first fully

understand the implications each mindset has on the learning process and an individuals

attitude (Dweck, 2006, p. 10). Since resiliency is a major component of the growth mindset,

teachers should provide students with stories about people who have overcome multiple

failures, but were able to achieve amazing things and reach their goals (Silver, p. 4-5).

Teachers can also nurture the development of resiliency by offering opportunities for

students to develop their social skills, self-evaluate, and by teaching self-regulation

strategies (ONeill, p. 40).

Music teachers often state that their main goal is to foster a life-long passion for

music within each student. In order to encourage this passion and motivation for music,

educators should continuously stress the importance of developing a positive self-concept.

Guiding students to develop a growth mindset may help increase continuous and long-

lasting music learning (ONeill, p. 41). Additionally, Sanz and Orbea state Learning is not

just what is taught and how it is taught, but also the students subjective interpretations

about the process (Sanz & Orbea, p. 376). Therefore, it is important for teachers to

understand how attribution theory, mindset theory, learned helplessness, achievement

goal theory, and brain development impact students self-concepts and motivation. Finally,

teachers should be aware of how they can create learning environments that encourage

motivation through positive reinforcement, interactions with students, and class activities.
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References:

Cogdill, S. H. (2015). Applying research in motivation and learning to music education:

What the experts say. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 33(2), 49-

57. doi: 10.1177/8755123314547909

Dweck, C. S. (2000). Self-theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and development.

New York, NY: Psychology Press.

Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York, NY: Random House.

Dweck, C. S. (2007). The perils and promises of praise. Educational Leadership, 65(2), 34

39. Available from www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/

Mueller, C. M., & Dweck, C. S. (1998). Praise for intelligence can undermine childrens

motivation and performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 3352.

doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.33

ONeill, S. A. (2011). Developing a young musicians growth mindset: the role of

motivation, self-theories, and resiliency. In I. Deliege & J. W. Davidson (Eds.), Music and

the Mind: Essays in honour of John Sloboda (pp. 31-46). New York, NY: Oxford University

Press.

ONeill, S. A., & McPherson, G. E., (2002). Motivation. In R. Parncutt & G. E. McPherson

(Eds.), The science and psychology of music performance (pp. 31- 47). New York, NY:

Oxford University Press.

Pajares, F., & Schunk, D. H. (2005). Competence perceptions and academic functioning. In C.

Dweck & A. J. Elliot (Eds.), Handbook of Competence and Motivation (pp. 85-104).

New York, NY: Guilford Press.

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Sanz, C. A., & Orbea, J.-M. M. (2014). Is the perception of music related to musical

motivation in school? Music Education Research, 16(4), 375-386. doi:

10.1080/14613808.2013.847074

Silver, D. (2012). Fall down 7 times get up 8: Teaching kids to succeed. Thousand Oaks, CA:

Corwin.

West, C. (2013). Motivating music Students: A literature review. UPDATE: Applications of

Research in Music Education, 31(2), 11-19. doi: 10.1177/8755123312473611