C o p y r i gh t , 1 8 8 8 , b y B e r t h a P . Wol fe .

CO N TE N TS

CH A P TE R I .

P arall ax , oth e m ethods

an d r fo r n d i n g the
d i t ce o f t he S
s an un ,

CHA P T ER II .

M e as u re m e n t of the d ista ce o f then Sun , 25

CHA P TE R III .

The d iam ete r hea t , ,

l igh t , an d a ttract io n of the

Su n , an d t he s o u rce of i ts he ta , 59

CH A P T E R IV .

Does t h e Earth rot te ? a 88

CHA P TE R V .

Does the E rth progre s i

a s n an orb i t ? 1 43

C H A P TE R VI .

The d is ta n ces of the P l an e ts . The prog r ess i v e

mo tio n s of the Moo n an d S t ars , 180
 C HA P TE R I .

P A R A L LA " TH E R M ETH O DS F O R F I N D I N G THE

, A N D O

D I S T A N C E O F THE SU N .

A s t ro o m ers s y i
n pe k i g o f the d i t ce o f the
a ,
n s a n s an su n ,

The de term i ti o o f t h i d i ta ce i s t here fore o e o f

na n s s n n

the ca pital p bl m o f s tro om y w ell as o o f the

ro e s a n ,
as ne

m o t d i f c u l t to the s ol u ti o o f w h i ch bo t h ci e t d

s , n an n an

m oder as t ro o m ers h v e de vo ted m t

n n
y e ffor s a an .

Th e i m por ta ce o f th is k ow ledge as n m e s o f de ter n , a an

m i i g t he d i ta ce o f l l o ther he v e l y bod i es m y b e
n n s n a a n , a

j dged o f d the ce rtai ties o f it b y the follo w i g

u ,
an un n , n

qu o t t i o a fro m N wco m b
ns P op u l r A s tro o m y ; he

e

s a n

sa ys R eco rs e m st b e h d to m ethod o f obse r v tio

:

u u a s a n

s bjec t t o m y sou rces o f error A gai The m eas u re

u an . n,

m e t s o f t he h ea e s i v ol v es t wo s ep r te O pe r ti o

n v n n a a a ns .

The o co is ts i the de ter m i ti o o f the d is ta ce b e

ne ns n na n n

t we e the ea r t h w h i ch i m ade t o depe d o n

d th

n an e su n , s n

the sola r p rall x o the gle wh ich th e se m i d i m eter

a a ,
r an -
a

e r t h u b te d from t he s an d w h i ch i

of th e a s ee s n s a s n un , s

the i t o f d i ta ce i celes ti l m eas re m e ts The

un s n n a u n .

o ther co si ts i t he deter m i ti o o f the d is ta ces o f

n s n na n n

t h e s t r a d pl ets i te rm o f th i u it w h i ch g i v es

a s n an n s s n

wh t we m y c ll t he propor t i o o f the u i v e e

a a a ns n rs .

K ow i g t h is proport i o w ca
n n de t er m i e l l the n ,
e n n a

d i t ces w he t he le gt h o f o
s an , nit or the d i ta ce o f n ur un , s n

the s i k ow b t t b f
un s n n, u no e or e .

The pl et w h i ch an eare t the e rth

s reg rded
ar e n s a ar e a

by l l t ro om e m ch e er
a as n th i th
rs u n ar us an s e sun .

The el i b i l ity o f t he m e th od by p r ll
r a fo di g a a ax r n n

the d i ta ce o f the pl et m y be j dge d o f by t h e fo l

s n s an s a u

lo wi g q u ota ti o n fr om N ewco mb P op l r A str o o m y ;

n

s u a n

he s ay s :
2 I s t h e Cop er n i ca n Sy s tem o
f A s tr on om y Tr u e

The earth i s so s m all i n co m p aris o n w ith the d i s ta n ces
o f the pl a n e t s t h a t t he p a r all a x i n q u e s ti o n a l m o s t el u d es

m e as u r e m e n t e x cep t i n t h e ca s e o f th os e pl an e ts w h i ch

a r e n e a re s t t he e a r t h a n d e v e n t he n it i s so m i n u t e th a t

, ,

i t s acc u r a t e de t e r m i n a t i o n i s o n e o f t he m os t d i f c u l t
r o b l em s o f m ode r n a s t ro n o m y

p

.

Th e pl a n e t Ve n u s o n e n e a res t u s i s es ti m ated to be
m i les n ea r er t he e ar t h th a n i s t h e su n The .

p ar all ax o f th is co m par ati v el y n ear pl an e t i s s o m i n u t e

t h a t i t s acc u r a t e det e r m i n a ti o n i s o n e o f t h e m o s t d i f c u l t

proble m s o f m oder n as tro n o m y .

A s p a r a ll a x i s t h e m et hod b y w h i ch the s u n s v as tl y

g r e ater d i s ta n ce i s :t o be fou n d i s it possi ble b y t h is

,

m e t hod t o h av e a n y k n o w le d ge e v e n b y a pp r o x i m ati o n
, ,

o f t he r ea l d i s t a n ce o f t h e s u n

B efor e proceed i n g fu r ther with th is m ethod an d i ts

d iffer e n t appl i cati o n s i n n d i n g the s u n s d is t a n ce let the
,

e n qu i ry be d i rected as to t he rel i abi l ity o f the m et hod fo r

n d i n g t he d i s t a n ces o f t he s t ars .

P a r all a x i s de n ed t o be t h e d i ffere n ce betw ee n the

d i recti o n o f a bod y as see n fr o m t wo d iffere n t p o i n ts b e ,

i n g a m a the m ati ca l p r oce ss e m ploy ed i n t he s ol u ti o n o f a

t r i a n gle .

The d i f cu l t y o f n d i n g t h e d is ta n ce o f a star b y th is
m e t hod m ay be es ti m at ed a n d i n deed i s fo u n d t o be i n
, , ,

s u pe r able fr o m t h e fa c t t h a t if t h e po s iti o n
, o f a s ta r be
obs e r v ed s ay fo r e x a m ple i n J u n e a n d a g a i n i n D ece m
, , , ,

h e r it w i ll be fo u n d i n t he s a m e rel a ti v e pos iti o n i n the

,

l att e r m o n t h as i n t he fo r m e r .

Y e t accor d i n g t o t he C ope r n i ca n s y s te m o f as t ro n o m y
, ,

i n t h e i n ter v al be t w ee n t hes e ob s er v ati o n s t h e e a r t h h as

progr ess ed i n i t s o r b i t w i t h a v elocity o f m i le s p e r
ho u r an d h as t r a v elled a d i s tan ce o f 1 90 m ill i o n s o f m iles
,

m eas u red i n a s t ra i gh t l i n e a cr o ss t h i s orb it a n d a bo u t ,

2 8 5 m i ll i o n s o f m i le s m e as u r ed a r o u n d i t s c u r v e an d , ,

n o t wi t h s tan d i n g t h is s t ar t l i n
g c i r cu m s ta n ce not t he ,
 P ar a l l a x . 3

s l i gh tes t a n gle can be observ ed be tw ee n thes e peri od s o f

obs er v ati o n o n atte m p ti n g the pa rall ax o f a s ta r .

W h at is i n th i s co n n ec ti o n w orth observation as a re
, ,

m a rk a ble co i n c i de n ce i s t h e fac t th a t t h i s a bs e n ce o f ap
,

pare n t d ispl ace m e n t o f the obs er v ed s tar w o u ld be o h

s e r v ed d i d t he e a r t h n o t progr es s i n the as s i g n ed orb it .

The u n r el i abi l ity o f parallax to n d the di s tan ce o f a n y

s ta r m a y be j u dged o f b y t he fol l o w i n g co n cl u s i o n o f S i r

Joh n Hers chel he say s ,

It m i gh t be n atu r all y e n ou gh ex pected by th is en l arge
m e n t o f o u r b as e t o the v as t d i a m e t er o f the e a r th s orb it

,

th e n ex t s t ep i n o u r s u rv ey w ou ld be m ade at a great
a d v a n tage ; th a t o u r ch a n ge o f s ta ti o n fro m s i de to s i de

o f it w o u ld prod u ce a percep t i ble a n d m e as u ra ble a m o u n t

o f a n n u al p a ra ll ax i n the s ta rs a n d t h a t b y i t s m ea n s w e

s ho u ld co m e to a k n o w ledge o f t he i r d i s t a n ces

B u t afte r .

e x h aus ti n g e v ery r e n e m e n t o f ob ser v ati o n as tr o n om ers ,

h av e been u n a ble to co m e to an y pos iti v e a n d co i n c i de n t

co n cl u s i o n u po n t h is h ea d ; a n d it s ee m s there fo r e d em , ,

on s tr a t ed th at t he a m o u n t o f s u ch p a r a ll a x e v e n fo r t he

n ea res t x ed s ta r w h i ch h as bee n e x a m i n ed w ith the r e

qu is ito atte n ti o n rem ai n s s till m i x ed u p a n d co n cealed

, ,

a m o n g t he er r ors i n c i de n ta l t o a l l as tr o n o m i c a l d e t e r m i

n ati o n s N o w s u ch i s the n i ce t y t o w h i ch thes e h av e

bee n car r ied t h at d i d t he qu a n tity i n qu es tio n a m o u n t to

,

a s i n gle s eco n d th at i s d i d the ra d i u s o f t he ea rt h s o r

*
, ,

b it s u b te n d at the n e ares t x ed s tar t h at m i n u te an gle it ,

co u ld n o t possi bl y h a v e e s caped detec ti o n a n d u n iv e r sal

recog n i t i o n Her sch el 3 A s tr o n om y Ti t l e Fi xed Sta r s

.

,

.

E it her o n e o f t w o co n cl u si o n s m ay poss i bl y be dedu ced , ,

fro m the l as t fo r egoi n g q u o tati o n e i t her o f w h i ch w ou ld ,

acco u n t fo r the fai l u re o f thes e a tte m p ts t o n d t h e d i s

tan ce o an y s ta r O n e o f thes e m ay b e as is ge n erall y
f

.

s u ppos ed t o be t he c as e becau s e the d is ta n ces o f al l the

s tar s ar e s o gre at th at n o a n gle i s ob ser v able ; t he o t he r i s

7 l
N am e y, th e wid h t of a hi
a r,
4 I s t he Cp e
o rn ic a n Sy ste m f
o A str on o my Tr u e

th at n o s ta r h as b ee ob se rv e d really from t wo d f n t e er en

pos ition s wh ich l ast wo u ld b e t h case d i d t he ea rt h n o t

,
e

p rogr es s i r ea l ity i nt he t h e o e ti ca l
n orb it i g n e d it r ass .

Wh t ev er m ay be t h e ca se the forego i n g q otation

a u ,
u

sho ws t h t t h e m eth o d b y par all x f i l to d th e d i

a a a s n s

t ce o f a y s ta r
an n .

To s ho w st i l l fu r t h er t h t t he m eth od is o t e l i abl e fo r
a n r

d i g t h e d is t an ces o f t he pl an ets we q u o te fr om M
n n , .

Bi o t wo k he say s :

s r ,

Th e pa rall ax o f n y o e pl a et

a it w n kn w wou ld n , er e o n,

g i v e i m m e d i at el y i t s a b s ol t e d i s t a n ce f r o m ut h e e a r t h ;

b u t t h es e pa ral l ax es ar e i ge e r al to o s m l l to be accu n n a


obse r v ed
r at el y Sec 5 1 3 . . .

I n Se c 5 1 4 he say s o f t h e pl a n e t M a rs : U n h app i l y
.
,

the par all ax o f Mars is so s m all th at the errors o f o b ser

v ati o n m ay h a v e a v e r y co n s i d e r a bl e i n u e n ce u po n t he

res ul t an d co n s equ en tl y u po n t h e val ues o f th e d is tan ces

,

det e rm i n e d b y m ean s o f it I f fo r ex am pl e i n deter .

, ,

m i n i n g t he hori z o n tal pa rall ax w e co m m it an error o f

o r go f i t s to t al v al u e t he r e w o u ld be a n error o f
1
, in .,

t h e es ti m at e o f t h e d i s ta n ce

Y et we n e ver can b e secu re agai n s t so sm all an er r or

i n ob s e rv ati o n s so del i ca t e ; fo r 2 does n o t a m ou n t t o

h a lf t h e bread th o f t he wer e u s ed i n t h e m i cr o m et er
'

.

J u dgi n g b y t h is a d m iss i o n it appea rs th at i t ca n n o t be ,

e x pecte d th at p a r al l a x w o u ld b e an m ore s u cce ss fu l i n

y
n d i n g t h e d is tan ce o f the s u n as it i s su ppos ed to be a ,

m ore d ist an t body t h a n the n ea res t pl a n e t .

I n dee d the u n certai n ti es o f the d i rect sol ar parall a x

,

w ere fo u n d t o be s o great an d t h e m e t hod s o u n re l i able , ,

t h at it i s a ba n do n ed as w e a r e i n for m ed by P ro f N e w
, .

co m b w h o say s t he m oder n m et hod co n s is ts

, n o t i n m ea s ,

u r i n g t he p aral l a x d i rec tl y be cau s e t h i s ca n n o t e v e n n o w

b e do n e w it h a n y acc u rac y b u t i n m eas u ri n g the p a ra l ,

l ax o f o n e o f the p l an ets Ven us an d M ars wh en n earest

th e ear th .

 P ar a llax . 5

Ho w re l iabl y the parallax of Ve n u s an d

r h as been M a s

fou n d m ay b e in fe rre d from t h e l as t preced i n g qu o ta ti on

,

fro m M Bi o t w h o s ay s o f o bse r vat i o n s so d el icat e as t h es e

.
,

we n ever ca n b e s ec u re .

Th e follo wi n g qu ot at i o n co n t a i n s Si r Joh n Hersch el s

v i ews i n r ega rd t o d i rec t an d i n d i r ect pa ra ll ax t o n d t he

t h e d ist anc e o f t h e s u n

Th e d i am e ter o f t h e earth h as se r v ed u s as t h e base o f
a t r i an gl e i n the t r ig o n o m e tr i cal s u r v ey o f o u r s y s te m

by wh ich t o cal cu l ate t h e d is tan ce o f t h e s u n ; b u t t h e

ext r em e m i n u t e n ess o f t h e s u n s pa ral l ax re n d ers t he ca l

cil l at i o n fro m t h is i ll co n d iti on ed trian gle so del icate

-

that n oth in g bu t th e fort unat e com b i n atio n o f favorable

circu m stan ces affo rd e d b y t h e tr an s it o f Ven us co uld

re nd e r i ts r es u l ts even to ler ab l y wo r th y o f r el i an ce

.

T h e fo r e o
g gi n a m o u n t s t o a n o t h e r as t ro n o m i ca l a d m is

si on th at d i rec t parall ax h as fai led t o nd t h e d is ta n ce

of th e sun .

It l o am o u n t s t o t h e a d m iss io n th at t h e i n d i rect paral

a s

l ax on t he t ra n s it o f Ven u s i s o n l y tolera bly w or t h y o f

r el ia n ce ow in g t o the fortu n at e co m b i n atio n o f fav ors

,

ble ci rcu m s tan ces w h i ch th is tr an sit affords

.

Th is for t u n ate co m b i n ation d oes n o t appear as a m at

t er o f con gr at u l a ti o n i n v i e w o f w h at M Bi o t say s i n r e
.
.

o t he p ar a ll ax o f t h e p l an ets n a m el y : The par al l a x

g a rd t ,

o f a n y o n e pl an e t if it w er e kn o wn &c wh i ch h as be e n

, .
,

before qu o ted .

I n po i n t o f fact w h at does the for tu n a te com b i n ati o n

,

o f fav ora ble c i rc u m s ta n ces am o u n t t o i n n d i n g t h e d is

tan ce o f the su n o n the tran s it o f Ven us u n less the d is ,

tan ce o f Ven u s w ere k n o wn an d th is ca n n ot b e k n o wn ,

fo r as P ro f N e w co m b i n for m s u s i n a p r e vi ous q u o ta ti o n
.
,

i n s pe a k i n g o f the d is tan ce o f t he su n
th is is the u n it o f
,

d is tan ce i n celes t ial m eas u re men ts an d th at t h e d i s ,

,

tan ce o f stars a n d p la n ets ar e determ i n ed i n ter m s o f th is
un i t W e can determ i n e al l t h e d istan ces wh en t h e

.
,
6 I s
th e Cp o i
er n ca n System o f A s tr o n o m y Tr u e 9
.

le n gth it o the d i ta ce o f the s i k ow

o f ou r u n ,
r s n un s n n ,

b t ot b f
u n From th is poi t o f vi e w the d i ta ce o f
e or e . n , s n

Ve s ca ot be k o w
nu nnti l the d i ta ce o f the in n un s n su n s

k own W h t the beco m es o f the p ar ll o f Ve s ?

n . a n a ax nu

W h t rel ia ce c be pl ced o the s s dis t ce fo d

a n an a n un

an un

b y par ll a o t he t
a it o f Ve ?
x n r an s n us

It wo ld ppe r fro m the follow i g q o tatio th t so m e

u a a n u n a

rel i a ce i pl ced o Kepler th i rd l w fo d i g the

n s a n

s a r n n

di t ce o f the s
s an th i l w i follo w a m el y
un s a s as s, n

The s q re o f t he ti m e o f e v ol tio o f e ch pl a et i s

ua r u n a n

propor ti o l to the c be o f i ts m e
na d i t ce fro m t he u an s an

su n .

In peak i n g o f th is l aw P r of N e wco m b i n h i s P op u l ar
s , .
,

A s t ro n om y s ay s : ,

The rati o betw een the d is tan ces o f the pl an et ( Ve n u s )
an d t he s u n i s k n o w n w i t h grea t e x ac tn es s b y Kepler s

th i rd l aw fro m wh i ch k n o wi n g the d ifferen ces o f the

, ,

p ar all ax es the d is tan ce o f each body ca n be deter m i n ed

, .

N o t t he re a l d is tan ce o f t h e s u n b u t t he p r ep or tia o n al ,

d i s tan ce bet w een Ve n u s an d t he s u n i s w h a t i s de ter m i n ed ,

b y Kepler s t h i r d l aw F o r i f th i s t h i rd l aw n ds t he

r ea l d i s ta n ce o f t he s u n wh i ch i s i m pl i ed i n t he l as t q uo
t at i o n w h y rel y o n p ar a ll ax a t al l o f a n y s or t fo r n d , ,

i n g t he d is ta n ce o f t h e s u n ? I n s u c h c as e t h is t h i rd l aw ,

o f Kepler e n ables u s to k n o w t he d is tan ce

.

I t e ither n d s t he d is ta n ce o f the e art h as o n e o f the

ass er ted pl a n e ts fro m the su n or i t does n o t , .

I f i t does th i s ta k i n g t he pa ra ll a x o n t h e t ran s it o f Ve
,

n u s i s u n n eces s ar y fo r t h i s p u r po s e .

I f it does n o t n d su ch d ista n ce t he n the propor ti o n s

,

o f the s y s te m as de t e r m i n ed b y s u ch t h i rd l a w

,
can n o t ,

be rel i ed o n fo r n d i n g t h e r eal parall a x es o f Ve n u s a n d

t he s u n becau se th is l a w fails t o n d t h e r eal d is tan ce o f
,

a n o t her pl a n e t n a m el y t h e e ar t h ,
y et by the t h i r d l aw
, ,

o f Keple r t he d i s t an ces o f a ll t he pl a n e ts a r e p r e te n ded

,

t o b e de t er m i n ed .
 P a r a l la x . 7

Bes ides
,
i s n o t prob a ble t h a t h s s r ait
n ge rel a t o n o f t i t i
t t
he cu be o f he d s a n ce be n g propor o n al t o t h e s q u are it i ti
o f he t ti
m e o f re v ol u o n i s r a t her a n n s an ce o f t h e m a n y ti . i t
i i i ti ti i
cu r o us an d n e x pl cable r el a on s o f gu res an d q u a n t es ,
to w h i ch i ge i o s m i d m y d i co er pl i ble b t
an n n u n a s v a au s u

n ot ec ess ri l y
, n correc t ig i c t io
a , a s n a n .

Beca e i f th is th i rd l w be d i co ery o f rel ti o

us , a a s v a a n

ex i ti g bet wi t v elocity a d d i t ce i t i d i f c l t t o e
s n x n s an , s u se

w h y t he d is ta ce o f t h m oo m i gh t o t be fo n d by it e n n un ,

a d i deed t he d i s t
n ,
n ce to t he ce t re o f t h e rt h w e e
,
an n e a ,
r

th is d is ta ce k o w f n bod y o t h e e r th
un r f ce
n n or a n a

s su a

re ol es abo t the e th ce tre i

v v u reg l r t i m e i f t h e ar

s n n a u a ,

ea rt h ro tate j t s the pl a ets d abo t the

s, us a n o u su n .

B t to e t r to f r t h er co i der t i o o f p r ll e
u r u n a u ns a n a a ax s .

The p r ll o t he tr i t o f Ve
a a axw t t e m p ted b y
n an s n us as a

H alley i A D 1 6 6 1 ,
d g i i 1 669
n . d o rel i ble
.
, an a a n n ,
an n a

re su l t ob ta i ed m i l y i t w t ho gh t bec e f
n , a n ,
as u , au s o an

elo g ti o or eck ob e ed bet wee t he l i m b o f the

n a n n s rv n su n

a d t he pl et c lled by t ro o m er t h bl c k drop
n an a as n s e a

, .

The r es lt o f t h is s t t ed by P ro f N w
u mb w as a . e co as

an u n ce t i t y o m e t i m e m o t i g t o e l y m i t e
r a n , s s a un n n ar a nu ,

i ob e v ti o
n w h i ch were e pe ted t o be correc t w i t h i
s r a ns x c n

i gle eco d
a s n s n .

I co s eq e ce o f the pre e ce o f t h is bl ack drop "

n n u n s n

th i B q o ghost t t h i tell ec t l t ro o m i c l b
s an u

s a e n ua as n a an

u
q e t b u t l i tt le rel i ce w pl aced o t he p r l l fo d an as n a a ax un

o nt hes e occ s i o a ns .

I order to ho w th t t he p r ll x o gh t w
n s t a a a a s u as no

fo u d to ben y m ore rel i ble o t

an he t r i t o f Ve s a n an s nu ,

i A D 1 8 7 6 w q o te fro m N wco m b A t ro o m y

n . .
,
e u e s s n ,
as

follo ws :

The fac t i s th at al t ho u gh a ce n tu ry ago a t ra n s it o f

,

Ve n u s affor ded t h e m os t a ccu rat e w ay o f ob t a i n i n g the

d is ta n ce o f t h e s u n y et t h e great a d v a n ces m ade d u r i n g ,

the pres e n t ge n eratio n i n t h e ar t o f observ i n g a n d the ,

a
pp l i cati o n o f s ci en ti c m et hod s h av e l e d t o o t her m e an s
8 Is the Cp o i
er n c a n Sy s tem of A str on omy Tr u e 9
.

of greater accu racy t h an thes e old obs er v ati o n s it i s r e ,

m a rk a ble t h a t w h i le n ea rl y e v er y cl ass o f o bs er va ti o n s is

n o w m a de w it h a prec i s i o n w h i ch t he as tro n o m ers o f a

ce n t u ry ago n e v er thou gh t poss i ble y e t t h is pa rti c u la r ,

obs er v at i on o f the i n teri or co n tact o f a pl an e t w i t h the

l i m b o f the s u n h as n ever be en m a de w ith an yth i n g l i ke

the accu racy w h ich H alley h i m sel f thou gh t b e attain ed

i n h is obs er v ati o n o f t he t r an s it o f Merc u ry t wo G e n P

-

t ur i es a
g o .

Th e p arall a x o f V en us A D 1 8 7 6 th e n is n o m ore . .
, ,

r el i a ble fo r n d i n g t he d i s tan ce o f t he s u n th a n t h a t take n

t wo cen tu r i es ago w h i ch l att er was ex pec ted t o be s o ac

,

c u rate as to be with i n a s i n gle s eco n d wh i le i n fact it , , ,

v a r i ed fro m t h is t o t h e e x t e n t o f a m i n u te th u s n o t be i n g ,

w ith i n 59 s eco n d s o f t he r el i a b i l ity e x pec ted th at i s t o ,

s ay g iv i n g o n l y the o f t he a cc u r ac y i n res u l ts e x pected

1
60

.
,

Y et M Bi o t s ay s as befor e q u ot e d
.

I f fo r ex am ple , ,

i n de ter m i n i n g the hor iz o n ta l p a rall a x ( o f Ma rs ) w e

co m m it a n error o f tw o s eco n ds o r i ts to tal v al u e ther e ,

1
., ,

w o u ld be a n error o f gi n t he es ti m at e o f the d i s t an ce

,

i n su ch cas e m i ss i n g i ts m ark n ea rl y th ir ty m i ll i o n s o f
m iles .

W h ile i n Halley s atte m pt to take the parall ax o f V e

n u s t here w as an error o f 5 9 s eco n d s y e t P r o f N ew co m b , .

s ay s v i r t u a ll y th a t t he p ar all a x h as

, , n e ver bee n m a de
w it h a n yth i n g l i k e t h e a ccu ra cy o f H alley s e ffor t t w o

ce n tu ri es ago .

F ro m t hes e recital s an d resu l ts paralla x as a m ea n s o f , ,

n d i n g t he d i s ta n ce o f t he s u n m ay co n de n tl y be p r o
, , ,

n o u n ce d a fai l u re .

It is practi call y co n ceded t o be so b y as tro n om ers the m ,

s el v es as a ppe a rs fro m t h e follo w i n g e x t r a c t t a ke n

,
fro m
N e w co m b s P op u l ar A s t ro n o m y n a m el y :

,

The m et hod o f ob ta i n i n g t h e as tro n o m i cal u n i t ( n a m e

l y t he d is tan ce o f t h e s u n ) w h i ch w e h a v e des cri bed

, ,

r es ts e n ti rel y u po n t he m e as u re o f p ar all a x a n gl e

an ,
 P ara lla x .
"
9

wh i ch h ardl y e er ex ce eds 20 a d wh i ch therefore v

n , , is

excee d i g l y d i f c l t t o m eas re w it h t he
n ec ess ary
u u n ac
( o

there were other way th t
If no t i i an h i s o f de er m n n g .

the s n s di ta ce we m igh t des p ai r

u

s n i , it o f be n g s u re o f

w ith i m il e
*
n s .

B u t the re ed i v es t i gati o s o f m oder s c i e ce h a ve

n n n n n

bro gh t t o l i gh t o ther m e thods b y at l ea t t wo o f wh i c h

u , s

w e m y h op l ti m t l y t o tta i a great er degree o f o

a e u a e a n a

c racy th a we ca b y m eas r i g p a rall xes

u n n u n a .

O f th es e t wo o e de p e d s o the gra v ita ti g force o f

, n n n n

th e s u u po the m oo a d the o ther u po the v eloc ity
n n n, n n

o f l i gh t

.

Ta k i n g o n e v i e w o f th is d m i ss io it m i gh t b e i fer d a n , n re

t h at o p rall x can de t er m i e t h e d is t a ce o f t he s
n a a ; n n un

in other i ew it s po ss i b le ccu racy m ay b e i m pl ied say ;

an v , a ,

fo r e xa m p le w ith i n d is t ce o f ,
m i les a an .

The as t ge n eral capa city fo i n acc u racy i n the m ethod

v , r

b y pa ra ll x i m p l i ed i thes e g res a m el y i
a p arallan u , n , n x

m i s i g i t s m ark t o the e x te t o f a d i ta ce eq al t o 2 5
s n n s n u

t i m es t h e d i a m e t er o f t he ear th al m os t as fa a the m oo , r s n

w he e res t the ea rt h wo ld t r lly i d ct the m i d

n n a , u na u a n u n

t o the co cl s i o n th at th i s m e thod was ca p able o f s t i l l

n u

grea ter ch i e e m e t i th ia ce tai l i n e t o the e x te t

v n s n s un r n , n

o f o t d i g the d i s t
n n ce o f the
n e e ap p ro x i m atel y an su n v n .

I f t he e t e t o l i m i ta ti o n o f the i acc r cy w ere

x n r n u a un

k ow n it s co n seq u e ce w o ld n o t be m eas r ble

n, , a a n , u a u a

qu an tity he ce either , nm i les n o n

y o t her d i s r an

ta ce co ld b e the m eas u re o f u ch k o w i acc racy

n u s un n n n u ,

fo w h e r e the i cc racy ca o t b e m e s red h o w i s the

r na u nn .
a u

ext t o f it to be m de k o w
en a n n

I f s ch i cc r cy w ere m e s ra ble q an tity t he

O

u na u a a a u u , n

th ere eed be i cc racy fo uch q tity m i gh t b e

n no na u ,
r s u an

Th i
a
hat m h od h i h f i l
to d h di
t e sa m e f V u et w to t s t an ce
w i h ai t ( ju q o d ) d i h i
s s ay , c a s n e o en s
m il di

t cer t st h tef h w t t s t an ce t
z yb y o om b 60 m i l l i o f m il h
as u n s, n es , e o e
s
t g
i
n es t
an is mn r
at

e us.
as t r f n h f m h
e rs t o e ns o es ur t er ro t e e ar t
10 I s t he Cp o i
er n c a n Sy s tem f
o A s tr o n o m y Tr u e 9
.

a dded o r s u b t racted as the case m i gh t req u i re a n d th u s

, ,

parall ax w o u ld beco m e rel i able He n ce i t m ay be i n .

,

ferred t h a t t h e m i les es t i m a t e o f t h e de c i e n c y o r
e r ror o f the para ll a x i s b u t a co nject u re .

F o r w ere t h e ac tu a l d is ta n ce o f t he s u n n o t fo u n d by
parall ax it m us t be beca u s e t here m u s t be s o m e defec t i n
,

the m e thod so a p pl i ed o r i n t h e i n s t r u m e n t al ities em

,

lo ed r i n s o m e d i s t u rb i n g a n d i m m e as u r able fac t a n d
p y o , ,

w ere s u ch t he cas e it w o u ld follo w t h at n o rel i an ce w h a t

e v er app r o x i m a tel y or o t her wis e co u ld ratio n all y be
, ,

pl aced o n t h e res u l t .

S o m e o f t h e d i f c u l ti es e n co u n tered i n m a k i n g the p ar
al l a x w he n t h e teles cope i s u s ed m ay be j u dged o f w he n
, ,

a s t he y do th a t t h e le n s w ill
as t r o m o m e r s t ell u s , ,

n o t br i n g a l l t he l i gh t t o t h e s a m e foc u s pres e n ts a

an d ,

co n fu s ed i m age o f t he objec t t o t h e obs er v e r A n ot her .

so u rce o f error m ay be t r aced t o s eco n d a ry a berr ati o n ,

w h i ch a r i s es fro m a property i n g l ass as gl ass

.

A gai n i r r ad i ati o n m ay a r is e fro m a n u m ber o f ca u s es

,

i m p erfect io n o f the ey e i m p er fect i o n o f the le n s es o f t h e

,

teles co pe a n d the soft en i n g effects o f the at m os phere

, ,

&c .

Th us i n d i rect pa rall a x a ppea rs u n reli a ble .

B u t w h y d oes n o t t he a n n u a l p a rall a x n d the d i s

t an ce o f t h e s u n ?
The d i s ta n ces o f the s ta rs h a v e been att e m pted t o be
fo u n d b y t h i s m e t hod w i t hou t s u ccess w h i ch fai l u re i s a t ,

t ri bu t ed t o the great dist a n ces o f t h e s ta rs b u t w e a r e t old ,

b y as tro n o m e rs th at t he s u n i s t w o m i ll i o n rad ii o f the

eart h s orb i t n ea r er the eart h t h a n i s t h e n ea r est s t ar

.

I f t he Coper n i can sy s te m o f as t ron o m y be t r u e w h y ,

res ort t o t h e i n di r ec t p arall a x i n o r der t o n d the d is t a n ce

o f the s u n

The ear t h s orb it fu r n is hes the sa m e b as e l i n e fro m

w h i ch t h e s u n s d i s ta n ce m ay be m e as u red a s t h a t fro m

,

w h i ch t he d is t a n ces o f t h e s ta rs h a v e b ee n s o u gh t .
 P a r a l l ax . 11

The st rai gh t l i n e across t h e ea rth s orb it i s 1 90 m i ll i on s

o f m i les i n le n g t h The s m all n ess o f the earth s d i am eter

.

i s gi v e n as t he r eas on w h y t h e d i s ta n ce o f t he s u n ca n n o t
be fo u n d b y p arall ax .

The bas e l i n e o f the ear th s orb it is m ore t h a n

tim es lon ger th an the d ia m eter o f t h e earth w h i ch i s ,

n ea rl y eq u al to t he d i ffere n ce be t wee n a foo t i n le n gt h

4 t m i les .

A ccord i n g t o t h e C oper n i ca n sy s te m t h e s u n i s s tati o n

ar y a n d t h e ear t h m o v es be t w ee n t he t rop i cs
,
. .

Here m ay be fo u n d the t wo d iffere n t po i n ts o f o b se r

v a t i o n req u i red b y t he m e t hod b y p ara ll a x an d

th e d if ,

fere n ce i n d i recti o n req u i red m ay be fo u n d alo n g a l i n e

1 90 m i ll i o n s o f m i les i n le n g th The t w o obs er vatio n s

.

co u ld be m a ke s i x m o n th s apar t l i ke i n t he a n n u al s tell a r
,

parall a x .

The s iz e o f t h e a n gle i n co m paris o n w i t h th at s u b

,

t e n ded w ere the ear t h s d i a m e t e r e m ploy e d to for m a b as e

l i n e w o u ld be i n the propor t i o n o f
,
to 1 .

Y e t t h e d i s t an ce o f t h e s u n h as n o t bee n fo u n d n o t ,. ,

w ith s t a n d i n g th es e fa v ora ble co n d iti o n s ; fo r t h e i ll c o n d i

t i o n e d t r i a n gle co m pl ai n ed o f b y Si r Joh n Hers chel

, ,

w he n t he ea r t h s d i a m e ter s er v ed as a bas e l i n e w i t h

w h i ch t o n d the d is ta n ce o f t h e s u n b y p a ra ll a x c an n o t ,

here be obj ect ed t o .

W h y is t h e d is t an ce o f t h e s u n n o t fou n d from th e d i
a m e t e r o f t h e ea r t h s orb i t

It m u s t be e ither ,

1 B eca u s e the o rb it o n l y e x i s ts i n t h e m i n d s i dea l

.

i n w h i ch cas e t h e n ecess a ry t w o d i ffere n t

s h a pe o f s u ch ,

poi n t s n a m el y alon g t h e d iam et er o f the eart h s orbit

,

,

,

h av e n o ex is te n ce bey o n d t h e i n te n d m e n t o f t h e m i n d

,

a n d w ere s u ch t he c as e t h e C oper n i c a n sy s t e m o f as t ro n

o m y w o u ld n ece s s ar il y be a m y t h o r , ,

2 B ec au s e there i s s o m e defect i n the m e thod by p ara l

.

l ax wh en ap p l i ed to bod ies so d istan t as t h e h eaven l y

 12 Is the Cp o er n ca n i Sys tem o f A s tr o n o my Tr u e 9
.

bod ies or el se s u ch o ther fav orable co n d iti on s w an ti n g as

, ,

to re n der t h e m et hod i n app l i ca ble to th e e n d s o ugh t b y it .

I f the t wo d i ffere n t po i n ts req u i re d fo r t he obs er v a

ti on s h av e n o ex is te n ce w h at becom es o f the Cope r n i can

,

S y s te m o f A s tro n o m y ?

I f t he t w o d i ffere n t po i n ts reall y h a v e an e xi ste n ce

a n d it b e co n ced ed th a t t he bas e l i n e i s lon g e n o u g h

-

the n eit her t h e m ethod o r som e n ecessa ry i n s t r u m en t al i ,

t i es m u s t be i n ef c i e n t t o n d t h e d is ta n ce s o u gh t
, .

S ho u ld s u ch be t he cas e w h at rel ia n ce ca n b e pl aced o n , .

p a r al l ax h a v i n g fo r i t s obj ec t the n d i n g o f the d i s

an
y
ta n ce o f an y hea v e n l y bod y .

If the orb i t e x is ts an d the an gle fou n d from it b e l arge ,

e n o u gh a n d t h e m ethod b y pa rallax b e com pe te n t t o n d

,

the d is tan ce o f a hea ven l y bod y w h y is the d is ta n ce o f ,

t he s u n y et a problem as as t ron o m ers say it i s ?

,

SE C T IO N II V E L O C ITY o r L I G H T
. THE .

W he J piter i farthes t from t he earth t h e l igh t from

n u s ,

i t s t ell it e is obs r ved abo t 1 7 m i u t e l t er th

s a s e w he u n s a an n

t h pl a e t i
e e re t th e e rt h
n s n a s a .

F ro m th i ob er v ed phe o m e on s t ro om ers h v e
s s n n ,
a n a

co m e t o the co cl s i o th at it req i res 1 7 m i n te lo ger

n u n u u s n

it m e fo l i gh t to trav el fro m the t ell i t e t the e rth i

r sa o a n

t h e form er c e t h i t he l t ter
as an n a .

Th is s tro o m i c l co cl i o w i ll be see by the follo w

a n a n us n n

i g q
n o t a ti o
u ro
f m M Bi o t nw ork H s a y S e c.
4 6 1
s . e s, .

The m os t i m ple e pl

ti o w h i ch gge ts its el f
s x an a n su s is

to pp s
su t h t t h e l i gh t o f the
o e a reec ted b y t he e su n ,
s

sm ll bod i e i
a o t t ra m itted
s,
i s nt a t eo l y t o t
nsh ns n an us e

"
e r th b ut t h t it occ p i e
a ,
m l a l i ter l f ti e
u m i s a s a n va o n

tr ers i g the e r t h orb i t

av n a

s .

co cl o b d
o

It wi ll be perce i ed th at t h i v
e o t h s n usi n 1s as n e

th eo ry o w s pera n u ate
,
n d t h tu
l i gh t i n
b t a n ce a d ,
a s a su s n

th at i t travel s
. .
 Th e Vel oci ty f
o L ig h t . 13

In order t o det er m i n e th e d is tan ce o f t he s u n by m ea n s

o f t he m o ti o n o f l i gh t fr o m a sa te ll ite o f J u p i t er w h i ch ,

w as proposed it be ca m e o f t he rs t i m p or t a n ce t o n d t he
,

v eloc ity o f l i gh t .

O n e o f t h e m os t appro v ed m ethod s e m ploy ed fo r t h is

.

pu r p ose m ay be u n de rs to od by t he follow i n g a l tho u gh

p a rti al acco u n t o f it ta ke n fro m N e wco m b s P o p u l a r
,

A s t ron o m y

We h a v e a w h eel w it h s pokes e x te n d i n g fro m the ci r ,

c u m fe r e n ce t he d is tan ce be t wee n t he m be i n g eq u a l t o

thei r bread th .

The w heel is pl a ced i n fron t o f the l an t er n so th at the

l igh t fro m the l atter h as t o pas s be t wee n t he S p ok es o f

t h e w hee l i n order t o rea ch a d i s ta n t m i rror

Th e e v e .

o f t h e obs er ver i s be t wee n t he s pokes

N o w s u p p os e he t u r n s t h e w h eel s ti ll k e e p i n g h i s ey e ,

o n th e sa m e po i n t The n each s poke c u tti n g o the

'

l igh t o f t h e la n ter n as it pas ses there w i l l b e a s u ccess i o n ,

o f as hes o f l i gh t w h i ch w i l l pas s th ro u g h t he s p okes

tr a vel t o t he m i rror a n d the n ce b e reec ted back t o t h e

,

wheel .

O n t h i s p r i n c i ple it w as de ter m i n ed th a t l i gh t t ra v el s
m i l es p e r s eco n d .

I t w i ll b e see n t h a t t he p he n o m e n a a r e obs er v ed by
the n a ked ey e The co n cl u s io n re a ched as t o t h e v e
.

l o c i t y o f t h e as h es a n d then ce t h e v elocity o f l i gh t a r e
, ,

ded uced from the im p ress i o n m a de o n t h e ret in a C a n .

th is b e rel i ed o n fo r de term i n i n g t h e v eloc ity o f l ig h t ,

e ve n t ho u gh i t we re ad m itt ed t h a t i t does t ra v el

I n order t o s how h o w l i gh t a c ts o n t h e re t i n a w e q u o t e
fro m F ra n k Les l i e s ( M a y N o P op u l a r Mo n t hl y

.
,

M ag a zi n e N Y , p a r t o f an a r t i cle e n t i t led
. .
, O p t i c al I ll u

s io n s , b y Co n ra d W Cooke

He s ay s :
. .

E very boy is fa m i li ar w i t h th e e x peri m e n t o f m a k i n g
a ri n g o f r e i n t h e ai r b y s w i n gi n g ro u n d t h e red hot
-

Th e l u mi n o us r i n g so for m ed i s

en d o f a b ur n i n g s t i ck
'

.
14 I s th e Cp
o er n i ca n Sy s tem f
o A s tr on o my Tr u e 5 .

ob v i o u sl y a n i ll u si o n fo r it i s clea r th at t he l i gh t fro m
,

t h e i n ca n des ce n t poi n t ca n co m e o n l y fr o m o n e po s i t i o n

i n i ts p at h a t a n y o n e ti m e
.
I t c an n o t be at t he s am e
.

i n s t a n t a t bot h en d s o f t h e d i a m eter o f t h e ci rcle a n d ye t ,

t h e ey e c an de t ec t n o brea k i n t h e co n t i n u i t y o f i t s p a t h

Th is e x peri m e n t i s a s i m ple a n d ch aracter is ti c i ll u s t ra

ti o n o f a large cl as s o f op ti cal i ll u s i o n s w h i ch resu l t fro m ,

a v ery n eces s ar y proper t y o f v i s i o n w h i ch i s c alled t h e

,

pe r s is t a n ce o f v i s u al i m press io n s o n t h e re t i n a t h at i s ,

t o s ay a n obj ec t pl aced be fo re t h e ey e a n d s u dde n l y r e

, ,

m o v ed i s s ee n fo r a cer t a i n a p p r ec i able ti m e a ft e r i t s

re m o v al . The t i m e t h a t th is i m press i o n

l as ts h as bee n v ar io u sl y es t i m at ed fr o m t h e s i xt h t o the

ele v e n th par t o f a s eco n d The e x p l a n at i o n th e r efor e

.
, ,

o f a l u m i n o u s r i n g for m ed b y a l i gh t ed s t i ck i s t h a t t h e

i m press i o n m ade b y it a t a n y o n e poi n t o f i t s cou r s e r e

m ai n s o n t h e reti n a u n t i l i t ag ai n re a che s t h a t po i n t

.

Wo u ld n o t t h e sa m e l aw a ppl y t o t h e as hes obs erv ed

be t w e e n t h e s p okes ? I f s o w h at r el i a n ce ca n be pl a ced
,

o n i t fo r de ter m i n i n g t he v eloc i t y o f l i gh t ? y e t t h i s m e t hod

o f n d i n g t h e v eloc i t y o f l i g h t i s t h e o n e m os t a ppro v ed

by as tro n om ers be i n g i n p r i n c i p le F a z e a n s m e t hod

,

.

M ay n o t t he ph i los oph y o f t h e m e t hod be t h a t t he

s pokes i n t ercep t t h e v i s i o n a n d t h a t t h e l i gh t o n t h e m i r
,

r o r does n o t t r a v el t o the v is io n b u t m ere l y th at t h e

,

v i s i o n ta kes cog n iz a n ce o f t h e fa c t t h a t it i s o n t h e m i r r o r

w he n obs er v ed b e t w ee n t he s pokes ; fo r e x a m ple say w e ,

obs er v e the m oo n clos e o u r ey es a n d i n les s t h a n the 2 0t h

,

pa r t o f a s ec o n d o p e n t he m a ga i n a n d aga i n s e e t h e m oo n
, ,

i t co u ld n o t be sai d i n s u ch c as e t h at t h e l i gh t o f t h e m oo n
h a d t r a v elled t o t he ey e i n t h e 2 0t h p a r t o f a s eco n d .

The e x per i m e n t s o f m ode r n s cie n t is t s a n d t he ir co n cl u ,

s i o n s fro m t he m a r e a d v ers e t o
,
t h e t heo r y t h a t l i gh t
tr a v el s . P ro f Ty n d all s ay s :
.

The m os t r e n ed a n d de m on s t rati v e e xpe r i m e n t s h as

l ed p h i l osop h ers to th e co n cl usi on t h at space is occu p i e d

 The Vel oci ty f

o Ligh t . 15

b y a s u bs ta n ce al m os t i n n itel y el as tic t hro u gh w h i ch

the p u ls es o f l igh t m ake t hei r way Th e l u m i n ou s e ther

.

ll s s tell a r s p ace it m a kes the u n i v ers e a w hole a n d

, ,

re n ders poss i ble the i n terco m m u n i cati o n o f l igh t a n d e n

e r g y be t w ee n s ta r a n d s ta r B u t t h e s u b t le s u bs ta n ce
"
.

pe n etr a t es fu rther ; i t s u rro u n d s the v ery ato m s o f s ol i d

an d l iq u i d s u bs t a n ces ; t he e t her is ever y w h e r e a n d

i ts
u l s a ti on i s l i gh t

p .

I f the u n d u l atory or p u l s a tory theory o f l i gh t be

t h e co r rec t o n e a n d t h e e t her b e e v er y w here a n d i t s p u l

,

sa ti o n i s l i gh t t h i s i s t he theor y n o w u n i v ers all y

, an d

recei v ed t he n t h e l as t w av e p u l sati o n o r u n d u l ati o n th at

,

,

i s t o sa y t he o n e n ea res t t h e e y e w o u ld m a k e t he i m pres
, ,

s i o n c a u s i n g t h e phe n o m e n o n l i gh t t o be m a d e m a n i fes t
, , ,

t o the v i s u a l o r g a n the n ce t o t he co n s c i o u s n ess

, .

A ho m el y i ll u s t ra ti o n m ay s er v e t o co n v e y a n i dea o f
the act i o n o f l i gh t o n the t heory n o w u n i v ersall y r e

cei v ed .

Le t a co m m o n wa lk i n g s ti c k repres e n t t he e ther
w h i ch i s e v ery w here w ere i ts e n d t h ru s t a ga i n s t o u r

pers o n s u ch m ot i on m i gh t s er v e i n s o m e com prehe n s i b le

,

s e n s e t o the p u l sat i o n o f t he e t her I n t h e c as e s u p p os ed

.
,

o n l y th a t e n d o f the s ti ck n eares t u s w o uld t o u c h u s al ,

tho ugh t h e s t ick con si dered as a m ass or wh ole a n d i n a ,

s e n s e t he a t o m s co m pos i n g i t w o u ld m o v e b y t he p u l sa ti o n
,

o r thr us t y e t t h e s e n s e o f t o u ch wo u ld be m ade al i v e o n l y
,

by t he par ti cles o f t h e s t i ck n ea r es t u s S o i n accord a n ce .

,

w it h the p u l s at or y t heor y w e m ay s u p pos e t h a t the orga n

,

o f v i s i o n i s m a de co n s ci o u s o f th e pre s e n ce o f l i gh t by
s o m e m ore re m o te b u t u n k n o w n age n c y
, y e t a c t i ng on
,

the vi s u al orga n by the i m m ed iat e age n cy o f t h e e t her ,

w h i ch i s e v ery w he r e co m i n g i n co n t ac t w i t h it b y i t s p u l
,

s a t i o n j u s t as t h e s e n s e o f to u ch i s m a de a l i v e b y
,
t hos e
a t o m s o f t h e s t i ck w h i ch to u ch u s a l t ho u gh
,
t h e re m o te
caus e o f th is se n s a t io n was the t h r us t gi v e n t o the woode n
mass .


16 I s th e Cp
o ern i ca n Sy s tem o
f A s tr on o my Tru e 9 .

is co cl sio be d d cab l fro m the p lsato ry t h e

If th n u n e u e u

o y it ca
r o t b s i d th at the l ig h t o f the satel l ite tr vels
nn e a a

,

a c r oss the e rt h s orb i t i the s e a

say fo ex am ple n n se , r

,

th t a tr i o f car tr els o
a a n r il w y s d aft er t h e
av n a a a an ,

l p e o f 1 7 m i te rri ves at the y e as de p o t

a s nu s a e a .

B y the m e th d before de t i l d i t i s fo d th t l i gh t
o a e , un a

tr el av s m i le p e s eco d It i o b ser ed th t t h e
s r n . s v a

l i gh t f o m tell i t e o f J pi t er i see 1 7 m i t es l ter

r a sa u s n nu a

w he t h at pl a n t i s f r the t fro m t he e r th
ne u s a .

A ccord i g t o t he t h eory f d i g t he d i ta ce f t h e
n or n n s n o

su nb y t he v eloc i t y o f l i gh t i t req i res 1 7 m i u te fo r , u n s

l i gh t t o cross t h e rt h orb i t d o e h l f th i ti m e t o
e a

s .
, an n -
a s

cro o h l f o f th i orb it t the ce t re o f wh i ch t ro

ss ne -
a s , a n as n

o m ers pl ce the a he ce l igh t w o ld req i e 8 % m i u tes

su n , n u u r n

to com e fro m t h e s to t h e r t h 8 % m i tes co t i un e a . nu n a n

5 1 0 eco d s Li gh t t r el
n s . m i l es i e eco d av s n on s n ,

d 510 x
an be i g t he d i ta ce o f n s n

the u fro m th e e rt h i m iles

s n a n .

B y th is m e thod t h e e x i t e ce o f t he orb it i ass u m e d

, s n s

as ecessary p rt o f t h Coper i c S y t e m
a n a I ts d i e

n an s .

s cer t a i ed b y t he pro p or ti o o f the sy

m e io s ns n ar e a n ns s

t em i w h i ch t he e r th i s i cl ded

n o e o f th e pl e ts
a n u as n an
cco d i g t o Ke p ler s 3 d l w
a r n

r a .

D i d the or b it reall y e xi t d w ere i t ci rc m fere ce s , an s u n

k ow n a pre t e ded it were

n, s e y t o k o w t h e d i t ce
n , as as n s an

o f t he s pl ced i t h ce t re o f it
un , a t o d t he le g t h
n e n , as n n

o f t he s p oke o f
*
w he l d i d w k o w t he ci rc m fere ce
a e ,
e n u n

o f su ch w heel .

The d i m e n s i o n s o f the orbit ar e e ither k n o w n or they ,

a r e n o t k n o wn .

I f k n o w n t h e v eloc i t y o f l i gh t i n order t o n d t h e d is
, ,

tan c e o f t he s u n is u n n ecess ar y becaus e there co u ld be

, ,

n o d i ffi c u l ty i n n d i n g t h e r a d i u s o f s u ch o r b it a t t he

ce n t re o f w h i ch th e s u n wou ld be fou n d .

I f t h e d i men sion s of t h e ear t h s or b i t be un k n o wn h o w

,
 Th e Vel o ci ty f
o L ig h t . 17

lon g ti m e w ill be req i red fo l i gh t t o t ra v el cross a

a u r a n

i m gi r y orb it ?
a na

Th e c aus e o f t h e ppe r a ce o f l i gh t fro m J p ite r a t a n u sa

o ll ite 1 7 m i tes l t r w he J pite r is f r the t fro m t he

nu a e , n u u s

e r th m y be c ed b y th e d i ffere t g l t w h i ch J
a , a au s n an e a u

p iter d h i s tell ite w o ld p rob bl y be s ee b y

an sa oh u a n an

s er v er o the e r t h ft er th e l ap e o f abo t s i x y e rs su ch
n a a s u a ,

be i g the d i ffere ce i ti m e o f
n ch ob erv ati o s
n n d s su s n ,
an

a fte r J p iter h d pro gre s ed i h i orb it t he d i t ce o f

u a s n s s an

1 4 8 2 m i ll i o s o f m i les w h i ch it does i si x y e rs accord

n ,
n a ,

i g t o calc l ti o
n o f s t ro o m ers
u a ns a n .

It wo ld be l ittle s hort o f m i racle d i d the l i gh t fr om

u a

the satell ite ppe r t t h e s m e ti m e a d t t he s am e a

a a a a n a n

gle after it h ad progres ed w ith i t s pr i m ry 1 4 8 2 m ill io s

,
s a n

o f m i les .

Si Joh Hers chel ay s th ere w o ld be a d is pl ace m e t

r n s u n

o f t he t r c ed by t h
s a s g l t w h i
au s ch t he y w o ld be e an e a u

s ee fro m t he e r t h
n it progre ed i i ts orb it A d i f
a as ss n . n

so wh y w o ld
, ot t h e tel l ite o f J piter a d the i r
u n sa s u n

e m erg i n g l i gh t be see t d iffere t g le fte r t he l p se n a a n an , a a

of i y e
s xa r c ed b y t he i
s,r o w proper au sm o t i o s at el n n a s

l ite t oge t her w it h t he m o ti o

s, i co m m o w ith thei r n n n

pr i m ry a .

Th is s ho u ld be ex pected w hether th e eart h m o v ed i n

an orb it o ot r n .

Hers chel i pe k i g o f t wo t rs o , n s l i e w it h e ch
a n s a n a n a

oth er s ay , s

S ppo i g the m t o l i e t gre t d i t ce o e beh i d

u s n a a a s an ,
n n

t h e o ther d t o ppe r o l y by c
, an l j t positioa a n as u a ux a n

n e rl y i a the m e l i e it i e i de t th t y m oti o o f
n sa n , s v n a an n

t h e e ar t h m t s bte d d i ffere t gles at the t w o t rs

us u n n an s a

j xt pos ed
u a d m t t h e e fore prod ce d i ffere t p r l
,
an us r u n a a

lacti c d i pl ce m e t o f t he m o t h e r f ce o f t he h av
s a n s n su a e

en s re g rded i itel y d istan t He ch el A t my

a as n n .

rs

s s r on o ,

F ixed S ta r s .

2
18 I s th e Cop er n i ca n Sy stem f
o A s tr on o m y Tr u e

Th is obs er v ati o n s ee m s to es tabl i s h the fact th at w here

t w o bod i es a r e obs er v ed i n t he he a v e n s s i t u a te w it h re fe r ,

e n ce to eac h o ther as s t a ted m oti on o f t h e obs er v er or o f

, , ,

cou rs e o f the bod i es obs er v ed ch a n ges t h e a n gle o f Vi s i o n

, , ,

w h i ch n ecess a r i l y w o u ld ch a n ge t h e a pp a re n t pos i t i o n a n d
w o u ld prob abl y ch a n ge t he a ppea ra n ce o f t he ob s er v ed
bod i es .

I n t he cas e o f a s a t ell ite o f J u p iter the effe ct o f t he ,

d i ffere n t a n gle o f v is i o n at wh i ch the s atell ite w o u ld be

obs er v ed aft er the l aps e o f s i x y ea rs wou ld a l m os t n e ces , ,

s ar i l y be t h a t l i gh t a t the ter m i n u s o f a n ecl i p s e o f o n e

, ,

o f t h es e sa t ell ites w o u ld be s ee n l at er a t o n e o f t hes e p e

,

r i od e th an i t w ou ld be at a n ot h er fo r it w i ll be co n ceded
,

that t h e pos i t i o n o f the satell i t e i n s pace w it h refere n ce t o

the pos it i o n o f t h e observ er w o u ld n ecessa ri l y h a v e a n e f
fect o n t h e t i m e a t w h i ch t he satell ite a n d i t s e m e r g i n g
l i gh t wo u ld appea r t o t h e obs er v er .

I n t h is v i e w the 1 7 m i n u t es l a ter w he n t h e l i gh t fro m

, ,

the satell ite i s obs erv ed is a n op t i ca l p h e n om e n o n as a n

,

e ffec t o f t h e d i ffere n t an gle o f v is i o n at w h i ch t h e s at ell i t e

i s obs er v ed t h a n t h a t at w h i ch it w ere s ee n s i x y e a rs pre
v i o u s l y he n ce i n depe n de n t o f t h e t r a v ell i n g t heo r y o f
,

l igh t .

I n o ther w ord s t he l igh t fro m t h e s atell ite i s v i s i ble

,

l ater becau s e the s atell ite its el f co m es o n t h e l i n e o f v is i o n

.

o f t h e ob s er v er l a t er a t o n e ti m e t h a n i t does a t a n o t her .

A s a co n s eq u e n ce t he o r g a n o f v i s i o n c a n n o t ob s er v e
the l i gh t u n ti l the s atell ite a n d t h e l i gh t w h i ch e m e r ges
,

ro
f m it beco e
m s ele v at ed to a l i n e w i t h t h e v i s i o n w h ic h
,

l i n e i t i s s u ppos ed fo r the re o ,
a s n s gi v e n h a s d i ee t
ff r n

elev atio n s at the d i ffe r e n t per i od s o f obs er v a t i on o f t h e

pl a n et a n d s at ell ite .

Th i s i dea m ay be i ll u s t r a ted perh

.
a p s b y, S u pp O S I D
g
th at the earth w ere m o v ed h o r izo ll y n t a n o r t h s a
y,
fo
,
r e x

a m ple s o m e m i ll i o n s o f m i les le
,
a,
v i g
n t h e m o o n b e h i n d ,

i i t l i i t t o r b i t
and o t nu g
c o e v o v e n s
p r e s e n .
n n r
 Th e Vel o ci ty f
o . Lig h t . 19

The m oo n at 40 N w hen fu ll appears n o t m an y de ,

g ree s fro m t he v er ti ca l i n D ece m ber I n J u n e it do es .

n o t a ppea r far fro m 30 a bo v e t h e s ou t her n hor iz o n .

Fro m the pos iti o n w here the ear th h as j u s t been pl ace d

i n t he i m agi n ati o n t he m oon w o u ld i n al l probab il ity be
, , ,

s ee n s oo n er i n D ece m ber t h an it w o u ld be s i x m o n t h s

a ft er o r before n a m el i n Ju n e an d w ere t he v eloc it f

, y , , y o

l i gh t fro m o u r s atell ite determ i n ed b y the lon ger ti m e r e

q u i red fo r i ts l i gh t to reach t he obser v er o n the ear th i n
Ju n e th an i n D ece m ber it w o u ld be co n ceded th at su ch
,

calcu l ati o n w ou ld fa il to g i v e correct resu l ts as thes e d if ,

fe r i n g p h e n o m e n o n w o u ld depe n d w holl y o n t he d i ffere n ce

i n the an gle o f v is io n F o r o u r s atell it e a n d i ts l i gh t
.

m i gh t a ppea r l a ter at o n e ti m e th a n a t an o ther as a n ef ,

feet o f s u ch d i ffere n t a n gle he n ce t he v el oc ity o f l igh t

,

cou ld n o t be com pu ted b y t hes e phen o m e n a .

O n the w hole the co n cl u s i o n appea rs r ati o n al th at t h e

,

d is tan ce o f t he su n ca n n o t be fou n d b y the v eloc ity o f l i gh t

fo r t he follo w i n g reas o n s
1 I f the e t her be e v ery where a n d i ts pu l sati o n be l igh t
.
, ,

we m ay rati o n all y s u ppos e th a t it p u ls a tes at t he l an ter n

an d the m i rro r i n t h e e x per i m e n t m e n t i o n ed m a de t o n d
,

t h e v eloc ity o f l i gh t .

2 I f t he pu l sa t i o n o f t he e ther occu rs a t t he i ll u m i n at e d
.

bod y w h os e l ig h t i s reected the pu l s ati o n an d co n s e

, , ,

qu e n t l y the l i gh t m ay poss i bl y b e propagated i n s ta n t l y

, , , ,

w it hou t t he l aps e o f a n y i n t er va l o f tim e j u s t as t h e t hru s t

,

o f t he s ti ck i n the i ll us t rati on be fore gi v e n w ou ld b e

propagated a n d m ade m a n i fes t a t each en d o f t h e s ti ck at
the sam e i n stan t o f ti m e .

3 The m o s t ca re fu l an d t horo u gh m oder n e x peri m e n ts

.

m ade b y t h e a bles t s c i e n ti s t s i n co n n ec ti o n w ith l i gh t

, ,

h av e led to the co n cl u si o n n o w u n i v ersally recei v ed

,

,

t hat l i gh t i s n o t a bod y is n o t m atter at al l b ut o n t he

, ,

co nt r ar is mer el y a phe n omen o n as soun d is , wit hout

y
20 I s t h e Cop er n i ca n Sy s tem f
o A s tr o n o my Tr u e

k n o w i n g as is k n ow n in t he c e o f as s ou n d the cau s e of

t h e phe om e o n n n .

4 E e tho g h l i gh t w ere d m i t ted t o be

. v n u bod y d a a , an

th t it tr v elled i t el o city w l d be r l i ble i

a a , s v ou un e a n c o n se

q e c o f the per i te ce o f i i o w h i ch pro d ce

u n o

s s n v s n

u s an

Opt i c l i ll i o i e ch e pe i m e t m de t o cert i i t
a us n , n a x r n a as a n s

v eloc ity m y be c
,
ascl ded f o m t h e t c t m de o
a on u r e x ra a n

the bject o f op ti c l ill i

su

a us on s .

Fro m the at re o f th m ed i m w h o e eloc i t y is o gh t

n u e u s v s u ,

an d fro m t he d m itt ed ce t i t ie i t h e p e i m e t
a un r a n s n e x r n s

m dea to th
as t t of th Op t i c l i ll i
e ex en p od ced b y e a us on s r u

l igh t it m y be t i o ll y co cl ded t h t ch e te t i
a ra na n u a su x n s

n ot me sa ble o other w i e k ow q
a ura t it y
r s n n u an .

S EC T IO N III . LE VE R R I E R s

METH O DS FO R FI N I N G TH E D

D I S TA N C E O F TH E SU N .

i y
R el a n ce i s pl a ced b s o m e as r o n o m ers , o n a m e t h o d
, t
i
o f L e v e r r i e r s fo r n d n g t h e d s t a n ce o f t h e s u n , w h ch

i i
t
m ay be u n der s ood b t h e follo w n g q u o t at o n s fr o m y ew i i N
com b s P op u l a r A s t r o n o m :

y

i ty i
S t r c l s pea k n g t h e m oo n does n o t re v ol v e a r o u n d
,

t t
he ear h a n y m ore t h a n t h e ear h a ro u n d t h e m oo n ; t

b ut b yt i i
h e pr n c ple o f ac o n a n d r ea c t o n bo t h m o v e ti i ,

a ro u n d t i
he r co m m o n ce n re o f gr av t The ear t h b e t iy .

ti y
i n g 8 0 m e s a s he av as he m o o n t h s ce n t r e i s s t u a ed t i i t

it i
w h n t h e fo r m e r a bo u t h r ee fo u r t h s o f t h e w ay fro m t -

t
i t s ce n re t o i t s s u r face

.

W t
e q u o e fu rt h e r , as follo ws :

I t i s k n o w n fr o m t h e heo r t
o f gr a v t at o n t h a t t h e y i i

t
ea r h , i n co n s equ e n ce o f t h e at r ac t o n o f t h e m oo n , de t i

i
s cr bes a s m a l l m o n t hl
,
y
orb a r o u n d t h e c o m m o n ce n t re it
v it i to

of gr a y o f t h ese t wo b o d i es , co r r esp o n d n
g th e
 Lev er r i er I eth o d s

s . 21

thl y re ol ti o o f the m oo ro d the e r th or t o

m on v u n n a un a ,

pe k w i t h m ore preci i o
s a ro d t he m e com m o n s n , a un sa

ce tre o f gr i t y I f w k o w the m s ( o w ei gh t) o f
n av . e n as r

the m oo rel ti el y t o th t o f the e r t h d her d i t ce

n a v a a an s an ,

we c th c lc l t e the d i s o f the l ittle orb it e

an us a u a ra u r

ferred to it i m i les

I ro d m be . n un nu rs s .

From t h is b i L i m e t hod fo d i g the d i s

as s , e v e r r er s

r n n "

ta ce o f t h u i s t h e pl i ed
n e s n us x a n :

Th i m o thl y o ci ll t io o f t h e e rth w i ll cau se cor

s n s a n a a

re po d i g o c i ll ti o i t h e lo gi t de o f t he
s n n s a d n n n u su n , an

by m e ri g i t pp t mo
as u t w n t ell h o w f
s a a r en a un , e ca n ar

t be pl ced t o m ke t h i mo t correspo d

th e m su n us a a s a un n

to y, sa m i le L , i f o d t h i s o s c i ll ti o
s i n
. e v er r e r s

un a n

t o be
ar c F o m th i h e co cl ded the olar p r s n u s ar

al l a x to be
Ho w i er h e k ow the l O f th is p
co u ld L e v err av n n v a ue a

p o
ea r a n c e t he le hen k e w t he re l
su niz e o f
, t h t
un ss n a s a

lo git de w he e ch ppe r ce w ere m i fes t ed ?

n u r su a a an an

F o the ppe r ce wo ld h e bee proportio l t o

a ar a n u av n na

the l ize o f ch lo git de ; d the re l ize o f it by

r ea s su n u an a s

,

the req i re e t o e l w o gr itat i o i order t o

m f t h
u f n s a av n, n

h r m o ize w i t h t he p oporti o o f t h ol r y tem w o ld

a n r ns e s a s s u

depe d po the di t ce o f t h
n u n w h i ch i s the v ery
s an e su n ,

proble m prete ded t o be ol ed by the p p n o f t he s v a ea r a n c e

e r th o c i ll t i o i
a

s lo git de o f the
s a n n a n u su n .

I orde t o ho w the ece ity o f t h i k o w ledge i o

n r s n ss s n n r

der t o d the d i t ce o g h t by th i m e thod

n s an ppos e s u s su

,

t w o phe e s o tw i ce the d i m eter o f the other to be

r s n e, a

pl ced t the m d i t ce f o m
a a Ob e er
sa e d t he o s
s an r an s rv ,
an

c il l t i oa f pe d l m t t h pl ce o f Ob er ti o
n o a n u u ho ld , a e a s va n, s u ,

f e m ple h e
or xa ch pp r ce o t he m ller phere
,
av su a ea a n n s a s

th t t h chord o f t h
a e o f i t o c i ll ti o w e e pp re t l y
e ar c s s a n r a a n

eq l i le gt h t o t he pp re t d i m eter o f s ch m ller
ua n n a a n a u s a

s
p he e w h i
r le ch ,cho r d w o ld ppe r
su b t eq l t o t he u a a u ua

r d i o f the l rge phere d c h d i ffere t pp e r ces

a us a r s ,
an su n a a an

wo u ld res l t i t he c e uppo ed ,
n as su s .
22 I s th e Cop er n i c an Sy s tem o f A str on om y Tr u e .
9

W h ile the chord o f the a o f o cill tio w o ld re lly b e rc s a n u a

o f the m e le gt h o bo th pheres y t i
sa n ch c e the n l s ,
e n su as r ea

lo git de i cl ded w ith i the pp re t l i m it o f the chord

n u n u n a a n s

w o ld be d iffere t f
u the t wo phere n ch re l lo g i
or s s , as s u a n

t de wo ld be i propor ti o t t he d i ffere ce o f t he d i
u s u n n o n a

m eter or r t her t he b lk
s, f t he t wo phere
a u , o s s .

N either wo ld the p p u f t he o c i ll ti o f the

a ea r a n ces o s a n o

l o git de o f the t wo phere be the m e f

n u the re o s s sa , or as n

t h t o t he l rger phere t he pp re t o c i ll ti o
a n a s w o ld a a n s a n u

i cl de b t i t r d i w h i le o t h m ller it w o ld i
n u u s a u s, n e s a u n

l de i ts e ti re d i m e ter
o u d
n ch o c i ll tio w o ld t h
a ,
an su s a n u us

corre po d i propor ti o to the rel ti e b lk f the t w

s n , n n, a v u o o

s pheres repre e ted b y t h re pecti e d i m e ter o f the t w

,
s n e s v a s o

s phere A d s ch d iffe e ce i the r ti o f the o ci ll

. n su r n n a o s a

tio wo ld l o be app re t were the o ci ll ti o le th

ns u a s a n s a ns ss an

t h r die ad d i m e ter f the phere

u s an a O s s .

A t he d i t ce o f t he
s b y t h i m e thod
s an f L e er su n , s o v

r i r i m e red b y t he e te t f the pp
o

s, s as u t o c i ll ti o x n o a a r en s a n

ob er v ed
s lo g it de f the on a corre po d i g b y
n u o sun s n n a

l w f proporti o
a o to the re l o c i ll tio o f the e rth h o w
n a s a n a ,

co ld the t wo d i ce i t he c e f t he t wo
'

u t appe r '
er en a an s, n as o

s phere m e e the m di t ce
s, as u r sa e s an .

I the c e o f t he e t w o phere it w i ll be co ceded t h t

n as s s s, n a

the e d i t ppe r ce f o ci ll tio co ld o t gi e

s
'

er en a a an s o s a n u n v

the m e lt i ccord ce w ith L v i

sa e r su s n m e t hod
a an e er r e r s

,

he ce le t he
n ,
u n l e te t f the pp re t lo git de were
ss r ea x n o a a n n u

k o w the d i t ce f the
n n ,
co ld t be fo d b y th i
s an o su n u no un s

m e t hod d th i i ,
either prete ded to be k o w
an s s n n n n ,
n or

i deed i it i cl ded i the req i rem e t f t h i m et hod

n s n u n u n s o s

f d i g th e di t
or n n su n s s a n ce .

For the p p as i the lo g it de f the

a ea r a n c e i by n n u o su n s,

t h i m ethod the re l k y w h i ch lock the d i t ce h w

s ,
a e un s s an , o

c ant h m e t hod be p e rel i ble w he ch ppe r ce

,
er s e, a ,
n su a a an s

ar e d iffere t i d iffere t bodi e i c e w here ch bod i

n n n s, n as s su es

a reat t h e sam e d is t a ce fo t h i s w o ld b eq i v le n t i ,
r u e u a n n
 Lev er r i er M et h o d s 23

s .

wa n t O f rel i bi l i ty w ere the ppe r ces the s m e y et the

a a a an a ,

b od ies w ere reall y at d i ffe e t d i t ces r n s an .

P ro f N w co m b i h is P op l r A s tro o m y s ys

. e ,
n u a n , a

A o ther reco d it e m e thod h

n bee em ploy ed b y Le v er
n as n

ie
r It i fo ded o the pri ci ple th at where the rel
rc s un n n a

ti e m ass e o f t h e s
v s d e r th e k ow the d i ta ce
u n an a ar n n, s n

ca nbe fo d b y co m pa r i g the d is ta ce w h i ch
un he a yn n a v

:bod y w i ll f l l i o e s eco d t t he s r f ce o f t he ea r t h

a n n n a u a

wi t h t he f ll o f t he l att er to w ard t he s u

a i t h e sa m e s n n

ti m e .

To w h i ch t heory t he follo w i g cr iti cis m m y poss i bl y

, n a , ,

be an er n a m el y :
an s w ,

Ho w far the ea rt h w ou ld fall towa rd s the s u n i n a s ec ,

o n d or i n a n y o ther g i v e n ti m e
, w o u ld depe n d o n t h e ,

qu an tity o f t he m atter co n stitu ti n g the s u n together w ith ,

i t s d is ta n ce fro m the ear t h becau s e t he fall o f al l bod i es i s

,

a q u es t i o n o f gr a v itati o n a n d the a m o u n t o f it , i n t h is ,

cas e m u s t depe n d o n the q u an ti t y o f the m atter o f the s u n

,

co m pared w i t h t h at o f th e ea r th an d the squ are o f t he ,

d is ta n ce i n terposed be tw een th es e t wo bod i es .

A s t o t he m as s or w e i gh t o f t he s u n t he s pec tros cope ,

re veal s t here e n or m ou s m ass es o f ery v apor an d ocea n s ,

o f l i q u i d r e i n fa c t t he s e co n s titu t e t h e ch i e f phe n o m e n a
, ,

obs er v ed w h i le t h e propor ti o n s O f the w eigh t o f t hese t o

,

the w hole body is n o t k n ow n i n deed is n o t pre t e n ded t o , ,

be k n o w n n o r e v en co njectu red
, .

F o r t h i s r eas o n if fo r n o o the r t he r ea l a tt r a cti o n o f

, ,

the s u n u po n t h e eart h m u s t at best be b u t conj ect u ral , , ,

he n ce t h e rela ti v e m a sses o f th e s u n a n d e ar t h ca n n o t

,

be k n o w n an d u po n the r eal k n o w ledge o f th es e rel a t i o n s

,

m u s t t he r el i a b i l i t y o f th i s m e t hod gre atl y depe n d .

A s a m eas u re o f i t s a t tr a cti o n t h e re al d is ta n ce o f the ,

s u n ca n o n l y be k n o w n a ccord i n g t o t he l a w o f a tt r a c t i o n

bet w ee n m as s es b y sq u ar i n g t he d istan ce i n ter v e n i n g b e
t wee n the earth an d s u n a n d h o w can th is be don e w he n , ,
24 I s t he Cp
o er n ica n Sy s te m f
o A s t r o n o m y W I

su ch k n o wledge is a d m itted b y as tr o n om ers to b e a

p roble m
K n ow i n g n e ither t he rea l w ei gh t o f the s u n n o r i ts ,

d is tan ce h o w far t he ea rt h w o u ld fa ll to w ards the su n i n

,

a se con d co u ld n o t be k n o w n o t her w is e t h a n rel a ti v el y o r

proport i o n atel y o n an ass u m ed bas is .

 M eas u r emen t o f t h e D i s t a n ce f
o the Su n . 25

II
CH A P TE R .

M E AS U R E M EN T O F T H E D I S TA N C E O TH E su n F .

The p rese t w riter h as fo d b y e peri m e t th at b y

n un x n

v irt e o f
u l aw o f propor ti o
a Ob er ed b y h i m to e x i t
n ,
s v s

betw ee l arge d m l l ri gh t gle d tri gle

n an s a der cer an an s, un

tai co d iti o s d by m e
n n n ,
an o f cer t i for m l th e
an s a n u as ,

h y po the u s e
n d perpe d i c l r o f the l arger t ri gle m y
an n u a an a

be fou n d .

Thes e co n d i t i o n s a r e as follo ws n a m el y ,

1 The bas e l i n e o f t he l a rger t ri a n gle m u s t be k n o w n

. .

2 The t hree s i des o f the s m aller t r i an gle m u s t al s o be

.

k n o wn .

3 The b as e l i n e a n d t h e h y po the n u s e o f the sm aller tr i

.

a n gle m u s t co i n c i de w it h t h a t i s t o say m u s t be p a r ts o f
, ,

the bas e l i n e a n d o f the h y pothe n u s e o f t h e l a rger trian gle

as far as t hes e l i n es o f t h e s m aller t r i a n gle e x t e n d .

4 The perpe n d i c u l a r o f t h e s m aller t r i a n gle m u s t be

.

p arallel w ith the per p e n d i c u l a r o f the l a rger t ri a n gle .

By O b se r vi n g thes e esse n ti al co n d i t i o n s an d by proceed ,

i n g i n accord a n ce w i t h t h e follo w i n g m e t ho d s t he h y pot h ,

e n u s e a n d perpe n d i c u l ar l i n es o f a n y r i gh t a n gled tr i a n gle

m ay be fou n d .

The h y pothe n us e l i n e o f the ri gh t a n gled t ri an gle s ho w n

o n F i g 2 m ay be fo u n d b y t h i s m e t hod b y propor ti o n i n
.
, ,

a ccord an ce w i t h t h e follo w i n g fo r m u l a n a m el y ,

A s t he bas e l i n e 1 2 O f t h e s m aller t r i a n gle 1 4 2 i s

, , , , ,

t o t h e b as e l i n e 1 3 o f t h e l a rger t r i a n gle 1 5 3 s o i s
, , , , ,

the h y pothen u s e 1 5 t o t h e h y pot h e n u s e 1 4

, , , .

The calcu l at i on here i s m ade i n t wel ft h s o f i n ches as ,

follo ws :
 M easu r em en t o f t h e D i s t a n ce o
f th e S u n . 27

B as e , B ase , Hy p . HY P
1 , 2, 1 , 3, 1 , 4, 1 , 5,

12 48
Meas u re m e n t o f the b y
o t h e n u se l i n e 1 5 o f t he , ,

a rger t r i a n gle 1 5 3 ( Fi g , , , . 256

w ill s ho w i t s l e n gt h t o be 1 28
1 28 t w el ft h s o f i n ches .

tw el fth 1 28 s .

The follo w i g i s t he for m l fo d i g the le gt h o f

n u a r n n n

the perp e d i c l r l i e 3 5 o f the tri gle 1 5 3 ( Fi g

n u a n , ,
an , , , .

The c lc l at i o i m de i tw l ft h s f i ches
a u n s m el y
a n e o n , na

A t h e h y po t he
s e l i e 1 4 o f t h e s m ller r igh t a
n us n , , a n

gled t ri gle 1 4 2 i t o the h y po the se l i e 1 5 o f

an , , , s nu n , ,

l rger ri gh t gled t ri gle 1 5 3 so i the p e pe d i c

a an an , , , , s r n u

lar l i e 3 5 t o t h e perpe d i c l r l i e 2 4
n , ,
n u a n , .

HY P HP Bd B Y a e, a se .

32 12
30
3O
Meas u re m e n t o f t h e per

p e n d i c u l ar l i n e n a m el y t he , ,

l i n e 3 5 o f the l arge r t rian

, ,

gle 1 5 3 ( Fi g
, , , w i l l pro v e
. 32
t h e le n g t h o f s u ch l i n e t o be
64
1 2 0 t wel ft h s o f i n ches
64
.

0
Th es e m eas u re m e n ts dem o n s trate the fac t t h at w here
the co n d i t i o n s before m e n t i on ed e x is t an d the for m u l a is ,

e m ploy ed as s h o w n i n co n n ect i o n with Fi g 2 t h at the

, .
,

h y pothe n u se a n d perpe n d i c u l a r l i n es o f a l arger r i gh t a n

gled tri an gle m ay be fo u n d b y m ean s o f t h e s hort l i n es o f
a s m a ller o n e as the re s u l t O f t h e m e t hod b propor ti o
y n ,

as j u s t s ho w n .

Th i s fac t w ill al s o be de m o n s t rated i n the sam e w ay ,

n am el y b y m eas u re m e n ts i n co n n ec t i o n w it h t h e fol l o w
, ,

i n g Figs 3 . an d 4 .
28 I s the Cop er n ic a n Sy s tem f
o A s tr o n o my Tr u e 9 .

Fo r ex a m ple s u ppose t h e l i n es 1 3 a n d 4 5 o n Fi g 3
, , , , , .
,

to be the Opposite s hore l i n es o f a w ater co u rs e i n m i n i a ,

t u re i n t erv e n i n g be t wee n the s e l i n es

, .

O n th i s d i agra m t he l arger t ria n gle i s for m ed b y t he

,

l i n es 1 4 3 4 1 3 a n d t h e s m aller tr ia n gle b y t he
-

, , , , , ,

l i n es 1 2 9 1 2 9 , , , , , .

The w i d th o f th is m i n i at u re w ater co u rs e i s req u i red b y

by the proporti o n al m et hod alo n g the dotted l i n e 3 4 , , .

The l i n e 1 3 i s the s hore l i n e be i n g al so the bas e l i n e

,

, ,

o f the l a rger tr i a n gle 4 1 3 1 4 3 , , ,

-

, , , .

Th e w i d t h o f t h is m i n i at u re w a ter co u rs e m ay be fou n d
as follo w s i n t w el ft h s o f i n che s n a m el y
, ,

A s the le n gth o f t h e l i n e 1 2 eq u al t o 1 8 t w el ft h s o f , ,

i n ches i s t o the bas e l i n e o f t h e la rger tri a n gl e equ al t o

, ,

8 4 tw el ft h s o f i n ches s o i s to t h e le n gt h o f t h e l i n e
,

eq u al t o 9 t wel ft h s t o the w id t h O f t h e s t rea m alo n g t he

,

dott ed l in e 3 4 , .

B as e , B as e , P er .

1 , 2, 1 , 3, 2, 9, s. 4
.

18 84 9
M eas u re m e n t o f the m i n ia
t u re stream alo n g t h e do t ted
l i n e 3 4 s how s i t s w i d t h t o
, , ( 4 2
be eq u a l to 4 2 t wel ft h s O f
i n ches .

36
36

B ut g i ppos e t h at each 1 2 t h o f a n i n ch O f the

a a n su

l i nes e m ploy ed t o n d the w i d th o f th e m i n i at u re s t rea m

reall y r epres en ted 5 % y ards eq u al t o a r o d i n d is tan ce o r ,

l en gt h .

O n s u ch s u ppos iti o n t h e re al le n gth o f t h e bas e l i n e o f

th e l arg er tr i a n gl e w ou ld be 8 4 x5 i equ al 4 6 2 y ards ,
.

The l i n e w o u l d be eq u al 9 9 y ard s .

The l i n e w o u ld be 9 x 5 i eq u al 4 9 % y ards ,
.

I n s u ch cas e t h e r eal w i d t h o f t he s t re a m as fou n d in

a ccord a n ce w it h t h i s red u ced s cale w o u ld be as follo ws
 M easu r em en t o f th e D i stan ce o
f th e S un . 29

B a se , B a se, P er . Per .

1 : 2: 1 2 3: 3 9 42

99 4 6 2 :: 4 9 t
49
the w i d th o f t h m i i
A s e n a

t re stre m i i t wel ft h o f
u a s n s 4 1 58
i che e ch o f the e w o ld
n s, a s u 1 8 48
be req i red t be m l ti pl i ed
u o u 23 1
by 5 % y rd bec e t h re l
a s, au s e a
d
le gth f t h b e l i e i
n o e as n s es
y s

ti m t ed i y d t h 4 2 5 %
a n ar s . us, x

eq l t 2 3 1 y rd w o ld be
ua o a s, u 306
t h w i d t h f t h e t re m
e o s a . 297

99
99

In the t o f a re l r i er es tu ry
a ctu a l m e as u re m e n a v ,
a ,

s o d l ke etc the m ller tri gle req i red fo

un , a ,
.
, ch s a an u r su

m e s re m e t
a u y fo i t n ce ch
, sa t he m ,ller t r i rgle n s an , su as s a an

1 2 9 Fi g 3 m y be
, , ,
m ll
. . m y be req i red fo
a as s a as a u r

the m e re m e t o f i t i de pro i ded the re pec t i e

as u n s s s, v s v

s i d e o f ch t ri gle
s su of t h m e de o m i
an t io ar e e sa n na n as

t h t dop t ed fo t h m e s re m e t o f t he b s e l i e f t h e
a a r e a u n a n o

l rger t i gl e th t i t o
a r an
y i f t h le
, g t h o f at h b e
s sa , e n e as

l i e be c lc l t ed i i he t he t h le gt h o f t h l i es
n a u a n nc s n e n s e n

o f t he m ller t ri g le m t be c lc l ted i i c h e
s a an us a u a n n s .

I f the b e l i e f t h l rger t r i gle be c lc l ted i

as n o e a an a u a n

rod y rd m i le etc
s, a s,m t th e m al l er s, .
, so us s .

I f t he w i d th f w t er be ct ll y m e o ed o a
y a ua as u r r an

horizo t l d i t ce o gh t
n a s an
y t he w i d t h o f r i s er i u , sa a v s

req i red b y ct l m
u e m e t ccord i g t o the propor
a ua e as u r n a n

tio l m e tho d proceed

na follow ,
as s

S y f a e m p l e t h w i d t h o f the r i er were q i
o r an xa e v re u r

ed fro m 3 t o 4 F i g 3 p o eed l g t i g h t t retc h o f

. . r c a on a s ra s

s hore l i e ch th li e
n su y co e i
as t m ber e o f n an nv n en nu

y a rds or r o ds ,
sa
y o n e, t w o , o r 300 y ard s t o 1 .
30 I s t he Cp
o er n i ca n S
y s t em f
o A s tr on o m y Tr ue.
9
 M eas ur e m en t o f th e D i s ta n ce f
o th e Sun . 31

A t 1 dri ve a s ta ke v ert i ca lly at the w ater s edge Le t a

.

s tr a i gh t e d ge repres e n ted b y 1 9 be p i v o te d a n d m a de to , ,

t u r n horizon tall y o n t h e t o p o f s u ch stake a n d parallel to

t he s u rface O f t h e w ater a n d n ear s u ch s u rface

.
,

Le t a pers o n s i gh t alo n g t h i s s t rai gh t edge repres e n t

ed b y the l i n e 1 9 O u a t ree b u s h rock o r ot her obj ect
, , , ,

located at t he ed ge O f the w a ter a t 4 o n t he O p p os ite ,

s hore W he n t h is is don e d r aw t h e li n e
.
p er pe n d i c u ,

l ar t o the s t r ai gh t s hore l i n e a n d the w i d t h o f s u ch r i v er .

m ay be fo u n d i n a ccord a n ce w ith the for m u l a s ho w n by

the l as t preced i n g calcu l at io n

.

The correc t n es s o f t h i s red u ced s cale m e thod s ho wn

i n co n n ecti o n w it h Fi g 3 fo r n d i n g g r eat er d i s ta n ces
.

by m ea n s o f s ho r t l i n es m ay be pro v ed by refere n ce t o
Fi g 2. .

Th e per pe n d i c ul ar 2 4 o f t h e sm aller t ri an gle 1 4 2 , , , , ,

i s fo u n d i n t he t h i rd s o f i n ches t h u s
A s 1 V eq u a l t o i o f a n i n ch i s t o 1 2 equ al t o 3
,

, , , ,

th i r ds o f a n i n ch so is the l i n e V V equ al t o 2 %
,

, ,

th i r d s o f a n i n ch t o the pe rpe n d i cu la r 2 4
, , .

Calc u l a ti o n b y t he m e thod by proporti o n n d s t h e

le n gth o f the l i n e 4 2 t o be 7 t t h i rd s O f i n ches eq u a l
, , ,

t o 2 % i n ches an d m eas u re m e n t o f t h e pe rpe n d i c u l a r l i n e

,

2 4 s ho ws s u c h t o be i ts le n gt h
, , .

B u t t h e le n gt h o f t h e perpe n d i c u l a r 3 5 o f t he l a rger , ,

tri an gle 1 5 3 i s requ i r ed by t h e red u ced s cale m e thod

, , ,

w h i ch fo u n d t h e re al w i d t h o f the s t re a m Fi g 3 b y k n o w .

i n g an d e m ployi n g t h e r ea l le n g t h o f t h e bas e l i n e o f t h e
large r tr i a n gle 1 5 3 Fig 2 , , . . .

Meas u re m e n t o f t h i s b as e l i n e w i ll s how i t s le n gt h t o
be 4 i n ches n am el y 4 t i m es the le n gth o f the b as e l i n e o f
,
.

the s m aller t ri a n gle I n s u ch cas e as i n the m eas u re .

,

m e n t O f th e wi d th o f t h e s t re a m t h e red u ced s ca le w o u ld ,

be req u i red t o be i n c r eas ed p r opor t i o n a t el y i n orde r to

n d t h e rea l le n g th o f t h e pe r pe n d i c u l a r l i n e 3 5 As , .

t h e b ase l i n e of t h e l arge r tr ian gl e is 4 ti mes th at of t h e

32 I s the Cp o er n i c a n S y s te m o
f A s tr o n o my Tr u e 9 .

sm a l l er , it wi ll ho w he ce ccordi g
as m eas u re m e n t of s ,
n a n

to t h e l w o f p o p o t i o 1 V w o ld repre e t 4 th i rd
a r r n ,

, u s n s

of i ches i t e d f o
n t h i rd s i t doe
,
ns by t h red ce d
a o ne a s e u

s ca le .

The l i n e 1 2 w o u ld re p res e n t 1 2 th i rd s i n s tead o f 3

, ,

t h i rd s a n d t h e l i n e V V w o u l d re p res e n t 1 0 t h i rd s i n

, , ,

s t e ad O f

The calc u l at i o n i n t h i rd s o f i n ch es t o n d t h e le n gt h ,

o f 3 5 w i l l be as fo llo w s :
, ,

A s 4 is t o 1 2 so is 1 0 to 3 , 5 .

4 12 10
10
Meas u re m e n t w ill s ho w
t h a t t h e le n gt h o f 3 5 t h e , ,

per p e n d i c u l a r o f t h e l arge r
3 ) 30 t h l r d s '

tr i a n gle ( Fig i s 1 0 i n ch es . .

i che 10 n s .

Th i m e re m e t corrobo t e t h correct e o f t he
s as u n ra s e n ss

m e s re m e t
a u by th m e m e t hod
n O f t he w i d t h o f e sa a

su p po ed r i er i co ect io w i t h F ig 3
s v d pro e t h t
n nn n .
, an v s a

w he e t h rr l le g t h f t h b e l i e f l rge t ri gle
e ea n o e as n o a a r an

i k ow
s n d e m ploy ed i t h m e
n , an e m e t b y follow i g n e as u r n ,
n

the m et hod be fo e de cri bed d do p ted i co ect io r s an a n nn n

w i t h Fi g 2 d 3 t h t l g t h o f l o g l i e m y be
s . an , a en s n n s a

fo d by m e
un o f hor t o e an s s n s .

I order t de m o t r t e m t he m ti c ll y t h e correc t ess

n o ns a a a a n

o f t h i propor ti o s l m e t hod w he p pl i ed o na red ced n a n a u

c le t o d g re t er le g t h f l i e
s a n d g t er d i t
a ce n s o n s an r ea s an s,

su p p o e col m t be 8 0 fe t h i gh
s a u d th t
n b e li e
o e ,
an a a as n

be d w f o m t h ce t l l i e f t h ol m
ra n r t it b e
e n ra n o e c u n ,
a s as ,

an d t rig h t gle t the pe p e d i c l l i e o f t h c l

a a an o r n u ar n e o

um d i t ce O f 6 0 feet
n , a s an .

From t h e t er m i f t h i b e l i e f r t he t f o m t h e
n us O s as n u s r

col m i t i eq i red t h t w i re be e te d ed t o t h e c n
u n, s r u a a x n e

tral l i n e o f t h e col u m at its t o p n .

 M ea su r em en t o f t h e Di s tan ce f
o th e S un . 33

Wh t i areq u i red t o be k n own i s the le n gth o f w i re

s

n ecess ar i n t he cas e s u ppo s ed

y .

I n order t o as cer ta i n th i s dra w s u ch col u m n i n m i n i a ,

tu re as show n o n F i g 4 The dotted l i n e 1 2 is 4 i n ch es

, . . .
, ,

lo n g The bas e l i n e 3 2 i s 3 i n ches lon g

.
, , , .

A s the col u m n is 8 0 fee t h i gh b y s u ppos i t i o n an d t he ,

m i n ia t u re col u m n s ho w n o n Fi g 4 i s 4 i n ches h i gh e a c h
, .
, ,

i n ch o f the red u ced s cale o n wh i ch t he m i n iatu re col u m n

i s draw n as a l s o i ts b as e l i n e repres e n t s 24 0 i n ch es ,

eq u al t o 20 fee t as 240 x 4 equ al 96 0 i n ches an d 96 0 d i

, ,

v i d e d b y 1 2 eq u al s 8 0 fee t a n d s o fo r t he b as e as 2 4 0 x ,

3 eq u al s 7 20 a n d 7 20 d i v i ded b y 1 2 eq u al s 6 0 fee t the

, ,

len gt h o f t h e bas e l i n e o f the real col u m n .

I n n d i n g t he he i gh t o f t h e m i n i atu re col u m n o n F i g , .

4 the calc u l at i o n belo w is m a de i n t w el ft h s o f i n ches an d

, ,

i s i n a ccord a n ce w i t h t he follo w i n g form u l a n a m el y : ,

A s 6 tw el fth s n am el y t he le n g t h o f 3 7 o f t he b as e
, , , ,

l i n e o f the s m aller tr ia n gle ar e to 3 6 tw el ft h s n am el y t o , , ,

t he l e n gt h o f the bas e l i n e o f the l arger tr i an gle so a r e ,

1 0 t w el ft h s n a m el y t he h y po the n u s e l i n e o f the s m aller

, ,

tri an gle i n s cr ibed w ith i n the l arger t o t he h y pothen u s e ,

l i n e o f th e l arger th us :
B B
,
ase , ase , Hyp . Hy p .

3, 7 , 3, 1 ,
The h y pothe n u s e 3 1 o f
6 10
, ,

th e l arger tr ian gle 3 1 2 o n , , , ,

z

F i g 4 i s the n 6 0 tw el fth s o f
.
,

i n ch es lon g equ al to 5 i n ches

, ,

an d m eas u re m e n t w i ll pro v e

s u ch t o b e i ts le n g th
t wel fth
.
1 2) 6 O s

5 i n ches .

B t i u ccord ce w ith the red ced s c le o w h i ch Fig

n a an u a n .

4 i s dr w e ch l i e r i ch o th i di agram represe ts
a n, a n a n n s n

20 fee t eq l t o 24 0 i che
, ua n s .

Th e as v e i che n m el y t h m ea red le gth O f t h e

n n s, a , e su n

h y poth en s e l i e 3 1 o F ig 4 m u l t ip l i ed b y 20 feet is
u n , ,
n .
,

3
 M easu r emen t o f t h e D i s t a n ce o
f t h e Su n . 35

eq u al to 1 00 feet 1 00 fee t w i ll be the le n g th o f w i re r e

,

q u i r ed fro m t he ter m i n u s o f the 6 0 feet b as e l i n e t o t he

a pe x o f t he 8 0 fe et col u m n .

Let the correc tn ess o f t h is co n cl u s i o n be tes t ed b y th e

4 7 t h P ro p os it io n o f the rs t book o f E u cl i d

.

Th is P ropos i t io n dem o n s t rated to be correc t is as
follo ws n a m el y :
,
The s qu are O f t h e h y pothe n u s e o f a

ri gh t an gled t r i an g le is eq u a l t o t h e s u m o f the s qu are o f

t h e t wo o ther s i des

The tri a n gle for m i n g Fi g 4 w h i ch repres en ts i n m i n .

i at u r e t he d i rec t i o n o f t h e col u m n i ts b as e l i n e a n d h y ,

o t h n u s e is r i gh t a n gled ; th a t it is s o m a be as w ell
p e y ,

a n d m ore q u i ckl y fo u n d by a p pl yi n g a n ord i n ary s q u are

to t h e l i n es o n Fi g 4 as by a tech n i cal de m o n s tratio n

. .
,

The s i des 1 2 3 2 t h at is to s ay t he hei gh t o f the

, , , , ,

col u m n a n d t h e l e n g t h o f the b as e l i n e a r e k n o w n as , ,

s t a ted.

A s the col u m n i s 8 0 fee t h i g h t he s q u are o f t h is s i de ,

o f t h e r i gh t a n gled t r i a n gle i s 8 0 x 8 0 eq u a l s 6 4 00 .

The s qu are o f t h e b as e l i n e i s 6 0 x 6 0 eq u als 3 6 00 .

The s u m o f t he s q u are o f thes e t wo s i des i s t hen 6 400

a n d 36 00 eq u a l t o ,

The n th e s q u are O f the h y p o t h en u se o f th is r i gh t an gled

tri an gle n am el y th at w h i ch the l i ne 3 1 represe n ts o n
, , , ,

Fi g 4 m u s t be
.
, becau s e as j us t s how n ,
is ,

t h e s u m o f t he s q u ar e o f t he o t her t w o s ides o f t he r i gh t
a n gled t r i a n gle ; w ere t he s q u a re o f i ts h y po the n u s e m ore

o r le s s th a n it wo u ld be m ore o r less t h an equ a l to

the s u m o f the sq u a re o f t h e o t her t wo s ides .

W he n b y the t e r m s : o f t he 4 7 t h P ropo s iti o n t he s q u a re

o f t he h y po t he n u s e i s e u a l t o t he s u m o f t he s q u a re o f
q
t h e o t he r t w o : s i d es o f a r i gh t a n gled t r i a n gle .

Then th e sq u ar e o f t h e h y po t h e n u s e o f the t r i a n gle ,

here s u ppos ed i s as t h i s i s e u a l t o t h e su m o f t he
, q
o t her t wo s i des w h ich i s i n acco rd an ce with t h e r equ i re
,

men ts of th e P r o posit ion .

 M eas u r em en t f
o t h e Di s t a n ce f
o th e Su n . 37

res u l ts fro m the s qu are of 1 00, as 1 00 x 1 00

eq u a s l
By e x tra c t i n g th e squ are r o ot o f it w i ll be fou n d
t o be 1 00 an d fo r the r eas o n j u st g i v e n n a m el y th at 1 00
, , ,

x 1 00 eq u a l s

M eas u re m e n t o f the l i n es o f the ri gh t an gled t ri an gle ,

o n Fi g 4 w i ll pro v e b y a n a l ogy t he correc t n ess o f t he

.
,

forego i n g d ed u c t i o n n a m el y t h e bas e l i n e 3 2 i s 3 i n ches

, , , , ,

t h e s q u a re o f th i s i s 9 The l i n e 1 2 i s 4 i n ches lon g the

.
, , ,

s qu a re o f 4 i s 1 6 The s u m o f the s q u are o f t hes e t w o

.

s i d es o f t h i s r i gh t a n gled t r i a n gle n a m el y 9 an d 1 6 is , , ,

25 Th e n t h e s qu are O f the h y po th e n u s e 3 1 m u s t b e

.
, ,

i n accord a n ce w i t h the t er m s o f the 4 7 t h P ropos iti o n 25 .

The s q u a re roo t o f 2 5 i s 5 as 5 x 5 eq u al s 2 5 the n t h e ,

h y pothe n u se l i n e 3 1 sho u ld be ve i n ches lo n g an d

, , ,

m easu re m e n t s ho w s it t o be s o .

A s th i s 4 7 t h P ropos iti o n n ds the le n gt h o f w i re r e

q u i red i a the cas e s u ppos ed t o be the sa m e as th at
fo u n d b y the propor ti o n al m ethod here e m ploy e d fo r t he
s am e p u rpose the follo wi n g co n cl us io n s ar e dedu ced
, ,

n am el y :

1 Th a t the h y p o t he n u s e o f a r i gh t a n gled t ri a n gle m ay

.

be fo u n d b y the proportio n al m ethod i n al l c as es w here ,

t h e b as e o f s u ch tri a n g l e i s k n o w n a n d the s a m e for m u l a ,

i s e m ploy ed fo r t h a t pu rpos e as th at by w h i ch the h y po th

o n u s s l i n e w as fou n d o f t he r i gh t a n gled t r i a n gle i n F i g 4 . .

2 Th at w he n t h is m ethod is e m ploy ed o n a red u ced

.

s cale b y m e a n s o f s hor t l i n es t he le n g th s o f lo n g
, ,o n es
m ay b e fou n d as it h as bee n s ho w n s ho w n i n co n n ec ti o n
,

w i t h Fi g 4 t h a t b y l i n es res pec ti v el y 3 a n d 4 i n che s lo n g

.
,

w as fo u n d t he le n gt h o f a h y po t he n u s e l i n e 1 00 fee t lo n g .

.


3 Th a t the d ier en t le n g t h s o f l i n es rep r es e n ti n g o n
a red u ced s cale t h e lo n ger l i n es s o u gh t b y t he m e thod

does n o t affect the rel i ab i l ity o f t h e m e t h od s ee i n g as w e ,

d o th at t he s hor t l i n es repres e n ti n g t h e lo n ger l i n es o r

, ,

g re a ter d i s ta n ce s s o u gh t d i ffer i n le n g t h s o n Fi g s 2 3 4
, .
, , ,
38 I s t h e:
Cop er n i ca n S y s t e m o f A str on o my Tr u e 9
.

al s o o n Fi g 5 as al s o do t he l i n es s o fo u n d d i ffer i n

.

le n gt h s y et the d ista ces or le n g th s so u gh t b y t h is

n

m e t h od a e correc tl y fo u d as pro v ed b y m eas u re m e ts o f

r n n

the m as s hown i n co n n ecti o n w ith al l the d iagram s j u s t

n um bered .

By em pl oyi n g th i s m e thod o n a red u ced scale i n the

s a m e m an n er as t h a t wh i ch fo u n d t he le n g th s a n d d i s

t a n ces so u gh t i n co n n ec ti o n w it h t hes e d i agra m s t he ,

presen t w r it er h as m eas u red the d is ta n ce o f t he s u n as i s

herei n aft er s ho wn .

I n order t o do th i s w it h a n y rel i ab i l ity i n t he res u l t

fo u n d it i s n eces sary t o s ho w t h a t t he m e thod e m ploy e d
,

is su bs tan ti all y the sam e as t h a t w h i ch fo u n d t h e l i n es

s o u gh t o n the d i ffere n t preced i n g d i agra m s .

The rs t prerequ is ite t o t h e m eas u re m en t o f the s u n s

d is tan ce by th is m et hod i s t he co n st ru ctio n o f the l ar ger

, ,

r igh t a n gled tr i an gle a n d prel i m i n a ry to th is i s the n eces

,

s i t y o f n d i n g t he proper a n gle a t the po i n t o f j u n cti o n

o f t h e h y po t he n u s e wi th t he b as e l i n e o f s u ch l a rger r i gh t

a n gled t r i a n gle .

It wi ll be observ ed o n F ig 1 an d m eas u rem e n t w i l l

, ,
.

s ho w i ts correct n es s th at to an Obser v er at A 4 0 N the

,

l i n e A S is 4 0 S o f the v erti ca l l i n e A H as m eas u re

.
,

m e n t w i ll s ho w th at the l i n e A S c u ts t h e celes t i al a r e
H M 4 0 S o f H H bei n g the ze n it h o v er A See F ig 1

. . . . .

Were t he l i n e A H pl aced v ert i call y o n the 2 l st o f

M arch or S ep tem ber th e l i n e A S sho u ld o n s u ch d ay
,

po i n t o n the cen tre o f the s u n beca u se A bei n g 4 0 N O f ,

.

t he eq u ator an d the s u n o n s u ch d ay bei n g 40 S o f A

.

w ere A S po i n ted 4 0 S o f A it s ho u ld po i n t o n t he s u n

. .

I n order to be pra cti call y cer ta i n o f the correc t n es s o f

th is theoreti c co n cl u si o n an d m ore especiall y t o tes t t he

,

rel i ab i l ity o f the d iagram Fi g 1 w h i ch di agram i s i n

, .
,

t e n ded to repres e n t i n m i n i at u re a q ua dra n t o f t h e ea r t h s

c ircl e the follo wi n g ex per i m e n t w as m ade by the writer ,

 M eas u r em en t f
o th e Di s ta n ce of the Su n . 39

w ith d pl i c te O f Fig 1 o t h e 2 1 t o f S eptem ber at

a u a .
,
n s ,

40 N
.

O t h t d y t he w riter pl ced l o w t ble o t he gro d

n a a a a a n un ,

i ts t o p be i g h ori z o t l s o fo d b y
n p i r i t le el
n a ,
un a s v .

A N or th d So th l i e w an dr w o the top o f th is u n as a n n

t able b y co m p s A l i e t ri gh t
a a sgl e t o t h i w
. n ,
a an s s, as

d w re p res e ti g t he E as t d W e t l i e
ra n ,
n n an s n .

A d u pl ic te o f Fi g 1 w a m oo t hl y ttached properl y . as s a

t o t h e W e t i de o f t h is ta bls s co i c i de t w i t h No t h e, n n a r

an d S o t h l i e the a rro w S o Fi g 1 po i ti g i
u n ,
o th n . n n n a s u

e l y d i rec ti o
r n .

The l i e C A H o Fi g 1 w pl ced er ti c ll y s ch
n n . as a v a ,
u

l i e co i ci d i g i d i recti o w ith t h pl m b l i e
n n n n n e u n .

A s tr i gh t edge w a s ec rel y f s t e ed t o Fi g 1 . as co i u a n .
,
n

e i de t i d i recti o w ith the l i e A S d

n n n hor t d i t ce n an a s s an

i e x te s i o o f
n ch l i e
n n su n .

A f w m i te be fore t he s
e nu w a o t he m er i d i
s li e un s n an n ,

the w r iter t o t h gro d a d si gh t ed fro m A lo g

sa n e un , n , a n

the tr i gh t edge j st m e t io ed th r o gh
s a -
u pp re t l y n n , u an a a n

p o perl y s m oked gl ss o f good m t eri l

r d b t a v er y a a . an u a

s h or t ti m e be fore m er i d i ti m e the co m m e ced t o an su n n

cross the l i e o f i gh t n s .

The s p pe red t o
un ac t q i t e cle a rl
a y a cro ss t h l i e o f u u e n

v s i i o d i rected lo g the trai gh t edge d

n a n ly co i s -

,
an n ea r n

ci de t w ith the horizo t l d i m eter o f t he

n n a a su n .

It i c l i med theoret i c ll y by the d i ect io the l i e A S

s a a r n n

i s dr w ely 40 S o F i g 1 a d pr cti c ll y
a n, n
n n a a as a

, . .
,

r es l t o f th i e x per i m e t th t the l i e A S Fi g 1 i
u s n a n , .
,
s

dr w t t he pro p er g l to po i t ce tr ll y o the
a n a an e n n a n su n

w he t he n i e ti c ll y o the eq t or
sun s v r d the ob r a n ua ,
an so

v ti o i m de fro m t h poi t A 4 0 N o th 2l t of
a n s a e n . n e s

S ep te m ber ; l t ho u gh ch l i e po i t ed l itt le b l w t h
a su n n a e o e

ce tre o f the
n b t o w i g t o re fr c ti o t he t r
su n , u al ti

n a n ue

t de i l w y l th the ob er ed
u s a a s e ss an s v .

I o d v oid p i io f f io h d i
to f o et h t o r a ct t st an ce m t u at
wh h i d i d h b
n r er re q
40 N w h
a n o n s, e r e e r
t e e xper m e n t w as m a h s st a t e to at

t
d w f o 40 7 9
ere e a ve ee n er eas e
exact di i 40 7 9 d Fi 1
s t a n ce s
, an g .
, was ra n r m
.
40 I s th e Cp o er n i can Sy stem f
o A st r on omy Thu s 9
.

i
A ccord n g t o he l aw t go v er n i n g the re fracti o n o f b eav
i
e n l y bod es , n am el y , n o th i n g o n t he z en ith an d greates t o n
t he horizon at t he al titu de the su n then w as n a m ely 40
, , ,

abo v e t he s o u t her n hor iz o n i t s real al t itu de belo w t h e

,

a pp are n t w o u ld h a v e bee n i n w h i ch ca e t he l i n e o f s

v is i o n alo n g t he s tr ai gh t edge w o u ld h a v e bee n co i n c i d en t

-

w ith a hor i z on ta l dra wn thro u gh t he s u n s ce n t re

.

F rom t h is ex per im e n t the ded u cti o n i s m ade th at the

,

h y po then u s e l i n e A S F i g 1 w h i ch i s i n t en ded fo r t h e
.

h y pothe n u s e o f the l arger tri an gle here i n aft er e x pl ai n ed

i s dr aw n at the proper a n gle to reach t he s u n s ce n t re

,

w ere su ch l i n e i n de n itely co n ti n u ed i n t h at d i recti o n .

The larger r i gh t a n gled tria n gle n ecessa ry t o t h e m eas ,

u r em e n t o f t he d is ta n ce o f t h e su n b y t h e m e t hod b y pro

porti o n i s for m ed as follo ws :

,

1 By t he h y p o the n u s e l i n e A S Fi g 1 ex te n ded b y
.
, .
,

an d co i n c i de n t w it h t he l i n e o f v i s i o n t o t he ce n t re o f t he

s u n fro m 40 N a t t he ti m es o f t he equ i n o x e s

. .

2 The perpe n d i cu l ar o f s u ch t r i an gle is t h e v erti ca l

.

l i n e fro m the su n s ce n t re t o the ea r th s cen tre through

the equ ator at the ti m e o f the eq u i n o x .

.3 The b as e l i n e o f s u ch tr ia n gle i s the m eas u re d d is

tan ce o f a l i n e draw n from such v erti cal l i n e an d at a ,

rig h t an gle to it t o the poin t A 40 N

,

.

The fact th at n o r ea l l i n es for m i n g s u ch l arger t rian gl e

, ,

ex ten d fro m A t o t he su n from the s u n v erti call y thro u gh

,

the equ a tor n o r fro m the v erti cal l i n e ( drawn to the ce n

,

t r e o f t he earth ) to the po i n t A 4 0 N can n o t de t rac t

,

fro m t h e m e n tal co n te m pl ati o n o f s u ch t ri an gle ; fo r w er e

t h e l i n es u n der co n s i der ati o n ca pable o f b e i n g co n s t r u ct ed ,

it wou ld be n ecessar y t o co n s tr u c t the m alo n g the l i n e o f

v is ion . Th is l i n e o f v is io n e n ables u s t o m e n tally co n
s t r u c t s u ch l i n es as per fectl y to t he co n cep ti o n as t ho u gh
they w ere actu al m ater ial l i n es .

To the i m agi n ati o n th at i n v is i ble ey e o f the m i n d a

, ,
 M easu r em en t o f the Di sta n ce f
o the S un . 41

t r i an gle m y ap p e as clea a d d i ti ct as t ho gh d w
a ar r n s n , u ra n

b y t h e h a d a d o b s e v ed by a id o f t he v is l org
n , n r ua an .

I f l i e be d aw b y t he i m g i ti o
a n r n f o m 40 N to a na n r

the s s ce t r e at t he pe i od o f t he eq u i o x e s d if

un n r t n , an , a

t h e sa m e ti m e a v e ti c l l i e b e d r w , r b y t he a m e i
a n a n, s n

t a g i bl e a d i m p lp b l e a ti t fro m t he ce t e o f the
n n a a r s , n r s un

to the ce t e o f t h e ea th w e h v e p ese ted t o o u m e

n r r , a r n r n

t a l v i e w t h e r es p ec tiv e te m i i o f t he h y p o t he us e r d n n an

e d i cu l o f t wo l i es the a p e x o f b o t h l i
a b ei g t
p pe r n n , n es n a

t he s ce t e d t he o the ter m i us o f ea ch l i e l o c

un s n r , an r n n a

t ed i d i ffe e t p l ces o t h
n r n e th a n e ar .

I f th e ,
l i e be s ppo ed t o be d r w at i gh t
n, a n u s a n a r an

g l e t o s ch e ti
u c l l i
v e tro t he 4 0at h p a a llel N o t h
n
y r r , sa ,

fo e x m ple t o t h e po i t A Fi g 1 w e h a v e to t he m e
r a , n , .
, n

t al co cep ti o n l ge r i gh t n a gled t ia gle s c lea a d

ar an r n , a r n

d isti ct to the i m ag i t i o it co l d be to t h v i l o
.

n na n as u e sua r

g an w e e i t co rs t u ct ed f mn t er i r l l i es d t heo vi s i o a a n , an n

st o g a d f
r n r e a ch i g e o gh t o t ake i ts m e s re
n ar -
n n t a u a u a

gl a ce Fo we p p ehe d th t it w il l b e co ceded th at
n . r a r n a n

the m e ta l cap c ity to cle l y co c iv e the e xi te ce o f a

n a ar n e s n

r an
i gh t gled o a y ot he fo m o f t i gl r n d t he r r r an e, an

ph y i c l c p city to d w t h l i es co s tit ti g it
s a a a ra so e n n u n , ar e

w h o ll y d i s ti c t th at t he fo m e c p c ity m ay e xi t i de
n ,
r r a a s n

pe de t o f the l atte
n n r .

If y an pp o t t o
su t h i s de d c ti
r o w e e ece s y it m y u n r n s ar a

be fo d i the fact th t it i po i ble to cl l y co iv e

un n a s ss ear n ce

o f cel e t i l s d t er es t ri l e q to s m er i d i
a an r ap r llel ua r an s, a a s

,

d t rop i cs d t he e do o t xi t b t as m e t l o c p
ti o s
an an s n e s u n a c n e

n y e t t he s e m e e i d e l c ti o s r fo d s f
a c i e t r ea n ar e un u n

fo t h p pos es eq i red f th m i
r e ur r u t o o m y ge o g o e n as r n , ra

h d a vi g ti o n t ho gh a t he y h
n , asd m t r i l xi tu
p y ,
an a a a e a e s

e c w h i le i p oi t o f f c t it w o ld be as i m po i ble t o
n e, n n a u ss

d w m t i l l i e i t h i t ces j t cited it w o ld
ra a er a n s n e ns an us as u

be to d w m t e i l l i e th fo m i g t he l rge i gh t
ra a r a n s us r n a r r

a gl ed t i
n gle n o w d co ide ti o he ce
r an un er i the ns ra n, n , as n

i n sta n ces j us t m e n ti o n ed s u ch t i a gl e m y e x i st i n t he , r n a
42 I s th e Cop er n ica n Sy s te m of At s r on o m y Tr u e .
9

co t m pl ti o f t h m i d tho gh it w e ct ll y o
n e a n o e n as u er a ua c n

t
s ru ct d pro vi d d ch t ri gl wo ld e xi t w e it actu
e ,
e su an e u s re

a ll y c p ble o f re l co tr c ti o
a a a ns u n .

S ch l rg r ri g h t gl d tr i gle m y b co m p reh e ded

u a e an e an a e n

b V the follo w i g t r ci g o f t he l i e fo m i g it n m el y
a n n s r n ,
na

1 I t h y po the
. s e e xt
s d fro m 4 0 N to t h s nu en s

. e un s

ce tr n e .

2 Th v r ti c l l i e o the 2 l s t o f Sept e m b r e x t e d s
. e e a n n e n

fr o m t h c t o f t hee to the ce t e o f t he ea th
en r e sun n r r ,

t h o g h t h q to r
r u e e ua .

Th t w l i es c o t b p r llel b c
es e o n N o t wo an n e a a e au se ,

"
bod i s ppro ch t h c t r f pher fro m d iffe e t
e ca n a a e en e o a s e r n

p o i t p r
n s on llel l i e h c t
a a he s co d m ed l i e n s,

en e , as e n na n

i v r ti c l t h r t
s e am d li e m
, t be t
e sgle t o t he
na e n us a an an

s ec o d b c n d w fro m d i ff re t po i t
, e a u se ra n e n n s .

3 Th m . d l gt h f t h b e l i
e e as u r e xte d from en o e as ne e n s

t he v er ti l l i d t ca r i gh t gle to it t the p o i t A
n e , an a a an , o n

Fi g 1 4 0 N.
,

.

Th l i for m t h e l rg r tri g le ce ry to the

es e n es a e an ne ss a

m e m t o f the d i t c f the
e as u r en fro m t h 40t h s an e o su n e

p lle l N i cco rd ce w ith t h m eth o d by p opo ti o

a ra n a an e r r n

an d po r d ced c l
u n a e u s a e .

A cc o rd i g to t h pr o por ti o l m e thod i order t o d

n e na ,
n n

t he h y po th o r per p d i c l r o f y ri g h t gl d t i
e n u se en u a an an e r

an g l i t i e,i q t h t t
s a s ne h r l le g t h f t he b e
u a n on
s a e ea n o a

l i e o f y ch tr i gl m t b k o w Th i f ct i
n an su an e us e n n . s a s

sho w b y t h m thod d t h m
n e r m e t m ploy ed i
e an e e as u e n s e n

co ecti o w i t h Fi g 2 3 4 d the follo w i g Fi g 5

nn n s .
, , , an n . .

He c i order t o m n e r th di t c of t h
n by e as u e e s an e e su n

th i m thod it i ec
s e ry to k o w t h l g t h o f the b e
s n es s a n e en as

l i o f t h l rg t r i g l r p
ne e a t d i d i r c ti o
er d an e e r es e n e n e n an

ter m i i Fi g 1 by t h l i A V
n on .
,
e ne .

Th r t w m e t h o d b y w h i ch the l
e e ar e gth f t h i bas e
o s en o s

l i e m y b fo d
n a e un .

1 By d i g b y c lc l ti o
. n t he p opor ti o
n e xi ti g a u a n r ns s n

bet wee c d i t s chord

n a n ar an .
 M ea su r em en t o f t he Di sta n ce f
o tit e Su n . 43

He r e the lo g t h c v e f t h
ar c w o ldu xte n d e ,
a n e ur o e

ea th s f ce f o m
r

s ur a 40 S ,
Thr me r of
40 N t o
.

. e as u e

th i c ve is k o w
s ur Th o h l f o f the chord o f t h i
n n . e ne -
a s

a c w o ld be t he d i t c fro m A Fi g 1 4 0 N o
r u s an e, , .
, . n a

st ra i gh t l i e d a t a i gh t n gl to the p rp d i c l
an r an e e en u ar

eq to i l v e ti ca l l i e
ua r a r n .

2 Th i d i s t ce m ay be fo
. s d by d awi g ci cl d
an un r n a r e an

d i g b y m e s r e m e t t h e p p ti
n n a u f the ngm t ro or on o se en

( e xt e d i ng f o m 4 0 N
n t o t he vrer ti c l eq t o r i
l l i ) t
. a ua a ne o

the s t i gh t l i e e x t e d i g fro m t h
ra n erti c l eq to r i l n n e v a ua a

li en ,
d tan i gh t a gl t o it t o t h p o i t A 4 0 N o f
a a r n e , e n ,

.

t h eq e to ua r .

The w ite d the le gth o f th i b se l i

r r n s ho w i n s a ne s n n

d i ecti o b y A V Fig 1 to b 25 6 2 } m i l w itho t t k

r n , .
, e es , u a

i g i to cco
n n t t he l i gh t ch g i th s g res w h i h
a un s an e n e e u c

t he obl t e e o f t h e r t h w o ld c
a n ss 2 56 2 i m i l
e a i u au s e . es s,

in an y v t t le e t clo
en ppro
, xi
a m ti o t
as o t he a e l se a a n r a

le gth o f t h b e l i e f t h l rg tri gle fro m 4 0 N

n e as n o e a er an

.

I accord ce w i t h t he m t hod b y p o por ti o it i

n an c e r n s ne

ess r y to co tr c t a s m ller t r i gle w it h i t h l rg r

a ns u a an n e a e , as

s h o w o the d i ff re t d i gr m
n n S ch m ll r t r i gle
e n a a s . u s a e an ,

a l tho gh it w e ll y co t r ct d i o t ho w
u as r a Fi g 1 ns u e , s n s n on .
,

f or the re o t h at the ppro ch o f t he h y pot he

as n li e
a a n u se n

A S t o w rd B F o Fi g 1 i a s g d l th t t h po i t n s so ra ua a e n

.

o f i te n cti o fo m i g t h p x o f the s m ll r t ri gle

r se n r n e a e a e an

o f t he e l i es i s o d i t s t th t t h m ller t ri gl
n s s an a e s a an e ca n

no t b co v e i e t l y s h o w w i t h i t he l i m i ts o f
e n n n p bl i c n n a u a

ti o u ch n s th i s as .

Ho w v e th i s m ller t ri gl w c t t d w ith i
e r, s a an e as o ns uc e n

t h e l i m its f t h e l rg er b for m o ti o d a d i ccor d e e en ne , an n a

an c w ith the m e thod by proporti o

e follo w m el y n , as s, n a

Fi g 1 w l i d h o iz o t ll y
. as m oo t h bo rd
a r d n a on a s a an a

p i ndr iv i t o it t t
enh do t nt B A a i lk t hr d e a . ne s ea

w t he f te ed to t he p i
as n as d e xt ded o v er t h l i e
n n an en e n

B F d co i c i de t i
an d i r c ti o w ith it m ore th 500
n n n e n an

i n ches .
44 Is the Cop er n ica n Sy s tem of At s r on omy Tr u e 9
.

Th e li e A Sn w as ex te ded i t he m e m
n n sa an n er , an d by
m e o f si m il
an s a 500 i ch es
ar si lk t hre d m o e t h a , r an n

f om A
r .

By t h i m e the i lk th e d co i ci de t w ith
s an s , d i s r a n n an n

e xte i o o f t h l i e A S gr d ll y ppro ched a d

ns n e n ,
a ua a a n n

a ll y cro ed the i l k thr d w h i ch e xte ded the l i e B F

ss s ea n n ,

as j t ttd
us s a e .

Th m lle t r i a g le i
e s cr i b ed with i t h e l rge be fo e
a r n ns n a r, r

m e ti o ed w s t h
n n for m ed ,
Th h y po t he s e l i e o f
a us . e nu n

t he m ll t ri g l b i g A S e xte d i g f o m A Fi g 1
s a er an e e n n n r , .
,

t o t he po i t w here it i t nc ts the l i e B F j t s t ted n e r se n , as us a ,

w h i le i t s d i ecti o i co i c i d t w it h t h h y po t h
r n e l in e
s n en e en us

o f t he l r g r t r i gle wh i ch l tter i t h l i e o f vis i o

a e an a s e n n

f o m 4 0 t o t he s how n by the x pe i m e t be fo re

r a un , s s e r n

de t i l d
a e .

Th pe pe d i c l
e f ch m ll tr i g le bei g t he
r n u ar o su s a er an n

l i e F B Fi g 1 p r ll l to the v er ti c l q tor i l l i e
n , .
,
a a e a e ua a n

V S i t b e l i e be i g A V
,
s as n n .

A be tt d co rect id f th i s m lle tr i gle o

e r , an a r ,
ea o s a r an , n

Fi g 1 m y be h d b y re fe e ce t o Fi g 5 w h i ch ex cep t
.
,
a a r n .
, ,

in s iz e i e x c t d pl i c t o f Fig 1 p o vi ded th t the

, s an a u a e .
, r a

i m gi ti o
a na ppl i s t h s i lk thre d m nti o ed i co n
n su e e a s e n n
'

n ec tio w it h Fi g 1
n d o t ho w o it .
, an n s n n .

By co m pa i g t he m et hod e m ploy ed fo d i g the h y

r n r n n

p o t h l i e
e n u seA S Fi g 5 w i t h t h
n m t hod w h i ch fo , d .
, e e un

si m i l r l i a Fi g 2 3 4 it w ill b fo d th t the
n es on s .
, , , e un a

m e thod i ea ch c e i t h n m as s e sa e .

W he it i co i d r d th t t h follo w i g for m l f t he
n s ns e e a e n u a o

m e t ho d ppl i d to t h d i g f t h h y p o th
,
a e li e n n o e e n u se n e,

Fi g 5 . m el y,
A A B i to A V
na i A F to A S

s s so s ,

d o d ch l i e pro v d b y m
es n su r m t f it i t
a n as e e as u e en o ,

w re t o b e x p c t d t h t t h
e e m for m l e ppl i d to d
e a e sa e u a a e n

t he le gth f t h h y po th
n e l i A S Fi g 1 w o ld be
o e en us ne , .
, u

com p t t to d t h l gth f ch l i e d co q e t
e en n e en o su n , an n se u n

d is ta ce o f t he n fro m 4 0 N su n

.
 M easu r e men t f
o t h e Di s t a n ce o
f t he Su n . 45

I n deed e x cep t i n t he g r eat l y d i ffe r e n t le n g th s o f the

,

h y pothe n u s e l i n es o f the s m all e r tr i an gles o f Fi gs 1 an d 5 .

,

a n d i n t h e grea t l y d i ffe r e n t le n gt h s s o u g h t b y t he m t he r e

i s n o d i ffer e n ce e ithe r i n t he fo r m s o f t he t wo d i agr a m s o r ,

i n t he m e thod b y w h i ch s u ch s i m i l ar l i n es i n ea ch h a v e
been s ou gh t .

It w i l l be co n ceded th at w e r e t he s u n r eall y at S Fi g 5
wh i ch m i gh t be co n ceiv ed o f by a ver y str on g effo r t o f a
,
.

v e r y br i ll i a n t i m a gi n a ti o n o n d w ar n g i t s p r o po r ti o n s

t h e d is ta n ce o f t he s u n m i g h t be fo u n d al o n g t he h y p o t h
en u se l i n e A S m eas u r e m e n t o f t h is l i n e o n Fi g 5 s h o ws .

t h is.

Meas u r em en ts o f the d if er en t le n gth o f the h y p o t h e

n u se l i n es o n t he p r eced i n g d i a gr a m s s h o w t h a t t he l en g t h

o f su ch l i n es d oes n o t a ffe c t t h e rel i a b i l ity o f the m e t h o d

b y w h i ch t h ey w e r e fo u n d .

W ou ld the m e r e l en g th o f t he h y p o the n u s e l i n e o f a
r i gh t a n gled t r i a n gle we re i t m i ll i o n s o f m i les lo n g
p r e ve n t t h e geo m e ter fr o m n d i n g i ts le n g t h b y a ppl i ca
ti o n o f t he 4 7 t h P r o p os iti o n o f the r s t b oo k o f E u cl i d ,

w ere t he o t he r t wo s i des o f t he t r i an gle k n o w n

Y e t the r el i a b i l ity o f t h e propo r ti o n a l m e thod t o n d
s u ch l i n e
i n tr i a n gles o f d i ffer e n t s i z es is de m o n s t r a ted ,

o n Fi g 4 b y t h i s 4 7 t h P ropos iti o n
.
, .

I n po i n t o f fac t the d i ffe r e n ces i n the r el ati ve s i zes o f

,

th e l a r ge r an d s m alle r t r i a n g les m akes n o d i ffer en ce i n t he

r el i a b i l ity o f t he m e t h o d fo r n d i n g t he h po the n u s e
y
o r

pe r pe n d i cu l ar l i n es o f t h e l arge r tr i an gle .

Meas u r e m en ts o f thes e l i n es o n t he d i ffer e n t l ar ger t r i

a n gles o n Fi gs 2 3 4 a n d 5 pro v e t h i s
.
, , .

F o r i n s ta n ce o n Fi g 2 t h e l i n e s o f t he l a rge r t r i a n gle
, .
,

en close a n ar ea 1 30 ti m es th at o f t he s m aller O n t h e r e .

d u ced s cale o n w h i c h Fi g 4 i s d ra w n the r a ti o b e t w e e n

.
,

the he i g h t o f the col u m n w ho s e h e ig h t is s o ugh t a n d th a t

o f t he m i n i a t u r e co l u m n is as 240 t o 1 .
46 I s th e Cop er n i ca n Sf
y s t em o
f A s t r o n o my Tr u e 9 .

Th cts i d c t h co cl i o th t the el tiv e i ze

es e fa n u e e n us n a r a s

of th m ll r t o t h l rg r t r i
e s a e g le Fi g 1 w i ll m ake e a e an on .

d i ff r ce i fi d i g t he d i t ce by t h m eth o d
no e en n n n su n s s an e .

I f it b co c d d th t w re t h l i e A S
e n e d B F Fi g
e a e e n s an , .

1 co ti
,
n d to the po i t f th i r i t r ectio
n ue s t t ed n o e n e s n, as a ,

t h t t h m ll r t r i gl w o ld b i l l r pects x ce p t
a e s a e an e u e n a es e

in s iz e x c tl y t h t ho w f Fi g 5
e a d dr w i g t h e
a s n o . an a n es

un i h d li
n s e w i ll ho w ch to b the c
n es co m par i
s su e as e a

so n o f Fi g 5 d i t m thod m plo y d fo d i g t he h y
. an s e e e r n n

po th f i t l rg r t ri g l w it h Fi g 2 3 4 w i ll h o w
e n use o s a e an e s .
, , ,
s

an i d tity i
en l l th i g r q i r d by t h
n a proporti o l n s e u e e na

m et hod f d i g t h l g th f t h h y p o th
or n n e o f l ge e en o e en us ar r

t ri gl
an es .

H c t h l g t h f t h h y p o th
en e, e en l i e A S o Fi g o e e n u se n n

l d co
an q t d i t
n se c o f t h uenf o m 40 N m y s an e e sun r

a

be fo d b y t h m m thod
un e sa e e .

Th t t h m thod m ploy ed f d i g t h l gth o f the

a e e e or n n e en

h y poth en u s
e l i A S Fi g 1 xt d i g fro m 4 0 N to
ne , .
, e en n

.

th e sun i th m s th t m p lo y d
e sa Fi g 5 fo e as a e e on . r a

s i m i l r p rpo by
a u i m il r li se , d i i d d th a s m a n e , an s n ee e sa e

o n a l l t h d i gr m me b a ho w y af x m ple
s, b y ay e s n , sa or e a ,

co m p r i g F ig 2 w ith Fi g 1
a n . . .

O Fi g 2 t h l g th f t h l i 1 2 b i g p r t f t h
n . e en o e ne , ,
e n a o e

b e l i 1 3 f t h l rg r t ri gl i to 1 3 1 4 t he
as ne , , o e a e an e, s , , as , ,

h y po th of t h
e n u se m ll r t ri gl i to 1 5 t h h y po th
e s a e an e, s , , e

e n u se o f t h l rg t r i gl
e a er an e .

O Fi g 1 w h t h l g t h f the h y poth
n . en ASi e en o e n u se s

s o g h t it w ill b fo d by o m p ri g Fi g 1 w ith Fi g 2
u e un c a n . .

w i t h Fi g 5 ppo i g th t t h l i
or . AS sud B F s n a e n es an

to b t
e ex end d t o t h po i t f t h i r i t r c t i o
e t t d
e n o e n e se n as s a e ,

t h t ch l i
a su c rr po d n es th d i gr m o d the
es n on es e a a s, an

n e
'
th d o m p lo y d t o d t h
e l gth f t h h y po th
e n e en o e e n u se

l i A S w ill b t h m
ne th t m ploy d fe imil r
e sa e as a e e or a s a

p rpo
u Fi g 2 5 t
se o n m ly s .
, ,
e c .
,
na e

Th r l l g t h f t h l i e A B b i g p r t o f the b
e ea en o e n e n a ase

,

A V of t h e l ar ge r tr i a gl e wh ose h y po t hen use ext en ds n

 M eas u r e m en t o
f t h e D i s ta n ce o
f t h e Su n . 47

fr o m 4 0 N t o t he s u n
i s t o t h e r ea l le n g th o f s u ch b as e
.

l i n e A V as A F ( fo r th i s l i n e see Fi g be i n g t h e .

h y po the n u se o f the s m aller tr ia n gle is t o A S n a m el y , ,

f ro m A , 40 t o t h e
su n .

In a tte m pti n g t o n d the d is tan ce of t he su n , a s i m ilar

red ced c le i m ploy d i co c ti o w i t h Fi g 1
u s a s e e n n ne n .
, as

th t em ploy d i co
a cti o w it h Fi g 3 to d the r l
e n n ne n . n ea

w i d th o f r iv er d Fig 4 t o d t h r l l gt h f
a ,
an ,
n e ea en o a

r eq i r d wi r w h i ch m t hod fo d t h r l d i t c
u e e, d e un e ea s an es a n

le gth o gh t by tt ch i g t o t h m e r m t o f the
n s u a a n e as u e en

c le the e l d i t ce d le g th w h i ch t he d c d c le
s a r a s an an n s re u e s a

r epre e ted th i m y b fo d to be t h f ct by r f re c
s n s a e un e a e e n e

to Fi g 3 4 s .
, .

O Fig 1 e ch l i ea r i ch f l l l i
n . ar q i r d by the n n o a n es e u e

m t hod r pr e t 1 000 m i l
e e i di t c es n s es n s an e .

A th s l l g th o f t h b
e r ea l i i l l c e co ti
en e as e n e, n a as s ns

t tee
u ec ry f ctor i ord r to d t he d i t ce o gh t
a n es s a a n e n s an s u

by t h proporti o l m thod o o m ll a di gr m Fi g
e na e , n s s a a a as .

1 ani c h t o 1 000 m i l i
n c ry i ord t o p op rl y es s n e essa n er r e

r epr se t the 2 56 2 i m i l w h i ch i r l d i t c
e n d o es s ea s an e, an c n

s eq e tl y t h r l l gt h o f t he b e l i o f the l rge
u n e ea en as ne a r

t r i gle S c h b
an .b i g t k fro m 4 0 N t o the
u as e e n a en

. ver

ti c l l i e o v er the q tor d t
a n ri g h t g le t ch
e ua an a a an o su

v erti c l t t he ti m f t h q i o x e
a a e o e e u n s .

The l gth o f the h y po t he e l i e A S Fi g 1 f t h

en n us n , .
, o e

l a ger tri gle m y be fo d y f e x m p l i i

r an a un , sa , or a e, n s x

t ee nt h o f i che s T h red ce ch i xt th to i ch
n s . en u su s ee n s n es .

The tt ch to the i ch t h i r v l
n a a r pr e ti gse n es e a u es as e es n n

an
d is t ce i ccord ce w ith the r q i r m t f the
s n a an e u e en s o re

d u ce d c l w h i c h Fi g 1 i d r w
s a e on . s a n .

O t h l g t h f th i l i A S m y b fo d t h

r e en o m s n e, a e un e sa e

w do i co
,

as as ne
ti o w i t h Fi g 4 b y t t ch i g t h
n n n ec n . a a n e

r ea l l to t h l g th f t h r p t i
va u es c ry l i
e en s o e es ec v e n e ess a n es ,

a ccord i g t o t h c l n d th fi d i g t h e l g t h f t h
e s a e, an en n n en o e

h y po th e u e l i n e A S i n mi l es
n s .
48 I s th e Cop er n i ca n Sy s tem f
o A s tr o n o my Tr u e 9 .

E a ch of t hes e f o
b r m u as l h as ee n a d opt ed in the cal c u

l at i o n s , as m y be e
a o lo s e n as f l ws
Fi rs t , in sixtee t h o f i che n s n s , n am el y Fi g , . 1 .

A s A B is t o A V so is A F t o A S .

H
8 000

2 050

1 2 300
1 2 3 00

1 000
A cc or d i n g t o the abo v e calcu l ati o n t he fu l l le n g th o f

t he l i n e A S accr d i n g to the r ed u ced scal e o n w h i ch
Fi g 1 i s draw n is s i x te e n t h s o f i n ches e q u a l t o

.
,

1 000 i n ches h a vi n g a v a l u e a cco r d i n g t o t he s cal e o f

,

1 000 m i l es t o ea ch i n ch h e n ce i n accord a n ce t o t he r e

,

i r e m e n t s o f s u ch r e d u ced s c a l e be i n g the s a m e as th a t
q u

fo u n d co m pe te n t to n d lo n g h y po t h e n u s e l i n es b y m ea n s
o f s ho r t o n es as pro v ed cor r ec t i n co n n e c ti o n w it h Fi gs 3

.
,

an d 4 t h i s i s eq u i v ale n t t o 1 000 i n ches m u l ti pl i ed b y

1 000 m i les w h i ch i s eq u a l to
,
m i les s u ch be i n g ,

the r ea l d i s tan ce o f t h e s u n fr o m 4 0 N ta ke n at the ti m e

.

o f t he e q u i n o x es .

The d is tan ce o f the su n fr o m 4 0 N es t i m ated i n m i l es ,

.
, ,

is as follo w s

A s AB i s to A V
o i s s AF to A S .

m i les 2 5 6 2 32m i les m i les

5 *

1 ,

500000

mi l es .

1 28 1 25

000000

Th i i m les r e p r e se n t s , in cc d c w i h h t t e s ca l e , t h e 500 i ch
1 000 i l i c h d f A Fig i lk h d
s a or an e n e s,
n a m ely , m es to the n m e a s u re ro m 1 , by t h e s t r ea s

bf i d i St h p i t f i f h li
.
,

e ore m en t o ne , c o n ci den t wi t h A o t e o n o n t er se ct i o n o t e n es
A S an d B F .
 M eas u r emen t o f t h e Di s ta n ce f
o t h e Su n . 49

Co n s eq u e n tl y , t he d is ta n ce o f the su n fr o m t he s u r face
o f t he ea r t h a t 4 0 N i s o n e m i l l ion
,

.
,

m i les .

I f t h e s i lk t h r ead s e xte n d i n g the t w o

,
'
1
'
l i n es n a m el y A S an d B F Fig 1
, , , .
,

ac t u all y e xte n d t hes e l i n es t o t he p o i n t

i
o f t he i r i n te rs ec ti o n t he y w i ll be fo u n d ,

i to i n ter s ec t 500 i n ches fr om A a l o n g

the l i n e A S

.

I f t h i s be do n e o f e v e n s u pp osed t o

be do n e i t w ill be fou n d th at ther e
w i l l be n o d i ffe r e n ce i n t he s tr u c t u r e o f
t h e t r i a n gl es Fi gs 5 a n d 1 an d n o d if .
,

fe r en ce be t w ee n t hem e x cep t t h a t the

tr ia n gles o f the l atte r ar e l ar ge r th an
r th e f o rme .

I pecti o o f t he t wo d i g m s w i l l
ns n a ra

s h o w t h i s t o be t he c s e ; a d b y o h a n

se i g t h d i g am s it w i l l be fo d
rv n e a r un

t h at t he c alc l ti o s m de fo d i g u a n a r n n
Fig 5
the l e gth o f t he h y po the s e l i es
. .

n s nu n

A F S o bot h thes e d i gr m e byn a a s ar

the s m e m th o d t h at em ploy ed s
a e as uc

c f l l y t d the h y po t he
ess u e l i es o n n us n

o Fi g 3 d 4 w h i ch h s b e d em
n s . an ,
a e n

t t d i co ec ti o w ith Fi g 4 to
o ns ra e , n nn n .
,
-
40 be p cor c t d l o p o v d b y
er s e re , an a s r e

m r m e t to be cap ble o f d i g
eas u e n a n n

the l gth f lo ge h y po th en e l i es s o n r en u s n

o t ho w these d i gr m s b y m e s
n s n on a a , an

o f th hor t o e h o w o the m j s t
e s n s s n n , u

as t he m m et h o d h
sa e b em ploy d by m as o f Fi g
ee n e ea n s .

1 t 0 d t h lo g h y po th
'

n e n e l i e e xt d i g fr om t h e
en u s n en n

po i t A to the
n su n .

:3
A 3 i n t h e o th er e x m p l as l so i n co n n ectio n with
a es a
50 I s t h e Cop er n i ca n l 9y s t em f
o A str on o my Yl '
ue

Fi g l the l e n g t h
. of t he h y po the nus e l i e A S Fi g n , . 5,
m ay be fo d un as f ollo w s, n a m el y ,

A A B is to
s A V so is A F to A S ; c lc l ted a u a in
e ig h t h s o f i n ches .

A B A V A F A S
9 35
35

ei gh t h s .

0
Me m en t o f t he l i e A S Fi g 5 s ho w i ts le g t h
as u r e n , .
, s n

t o be 7 0 e i gh t h o f i che s n s .

Th i i de tity o f for m m t hod d for m o f c lc l ati o

s n ,
e an a u n

be tw ee Fig 1 d 5 i d c t hn s . c y co cl i o
an n u es e n e e s s ar n us n ,

th t a the h y po t h
as l i e o f Fi g 5 i fo d by m e n u se n . s un eas

ure m t t o b o f the
en m e le g t h e th t fo d b y t he sa n as a un

m e t h o d th t w r t h h y po t he
,
a e l i e to t h
e e Fig 1 e n us n e s un , .
,

s us cepti ble o f m e re m t i t l gth o fo d w o ld l s o as u en , s en s un u a

p o v e the cor ct e s o f the m thod h c t h t t he

r re n s e en e, a

m e t hod e m p l o y ed i co ec ti o w it h Fig 1 d t he e l n nn n .
,
n s r a

d i t ce o f t h
s an e su n .

S h o ld t h d i t c f the
u e be r q i red lo g the
s an e o su n e u a n

v er t i c l l i V S Fi g 1 proce d i ccord c w ith the

a ne , .
, e n a an e

fo m l e m pl oy ed t o d t h pe pe d i c l
r u a li e 3 5 o n e r n u ar n , , n

Fi g 2 . .

The d i t ce o f t h m y b
s an fo d b y the m e th o d e su n a e un

s h ow i co ec ti o w ith t he d i ffer t d i g m fro m

n n nn n en a ra s an
y
l titu d e follo w
a , as s :

Fi d o m e m o t i pe k
n s o th el v tio h i g h
un a n a or er e a n

a bo v e t h e r t h rf ce f
e a o gh N or t h or So th o f

s su a a r en u u

t he q tor to for m o m co i der ble

e ua gle t o the l i e
s e ns a an n

pe pe d i c l to the eq tor t t h ti m e the

r n u ar i ve ti ua a e su n s r

ca l ov it er .

L t the o b se v
e be o the m i d i l i e f e o ugh
r er n er an n ar n

from s u ch p e k t h at w h e i g h ti ga o v e r its tO
p w h e t h e n s n n
 M easu r emen t o f th e D i s ta n ce o
f th e S un . 51

su n is at heigh t t the ti m e o f the eq u i o x es

its m er i d i an a n

s y o t he 2 l t o f Sep tem berthe l i e o f s i gh t o f su ch

a n s n

o b er sv er w i ll b f r o m ch po i t oef ob er v ti o c o i ci su n s a n n

n e t i d i recti o w ith the degree o f lo git de o wh i ch

n n n n u n

su s
ch ob er v ti o i m ade po i ted ce tr ll y o the s n
a n s n n a n u

an d j s t o v er t he to p o f ch m o t i pe k
u su un a n a .

L t the pl ce o f the s me rem e t be o the sl p

e a su n as u n n o e

of h il l h vi g S th
a a e x pos re
n a ou er n
*
u .

I f o e s ch n n be fo d t pl ce other wis e su it abl e

u ca n un a a a

fo t he m e rem e t o f t he s di t ce ch s lope as
r as u n su n s an , su

herei fter e x pl i ed m i gh t be tem po i l y co s t ct ed at

na a n r ar n ru

b t l itt le cos t
u .

I o der to d t he d i rec ti o o f the b s e l i es o f the

n r n n a n

t r i gles t t he ti m e t h e
an a i v er ti ca l o v er t he eq u at o su n s r,

at r igh t gle to s ch v er ti c l l i e
a an u a n

1 H ve . th i m e t ll i c e m i ci rcle co s t c ted say fo r

a a n a s -
n ru , ,

e x m ple 1 2 24 or 36 i che i d i m eter h vi g deg ees

a , ,
n s n a , a n r

m rked o
a t ide o f t he e m i c i rcle
n a a d o t he edge o f
s s -
an n

i t s c i rc m fere ce ; u d h vi g m o v ble h d o r p o i te
n an a n a a an n r

p iv o ted m i d w y the d i m e ter o f ch sem i c i rcle so th at

a a su -

su ch h d m y be m o ved o v er t he degrees o it as the

an a n ,

mi te h d o f a clock m o v e o v er i ts d i al
nu an s .

L t t he edge o f t he d i m e te o f th i s e m i c i rcle b e
e a r s -

pl ced o the e rth

a n rf ce o th t th is edge w i l l be h o
a

s su a s a r

i o t l ; s ch pl te s t d i g o
z n a u i ts d i m e te edge be i g
a an n n a r n

v er ti c l o a N or t h d So t h l i e
n a d i t s p o i tean or u n , an n r,

m o v ble h a d b i g o hor izo tal l i e d cl ose to the

an , e n n a n n an

s r f ce o f t he
u a r th ea .

S ppo e th i m o v ble h d from i ts h o r i zo t l pos itio

u s s a an , n a n ,

i t po i t po i ti g d
s n So th to be depre ed o m o v ed
n n ue u , ss r

do w w rd t o w rd the e r th ro d the s m i c i cle the

n a a s a , un e -
r

sa m m b r o f d gree m rked o it
e nu e ie t he pl ce o f s a n , as s a

me re m e t f t he
as u d i ta ce f o m the eq ator s y
n o s un s

s n r u a ,

fo e x m pl the pl ce o f m e
r a e, e m e t i s 4 5 f om t h e
a as u r n

r

equ to the m o v e t h e h d o n the f ce o f the sem i ci cl e

a r, n an a -
r

If t h e m eas u r emen t b e mad e i n N or t h Lati t ud e .

52 I s th e Cop er n i c a n Sy s tem o f A s tr on o m y Tr u e 9
.

dow n rds to w rd s the e rth from ho iz o tal po iti o n

wa a a , a r n s

un ti l it p o i ts t o 4 5 o t he f ce o f the s e m i ci rc l r pl te
n

n a -
u a a ,

a d i t h i l tte po iti o t h i s h d o f t he e m i c i r cle w i l l

n n s a r s n an s -

po i t t a igh t gle to the v r ti c al l i e from the q tor

n a r an e n e ua

to t he ce tre o f t h n t the ti m e o f t he e q i o x e
e sun a u n s .

The di ti o o f th i h d w i l l the be t he d i rec ti o o f

r ec n s an n n

t he bas e l i e o f t he l rge n d s m l l e t r i gles ecess r y a r an a r an n a

t o the m e s e m e t o f the a ur s di t ce t the ti m e the

n su n

s an a

sun i s v er ti c l o v e the q ato r a r e u .

The le gth o f the b s e l i e m y the b fo d b y c l

n a n a n e un a

c l ti o or b y the p o po ti o l m eth o d
u a n, herei befo r r na as n re

e x pl i ed a n .

I o rde t o h o w the ecess ity

n r sd t h e f c i c y o f t h i s n an e en

po i te h d m o v ble o v er t he deg ree o f l tit de m rked

n r an ,
a s a u a

o t he s e m i c i rc l r pl te a d o f t he lop
n -
u a f g o d a n s e o r un

,

h vi g the S o ther e x po re s ppo e m e el y fo i ll

a n u n su u s r r us

,

t at i o
r th t t he
n w e e v er ti c l o v e t h pl ce o f m e
a su n r a r e a as

u e m e t o f the s d i st ce y o v 4 5 N d t h
r n sun an , sa er an e

p o i te h d o the e m i ci rc l pl te were t r i gh t
n r an n s -
u ar a a a

an gle to the s s v erti c l l i e m el y horizo t l

un

a n , na , n a .

The s ppo e the n u w e e i s ta t l y m o v ed ro

s d the
su n r n n a un

c i rcle o f t he he v e o th w rd o i ts m eri d i l i e t o
a n s, s u a n an n

t h e po i t o f the he v e
n t wh i ch it w o ld be v er ti c l o v e
a ns a u a r

t he eq to r o f t he e th
ua ar .

A s l l c i cles h v e the s m e
a r m ber o f degree
a w ere a nu s,

t h e p o i ter h d o f the se m i ci rc l r pl te depre ed to

n an -
u a a ss

w rd s t he e r th
a d th m o v ed o v er t h f ce o f t he pl t e
a ,
an us e a a

th e sa m m ber o f degr e
e nu t he h d m o v d i t he e s as sun a e ,
n

c se p p o d m ely
a su se it i cl r th t
, na ch po i te , s ea a su n r

b an d w o ld be i the d i ec ti o o f
u r i gh t gle to the
n r n a an

su n s v e ti ca l l i e

r t t he e q to r it w s t ch
n a gle ua , as a a su an

w he t h t 4 5 N i t he c e s ppo d

n w e su n as a n as u se .

A l itt l e eecti o w o ld ho w t h t ch w o ld b t h
r n u s a su u e e

cas e t y l tit de if s ch po i t er h d b d pr d
a an a u , u n an e e ess e

f om t he h o iz o t l l i e to w d t he e t h t h
r r n a m m
n ar s ar e sa e nu

b er of deg e o n t he semi ci rcle th at th e p l ce o f m e s

r es -
a a


M eas u r em en t f
o the Di s ta nce of theSu n . 53

ur e m e n t o f the d i s tan ce o f the su n i s fr o m the v e r ti cal l i n e

of t hesu n o v e r the eq u at o r . .

The slope o f t he g r ou n d h a vi n g a s ou ther n ex p osu r e is

, ,

n ecessar y t o t he p r o pe r co n s t r uc ti o n o f t he s m al le r t r i a n

gle i n o rder th a t i ts base l i n e co i n ci des i n d i r ecti o n w ith

,

the dep r ess ed po i n ter h an d .

F o r w h i le it w ou ld be m o r e eas y a n d co n v e n i e n t
t o co n s tr u ct t he b as e l i n e o f t he s m aller t r i an gle o n
t he hor iz o n ta l l i n e y et it w i ll be pe r ceiv ed w e r e th is d on e
, ,

s u ch b as e l i n e w o u ld n o t c o i n c i de w it h t he bas e l i n e o f t h e

l ar ge r tr i an gle as the l atter bas e l i n e w o u ld be coi n c i de n t

,

i n d i r ec ti o n w it h the dep r ess ed p o i n t er h a n d as s u ch ,

wou ld be t he d i r ec ti o n o f t he b as e l i n e o f the l ar ge r tr i an
gle i n or der th at it be at a r i gh t an gle to the v er ti cal l i n e
,
'

o f t he s u n o v e r t he e q u at o r .

W e r e the bas e l i n e o f the s m aller t r i an gle draw n h o r i

z o n tal l y a n d t he b as e l i n e o f t he l ar ge r d r a w n at a n a n g l e
,

of as i n the cas e j u s t su ppos ed it w i l l be pe r ce iv e d

,

th at ther e w o u l d be a d i ffere n ce i n t he d i recti o n s o f the

bas e l i n e o f the l ar g er an d s m aller tr ian gles o f w h en
i n acc or d a n c e w ith t he m e thod b y p r e p o r ti o n it i s n ecessar y

t h a t the bas e l i n es o f bo th t hes e t r i a n gles s h ou l d be coi n

ei d en t i n d i rec ti o n he n ce t he n ecess ity o f t he s l o pe o f

,

g r o u n d m e n ti o n ed o r,o f i t s eq u iv a le n t n am el y a s l o p e ,

t o the h or i zo n w e r e t he m e as u r e m e n t o f the s u n s

o f 45

,

d istan ce take n fr o m the 4 5 th parallel N .

The h y pot h e n u se o f t he l ar ger tr ian gle i s the l i n e o f

s i gh t d i r ect e d fr o m t he p o i n t o f m e as u r e m e n t o f t he s u n s

, ,

d ist an ce j u s t o v er t he t 0p o f t he m ou n tai n pea k to t h e

,

cen tr e o f the s u n w hen t h e s u n i s at i ts m er i d ian heigh t

,

at t he ti m e o f t he e q u i n o x es .

The base l i n e i s t he d is tan ce fr o m su ch poi n t to the

v er ti ca l l i n e o f t h e s u n o v er t h e eq u at o r an d at a r igh t
a n gle t o su ch l i n e .

The per pen d i c u l ar is su ch v er ti cal l i n e e xten d i n g fr o m

54 I s th e Cop er n i ca n Sy stem o f A str on o m y Tr u e

th e p oi t o f its i ters ecti on w ith the b s e l i e to the ce

n n a n n

t e o f t he s
r un .

The sm alle t i gle w ith i th is l g r i s fo d s

r r an n ar e un a

fo ll o ws :
F o m t h e p iv o t o f the p oi te h a d w he t he p o i t e
r n r n , n n r

h a d i s d i ec ted 4 5 bel o w t he h o i zo
n r befo e s tated

r n, as r ,

l t p ol e be e xt e ded co i c i de t i d i recti o w ith

e a n ch
, n n n n su

p oi te h a d m el y i t h d i rectio o f the eq ator d

n r n ,
na ,
n e n u , an

fr o m t h e f the e xt e m ity o f ur ch pol let the l i e o f

r r su e n

s i gh t be d i ect e d so t h a t it w i l l be j
r t o v er t he to p o f t he us

m o u t a i pe k w h i le s ch l i e o f vi i o
n n a , w i ll be t t he u n s n a

s m e ti m e perpe d i c l
a to the le g th o f t he p olen u ar n .

The i te ti o o f th is i s th to fo m the perpe d i c l

n n n us r n u ar

l i e o f t he s m ll
n t i gle a er r an .

I n s om e i t ces ow i g t o t he he i g h t o f t he pe k the
n s an ,
n a ,

d i ta ce o f the po i t o f o bse v ti o f o m it o r the le gth

s n n r a n r , n

o f t h e s l o pe s o th w d ar i i g fro m t he e c e
u ar r s n s au s s , a su

v ey o ch ai m y be ece s ry to m e re the d i t ce
r s

n a n s a as u s an

r eq i ed fo the b e l i e co i c i de t i d i rectio w ith the

u r r as n ,
n n n n

dep ess ed p o i ter h d i o d r th t t he pe pe d i c l

r n an ,
n r e a r n u ar

l i e t r i gh t
n a gle t o s ch pol o ch i m y be for m d
a an u e r a n , a e .

I t h i s m a e o f p o ceed i g t he b e l i e o f t he
n nn r r n ,
as n

s m lle t i a gle
a r d t he l i e p pe d i c l r t he e to m y
r n ,
an n er n u a r a

b e fo m ed r .

The h y po the u se o f ch m alle t i gle co i ts o f n su s r r an ns s

t h e l i e o f s i gh t fr o m t he po i t o f o bs er v t i o
n m el y n a n, na ,

f o m the ce t e o f t he s e m i c i rc l pl te t the r th s
r n r -
u ar a a ea

s u face to t he t 0 p o f t he m o
r ,
t i pe k w he the s i s un a n a , n un

at m e i d i a r s b fo e s t a t ed
n a e r .

Wit h the fo ego i g p e eq i it es s cer t i ed the le gth

r n r r u s a a n , n

o f t he h y p o t he e m ay be fo d b y m n us f t he for m l un ea n s o u a

s h ow o n Fi g 2 w h i ch w as em pl oy ed t o d the le g th
n .
,
n n

o f t h e h y p o t he s e l i e o f the m lle nu t r i gle i c i bed n s a r an ns r

W it h i t he
n l ge s h o w o t
ar h t d i g m
r as n n a a ra .

Th is for m u l i s as fo ll ow s m el y a , na :

A s V 1 is t o 1 2 so i s l V t o
, , ,
 M ea s u r em en t o
f th e Di s t a n c e f
o the Su n . 55

W he n t he h y po the n u s e l i n e o f the s m aller t r i a n gle u n

d er co n s i derati o n i s th u s fo u n d n a m el y w he n s u ch l i n e
, ,

i f e xten ded w o u ld rea ch t he ce n t re o f t he s u n w h i ch it ,

w o u ld d o at the ti m e o f t he e q u i n o x es t he n proceed t o t he ,

m eas u r e m e n t o f the d i s ta n ce o f t he s u n .

T h i s m ay b e do n e i n acc o r d a n ce w it h the for m u l a e m

pl oy ed i n co n n ecti o n w ith Fig 2 to n d the le n gth o f t h e
.
,

h y po the n u s e l i n e 1 5 o f t h e l arge r tr i an gle s h ow n o n

, ,

th at d i agra m The fo l lo w i n g fo r m u l a e m ploy e d to n d

.

the h y po t he n u s e l i n e e xte n d i n g fro m say t o the cen ,

t re o f the s u n o n co m par i s o n w i l l be fou n d to be the

, ,

s a m e as t h at w h i ch fo u n d t he h y po t he n u s e o f t he l ar ge r

t r i a n gle o n Fi g 2 n a m el y
.
,

A s the le n g th o f th a t p a r t o f t he b as e l i n e o f the l ar ger

'

t ri a n gle fou n d b y t he pole o r t he s u r v ey o r s ch ai n as the

cas e m ay b e i s t o t he re a l le n g t h o f t he b as e l i n e o f t he
l arger tri an g le ( w h i ch e xten d s fro m the po i n t o f m eas u r e
m en t t o t he v erti ca l eq u a to ri al l i n e ) s o i s t h e le n g t h o f t he
h y p o then u se o f the s m aller t ri an gl e ( e x t en d i n g fro m the
p o i n t o f m e as u r e m e n t a t 4 5 t o t he t o p
o f t he m o u n t a i n

pea k ) t o the d i stan ce fr o m the s u r face o f the ear th at 4 5

N t o the ce n t re o f the s u n
. .

G rea t c a re i s n e cessa ry i n order t o s e cu r e accu r acy i n

, ,

t h e e m plo y m e n t o f the prop o r ti o n a l m et ho d a n d o n a r e ,

d u ce d s c a le t o n d t he d i s ta n ce o f t he s u n fo r t he r eas o n ,

th a t a ve ry s m a l l i n accu r acy i n t he l i n e o f s i gh t o r i n t he ,

co n s tru ct i o n o f the s m aller tri an g l e m ay res u l t i n a ver y ,

co n s i der able erro r as t o the t ru e d i s tan ce o f t he s u n

.

Fo r thes e r e as o n s there m ay poss i bl y b e t hou g h n o t

p r o bable er ror i n d e ter m i n i n g the d i stan ce o f t he s u n i n ,

a cc o rd a n ce w it h t he m e thod as de t a i led b u t as g re a t ca r e ,

w as u s ed t h e d i s tan ce fo u n d b y it n a m el y
, , ,

m i les m a y be c o n s i d e red as a t l eas t a clo s e ap p r o x i m a

, , ,

ti o n to t he real d i s ta n ce .

B u t a cc u r a cy res u l ti n g i n cer t ai n ty i n co n s tr u c ti n g the

, ,

l i n es o f t he s m al ler t r i an g l e a n d c o r r ec t ob s er v ati o n o f
,
56 I s t h e Cop er n i ca n Sy stem o f A s tr o n o my Tr u e

th e s u n a r e al l ppe ecess y to d the d is t ce

th at a ar n ar

n an

o f the s o v e a su ita ble m o tai pe k w he s ch d i

un r un n a , n u s

ta ce i s s o gh t by t he p op o r ti o l m e th o d o
n u ed ced r na n a r u

s c le
a .

Th is co cl us i o h s bee re ched f the reas o th t it

n n a n a or n a

h as bee de m o s tr ted b y m
n nre m e t al o by m the
a eas u n , s a a

m t i cal P o p os iti o i c o
a r ecti o w ith Fi g 4 3 th t s ch
n n nn n s .
, , a u

m e t h o d w i l l d lo ge di t ce g r te heigh ts a d
n n r s an s, ea r , n

w i d th s th ,
t h os e o f t he l i e
an eprese ti g t hese d n s, r n n , an

s h ow o t he d i gr m s
n n a a .

These m eth o ds m y l so be m ploy ed to d y le gt h a a e n an n

o f pe pe d i c lr or h y po the se l i e w h i ch m y be fou d
n u ar nu n a n

b y t h e 4 7 t h P o p os iti o o f t h l t B o ok o f E cl i d
r n e s u .

I deed it m ay be i d t o be
n i m pro v e m e t o th t
sa an n n a

,

P e p os iti o fo the
r n o th t b y i d o f the s m lle
r r e as n a a a r

,

t i
r an gle w h i ch i s easi ly co st cted l l th at i eq i d
,
n ru a s r u re

t o d t he h y p o the u s e a d pe pe d i c l
n nof y i g h t n r n u ar an r

an gl d t i gle i s to k ow t h le gth f i t b l i e ; t h
e r an n e n o s as e n us

it w i l l be e t h t tw s i de f s ch t r i g l m y be
se n a o s o u an e a

fo d o k ow i g t h le g t h o f
un n n n i d b y th i m ethod
e n on e s e s

w h i le b y t h 4 7 t h P e po iti o
e th k o wled ge o f the r s n e n

l e g th s o f tw s i des o f s ch t r i gle i
n o ece s r y i o rde u an s n s a n r

to d o s i de
n ne .

W h i le the d i p op o r ti o b tw ee the c le o w h i ch
s r n e n s a n

Fi g 1 i s dr w
. d the v l e t t ched to i t l i
a n , an me a u a a s n es, n a

l y 1 000 m i l
,
to the i ch i v r y gre t y e t x pe i m e t
es n ,
s e a ,
e r n

s h o ws t h a t t h i s m k o d i ff re ce i the correct e o f
a es n e n n n ss

t he e l t o lo g t h propor ti o l m e thod i obse v ed

r su , s n as e na s r .

Th is co cl i o m y p t t b ho w to be co rrect
n us n a , ro an o, e s n

b y Fi g 4 w he e t h c le i d ced t o t h 1 p r t o f the
.
,
r e s a s re u e 2 0 a

hei gh t o f t h co l m w h o h i gh t i fo d by it as h s
e u n ,
se e s un , a

bee before m e ti o ed
n n n .

Th i es l t i d c the co cl i o th t w h te v e m y
s r u n u es n us n a a r a

b e t he e xte t o f t h d i ffere ce be t wee t he ed ced c le

n e n n r u s a

an d t he l e g t h o f t he lni n es ep e s e t ed b y i t h o w e v e r r n r
 Ill easu r em en t f
o t he Di s ta n ce o
f the Sun . 57

g e t ch d i ff e ce m y
r a su er o t les e
n t he el i a
b e w i ll n s n r a

b il i t y o f the le g t h o d i t c s fo d by it n s r s an e un .

He ce i att m p ti g t d v ery gre t hei g h t or d i

n ,
n e n o n a s s

ta c by the propo t i o l m e thod d

n es ed ced c le
r na an on a r u s a ,

the m l le t ri gle m y b
s a r m ll an i s w ith i t h l i m i t s
a e as s a as n e

o f pr ct i c l m e
a m e t w itho t
a g rd t
as u r e t he co m p an u re a o ar

t i v e iz e o f t he l g
s s d m lle r t i gl s ar er an s a r an e .

A s t he d i t ce f the cco d i g to the co cl i o

s an o sun , a r n n us n

o f st o o m e
a r i t he
n it f m e s re me t by w h i ch t h e
rs, s un o a u n

d i t c o f the pl e t m t be det e m i ed f th i le be
s an es an s us r n ,
i s ru

o b er v ed d b ppl i c b le t h e r es pec tiv e d ist c o f

s ,
an e a a , an es

the pl ets w o ld be eq i r d t o h ed ced t o b i b

an u r u e e r u e n ar

,

m o y w it h t he r d c d d i
n t ce d m e uo f t he
e s an an ass su n ,

a s fo d b y t h m e s r m e t o f t h t d i st ce he ei
un e a u e n a an r n

m ade .

Th m e e em ts o f t h l i e dr w b y wh i ch t he
as u r en e n s a n

le g t h f lo g r l i e
n s o o gh t b y the proportio l
n e n s a re s u na

m e th o d d th ,
tt h i g t o
an ch ho t e l i e t he
en a ac n su s r r n s

v l a u es a d p t ed t o t h r d c d le o n w h i ch ch ho t e
a e e u e sc a su s r r

li en dr w
s ar e ho w by the d i ff re t d i g m
a n as s n e n a ra s

d m e t t b y t h i i f ll i bl
o n s r a e, t t m l y by m e
s n ae e es , na e , as u r

m e t th n ,
b t c t co r ct
e a f t h i m t hod fo
s ra di g
r e n es s o s e r n n

lo g d i t ce by m
n s an o f hor t l i
s ea n s s n es

O co m p tiv e ex m i t i o o f t h i m eth o d
n a ar a d i ts
a na n s an

a

ppl i c ti o b y w h i ch t h d i t ce o f t h e
a n w o gh t e s an sun as s u

f o m 4 0 N w it h t h t b y w h i h t he h y po t he u l i es o

r a c n se n n

p eced i g d i gr m s w e f d the m thod d i t p p l i

r n a a re ou n , e an s a

cati o w i l l be fo d to be i d t i c l
n un en a .

I f po s ch co m p r t iv e x m i t i o
,
u n u s ch m t h o d a a e a na n, u e

a d it
n ppl i c ti o b pro v d t o be i d t i c l t he it m t
s a a n e e en a , n us

n ece r i l y follo w th t the d i t ce o f the

ssa fro m t h
a s an su n e

e th h bee th d m t t d
ar as n us e on s r a e .

I f the m e thod t e t d be fo d i d ti c l so t t d s e d un en a , as s a e , an

t he d i t ce o f t h
s an be t fo d by it t o be herei
e su n no un as n

s h ow t he t he rror m t b eithe
n, n e us e r
58 Is the Cp o er n c a n i Sy s te m o f A s tr o n o my Tr ue 9 .

1 . I n wan t he m ti l cc r cy i d w i g t h e
of m at a ca a u a n ra n

n ec ry g l l i s o Fi g 1 o
ess a an u ar ne n .
, r,

2 I the v er ti c l l i
. n it o t h vi g b e a d w o
ne on ,
n a n e n so ra n, r,

3 I w t o f p r llel i m o f the l i e B F w ith

. n an a a u ch
s n s

v erti c l l i a or n e, ,

4 I . w nt o f p r ll l is m f t he t r i gh t ed ge w ith
an a a e o s a

its l f o
e ,
r,

5 I w t o f pe fec ti o o f the m oked gl ss t hr o gh

. n an r n s a u

w h i ch t h ob er v ti o o f t h
e s w m de
a s be fore de
n e su n as a ,
a

t il d o
a e ,
r,

6 I w t o f om r q i r m e t o i
. n an s om e p t iq l
e e u e n , r n s ar u ar ,

o m i t t d o b t w h t h p ri m e t w m de by the
e r a se n , en e ex e n as a

w r i t er t h 2 l t o f S p t m ber
on e s t t d e e as s a e

, .

If y fant he c o e o f ror e
sexi t ed d
au s s t h e w it e er s an r r

i o f t h O pi i o th t o
s e n n
ch d i d e xi t th y w o l d
a n ne su s e u

no t ffec t t h r l i bi l ity o f t he m t hod p

a e e a f pere d e er s e, or

v e t re w ith perf ctl y co t r ct d ( Fi g

n u a e di gr m ; ns u e . a a

per fect i s tr m t l iti n u d cc r t e ob r v t i o o f the

en a es , a n a u a se a n

su n a t t h t i m o f the eq i o x
e e rror fro m the c ses u n es , e au

nu
e a
e m r t ed i f y ch xi t d m y b l i m i ted a d an su e s e a e e na , n

prob bl y the ct d i t c o f t he
a ,
exa m y b fo s an d e sun a e un .

O it i po i ble fo t he m t h o d t o be c r f ll y d c
r, s ss r e a e u an a

c t ly
ur a e p pl i d tao t he m re m e t o f t he d i s t c o f t he e as u e n an e

sun , y t
sa a o 60 f l tit de o v o m e r

o a u er s

mo t i p k it bl y it t
un a n ea sud t he t opogr ph y f t he
a s u a e , an a o

su rro d i g ch s w o ld b
un n s su ce ry a ov r om e u e ne s sa or e s

o th r h i gh l v tio
e b fore h rei d t i l d d t h
e e a n as e e n e a e ,
an us

th e e x c t d i t c o f the
a s an m ay b fo e d by the m ethod su n e un

b y propor t i o a d o ed ced c l
n n n a r u s a e .
 Th e Di a m e ter , Lig h t an d Hea t of th e Su n . 59

C HA P TE R III .

T HE D I A M ET E R L I G H T , , H EA T , A N D A TT R ACT IO N O F THE

SU N A N D THE SO UR CE O F ITS H EA T .

A ho w i C h pte II the d ist

s s n n a fro m
r , an ce f t h o e s un

t h e e r t h is o
a m i ll i o m il ne n es .

A p ti e t q ti o w h i ch pre t it l f i W h t i
er n n u es n se n s se s,

a s

i t s d i m e te b ed o ch d i t ce ?
a r, as n su s an

A di t t o
su n m i ll i o m i le s h o ld h v e d i m et e
s an ne n s u a a a r

p p
ro o ti rt t o t h t
on a eof 9 3 m i ll i o o f m i le
a d i t ta sun ns s s an

h vi g
a n d i m et er o f
a a m ile i orde t h t the s, n r a

l i gh t d he t e m t i g from t h t l m i ry be
an a ana n th y a u na as e

a re ob r v ed d x per ie ced
se an e n .

I h o r t f the prod c t i o o f t he e ph o m e
n s , or they u n s en n a as

e xi t the e r t h i f the
s on b o a m i ll i o m i le fro m su n e ne n s

,

t h e e r th i t
a r f ce he c i t d i m et r m t be er y
, s su a n e, s a e us v

m ch le s th
u t h t d e to d i m e t e o f
s an a m il
u a a r es ,

fo w er it o t i t l i gh t h t
r e n d tt c ti o w o ld
, s s ,
ea an a ra n u n e ce

s ar il y be m ch g r t
,
th t t h y
u ea er a e ar e .

A ppe by the fo m l c ll d A r i t h m e ti c l pro

s a ar s r u a a e ,

a

po ti o
r n p e p or ti o co i t o f fo u t r m ; t h r t d
,

a r n ns s s r e s e s an

fo r th t e m s
u c lled the e xtre m es t h eco d a d th i rd
r ar e a , e s n n ,

t he m e s an .

The p o po rti o so gh t ccord i g t o t h i form l sho ld

r n u ,
a n s u a, u

be s foll ow
a s

A 93 m i l l i o
s
f m ile s b i g t h e ns o ti m t ed d i t ce e n es a s an

o f t he fr o m t h e t h i t o
su n m il e the e ti
ar s es s

m ted d i m e te
a t th t d i t
a
ce o i s 1 m i ll io m i l
r a a s an s n es

r a
i ts e l d i s ta ce to 94 8 3 5 m i les t he s m ed d i am e te o f
n , a su r

t h e su at t he l att e d is ta ce
n r n .
60 Is t he Cop er n i ca n Sy s te m o f A s tr o n o m y Tr ue 9 .

M l ti pl y t h m ean
u m ly e
/
s, na e , by
The prod c t f the me i u o an s s

D ivi d t he bo v e p od c t f t he m e
e a r u O an s by one of the
e xt e m es m l y by 93 m i ll i o th
r , na e , n s, us :

D ivi de the prod ct O f the m u ea n s by t he o t h er e xt r e m e ,

by 9 48 3 i t h ,
us

A ccord i n g to th i s fo r m u l a t h e p r o p o r ti o n ate d i a m e te r
o f t he s u n o n e m i ll i o n m i l e s fr o m t he e a r t h
, i s 948 3 5 ,

m i les .

O n t h i s b as is wh at s h o u ld b e t he i n te n sity O f t he l i g h t
,

a n d he a t o f t h e s u n as m a n i fe s t e d o n t he e a r t h ?

A s a fo u n d at io n fo r a n es ti m a te o f t h e s e ph e n o m e n a
t he follo w i n g a xi o m s a r e q u o te d a n d rel i e d o n ,

A " I O M 1 Li gh t i n c r e ase s as t h e s q u are o f t h e d is tan ce

.
"

O f t h e i ll u m i n a ted fro m t h e O p a q u e b o d y ( The s a m e

l a w g o v e r n s t h e i n cr eas e o f h e at ) .

A " I O M 2 To n d t h e s u r fac e O f a s ph e re we m u l t i pl y
.

the c i rcu m fe re n ce b y t he d i a m e te r .

A ccord i n g to w h i ch a xi o m t h e s u rfa ces O f the l ar ger

an d s m all e r s phe r e s r epre s e n t i n g s u n s ar e fo u n d as

o l ow
f l s :

Di a m e te r o f sma ll er s u n . Di am e t e r o f l a r ge r su n .

40
3 3

Ci r cu m . C i r cu m .

9 ,4 3 3 i

Q o t i e t 8 6 4 9 u n ,

It w i ll b fo d cco rd i g t o the e g re th t t he e
e un , a n s u s, a r

ar e 8 649 r f c f the m ll r
su co t i ed t h
a es O s a e su n n a n on e su r

f ce f t he l ger
a o ar su n .

L i gh t i c e es as the q e o f t h e d i t ce
n r as s u ar s an .
 Th e D i a m eter L ig h t , an d Hea t of th e Su n . 61

d ce
Th e s q u a e s O f t h r
l rger
i s ta n s o f t h e a an d s m a l e
e
l r
ro
s un s f r h ll ho
m t h e ea t wi co p r
s wn t h e m a a tiv i n te n s i t y e
h lg he
O f t ei r i h t an d e c a t as ffe t s o f d i st a n ce .

D i t ce f m ller
s an fro m the rt h
o s a su n ea mile s .

S q r f th i d i t c
ua e o ti m s s an e, es eq l ua s

D i s ta n ce of l rger
a su n fro m t h e r th e a ,
mi les .

Sq r ua e o f t h is d i s t a n ce as follo w s ti m es 93 ,
eq u a s l
Sq re O f s m ll r
ua a e S q e o f les e r
su n , u ar s

d i t c i f v or f m ll r
s an e n a 8 6 49 o E xc s of
s a f cee sun , . es sur a

o f l r g er
a o r m ll
su n 8 6 49
ve s a er sun , .

SO t h cco t b t w t h e t wo
e a un i lo
e d g i
ee n sun s, n ss an a n,
l ti g fro m r f
r es u n
d d i t ce O f l i g h t
su d he t
a ce a n s an an a ,

st an d fo l lo w
s as s

E x ce s o f r f ce
s d su q tal y o f l i g h t and he t c on se ue n an a

fo h vi g d i m e t r f
a su n a n m il
a O v r a e o es e a su n

h vi g d i m t r f 94 8 3 m i l i eq l t 8 6 4 9
a n a a e e o es , s ua o .

G i f
a n o h vi g d i m t r f 94 8 3 b l e d i
a su n a n a a e e o y es s r s

t ce q r d
an s ua em ly t th di t
,
na c f 1 m i ll i o n m i le
e ,
a e s an e O s

fro m t h e r t h 8 6 4 9e a , .

Lo o f ss wi tha sundi m t r o f m i le b y e
a a e e s, r a

so n O f g re t r d i t c a e
q r d m l y
s an t 93 m i
e s ll i o o f
ua e ,
na e ,
a ns

m il esfro m t h rt h 8 64 9 e ea , .

G i o f ch
a n su t t h l tte di ta sun a ce by re o f e a r s an ,
as n o

gre ter r f c 8 6 49
a su a e, .

Fro m th i it w i ll b ob r v d t h t w h i le t h l rg r s
s e se e a e a e un

lo s es b gr t r d i t c fro m t h
y ea e r t h i t g i o v the
s an e e ea ,
a ns er

s m ll ra e by l rg r r f
su n A d whil t h
a e m ll r
su a ce . n e e s a e su n

l o by l r f c it g i by r o f i t hor t e
s es es s e s u r a e, a ns e as n O s s r

d i t c fro m t h
s an e t h th t h t f t h l rg r
e ea r an a o e a e su n .

It w i l l b by t h t i m t bo m d th t th i
e s ee n e es a e a ve a e a s

lo ss a n d g i f th tw a n O i l i gh t d h t
e i th
o su n s, n an ea ,
a re n e

sa m propor t i o
e n .

H c t h co cl i o i d d c d t h t
en e, e n us n di t n t s e u e a a su s an one

m i l l io n mi l es fro m t he ear t h h avi g a d iame te r o f 948 3 i ,

n
62 I s th e Cop er n i can Sy s te m o
f A s tr o n o m y Tr u e 9 .

mi le s, ll m
i fe s t t h e s am e i n te n s i ty o f i
wi an t a n d ea t , o n
.
l gh h
rh
t h e e a t as w u o ld r
t h e s u n w e e it 9 3 m i l i n s o f m i s f m l o le ro
rh h g d
t h e ea t , a vi n a r
i a m ete o f m i es l .

In re a g rd o d d
t t h e i a m e te r o f t h e s u n , a t t h e i s t a n O f ce .

ll o l o rh
o n e m i i n m i e s fr m t h e ea t , it m a y b e s a i d
d lo l ro
I f t h e s u n i s ta n t 9 3 m i l i n m i e s f m t h e e a r t , h a v h
i gn di m t
a a m il e er b of ch propor t i o to es , e su n as

s rf c
u d d i t c th t t h l i gh t
a e an s an d he t f t h t bod y
e a e an a O a

m if t d O th
an es e rt h w o ld r l t fro m ch propor
n e ea u es u su

ti t
o n a e su rf ce d d i t c a d th i w i ll o t b
an d id
s an e, a n s n e en e

b y t ro o m rs th
as n e m i l l io
,
m il fro m t he
e n a su n one n es

e r th w i l l h
a ,
d i m t r f 94 8 3 % m i l f t w o r o
a ve a a e e O es , or eas ns :

1 B c . t h i i t h o l y d i m et r t
e a u se s ch d i t ce
s e n a e a su s an

w h i ch i pro p orti o sl to t h d i t c d d i m t r o f t h e
na e s an e an a e e

su n o f t ro o m y as Th t it i propor t i o l m y be fo d
n . a s na a un

by co l ti g t h t g ri g c lc l ti o m d i t h i
n su n e rs u n a u a n a e n s

ch p t r
a e .

2 It i t h O l y d i m t r w h i ch w i l l cor
. s e n po d w ith
a e e r es n

t h l i gh t
e d h t f th an t ro o m i c l
ea Th t t h y
O e as n a sun . a e

do co r po d d r es pro p or ti o l m y b ob r v d b y
n , an ar e na ,
a e se e

t h g ri g j
e t m d
u n us a e .

Th i w i l l b t o c p pr h ded i f t t h pr o per
s e a n e a e en no , e

c lc l t i o w i l l pro v e th i
a u a ns rt i o t th corr ct e s ass e n ,
as o e e n ss

O f the d i m t r t o b t r a e e , e ue .

H ce t h d d c t i o i m d th t t h r l d i m t r O f
en , e e u n s a e a e ea a e e

t h e su n at th di t c f e m i ll i o m il
s an fro m t hee o on e n es

e r t h i s 94 8 3 3 m i l
a es .

I r g rd to h t it m ay b
n e a i d th t w h i l the m to
ea e sa a e su

t la f it m it t d fro m
o e
y h t d e bod y ho ld b d t
an r ea e s u e e e

mi d by t h m or c p c ity f ch bod y d t by
ne e as s a a o su ,
an no

th rf c y t th t po ti o f ch h t r d i t d fro m
e su a e, e a r n o su ea a a e

su ch m i y as s d i r c ti o
n an ho ld b m
on e r d t o e n s u e ea s u e , so

s pe k by t h xt t f t h t rf c fro m w h i ch t h h t
a , e e en O a su a e e ea

w ere r ad i t e d i s ch d i rec ti o a d eceiv ed b y t h e b o d

a n n r
n u
y
t o wh i ch it was co m m u i cated n .
 Th e D i a m eter L ig h t , an d Hea t of th e Su n . 63

e x a m ple s ppo
Fo r q r b ,
f i
u r 1 2 i h
se a ses ua e ar o on nc

lo g d 1 i ch q re w h at e d W h i l the m t
n an n s ua ere e . e su o

t l O f t h i h t wo u l d
a s b tr c t l y co i d red dep d o
ea , a s a ns e ,
en n

t h e m o m o f t h he t ed b y t it we o ld b r
a a d i t d fro mar , e u e a e

50 sq r i che t h i bei g t he
ua e n m ber o f s q
s, re i che
s n nu ua n s

o f th f ce o f t he m as
e su r a s .

At e d o f t he b
an o l y p t o f the he t o f the
n ar , n ar a

m ss w o ld be e m itt e d b c
a u e ch d w o ld co t i ,
e aus su en u n a n

b t t he 1 p r t o f t he w h o le
u ,, a f ce he c w e re bo d y sur a ,
n e, a

p e e t d i clo e pro xi m ity to

r s n e n e ds f ch b it an n o su ar

w o ld r ce iv e fro m it b t t h e
u e p r t f the he t d i t ed u a o a ra a

f o m t he b the re m i der m l y t he :p r t s o f ch
.

3
r ar , a n ,
na e ,
a su

he t wo ld p i l l o the d i r cti o i to p ce
a u as s n a r e ns n s a .

Fo logo r o th t por ti o o f the f O f t h

r an a us e as ns a n su r a ce e

the s w h i ch p e t i t l f bo th i m m ed i t l y d m ed i
un r es n s se a e an

a t el y i t he d i rec ti o f the
n r th d o t t he w hole
n o ea an n
'

m o f t he
as s w o ld be t h m
su n re O f t h i t e ity
u e ea s u e n ns

of th he t r c iv ed b y the e r th fro m i t the b l ce o f

e a e e a ,
a an

su ch ad i at ed h t p i g i t o p c
r ea i t he c e o f the
a ss n n s a e , as n as

he ted ba ar .

Th co t e t or m s o f
e n
y d e
n s i g t ed ph r ias t he an s na s e e s as

cu b o f i t d i m et r w h il t h
e s a
f f e ch , ph re i i e e s u r a ce o su s e s n

m u ch less p e p o t i o m ly r t he q r o f i ts d i
n ,
na e , as s u ar e a

m e te r .

F ro m t h s e f ct i t m i gh t b t ho g h t t h t w h i le the
e a s e u a

s q u a re O f t he d i m e t er w o ld prop rl y m
a e r t he u e as u e su n s

l ig h t the be o f the d i m et er ho ld be t h m re f
, cu a s u e e as u O

i ts he t a .

The for go i g i l l tr t i o f t h c ti on o f he t r d i t d
e n us a n o e a a a a e

fro m t he i o b i i t d d to ho w by
r n ar lo g y t h t t h
s n en e s an a a e

he t receiv ed b y t h
a t h fro m t h w o lde ea r m t e su n u e an a e

f o m th t p t f t h f l t o i d

r a ar op t e su n s t s u r a ce r es e n e , an

t h t t h e m o t f t h h t r c i d w o ld d p d
a a un o e th
ea so e e ve u e en on e

e xt e t f t he s rface i ch d i c t i o
n O u n su re n

Hen ce t h at t h e squ ar e a n d o t t h e cu b e 0f the d ia n

64 I s th e Cop er n i ca n S y s t e m f
o A s t r o n o m y Tr u e 9 .

m et er w o ld m u e asu re t h i t e n en s ity of the su n s

h ea t , as

we ll i t li gh t
as s ,
as m a n i fe s te d on th e ea rt h .

A TT R ACT O N l .

The rel tiv e ttr ct i o o f p her O f d i ff re t m

a a a ns s es e n as s e s ,

o f the me d ity
sa s fol l o w
en s ,
ar e a s

L t co m p r t h tt r c t i o
e us a e f tw ph r f t he
e a a ns o o s e es O

sa m m t ri l O f w h i ch t h d i m t r o f t h o
e a e a i d o ble e a e e e ne s u

t h t f t h o t h r t h l rg r w ill h v e i g h t t i m
a O e e , e a th e a e es e

b lk
u d th r for
,
an i g h t t i m t he m
e e e e f th m ll r es as s O e s a e .

B t g i t th i i t h d i d v t g th t
u a a ns s s p r ti l oe sa an a e a a a c e n

its su rf c i t w i c a ef f om it c tr
s e as i th c ar f r s en e as n e ase o

th m ll r ph r w h i ch c dim i ti o o f O

e s a e s e e, a u se s a nu n ne

fo r t h
u Co q . t l y i t w i l
n se l t t r c
uen t ch p r t i cl w it h a a su a a e

do bl t h for t h t t h m ll r pher wi l l t h t i
u e e ce a e s a e s e a s,

th tt
e a ti d i r ctl y t h d i m t f t h s phere
r ac o n s ar e e as e a e er s O e s

if th d iti e
e en s
q l N
s ar ew m b P pe l A
ua t .

e co

s o u ar s r on

am y .

In o rd e r to
ttra c t i o n o f t h e s u n at o n e m i l l io n
n d th e a

m il e s fr o m t h e e a r t h a n d h a vi n g a d i a m e te r o f 94 8 3 i
,

m i l e s i n c o m p a r i s o n w it h t h e a tt r a c ti o n O f a s u n 9 3 m i ll i o n s
,

o f m i le s fr o m t h e e a r t h a n d h a vi n g a d i a m e t e r o f ,

m i l e s l e t it b e s u p p o s e d fo r e x a m pl e t h a t th i s l a t t e r
, , ,

n a m e d s u n b e m o v e d fr o m t h i s d i s ta n c e t o t h a t o f o n e m i l

l i o n m i l es fro m t h e ea r th .

I n s u ch pos i t i o n t h e c o m p a r a t iv e a tt r a cti o n s o f t h e

l a rge r a n d s m all e r s u n s d u e to m as s acc o r d i n g t o t h e
l a w l as t q u o t e d w o u ld b e a s t h e i r d i a m e t e r s
, .

A t o n e m i l l i o n m i l e s fr o m t h e e a r t h t h e r el a tiv e a t tr a e
ti o n s o f e a ch O th es e s u n s ph e res fo r t h e e ar t h a n d r e
f
c i r o c a l l y t h e ea r t h s fo r e a c h O f t h e m
p

w o u ld b e a l s o i n

p r e porti o n t o s u ch d i a m e ter s as s u c h r es u l t s w o u ld he i n ,

a cco r d a n c e w it h t h i s l a w as d u e t o co m a r a t i v e m as s s u b
p , ,

j cet ho we v e r to s u ch ch a n ge as m igh t b e req u i re d b y t h e

, ,

i n v er s e s q u a r e o f t h e r es p e ct i ve d is ta n c es .
 Th e D ia meter , L ig h t an d Hea t of th e S un . 65

Ca lcu l ati o ni l l how th t the l arger s h as co tai ed

w s a un n n

i it 9 3 d i m et er o f the s m ller u
n a s a s n .

The the sm l l er s h as b u t the p rt o f the att ac

n a un a r

tio s o f the l rger d e t o m as s al o e wh i ch these d iam eters

n a , u n ,

r epres e t n .

A g i s ppo e t he l rger s
a n, u re m ov ed b ack t o i ts as
s a un

t o o m i c l d i s ta ce
r n a a m el y 9 3 m i l l i o s o f m i l es from
n ,
n , n

t he ea r th .

O co m pu ta ti o
n o f the ttr cti o o f th e l arger su n at
n a a n

th is re m ote d i ta ce w h at w i l l be the com p rat i e at t ac

s n a v r

,

t i o s o f t hes e t w o pheres fo e ch o t her

n d i
s rel ativ e r a an n

prop or ti o fo t he e rth n res l t o f d i ffere ce o f d i s

r a as a u n

t of
a n ce ch t wo phere fro m the e rt h ?
su s s a

Th is m y be d e term i ed b y N e wt o
a l a w o f tt racti o n

n s a n ,

w h i ch i s as follo w s

E very p rti cle o f m tt er i the iv ers e att racts ev ery

a a n un

other par ti cle w i t h force d i rec tly as thei r m as s es a d a , n

i v er ely as the sq are o f t he d i ta ce wh i ch sep arates

n s u s n

the m .

Th is re m ote d i ta ce o f the l rger s fro m t he e rth s n a un a .

i co m p riso w it h less er d i t a ce o f the s m ller s u fro m

n a n s n a n

t h e e ar th i s as 1 t o 9 3 ,
.

The s q re o f t h i greater d i ta ce o f the l rge r s n

ua s s n a u

from t he e r th i s 9 3 ti m e 9 3 eq l 8 6 4 9
a The i v e rs e s , ua s . n

sq re o f th i d i ta ce i 9 3 s 9 3 t im es 9 3 equ l 8 6 4 9
ua s s n s , a a s .

A ccor d i g to th is l w o f decre s e o f att rac t i o as a co n

n a a n ,

s eq e ce o f the i cre e o f d i t ce w h i ch ep ar tes the m

u n n as s an s a ,

the l rger a t 9 3 m i ll i o
su n o f m i le fro m the e r t h
a ns s a

, ,

w o ld hu e re l t o f ch gre ter di s t ce b u t the

av as a su su a an

p rt o f the tt r cti o fo the m l l er s n it h d f s ch

a a a n r s a u a or u

s m ller s
a w he th e l ger s w o e m ill io m i les
un ,
n ar un as n n

fro m the e r th a .

B t t he m l l er at o m i ll i o m i les fro m t he e r th
wo u ld h av e at such d i stan ce as h as b een sh o wn
u s a su n ne n a

,
the
5
66 I s th e Cop er n i ca n Sy s t e m f
o A str on o m y M e

1
93 pa rt the ttr cti o th at th l rge
of a h d w he it
a n e a r su n a n

w as a t ch e r d i t ce to t he e rt h
su n a s an a .

W h ile h j t be n ho w the l arger

, as as us e m o ed e s n, sun r v

fro m o e m i ll io m i le fro m t he e rth t o 93 m i ll i o s o f

n n s a , n

m ile fro m it w o ld t h ere h

s e b t the p r t o f t he t
, u av u a a

tr cti o i t h ad w he it w o m ill i o m iles fro m the

a n n as ne n

earth h i g t h lo t by d i ta ce i the re m ote po iti o

, av n us s s n n s n

w h t it h d for m e l y g i ed by m as
a a w he i t he ea r
r a n s n n n

po iti o s n .

The t
n d i t ce o f o e m ill i o m iles f o m the
a su n a a s an n n r

e r th
a d h i g
,
an d i m eter o f 9 4 8 3 % m ile
av n d a s
a 93 a s , an un

m i ll i o s o f m i le fro m the e r t h a d h av i g
n s d i m ter o f a , n n a a e

m i le e er t eq l tt c ti o s, o e ch o th er
x d ua a ra ns n a ,
an

e ert the m e rel t i e t t ct i o o t h e r t h i p ro p or

x sa a v a ra ns n e a ,
n

t i o t o t he el ti e d i m e t e o f the l tter bod y t o e ch o f t h e

n r a v a r a a

t wo s o e o f w h i ch i
u n s, ppo ed to be 93 m i ll i o
n d s su s n s, an

the ot her 1 m i ll i o m i le from it n s .

He ce the tt ct io o f the
n e x er ted o the ea th at
a ra n su n n r ,

the d i t ce o f 1 m ill i o m i le f o m i t d h i g d i
s an n s r , an av n a

a m t o f 9 4 8 3 5 m i le
e er i eq l t o t h t o f 9 3 m i ll i o s
s, s ua a a sun n

o f m i le fro m t h e e r t h
s h i g d i m eter o f a . av n a a

m ile s

.

N t I t m i gh t be
o e ked w o ld t he m ller d ea e r as u s a an n r

sun h e the s m pp re t ize t o the y s the l rger

av a e a a n s e e a a

an d m ore d i t t Li gh t i cre e
s an d decre e
sun n as s a n as s as

t he q e o f t h d i t ce The
s u ar p oper h
e 8 649
s an . su n r as

t i m es t h e rf ce o f t h of th
su w t heory
a Were th e e su n e ne .

l ge
ar m o ed fro m 1 m i ll i o m i le f o m t h
r sun v e r th to n s r e a

9 3 m i ll i o o f m i le fro m it ins ch c e the l i gh t o f t he

s , n su as

su n w o ld decre e u th q e o f t h d i t ce as m el y
as e s uar e s an , na ,

9 3 t i m e 9 3 eq l 8 6 4 9 s The the t the re m o t e

ua s . n sun a

po i t io w o ld h e b t the
s n p rt o f t h l ig h t i i ble t
u av u
1
86 49 a e v s a

1 m i ll i o m i le b t t he m ller n h s,the p r t o f the

u s a su n as a

su r f ce o f the l rge w h ile t h l i gh t o f t h l ger s

a a r, e e ar un

m o ed t o t h e r e m o te po s iti o h
v d i m i i hed 8 6 4 9 t i m es n as n s

wh at it h ad at th e s pp osed n ear p os i ti o n Th e remote u .

 Th e D i a mete r , L ig h t an d Hea t of th e Su n . 67

the ea r s
an d n un w ou ld the n appea r to the ey e to be of
the m i e
sa e s z .

TH E S OU R C E or TH E
BU N s H EA T .

W h i le the co n s ta n t a n d u n d i m i n is hed su ppl y

su n h as a

of he t t h
a o
,e s u rce o f it i s u n k n o w n .

There ar e m a n y theor ies i n te n ded to s ol v e th i s problem

O n e o f thes e i s th a t h e at los t t o t he s u n b y r ad i ati o n
, ,

i s reple n is hed by m at t er i n s p ace fall i n g t o t he s u n th u s ,

keep i n g u p the s ol a r r e .

A n o ther i s t h at th is regu l a r su ppl y i s co n ti n u ed b y t he

reco m b i n ati o n or b u r n i n g o f co m pou n d gas es at the s u r
,

face o f t h e s u n .

A n o ther t heo r y m a i n t i n s t h a t t he s u n i s a cold bod y

a

a m ag n et a n d t h a t m a g n e ti s m i s t he a ge n c y b y
, w h i ch
heat i s ge n e r at ed a n d co m m u n ica t ed t o t he ear t h
, .

N o n e o f t hes e t heor i es appear bas ed o n su f c ien t ev i

de n ce a n d n o n e o f t he m a r e ge n erall y accep t ed by s ci
,

e n tis t s .

The co n tracti o n o f t h e s u n h as bee n ge n erall y accep ted

as the m o s t pl a u s i ble s o u rce o f s u ppl y o f the s u n s h eat

.

The theory o f w h i ch i s th a t as i t s heat i s rad i ated i n t o

s pa ce the s u n cool s a n d as a co n s eq u e n ce c o n t r a c ts t h u s
, , , ,

ge n era ti n g heat t o s u pply t h at los t to it by ra d iatio n .

Th is theory i s fou n ded o n the co n cl u s i o n t h a t i n t h e

lo n g ago t h e bu lk o f the s u n w as so v as t as to h a ve bee n
co m m en s u ra t e w i t h a v er y l arge por ti o n o f s pace an d th at

,

it is n o w as it a l way s h ad bee n decreas i n g i n b u l k b y

i ts co n s t a n t cool i n g a n d con s eq u e n t co n t r ac ti o n
, .

The process s u pposed i s t h at the s u n cool s by throw i n g

,

o ff i t s he a t i n al l d i rec t i o n s i n t o s p a ce a n d t h at as a r e
, , , ,

s u l t o f s u ch cool i n g co n t r ac ti o n o f i t s b u lk t a kes pl ace

, .

A s a res u l t o f s u ch co n tr a cti o n m o r e h e at i s ge n er at ed ,

t h a n is l ost t o it b y su ch cool i n g an d th at t h es e p r o c ess es ,

68 I s the Cp
o er n i ca n Sy s tem f
o A s tr on o my Tr u e 9
.

ar e co n ti n u ally go i n g o n w hereb y a regu l ar a n d u n d i m i n

,

i s h e d s u ppl y o f hea t i s fu r n i s hed to t he ea r th .

The ph i losoph y o f the t heo ry i s bas ed o n th e fa c t ,

s h o w n by e x p er i m e n t t h a t w he n a g as cool s
,
it co n tr a cts ,

a n d that the heat ge n era ted by the co n traction exc eed s

th at w h i ch it h ad to los e i n order to prod u ce th e co n

t r a c ti o n

.

It i s al so a fact th at Whe n t h e m ass o f gas is so far

,

co n tracted th at it begi n s t o s ol i d i fy or l iq u i fy t h i s acti o n

ceas es to hold a n d fu r ther con tractio n i s a co o l i n g pro

,

There i s a wea k po i n t i n th is theory as t o th i s co n trae

tion an d cool i n g bein g the ca u s e o f the s u n s h eat i n th is
, ,

to w i t
-

It i s appare n tl y take n fo r g r an ted th at after ea ch co n

t raction o f the s u n it r em a i n s i n the gas eou s s tat e O r i n , ,

o ther w ord s t h at the gas i n co n t ract i n g as it cool s does

,

n o t beg i n to beco m e l i q u i d o r s ol i d a n d t h e fac t th a t it ,

does n o t is ess e n ti al to t h e te n a b i l it y o f the theory fo r a o ,

cord i n g t o t he e x peri m e n t j u s t q u oted d i d it beg i n t o , ,

s ol i d i fy or l i q u i fy there w o u ld be n o heat prod u ced i n

e x cess o f th at los t i n order to prod u ce the con tra cti o n

, ,

h e n ce the s u ppl y o f heat t o the ea rth w o u ld grad u all y

d i m i n is h fo r whe n the gas begi n s t o l i q u ify or s ol i d i fy
,

t h i s i s a co o l i n g proces s .

We h av e n oth i n g b etter th a n m ere conj ectu r e by w h i ch

t o deter m i n e w he t her t he g as s o co n t ra c ted h as beg u n t o , ,

s ol i d i fy or l i q u i fy or n o t fo r it i s o n e o f t he co n cl u s i o n s
,

o f as t ro n o m ers t h at W e can n o t y e t say w h ether t h e s u n

h as or h as n o t beg u n to s ol i d i fy or l i q u i fy i n h is i n
N ewco m b s P ap n l a r
, ,

t er i o r A s tr o n o m y

. .

Th e wa n t t h i s ess e n t i al k n o wledge re n de r s t h is co n
of

t ract ion theory u n te n able .

Th e t h eory ev ol v e d by the pres e n t w riter i s t h a t t h e

heat o f t h e s u n r es u l ts fro m i ts m oti o n abou t the ea rt h
an d b etwi xt t h e
tr op i cs i n p assi n
g th r ough a r esis ti ng
 The Di a m eter Lig ht ,
an d Hea t of the Sun . 69

m ed i u m wh i ch occ p ies sp ce d th t s ch heat i so u a ,

an a u s

g er te d i accord ce w it h the m ech a i ca l th eory o f

en a n an

n

he t a .

Th at m o tio m y be ca s e o f he t w n the op i i o
a a u a , as n n

o f t he celebr t ed Locke He y a sa s

Hea t i v ery br i k g it t i o o f the i e s i ble p rts
s a s a a n ns n a

o f the objec t wh i ch prod u ce i th t e ati o from

u , s n s a s ns n,

w h i ch we de o m i te t h obj ect h t; so th t wh t i o

n na e o a a n ur

s e s ti o i s h t i t he objec t i s o t h i g b t m ti o

n a n ea n n n u o n .

L oc/ce s E l e N a t P h i l 0 1 1

. . . . .

i i
Th s v e w is co n r m ed b e x per m e n , fo r we ar e old y i t t
y
b P ro f N e wco m b ( P 0 p A s t p
. ha
i s n o w es. .
'

. t t It

t t t
t a b l i s h ed h a hea i s o n l a cer a n for m o f m o o n ; h a y ti ti t t

i
h o t ai r d ffers fro m cold a i r o n l i n a m ore r ap d v bra y i i

ti t t i
o n o f i ts m olec u les , a n d h a it co m m u n cat es i t s hea t

t i i y y ti i t
t o o her bod es s m pl b s r k n g he m w it i t s m ole h

t tti t i
cu l es an d h u s se n g h e r m olecu les i n v bra o n i ti .

ty y
Co n s equ e n l , i f a bod m o v es rap dl i y hro u gh he t t

t i
ai r , he m pa c o f he a i r u po n t t it tt
o u gh o hea i t , j u s t as t

warm ai r wo u ld , e v e n t ho u gh he a i r t it
s el f w ere cold

.

I n rega rd t o t h e degree o f he a prod u ced b t t ra p d y he i

ti
m o o n o f ai r ac n g o n a bod ti y
a t res t , P ro f N e wco m b .

say s :

Le t u s appl

yt i
h s pr n c p le t he cas e o f he m e eor i i ot t t

o id s The eart h m o v es i n i ts orb at t h e rat e o f

. it

t
fee per s eco n d , a n d i f it m et a m e eor a t res , o u r a tm s t t o

p h e r e wou ld s r ke w h h s v eloc ti it it t i ity .

t
B y he r u le w e h av e g v e n fo r t h e r s e o f e m per a u re ,i i t t
i i
d v ded b 1 2 5 equ als 7 8 4 m es 7 8 4 equ al s y ti
degrees n e a rl y .

I n s pe a k i n g o f t he co n s ta n t rad ia t i on o f heat from t he

s u n he say s :
,

B u t it i s n o w k n o w n th at he at c an n o t be prod u ced ex

cept b y t h e e x pe n d itu re o f force ac t u al o r po te n t i al i n , ,

s o m e o f i ts for m s a n d i t i s a l s o k n o w n t h a t the ava i l a ble

"
,

su p p l y o f forc e is n ecess ar i l y l i m ited

.
70 I s t h e Cop er n ic a n Sys t e m o f A str o n o my Tr ue 9
.

He n ce th i s ra d i atio n ca n n ot go o n forev er u n less t he

, ,

force e x pe n ded i n prod u ci n g t h e he a t be re t u r n ed to t h e

s u n i n s o m e for m .

I f the d i s ta n ce a n d t he m as s o f th e s u n be red u ced as ,

be fore s ho w n a n d the a rgu m e n t i n C h a p ter I V be s u i

,

ci en t to pro v e th at t h e earth does n o t rotat e the n t h e r e v ,

o l u t i o n o f t he s u n a bo u t t he e a r t h i s n eces sa ry t o prod u ce

t h e phe n o m e n a o f d a y a n d n i gh t .

A s a co n s equ e n ce o f s u ch re v ol u tio n a n d h a v i n g t h e ,

v eloc ity here i n g i v e n it t he m olecu les o f t h e s u n w o u ld be

,

u t i n a g i t a t i o n or v i br a ti o n beco m e h o t beca u s e t h e fr i c
p , , ,

ti o n cau s ed by s u ch rap i d m oti on between t h e m a n d t h e

, ,

e ther w h i ch occ u p i es s pa ce t he s u n s tri k i n g the m w o u ld

,

be a cau se o f he at i n accord a n ce w i t h the m ech an i cal t he

,

o r y o f hea t j u s t be fore q u o ted

,
.

W ere it co n ceded t h at s u ch i s t he ca us e o f the s u n s

heat it w o u ld n o t follow th at the s u ppl y o f s u c h for ce

,

w o u ld be n ecessar i l y l i m ited a s s ta t ed i n t he q u o ta ti o n

,

j u s t m ade fro m P rof N ew c o m b . .

For i n su ch cas e w h at fo r ce can be either los t or d im i n

,

i s h e d i n t he s e n s e o f e x h a u s t i n g t he s u ppl y by t h e m o t i o n
o f t he s u n ge n era ti n g i t s h ea t by i t s s tr i k i n g the m ol ec u l es

o f t h e e t her a n d w h a t force i s t h u s e x pe n ded e ither

, ao

t u al or pote n ti al ?

The fo r ce ge n era ti n g the h eat is the s u n i n i ts m o ti o n

s t r i k i n g t he e ther a n d it w i ll be co n ceded t h a t n e ither t h e
,

s u n t he e t her n o r a n y m o ti o n a r e d i m i n is hed t hereby

, .

A s m atter i s i n d es t r u c t ab l e com b u s t i o n co u ld n o t d i
,

m i n i s h i t s m as s ; as a n effec t o f he at t here w o u ld res u l t

ch an ges o f co n d iti on fo r m an d co n s is ten cy b u t t he q u an
, ,

tity o f m atter w o u ld be th e sam e .

Thos e porti o n s o f it o n o r n ea r the su rface o f t h e s u n ,

bei n g th u s n ea res t t h e s o u rce o f i ts heat w o u ld beco m e ,

d ilated b y it th e ir gr a v ity w ou ld be th u s d i m i n is hed ; b e

,

i n g fu r t hes t fro m t he a x i s o f the s u n s m o ti on the ce n t r i f

,
 Th e Di am eter Lig h t , an d Hea t of the Su n . 71

u gal force co n seq u e n ce o f th is w o u ld act m ore p o w

, as a ,

e r fu l l y o n su ch m a t t er th an o n a n y o ther o n t h e s u n .

A s a res u l t o f t he O perati o n o f t hes e t wo ca u s es t he ,

m olec u l es o f s u ch m a tt er w o u ld be t hro w n o u t w a rd a n d ,

by O p e r a tio n o f a w ell k n o w n l a w o f m oti o n they w o u ld ,

al so m o v e o n w a r d wit h a v eloc it i n co m m o n w i t h t h at o f
y
the su n .

Be i g th s re m o ed from the o rce o f the m ost i

n u v s u n

te se he t they w o ld there cool d co de se th u s thei r

n a ,
u an n n ,

g r av ity w o ld b e i cre as ed u By t he f i c t i o n o f t he m ole . r n

cul es o f t h is proj ected m t t er wi t h t ho e o f the e ther i a s n

s pac e gai t w h i c h it wo ld i m p i ge the ce tri f g l fo ce

a ns u n , n u a r

w o ld be des t roy ed w h ile t h e gr

u i t y o f th i co de ed
, av s n ns

m a tte by reas o o f s ch co de
r tio wo ld be th
n u n n sa n u en , as a

force i e xc ess o f t he ce tri f g l force th i force o f i

, n n u a s n

c eas ed g r v i t a t i o
r w o ld t rt
a ch m at ter t o w rd t h
n u s a su a s e

su n i t m o m e t m ac co rd i g t o t h e l w go er i g f ll
s n u , n a v n n a

i n g bo d i es d it i d gr i t y c
, an ed b y the o
s n cr eas e av , au s c n

de sation j t m e ti o ed wo ld o er co m e t h ce tr i f g l
n as us n n , u v e n u a

force a d , ch m tt er w o ld f ll t o the
n su a to be d i s ol ed u a su n s v

b y the heat d g i t hro w o t w rd n d o w rd as b e

, an a a n n u a a n a

fore ,
d t h s the coro
an ob er ed b y i d o f the tele
u n a , as s v a

8 00 pe m i gh t r ti o
, ll y be cco t ed fo a na a un r .

A o t her res l t o f t h co t t t h o w i g o u t w rd o f th i s
n u e n s an r n a

i ca desce t g or por by the ce tri f g l force d i ts

n n n as va n u a , an

ret r t o t h
u n by i cre ed gr i t y e sun j st r m i ed
n as av , as u su s ,

w o ld poss i bl y be
u co t t d i t rb ce o f t h l i q i d a n s an s u an e u

le el f t he s rface o f the u w h ich i ob er ed b y the

v o u s n , s s v

depress i o o f the pho tos p here ho w th ro gh the tele cope

n s n u s ,

an d s ch d i t rb ce o f le el w o ld
u s u i ded by the i
an v u , a n

te se he t r t i o ll y cco t o f the rre t W h i rlpool

n a , a na a un cu n s, s

o r spots a d t h r h o f m tter o d i t bed t o

, n e us d fro m a s s ur an

the s eq
s un tor poles d i f ct i l l d i rect i o

ua , anis , n a ,
n a n s , as

r ev e l ed b y t he t eles cope
a .

I s t h er e a n y l a w w h i ch co ld c t su i g er i s b y w h i c h u a en ,
72 th e Cp o er n can i Sy stem f
o A str on omy Tr u e 9
.

the i te sel y heated co d i t i on o f al l m tter obser ed at

n n n a v

the su cou ld be ge er ted ?

n n a

Co s i der i g t h t fri c ti o
n n cts o l l m tter i m otio as
a n a n a a n n

a co n s ta n t force t e d i g t o s top it d t k i g i to v i e w t he
n n , an a n n

q i eti g age cy o f gr v ity

u n d i ts great po wer l w y s c t
n a , an a a a

i g i t he d i recti o o f t he s s ce t re d th co t t
n n n un n , an e n s an

pert rbati o o f l l the m atter ob erv ble at t h s n

u n a d s a e u ,
an

w he it i f r ther co i dered th t t he he t o f t h e s
n s u i l
ns a a un s a

w ay s r d i ted a
d e er d i m i is hed l i ke the co te ts o f
a an n v n n n

Fort at s p rs e l w y s ex pe ded y et l w y s f ll ca
un u

u , a a n ,
a a u n

w e co n ce i v e it po i ble t h t t he e ob er ed f ctsss d phe a s s v a an

n om e ca
na fore v er co ti e o a y o t her h y po t hes i t h
n n nu n n s an

t h t t hey res l t fro m t he ac ti o n o f so m e force xt

a u l to e er n a

th e su n ?
The theo ry th at the s u n s h eat i s ge n erated b y i ts ra p i d

m o ti on thro u gh t he e ther i n s p ace m i gh t r a ti o n all y ao

co u n t fo r al l t hes e phe n o m e n a as e ffec t s o f t he m ech a n i ca l

t heory o f he a t fo r o n t h at pr i n ci pl e a n d w it h a l es s v e

,

l o ci t y t h an t h at o f t he su n i f it rev ol v es m e teo r s ar e ,

i gn ited .

To t he t e n ab il ity o f th i s t heor y t wo fa cts ar e esse n tial , ,

n am el y

1 Th a t a res is ti n g m ed i u m occ u p i es s pace

. .

2 Th at t he su n m o v es rap i dl y t hro u gh it
. .

A s au x ill a ry to the c o n s i dera ti on o f the rs t o f t hes e

t wo qu es ti o n s w e q u o te S i r Joh n Hers chel s es ti m ate o f

,

t he he igh t o f the atm os phere He s ay s .

,

Lay i n g o u t o f co n s i dera ti o n al l n i ce qu es ti o n s as t o t he

prob able ex i s te n ce o f a de n ite l i m i t to t h e atm os phere

bey o n d wh i ch t h ere i s ab s ol u t el y a n d r igorou sl y n o ai r ,

it i s clear th at fo r al l practical pu rposes w e m ay s peak ,

o f t hes e r eg i o n s w h i ch ar e m ore d i s t a n t a bo v e t he e a r t h s

s u r face t h a n t he o n e h u n dred th p a r t o f i t s d i am e t er as

vo i d o f ai r .

Th e on e h u n dred t h par t of th e d iam et er of the e rt h is a

 The Di a m eter Lig h t ,
an d Hea t of the S un . 73

less th a n 8 0 m i les bey o n d t h is fo r al l prac ti cal p u rpos es

, , ,

i s v o i d o f ai r .

A s t o the he i gh t w h i ch m et eors h a v e be e n ob s er v ed
a bo v e t he ea r t h P ro f N e w c o m b s ay s
, .

The ge n eral resu l t was th at t hey w ere rs t s een at a n
a v er age hei gh t o f 7 5 m i le s a n d d is a ppe a red a t t h e hei gh t

o f 5 5 m i les There was n o p os i t i v e e v i de n ce th at a n y

m et eor co m m e n ced ( t h a t i s t o s ay a ppe a red i g n i t ed fo r

, ,

oth er w is e they co u ld n o t h av e bee n s ee n ) at a h ei gh t ,

m u ch grea t e r t h a n 1 00 m i le s

.

The n t h e i n fere n ce i s t h a t t here w as pos i t i v e e v i de n ce

th at t hey appea red as m u ch as 1 00 m i les a bov e the ea rt h .

M Bi o t i n h i s Ele m e n t a ry T r ea t is e o n A s t ro n o m y i n
.
, ,

s pe a k i n g o f m et eors say s : ,

They a r e i n fac t ig n i t ed or i n am ed bod i es w h i ch
, ,

s u dde n l y pres e n t t he m s e l v es i n the at m os p h ere a n d

,

m o v e w i t h a v eloc i t y eq u al i n s o m e i n t a n ces t o th at o f

,

t h e s u n i n i t s orb it o r 20 m i les i n a s eco n d

*
.
,

Witho u t ci t i n g a u thori t ies or m ak i n g q u o t at i o n s it w ill ,

be fou n d th at ph i losophers h av e co m e t o the follow i n g

co n cl u s i o n s n am el y
,

.1 A t 1 0 m i les a b o v e the e a rth t he a t m os phere h as los t

t o f i ts de n s ity .

.2 A t 4 5 m i les it h as beco m e so at t e n u ated as to be i n

cap able o f r eec ti n g the ray s o f t h e s u n .

.3 A t 8 0 m i le s a bo v e t h e e a r t h s pa ce is v o i d o f a n a t
m o s p h e r e fo r a l l pr a c tica l p u rpos es .

The n it m u s t follo w t h at a t 1 00 m i les a bo ve the ea r t h

i t h as n o e x i s te n ce fo r a n y pr ac ti ca l p u r pos es b u t at t h e ,

d is ta n ce o f 1 00 m iles abo v e the e a rt h m e t eo r s h a v e bee n

obser ved i n a n i g n i t ed s tate an d i n t h at co n d i t io n e n t er
,

t h e a t m os phere .

It is t h e ge n er al co n cl u s io n o f s c i e n t is t s th a t the ig n i
tio n o f m eteo rs is a n e ffect o f t h e m ech a n i cal th eo r y o f
heat .

M . Bio b ing
t, e a 0op e r n i ca n , m ea n s t h e e ar t h s, n o t

th e s u n s
,

or bi t .
74 I s t he Cp o er n i c a n Sy s tem o f A s t r on o m y Tr u e
I

W h t re i ti g m edi m th e doe the m o i g m eteor

a s s n u ,
n , s v n

s t r i ke 1 00 m i le bo e the e r t h d bey o d t he p ssi b l

s a v a ,
an n o e

l i m its o f t h t m o phe e ? e a s r

I co m ti o
n f t he l m os t ece
n r a ry co cl i o t h t
n o a n ssa n us n, a

a re i t i g m ed i m occ p i e s p ce
s s n d t h at m e teor i
u u s a an s n

p ass ni g t hro gh w h i ch w i t h t h eu v eloc ity j t q o t ed f ro m , us u

Bi ot wo ld cer tai l y be ig ited w e q ote S i Wi lli am

, u n n , u r

Her sc hel i reg rd to t h e f c t t h t t h e peri ods O f com ets

n a a a

ar e co s tan tl y d i m i i h i g
n He y s n s n . sa

Th is i ev i de tl y the ffec t w h ic h w o ld be prod ced

s n e u u

by re ist ce e peri e ced b y t h e com e t fro m

a s an xery r re n a v a

et h er i l m ed i m per ad i g t he egi o s i n w h i ch it m ov es ;
a u v n r n
"
fo s c h re i t ce b y d i m i i h i g i ts ct l
r u s s an e lo ci t y
, n s n a ua v ,

w o ld l o d i m i i h i t ce t r i f g l force a d th s g i v e

u a s n s s n u a , n u .

the m ore po w er o er it to dr w it
su n e rer A ccord v a n a .

o oth ti g fo t h e phen o m en o

i gl y
n m ode O f cco
,
n er a un n r "
n

i q esti o
n uppe r i g t h i in a t he ol ti o prop a
os ned b y s s s u n

,

B i ck r d ge er ll y rece i ed
s , an H h lsA t n a my v .

er sc e

s r on o ,

Ti tle Co me ts .

i
A ga n , h e s ay s ,

i i
A s n g u l a r c rc u m s ta n ce h as b ee n re m a rked r es pe c n g ti

t h e c h a n ge o f d m e n s o n s o f he co m e i
o f E r ic k e i n i
its t t

progress t o a n d re rea fro m t h e s u n , n a m el , t h a he t t y t t

i t
real d a m e er o f t h e v s ble n eb u los t u n dergoes a rap d ii iy i

t ti
co n rac o n as i t approaches , a n d a n eq u all r a p d d l a y i i

i
t o n as it
recedes fro m t h e s u n M Val z , w h o , am o n g . .

t ti
o hers , h a d n o ced h s fac , h as acco u n ed fo r it b s u p t i t t y

i
pos n g a real co m pres s o n or co n de n sa o n o f v ol u m e , o w i ti

in g o t t he
pres s u re o f a n e hereal m ed u m grow n g m ore t i i

den s e i n t h e s u n s n e ghbo r hood

I d em i . .

t
D id he forego n g co n rm n g t h e h po t h es s h a a n i , i y i t t
t i
e her occu p es s pace , req u re a u hor y fo r s u ppor t , t i t it he
n am e s o f N t
e w o n , D es ca r es , Ka n a n d u ler , a n d he r tt E t i
t ity
au h or i
m ay b e n v oked , fo r a o f t h es w as o f t h a e ch e t
O i i
p n o n , as al so i s s u c h p n o n e n ert a n ed b y he m ore . O i i t i t
em i e n t m oder n sc i e ti s t s
n n .
 The D i a m ete r , Lig h t an d Hea t of t he Su n . 75

P rof Ty n d all v i r tu ally a n n o u n ces the gen eral co n cl u

.

s i o n o f m oder n s c i e n ce o n t h i s po i n t w he n he say s : ,

L u m i n ou s e ther ll s s tell a r s p ace it m akes t h e u n i ,

v ers e 3 w hole a n d re n ders p oss i ble t he i n t e r c o m m u n i ca

.
,

tio n o f l ig h t a n d e n ergy be tw ee n s ta r an d s ta r B u t t h e .

s u b t le su b s ta n ce pe n e t r at es fu r ther it s u rro u n ds t he v ery

a t o m s o f s ol i d a n d l i q u i d s u bs t a n ces

.

A gai n t h e su n appears i n a n agitated an d i n te n s el y h o t

,

s tat e a n d s ho ws o n a gi g a n t i c s ca le a l l t h e phe n o m e n a o h
,

s er v ed O f a r e o n a he a r t h .

I f v i bra t i o n s be n ecess a r y t o the ge n era ti o n o f h ea t i n ,

fact the cau s e o f it a n d t he r e be n o e t her i n s pace v i bra

,

, ,

t ion s th at i s t o s ay heat is n o t poss i ble fo r t here , ,

wo u ld be n o t h i n g to be m o v ed

.

I f v i bra ti o n s t h at i s t o s ay he a t b e tr a n s m itted fro m ,

the su n to the earth a n d i ts a t m os phere t he n s pa ce can n o t ,

b e a v o i d fo r v i brati o n s m ea n n ecessar i l y a n ag i t ati o n O f

, , ,

m a t ter .

A to the ex i ste ce o f the other f ct be fore m e tio ed

s n a , n n ,

na m el y the progre i e m o t i o o f t h e i
ss v p ce it m y n sun n s a , a

be i d th t w h i l e ch m o t i o i si q
sa a su to the te n s a ne u a n on na

b i l i t y o f the theory here i d oc ted s to the o rce o f

,
n a v a , a s u

th e sun s heat it m s t be d m i t t ed th at t here i o d i rect

, u a s n

or i d bi t b l e e i de ce ei t her o f th i m oti o o f t h
n u a v n s n e sun

or o f i t i m m obi l ity s .

B t f ct u d phe o m e
a do e i t o f s ch m o ti o
s an n na x s u n

an d ot h i g co t r d i c t ory o f i t
n n fro m w h i ch
n a bl a r eas o n a e

co cl i o m y be ded ced th t t h
n us n a h p og ess i e u a e sun as a r r v

m ot io bo t the ear th d t h t it o c ill ate be t w ee t h e

n a u an a s s n

tropi cs .

For the pre e t the follo wi g m y be cited s n

*
n a ,

1 The ppear a ce o f t h e m o ti o o f the s

. a n i s pl i n n un s a a

Th ong id n
e st r f u h m o io n w i ll b
e st e v on id d i h n t h p
e ce o s c t e c s er e n t e ex c a t er .
 76 Is t he Cp
o i
er n c a n Sy s te m f
o A s tr o n o m y Tr u e 9
.

1y obs er v able as th at o f t h e m oo n a n d pl a n ets a n d thes e ,

bod i es a r e k n o w n to h a v e proper m o ti o n s .

2 The e a r th does n o t appea r to ro t at e a n d the e v i

.
,

de n ce rel i ed o n b y as tr o n o m e r s as pro v i n g s u ch m o t i o n
m ay be re as o n abl y do u b ted as s ho w n i n C h ap ter I V
, .

3 A l l k n o w n phe n o m e n a i n cl u d i n g t h e s e as o n s
.

co u ld e x i s t i n accord a n ce w i t h n at u ral l aw d i d the s u n

, ,

s o m o v e ; t h i s w ill no t be de n i ed a n d th i s i s m u c h i n s u
, p
por t o f s u c h t heor y

.

4 A t t h e d is ta n ce o f t he s u n fo u n d by t he n e w m eas

.

u r em en t s u ch m o t i o n w o u ld n o t v i ol a te t h e l a w s o f l i gh t ,

h e at or att rac t i o n as h e r e i n be fore s ho w n n o r w o u ld s u ch

, ,

m o t i o n be i m p os s i ble by t h e a c ti o n o f ce n t r i fu gal force as ,

w i ll be here i n afte r s h o w n .

5 The appe a r a n ce o f i g n i t i o n o f the s u n w o u ld be s u ch

.
,

as it w ou ld h a v e d i d it m o v e r a pi dl y t h r o u gh a res i s ti n g
,

m ed i u m Th is m ay be r at io n all y i n fe r red fro m t he fac t

.

th at m et eors ar e obse r v ed i n a n i g n ited s t at e m ov i n g ,

thro u gh a res is t i n g m ed iu m abo v e t h e possi ble l i m i ts o f

,

the at m os pher e a n d m o v i n g w i t h a m u c h less v eloci t y

,

th an t h a t h ere i n ass i g n ed t o t h e m o t i o n o f the s u n

.

6 The v elocity o f
. m i les a n ho u r an d th is
the su n m u s t h a v e accor d i n g t o t h e n e w m eas u re m en t o f
i t s d is ta n ce i f i t m o v e a bo u t t h e e a r t h i n 24 ho u rs
w o u ld be c alc u l a t ed t o ca u s e t h e v er t i ca l a n d c y clo n i c co n
d itio n obs e r v a ble o n t h e s u n a n d i t w o u ld be d i f c u l t t o
,

co n ce i v e o f a n y t h i n g el s e t h a t w o u ld a n d i f t h is be t r u e
,

it p er se a m o u n ts t o so m e e v i de n ce th a t t h e s u n does so
m ov e .

7 The co n t r ac ti o n t heory o f the cau s e o f t he s u n s heat

.

m ay be rega rded as u n t e n a ble fo r t h e re as o n t h a t it w i l l

n o t a cco u n t fo r t h e phe n o m e n a o f v as t m as s es o f l i qu i d

r e fo r t h e i m m e n s e v ol u m e o f hea t ed g as es a n d v apo r s
,

re v ea led to obs er v at i o n by t h e t eles cope s h o w i n g s u c h t o ,

be t h e n or m al co n d i t ion o f the s u n By t h at t heory co n .

t r ac ti o n o f t h e e n ti re body o f t h e s u n tak es p l ace as a

.
 Th e D i a m eter , Lig ht an d Hea t of th e S un . 77

co n seq u e n ce o f i ts cool i n g S u ch cool i n g res ul ts fro m .

t h e ra d i ati o n o f i t s h e a t i n t o s p a ce t h is cool s t h e
su n t h i s o f co u rs e n ega t i v es t h e i d ea t h a t t h e s u n
retai n s the h ea t so ge n er at ed fo r d i d it do s o cool , ,

i n g w o u ld n o t t a ke pl a ce a n d t h is i s as n eces s a ry t o ,

the co n trac ti o n as cool i n g is t o the th eory w h ile as e v i ,

de n ce t h at cool i n g does n o t t a ke pl ace t h e t eles cope s h o ws

there s tor m s o f r e a n d d as h i n g b i llo ws O f a m e al ways
obs er v ed w h i c h s ho ws s u ch to be i t s n or m al co n d i t i o n
, ,

w h i ch n ega t i v es t h e t heor y t h at t h e s u n i s e v er cool .

8 The obs er v ed fa c t t h at t he s u n c u ts t h e m e r e d i a n s
.

a n d t he a r allel s o b l i u e l w h i ch w h i le i t w o u ld do t h i s
p q y .

o n t he C o p er n i c a n t h eo r y o f t h e e a r t h s prog r ess i v e m o t i o n

,

it wo u ld al s o d o s o o n t h e t h eo r y he r e i n a d v o cated .

Becau s e d id t h e s u n r e v ol v e abo u t t he eart h a n d a ls o o s

c i l l at e be t w ee n t h e t rop i c s as it i s obs e r v ed t o do t h e d i r e c ,

tio n o f s u ch m o ti o n s wo u ld be as tho u g h a rou n d a n d co i n ci

de n t w i t h t h e d i recti o n o f the t hrea ds o f a s pi ra l or s cre w ,

he n ce it w i ll be pe r cei v ed d i d t h e bod y o n w h i ch t h e
threa d s o f the s c r e w we r e for m ed rep r es e n t the a x is o f t h e

ea r t h th a t m o t i o n i n t h e d i rec t io n o f t h e t hread s co u ld
n o t be co i n c i de n t i n d i rec t i o n w i t h t h a t o f the pa rallels ,

as t he s e a r e at r i gh t a n gles t o t h e d i rec t i o n o f t h e e a r t h s

a x i s h e n ce co n s i s t e n t w i t h s u ch
, m o ti o n s o f t h e s u n i t
s h o u ld c u t t h e pa ra llel s a n d m e r i d i a n s obl i u el y t o t he m
q ,

a n d t o t h e e a r t h s a x i s as i t i s ob s er v ed t o do

.

TO t h e t heo r o f y the o ce o f t h
s ur e sun s

h ea t h e ei r n

a d v oc a t ed t h e fo l lo w i g bj t io
n
o lo e< ns as a s m an y ot he rs

m ay be m ad e .

1 . igh t b object ed th t t h eloci t y o f t h e

It m e a e v sun

na m el y m i le
, ho m o i g t h o gh i t
s an ur ,
*
v n r u a r es s

N o l ul d h v l o
e wt h o ate 6 tb il cit y o ft m et of 1 8 0 to m
ho
n ca c e e e c e es
By l l d h
an

ur i do ne ca c u a t e t at t he l f
om hi h h ob d P l mo i 17 7 0 f w mi ll io
'
. r ve o c y o a

c et w c e se r v e h at a er n w as at t e r at e o t o ns

d h l f f mi l i P hil o op hy p g 37 4

h w P k

an a a o es n an o . ar er s s ,
a e .
78 15 the Sy stem f
o A str on o m y Tr u e 2

i n g m ed i u m , w ou l d res u l i n d s s t i i p ti g the m
a n ass o f the su n

i n to v a po r .

To e x pe ct h s it is n eces s a r y to
t i m e th t m f ass u a a ass o

m tte r so i m m e n e
a th t co t i t t i g t h s as co ld b a ns u n e su n u e

h ea te d t o t he i te i t y eq i red fo n nsch re l t w h i h r u r su su , c

wo ld i m ply t h t b e fore
u ch i te e he t w ge e t d
a su n ns a as n ra e ,

r ad i ti o
a o f hea t fro m it w o ld
n t t ke pl ce u no a a .

Wh ile o t h co tr y ch r d i ti o ho ld b e
n e n ar su a a n s u ex

p e t
c e d b e f ore ch i t e he t suw ere ge er t ed
n ensf o m c h a n a r su

a l rge bod y
a the i t w o ld he t m o e lo w l y t h
as sun , as u a r s an

a s m ll bod y o w i g t o i t s gre t b lk
a , n d w o ld r d i te a u ,
an u a a

hea t co t tl y d gr d ll y be fore the he t bec m e i

n s an an a ua a a n

te n s e a d th n p o iz ti o o f t
us va h w h ole m r w o ldabe n e a ss u

pre e tedv n .

Fo e x m p le
r a the bec m e he t ed by i t m ot i o
as su n a a s n

thro gh the et he d il it t i o o f t h e t her i m m ed i tel y

u r, a n e a su r

r o d i g i t w o ld re l t
un n n e ffec t
u f ch he ti g
su d ,
as a o su a n , an

su c h d i l i t t io w o ld d i m i i s h t h
a n fri c ti o l c p c ity
u n e na a a

w h i ch h ad s p po bl y e is t ed be t w ee the m olec les o f

, u sa , x n u

the ether d tho e o f the m o i g s before c h d i l it

, an s v n un su a

ti o h ad t ake pl ce
n n a .

The d i m i t i o o f t h he t nu n effec t o f r d i ti o e a as an a a n

wo ld be i m m ed i tel y f llo w ed b y t he cool i g he ce t h e

u a o n ,
n

co tr c ti o o f t h e e t he
n a n d t he eby it w o ld beco m e r, an r u

m ore de e ns d th f gre t er fr i cti o l c p c ity t h

an us o a na a a an

i m m ed i t el y be fore the he t h d bee o red ced

a a a n s u .

T h is gre t er de i t y w o ld re l t i i cre i g the h t

a ns u su n n as n ea

a s an e ffec t o f t h i cre ed f i ctio l c p city o f t h e m ore

e n as r na a a

de se e ther
n .

Th i i cre ed h e t wo ld g i e p d t h e t he
s n as a d u a a n x an e r ,
an

so o wh
n ,
l w o f p ro p o t i o
en a a to it e p io d r n as s x an s n an

co tr c t i o w o ld b i g b o t
n a n u i for m i t y i t h i b
r n a u un n e v ra

tio n s o f the ether he ce i t h q tity o f t h he t t h ,

n n e u an e a us

er a ted
g e n .

By v i r t ue o f t h is n ecessa ry p o
r cess the acoum ul at i o n o f
 The D i a m eter , L ig h t an d Hea t of the S u n . 79

s u i ci e n t heat i n the body of the su n , req u i red to v apori z e

it , wo u ld be i m poss i ble .

2 . o ther obj ec tio n to the t heo r y o f the s u n s p r o g r es

A n

s i v e m o ti o n m ay be t h a t a v ery grea t a n d a v ery des t r u o

ti v e ce n tri fu ga l force wo u ld be ge n era t ed b y i ts v eloc it y

i n re v ol v i n g abo u t the ea rt h n a m el y t h at o f
,

m i les a n ho u r .

Fro m t h e follo wi n g argu m e n t it does n o t a p p ea r proba

ble th at t h is v eloc ity w o u ld ge n erate a ce n tri fu gal force
s u f c i e n t t o t hro w t h e s u r fa ce m a t t er O f t h e s u n bey o n d
the ran ge o f i ts at trac t ion a n d o n t h is h y p oth es i s o n l y
, ,

co u ld s u ch obj ecti o n h a ve w eigh t h o we v er great s u ch .

force m i gh t be .

Were t h is force great e n o u gh to do t h is the pl a n e t ,

Mercu ry bei n g the la rges t b o d y n e ares t t he s u n wo u ld

, ,

recei v e s u ch m a tt er t h u s throw n o ff as a n e ffe ct O f i ts at

tracti o n . .
3

A n d as Mercu r y i s y e t the s m a llest O f t h e pr i m a ry

pl an ets he n ce i ts y e t s m all v ol u m e fu r n i s h es n o e v i de n ce
,

O f a n y i n cre as e o f b u lk fro m t h i s or fr o m a n y o t her ca u s e .

The reas o n fo r the O pi n i o n t h at the ce n t ri fu gal fo r ce

w o u ld n o t
i n t he c as e s u p p os ed t hro w m at t er fro m the
s u n be y o n d t h e r a n ge o f i t s at t ra c ti o n i s r tl y fo ded o n
p a u n

th e cb r r esp o n d en ce be t wee n t h e ce n tri fu gal force wh ich

w o u ld be ge n er at ed by t h e r o ta t i o n o f t h e e a r t h i n cas e i t d i d ,

ro tate a n d t h a t o f t h e s u n d i d it re v ol v e a bo u t t h e e arth
,

i n the orb it a n d w i t h the v eloc i t y as s i g n ed it

, .

The e n ergy o f the ce n t r i fu ga l force i n a n y cas e depe n ds

u p o n t h e v eloc ity o f t h e b ody i n m ot ion an d u po n
,
the .

e x te n t o f t h e de v ia t i o n o f s u ch m o t i o n fro m a s t ra i gh t
l i n e a n d t h e m eas u r e o f s u ch fo r ce is p ro p or tio n a l to s u ch
,

Veloc ity a n d such deviation .

80 I s the Cp o i
er n c a n Sy s te m o
f A s tr o n o m y Tr u e 9 .

The d i s ta n ce o f t h e s u n fro m t h e ea rth by t h e n ew ,

m eas u r e m e n t is o n e m il l io n m iles
,
The c i rc u m fere n ce o f
.

i t s o r b i t a bo u t t he e a rt h is t he n
, , o f m i les ap ,

p r o x i m a t el y w h i le th a t o f t h e ea rt h i s a bo u t
,
m i l es .

So t h e or b it i n w h i ch t h e s u n w o u ld re v ol v e a bou t
th e eart h is 2 50 t i m es t h e ci r cu m fere n ce O f t h e or b i t o f
t h e e ar t h s o t o s pe a k i n i t s ro t a ti o n ,

The v eloci t y o f t h e ea r t h o n i t s a x i s i s abo u t

m i les a n ho u r w h i le t he v eloc it y o f t he s u n i n t h e ca s e
, ,

s u ppo s ed i s , m i les a n ho u r .

Th u s w h i le t h e v eloc ity o f t h e s u n i n re v ol v i n g i n i ts ,

o r b it a bo u t t h e ea r t h w o u ld be 250 t i m es th at o f t he
ea r t h s d i d i t ro t at e o n i t s a x i s y e t t h e a n gl e o f t h e t an

, ,

ge n t t o t h e cu r ve so t o s pea k o f the s u n s orb it i s 2 50

l ess t h a n t h a t o f t h e ea rt h s t h a t i s to say t h e c u r v e o f

, ,

t h e s u n s orb i t is b u t t h e o f t h e c u r v e o f the e a r t h s s u r

fa ce.

S o t h e ce n t ri fu gal force d u e to the s u n s v elocity i n e x

,

cess o f t h a t o f t h e e a r th s w ou ld be corres po n d i n gl y d i

,

m i n i s hed a s a co n s eq u e n ce o f t h e cu r ve o f the s u n s orb it

bei n g exa ct ly as m u ch l ess t h a n th at o f the c u r v e o f t h e

ea rt h s s u r fa ce as t h e v elocit y o f i t s re v ol u ti o n i n the 01

bit i s i n e x cess o f t h at o f t h e ea r t h s rot ati n g o n i ts ax is

.

Th u s t h e n ea rer a ppro x i m ati o n to a s trai gh t l i n e i n t h e

pat h o f t h e s u n pre ve n ti n g t h at ce n trifu ga l force d u e t o
i t s v eloci t y w h i le t h e gr e a t e r c u r v e an d cor r es po n d i n g
, ,

t a n g e n t o f t h e orb i t i n w h i ch t h e ea rt h w o u l d ro t at e
,

w o u l d be calc u l a t e d t o g e n e r a t e a g rea t er ce n t r i fu ga l forc e

t h a n t h a t o f t h e s u n h a d t h e e a r t h t h e v eloc i t y o f t h e s u n ,

w h i ch v eloc ity the ea r t h n o t h a v i n g th i s i s co m pe n s a ted

by i t s great er c u r v e w h i le co r res p o n d i n gl y t h e les s er
,

c u r v e o f t h e s u n s orb i t i s co m pe n s at ed b y i ts gr e at e r v e

l o c it y r e s u l t i n i n t h e ce n t r ifu al fo r ce i n e ach b ei n g t h e
,
g g
sam e .
 Th e D ia meter , Lig h t an d Hea t of t h e Su n . 81

The ce n tri fu gal force o f the eart h s ro tati o n h as bee n

calcu la ted a n d fo u n d to be the

, pa rt o f t erres tr i al
grav ity .

The co n cl u s io n from t he forego i n g es ti m at e i s th a t the

ea r th co u ld ro ta te w ithou t i t s s u r face m atter be i n g thro wn ,

b y t he ce n t ri fu gal force ge n era ted t hereby bey o n d i ts at ,

t rac ti o n as s u ch force w o u ld be t h e
, pa r t o f terres
trial gra v ity .

He n ce th at the sa m e res u l t w o u ld take pl ace w ith t h e

l ig h t heat ed v a p ors a n d gas es w h i ch obser vatio n o f the
,

s u n s ho ws as for m i n g the coro n a res u l ti n g perh aps at , , ,

leas t pa rtl y as an e ffect o f the ce n tri fu gal force ge n era

, ,

ted by the v eloc ity an d the cu r v e o f the orb it o f t h e s u n

, , .

3 . other obj ecti o n to the t heory o f th e s u n s r ev o l u

A n ,

ti o n abo u t the earth m ay be m ade w h ich w i ll be co n

, ,

s id e r e d i n a su bs eq u e n t p a r t o f t h e pres e n t s ec ti o n .

A s prel i m i n ary t he follo wi n g i s q u o ted fro m M Bi o t

, .
,

he says

Thes e phe n o m e n a ( n a m el y the ph as es o f the pla n et ,

Ve n u s ) re p res e n t Ve n u s as a k i n d o f m oo n re v ol v i n g
a rou n d t h e s u n a n d i ll u m i n a te d b y i t s l i gh t

, A l l o b s er .

v a t i o n s co n r m th i s fa c t

.

A s the p l a n et }M er cu r y r e vol v es abo u t t he s u n an d h as

ph as es the foregoi n g q u o t ed co n cl u s i o n th at V e n u s i s a
,

s a tell ite o f t h e s u n appl i e s as w ell t o Merc u ry .

A s satell ites o f t he s u n th a t pr i m a ry w o u ld carry t h e

orb i t s o f thes e pl an ets w it h it a bo u t the ear th d i d it s o r e
v ol v e as al l pl a n e ts h a v i n g s at ell ites n a m el y M ar s " u i
, p , ,

ter Satu r n U ra n u s an d N eptu n e carry the orb it s o f thei r

, , ,

res pec t i v e satell ites with t he m i n th e re vol u tio n s o f thes e

,

pl an ets a bou t t h e s u n a n d ear th .

Were the d ist an ces o f Ve n u s an d M ercu ry red u ced i n

6
82 I s t h e Cop er n i ca n Sy s tem f
o A s tr o n o m y Tr u e 9 .

p r opor t i o n t o the r ed u ced d i s ta n ce o f the s u n b y the ne w

m eas u r e m e n t n a m el y by u s i n g 9 3 as a d i v is o r o f the a s
, ,

t r o n o m i ca l d i s t a n ce s u ch d i s ta n ces w o u ld n o t p r ecl u de t h e
,

poss ib il i t y o f t h e s u n s o car r yi n g the o r b it s o f these t wo

pl a n ets .

O n s u ch s u ppos i t io n a l i t tle r eec ti o n w ill s ho w t h at a l l

,

the phe n o m en a obs er v ed i n co n n ecti o n w it h thes e pl an ets

w o u ld be t he s a m e ;
A n d t he m o r e r e a d il y w i ll th i s be pe r cei v e d w he n it i s
co n s i der ed t h at the e ar t h i s n o t i n cl u ded w ith i n t he o r bi ts o f
e ithe r Me r c u r y o r Ve n u s .

D i d t he s u n c ar r y t he o r b its o f t hes e pl a n e ts abo u t t h e

ear t h t h e y w o u ld m o v e w it h t h e v elocity o f the s u n
,
.

I n s u ch cas e a n o bje c t i o n m i gh t be m a de t h a t the i r

,

heat s ho u ld be t h at o f th e s u n ge n e r ated as th a t o f th e ,

s u n a cco r d i n g t o t h e m ec h a n i c a l theo r y o f he at
,
a n d th a t ,

obs er v atio n does n o t s h o w t he phe n o m e n o n o f h eat as oh

s er v e d o u t h e s u n .

I n t h e d i r ecti o n o f a n a n s w e r t o th is s u ppos ed o bje c

ti o n i t m ay be s ai d
.

We r e t w o glo b es o n e o f phos phor u s a n d t h e other o f

, ,

a s bes t o s fo r e x a m p le r e v ol v e d r a p i dly i n t h e a i r
, , the v e ,

l o c i t y w h i ch w o u ld i g n ite th e pho s pho r u s w o u ld s ca rcel y

heat t h e as bes tos glo b e at al l .

A n d o f w h a t m a tter t h e s e pl a n e ts a r e co n s tit u te d h e n ce ,

thei r com b u s t i b il ity o r abs e n ce o f t his q u al it y i s u n k n o wn

, , ,

a n d fo r t h i s r e as o n t h e a b s e n ce o f e v i de n ce o f t h e s a m e i n

te n sity o f h e at as t h at obse r v ed at t h e s u n i s n o t dec is i v e

t h a t t h e o r b its o f thes e pl a n ets a r e n o t ca r r i ed by the s u n
i n i ts re v ol u t i o n a bo u t t he e a r t h .

A ga i n w h i le the m at t e r co n s tit u t i n g thes e pl a n e ts h as

,

n o t t he a git at ed a ppear a n ce t h a t t h e m a t ter o f t h e s u n i s

obs e r v ed t o h a v e y e t thes e pl a n e t s a ppear as they m i gh t

,

w ere they i n ca n des ce n t Ve n u s be i n g t h e b r i gh t e s t objec t

,

i n the he a v e n s ex cep t t he s u n a n d M erc u r y n o t m u ch

, ,

l ess so
I
 Th e D i a m eter , Li g h t an d Hiea t of th e S u n . 83

A nd
the fact th at th ey h a ve p h ases fro m h i ch it i s w
in fe r red th a t they appea r by reected l igh t w o u ld n o t
d is pro v e the ass e r t i o n th at t hey m ay be i n ca n des ce n t as ,

an e ffec t o f t he i r m o ti o n t hro u gh a res is ti n g m ed i u m as a

res ul t o f t h e m ech a n i cal theo r y o f heat .

F o r w h i le t he s h ado ws res t ed o n the m w h i ch i s t he

ca us e o f the i r ph a s es t hes e po r tio n s o f t hei r s u rfaces
w o u ld be d a rker t h a n t hos e whe r e the s h a do w s w ere n o t .

Th is w o u ld be the res u l t o f the co n t ras t bet wee n a

greater a n d a less er i n te n s i t y o f l i gh t w he t her thes e pl an
e ts w ere n o r m all y b r i g h tl y i ll u m i n a t ed o r n o t .

Th at s u ch m i g h t be th e case m ay be i n ferred fro m th e

fac t th at w h i le t h e pl a n e ts a n d s t a r s a r e bri g h t bod i es a n d
s o m e o f t he m v e r y b r i gh t y e,
t t he y a re m a de b y t he ,

m o r e i n te n s el y br i gh t l i gh t o f the s u n s o d a rk as t o be t o
t all y i n v is i ble i n t h e d ay w i t h t h e e x cep tio n o f Ve n u s
, ,

w h i ch i s s o i n te n s el y b r i gh t t h a t w he n t he a i r i s v ery
clear it m ay s o m e t i m es be s ee n i n the d ay ti m e by the
, ,

n a ked ey e a n d u n d e r t h e s a m e co n d i t i o n s it w i ll cas t a
, ,

s h a do w a t n i gh t th u s s ho w i n g a g r e at er br i gh t n ess t h a n
,

an y o t he r bod i es i n t he he a v e n s e x cep t t h e s u n a n d m oo n .

D i d Ve n u s rece i v e i ts i n t e n s e l ig h t fro m t he s u n an d

it i s the ge n e r al opi n i o n th at i t does s o i t co u ld o n l y do
s o i n vi ol a t i o n o f a c a rd i n a l l a w go v e r n i n g t he i n ten s ity
o f l i gh t r a d i a ted o r ree c t ed o n a d ar k bod y w h i ch l a w
,

i s th at l i gh t i n creas es o r decr eas es as t h e s q u a re o f t he d i s

, ,

tan ce s epa r at i n g t h e l u m i n o u s fr o m the O paqu e bod y .

A cco r d i n g to as t ro n o m i cal e s ti m a te Ve n u s i s t h i r t y o n e
,
-

m i ll i o n s o f m i les fu r t he r fr o m t h e s u n t h a n i s M u r c u r y .

A s re s u l ts o f t h i s l a w a n d th is fa c t d i d Ve n us rece i v e
,

i ts l i gh t fr o m t h e s u n i t s h o u ld m a n i fes t t o u s les s l i gh t
,

th an does Merc u r y i n the proporti o n th at the s qu are o f

,

the d is tan ce o f Ve n u s fr o m the s u n i s gre ater th a n th at

o f Merc u ry .

B u t t he fac t i s th at V e n u s a t a g r eater d is tan ce fr o m

,
84 I s t h e Cop er n i ca n Sy s tem o f A s tr on o my Tr u e

th
e su n el y t h i rty o n e m i ll i o n s o f
n am m i les t h a n th a t
of Merc y ur i s t h e b r i gh te r
, .

The n as i ts m or e l u m i n i o u s a ppe ar a n ce is co n t ra d i c tor y

o f t h i s l a w it m u s t be s el f l u m i n o u s w h i ch i t
,
w o u ld h e
,

d i d the s u n car ry i t s orb it a bo u t t h e ea rth .

A s a n a n s w e r t o t h is arg u m e n t i t m a y be s a i d th at t h e
s q u a re o f Ve n u s g r e a te r d i s t a n ce fr o m t h e s u n t h an th a t

o f Me r c u r y i s a l s o t h e s q u a r e o f i t s le ss er d i s t a n ce fro m

the ea r th an d th at it i s j u s t as m u ch n ea r er the e ar t h
,

as it i s fu r t h e r fro m t he s u n a n d th at it i s th i s les s er d i s
,

t an ce fro m t h e e arth th at gi v es it a br i gh te r appeara n ce .

t h a n Merc u ry .

Th is co n cl u s i o n ho we v e r m u s t ass u m e th at V e n u s h as
, ,

t h e sa m e i n t e n s ity o f l i gh t t h r o w n u po n i t fro m t he s u n
a s Me r c u r y h as .

B u t th i s i s tak i n g fo r gr a n t ed th a t w h i ch t h e s q u a r es o f
the d istan ces be t w een Mer cu r y an d Ve n u s an d the s u n
proh ib its n a m el y t h a t t he i n te n s ity o f the l i gh t o f t h e
, ,

s u n i n bo th t he s e pl a n e ts w e r e t h e s a m e .

W e r e th i s t h e case th en the s o m e w h at b r i gh ter appe ar

,

a n ce o f V e n u s t h a n Merc u r y m i g h t r es u l t fr o m the e a rt h

bei n g n ea rer Ve n u s t h a n it i s t o Mercu r y b u t n o t o t her ,

w is e.

A s to the h ea t o f Merc u r y it i s t he co n cl u s i o n o f as
,

t r o n o m e r s th a t The hea t o f t h i s pl a n e t i s s o grea t t h a t

wa ter ca n n o t e x i s t t he r e e x cep t i n a s t a te o f v a p or a n d

m e tal s w o u ld be m e l ted

P a r l e r s P hi l

c
. .

Thes e fa c ts ar e a t t r i b u t ed t o t h e h ea t o f t h e s u n were
t h i s s o i ts l i gh t s ho u ld be p r opo r t i o n at el y i n t e n s e y e t i ts
, ,

l igh t i s les s t h a n t h at o f Ve n u s wh i ch i s m u ch fu r t her

,

fro m t he s u n t h a n i s Me r c u r y .

W hereas w e r e it r ega r d ed as a n i m m e n se m e t eor m o v

,

i n g w it h i ts o r b it a n d r e v ol v i n g w ith t h e s u n a b o u t t h e
e ar th i ts hea t m i g h t al s o t h u s be a cco u n ted fo r
, .

O n t he t r a n s i t o f Ve n u s a n d Me r c u r y t he y h a v e the
app ea r an ce o f d ar k b od i e s
, b ut t h i s m a
y re s u l t fro m t h e
 The Di a m eter Lig ht ,
an d Hea t of the Su n . 85

m or e i te se l i gh t an d he t o f the n gi v i g them th is
n n a su n

a pp ea ra ce d doe no t pro v e t h t t hey

an e p s cold s n a ar er e

a d d rk bod i es
n a .

Fo l i ke reas o w c
r a ot t h e pl e ts d s ta r i
n, e an n s ee an an s n

d y l i gh t
a m el y bec s e f t he m
,
na i te se l i gh t o f the
,
au o or e n n

s un .

Inrega rd to Ve n us w e a r e told b y as tro n o m ers th at ,

The he at a n d l i gh t at Ve n u s ar e n earl y do u ble wh at t hey

ar e a t t he e a r t h A n d ag a i n S po ts a r e al s o s o m eti m es

.
,

s ee n o n i ts s u r fa ce l i ke t ho s e o f t he s u n

P a r /cer s P h i l

. .

A s reas o n a bl y e x pl a n a t ory o f t he s e phe n o m e n a w e m ay ,

s ay t h a t M Fay e o f P a r i s a n d F a t her S ecch i

.
, o f R om e , , ,

m ad e ca re fu l obs er vati o n o f t h e phe n o m e n a m a n i fes t ed at

the su n an d s pea k at grea t le n g t h a n d m i n u te n ess o f the
,

a mes the i n ca n des ce n ce t h e v er t i cal m otio n s the d as h

, , ,

i n g b i llo ws o f i n am ed m a tt e r t he W h i rl p ool s i n t he c u r ,

re n t s o f l iq u i d r e t here obs er ved o n t h e e n ti re appa re n t

s u r fa ce o f t h e s u n .

Father Secch i say s These W h i rlpool s co n s ti tu te the ,

1
F y e y The w hi lp ls o f the s e l i ke t h os e

M . a sa s, r oo u n ar

o f t he e r t h o f al l d i m e i o from t h e s c rcel y i i bl e

a ns ns a v s

pore to t h e m ms p t w h i che w s ee
or f o m t i m e
ou s s t o s e r o

ti m e .

The po t the o the s s, W h i rlpool o f l i q i d e

n, n s u n ar e s u r ,

W he it i t co ide ed t h t Ve
n h s th
ns
p pe r r ce a n us a e a a an

i t w o ld h e w ere it i
u av de ce t th t by e ti m ti o i t s n ca n s n a s a n

h t i do ble th t t the e t h th t it is br igh t er th

ea s u a .
a ar a an

Merc ry w h i ch i s o m ch e r the
u , th s Ve ; u n ar e su n an n us

th t Ve h a pot s l i ke t ho e o f the
a n us s
"
s ; t h t t h s su n

a e

s po ts o f t h ge e t ed by the m o t i te e he t
e su n ar e n ra s n ns a

tak i g l l the e f ct i to co i d e ti o w o ld they o t

n a s a s n ns ra n , u n

a mo t to o m e e i de ce t h t t he e phe o m e m y e
un s v n a s n na a r

s l t f o m the m ech
u r i c l t heo y o f he t c ed by the an a r a , aus

m o ti o o f Ve n wit h t h i re vol v i g bo t t h e
n us e sun n n a u

ear t h ?
86 I s th e Cop er n i c a n Sy s tem f
o A s t r o n o my Tr ue 9 .

W h ile it h as be e n sh o w n i n t h is ch a p ter t h a t t h e h ea t
o f the s u n w i t h i ts red u ced d i s t a n ce a n d b u lk
,
w o u ld b e ,

th e sa m e as before s u ch redu cti o n s it m ay y et be obj ec t ed

,

th at the m eas u re o f s u ch heat is n o t t h at d u e i f ge n erat ed

by t h e m ech an i cal theory .

A ccord i n g to th is theory a bod y m o v i n g t hro u gh the

,

ai r 1 2 5 fee t i n a s eco n d ge n er a t es o n e degr ee o f hea t as ,

befor e stated .

Th e s u n accord i n g t o t he theory o f i ts m o t i o n w o u ld

, ,

h av e a v elocity i n rou n d n u m be r s o f 69 m i l es i n a s ec
o n d w h i ch i s eq u i v ale n t t o
,
fee t i n a s eco n d Th i s .

d i v i ded b y 1 2 5 i s equ a l t o 2 9 1 4 the s qu are o f w h i ch i s

,

w h i ch a r e t h e deg r ees o f he a t a t the s u n t h at .

i s i f the e t her h as the den s i t y o f t h e a i r

,
.

W h at portion o f th i s heat w o u ld co m e t o the ear th can

n o t be k n o w n fo r it i s co n ceded b y as t ro n o m ers t h a t a
,

v ery l a rge b u t n o t acc u r a t el y k n o w n por t i o n o f t h e s u n s

, ,

heat i s absorbed by i ts atm osphere .

L a P l ace e s ti m at es th i s t o be as m u ch as ele v e n t w el ft h s -

o f th e w hole .

W h at por ti o n o f it ceas es to e xi s t i n s p ace b y t he fr i c

ti on w h ich w h i le it cau ses heat e ve n t u al l y s t ops m oti on
o f t he m olecu les o f the eth er ca u sed by t hei r r u bbi n g
, ,

aga i n s t e a ch o t her th u s s topp i n g t he i r v i b r at io n s

,
w h i ch
v i br a ti o n i s he a t ca n n ot be k n o w n .

A g a i n t here i s n o m e a n s o f k n o w i n g th a t t he e ther
, ,

thro u gh wh i ch the s u n i s herei n s u p pos ed to m o ve i s as ,

de n se as o u r at m osphere o r n o t .

S ho u ld it n o t be the r ati o o f t h e r i s e o f te m per a t u re o f

,

b od i es p ass i n g t hro u gh the a i r n a m el y o n e degree per

, ,

s eco n d fo r e v er y 1 2 5 fee t o f d i s ta n ce w o u ld be n o g ui de ,

o r cr i ter i o n b y w h i ch the i n te n s ity o f the he at o f the s u n

rece i v ed at t he ear th co u ld be es t i m ated .

,

Father Secch i o f R o m e w h o is reg a rded as an au
,

t h o r i t y i n ph i lo s oph i c a l qu e s t i o n s es ti m a t ed the heat at

t h e s u n to be sev er al m ill i o n s o f degrees w h i ch ap p r o x i ,
 The Di a m eter Lig h t, an d Hea t of t he Su n . 87

m at ely co r m the e t i m te here m de ccord i g to

n s s a a ,
a n th e
m ech i cal theory o f he t w ere the ether o f t h
an a ,
e sam e
de s i t y
n t he i
as a r .

In o cl u d i n g the co n s i derati o n o f t h e s o u rce o f th e

c n

s u n s he at it m ay be sa i d t h a t n e i t he r t h e co n t ra c t i o n a n d

,

cool i n g theory here i n be fore d i s c u ssed n o r a n y o the r as t o,

the so u rce o f t h e s u n s h ea t r ega rded by scie n tis ts as

p h i IO SO p h i c w i ll r a ti o n all y a cco u n t fo r t he ery

p h e n em

e n a obse r v ed o n t h e s u n .

2 The i g n iti o n o f m e teor s a bo v e t h e pos s i bl e l i m i ts o f

.

t h e at m os p he r e ; t h e d i m i n u t io n o f t h e v eloc iti es o f
com ets as they proceed i n t he di r ect i o n o f the s u n an d ,

th ei r d i lati o n as they recede fro m s u ch d i rect i o n the

co m press i o n a n d d i l ati o n as t hey t h u s p r oceed a n d recede
O f thei r n e u cl ei pro v e t w o fac ts n am el y Fi r s t Th at a
, , ,

r es is t i n g m ed i u m occ u p i es s pa ce a n d S eco n d , Th a t a body ,

rapi dl y m o vi n g i n s u ch m e d i u m i s t hereby i g n ited .

3 Th at the t heo r y o f t h e m o t i o n o f t h e s u n i n t h i s m e
.

d iu m w it h t h e v eloc i t y he r e i n as s i g n ed t o t h a t l u m i n ar y ,

w i ll su ffi c i e n tl y a cco u n t fo r i t s appea r a n ce o f i g n iti o n a n d ,

r at i o n ally e x pl ai n the phe n o m e n a obs er v ed .

4 A s n o o ther th eo r y b u t t h e s u n s m o ti o n i n s u ch r e

.

s i sti n g m e d i u m w i ll e x pl a i n t he phe n o m e n a ob s er v e d a n d ,

the the o ry here i n m ai n t ai n ed w i ll t h is a m o u n t s t o e vi

,

de n ce p er se t h at it does so m o v e .
88 I s th e C op er n i ca n Sy stem o f A str on o my ue 9 .

C HA P
TE R I V .

DO ES T H E E A R TH RO TA T E ?
SE CTI O N I .

M Bi ot w o o f t h m o t ble
. as l o o e o f the
ne e s a , as a s n

m os t d i ti g i h d o f m oder
s n t o ome s
u s e ,
n as r n r .

His w ork e titled E l e m t s o f A t ro o m y co ti e

n ,

en s n ,

n nu s

t o be a te xt bo o k i college -
n s .

I t h t w o rk h e p e e t s t he e vi de ce
n a d the g r s n n an ar u

m e t o w h i ch as t ro o m r rel y i proo f o f t he C o p
n n i n e s n er n

ca n sy s te m o f t r o o m y as n .

A ecess r y p t o f h i s y te m Co pe i c m i tai s
s a n a ar s s , rn us a n n

th t t he e th ot t s
a ar r a e .

The fo l l o wi g co tit te the e vi de ce o f ch o ta ti o

n ns u s n su r n,

na m el y
1 The v el o c ity o f t he be ts o f the pe d l m i s d i m i
. a n u u n

is h d t t he eq to r
e a ua .

2 The e a t h b lge o is p o t be
. r t i t he eg i o o f
u s, r r u r an ,
n r n

t he eq to d tte e d t t he poles
ua r , an a n a .

3 The f c t t h t gr vity
. a gm e t o proceed i g from
a a au n s, n n

t he eq to r i t he d i rec ti o o f t h pol es
ua ,
n n e .

4 Th e f c t t h t bod i e f o m g e t he i gh ts f l l
. a a st of s, r r a , a ea

a erti c l l i e
v a n .

5 The phero i d l fo m f the p l

. s ets J piter M r a r o an u , a s

a d S t r
n o i m il r t
a u th t f t h e r th co tit te e vi
n, s s a o a o e a , ns u s

de ce fro m logy o f the rot ti o f t h e rth

n ,
an a , a n o e a .

6 C o i der i g t h d i t ce
. ns d m g it d o f the
n e s an an a n u e sun ,

th rg m e t tiv e d d cti o i m d th t it i m ore i m

e a u n a e u n s a e a s

s

ple to ppo e th t t h e r th ro t te th t h t the

su s

a e a a s, an a su n

r ev o l v e bo t it s a u .

A s t o om e s m ai tai n th at t he fo
r n r e u m e ted facts n ur n ra
 Does the Ea r th R o ta te 9
. 89

r s t m e n ti o d c d b y c t if g l fo e d the ce
ne ar e a u se en r u a rc , an n

ded ce the co cl i o th t the rot t io f t h e th ge e

u n us n a a n o e ar n r

atw c h fo ce
su r .

O the h y po th e i t h t t he ce t i f g l fo rce d i m i i h
n s s a n r u a n s es

g ra vity t h e x i
,
t e ce f tehe e f c t m o t
s t o p i
n m f i o s a s a un r a ac e

e vi de ce f ch o t ti o b t t hey do t co tit te
n o su r a n, u no ns u co n

l i
c us v e e vi de c f it f the re o th t the m ere e xi t
n e o , or as n a s

e ce f the e f ct d o t ce i l y p ecl de the po i

n o s a s no ne s s ar r u ss

b i l i t y f t he i r b i g the re l t f c
o e i depe de t o f
e n su o aus s n n n

su ch o t ti o r a n .

Th t ch c e e xi t w i ll be tt m p ted to be h o w
a su a us s s ,
a e s n

i t he
n b q t ec ti o f t h pr t ch pt r
su se u en s ns o e es e n a e

.

The e ti m t d d i t c s d m g it de f t he
a e s ani e , an a n u o su n n

c om p ri o w it h t h m g it d f t he rth i eg rd ed
a s n e a n u e o ea s r a

b y t ro o m er
as n rg m e t beh l f f t h th o ry f
s as a n a u n on a o e e o

t he ro t ti o f the e r t h v e
a n o f g r t r fo ce th t he
a , e n o ea e r an

fo ego i g e m r ted f c t
r n nu e a a s .

The fo r e f th i rg m t m y be co ectl y e ti m ted

c o s a u en a rr s a

by h e d r ft r per l f t h
t e r a e co d ch pt r
a e usa o e se n a e ,

w her i t he m e t hod f t h
e n me r m e t f the d i t ce o e as u e n o s an

o f the i e pl i ed
su n d w h reb y i t
s x tr e
a n d di ,
an e

s u an

m i i hed n s d i t c h bee fo d s an e as n un .

SECT IO N I I THE CA U S E O F A S LO W E R B EA T O F TH E
.

P E N DULU M A T TH E E Q U A TO R C O N S I D E R E D , .

it ph i los oph i cal to fe i g n a h y po thes i s n a m el y the

Is , ,

ce n tr i fu g al forc e t o a cco u n t fo r a s lo w e r b eat o f t he p e n

,

d u l u m at t h e eq u a tor th a n el s e w here w h e n th ere e xis t , ,

t w o k n o w n ca u ses fo r t h i s bo t h o f w h i ch a c t o n t he p e n ,

d u l u m i n d i m i n u ti o n o f gra vity
I n d ee d th es e cau ses n ece ssar i l y act o n e v e ry pa r ti cle o f
,

m atte r t h e re a n d w i t h g rea te r force i n d i m i n u ti o n o f

,

g r av ity t h an at a n
y o t her p a r t o f t he ear t h s s u r fa ce

.
90 I s th e Cop e i
r n ca n Sy s te m f
o A s tr o n o my Tr u e ?

Fo r e x a m ple the ear th i s a s phero i d At t he e q u ato r

, .

i ts rad iu s i s a b o u t 1 3 2 m i l es l o n ge r t h a n at t he p o l es ,

G ra vity d i m i n i s hes o r i n cr e ases as the r ati o o f t h e d i s

ta n ce.

A s the d i s tan ce fr o m the e q u at or t o the ear t h s ce n tr e

i s t he g re at es t accor d i n g t o t h i s l a w a l l b od i es m u s t h a v e
,

less g ra vity at the eq uato r th a n at the po les an d as a co n ,

s eq u e n ce t he pe n d u l u m at t h e eq u at o r s h o u ld bea t s lo we r ,

as i t s g r a vity i s les s t h a n i n t h e d i rec ti o n o f t h e p oles .

A gai n a cau se fo r a s lo wer beat o f a pe n d u l u m at t he

,

eq u ator m ay be ded u ced fro m the fac t th at as the eq u ator

i s 1 3 2 m i l es fu r t he r fr o m t h e ce n t r e o f the ear t h th an ar e
t he po es it wo u ld follo w as a res u l t o f th at fac t t h at the
l
, ,

eq u ator is 1 3 % m i l es n earer to s u ch celes ti al bod ies as ar e

co n s ta n tl y o v er t he eq u ato r as al s o su ch as n e ver d iv er ge
,

a t a n y g r e a t a n gle fr o m t h e v e r ti ca l l i n e o v e r it .

Th e s u n i s n e v e r a t a great er a n gle t o s u ch l i n e t h a n
n o r the m oo n at a g r e a te r a n gle t h an 2 9 t

Th e great e r n u m be r o f t he h i g h h os t o f s ta r s a r e al so

w it h i n t h es e r a n ges .

Th e a tt ra c ti o n s o f t h e s u n an d m oo n o n t he ear t h a r e
g re a t es t w it h i n t he e q u a t o r i a l r e g i o n .

Th i s i s pr o v ed b y t h e fa c t th a t the ti des ar e h i ghest

there Th e n t hese att ra cti o n s m us t act i n d i m i n u ti o n o f
.

o f g r av ity t h er e to a gr ea ter deg r e e t h a n el s e w h e re o n t he

ea rth .

I n order to i ll u s t rat e t he l a w go v er n i n g t he a t t rac ti o n

o f t he s u n w h i ch l a w i s c o m m o n to t he att ra c ti o n s o f al l

bod i es at the eq u ato r a n d e l s ew her e o n t he ear th a n d ,

t h e effec t o f t h i s l aw we q u o t e fro m a s ta n d a rd a u t h o r ity

,

o n P h y s i cs as fo ll o ws i l l u s t ra ti n g t he ti des :
, ,

The po i n t o f t he ear th s s u rfa ce wh i ch i s n eares t t h e

s u n w i l l g ra vi t a t e t o wa r d s it m ore a n d t h e r e m o t e r p a r ts

less th a n t he ce n tr e i n v er s e l y as the sq uare o f the ir r e

s p e c t i v e d i s t a n ce s. The po i n t A ( ver ti cal l y u n der t h e

s u n at t he e q u ato r ) at the e a r t h s s u r face t he r e fo re te n ds

, ,
 Do es th e Ea r t h R o ta te .
9 91

aw ay o the ce tre d i ch c e the i d rf ce

fr m n , an n su as u su a

m t r i e Th i e ff c t m t be d i m i i s h d i propor ti o
us s . s e us n e n n

to the d i ta c fro m t h po i t A i
s n y ed i rec ti o d t e n n an n , an a

the N or th d So th po l f t he e r t h 90 d i t t it
an u es o a

s an

ce e as s .

Th i q ot ti o t bl i he t w o f ct
s u a m lyn es a s s a s, n a e

Fi t Th t t the po i t f t h e r th
rs a a r f ce res t n o e a

s su a n ea

the s t h tt r cti o f th t bo d y
un e a m tt r a t he e rt h s
n o a on a e on a

s r f ce i g re t
u a t s a es .

Seco d Th t ch ttr cti o d i m i i h i proporti o
n a su a a n n s es n n

t o t he d i t c fro m ch po i t
s an e su n .

Tw o ca f lo w er b t o f t h p d l m t t h
u ses or a s ea e en u u a e

eq tor h v b
ua ho w i t h i
a e t io m ly
een s n n s se c n, na e

1 G r vity w o ld b d i m i i h d t h r b c
. a u e the d i e n s e e e, e au s s

t ance to t h e ar t h c t r i g t e t t here
e

s en e s r ea s .

2 The tt r c ti o i g r t r t h r i d i m i ti o

. su n s a a n s ea e e e n nu n

o f g r vity t h a l wh r t h e r th
an e se e e on e a .

D id o t t h c n m ti o d em ly 1 d 2 dim i
au s es en ne , na e ,
an , n

i h t he g r vity o f t h p d l m t t h
s a
q t or d t h e en u u a e e ua an us

c a us e it t b t lo w r t he e o it i ob r v ed to do it
ea s e r , as s se ,

w o ld be u i x p l i c ble o m l l y
an ne a an a .

I f o t h o th r h d th
,
n e c f c i t t o
e an , ese au s es a r e s u en ao

c t f the lo w er b t f t h p d l m t here c h
ou n or s ea o e en u u , su

s lo wer be t i e vi d ce o f the ro t ti o o f the e r t h

a s no en a n a ,
as

it i i d t o be
s sa .

SECT IO N I I I THE T H E P RO TU E RA NCE O F
. CA US E OF B

TH E E A R TH A T TH E E Q U A TO R CO NS I D R ED , E .

The pro t b r c or b l g f t h e rth t t h eq to r

u e an e u e o e a a e ua

i s by , t ro o m r ttr i b t d t o t h c t i f g l for e g
as n e s, a u e e en r u a c en

c t d b y t h ro t ti o f t h
ra e rt h e a n o e ea .

B ec by r o o f t he g r t r d i t c o f t h e q t o
au s e , e as n ea e s an e e ua r

f o m the
r i o f t h e rt h t h i force w o l d be gre te
ax s e a , s u a r

t he e t h a el s ew he e o t he
r nr th r n ea .
92 I s the C p er o i
n ca n Sy s tem o
f A s t r o n o my Tr u e 9
.

It ct ph i l oso p h i c ll y dete m i ed b y geologi t

is a fa , a r n s s

a d co ced d b y s c i e ti s t ge er ll y t h a t t he e r th
n n e n w ass n a , a ,

at o n per i od i the i co ceiv bl y d i sta t pas t i

e n n h ot
n a n ,
n a ,

u i d co d iti o n n .

M Bi o t i Sec 1 1 4 o f h i w o k s y It ppe rs from

.
, n . s r ,
a s,

a a

a gr t m be o f fac ts i t r l h i to ry th t th i t te
ea nu r n na u a s a s s a

h a e ll y e xi s t ed a d th t t he e r t h w
s r a , o ce i d
n a a as n a u .

A d t h t s it co ol d s lo w l y i the lo g l p e o f ges
n a a e n n a s a

, ,

a o l i d cr
s t o w c o s tit ti g t he s
us n f ce o f t h ea r t h
n u n ur a e

w as the by fo m ed re r .

Wit h t h e x cep ti o o f th i cr st e vi de ce e xi t j ti fy
e n s u n s s us

,

i g t he O p i i o
n ge er lly t r t i ed by s c i ti ts t h t
n n n a en e a n en s a

t h t t he e r t h e m i
a a i t h i ho t co d iti o
r a ns n s n n .

D i d t he e th o tate ar d w re t he m tte co tit ti g

r , an e a r ns u n

it o ce i d o r e v e i
n a u pl ti c t te the b l ge f t h
,
n n a as s a , u o e

e ar t h o d the eq t o r m i gh t po i bl y b e t h r l t o f
ar un ua ss e e su

t he ce tr i f g l fo ce ge er ted by ch o t ti o bec s e
n u a r n a su r a n , au

ce t i f g l force ch g t he d i rectio o f g vity as x

n r u a an es n ra , e

p eri m t pro v
en e s .

The f ct t h t th i s b l g xi t t the eq to r d o
a a u t
e e s s a ua es no

p e s
r p roe v e it t o be c ed b y t he ce t i f g l force
aus fo r n r u a

t h e r e so t h at a n othe fo c h l w y c ted s tro gl y

an r r e as a a s a n on

t h e e rth at t he eq u t o,
a i e t i t o f gr vity S ch a r, n r s ra n a . u

fo ce c ts t he e wit h gre ter e rgy t h

r a r else w h re t the a ne an e a

earth s r f ce j t s t h ce t i f g l fo rce w o ld

s u a , us a e n r u a u .

I it eq l the e to th t c t ri f g l fo ce t o t h
S ua r ctioa en u a r , e a n

o f w h i ch ch b lge i tt ri b t d b y t o o m r ?
su u s a u e as r n e s

B fo e tte m p ti g to c rt i the e xte t o f t h i s po we

e r a n as e a n n r,

co ter cti g g vi t y it m y b per ti e t to r m rk

un a n ra , a e n n e a , en

p a ssa n t t h t t he
, r o t ti o
a f t he r t h e v e i a t he e t i
n om ea , n n s a

t i o o f s t ro o m e
n a i b t th n y he ce
r s, it belo s g t
u he a eo r , n n s, r a r,

t o t h do m i o f r ti o l i ti c log i c o to y th t t h at
e a n a na s , s sa , an o

h i gh r d i d bit bl logi c c l l d dem o tr ti o

e an n u a e a e ns a n .

He c it S h o ld o t b forgo tt by t he re der th t to
n e, u n e en a a

o
d u b t t he t e a b i l it y o f t hni t he o r y t h i s S pec u l ti o d o es s a n
 D oes t h e E a r th R o t a te 93

n ot i n v o l v e the abs u rd ity o f q u es ti o n i n g the tru t h o f a

m at he m a ti ca l de m o n s t ra ti o n .

Th at the attracti o n s o f th e cel es ti a l bod i es w ere ac ti n g

for ces at t he eq u a to r a n d w e re s u ch as w ou ld b e ca lc u l a ted
to s w el l t he e a r t h y m atter t here w h e n i n a u i d s t ate to
, ,

the for m o f a pro t u be r a n ce m ay b e ra ti o n a ll y i n ferred

,

fro m the follo w i n g fa c ts a n d d e d u c ti o n s fr o m t he m

, ,

n a m el y

1 Th e c e les ti a l a tt ra c ti o n s d o co u n ter ac t gra vity n o ta

.
,

bl y t h e attracti o n s o f t h e s u n a n d m oo n Th is fac t i s .

pr o v ed by the e xis te n ce o f the ti des w h ich it i s u n iv er , ,

s a l l y a d m itte d a r e c a u se d by t h e at t r a c ti o n o f t he s u n a n d
,

m oo n w h er e by t h e gr a vity o f t h e w ate r s o f t h e o ce an s a r e
,

par tl y o v e rco m e .

2 Th a t the c e les t i a l a t t r ac ti o n i s g r e ate r a t the equ a to r

.
,

is S h o w n b y t h e q u o ta t i o n fro m N a tu ra l P h i l os oph y

,

m ade i n t h e l as t pr e ced i n g s e c t i o n .

It al s o a ppea rs i n th at q u o ta ti o n t h at the a tt ra cti o n o f

, ,

the su n d i m i n i s h es i n proporti o n t o o u r recess io n fro m t he

e u a to r i n a n d i r c ti o
q , y e .n

Thes e i n s tan ces a r e s uf c ie n t to pro v e

1 Th a t t he a tt r a c ti o n s o f the c e l es ti a l bod i es d o co u n
.

t e r ac t the force o f g ra vity .

2 Th a t s u ch a tt r a c ti o n a n d co n s e q u e n t force co u n te r
.
,

ac ti n g gr a vity i s g r e a t e r a t t h e e q u a t or t h a n el s e whe r e o n
,

t he ea rt h .

3 Th a t s u ch a ttr ac ti o n d i m i n i s h es i n propor ti o n t o t he
.

d ista n ce w e re ced e fr o m t h e eq u ator .

W h at th e n is t h e a m o u n t o f t h e cel es ti al att ra cti o n the

m e as u re o f i t s e n e r gy s o fa r as s u ch i s e x e r t e d o n the
b u lg e o f the ea r t h a t t h e e q u a t or i n oppo s iti o n t o g ra vity ?
I n ord e r t o m a k e a n a ppro xi m at e es t i m a te o f t h e e x t e n t
o f t h i s s o a c ti n g s u p po se t h e re a r e t w o s ph e r e s e a ch h a v
, , ,

i n g a d i a m e t e r o f 7 9 1 2 m i l es s u c h be i n g t h e m e a n d i a m
,

e ter o f t he e a r th a t t h i s l at it u d e be i n g a bo u t m i d w a
y
b etwixt th e equ ator an d th e p ol es of t he ear th .
94 I s th e Cp o er n ca n i Sy s tem f
o A s t r o n o my Tr u e 9 .

pSo e
up ol i d r i s g f ma s tt r 1 3 1 m i l i n t h i ck o a e 5 *
es n n ess

to b l i p p ed o v r t h
e s f c f e f th S ph r
e su r a e o on e o ese e es , co

i ci d t w ith t h l i o f i t c i rc m f r c
n en e S ppo t h i
ne s u e en e . u se s

r i g to S lop fro m t h c i c m f r ce l i g r d ally N ort h

n e e r u e en n e, a u

an d So t h t h b lg
u ,
f th
as r th lop e u e o e ea s es .

Th i l tt r bod y w o ld t h f i rl y repr t the p h

s a e u en a es e n S e

ro i d o f t h r t h d i t d i m t r t t h q tor
e ea ,
an s a e e a e e ua .

Th c l ti l tt r c ti o
e e es pri cip ll y f t h
a a a nsd n a o e su n an

m oo x rt d
n t h i r i g or pro t b r c m y be t
e e e on s n , u e an e, a , a

l s t ppro xi m t l y ti m t d follo w
ea a a e ,
es a e as s

Th r d i f th
e a rth t t h q tor i 3 96 3 m i l
us o e ea a e e ua s es ,

an d i t d i m t r t h r i i co r
s a e e 7 926 m i l s e e If th s, n u se , e . e

l gth o f t h i r di l l i
en m l v 396 3 be d ivi d d b y t he
s a a n e, n a e e

th i c k f th b lg
n es s o t th q t ore mu l y b y
e a 1 3 % it e e ua ,
na e

w i ll b fo d th t t h l tt r m b r i co t i d i t h
e un a e ,
a e n u e s n a ne n e

for m 2 8 8 1 ti m
er y i ro d m b r
es , sa 2 8 8 t i m ,
n un nu e s es .

A d i co r n co v r l y i f 2 8 8 b m l ti pl i d by 1 3 5}
n u se , n e se ,
e u e

th r di e f t h bod y h vi g t h i r i g
a us o e pro t b r ce a n s n or u e an

w i ll be t h t f t h r d i a f th
o r t h t t h eq to r
e a us o e ea a e ua ,

na m l y 396 3 m i l
e i f t h o m i t t d fr c ti o es , b dd d e e a ns e a e .

A th b l g i r s e th r di
u e t t he
n c e as es
q t or 1 3 % e a us a e ua

m il it w o ld i c
es , t h di m t
u nt w ic th ir e as e mb r e a e er e s nu e ,

na m l y 27 % m il e , es .

I f th th q t
enor i l d i m t r
e e o f t
uah r t h ma l y a e e e ea ,
na e ,

7 9 2 6 b d i vi d d b y 2 7 % t h q o ti t w i l l b fo
e e d to be e u en e un

28 8 d , fr c ti o
an a a n .

A th tt r ct io
S

f S ph
e a f th
a m ns o d ity e r es , o e sa e ens ,
ar e

as th i r d i m t re d a th e e s,
q t i l d i
m t
an r o f t h as e e u a or a a e e e

s p h r ch
e e g d t p h ro
an i d b y t h
e b l g i
o a s t h p r t e e u e
s e a

g r t r th th t f t h o the ph r w ho d i m t r i
ea e an .
a o e r s e e, se a e e s

su ppo d t b t ke t t h 4 5 t h p ll l t h i
se o e a n a of e ar a e ,
s exc ess

Th i i f hs e st hi k f h b
m ate t b t c b i l t ulg e m ay not t, ut s at e as t
cl p i i i i d bi il
o e n e ss o e e e xa
b
c

m h
t to t, it e e n est m ate b me 13 m
h ck b h % i dii f h h hv b
a o se a p r o x a on as as y so as e ng es
t i ot M 13 h m l es e as u r e m e n t s o ft t ea r t
d di ff l i d d h b f d
, y e r s, . e ra o e a e ee n
ma e at er e n t at t u e s, f h t he m e as u r e m e n t s
exact t
dif c l d h di ff d by
an o e e
-
ave e en o un
ve r u t, an t ese f d
e r e n t m ea s u r e m e n t s, m a e ast r o n o m e r s, ar e o un
to i tt e r fr o m eac h ot h er .
 Does th e E a r th R t t
o a e 9 . 95

eq u at o ri l d i m eter m l y th t f t h b l g m t h v e
a a ,
na e , a o e u e, us a

i n exc f ttr c ti o
ess o t th
a q at o o v r t h t e x n r,
t d a e e ua r, e a e e

a t th q
e e t or fuat he ph e oh v i g t h d i m e t s f 7 9 1
er 2 a n e a er o ,

an d h vi g a b l ge
n no u .

The b l ge o r prot ber ce f the e r t h t t h e q t o

u u an o a a e ua r

t he e x t the p r t m
n er s f t he ttr c ti o n a f gr vit or e o a a o a a

t i o th
n w o ld b e x ert ed t t he eq
an u e t or f the e rt h d i d a ua o a

it t h v e y b lg
no a an u e .

W he it i co i d red th t tt r c ti o b t wee b o d i e
n s ns e a a a n e n s

ar e eq l d reci pro c l p t t it w i ll foll o w th t the

ua an a ro an o a

cel e ti l ttr cti o e x e t d th i b lg w i l l be the

s a a a ns r e on s u e

p t f the ttr ti o th y w o ld e x er t t h whole e rt h

ar o a ac n e u on e a

d i d it t h e ch b l g
no av su u e .

By t he m e proce sa f m the m ti c l d d c ti o ss o th t a a a e u n as a

w h i ch d t h t t h n s tt r c t i o f ph r
a e a t hei r d ia n o s e e s a r e as

a m t the d i i f ch d i ff r t d i m e t er w i ll l o
e er s , ra o su e en a s a s

S h o w t h co m p r tiv gr vity t t h q t
e a a e f e ch f a , a e e u a or , o a o

su ch t w S phere o s .

He ce n the r d i
,
as f th r t h t t h q t i the
a us o e ea a e e u a or s

p t gr te th th t f the S phere w ho e d i m t r i
ar ea r an a o s a e e s

su p p o d t be t k t
se o i t w o ld
a en a m t o follo w t h t u see a

t h b l ge f t h e r t h t t h e q
e u o e to S ho ld ppro xi m te
a a e ua r u a a

l y e p re e t t h
r s n p t f t re tr i l gr vity
e ar o er s a a .

L t e w e q i
us n o h w t h i cele ti l t t r c ti o
n u re x r ted
o s s a a a n e e

a t t he eq t or c o m p r
ua w it h t h c t i f g l fo ce p
a es e en r u a r su

po ed to b ex rt d there
s e e e .

O thn m p ti o
e as s u f t h t r t h f the h y po th e i t h t
n o e u o s s a

the e th ro t t
ar d t h t t h c t r i f g l forc d i m i i h
a es , a n a e en u a e n s es

terre tr i l gr vity tro o m

s a a h v e m th m ti c ll y d t r
, as n ers a a e a a e e

m i ed t h r t i o f t h i c
n e a o f t h i fo rc p eropor t ino t r e ase o s e na e

to y g i
an i crve n i t h v loc i ty f t h
n eas e th n ro t e e o e ea r

s a

ti o n , l o t h ff t f ch i c
as a s e e d l oc it y
ec s o th su n r e ase ve on e

m tt er f t h
a o th e ea r .

I n cco rd c w i t h h c lc l ti o t h y d
a an e sucd a u a n e n ,
an as

s e r t t h t d i d t he
, a t h o t te 1 7 ti m e f tear t h i t pr r a s as e r an s es
96 I s th e Cop er n i ca n S y s t em o
f A s tr o n o my Tr u e 9 .

en t erted v loc ity t h ce tr i f g l fo ce ge er ted

ass e , e n u a r n a

ther by w o ld be t h t o f 1 7 l 7 q l 2 8 9
e u a x e ua s .

Th y the ce d d c the co cl i o th t ce t r i f g l
e n e u e n us n a n u a

fo ce w o ld
r q
u l t rr t

r i
e l g
ua r vity e d es o o as a ,
an as a ns

q uen c e bod i,
t t h q t
es aor w o ld w i
e e g h t h i
ua g u e no n .

Fro m th i c lc l ti o it follo w t h t t h pre t v loc ity

s a u a n s a e se n e ,

g iv en t he e r t h m t ga er t , c t
usr i f g l f o ence t t h e
a e a en u a r a

eq tor q l to t h
ua e ua p t f t rr t r i
e l g r vity ar o e es a a .

B t u as
b fore ho w t h c l ti l tt r cti o x erted
e s n e e es a a a n e

o n t he q tor i l eq l t o bo t t h
e ua s a so p r t o f terres
ua a u e a

t r i l g r vity I t i t h
a a .
q l t o t he s c t r i f g l
en e u a fo rce en u a .

W he it i co i d r d t h t ther i
n s ns e e o m t h m ti c l a e s n a e a a

dem o tr ti o ns af th rth ro t ti o
n o e t h t t heea is

s a n a re

n o di c t or po iti proo f f it th t there i o

re , s ve o a s n

s en s i bl vi d c f it fo
e e en M Bi o t o b er v e i S p k
e o ,
r as . s s n ea

i g o f t h h y p oth
n e of t h d i r l m o ti o o f the cel s
es e s e u na n e

ti l bod i o r t h t o f t h
a es rt h th t p pe r ces t he m
a e ea , a

a a an

el v pr t b ol t l y o t h i g by w h i ch it c be de
s es es e n a s u e n n an

c i d d w h i ch f t h t w h y po the i t r
e o e o s es s ue .

A d wh n it i f r t her co i d r d th t t he ch i f e vi
en s u ns e e a e

de ce o f ch o t ti o i th t f r i h d by t he
n su r a n s t if a u n s e cen r u

g al f orc d b y
e an l o g y f ro m w h i ch
an a d d c t iv e , i f e a e u n r

en ce i dr w th t the t h ro t te i s it ph i lo oph i cal t o

s a n a ea r a s, s

a cco t fo t h b lg o f the e r th t h eff c t f the

un r e u e a as e e o ce n

t i f g l fo rc
r u a wh it m y b r ti o ll y c o i de d
e, en a e a na ns re as

t he r l t o f t h c l ti l tt r c ti o
es u e cti g
e es a m tter a a ns a n on a

w he i n i d o r pl ti c t te d m o t tro gl y t the
n a u as s a an s s n a

e
q uat o r
F o i f t he d d c ti o b fore m d
r e u t o t h e ergy o
n e a e as e n r

a mo unt f th i ttr c ti o b
o s a t t ch i c ll y m t he m ti ca l
a n e no e n a a a ,

th r e l t fo d by t h c lc l ti o i ppro xi m t l y cor
es u un e a u a n s a a e

r cte .

B id es v w r it t
es , e en c lc l t d t h
e e noi i y
so a u a e ,
e su c en c

o f th i t t r c t i o to r i
s a a t h pl t i c m tt r f t h
n a se rth t e as a e o e ea a

th e eq t o ua b o v t her a le v l d t o egr a vity m y b t

e i ue ,
a e ra on

a lly c o n ced e d wh en i t i s co n si d e r e d th at N e wt o n p o ved r

 The Di a meter , Lig h t an d Hiea t of t h e S un . 97

t he p ecess i o o f the q i o x es to be the tt cti o s o f t h e

r n e u n a ra n

su n an d m oo t he b lge f the e rt h w he eby the ea th

n on u o a , r r

is g iv e S l o w m o ti o O f e v ol ti o i ts p o le m o v i n g
n a n r u n,

ar o d t he pole O f the hea v e

un ns .

Th i att cti o c e bo t h the m oti o a d the va ia ces

s ra n au s s n n r n

a d d i i g v el o c iti of ch m oti o Fo it is fo d

n er n es su n . r un

b y ob e v ti o s r d c lc l ati o t h t w h
a n an the s a d u n a en un an

m oo at t he
n ar e , m e ti m e o O ppo it e i de o f t he e q u
sa ,
n s s s a

to d o oppo ite i de o f t he x is O f t he e a t h v i
r , an n s s s a r ,
ar

a ce i
n the u i fo r m ity O f the p ce s i o o f the eq u i n ox es
s n n re s n

a e O b e ved
r s r .

It is al s o fo d t h t t he p ecess i o i s gr eate wh e t h e
un a r n r n

su i s e es t t he e r t h
n n ar a .

Th is ch ge i p ece s i o m t es l t f om t h e i
an n r s n us r u r n

cre ed tt cti o O f t he
as a ra o the b lge o f t he ea th i n
n sun n u r ,

co seq e ce o f t he
n u n g te pro xi m ity to it sun s

r ea r .

Th i s m o ti o o f t he e t h o c a ed g iv es s s ch co n
n ar , s us , u u

ce p t i o o f t he e o m o
ns pow er e x er ted b y the att ac ti o s
n r us r n

o f t he s d m o o o t he b lge o f t he e r th as to ati o n
u n an n n u a ,
r

a ll y i d ce the co cl s i o th t it w ere s f c i e t t o c eate

n u n u n a u n r

the b lge at t h t per io d i the e r t h h i to y w he t he

u , a n a

s s r ,
n

m tte c o tit ti g it w
a r ns i i d o r el e pl as ti c state
u n as n a u s ,

e v e we e it i m po ible by y calc l ati o to le

n r ss th e an u n ar n

co m t am o e t o f t h is tt acti g e gy d v e r s e to g av i t y
un a r n en r ,
a r ,

e x ted by it o the b lge f the e th

er n u o ar .

A dd iti o l rg m e t s to the s f c ie cy o f t h is
n a na a u n , a u n

po we to fo m t h e b lge i t h lo g go m ay be d e
r r u , n e n a ,

d u c d fr o m t he f ct t h t t he w ters O f t he ocea
e a s e as
a a n , ,

&c co v e. bo t t wo th i rd O f the f ce o f the ea t h

r a u -
s su r a r .

The ttrac ti o O f the a d m oo ns t t he b lge e s u n an n a u ar

su f c i e t t o ni e t hes e w te i the fo m o f ti des

ra s d a r s, n r , an

t h p t to o v e co m e t he i gr vity
us ro an r r a .

He ce the b lg f the e r t h t the q to as l so a

n u e o a a e ua r a

S l o we beat f t h p d l m t h e e i d p d t o f the
r o e en u u r n e en en

r e v i ou s c a lc u l ti o m ti o ll b i f d t h f
p y ya e n ern
r e ,as e ea ra na

7
98 I s t h e Cop er n i ca n Sy s tem o
f A s tr on o m y Tr u e

fe e t s h cl r c o h ch c
f t at e es ti a a tt a ti n w i
O l he prece
a u s es t s

o o
s i n O f t h e e q u i n x es , a n d w i h ch co r c gr
u n t e a ts a vity as

O b r d co c o
se v e in n n e ti n w it h d
t h e ti es *
.

Th e m o d u s op er a n d i y w i b h ch the c le l
e s ti a c o
a tt ra ti n

or d b lg c o k o
f m e t h e u e a n n t b e n w n , b u t i n t e y it m ay h or
be co c d
n e iv e o f ; fo r e x a m ple, t h e de o ld
n s ity o f m a tte r w u

l d
b e e ss e n e a n d i t s gra vity b e di m in is hed b he y t exp a n

g c h
s iv e a en y o f e at , at t h e p r od h he
e i w en t r
m att e he
Of t

e rh
a t w as i n a h o t d or pl c
ui as ti s t ate .

The cool g ch r o ld r ke pl ce he e
i n O f s u m a t te w u s t t a a w r

r h ro c r h d
it w as fu t es t f m t h e e n t e o f t h e e ate m as s , n a m y , el
at t he r c
s u fa e o f t h e ea t rh .

S ch r l o l
u es u t w u d b e i n a cco rd ce
an rl
w it h n at u a l aw ,
a s m a n i fe s t ed b O b r d ph o e
y se ve en m n a .

Th por o
at h d co
ti n O f t h e ea te m as s n s t i t u t i n t g he l ge bu
re rh
i s n e a s t t h e e a t s s u fa e r c r or g he
Th e m a tte f m i n

t.

b lg
u r rc o
e i s n e a es t t h e a tt a ti n s o f t h e s u n a n d m oo n In .

co n se u e n
q ce o f su ch r r pro
g e a t e xi m ity , t h e a tt r a e

o bd o ld g r r
ti n s O f t h ese o i es o n it w u b e e ate , as it i s O h
r d h
se ve o o pr c o o
t a t t h e m ti n O f e ess i n o f t h e e q u i n x es i s i n
cr d w h t h
e as e en i r t th
e su n r th s n e a es e ea .

The ttr cti o f t h a a ns o d m oo g re t t t the

e su n an n a es a

e
q ua t o w o r ld r i t hui i d 6 pl
a se ti c m bo
s v t h u ,
r as ,
ass a e e

n o m l l v el d e to i t g r vity The ti d s S ho w ch
r a e u s a . e su

r ltes u .

The co t t ttr c ti o f t h b o d i o po i bl y
n s an a a n o es e es , n ss a

v si ci d m i d i r ct i o
as s , n oppo ite to t h t f gr vity
a e n s a o a ,

w o ld pr v
u t t h bb f t h m
e en e e ri d o e as s s o a se .

Th i O t r por tio f t h h t d m
s u e n O v w ere it
e ea e a ss , e en

m l t d to
e e id a co ti o cool i g d r i g t h l p e
u , O n n nu us n u n e a s

O f g a w o ld b co m
es , u cr t i m m o v ble d ol i d t h
e e a us a ,
an s , us

for m i g nd o tit ti g t h b l g or pro t b r c b l ted

an c ns u n e u e u e an e e

a ro d t h r th t t h q to r
un e ea a e e ua .

Th i s arg u m en h h t d
as s u m e s ti d ih
at t cd moon e x st e t e r a n te e en t to ,
l w c wi h i c f h
e su n an
h Th i
e
te m p o r an eo us th t rst e x sten t ea r t m
lp i d a i dd f h d f c Of h
o r e se er e on e e O e . e se
e ssu mp b t o n s m ay e r eg a r e as o n e o t e e e ts t e ar g u m e n t .
 D o es t h e E ar t h R o ta te .
9 99

S E CT I O N I V THE C A U S E O F TH E AU G M E NTA T I O N O F
.

G R A V I T Y I N TH E D I R EC T I O N O F TH E P O L ES ,

CO N S I D E R E D .

I n t he l as t t wo p r e ced i g s ec ti o s t h e atte m p t i s m ade n n

to S h o w ar gu m e tativ e l y t h at t he celes tia l a ttrac ti o n s w i l l

,
n ,

r a ti o n all y a cco t fo a Sl o we r b ea t o f t he pe d l u m at
un r n u

t he eq u to r a d i d ee d fo r the obser v ed d i m i ti o o f
a ,
n , n ,
nu n

the gr vity o f al l bod i es t here an d w il l al s o a ccou t fo r

a ,
n

t h e b u lge O f t he e ar t h .

I n t h e pres e n t s ec ti o it w i ll be s ho w b y ai d o f a n n

m athe m ati ca l fo r m u l a th at w h i le t he ce n t r i f ga l fo r ce u

w i ll ch an g e the d i r ti O f g r a vity it w i l l
ec ot d i m i is h
on ,
n n

t h e q a t m o f t h e g ra vit a ti g force
u n u n .

I f t h i s be pro v e d g r e a t force w i ll b e ad d e d t o t he co n
,

e l u s iv e e s o f t h e h y po t h
n s i t h t the ph e o m e a j s t es s a n n u

m e n ti o ed a e e ff cts o f t h c l es ti a l a tt ra c ti o n s ; a d p r o
n r e e e n ,

t t
an o , w i l l n e g tiv e t h e ass m p ti o a th t th y a e ca u ed u n a e r s

by t he ce tri fu gal force a d w i l l to t h at e xte t weaken

n , n ,
n ,

t h e t heor y o f t he ea r t h s ro ta ti o wh i c h t hes e phen o m e n a

n,

a e s u ppo e d t o
r pp o rt
s su .

I t h i s co n ec ti o n t he r s t q es ti o n i s w h at i s t he d i
n n , u ,

recti o o f the ce tri fu g l force ?

n n a

The follo w i g facts wh i ch h av e the a tho r ity o f a xi o m s

n , u ,

a e a
r a s w er t o t he
n n e s ti o n :
q u

1 Th e d i r e c ti o o f the ce t r i f ga l force i s t he d i r e c

. n n u ,

ti o n o f l i t ge t to t h e cu r v e w h i ch a b od y de
a n e, an n ,

s c r i b es i i t s m o ti o

n n .

2 The ta ge t o f a c i rcl e is a l i n e w h i ch to ches the

. n n u

ci rc u m fe re n ce w it h o t c tti n g i t whe le gth e ed at u u n n n

e it he r e d

n .

Th at t h e ce t r i f g l force w i ll n o t d i m i is h gra vity i s

n u a n

S h o w i co ecti o w it h F ig 6 to g th e r w i t h F i g 8
n n nn n .
,
e .
,

s h o w n i n Sec t i o n 5 .
1 00 I s th e Cop er n i c an Sy stem o
f A s tr on o my Tr u e

Th is ci cle w i l l be ppo ed to ep ese t the ea th

r su s r r n r .

i t s ce t re n R g i ts r d i from B Th i s r d i wi ll l o
. a us . a us a s

b e t h d i rec ti o O f g r vity fro m R At R t he l i e T 1 i s '

e n a . n

t g e t to th is c i rcl
an n it t the c i c m f re c ow he e
e , as cu s r u e n e n r .

Th i l i the S h o ws t he d i ti O f t h is force t R
s n e, n, r ec on a

a ccord i g to i o m 1
n d ax to t he e r th rot t i oas ue a

s a n .

Th q e tity o f t h is i
u an pre e ted b y t h e le gt h O f the
s re s n n

li e R S
n .

I o d n t o S ho w t h t t he ce t r i f g l fo ce w i ll
r er a ot di n u a r n

m i i h g vity le t it b
n s ra ppo ed t h at th i force w e e
,
e su s s r

su i i t t o ca rry t he body R f o m R t o S lo g t he t
c en r ,
a n an

ge t l i e T T we e there o the fo ce cti g po it

n n , r no r r a n u n .

d d
A s a i f ic
uct o n l c l c l i h i i f g l f
r o m as t r o n o m i lu at o n , t s ce n t r
i l i Th h l B S i v ch
e a a u a o r ce s on y
t h 89 h p
1 2 t f ar t O
t e r r es t r a g r a v t y en t mu too
c cl p i i c i i i
e e ine s ery
l h l h l
.

o n g to i
o r r e t y r e r e se n t t s q ua n t t y nw h o m ar f h t t engt t
v i R h h c i f l f w i l l di i i h i
p so n e O e ne
f g ra ty t t t t t b not m ty , ma
c c l h w d ch l i
O g y e a e e n r u g a o r c c y n s g ra v e
by h l i
. .

or re t y s o mu m o re p a n lyR S f i w t i t
i ly i ll b d b d
as n an e ne , as ere

d w p
ra n r o p o r t o n at e , w not e o u te ,
 Th e Di ameter , Lig h t an d He at o
f the S un . 1 01

Ag a i n ppose the g vitati g fo ce wou ld c r y t h

, su ra n r a r e

b o d y R t o g l o g t he l i e R g w e e the e o o t h e th
, a n n , r r n r an

t h i g i t t i g fo rce c ti g p o it
s r av a n a n u n .

B t g i u a ppo e b th these force to m eet t R a d

a n , su s o s a n

t o t o t h bo d y R
ac n W h t w i ll t he be t he d i rec ti o
e . a n n

a d t he q u
n tity o f thes e t w o fo ce ?
an r s

I o d e t o dete m i e t h i fro m R d aw R S t h
n r r r
p n s, r , us r e

r es e t i g t h q tity d d i ec ti o O f the ce tr i f g l
n n e u an an r n n u a

fo c R S
r e F o m R d w R g rep es e ti n g i q
. r tit y ra , r n n u an

a d d i ec ti o
n r t h e g a vit ti g fo ce R g
n Fro m g d w
r a n r . ra

t he li e g n p l l e l to R S d f o m d w t h l i e S
n , ar a , an r n ra e n 11 ,

p r l lel t o R g The e l i e w i ll t h s fo m p ar ll l o
a a . s n s u r a a e

gram The d w the l i e R

. n d t h i s w i ll co ti t t e
ra n n . an ns u

the d i g o l O f t h i s p r llelog m
a na d the d i ecti o da a ra an r n an

. ,

q ua l ity o f t h es e t w o fo c be i g t h e i r es l ta t w i l l r es n r u n

be m e red b y the d i go l R
as u a na n .

Th i co cl s io i d ed cti o fro m the foll o w i g m th

s n u n s a u n n a

e m ti c ll y d e m o st ated propo iti o

e a m el y
n r s n, na

I f t wo fo ce be m e

red i d i ecti o a d q tity b y
r s as u n r n n u an

th i de o f a p a llel og m Si gle force m e

e s s ra ed i ra , a n as u r n

d i rectio d q tity by t he d i go l o f ch p r ll l
n an uan , a na su a a e

Og m w i l l be t h re l ta t d m ec h i ca l eq iv le t
ra ,
e su n an an u a n

Of h t wo fo ces
suc r .

A ccor d i g to t h is p opo iti o t h e d i ec ti o a d q a

n r s n, r n n u n

tity o f t he gr vitati g d ce tri f g l fo rce R g R S

a n an n u a s, , ,

w i l l be m e ed b y t he le g t h o f t h e d i go l R
as u r n a na n .

W h t p op o ti o i q
a r t ity d oes t he
r ne l ta t R n uan , r su n n

be r to the o m l l y gr vit ti g force R g ?

a n r a a a n

W here force cts i a c tai d i ec ti o y i the d i

a n a er n r n , sa n

re c ti o f t h res l t t R it i so m eti m es req i red to

n O e u an n s u

,

k o w wh t po rtio o c o rce cts t so m e gl

n fa h f n
y su a a an e sa ,

fo e x a m pl t h t o f R g
r e, t co i c i de t i d i r c ti o w it h
a no n n n e n

t h at o f t h fo ce it el f e r s .

The e i fo m l l i d do w i m the m ati cal wo rk s to

r s a r u a a n n a

as ce ta i r t he q u a ti ty O f t h i
n g l fo ce n s an u ar r .
1 02 I th e Cp e i S m A Tr u e 9
m

r n c an t f s tr o n o my
s
o ys e o .

Th is for m l i ppl i c bl h re f the re o th t

u a s a a e e , or as n a

w h i l t he fo ce o f R
e do o t m o v or l i e co i i 11 es n e n a n nc

de t w it h th t O f gr vity m l y R g y t it x er ts fo s
n a a na e , e e a re

i t he d i rec ti o O f g vity
n m l y th t o f th l i
n Rg ra na e a e ne

fo if it d i d o t t h b o d y R co ld
r n v r e h the
, r th
e u ne er ac ea ,

v e t i c ll y
r it doe
a ,
as s .

Th i m ethod d i ts re l t m y be ho w i co c
s an su s a s n n nne

t i o w it h Fi g 8 i Sec ti o 5
n Th q , tity , d di c
n n . e u an an re

t i o O f t he force
n Sh o w b y t h d i go l l i e 4 i ar e n e a na n a , n

t h at g e ur .

It i eq i ed to k o w wh t por ti o
s r u r f t h i force c ts n a n o s a

co i c i de t i d i rec ti o w ith t h l i e c 5 To c rt i
n n n n e n a . as e a n

th i f o m 4 d w t he l i e 4 c pe pe d i c l r t o the l i e
s, r ra n ,
r n u a n

a c 5 d t he l i e
,
an c w i ll r pr e t t h por tio o f the n a e es n e n

fo ce 4 w h i ch w i ll
r a t co i c i d
,
t w it h t h l i c5 ac n en e ne a .

W h i le it i t r t h t t h fo c 4 m y b r ol v d i t o
s ue a e r e a a e es e n

t he t wo fo c m el y c a D y et it i eq ll y tr
r es , n a ,
a , , s ua ue

a cco d i g to t h for m l
r n x pl i ed i m t h m ti c l
e u a as e a n n a e a a

wo k r t h t t he por ti o o f th force 4 w h i ch ct i
s a n e a , a s n

t he d i ecti o 5 is m
r red by the l i e 0
n a ,
e as u n a .

E x m i e Fi g 6 i co
a ecti o w it h Fi g 8
n . d dr w n nn n .
, an a

11 c m pe pe d i c l to R c 7 Fig 6r n d t h t por ti o
u ar . an a n

o f t he es l t t fo ce R
r w h i ch c t co i c i de t w it h t he
u an r n ,
a s n n

l i e R c 7 w i ll b the l i e R c
n ,
e n .

Th i e l t i i e x ct ccord c w i th t h e for m l ex
s r su s n a a an e u a

pl ai ed i co ecti o w ith Fi g 8 Th t h l i e R 0
n n nn n . . en e n

r ep ese t th t p r t O f the forc R w h i ch cts o the

r n s a a e n a n

l i e o f gr vity
n a .

B t t he l i e R
u ep es t t h ori gi l gr vity o f t he
n 0 r r en s e na a

b o d y R b f i ts force c om b i ed w ith t h ce t r if g l
,
e or e n e n u a

fo ce t he t he c t r i f g l forc doe
r n ot c y d
eni m i u a e s n a use a n

nu t i o o f t he fo ce o f gr vity
n r a .

I co m ti o o f t h corr c t
n n r a f th i co cl i o
n e e n ess o s n us n,

refer ce i here m d to Fig 1 8 i S c ti o 5

en s a e .
,
n e n .

Th ca o b ll i r d i hor iz o t l d i r cti o wh i ch
e nn n a s e n a n a e n,

d ir ectio t he b all R m o v e fro m R o t he ta n n s n

 .

Do es the Ea r th R o t a te 9
. 1 03

ge t l i e T T ; y et t h p oj ctil force f th c o b ll
n n e r e e o e an n n a
alogo t o t h e t ri f g l forc t R Fi g 6 do o t
an us e c n u a e a ,
. es n

dim i i h r t i g r vit f t h
n s n or o th t t h
es r a n a y , or e r e as n a e ca n

n o
'

b ll ch t h r t h
n a r ea rf c t t h m ti m th t
es e ea

s su a e a e sa e e a

an oth e b ll doe w h i ch i dropp d fro m t h m h i gh t

r a s, s e e sa e e

as t h oth er e d t th m ti m ,Th i i t h r l t f
an a e sa e e . s s e es u o

e x per i m e t n .

By oper ti o o f both t h for m l b fore m ti o d d

a n e u a e en ne an

o f th e x pe i m e t j t r f rr d to t w f ct
e r n ust b e e e , o a s ar e es a

li h d s d
e , c r t i l y t h o th r m l y
an o n e as e a n as e e ,
na e

1 Th t the c t i f g l forc w i ll o t d i m i i h gr vity

. a en r u a e n n s a .

2 Th t t h c o m b i ti o o f t h c t r i f g l w ith gr vity
. a e na n e en u a a

w i ll ch ge the d i recti o o f t h l t t r
an n e a e .

T eh t he cen t r
, i f g
as l forc d t d i m i i h gr v
n u a e o es n o n s a

i t y fo t h t re o it c ot b tr rt d by

r a i
as n, an n e ue as s as s e e

,

as t o o m err n t h t t h c t r i f g l forc d i m i i h
s a t hee en u a e n s es

g vity o f the p d l m t the q tor

ra en u u a e ua .

Ne it her it be t r e th t gr vi ty i
ca n g m t d i t he u a a s au en e n

d i c ti o f the pol b
re n O th c t r i f g l forc w o ld es , ec a u s e e en u a e u

be d i m i n i hed i t h s m d i r ct i o For w h i l it i tr
s n e a e e n . e s ue

th t t he c tr i f g l forc w o ld b d i m i i h d i th t d i
a en u a e u e n s e n a

r ec ti o y et it doe t d i m i i h g r ity ( di d it xi t )
n, , as s no n s av , e s ,

g ravity o t be g m t d by t h d i m i ti o f t h
ca n n au en e e nu n o e ce n

t i f g l force
r u a H ce it c ot b t r . r t d by M
en , an n e u e , as ass e e .

B i o t i Sec 1 1 7 O f h i w ork th t
n . s ,
a :

The i c e e o f gr vity fro m t h q tor to t h pole

n r as a e e ua e s

i th s, f a w proo
er e o r e ,f f t h o t r y m o ti
neo f t he o e r a n o

e rth a .

Th i q ot ti o m bod i t h O p i i o f l l t ro o m r
s u a n e es e n n O a as n e s .

A s t he d i m i ti o f t h c t r i f g l forc i t h d i r c ti o
nu n o e en u a e n e e n

O f the pole i d i ch r g d f t h r po i b i l ity f

s s s
g m a e o e es ns o au en

ti g g a vity i t h
n r m d i r c ti o Sho w b y t h
n e sa rg e e n ,
as n e a u

m t i co
en cti o w i t h Fi g 6 w h t i t h c
n nne n f ch .
,
a s e a u se o su

a gm e t ti o
u n a n
104 I s th e Cop er n ica n Sy stem '

o f A s tr on omy Tr u e f

In Secti o 3 it i s h o w th t d i d the ce t r i f g l fo ce
n s n a n u a r

e t he a tt ac ti o s o f t he celesti l bod i es wo ld b e eq al
x i s t, r n a u u

t o it t t he qu to
a e a r .

M Bi ot i peak i g o f t h cen t i f g l fo ce an d i ts
.
, n s n e r u a r

d im i n tio s y s u n, a

It i l s o eas y to p o v e b y m ech i c l p i c i ple t h t

s a r an a r n s a

th is d i m i ti o i p op o r ti o l to the s q e o f t he Si e
nu n s r na u ar n

o f t he l a tit de l i ke th t o f att cti o

u a ra n .

Wi ll t he eq to i l c l s ti l tt c t i o s d i m i i hed b y
ua r a e e a a ra n , n s

g eate d is t ce i the d i ect i o o f the po les p h i l o so p h i

r r an ,
n r n ,

l l y cco t fo the O b s r v ed a g m e ta ti o O f g r vity i

a un r e u n n a n

t h e l tt e d i ec ti o ?
a r r n

Th at su ch w o ld be the res l t m ay be i fe ed f om the u u ,

n rr r

l as t q o t ti o f o m M Bi o t
u a n r .
.

I o de t o Sh ow t he e xt t o f t he d i m i ti o
n r r o f t he en nu n

cele ti l tt c ti o
s a a epre e ted b y t h s
ra i
n the d ias r s n e un n

recti o O f t he pole dr w ci rcle o

n
e m i c i rcle y
s, a a r a s sa ,

fo e x m pl h vi g
r a d i m eter o f Six i ches The th ee
e, a n a a n . r

i ch ad i s O f it w i ll pre t t h e ce t r i f g l forc t t he
n r u re sen n u a e a

e q at ou r .

A S S h ow i Sec ti o 3 the cele ti al tt r c ti o

n n e q ln ,
s a a n s ar e ua

a t t he e q to to t he ce t i f g l fo c
ua r n r u a r e .

The if th i d i l l i h e co ti d fro m t he eq ato

n ,
s ra a ne n n ue u r

v e ti ca ll y a
r q l d i t ce m el y
n e uat h ree i che it w i l ls an ,
na , n s,

c o ec tl y m e e the e te t o f the cele ti l tt ct i o s at

rr as u r x n s a a ra n

t he eq at r i co m p i o w it h t he ce t r i f g l fo rce t h e e
u o n ar s n n u a r ,

e ch be i g rep e t d b y t he g e 3
a n r es n e ur .

I m gi n e t he s t o be at t h e xt e m ity o f th i l i e
a un e r s n ,

f r thes t fro m the eq t o r

u Dr w s tr i g h t l i e f om ua . a a a n r

s u ch e x t r e m ity m el y fro m t h s to 4 5
,
na , e un ,

Att c ti o i ra t h sq e f t h d i t ce ; the t he
n s as e u ar o e s an n

a tt cti o at the eq ato i 9 s th i i s the q a e o f t he

ra n u r s ,
a s s u r

d ist ce 3 an , .

A s t he celes ti l att ac t i o a d the ce t i f ga l fo ce t a r n n n r u r a

t he eq u to h a v e bee h ow
a
r see Sec 3 to be e q ual n s n .
,

t h at for ce is al s o 9 at t h e eq u ato r.
 Does th e E art h R o ta te ? 1 05

The attr cti o s o f bo d ies dec r e se i v er sely s t h

a n a , n a e

sq e o f t he d is ta ce i n c e e
u ar n r as s .

The l i e f o m the eq to to t h
n r i s 3 i ches f o m ua r e su n n r

th e su nto the 4 5 t h p r llel it i 4 8 i ches The cele ti l a a s n . s a

a tt a c ti o
r a t t he eq
ns to r e t h q O f th i
ua 3 m el y ar e s uar e s, ,
na ,

9 . A ppl y the b o v e l w to t he i v er e ti o to s e
a a , as n s ra , a o r

t ai t he att r c ti o a d i t w i ll be fo d th t

n su n s t a n a n un a

t he greate d i t ce h red ced th i tt rac ti o o f 9 t t he

r s an as u s a n a

eq t o t o
ua r t a

By e o O f t her as n d c e ed tt cti o t 45 it h s un s

e r as a ra n a

as

lo t 4 % o f the ttr ct i o o f 9 it h t the eq tor C l

s a a n , as a ua .
*
a

c l ti o w i l l S ho w th i
u a n s

.

At 4 5 o t h c i rcle m ti o ed d w t h i e o f the

n e en n ra e s n

l tit de d it wi ll b e fo d to be t wo i che d i ch
a u an un n s , an n ,

a nd s m ll f
a c ti o
a ra n .

The ce t r i f g l fo c d i m i i he
n u a t he q e o f the
r e n s s as s u ar

s i e O f t he l tit de
n Tha q r
u o f i
. e q l t o 4
e s 3 ua e s ua .

The the ce t ri f g l force h lo t 4 3 o f the 9 it h d at

n n u a as s a

the eq to r ua .

The t h d i m i ti o o f t h cel ti l ttr c t i o i the

n e nu n e es a a a n n

d i r c ti o o f the pole a d t h d i m i t i o o f t he ce t if
e n s, n e nu n n r u

g l
a fo ce i rt he mn e d i r c ti o sa q l t o e ch o t he e n ar e e ua a r .

The the g m t ti o f gr vity i t h d i recti o O f

n au en a n O a n e n

t h p ol
e m y be tt r i b t d t o t h d i m i
es a a ti o f celes ti l
u e e n u n o a

a ttrac ti o i the m e d i c ti o
n n A d sa th i force q l s re n . n as s e ua

the ce t i f g l t h O b e v ed p h e o m
n r u a , o f t he
e s r
g m n en a au en

tat i o o f g n vity i t h d i r c ti o f t h p ole w o ld t i l l

ra n e e n o e s, u s

be O b v ed e v th o gh t h c tr if g l fo ce h d
s er . en u e en u a r a no

exi t e ce s n .

M Bi o t i Sec 1 1 6 o f h i w ork s y i p k i g o f
.
,
n . s , a s, n s ea n

t he d i m i ti nuf t h c t r i f g l forc
on o d the e c eler
en u a e an a c a

ti o o f t h pe d l m i t h d i r c ti o o f the pole
n e n u u n e e n s

N w b y c rryi g t h

o m p
a d l m to d i ff r t p r ts
n e sa e en u u e en a

o f t he e r t h it h b fo d to m o v e f t s w d e

a ,
as ee n un as er a e

Wh h en i t ic l v
e su n h q h
s v er td u d h ai g h o f her i d t e e u at o r , t e re ce e t o t e t e
a t h u l
s o ws an e
q d i m i u i a n t on .
1 06 Is the Cop er n i ca n Sy s tem f
o A s tr on o m y Tr u e 9 .

p rt fro m th e q to r ; d th i ccele t io the l w

a e ua an s a ra n, a s

f w h i ch h v b
o d et rm i d w it h g e t e ct e i
a e ee n e ne r a xa n ss , s

i f c t propor ti o l t o t h
n a
q re f t he
na i f t h e s l t ua o s ns o e a

it d u
q i d b
e as r e u r e t h ro t ti o O f t h gylobe e a n e .

Th t i to y the pe d l m h j t ch ccele ti o n
a s sa ,
n u u as us su a ra

as it w o ld h v e d i d t he r t h o t te
u a d t h e x c t ccel ea r a an e a a

,

c r t io
a nm or d
no
le i d to t h ce t i f g l
e an no ss s ue e n r u a

fo c g
r e ted by ch ro t ti o
e n er a su a n .

D i d th i c t i f g l fo s xi s t
en r d d i d it d i m i i h
u a r ce e , an n s

gr vity t h follo w i g q ti o w o ld re q i e s we
a ,
e n u es ns u u r an r,

n m el y
a

I f th i g m t ti o o f g r vity i the eff ct o f the d i

s au en a n a s e

m i i h d c t i f g l forc
n s e en r l d it i
u a ccord i g to
e a on e an s, a n

as u a
t he l t q o t ti o f o m M Bi o t wh t b co m s o f the n r . a e e

c le ti l tt r cti o
e s a a a
q l g e c y i t he
n s , as a n e p o d c ti o ua a n n r u n

O f th i r lt ?
s es u

I f t he c l t i l tt r c ti o
e es q a l t o a t he ce
a t i f g l ns e ua n r u a

force p od ce t h i r e l t w h t beco m e O f t h
u s r su ,t if a s e ce n r u

g l
a f orc e

I f bo t h t he force by t h i r joi t cti o a g m e t

se s, e n a n, u n

g vity to t h xte t ob r v ed h o w c it b cor ec tly

ra e e n se , an e r

a tt r i b t d t o the c t i f g l force l
u e en r M Bi o t do s
u a a o n e, a s . e

i t he l t q o t ti o
n as f t h i forc i s t h t
u a n, ort ly i d s e a exa c s c ue

to t h th rot ti o
e ea r

s a n

D i d bo th o f the q l forc co t i b t e
se e u a t o t he re s l t es n r u u ,

t he i r d b l force f r t d ti o S h o ld
ou e o g m e t g vity
e ar a n u au n ra

b t o
u h l f th t ob v ed w h i ch ho w th t b t
ne -
a a se r , Of s s a u on e

th e e force i c i g t h phe o m o
s s s au s n e n en n .

W h i ch o f th e t w o force i t he c e o f t h phe o m
,
es s, s au s e n

e o n n

The ttr cti o o f thea a d m oo n t t he e q to

su n a n a d n a ua r, n

t h di m i
e ti o f th i tt cti o
nu n o w recede fro m the
s a r a n as e

eq tor ua
f t , t he
ar e prec i o
ac s f t h q i o x e s d t hess
e n o e e u n , an

ti d d th i
es , a n cti o pro v e th m to b f ct
e r a n , e e a s .

Th ro t ti o o f t he
e a
r th a d i t proge y t h cen t if
n ea n s n e r

,

u al fo ce i s a h
r
yp o t hes is
g .
 . Does th e E ar t h R o ta te 9 . 1 07

Ino d r t o Sh o w th t ch h y po the i i o t
r e ta i d
a su s s s n sus ne ,

t h t hre follo wi g c o cl i o
e e re ch d m l y
n n us n s ar e a e , na e

1 Th . tt r c ti o o f the
e a a d m oo ns
q l t t h sun an n are e ua a e

eq to to t h ce tr i f g l forc
ua r, e th n d m i i p th tu a e, on e a ss o a

s u ch fo ce e xi t r Th i i h o w i Sec ti o 3
s s . s s s n n n .

2 I co . n ecti o w ith Fig 6 it ppe r th t t h c

n n n .
,
a a s a e en

t i f g l forc d oe
r u a o t d i m i i h g r vity
e Th i i l o rg
s n n s a . s s a s a u

m e t t i l y Sh o w i co
n a ve cti o w ith Fi g 1 8 n n nne n . .

3 I the pre e t ec ti o it pp r t h t t he c l e ti l
. n s n s n a ea s a e s a

a tt r cti o d i m i i h i t h d i r c t i o f t h pol
a ns n s i
n th e e n o e es , n e

sa m r ti oe a w o ld t h c t ri f g l force d i d it
as u i t
e en u a ,
ex s as

an eff c t f t h ot ti o f t h rth
e o e r a n O e ea .

I vi w O f th e f ct i t h f llo wi g c o cl i o
n e es a s s e o n n us n,

r e ch d by M Bi o t log ic l m l y
a e .
,
a ,
na e

The i c e o f gr vity fro m t h eq tor to the pole i

n r eas a e ua s

th f w
er e o r e a n e pr o o f of th ro t r y m o ti o o f t h t h e a n e ea r

W co ce iv e f c t i f g l o o m e oth r for e
e ca n n o a en r u a r s e c ,

sa y fo ,
e x mr ple 2 8 9 t i m a t h t d t o ,
t he o t ti o f t he es a ue r a n o

ear th w h i ch w o ld t hro w bod y bey o d t h t tr cti o o f

, u a n e a a n

th e earth I ch c gr ity w o l d b b orb d o

. n su as e , av u e a s e , r

d t roy ed b y t he c t r i f g l forc
es .d i ch c
en t he
u a e, an n su ase

t w o fo rc d i d they xi t w o ld be co i ci de t i d i
es , e s ,
u n n n

r ecti o n .

F or th i e o it w o ld b i m po i ble t o co t r c t a
s r as n u e ss ns u

p r llelog r m repre e ti g t h t w forc he c o d i g o

a a a s n n e o es , n e n a

na l repr ti g e l t t o f ch t w forc w o ld be
e se n n a r su an su o es u

po i b le
ss .

With t h ce t r i f g l forc r pr e t d e n ub i g the a e, e es n e as e n

pa t O f t rr tr i l g r vity
r e es i th i c e d i ff
a a t l ws ,
as n s as eren a

a t o
c t h gr
n it ti g bo d y t h
e av w o ld w er
a n gr ity t o an u e av

a ct i i d t i d i r cti o w it h t he c t r i f g l forc
co n c en n e n en u a e .

Fo x m pl ( e Fi g
r e a w r e, bod y i m o t i o to
se ,
e e a n n

i m pi g n b ody t r t O
e on a t mo i g i th a d i recti o es ,
r no v n n e n

O f the tt ck i g bod y or m o vi g S lo w er i t h
a a n m, di n n e sa e

r ec ti o t h t t ck i g p rty lo
n . e a a po ti o o f i t force i
n a s es a r n s n

o ve r c o m i g t he i n e t i o f t he bod y i m p i ged
n rpo A o a n u n .
1 08 Is the Cp e o r n ca n i Sy s te m o f A s tr on o my Tr u e 9
.

c ord i g to th i l w w h t the fo m l o the l tt g i

n s a a r er ses a er a ns

.
,

Th t h c tr if g l fo c R S Fi g 6 e x p d p o
en e en u a r e , .
,
en s a r

ti o f i t
n o rgy i d ecti g the bod y R i the d i recti o
s en e n e n n n

R d i t d f t h ce t r i f g l forc
n ,
an n s ea cti g i d im
O e n u a e a n n l

nu tio of g vi t y it d d
n p o r ti o f i t force to the
ra , a s a n o s

gr vity o f R i t h d i r cti o R
a ,
n e e n n .

B t th i u dd i t i o f forc i ts a i the r l t as R
n o e s no see n n es u ,

r ea ch t h r t h i t h m ti m it wo ld d i d it f ll o
es e ea n e sa e e u a n

th li e R g nd th s Op r t ed b y gr vity lo e Th i
ne , a u e a a a n . s

i s ho w to b e t h f c t b y Fi g 1 8
s n e a . .

Th c o f th i
e i d tity i
ause e l t m y be e x pl i ed s en n r su a a n

as follo w s

Me r m e t w ill Sho w t h t the l i e R i lo ger t h

as u e n a n n s n an

R g h c t h b ll i f ll i g t o t h e e t h O t he l i
, en e e a ,
n a n ar n ne

R tr v r e g t p ce i t h
n, a e s s a m ti m e t h a it
r e a er s a n e sa e n
'

w o ld d i d it f ll lo g t he l i R g by g r vity lo e TO
.

u a a n ne , a a n .

f ll th o g h t h i g
a r t r Sp c i t h
u m ti m e
s t he
r ea e a e n e sa e as

gravi t ti g b ll q i r po w r i t dd iti o t o the g r vi

a n a , re u es e ,
a n a

t ti g po wer A o d i g to
a n .m ech ic l l w w h t i c r n a an a a , a s

g i d i ti m or p
a ne n i lo t i po w r Th g i i
e s ace s s n e . e a n n

S p ce he i the d i ff r c i t h l g t h R g
a re s d R e en e n e en s an n

t h i g re t e p ce
s a the l i R i s g i ed b y t he b ll
r s a on ne n a n a

o n R it f ll t o t h
n , as rth i th a m ti ms s t he e ea n e sa e e a

m r l y gr vit ti g b ll R i f ll i g
e e a a th li n R g It a , n a n on e ne .

r eq i res po w r i dd i t io to the g r vit ti g po wer to

u a e n a n a a n

do th i Th i dd iti o l po w er i f r i h d b y t h e
s . s a na s u n s e ce n

t i f g l forc
r u ai ccord ce w it h t h l w go v i g m o
e, n a an e a s er n n

ti o d forc as afore i d
n an e, sa .

Th i dd d po w r i x c tl y co m p t t to br i g bo t
s a e e s e a e en n a u

th r e l t j t m e ti o ed For w er th er m ore po wer

es u us n n . e e

r eceiv d fro m t h ce tri f g l force t h

e ce r y toe n u a an ne ssa

br i g t h b ll m o vi g t h l i e R
n e a , to t h e e th at n on e n n , ar

the m e ti m sa t h b l l f ll i g b y g r vity a lo e o
e as the e a a n a n , n

l i e R g it w o ld re ch t h
n , rt h Soo e t h the bal l
u a e ea n r an

f ll i g l o g R g
a n aWe e ther e les p o we it wo u ld n o t
n . r s r
 Does t h e E ar t h R o t a te 1 09

as
it d o es reach th e e thar at th e sa m e ti m e as t he gr vi a

tati n g ball .

F ro m t h is a n aly s i s it w i ll b e pe rce iv e d t h a t i n s tea d o f

t h e ce n t r i fu ga l fo r ce d i m i n i s h i n g g ra vity as i s as s e r ted

b y s o m e to be the fa ct i t o n the co n tra ry a u g m e n ts i t , , ,

b u t p a r ado xi ca l as it a pp e a r s th i s au g m e n ta ti o n i s n o t
, ,

a pp a r e n t fo r t he reas o n t h a t it i s e x p e n de d o n t he l o n ge r
,

li e R
n 11 .

ope ati o f t he l a w her i m ti o d i l l c s

By r n o s e n en ne ,
n a as e

w h e t her i
er m bi ti O f th egr vit ti g d the
s a co na on e a a n an

ce tr i f g l forc
n u d w h i ch prod c
a d i go l force
es , a n u es a a na ,

as l t t o f the cti o f the t w fo c it i

a r es u an y to a ns o o r es , s eas

un der ta d w h y t h e c tri f g l forc w i ll o t e str i or

s n en u a e n r a n

d i m i i h g vity
n s ra .

SECT IO N V W HY D O BO D I ES FA LL FRO M
. G R EA T

HEIG H TS E A S T O F TH E V E RT I CA L ?
M Bi ot i Secti o 1 1 8 f h i w o rk y
.
, n n o s sa s

The rot t i o f t h r th b c m f r t h r e vi de t fro m

a n O e ea e o es u e n

o th e m rk bl p h o m e o
an er r m ly t h
a a d vi ti oe en n n ,
na e e e a n

O f bod i w h i ch f ll fro m
es g t h i gh t a a r ea e .

To d r t d t h i l t

un i m gi e
e s an h y bod y s, e uS a n a ea v

pl ced t g r t d i t c fro m t h r t h
a a a earf c t the s an e e ea

s su a e, a

t op f h igh to w r f
o a x m pl e or e a e .

If th

rth i t r t t h bo d y w i ll f ll t the foo t f
e ea s a es e a a o

th t o w r i t h d i r c ti o f t h v rti c l
e e n e e n o e e a .

B t i f the e r t h t r

u o it l f bod i w h i h p rt ke
a u ns n se ,
es c a a

f t h i m o t i o w i ll h v
o s t th co m m c m t O f th i r
n a e, a e en e en e

f lla v locity f o t ti o x c d i g t h t f t h b e O f
a e O r a n e ee n a o e as

th e to w r cco t f i t g r t r d i t
e on a fro m t h un xi o s ea e s a n ce e a s

f m oti o
o n .

Th w h

us bod y f l l b y t h c m b i d ff c t f th i
en a a s e o ne e e o s

ho r iz o t l m o ti o n a d t h t f g r vi t y i t o g h t t n m t an a o a u o ee

th e a th a l i t tl e i n d vance of t he ver t i c al i
e r t h e di t em a n
1 10 I s th e Cop er n i ca n S y s t e m o
f A s tr o n o my Tr u e.
9

ti o n o f t h e ea r t h s m o ti o n a n d co n s e q u e n t l y a ft e r i t s fa ll

,

it w il l b e a l i t t l e d is t a n ce ea st O f the to wer t h is i s co n
r m e d by e x p e ri m e n t

.

D oes t h i s ph e n o m e n o n p ro v e t h e ro ta ti o n o f t h e e ar t h
T w o ca u ses a r e as s i g n e d fo r t h i s ph e n o m e n o n n a m e l y ,

1 T h e l o n ge f a xi s o f m o ti o n a t t h e top t h a n a t t h e
.
,

b as e o f t h e t o w e r .

2 Th e proj e c ti l e hor iz o n ta l m o t i o n
.
,
O f t h e e arth s r o

t at i o n co m b i n i n g w i t h t h e g r a v i ty O f t h e d es ce n d i n g
bod y T h is co n cl u s i o n as to t h e c au se O f t h e ph e n o m s
.
,

n o n i s n o t lo i c i n t h i s t o w i t
, g ,

Th e hor iz o n ta l m o ti o n m e n ti o n e d i s t h at o f t he e a r t h
o n i t s a xi s .

Th i s m o t i o n is i n fe rre d fro m t h e fa ct th a t t h e bod y

sa
y,
fo r e x a m pl e a h ea vy b a ll
,
fa ll s fro m t h e t op o f a

to w e r ea s t o f i t Th is i n ferr e d or ass u m e d horiz o n t al m o

.

t i o n i s co m b i n e d w it h t h e g ra vity o f t h e d e s ce n d i n g b a ll .

Fro m t h e co m b i n a t i o n O f t h i s i d ea l h or iz o n ta l w i t h t h e

a c t u a l g r a vi t a ti n g forc e t h e co n cl us i o n i s d e d u c t e d t h a t
,

t h e fa l l o f t h e b a l l ca s t O f t h e to w e r i s c a u s ed b y t h e co m b i
n at io n toge th e r w it h t h e g rea te r v eloc ity o f t h e ba ll a t t h e
,

t o p o f t h e to w e r t h a n a t i t s b as e b y r ea o n o f i t s g r ea ter
,
s

d i s ta n ce fro m t h e a xis o f t h e e ar th Th i s co n cl u s i o n i s .

d e fe c tiv e fo r t w o reaso n s .

1 It vi r t u a l l y i g n or es t h e po ss i b i l ity o f t her e b e i n g a n y
.

o the r ca u se fo r t h e ph e n o m e n o n t h an th at i n fe rre d , .

2 Th e ro ta ti o n o f t h e e a r t h w h i c h i s t h e propos iti o n
.
,

to b e p r o v e d i s ass u m e d i n orde r to a cco u n t fo r t h e fa ll o f

,

t h e b all ea s t o f t h e t o w e r w h i c h po s i t i o n o f t h e b all i s r e
,

l ie d o u i n proo f o f s u ch ass u m pti o n w h i ch i s n o t log i cal , ,

u n l es s t h e b a l l ea s t O f the t o w e r i s t h e po s iti o n it w ou ld
b e fo u n d w e r e s u ch ass u m p t io n a fa ct .

B u t as i d e fro m t h i s cr i t i c i s m l e t u s rs t e n q u i r e w h e th e r
t h i s co m b i n a ti o n o f g ra vity w it h a proj e c ti l e force w o u ld
a d d a n y forc e O f proj e c ti o n t o t h e l a t t e r be fore co n s i d e r ,

i g
n w h a t e ff a g
e c t l o n e r d is tan ce f o 1
r m$ 9 a i
1 x s o f m o t ion
 Do w the E ar t h R o tat e 9 . 111

w o ld h v e O
u a -
u the d i r ecti o n of t he b ll whe
a n fa ll i g fro m
n

t h e to p of a t o we r .

Th e ct o f t h co m b i
e ffe e n at io n j t us m e n ti o d ne m ay be
s ho w n wit h Fi g 8 o th .
,
n e ma rg i n.

E A S T

FIG . 8

Her e o ce o f p ojecti o w o ld c ry b ll
the f r r n u ar a a on a

s t r i gh t l i
a y f e x
nem pl e t
saw d fro m t o
or d a e as ar a ,

wh i le g vity wo ld br i g it t c

ra u n o .

I f the c ti o o f t he ai
a t he b ll et d i g it be
n r on a , r ar n ,

o m itted d the t wo force lo e p e v i l d t h b ll

, an se s a n r a e , e a

w o ld m o v e l o g d w o ld be c i ed t

u B a n a ,
an u ar r o

M r m e t o f the l i e d d c 4 w i ll Sho w th m
e as u e n n s a an e

to be o f the m e l g t h l o th t the oppo i t e l i e

sa en s, a s a s n s ar e

p r llel The b ll i m o v d e t w rd f o m to 4 b y t h
a a . a s e as a r a e

co m b i ti o o f c t h g it ti g fo ce w ith d t h hori
na n a e rav a n r ,
a e

zo t l projecti le forc
n a e .

Th e force t o t h b ll f l l i g fro m t h top o f t h

es s ac n e a a n e e

to w e i f t h e t h rot t e
r, e d ar ch m bi ti o co tr i b a s, an su co na n n

u te i projec ti g t h e b l l
s n t f t h t wer
n ccord i g t a ea s o e o , a n o

M Bi o t
. ppe b y t h l t q ot ti o fro m h i m
, as a ars e as u a n .

It w i l l b O b v d t h t t h b l l t 4 i
e se r f rt h r
e t a e a a s no u e ea s

th an i t w o ld he were i t d r i ven e t wa r d fro m

u to d b y as a
 112 Is th e C p er n i
o can Sy ste m o
f A s tr o n o my Tr u e.
9

the projecti l e fo r ce a l o n e s ee i n g t h at d i s the sam e d is

,

ta n c e ea s t a s i s 4 .

Th e n the co m bi n a tio n O f g ra vity w ith a hor i z o n tal p r o

j e c t i l e force w i ll n o t c a rr y a b a l l be y o n d t h e v e r ti c a l l i n e ,

t o w h i ch l i n e t he projec ti l e forc e w o u ld c a rry it w ere

th e re n o s u ch co m b i n at i o n .

Then s u ch co m b i n ati o n ca n n o t be the cau se O f a ball

fa ll i n g fro m t h e t o p o f a h i g h t o w er ea s t O f it n o r co n t r i b ,

u t e t o s u ch res u l t Th e n it ca n n o t be tr u e as asserte d i n
.
,

t h e l a t q u o ta ti o n fro m M Bi o t t h a t :
s .
,

W he n a bod y fa ll s b y t h e co m b i n ed e ffe ct O f t h is hor i

z o n t a l m o ti o n a n d th a t o f g r a vity it o u g h t t o m e e t t he

e a r t h a l itt le i n a d v a n ce o f t h e v er ti ca l

a n d co n s e u e n t l y a fte r i t s fa ll it w i ll b e a l itt le d i s ta n ce

q
ea s t o f t he t o w e r h r o d

( w e e it
,
i s f u n ) .

It n o w re m a i n s to atte m pt t o S ho w th at a l tho u g h t h e
fa ll i n g b all h as a g r e a ter d i s t a n ce fro m t he a xi s o f t he
eart h s m oti o n at t h e top o f t h e to wer th an h as the bas e O f

the to wer th at s u ch fa c t w i ll n o t ca u s e t h e ba l l to fa ll
,

eas t o f t h e t o w er .

1 It w i l l b e S ho w n th a t w he n a proj e c ti l e forc e i s co m
.

b i n e d w it h g ra vity t he l a tte r forc e i s n e it her i n cre as e d

,

n o r d i m i n i s h e d b y t he co m b i n a ti o n .

2 It w i ll b e a tte m p ted t o b e Sho w n th a t as t he ba l l a n d

.

to we r h a v e a v eloc ity i n co m m o n t h e ball i n fal l i n g fro m ,

the t o p o f the to wer w o u ld h a v e n o lo n ger a xi s o f m o ti o n

t h a n th a t o f t h e t o w o r a n d t h at t h e b al l w o u ld n o t fall
,

e as t o f t h e to we r be ca u se o f i t s lo n ger d i s ta n ce fro m the '

a xi s O f m o ti o n .

Th e follo w i n g i s C op i ed fro m a s tan d a rd w ork o n N a t

u r a l ph i lo s oph y
'

.

I n Fi g 1 8 i s S ho w n a c a n n o n w h i ch i s load e d w it h
.

ball a n d pl ace d a t the top o f a to we r at s u ch a h ei gh t as
t o r e q u i re j u s t 3 s e co nds fo r an other ba l l to d es cen d e r

p
en d i cu l a r l y
p .
 D o es th e E ar t h R o ta te 9 . 1 13

FIG . l8 .

No w s u pp os e the can n o n t o be red i n a ho r i zo n t al d i
r ec ti o n a n d a t t he s a m e i n st a n t t he o t her ba ll to b e

d r oppe d to war d the gr o u n d .

They wi ll both r each the hor i zo n tal l i n e 3 B at the

sa m e i n sta n t .

I n t h i s g u r e t he d o tt e d l i n e C a rep r ese n ts t he v e r ti
cal l i n e o f t he fa ll i n g b a ll The do tted l i n e C B is the

cu r vi l i n ea r path o f t he proj e cted ball .

D u r i n g t h e r s t s eco n d o f ti m e t he b all r e aches 1 t h e ,

n e xt s eco n d 2 a n d a t
, ,
the e n d o f t he t h i rd s eco n d it
r e a ch es t he gro u n d M h le h a t projecte d

( 3 B ),
ea n w .i t

fro m t h e can n o n r each es 4 w h i l e t he o t he r b all rea ch es 1 ,

4 1 be i n g par a llel t o the hor iz o n s h o w i n g t h a t t he t w o

, ,

ball s fall do w n w ard w it h t h e sam e v e l ocity D u ri n g t h e .

n e x t s eco n d t he b a ll fro m t h e can n o n r e ache s 5 w h i le

t h e o th e r fa l l s t o 2 bot h h a vi n g e q u a l des ce n t

.
,

D u r i n g the th i r d s eco n d t he t wo b all s w i l l r e a ch t h e

g ro u n d o n t he hori zo n tal l i n e 3 B at the sa m e ti m e .

Th i s p r oves th at the force O f gr a vity i s n e ither i n cr eased

n o r d i m i n i s h e d b y t he forc e o f p r ojec ti o n .

I n co n n ec ti o n w i t h F i g 8 it h as bee n p r o v ed th at gr a v
.

ity does n o t ad d an y force to t h at o f p r ojecti o n Then .

,

as gr a vity i s t h u s o u t o f the q u es ti o n if a n y r el i an ce is
,

l aced o n t he fal l o f t he b al l east o f t h e tower as evid en ce

p
1 14 I s th e Cop er n i can Sy s te m f
o A s t r on o m y Tr u e I?

of t he rth s o t ti o it m t be becau e the g t

ea

r a n e us s r ea er v

l i t y f t h b ll t t he t p O f the to w e t h
oc o e a a t i ts b e o r an a as

t hro w or i g s t he b ll f o m t h to p
s, u d t gle t o
a r e ,
an a a n an

th t f c f t he tow
a a e o lo g wh i ch it f ll er a n a s .

M Bi o t i t h q o t tio l t m de f o m h i boo k sa s
. n e u a n as a r s , y

B t i f t h e rt h t r

u o its el f bod i es w h i ch p ta k
e a u ns n ,
ar e

of t h i m o ti o w i ll h v e
s t t he mm
n m t O f t he i r
a ,
a co en c e en

f ll a v loc ity o f ro t ti o e x ceed i g th t o f t he b e o f

,
a e a n n a as

t h to w re c o t f i t g ate d i t ce f o m t h a xi s
e on a c un o s re r s an r e

o f m o ti o

n .

Tw o m ore bod i e or m ay h v e m o ti o i co m m o
s a a n n n

h vi g t h m v loc ity i the d i ecti o O f ch m oti

a n e sa e e n r n su on ,

for e x m pl bo t d i t pas e ge
a e a h o e d i ts
a an s s n r, a rs an

r i der 82 ,
0 .

A cco d i g t t h fo ego i g q o ta ti o the f l l i g b l l

r n o e r n u n a n a

h as t t he

mm a m t o f i ts f ll
co v el o c ity o f ota ti o
e n ce en a a r n

e x ceed i g th t o f the b e f t he to we
n a as o r .

T h i the m t be the po i t w he e the g e t es t p oj ec

s, n, us n r r a r

ti l force ct o it Th i t h m t be t he po i t w he e
e a s n . s en us n r

it l t h f c o f t he t o w e
ea v e s e d fo ma e gl e to it r an r s an an

b tu bod i t h t p r t ke f t h i m o tio

es a m el y t he
a a o s n,

na ,

e r t h ro t ti o h v e v eloc ity O f o t ti o t the to p o f

a

s a n ,

a a r a n

a

t h to w r
e x c ed i g th t f t h b e O f t he to we r
e

e e n a o e as .

B t the top f the t w o f t he b o d i es w h i ch p

u i o o o er s ne ar

t k O f th i m o ti o c o m m e ce m e t

a e d h s t th n , of
an as a e n n

t h f ll f t he b ll
e a om o ti o i c o m m o w ith it t h e to we r
a , a n n n ,

h vi g t t h co m m c m e t O f the f ll O f t he b ll t h e
a n a e en e n a a ,

sa m l gt h d i t ce fro m the xi o f the ea r th s m oti on

e en or s an a s

as th b l l m e t h v e t he m v el o c ity
a ,
us t he ba l l I n
a sa e as .

su ch c e h o w as t he ball ge t O ff t h f ce o f t he to we
can e a r,

co i ci d t w ith the f ce f w h i ch it i p p o ed to b e at
n en a o s su s

th i e t t i t com m c d i t f ll
n s an en e s a

Th p e ger h vi g m oti o i co m m o w ith t h e

e ass n a n a n n n

b o t co ld o t g t he d o f it s
a u n effec t o f ch m o t i o
e a a , a an su n.

N o the r i der he d o f h i m o vi g h o
r a To d o t h i s
a s n r se .

an o t h er an d i n dep e n d en t for ce wo u l d b e n ecessar y .

 D o es th e E ar th R o ta te 9
. 1 15

ll y o d by O perati o o f t he m e l w eit her

E q ua s , an n sa a s, n

c o ld the bal l t t h co m m e cem e t f i t s f ll get b e

u a e

n n

o a

y o d the f ce o f the t o wer t t h ti m it co m m e ced t o

n a a e e n

f lla Th . o gle co ld b for m ed by the f ll i g b ll

en n an u e a n a

w it h t he t o w ; t h it co l d o t
er f ll e t o f it en d t h t it u n a as an a

d oes o i s e vi d ce o f the rth ot ti o

s no en ea

s r a n .

To i ll t r te t h cti o o f t h t p o f the to w er
us a e a n e o

an d the b ll t t he i ta t i t c o mm e ced fall i g t he

a a ns n n n ,

t w o m o vi g w it h co m m o v loc ity ppos e the ca o

n a n e su nn n

,

-
Fi g 1 8 were p roj cted by o m e e xt a o force w it h e s r ne us ,

t he m e v l oc ity i t he m e d i rec ti o a d t t he s am e
sa e ,
n sa n n a

i t t the b ll were d
ns an a re .

The b l l d c o w o ld e ch the ea t h at t he m e
a an an n n u r a r sa

n s an
i t t i f the i t ce o f the i be e x cl dedr es s a n d t he a r u an

b ll w o ld o t be project d f o m the c o beca e the

a u n e r an n n ,
us

b ll d ca o w o ld h v e
a an nn l i ty i
n mm u Th is a a ve oc n co on .

e l t w i ll be d m itt d A d fo th i
r su a o the bal l
e . n r s r ea s n

co ld o t g t i d v ce o f the c o
u n e n a o t he f ll i g
an an n n, n r a n

b ll i d v ce f t h to p f the to w r At the top o f t he

a n a an o e o e .

to w r t the i t t t h b l l co m m e c to f ll t h e b l l
e ,
a n s an e a n es a , a

an d t h t op o f the to w e h ve v elocity i co m m o Ho w er a a n n .

th the b ll ge t i d v c o f t h m o vi g tower ?
e n ca n a n a an e e n

W he ce co m e the forc th t w o ld p ojec t it

n s l ittle d i e a u r

a s

ta ce n t o f the to w eas ? C rta i l y o t f o m the e r t h s

er

e n n r a

r o tati o n .

The c tio o f pe d l m m er v e to S h ow t h t the

a n a n u u av s a

c es el i ed o by t o o m r fo t h ball f l l i g fro m
aus r n as r n e s r e a n a

h igh t o w r t O f it w i ll o t prod ce th is effect fo e x

e eas , n u ,
r

a m ple
D id p n d l m o c ill t y chro o sl y t the b e o f
a e u u s a e s n n u a as

of mo
a t i it w i l l doun a n , t i t t op f e v ery whe e t he SO a s , or r

p d l m mov
en u u tho g h c t d b y gr vity l o e
e s as u a e on a a n .

S ppos ch pe d l m to o ci ll t E t d W es t t
u e su n u u s a e as an a

the t op o f P i k p k o t h P e k o f T er i fe fo e x m
e s

ea , r e a en ,
r a

ple At the t o p o f ch p k t h xi f t h e e r th w o ld
. su ea e a s o a u

b e 3 or 4 m i l es fu r th er th a t i t s b ase n o .
1 16 I s t h e Cop er n i can Sy stem A str on o my Tr u e 9
o
f .

G raco m b i ed w i t h t h proj cti le force O f the ar th s

vity n e e e

rot t i o cti g fro m the e xt r m ity f l o ger xis f m

a n a n e o a n a o o

ti o i d to c e t h b l l t o f l l e t O f t h t o we A
n ar e s a au s e a a as e r . s

th p e d l m o i ll te
en u u t d w t t t he top f t h
sc a s e as an es a o e

p k it i ct d o ( 1 ) b y g r vity ( 2 ) b y t h p j ec ti l
ea s a e n a ,
e ro e

force d to the e rt h ro t ti o ( 3 ) b y v t l y lo ger

ue a s a n ,
a as n

a xi o f m oti o th t h t i d t o g iv v el o c ity to t h b l l
s n an a sa e e a

f ll i g fro m the to we
a n Th l l t he ele m t d o d i r . us a en s an c n

ti o n s arepr t i the c e i t h o ther Y t t he

es e n n one as as n e . e

a c ti o f t h pe d l m f r i he o e vi de ce th t it i
n o e n u u u n s s n n a s

a c t d o b y the m e forc
e n tho e i d to m o v t h b l l
sa es as s sa e e a

fro m t h l i e o f t h to w r fo the r
e n o th t it b t y e e ,
r e as n a ea s s n

c h l y t t h t op O f t h p k s t i t b e
o n o us a e Y t d i d the e ea , a a s as . e

e rth m o v e t he b ll t f t he to w er t h

a t ti s ro a on m a eas O ,
e sa e

forc w o ld m o e t he p d l m b l l e t w ith g r ter

u ve en u u a as ea ve

l o i t y th
c it co ld m o v w t he ce it co ld o t b t
an u e es , n u n ea

s y ch r o n o u sl y .

Why ct ? b c
is th i s the
i f the e t h doe t ro fa e au s e ar s no ~

t t t h i ph o m o i th t w h i ch w i l l take pl ce
a e s en en n s a a as an

eff c t f t rr tr i l g r vit
e o e es a a y .

D id t h rth ro t te t h p d l m it l f w o ld h v e
e ea a ,
e en u u se u a a

m o ti o m l y th t o f t h
n na e
r th rot ti o i com m o
, a e ea

s a n a n

w it h i t o c i ll ti g b l l
s sA co eq e ce f t h i m o ti o
a n a . S a ns u n o s n

i co m m o
n v i f the e rt h ro t t it w i ll t O b e v d
n , e en a a es ac as s r e ,

na m ly tho g h c t ed po b y g r vity lo e
e , as u a u n a a n .

A o ti o i
m mm r l ti g fro m the m forc
n n co on es u n sa e es

as tho cti g t h p d l m b l l t t h e to p o f the

se a n on e en u u a a

mo t i
un a nc t o b ll d to w r a s n a an e .

Th f c t t h t the b l l i fo d e t f t h to w er i e vi
e a a a s un as o e s

de e b y
nc logy to t h pe d l m e x peri m e t th t
an a e n u u n a

s om th th
e ca u s e o ot ti o proj ct t h f ll i g b l l
er an r a n e s e a n a

e t f th t o w f w r it t h ff c t f t he e r t h o t
as o e er, or e e e e e O a

s r a

t io thn p d l m b l l p l c d t t h to p O f t h p k
,
e en u u a a e a e e ea

w o ld h v u lo g d i t c fro m the xi f m o t i o th
a e a n er s an e a s o n an

wo u l d t h e b al l at t h e t o p of t h e t owe an d fr o m t h e r ea r,
 Do es the E ar th R o ta t e t

1 17

so n g ive f the f l l f t h b ll t o f t h to w r ho ld
n or a o e a eas e e S u

b e ff c ted i
e e corre p o d i g m n a r s n n an n e .

A i ll tr ti o f t h ff c t prod c d w h e t w o r
S an us a n o e e e u e er o

m o e b od ir h v m o ti o
es i a co m m o
e a ppo th t n n n , su se a a

s tati o ry r i l w y t r i h
na a a o r d a n ch d f as a ca n n n e o n ea en O

t h tr ie i m l t eo l y ch b l l t r i k i g t rg t t t h
a n s u an us , ea a s n a a e a e

oppo ite d o f the t r i t the m e ti m

s en a n a sa e .

r
S ppo g i th t t h t r i be t rted
u se a a n a d to h v e a n s a , an a e

an
y g i v loc ity
ve n L t t h
e c o b . r d eb f or e an n ns e e as e e,

an d t he r pec tiv e b ll w i ll t r i k t h i r r p c t iv t r g t
es a s s e e es e e a e s

a t th m ti m
e sa b for T h r o f t h i i t h t
e e , as e e . e e as n O s s, a

w h i le t he b l l red fro m t h a r h t w m o ti o m ly e r ea as o n s, n a e ,

t h t f t h t r i c m b i d w ith t h t c
a o e a n o d by t h p l ne a au se e ex o

s iv e y e t t he t rget
, t he f o t f the tr i i m o vi g
a on r n o a n s n

a w y fro m t h i r d b l l w ith t h
a s m e v locity a th t e sa e e as a

giv e ch b l l by t h m ot i o f t h t r i
n su a H c th i
e n o e a n en e s

.

b l l h b t the v e l oc i t y pr cti c ll y g iv it b y t h
a as u a a en e

e x plo iv The o ther b l l m o vi g fro m t h fro t to t he

s e . a n e n

r e r f the tr i h t co t d g i t t h v elocity
a o a n as o n en a a ns e

g i ve it b
n y t he x pl iv b y t h t r ei m o vios g i d i
e,r e a n n n a ce

ti o oppo it th t f t h b ll w h i ch p
n s e a o t t d i m i i he
e a ,
ro an o n s s

t h v e l oc ity o f t h red b l l
e B t t co m p
e t t h i lo a . u o e n sa e s ss

th r e r d f t h t r i i m o vi g to w rd t h i b l l w ith
ea en o e a n s n a s s a

the v eloc i t y f the tr i w h i ch i o ctl y t h t w h i c h the

a n , s e xa a

b ll h lo t by t h m o t io f t h t r i O p p o ite i d i r
a as s e n o e a n s n ce

ti o to th t g iv by t h e x p lo iv ; th b ll tri k
.

n a en e s e so e a s es

the t rg t a the e r d f the tr i i m p ll d by t h

on r ea en o a n e e e ex

plo iv al os e t th m e ti m
n e, a d i d t h o th r b ll t i k
e sa e as e e a s r e

i t t rg t
s a Th i ho w th t t w or m or bod i h vi g
e . s s s a o e es a n a

m o ti o i co m m o n n t t w d h th n ac t ho g h t h y
o ar s ea c o er as u e

h d a m o ti o
no Wi l l t t h i l w p p l eq ll y to t h
n . no s a a v ua e

a cti o f t h b ll d to w r ?
n o e a an e

Fi g 8 d 1 8 ho w t h t t h c m b i t i o f p j
s . an s s a e o na n O a r o ec

ti l e forc w ith g vity prod c e ra o t h r ff ct th u es no e e e an

ch gi g the d i rec ti o f th force

an n n o ese s .
 1 18 Is th e Cop er n ic an Sy stem of A s tr on o my ue 9
.

S u p p os e t he cu r vel l i n ea r d o tte d l i n e Fi g 1 8 t o r ep r e .

s e n t t he c u r v e o f t he e ar t h s r o ta ti o n

.

Di d t he t o we r m o v e t o 4 b y t he ear t h s r o tati o n r ep r e

, ,

s e n t ed b y t he l i n e T T the ba ll i n v i r tu e o f the s am e

,

p r ojecti le for ce eq ual to th at o f the to wer w ou ld the n as

, , ,

befor e be co i n ci de n t wit h t h e l i n e o f the to wer B u t th is

, .

fo r ce i s co m b i n e d w it h g r a vity a n d w h i le t he ba l l p r o
,

ce ed s to T T it fall s to 4 the sa m e l a ws acti n g u po n i t

,

as t h os e w h i ch b r o u gh t t he c a n n o n b a ll t o 4 i n Fi g 1 8 .
,

By O pe r ati o n o f the sam e l aws w he n the to w er h ad

m o v ed i n s p a ce s ay fo r e x a m ple t o t he l i n es T 5 T 6
, ,
,

t h e ba ll w o u ld be o n t he face o f t he t o wer at 5 t he n a t 6 , .

a n d w o u ld fa ll to t he ear t h o n t he l i n e o f t he to w e r at b ,

a n d c o u ld n o t be b y ope r a ti o n o f the l a ws as t r o n o m e r s
,

r el y o n a l itt le d i s t a n ce t o t he eas t o f it

.
,

I f as t r o n o m er s S h o u ld m a i n ta i n t h a t t he p os iti o n O f t he
h al l w here fo u n d e as t o f t he to wer i s t h at d u e to t he c au s es
wh i ch t h e y s ay pl ace it w h e re fo u n d a n d t h at i ts pos i ,

ti on is n o t ai ded b y the ac ti o n o f a n y other cau se a pl an ,

s i ble a r g u m e n t m ay s er v e t o S ho w t h a t the p o s i ti o n o f the

ball ea s t o f the to wer i s e vi de n ce th at the ear th does n o t

r o ta t e i n s te a d o f be i n g
,
as it i s r e g a rded the s t ro n ges t
e vi d e n ce th at it d oes .

It i s a fac t so well k n o w n th a t t he fr i cti o n an d i n e r ti a

o f t he ai r r e t a rd s t he v eloc ity o f bod i e s m o vi n g i n it t h a t ,

t he m an y fam i l i ar e x a m pl es o f it m ay be o m itte d

.

A s t he b all Fi g 1 8 fa ll s fro m t he t o p o f the t o w e r t o

.

t h e e ar t h i n 3 s e co n d s a ccord i n g to t h e l a w go v e r n i n g
,

fall i n g bod i es t he t o we r wi ll b e 1 4 4 fee t h i gh .

D i d t he e ar t h r o ta te it w o u ld m o v e 4 392 fee t i n th r ee
,

s eco n d s e s ti m ati n g i ts r a d i u s a t 4 000 m i les

, C o n s i der i n g .

t h is s hor t d is tan ce the cu r v e o f the p at h o f the ear th

,

w o u l d v ar y fro m a s t r ai gh t l i n e b u t a fe w i n che s ; h en ce
'

fo r i ll u s t r ati o n t h is p at h i n t he s hor t S pace o f 4 3 9 2 fee t

,

m ay be r e g ar ded as a s tr ai gh t o r hor i zo n tal l i n e .

Did t he e ar t h r o ta te the b al l i n fal l i n g fr o m t he t O p o f

,
 Does the Ear th R o ta te 1 19

a to wer o l d b e i m pe l led b y gr vity d the proj cti l

w u a an e e

fo ce e l ti g f o m the e t h ot ti o Co i deri g t h
r r su n r ar s r a n ns n e

e p i m e t Fig 1 8 th i w i l l be co ceded
x er n . s n .

D id t h e t h o t te t he d i ec t i o
e ar f t he b ll f ll i g
r a ,
r n o a a n

f om t h t o p o f to w e wo ld b th t f
r e obl iq l i
a r u e a o an ue n e,

th t i to y t h e b ll w l d m v e e it h r co i c i d t w ith
a s sa , a ou o n e n en

1 1$ h a m d i ct io f t he e t h m o t i o i t he
r re n o ar s n , n or n

n o m l d i ect i o
r a Of g v i ty
r n ra .

Th t t h b l l i ch c e w o ld f ll obl i q l
a e a , n su j t as , u a ue y as us

s t at ed m y b e d m itt d w he
, a the x pl t io
a f Fi g e , n e an a ns o s .

5 8, d 18 an co i de d ar e ns re .

I ch c e the b ll i f ll i g w o ld m o v e o i c i d t
n su as a n a n u c n en

i d i ec ti o w ith
n r n
h y po the e l i e o m e w h t a d n us n s a cu r r e so

,

to s pe k Of a t i gle f w h i ch t he h i g h t f t he to w
a r an , o e o er

w o ld b e t he p e p d ic l d t h b e th t f t h hor i

u r en u ar , a n e as a o e

z o nt l l i e a n .

Th i h y po t he s e l i e w o ld be f co r l o ger th n us n u , o u se , n an

e ith e o f t h t w o the l i e How e v er i

r e o y c e t he
r n s .
, n an as ,

le gth n l o the gle f t h i o b l iq l i e w o ld d p d

, as a s an , o s ue n u e en

on t h e h i gh t f t he t o w e e d the l g th f o y g iv r , an en O an en

b li e
ase n .

The tm o phe e w o ld m o v e hor izo t l co i c i d t i

a s r u n a ,
n en n

d i ecti o with th t f the e th d to wer

r n d wit h
a o ar an ,
an an

eq ua l el ocity o eq e tl y the v locity f t h to wer

v , c ns u n e o e

w ii l d
o o t be e t ded b y the fri cti o or i r ti f the i
n r ar ,
n ne a o a r .

B t ch w o ld t be the c e w ith f l l i g b ll b
u su u no as a a n a , e

e i t mn l d o t m ove i the m d i r cti o th t

"
ca u s u n n sa e e n as e a

m o p h f s th i t og ther w ith t h t o w er w o ld m o v e
er as s e e u

h o i zo t ll y w h i le the f ll i g b ll w o ld m o v e ob l i q e to
r n a ,
a n a u u

su c h d i ec ti o r n .

F th i e o b o th the fri c ti o
or s r as d i rti f th
n t n an ne a o e a

m ph os w h i ch the b ll w o ld m
er e, t th O bl i q e p t h a u ee on e u a

o f i t m o ti o s w o ld be o v erco m b y itn, u e .

The b l l w o ld ec r i l y e x pe d por t i o f i t force

a u n es s a n a n o s

t o d o th i d th i co q e ce w o ld e l t i
s , an s as a n se u n u r su n a re

t ar d t i o of t h e v el o c ity o f t he m o vi g b ll
a n n a .
120 Is the Cop er n ica n Sy stem of A s tr on omy Tr u e 9 .

Th at s ch w o ld b the c se m y p rh p be ho w
u u e a , a , e a s, s n

b y co m p r i g t h e m o ti o o f t h
a n t m o ph r d t o w er n e a s e e an ,

co i ci de t w ith the d i rec ti o o f t h e rth m o ti o to

n n n e a

s n, a

boat d the c rre t b y w h i ch i t m o v h vi g th

an u n es , a n us a

m o ti o i co m m o
n n i d i recti o o f t he co r
n ,
f n iv e n u se o a r r,

s ay fo e x a m pl r e .

I s ch c se
n u the bo t o t lo g w it h the c r e t
a ,
as a a s a n u r n ,

i ts m ot i o i ni m ped d b y fr i cti o o f the w ter o it

s un e d n a n , an

it h s o i er ti a o f t he w ter t o o v rco m e bec

a n n the a e , au se

b o t a d the w ter
a n w h i ch it o t h v e t h
a onme l oc a s a e sa ve

ity , a m el y
n v elocity i co m m o
, a n n .

B t i f t h e bo t m
u t h i p o w o bl i q e t o the d i c
a an urn s s r u re

ti o o f t he c e t
n d o w fo t he S hore i
ur r n , a dd iti o
an to r s r ,
n n

t he b t c t fo ce e x pe ded i re ch i g t he S h o re he
a s ra r n n a n ,

m us t e x pe d ch fo rce n m y be eces r y t o o v erco m e

su as a n sa

t he f i cti o r d i er tin an f t h e w te w h i ch r i ts h i p o
n a o a r es s s r

g re ss i t he n d i ec ti o he i t he r g o i g t he w t
n er doe s n n ,
as a s

n o t m o ve i t he obl i q d i r cti o i w h i ch t h b o t i s
n ue e n n e a

th e m o vi g
n n .

The Ob l i q e d i ectio o f the b ll i f l l i g from the top

u r n a n a n

O f the to w er
d i d the ear th ro t te o t b i g i the d i a n e n n ,

r ecti o o f t he tm o ph i c c r e t i
n a logo to the
s er u r n , s an a us

b o at i ll s t ti o u d t he f l l i g b l l wo ld
ra n , an s t he b o t a n a . u a a

m an i t he cas o f t h bo t h v e to ex p e d
n e po tio O fe a -
a n a r n

i t s fo ce t o o v e co m e t he f i c ti o
r r d i er ti f t he t m os r n an n a o a

h e i crc e t w
urr h i ch doe n ot m ov i t he m e d i rec ti o s n e n sa n
p ,

as t h t o f t he f ll i g b ll
a a n a .

I s ch c s e t he b ll w ou ld o t m o v e
n u a f i t he
a d i n so ar n

r ec ti o o f i t s m o ti o
n s it wo ld h e h d i ts m oti o o t
n a u av , a n n

h v e bee so esi ted

a n r s .

C lc l ti o w i ll S h o w th t wh i l e the to w er i co m m o
a u a n a ,
n n

w it h t he ea t h w i ll m o v e 4 3 9 2 f t O
r ,
e l y h o i zo ee n a n ar r n

t a l l i e i 3 eco d
n n b ll fall i g fro m t h t o p O f to w e
s n s, a a n e a r

1 4 4 fee t h i gh w o ld i th ,
m e ti m e u ch the ea t h n e sa r ea r

m ov i g o a o bl i q e l i e 5 1 2 4 fee t lo g
n n n u n n .
 Does the E

ar t h R o ta te 9 . 1 21

The e xte t o f the e i t c f t h i to the m o ti o f

n r s s an e o e a r n o

t h i b ll w o ld be p opor ti o t to t h d iff
s a u b tw r na e e er e n c e e ee n

t he d i t ce the b l l f ll lo g t h O bl i q l i
s an m a ti o a s a n e ue ne en n

ed m el y 5 1 24 f t d t h d i t c the r th
, na ,
ee d ,
an e s an e ea an

to w r w o ld m o v e hor iz o t ll y i t h
e u m tim th n a n e sa e e as e

f ll i g b ll
a n m l y 4 3 9 2 fe t i 3
a , co d
na e e n se n s .

Th i d iff re c i 7 3 2 f et w h i ch i m ore th 5 ti m e
s e n e s e , s an s

the he i gh t o f t h t o w r e e .

Le t ow q i r t
us n o t h e xt t f t h
en i tu ce O f e as e en o e r es s a n

th i i t he m o ti o
e a r o f bod i
n Th thor f o m w ho e n es . e au ,
r s

t d rd w o k o
s an a N t r l P h i lo o ph y Fi g 8 w s
r n

a u a s ,

. a

Cop i ed y , sa s :

The force f projecti o w o ld c r y b ll fro m A to D

o n u a r a a

see
Fi g 8 wh i le g r vity w o ld br i g it t o c
. a u n .

I f the e t wo force

lo e p r v i l d t h b ll w o l d pro
s s a n e a e e a u

d o th li e
ce e B to 4
n e n a .

t h re i t of th i op r t d i r ct O p

B t u as e i s s an c e e a r e a es n e

po iti o t o t h forc O f pr j c t i o i t d o f re ch i g t h
s n e e o e n, n s ea a n e

gro d t 4 the b ll wi l l f ll o m wh r bo t t h l i e
un a a a s e e e a u e n

v va r

A s o ld o t b i m o ti o i t h obl i q e d i r
th e ai r w u n e n n n e u ce

ti o the b ll w o ld m o v fro m t h t p f t o w r c rr i ed
n a u e e o o a e a

alo g hor i z o t ll y by ro t ti g r t h t h b ll m o vi g
n n a a a n ea , e a n on

su ch O b l iq l i w o ld m t t h r i t c o f t h i
ue ne u ee e es s a n e e a r

a l o g l i 7 32 f t l o g
n a ne ee n ;

W h t th i r i t c m y m o t t o m y b
a s es s a n ti m t d e a a un a e es a e

i r t rd i g t h v loc ity f the f ll i g b ll b y t h

n e a n e e o a n a e ex

te t O f ch r t r d ti o S ho w
n su Fi g 8
e a a n n on . .

A to w er 1 4 4 f t h i gh w o ld b b t t h eep rt O f t h u e u e a e

ra di f th us o rt h e ea .

C lc l ti o o th i b i w i l l S ho w t h t t h v loc ity O f
a u a n n s as s a e e

o f t he t p f t h to w r i
o o xc f th t f i t b
e w o ld e n e ess o a o s as e u

be O y i ig i c t i co m p ri o w i t h t h l o f
S v er ns n an n a s n e ss o ve

I
h h
n a n ote I i c l cl d h h i c f h i
t e au t o r sa

t u at e t at t r e s st an t
h ll f p d w igh i h h v l ci f 0 0 f i
y s, s a e e o e a r

to two o un e t, w t t ty 2 0 ee t
v
a ca n n o n a O s e e o o n a se c

on d i m ,
h s q u i l
ore 6 0 i
t an e h w i g h f h b ll a en t to t m es t e e t o t e a .

1 22 I s the Cop ern ica n Sy s tem of . A s tr on o my Tr ue

l o ci t y au s c ed b
y t h e r ta r a ti n o f the ai r e d mi t o wh i ch gh
b e as m u ch
as o n e s i x t of t r e ti -
h
ib r ce , as s h w n he p oj c le o
b g l
y Fi 8 o u a i n 7 3 2 f e t l n g , t at it sho u
. ld b e rin
g e o h
b ll he
t h e a w es t o f t t w o er .

ce he ob e
He n , t s rv b ll l e d
fa o f a a
ce
a ittl ed ll
is t a n east
of t he o er d oe
t w
s n ot he o o
r ve t he e
r ta ti n o f t po ar th as

er ed
as s ro o
t b y as t n m s See o e ( n t ) er . .

M o Bi t , i n
. ok pe k g
o f h i s w r , s ay s , s a inhe of t

ll bo e
fa o f he o e
d i s eas t o f t t w r .

po e he e h
I f we s u p s t o ble he e phe o
ar t im m va t s n m en a .

d e p
a m it o f n o o
x lan at i n
.

o ego g l
Y et , i f t h e f r l he
i n a n a y s i s o f t h e aw s oke in v s,

sho h he e phe o e
w s t at t s l e o he
n m n a w i l n o t r su l t fr m t m th e
c h he e
fa t t at t y d oe
xi s t p o e he o
s n ot r v t r t a ti o n o f t h e

e r h e e o gh e e ph e o e be e pl c ble
a t , v n th u th s n m na in x i a .

The pr e t w ite wi l l o w t r y h is p i e ti ce h d i n
es n r r .

n
'
n an

fr m i g t h e o y w h i ch t o h i m l oo k s pl ausi bl e al th o u gh
a n a r ,

po i bl y it m ay ot cco u t fo the phe om e j s t m en

ss ,
n a n r n na u

t io n e d .

The c pital l a w go v i g f l l i g bo d es 8 th t they

a er n n a n i 1 a

f ll v erti c l l i es I d d iti o to t h is it appe s th t

'

a on a n . n a n ar a

gr vity e x ert i ts fo ce to bri g fal l i g b od ies o u ch

a s r n n n s

l i e Th i ppe s f o m the foll o wi g q u o tati o f om a

n s . s a ar r n n r

s ta d n d wo k o N t l ph i lo oph y n am l y
ar r n

a ur a s ,

e :

The force o f g vity d the es is ta ce o f the i c use

ra an r n a r a

es t o fa m a e m b h as ce n t a n d d e

i l : i n t he i
p jr o ec t ort r

Th i lw f l li g w d h h b
moon t o a r s t e e ar t , i bi d i h
u t g r av t y co m w t
ci v
e s a ay s a n ne
h p j il f h i b h h
t e r o e r t e o r ce a t n g o n t e m o o n c a u ses t t o r e o l ve a o u t t e ear t
i h
n g t at i t re o v l v b u h h i bi w d b
es a o t t e e a r t ts o r t oul h i um f
e , so t o say , t e c r c
.

c f w h l f w h i ch h h
w ld b h
t e e a r t s ce n t r e v
e t e na eTh m
er

ld b di f h i f i Th b ll i id f ll
en e o a ee , o ou e oon .

wo u e m o st sta n t r o m t e a x s o m o t o n to a f east o
ff c w h ic h i i wi h h
e a s sa .

w f h
t h e t o e r , as a n e e t o t e ca u ses a c t n co n n e t o n t m
t e m oo n s

i B i f c di b vd
c
o
t on ut a mot on o h
t h e m o o n t u s a u se m
s n o t o se r e , as as t r o n o

h i i h h y f c i wh i h h f
. e r s as

se r t , of h

i
t e m o o n s m ) t O D , t a t t s t e t eo r a tt r a t o n

i h d wi h h k wl dg d
o as ur
h
c

t t e no e e an f p h
m ea su r e o t h e s e T
en o m e n a

h m en t e
l i l i
h s e us oo n
hi h i id
.

h f h h
as n o e as t e r y m o t o n r e s u t n g r o m t e m ec a n i ca l p i l e w to
i h bl i
. ri nc c s sa
ve t e l f h
a m o t o n eas t o t w f wh
e to er, ro m o i f
t l t
Th i f c d
g a p se o a s
b ll ll
.

h hy p
s a t a m o u n t s t o a n a r u m e n t a v e r se t o t e h i h h
o t es s t a t t e f
g
i
a a
i n g ea st o f w i
d by h
t h e t o e r , s ca us e f h h f w
t e r o ta t o n o t e e ar t , o r h i hs tru , t e
f ll i b ll h ld b
er e t e

m oo n l
a so a a ng a f h p i i s ou i p d e cast o
e t et at os t on n s ac e u t o a t ra
i l
t o n a o n e, an d i i fud
t s not 80 o n .
 Does the E art h R o ta te 1 23

sce t ; d i des ce d i g t h i r mo ti o i g d ll y
n an n n n , e n s ra ua

ch ged f om obl i q e to w rd pe pe d i c l r d i ec
an r an u a s a r n u a r

ti o n .

A f w e x m ple m ay er v e t o h o w the f th r
e a s ct i os s ur e a n

o f th i l w s S ppose b ll oll i g d o w a i cl i e pl e
a . u a a r n n n n n an

l v es it m i d w y the p l e A t th t i ta t the f t re
ea , a an . a ns n , u u

d i ecti o o f the b ll is go v er ed b y i t m o m t m d i t
r n a n s en u an s

gravity co m b i ed n .

M o m e t m a lo e w o ld m o v e it lo g t h e pl e
n u n , By
u a n an .

g vity l o e it w o ld f l l to the e r t h o
ra a n v er ti c l l i
u a a n a a n e,

fro m t he po i t it l v es t he pl e n B t ft er le vi g t h
ea an . u a a n e

p l a e
n it i s ti l l c t ed po s b y bo t h o f t h
a e f orc A
u c t dn es es . e

o n by i t m om e t m t h b l l c o t f l l lo g
s n u , ti l
e a an n a a n a v er c e

l i e d i ts g r vi t y be i g
n , an pported it c o t m o v e
a n u n su an n

a l o g t he pl a e
n n .

A co eq e ce o f t h c t i o o f the e t w o fo ce it
s a ns u n e a n s r s

f ll s to the a t h
a l i e o bl iq to t h d i recti o o f the
e r on a n ue e n

pl e a d to th at o f g r vity Y t th i o b i q l i e w i ll
an ,
n a . e s
l
ue n

be m ore e rl y co i i d t wi t h v r ti c l l i th i t h
n a nc en a e a ne an s e

i cl i ti o o f the pl
n na n an e .

Th i x m p le f the cti o o f the l w l a t q ot ed ho w

s e a o a n a s u , s s

th t m o m e t m h forc d the b ll
a n u v e ti cal l i e
as e a a c r o ss a r n

a lo g w h i ch it w o ld h v f ll w he it l ft t h e pl e
n u a e a en n e an ,

h d g r vity lo e pre v i l d
a a a n a e .

A o ther e x m ple w i ll l o ho w th t m o m e t m w i ll
n a a s s a n u

ca e f ll i g body t o
us a a it or m l v r t i c l l i e S p
n c r os s s n a e a n . u

p o e h vy bod y to b
s a ea p d d I f it b dr w i d e
e s us en e . e a n as

fro m t he v r ti c l lo g w h i ch it b e
g a d tah l f
n t f r e an s, an en e e

to ct it w i ll f ll by g r vi t y to ch v r ti c l
a ,
a d i m p lled a su e a , an e

by the forc o f m o m t m t h cq i d it w i l l
e en u i ts us a u re c r o ss

v e ti cal l i e d co ti e t o c o
r n an d r cro it n t i l fr i c
nu r ss a n e ss , un

ti o n an d the r i t ce f the i top i t m o ti o w h it

e s s an o a r s s s n , en

w i l l be fo d q i e c t o t h v r ti c l w h ce it w
un u s en n e e a , en as

s tar ted .

The e f m i l i r e x m pl pro v th t w h il
s a a v er ti c l i
a es e a e a a s

t h e o m al l i n e o f fall i g b o d i e as t he gr v it ti g fo ce
n r n s, a a n r
124 Is l lw C p er
o i
n ca n Sy s te m of A s tr o n o m
y Tr ue 9
.

w h i m peded keep t h m
en u n ch l i d d ws
s e on su n e, an ra

t h m so t o pe k
e ch l i w h ff it
s a h ow by
o u su ne en o , as s n

the l w l t q o ted t t h
a as m ti m
u wh ,t h i fo ce i
a e sa e e, en s r s

o v co m e by m o m e t m it m y d d
er n u d r ta i , a , an oes , un e ce r n

c i c m t c fo c ch bod y cro
r u s a n es , ch l i f e x m
r e su a ss s u n e, or a

ple i the i t ce j t c i t d
, n n s an s us e .

Th p pl i c ti
e a o o f ch f c ts
a t hon e t oge t h r
su w it h a as s , e

s o m e l w fo d i co cti o w it h f ll i g bo d i e for m
a s un n nne n a n s,

t he fo d t i o fo t h th ory
un a n t the r o f t he b ll
e e , as o ca u s e a

f ll i g
a t f th
n to w er
ea s o d t h c i c m t ce m e
e ,
un er e r u s an s n

t io d by M Bi o t i
ne pr vi o q o t ti o fro m h i m
.
,
n a e us u a n .

S o m e o f t he l w go v r i g f ll i g bod i s a s follo w
e n n a n e ar e as s

1 No t w o v r ti c l l i
.

b p r ll l
e a n e s ca n e a a e .

2 N o t w bod i fro m d i ff re t po i t
.

o es pp oa ch e n n s ca n a r

the c t r o f p h r i en e p r ll l d i rec t i o
a s e e n a a a e n .

3 Th d i r c ti o w h i c h
.

e f l l i g bo d y p p ro che t h e
e n a a n a a s

s r f ce o f the rt h i c l l d v erti c l l i e

u a ea s a e a a n .

W e ppo e the i d o f t h to w r to b p
su s s ll l
es e e e ar a e , as

b i ld i g
u g r ll y co tr ct d
n s ar e en e a ch l i es I ns u e on su n . n

s ch c
u t he f ce or i d
ase f t h to w r c
a s, o t be v e tis es , o e e an n r

c l a B c e ccord i g to t h l w j t q o t d N o t w ver
. e aus ,
a n e a us u e ,

o

ti c l l i e
a b p r ll l
n s ca n d co v e e l a a tw p rl
e

an n r se y no o a a

, ,

l el l i e n be v er ti c l b t
s ca n
y f x m pl tah e t u sa , or e a e, e as

e r n an d w t r f c f t h to w er
es e n p r llel the f
a es o e ar e a a ,
n, or

t h i re s o th y
s a ot
n rt i c l e ar e n ve a .

I de d it i
n i d t h t t h s p ded cord
e ,
s sa f a m ll e us en s o a s a

w e i gh i g c le n t t r i c tl y p a r ll l b t o w i g t o t he
s a ar e n o s a e ,
u ,
n

s ho t e o f t h cord t h i d i v rge c fro m ch p ar

r n ss e se s, e r e n e su

a llel i m i so l i gh t th t it i o t p rc pt i bl
s s s a s n e e e .

A the f ce f t h to w r
s a o t v r ti c l b c
s o e s e t hey e e ar e n e a e au ar

par l l l the l i f t h to w er w o ld t b the d i rectio a

a e ,
ne o e u no e n

b ll wo ld m l ly f l l fro m i t top b c e cco d i g

a u n or a a s e au s a r n

, ,

to l w 3 j t q ot d
a l l bod i
us f ll t o t h
u e r th s s a es a e ea

ur

f ce o v er ti c l l i
a n a n es .

I t he i t ce c ited w d t he b ll o
n n s an s le vi g t he , e n a n a n

i n cl i ed p l a e fall s ear er a v e r ti cal l i e th an i t was w he n

n n ,
n n
 D o es th e E ar th R o ta te 9 . 1 25

m o vi n g lo g t h pl a n d e t he l i f t h v er t i
an e , an as n e a r ne o e

ca l t h m om
as t m it h
e cq i r d wi l l p r m it it
en u as a u e e .

The p d d b l l m o v to w rd i t proper v r ti c l
s us en e a es a s s e a ,

c e d ecro e i t by i t gr vity d m o m t m d
r oss s a n r ss s s a an en u , an

ll y o m
na t c t o i c i d t w i t h it
es a r es c n en .

W h y ho ld b ll f ll i g fro m the t op f h i g h t o w r
s u a a a n o a e

,

an d t no v erti c l l i
on a it i t a h j t b ne as s no as as us een

,

s ho w for m e x c pti o to t h cti o f t h l w q o t d

n an e n e a n o e a s u e

i t h i co
n c ti o
s d to t h
nne x m pl i l l t r ti g t h i
n , an e e a es us a n e r

a c ti o n

Sh o ld t t h e l w t it d t h r l t f th i r
u no es a s ac on , an e es u o e

a cti o b n logo t th t w h i ch re l t d i t h c
e an a us o a su e n e as e s

cited
Sh o ld t t h b ll i f ll i g fro m the t o f t h
u no e a ,
n a n o o e

t o we dr , ant y v r t
no i l l i e
o n an i t proper v e ti ca n ,
c r o ss s er

ca l i m pelled by i t g r vi t y
, d m om t m s ad id th an en u ,
as e

b ll i the e m pl gi
a s n i m p ll d by t h
xa es m forc ?
ve n ,
e e e sa e es

I f t he b ll i f ll i g fro m t h to p f h i g h to w r d i d
a ,
n a n e O a e ,

no t for m x c pt i to t h l w go v r i g l l th f ll
an e e on e a s e n n a o er a

i g bo d i
n h c t by o m
es , en k o w forc i d p d t
e , ac s e un n n e n e en en

o f ch l w it w i ll p p
su a s, h i t pro p r v r ti c l a t rooc s e e a a an

t
a cu e a n g l t o t h l i ef t h t o w re b t
ne o h v r t i c l e e e cau se e e a ,

an d th li f t h t o w r w o ld
e ne o ry v y l igh t l y fro m
e e u va er s

a a
p r l l l i m b i g ct de s by t h l w go v r i g t h
e n a e on e a s e n n e

d i ec ti o f t h m o ti o f f l l i g bod i
r n o e l o by m
ns o a n e s , as a s o

m m t m t h l tter co t
e u , etl y i ca i g d to t h g r v
n s an n r e as n ue e a

ity o f t h b ll it wo l d b y op ti o
e a f th u c e b era n o es e a us s e

,

forced t i t p op r v r ti c l
o cr o ss s i th i t c
r e it d e a as n e n s an es c e
d an co q c it wo ld f ll to t h e r t h
, as a n se uen e, l it u a e a

a

tle d i t ce t f t h to w r
s an ea s o e e .

S E CT IO N V I .
THE R OT A T I ON O F T HE E A RT H I N F E R R E D
FR O M A N A LO G Y .

M Bi o t i Se c 1 1 5
'

.
, n .
, s ay s

The r e a re s r i t k i g an al og i es wh ich co
n n r m us in th is
1 26 I s th e Cop er n i c a n Sy stem of A s tr on o my Tr ue 9 .

h y po th i A m o g the pl et th re e e v er l
es s . n an s e ar s a , as

J p i t er S t r
u d M ,
w ho
a u o v l d i c fford e
n an ars , se a s s a un

q i o
u v l vi de c ca o f t h ier phero i d i c l g n r Oebs vi g e s a u e . er n

t h e m w it h c re w d i co v er po t h a rf ce f t hei r
,
e s u n e su a o

d i c p t w h e r g l r ch g O f pl c d pe ri od i c l
s s, s o s os e u a an e a e an a

ret r l v u n, do bt f t h ro t ry m oti o f the pl t

ea e no u o e a n O an e
"
bo t i t hor t r d i m t er W h y th
a u s s e ho ld t the a e .
,
en , s u no

ear t h w h i ch r m bl t h pl et i i t ph ro i d l g
,
es e es e an s n s s e a

u r e, h v e l i k the m ro t ry m oti o bo t i t xi
a e a a n a u s a s

Th rot ti o e f the a l o f J p iter d S t r

ns O su n , a s o u an a u n ,

ar e i ferr d fro m t h d i ppe r c

n e d pp c of
e sa a an e an re a -
ear a n e

S p o t o th i r d i c
s n e s s .

A th s r f ce f ch f th e bod i e pre e t i m il r
e su a s o ea O es s s n s a

ph o m o f c rre t wh i rl p ool
en en a d d h i g w v es f
u n s, s, an as n a o

re t h pot O b r v d o t h
. e s r f c o f e ch f t he e
s se e n e su a e a O s

bod i h v prob bl y
es a co m m o
e, l tho gh k o w a , a n , a u un n n ,

c e ; h c w h t e v r i f r c f o t ti o m y be de
au s en e, a e n e en e o r a n a

d u ce d f o m po t ob er v e dr th s w i ll l o ppl y t o
s s on e sun , a s a

th ese
p l e t an s .

F t h r S cch i f R o m e
a e e d M F y ,
f P ri
o e , an . a e, O a s, ar

a mo g r c n t cr iti c l ob r v s o f t h e phe o m e
e en o f t he
a se er se n na

su n .

M F y e ft r p k i g f t h ry c r e ts w h i rl
. a ,
a e s ea n o e e u r n ,

pool ry b illow d h i g g i t ch o the

s, e d cy s as n a a ns ea r, an

clo o f t h wh l vi i ble r f c o f the

n es re , id
e o e s su a e su n u ,

an d i co t t m o ti o n y n s an n , sa s :

Th w h i rl p o l s f t he

e l i ke tho e f t he e tho o su n ar e s o ar ,

of l l di m a i o fro m c rc l y vi i bl pore to the e or

en s n s, s a e s e s n

mo o h ch ro

p t w
us s i f m ti
s m t ti m a r e s ee n e o e .

Th ob r v ed po t t hee se w hi lp l F ther Sec

s s n ar e r 3o s . a

ch i y , sa s

Th v poro

me f ll a b ck o t h p h t os p h e
us ass a en a n e os re

oo beco m i c de t r h t d d d i ol v d
s n es n d an s ce n ,
e ea e an ss e , an

th p o t
e s r p i dl y d i pp r a sa ea s .

Th i d i ppe an ce o f t h e sp ot t ak p l ce i n t he p ho to
s sa ar es a
 Does th e E a r th R o ta t e 9 . 1 27

s
p he e o
r f i t s o w n p o p er m o t i o I S pe k i rg o f t he po t n . n a n s s,

he y sa s

Th ey i de t he pho to phe e f o m e ch p r t o f t he

n va s r r a a

i
c r cu mf Ag i h
er e n c e y
.

a n e sa s :

The s po ts i ed t c r t i h i gh l tit de ce

ar r v a to a e a n a u , as e

a
pp e b t f t
ar ,e s o m e ti
u m e a ppe r t lo w e l tit d re a-
ar \ a r a u es ,

d ft e w rd s g o o ew

an a r a n an .

He l o obs r v ed th t the p p e r ce n d d i ppe

a s e a a a an a sa ar

a n ce o f p o ts w e e i s eg l r i p oi t f ti m e F ro m the e
r rr u a n n o . s

phe o m e do ast o o m er ded ce the co cl i o t h t

n na r n s u n us n a

the r l d i g l m oti o o f t he pots m o t to o

ea an r r e u ar ns s a un n

e vi de ce o f the o t ti o o f the
n N
r b t co cl d fro m
a n su n 0, u n u e

t he e phe o m e a t h at t h
s n n o t te i eg l l y s p e sun r a s rr u ar , as

m o d i cal l y i te m itt e t o t o pe k d i ff r
, n r t t d i ff e t
n , s s a , e en a er n

ti m e s .

These obse ati o s m de b y t he e e m i e t as tro o m ers

rv n a s n n n ,

j s ti fy the co cl u i o th t the c rr i er o f the p o ts co i t s

u n s n a a s ns s

o f o wi g e mn tt er f r m i g w h i l p ool w h i ch pre eo t n r s, s n
y r a

t he ppea r ce o f p ts o f t h i m oti o s i
a an s l l d i rec ti o
o e r n n a ns

e d i g lly i n the i e ti c t i o i t he photo ph e d

n n na r x n n n s er , an

th t thea ted o ta ti o o f the

asse r h r o t h i g to d o n su n as n n

w it h t he i a p pe r ce o d i p pea ce he ce th t the e
r a an r sa ran ,
n a s

phe o m a o f the pot f r i h o vi de ce f the ro t t i o

n en s s u n s n e n o a n

O f th a t l m i ry u na .

M Bi ot i t he l t q otatio m ade f o m h i m ys i
.
, n as u n r ,
sa , n

s pea k i g o f J p i t en d S t r u r an a u n

W e d i co v er po t he

s f ce o f t he i d i cs sp ts w h
u n sur a r s o o se

w ho e eg l r ch g f pl ce d p er i od i c l ret r

s r u a an e O a an a u n

lea v e o do b t o f t h rot ry m o ti o f th pl t
n u e a n o e an e .

The tel cope h o w t h r f ces f J pite

es s d S t
s e su a O u r an a urn

t o be i the nm e y i d co d iti o
sa w it h er pot u n n , s s, or

w h i rlpool m o vi g d ch g i g i for m
s, n d pp r c
an an n n an a ea a n e,

an d t he d i p p r c sa d ppe r
ea a n f p o t by t h i r
e an re a -
a a n ce O s s e

ow np op r m o ti o peri od i c l l y co tit te the w h l f

r e n s, a ,
ns u o e o

the e vi de ce f the o t ti o o f the pl et s C o id i g

n o r a n se an . ns er n

t h e i de tity of th ese p h en o men a wit h t h ose o b ser ved b y

n
,
1 28 I s th e Cop er n i ca n Sy s tem A s tr on o my Tr ue 9
f
o .

Fa th e r S e cch i a n d M Fay e o n t h e s u n is it pos s i bl e th at

.
,

th at t h e prop e r m o ti o n s o f t h es e s po ts obs e r v ed o n t he
d is cs o f J u p ite r a n d S a tu n ca n b e a n y e vi d e n ce o f the
r

rot a ti o n s o f t h es e pl a n e t s ?
S i r Wi ll i a m He rs ch el " i n ferre d t h e rot ati o n o f Sat u r n
fro m t h e d i s a p p e a ra n ce o f a s po t obs e r v able o n i t s d i s c .

B u t s u ch ro ta ti o n w as r eg a rd e d as n all y se ttled b y t he
follo w i n g obse r v a ti o n n a m e l y ,

O n t h e 7 t h o f D e ce m b e r A D 1 8 7 6 P ro f Hall s a w
, . .
,
.
,

t hro u g h t h e g re a t Was h i n g to n te l es cope a br i ll i a n t w h ite ,

s po t n ea r S a t ur n s e u a t o r s u ppo se d t o h a v e b ee n cau sed

q ,

by a n er u p t i o n Th e s pot s p read i n t o a s tr eak It cross e d

. .

t he pl a n e t s d i s c Ho w

. B y i t s o w n proper m o ti o n ?
N o b u t i n c o n se q u e n ce o f t h e ro ta ti o n o f the pl a n e t a n d
, ,

t h u s ro t a ti o n w as i n fe rred .

Th e r s t obse r v a t i o n s ho w e d a s po t It th e n ch an ged .

t o a s t rea k Th e s t rea k th e n s pre ad It w i l l b e ad m itted

. .

t h at t h e s e m o t i o n s we r e t h e pro p e r m o ti o n s o f t he m a tte r
O r i g i n all y i n t h e fo r m o f a spot .

It w i ll b e ad m i t te d t h a t t h e m a tte r obs e r v e d h a d a pro

e r m o ti o n as i t ch a n g e d fro m a s po t t o a s t r e a k a n d t h e n
p ,

s p r ea d ; w h n o t t h e n a t t r i b u t e t h e d i s a pp e a r a n c e O f t h i s
y
m o vi n g a n d ch a n gi n g m a tte r t o t h e s a m e age n c y b y w h i ch
it a pp e a r e d i n th es e v a r i o u s ch a n ges n a m e l y to t h e p r o , ,

p e r m o t i o n o f t h a t loc a l iz e d m a tt e r co n s tit u ti n g ( )
1 t he
s po t ( 2 ) t h e s t rea k
, ( )
3 t he
, e xt e n d e d s t re a k r a t her t h a n ,

t o t h e ro tat i o n o f t h e pl a n e t o f w h i ch t h e re i s n o ot her
,

e vi de n ce t h a n t h e prop e r m o ti o n O f t h i s er u p ted m a tt er .

I n r e g a rd to t h e s ph e ro i d a l for m o f J u p iter a n d Sa t u r n ,

t h i s proba bl y i s t h e effe ct o f t h e s u n s a tt ra c ti o n o n the

u i d m ass O f t h e s u rface o f th ese bod i es as it i s co m pe te n t ,

t o h a v e prod u c e d s u ch for m o f t h e ea rt h w h e n i n a s i m i ,

l a r u i d s t a te a s a r g u e d i n S e c 3
, . .

Th e re i s n o th i n g i n t h e pos iti o n o f thes e bod i es t o p r e

v e n t the s u n s att rac ti o n o n t he e q u atori al r egi o n s fr o m

, ,

b ulg i n g t h ese pl an ets ther e as the ax is of Ju p iter is p e r

,
 D oes t h e E a r th R o ta t e 1 29

pe n d i c u l ar t o t he pl a n e o f t he ecl i p ti c an d t he a n gl e of ,

the a xi s o f S a tu r n to s u ch pl an e does n o t d i ffe r m u ch ,

fr o m t h e a n gle o f t h e a x i s o f the ea r th t o t he s am e pl an e .

Mars i s sai d to ro tate i n abo u t t wen ty fou r h o u rs an d -

s u ch r o ta ti o n i s i n fe rr e d fro m the d is a ppe a ra n ce a n d r e

a ppe a r an ce pe r i o d i ca ll y o f m ar k i n gs obser v e d o n t he
, ,

b od y o f th i s pl a n e t .

The v el o city o f M ars i n r eced i n g fro m the s u n a n d i n

m o vi n g t o w a rd s it i s ,
m i l es p e r d ay or du r in g ,

each r o tati o n o f the pl a n et .

A s it recedes m a rk i n gs o n t he pl a n e t w o u ld d i sa ppea r
,

each d ay as the e ffe c t o f i n crease d d is ta n ce a n d the co n ~

, ,

s t a n t l y ch n g i n g a n gl e o f vi s i o n
a o f t h e O bs er v e r wou l d
b r i n g i n t o vi e w each d ay m a rk i n gs n o t O bs er ved the p r e~
vi on s d ay .

O n t h e pl a n e t s a ppro ach m a rk i n gs w o u ld be o b s e r v e d

,

each d ay as an effe ct o f d i m i n i shed d is ta n ce o f the pl an et

, ,

an d i n s u ch c as e
,
w h at u n d e r t he t heory o f r o ta ti o n
, , ,

w o u ld b e regar ded as t h e a ppe a r a n ce an d d i s a ppea ran ce ,

p e r i od i call y o f the sa m e m ark i n gs w o u l d r eall y be si m i l a r

m a rk i n gs .

A gai n as Ma r s w he n obse r v e d t hro u gh the teles co pe

, , ,

h as m o re t h e a pp e a ran ce o f the ea r th th a n is O b ser v ed o f

an
y o t her pl a n e t as it s ho w s d a rk a n d l i gh t por ti o n s o f i ts
,

s u r fa ce corr es po n d i n g prob a bl y
, ,
i n a pp e a r a n ce t o th a t
,

w h i ch o u r g lob e w it h i t s co n ti n e n ts i t s oce a n s a n d i s l an d s
, , , ,

w ou ld pre s e n t t o a n obs e r v er o n M a rs t h e re d oes n o t ap ,

pear a n y i n co n g ru ity i n carryi n g t h e an a logy fu rther b y

s u ppo s i n g t he e x i s te n c e o f a ti de t h e re w hos e d a i l y ebb ,

a n d o w m i g h t a c c o u n t fo r t h e a pp ea r a n c e s fr o m w h i ch
t h e ro ta ti o n o f t h e pl a n e t i s i n fe rr e d b y as t ro n o m e rs The .

t i d e b y i t s o w ca u s i n g t h e d i s a pp ea r a n ce o f m a rk i n g s b y
t h e i r s u b m e r g an ce a n d t h e d ai l y e b b th e i r r e appear a n ce
, ,
-
.

F ro m t h e foreg o i n g it m ay be s ee n th a t t he d is appear
an c e a n d p e ri od i cal r e a pp e a r an ce o f t h e m a r k i n gs o n
-
1 30 I s th e Cop er n i ca n Sy s tem f
o A s tr o n o my Tr u e 9 .

M ar s m ay
b e n o t en ti rel y
fa n c i fu ll y a cco u n ted fo r i n ,

depen den t o f the t h eory o f the ro tati o n o f th at plan et .

A s t o t he for m o f th i s pl a n et be i n g t h at O f a s phero i d ,

as i s as s ert e d b y as t ro n o m er s t h e e vi de n ce s ee m s de fe c tiv e
, ,

fo r w hen ob s er v ed e ith e r i n co nj u n c ti o n or i n O ppos iti o n

, ,

i t s d i s c app ea rs a s a c i rcl e I n i n t e r m e d i ate pos iti o n s it

.
,

a ppea r s as a n o v a l w h i ch w ou ld be w he n a t a cer ta i n a n
, ,

gle w it h r e fe re n ce t o the obse r ver an effe ct o f the a cti o n ,

o f lig h t w hos e r a d i ati o n O fte n e lo n g a tes bod i es

,
Th is .

m a n i fes ta ti o n w o u ld b e c a p a bl e o f g ivi n g t o t he pl a n e t a n
o v al for m a n d agai n a ch a n g i n g obl ate for m at ti m es
, ,

progress iv e i n i t s d i m e n s io n s a n d aga i n d i m i n i sh i n g j ust

, ,

as obs e r v a ti o n O f M a rs s ho w s t o b e t h e fa c t .

Th e d i ffe r e n tl y a pp e a r i n g for m s o f M a rs a r e t he e ffec ts

o f l i gh t h e n ce i t s r e a l for m i s n o t s o w e l l es t a bl i s hed as
,

t hos e o f J u p iter a n d S at u r n .

W he n it i s co n s i dered th at s o m eti m es i t appe a rs as a

ci rcle at ot h e rs an o val ; at t i m es t he obl ate for m i s a p
, ,

p are n t agai n i t i s n o t an d th is for m agai n ch an gi n g b e

, , ,

i n g s o m e t i m es m ore t he n les s i t i s per t i n e n t t o a s k w h at

, , ,

i s t he rea l for m o f M a rs
I s it t h a t o f a c i rcle a n o v a l o r a s ph e ro i d ? fo r i t s m o
,

ti o n prese n ts al l t h e s e for m s to t he obs er v er d u r i n g t he

p er i od O f i t s r e v ol u ti o n .

I n r e vi ew i n g t he a n a lo g i e s rel i ed o n i n proo f o f t he r o
t at i o n o f t he e a r th w e n d t h a t o n l y t hree pl a n e ts a r e
,

m e n ti o n ed as s ho w i n g e vi d e n ce o f ro ta ti o n n a m el y J u p i , ,

ter S atu r n a n d M a rs The e vi de n ce o f the ro ta ti o n o f

, .

t hes e pl a n ets h as i n t he prese n t s ecti o n bee n s ho w n t o

, ,

r es u l t fro m ca u s es i n d e pe n de n t o f t h e i r ro ta t i o n .

There ar e 7 obs er ve d p ri m a ry pl a n ets ; t hey h a ve been

s c r u ti n iz e d b y i n s t r u m e n t s s o p e r fe c t a n d t he O b s e r v a ti o n s
,

o f t he m h a v e b e e n s o m i n u t e t h a t s h a do ws a r e O b s er v e d
,

o n J u p iter O n t he e cl i p s e o f i t s s a t e ll ite s S treak s a n d .

s o ts appea r o n S a t u r n s ta rs beco m e vi s i ble b e y o n d S a t

p ,

u r n a n d be t wee n t h e bod y o f t h e l a n e t a n d i ts r in g a n d
, p ,
 D o es th e E a r th R o ta t e 1 31

t he o t del i c t e d iffe e ce i the co l o o f the v p o s o f

m s a r n s n rs a r

t he ob e v ed
sun s r .

Y t t he e i
e e vi de ce O f the o t ti o o f y f t he
r s no n r a n an o se

bo d i b t the three m ed e x cep t Ve

es u to w h i ch i t
na ,
n u s , as

i
s no w co ceded b y tro o m er t h t the e is o f c i e t
n as n s a r n su n

e i de ce O f i t r ot ti o
v n s a n .

I vi e w f t he e f c t w here ho l d w pl ce t h
n o s a s, lo s u e a e an a

gi e ; i w h t d i recti o do they po i t ?
s n a n n

There i e vi de ce f the ro t ti o o f fo r o f the ev e

s no n o a n u s n

pl et w h i le t he ro t tio f the three m ed i i fe ed

an s, a n o na s n rr

f o m phe o m e
r w h i ch m y be
n t io
na ll y e x pl i ed a ra na a n as

be i g the e l t f the oper ti o f c e

n r su o co ec ted a n o au s s un nn

w ith t he o t ti o f t he e b o d i e
r a n o s s .

I t t he b e ce f e vi de ce f t he
s no a s n o t ti o o f f n o r a ns o ou r

o f t he e v e ob r v ed p i m r y pl e t m o e po t t b y
s n se r a an s r en an

a logy th t the e rt h doe t ro t t e th the co cl i o

,
a a s no a ,
an n us n

ded ced fro m logy th t it doe b ed o the pp o ed

u an a a s, as n su s

r ot tio f th
a f t he e bod i e ?
n o r ee o s s

W h te v e m y be the c e o f the rot ti o

a r a f be au s a n o a av

en
l y bod y d i d y o f t he m o t t e m
ano ti o o t y r a a n so c n r ar

,

to t he l w o f m o ti o a s logy w o ld i fe it t o be om
n an a u n r c

m ton l l he v e l y b o d i e y e t f m o re th
o a a n o h lf of s, o an ne -
a

the w h ole m ber o f ob e v ed pri m y pl e ts th e e i o

nu s r ar an r s n

e vi de c e o f th e i r
n otati o r n .

S EC TI O N VI I THE R O TA T I O N O F T H E E A R T H I N
.

F ERR E D A RG UM EN TA TI V ELY .

M Bi o t i Sec 4 98 ys
.
, n .
, sa :

The e rth i globe o f less th a 4000 m i le ad i s

a s a n s r u ,

the i i co m p
sun bl y l rg er I f t h ce t e o f th is In
s n ar a a . e n r

mi y c o
n ar i c i ded w it h t h t O f
n t he e t h i t s r d i u s w o ld a ar ,
a u

e ch to t wi ce the d is t ce o f t h m oon an d its v ol um e

r a an e ,

wo u ld ll sp ace o f t h i v s t e x t e t

a s a n .
1 32 I s th e Cop er n i ca n Sy s te m f
o A s tr o n o my Tr u e ?
9 .

Is it t he n i n n ite l y m or e s i m pl e t o s u p pos e i n o u r
. n ot ,

gl o be a m o ti o n o f ro t ati o n a lread y i n d i ca te d b y so
,

m an y s t r i k i n g a n alo g ies t h a n to c o n s i d er t h e i m m e n s e

m ass o f t he s u n as des cr i b i n g e a ch d a y a b o u t u s a c i rc u it

o f n ea rl y 6 00 m i l l i o n s o f m i l e s

It w i ll be obse r v e d fro m th i s q u o tati o n th at t he ro ta ti o n

o f t he e ar t h i s n o t b as e d o n t h e re q u i re m e n t o f a co s m i c

n ec es s ity b u t i s i n fe rred fro m a n a l og y a n d bec a u s e fo r

, ,

t he r eas o n s g iv e n i t i s m or e s i m pl e t o s u pp os e th a t t he

ear th ro tates th an th at t h e s u n re v ol v es a bo u t it .

Mos t o f t h e a n alogi es re fe rred to i n t h e q u o tati o n h a v e

j u s t been co n s i der ed .

Fr o m M B i o t s s tan dpo i n t as to the d i s ta n ce a n d m ag

.

,

n i t u d e o f t he s u n h i s a r g u m e n t i s the s t ro n g es t fo r
,
the
r o t ati o n o f t he ea r t h o f a n y pres e n t e d b y as t ro n o m ers b u t ,

a n a n s w e r t o it m ay be fo u n d i n t h e t h i rd ch a p t er w here ,

it i s de m o n s t r ate d t h a t the s u n i s b u t m i l es
fr o m t he ear t h h a vi n g a c i rc u it a ro u n d t he ea r t h o f a bo u t

,

m i les Th u s to u s e a m i l ita ry e x press i o n

.

r ed u c i n g M Bi o t s a tta ck i n g force fro m 6 00 s t ro n g t o 6

. .

Th is d is tan ce o f t h e s u n fro m the ea r th as s ho w n i n ,

ch apter th i rd a ppro xi m ates fo u r ti m es t he d i s tan ce o f the

,

m oo n fr o m t he ea r t h .

It i s k n o w n th at t h e m oo n r e v ol v es a bo u t the ear th a n d ,

c on s i der i n g the s hort d i s tan ce the su n i s fr o m t h e ea rt h

i n co m pa r i s o n w it h t h e d i s ta n ce i t i s e s ti m a ted to b e b y
as t ro n o m e r s it w o u ld a pp e a r n e a r l y a s s i m pl e t o s u ppo s e

,

t h e re v ol u ti o n O f the s u n a bo u t t h e e a r th a s t h a t O f th e ,

m oo n .

A s an a logy l
i s fr e q u e n t y i n v e d i n s u ok ppo t r O f th e ol
s ar

s y s te m it ,
h r o O f the n u
m ay b e e e i n v k e i n s u p p r t o d co cl
s i o n t h a t t h e s u n r e v ol v e s a u e e a rt h as th e b o t th
n ,
m oo
appe a rs t o r e v ol v e a bo u t it a n d i s k n o w n t o do s o a n d as
, ,

t he s u n appe ars t o re v ol v e a bo u t t h e e ar t h analogy w o u ld ,

i ndu ce t h e concl u s io n t h a t it does s o .

 Does the Ea r th R o tat e

1 33
i

3 .

SECT IO N V III THE FR ICTI O N . T H E T I D A L WA V E O F .

I the prec d i g ec ti o s o f t h i ch p te
n e n the e vi de ce
s n s a r, n

o f the ro t ti o of t h a e r th e t forth b y t ro o m ers h s

n e a , s as n , a

bee d i c ssed I the pre t ec ti o the e vi de ce they

n s u . n se n s n n

f r i h
u n s i te ti o ll y g i t
, un n n ch ot ti o w i ll be
na , a a ns su r a n

co s i der d
n e .

It is f r m ed by t ro o m r fr o m c lc l t i o
a as b ed
n e s, a u a ns as

o n t h l w go v er i g
e a s t g o izi g force n n th at the f i an a n n s, r c

ti on o f t he ti d l w v e i t o ly
a f c i t t o r ta rd t h e
a s no n su en e

r a n
ot ti o o f the e r th b t l o w h i ch i m ore to o p es a u a s s ur r

,

e t p rpo
n u t h t it c t ll y doe r t rd ch o t ti o
se a a ua s e a su r a n.

P ro f N e w co m b i h i P op l A t ro o m y p ge
.
,
n s u ar s n , a

( l ts E d ) i a tt e m
. p ti gn t o cco t f t h p p e nt a ccel a un or e a ar n

c r ti o o f t h e m oo m o ti o does o b y tt ri b ti g th i

a n n s n , s a u n s

appe r ce to the l ret rd ti o o f the ot ti o f the

a an r ea a a n r a n o

e r th He y s
a . sa

The fri c ti o f the ti d l w v e m t co st tl y et d

n O a a us n an r ar

the d i u r l m o ti o o f t he e r th o i t xi th o g h it i s
na n a n s a s, u

i m p o i ble to s y h o w m ch t h i r t ard ti o m ay m o n t
ss a u s e a n a u

to Th e co q e ce w o ld be th t t h d y w ou l d g ad
. n se u n u a e a r

u l ly b t
a c s i gl y i cre e i l gth d
u un ea n co t n as n en , an o ur un

o f ti m e depe d i g O t h d y wo ld be
n n l w ys getti g
n e a u a a n

to o lo w s .

W he the c lc l ti o s w h i ch h v e b m de e co i d
n a u a n a e a ar ns

ered ,
to the v eloc ity f t he e r th i ts m s
as d i er ti o a , as an n a,

re q i r i ug c o nt er ac ti g f orc t o
un o v erco m aco t r n
s t ed e e, n a

w ith the m xte t d i er ti o f t h ti d l w v e c ti g

as s , e n an n a e a a a n

o n the xi l v loc i ty f the r t h s a dr g l ock o bre k

a a e o ea a a r a
o to S pe k i t w o ld tr i k t h e m i d t o ce an d
-

s a u s e n a n ,

w i t ho t y u c lc u l
an ti o t h t t he a l tt er w oa ld a t w
n i t
,
h a a u c

g re t po w r a re t rd i g forc wh i ch co cl i o i s o
e as a a n e, n us n c n

rm ed by t h c lc l ti o o f t ro o m er e a m y b e i fer
u a ns as n s , as a n

re d f o m t h l t p reced i g q o t ti o
r e as fro m o of the n u a n ne

m os t e m i e t O f m oder a t r o o m e s
n n n s n r .
1 34 I s th e Cop er n i ca n Sy s tem f
o A s tr on o m y Tr u e 9 .

I t is i d b y h i m th at it is i m p oss i ble to s ay h o w m u ch
sa

t h is r etar d ati o n m ay a m ou n t t o y e t o n t he h y po t hes i s

,

t h at t h e r e t ar dati o n o f the r o ta ti on o f t he ea r th i s the r ea l

cause o f the apparen t acceler ati o n o f the m o on s m oti o n
,

w he n it i s co n s i dere d t h a t t h i s a pp a r e n t a cc e ler at io n i s
c om pu table wh y i s there n ot s om e r e tard ati o n o f the
,

ear th s r otati o n o bser v ed o r i ts e xte n t o r a m o u n t s u scep

,

ti ble o f ca lc u l ati o n ?
W h y d oes n o t t he r etar d ati on o f t he r o ta t i o n o f t he
e ar th c or r es p o n d w it h t he a pp a re n t a cceler a ti o n o f t he

m oon s m o ti o n i n a ccor d a n ce wit h a l a w o f pr o p o r ti o n ?

,

B u t as as tr o n o m ers ar e i n p os s ess i o n o f the fa c ts n s cee

,

s a r y t o war r an t the c o n cl u s i o n t hey a rr iv e a t n a m el y t h a t , ,

t h e fr i c ti o n o f t h e t i d al wa v e m u s t r e ta r d t he r o ta ti o n o f
'

o f t he ear th t he fa c t t h a t it is i m p oss i ble t o s ay h o w m u ch

,

s uch r e ta r d a ti o n m ay a m o u n t t o a l t h o u g h it appe a r s i n ,

cr ed i ble i f r otati on r eall y ex is ts y et it beco m es o f s eco n d ,

a r y i m p or t an ce w he n w e a r e t o ld as w e a r e i n t he l as t ,

u o ta ti o n t h a t he r c o n o f the ti d a l w a v e m u s t c o n

q t
,
f i ti
s t a n t l y r e ta r d t he d i u r n a l m o ti o n o f t he e ar th a n d th a t

,

t he c on seq u en ces m u s t be th at t he d ay w ou ld grad uall y

b u t u n ceas i n gl y i n cr eas e i n len g t h an d th at o u r cou n t o f ,

t i m e depe n d i n g o n t he d ay w ou ld be a l way s ge tti n g t oo

s l ow .

In t he for ego i n g s tatem en ts an d a dm i ss i o n s we h a v e

e s e n t e d fo r o u r co n s i de r ati o n t he a n o m a l y o f a fo r ce
p r

wh i c h c o n s tan tl y r e ta r d s t he d i u r n a l m o ti o n O f t he e a r t h

e t w h i le t h i s re ta rd i n g force h as b ee n a cti n g

O n i t s a xi s y ,

d ai l y th r ou gh the lon g l aps e o f i n n u m er able cen tu r i es it ,

i s fo u n d t h a t it h as n o t percep ti bl y or i n a n y m eas u r able ,

degr ee r etar ded su ch r otatio n e v e n to t h is d ay fo r P rof , .

N e wco m b s ay s it i s i m poss i ble to s ay h o w m u ch t h i s r e

'

,

t ar d at io n m ay a m o u n t t o w h i ch appea rs as a s ta r t l i n g

,

A d h il h er it am o u n t s to a se co n di n a 1 000 y ea r s Th i s
F
eep e r
uld d i ch
p oso p sa y s .

wo r et a r r o t at o n as mu a s one m i n ut e i n y e ar s rom h at r el i a bl e
w
ul m d l ud bl
.

d at a was t h i s We h
ca l c at i o n a e? m ay co n c e t at i t is i m p o ssi e t o say
.
 . Do es the Ea r th R o t a te 3 .

1 35

an d i ll ogi ca l
c o cl i o fro m ch pre m i e f th is d m i
n us n su s , or a s

sio n m y be reg rded s

a i d i r ct d del i c t e w y o f
a a an n e an a a

sa yi g t h t it i
n at p rce iv d t o m o
s no t to yth i g
e e a un an n .

N o t wi t h t d i g th i co t t a d w m ig h t l m o t
s an n s n s an ,
n ,
e a s

s y e ter
a , l t rd ti o there i
na re a e vi d ce th t the d ay
a n s no en a

w as a n
y s hor te i t h m o t dri t t p
n t w h iele i c e s ed
s s an as ,
n r a

l gth f the d y w o ld be the

en o a
y ffu c t o f t he e n ec essa r e e r

t d t io o f t h
ar a n elocity o f t h e rth ro t ti o
e v e a

s a n .

The forego i g q o t ti o s j ti fy the foll o w i g y llogi m

n u a n us n s s ,

t wo o f w h o e t er m m i gh t be cr d ited t o P o f N e wco m b
s s, e r .
,

na m el y
1 .The fr i cti o o f the ti d l wa e m t co t tl y e

n a v us n s an r

tard the d i r l m o ti o o f t he e r th
u na i ts xi n a on a s .

2 B t w ere t he e r th d i r l m o ti o retarded the

,
u a s u na n

d y w o ld g d l l y b t ce i gl y i c e se i le gth
a u ra ua u un as n n r a n n ,

an d it d oe O t percep ti bl y
s n me r bl y o i cre e or as u a s n as .

3 The the e f c ts co tit t s t ro g e v i de ce th a t the

. n s a ns u e n n

e r th d oes o t rot te
a n a .

N O as t o o m e w i ll de y t he rs t
r n r d s eco d t er m s o f n an n

the abo v e y l l ogi m C t h co cl i o d d ced i n the

s s . an e n us n , e u

t h i rd ter m be de i ed logi c ll y A i d e fro m t he y l l o g i m

n a s s s

.

it m y be pl i l y i d t h t i f it be co ceded s it i
a a n sa a n a s

th t t he fri cti o o f t h ti d l w v e w o ld re t r d rot ti o

a n e a a u a a n

d i d the r th o t t ea d th re i
r o
a e, an u ch percep ti ble o e s n s r

me as u rable r t rd ti o th i m o ts to e vi de ce p r
e a a n ,
s a un n e se

th at t h e e r t h doe o t ro t te
a s n a .

A g i i a n,
y i m i l r c
n an e it m ys be lo g i c a ll y a ss er t edas , a a

t h t i f y force be co m pe te t p
a an to r t d the el o c n er s e e ar v

ity o f g iv e bod y
a d it c t o
n c h bod y a d reta d
, an a s n su , n r a

ti o c
n eit her b p rc iv ed o m
an n e r d the e f cts
e e n r eas u e , s a

am o t t o s t ro g p i m f i e vi de ce th t t he b o dy sai d
un n r a ac e n a

t o m o v e e ll y h ,
r o m o ti o
a as n n .
 1 36 I s the Cop er n ica n Sy stem f
o A s tr on om y f lu e 9
.

S ECT I O N I " .
CO N CLU S IO N .

co cl d i g th is ch pter it m y be tr uth f ll y s i d
In n u n a , a u a

t h at e v ery t o o m i c l ob e v ti o o f t h e he v s m y
as r n a s r a n a en a

be el i bl y m ad e d e v ry c lc l ti o d d ced fro m
as r a an e a u a n e u

,

s u ch o b s er v ti o i cl d i g thos e s to
a n tat i o
n d t he
u n a no n an

p recess i o o f t h e e q n i o x e m y be fo u d co u n c t o t he s a n rre n

h y po t hes i s t h at t he a t h d o o t r o t t e as o t he O pp os it
e r es n a , n e

t he o r y .

It i w o th y o f O bse v ti o th t o t a i gl m t h m at
s r r a n, a n s n e a e

i cal dem o s tr ti o h as bee i v oked i p oof f the ro t

n a n n n n r o a

ti on o f t he e th d b t ar i othe p r t f M
an u on e n an r a o

, .

Bi ot wo k s ppos ed to be i pro of o f the pr ogress iv

s r u n e

m o ti o o f t he ea t h i t he o rb it
n r n .

W h t co tit tes the p m o t ele m e t o f w k ess i n

a ns u ar a un n ea n

t h e th y f t he
e or o t a ti oo o f t he e t h i t hrt e er y f c
n t ar s a v a

a d ev er y phe o m e o
n o w h i ch t he t he o y i
n n b ed o r
n n r s as ,

b y w h i ch it i s atte m p ted t o be s pp o ted m y be ti o u r , a ra n

a ll y i fer ed t o
n es l t fr o m t h O pe ati o s o f t r l l ws
r r u e r n na u a a

h vi g o ecessa ry c o ec ti o w h at e v e w it h t h t heory
a n n n nn n r e

o f t he o ta ti o r o f t he e r th d i d p e d nt f
n ll hy
a , an n e n e o a

o th es es
p .

If c o t en ts o f the pr e t ch p te wa r t th i l t
t he n es n a r r an s a

te r as s er ti o it m ke t h theo ry f the i m m o b i l ity o f the

n , a s e o

e r th m o e ph i los oph i c l cco rd i g to t he t d rd l i d

a r a , a n s an a a

dow b y Si Is c Ne wto wh o t l l s th t The m i

n r aa n, e s u a

a n

b i e o f t l ph ilo oph y i s to a g e fro m phe o m

us n ss n a ura s r u n

en a w it ho t fe i g i g h yp th u a d to de d ce c s es
n n o es es , n u au

fr o m e ffect s

.

W e w i l l take t he l i ber ty o f yi g as g tiv e gu sa n , a ne a ar

me t ag i s t the theo y o f t h
n a n o t tio o f t h e th th at r e r a n e ar ,

a s the s h as s m ch the pp
un ce o f m o ti o
a the
u a e a r an n as

m oo h s d as t he e r t h appe s t o be w i tho t m o ti o
.

n a ,
an a ar u n ,

i t w i l l be co ceded t h t t he b rd n o f p oo f t h a t i t i s ot a u en r n

as it appe r s t h t i s t o s y t h at it r o t te s r es ts w ith t h os e
a ,
a a ,
a ,

Wh o ass e t it r .
 Does the Ea r t h R 5 1 37

o ta t e .

The pr oof o ffer d by s tro o m er o f ch rot ti o p o i t e a n s su a n n s

i n O pp o it e d i rec ti o
s i ho w i the for goi g e n s , as s s n n e n s c

ti o ns I th i
. f c i e t t o pro v e m o ti o
s s su g i st t h p n n a a n e a

p c
ea r a n o f i m m obe i l i t y
I Mo t i g
n

E n a y w fi d t h follo w i g i C h p
ne s

s sa s
,

e n e n n a t

ter x ii :

The h v e

d t he t r h v
ea n s an b e 3000 y r i s a s a e e n ea s n
"

m o tio l l t h w o rld w er o f th i b l i f t i l l C l

th

n a e e s e e ea n us

the S m i a o r ccord i g to Th ophr t N i cet f S

an , ,
a n e as u s , as O y

r ac u s e took it i to h i h d to m i t i th t it w n t he
s ea a n a n a as

E ar t h t h t m o v e d t r i g bo t i t
a xi by t h obl i q e
, u n n a u s a s, e u

c i cle O f t h zod i c A d Cop r i c h i

r e a ti m
. o n e n us as n ou r es s

g r o ded
un t h i d oc t r i t h t i ts m y r g l rl y r v e t o nel l a a e u a se a

ast rologi c l co eq a ce ns uen s .

Th i i de o f Cl t h or Ni ce t co t i the ge m
s a e an us, as , n a ns r

o f t he t he o r y f Coper i s vol v ed by h i m
o rl y 2000 n cu e n ea
'

y r fter w d
ea s a ar s .

A co q e ce f t h i pr gre iv e m o ti o o f t h e rth
s a n se u n o s o ss n e a
th e su n
bei g i m m o ble t h e rt h m st o t t e i or
n va ea u r a n .

der to pro d c the phe o m e f d y d i gh t

u e n na o a an n .

Th f c t d ph o m e d i c ed i th i ch pter d '

e a s an en na s uss n s a an

co tro v er t d th r i b y t h pr t wr iter
n e e e n r li d o e ese n , ar e e e n

by t ro o m rs
as n vi d e c o f ch o t ti o
e as e n e su r a n .

B t w h t i r g r d ed p rh p
u a s et he m t a ppor t ,
e a s , as r es su ,

t h m o t r ti o
e s l rg m t a t i i g the t heor y o f ch
na a u en s us a n n su

ro t ti o i t h follo wi g pr t d by Cop r i c
a n, s e n ese n e e n us

q u o t ed fro m P ro f N w omb P op l r A t. o m y e c

s

u a s ron

:

C op r i c x pl i h o w pp re t m o ti o m y

e n us e a ns an a a n n a re

su l t fro m t h r l m o tio o f t h p r o e ea i g w ell n e e s n s ee n , as as

fro m t h m o ti o O f t h obj c t ee
e d th
n ho w th t e e s n , an us s s a

th e d i r l m o ti o m y be cco t d f j t w el l
u na n a a un e or us as

by re v ol ti o f the r t h by O
a u n f th h v
o ea as ne o e ea en s .

T i lor o
O sa hip ili g s n m oo t h a s th hip sa n on a s se a , e s

an d e v eryt h i g i it ee m to be t r t n d t h e s h o re
n , s s a es , an

t o be i m o ti o

n n .
1 38 I s th e Cop er n i c a n Sy s te m f
o A s tr o n o my Tr u e 9
.

W h i ch the n o re li kel y to be i m oti o t h e e th
, , is m n n, ar

or th w h o le iv e e o t i de f it ? I w h t er p o
e un rs u s o n a ev r

por t i o the he v en g re ter th the th i the

a n s ar e a an ear ,
n

m e p op o r ti o m t thei m oti o be m o e pi d t o

sa r n us r ns r ra

c rry the m ro d i 24 ho r
a a un n u s .

P tol m y h i m el f ho w t h t t he he v e

e w ere sim s s a a ns so

m e th t the r t h w b t poi t i com p i o

ens a ea d as u a n n ar s n , an

f yt h i g th t i k o w t h y m y e xte d i t o i
o r an n a s n n, e a n n n

n i ty .

T e w sh o ul d req i re

h n e i ite eloc i ty o f e v o u an n n v r

l tio Therefore it i m or l i k l y t h t th i co m p r
a n .
, s e e a s a a

tiv e po i t t d th t the u iv ers e is ed t h a t he

n u r n s , an a n x ,
n

the e v r e r e s .

I dd iti o to the forego i g sh i p d h o e i ll t r ti o

n a n n an s r us a n ,

a t o t he decep tiv
s
p pe r ce e l t i g fr o m m o
e a ti o w a an s r su n n, e

m y s ppo e t hree p a llel

a u i l w y t r ck s q i t cl o e to
s ra ra a a u e s

e ch oth
a er .

S y fo e x m ple t h t w e a e i
a , r ac w h i ch i s t
, es t a r n a ar a r

o nthe m i ddle t r ck O look i g t ca o the dj ce t a . n n a a r n a a n

t r ck ay t o o
a , s i gh t w s o m ti m e e x p er i e ce a o i e
ur r , e e s n n s

le s gl i d i g o f o c
s n ur ar .

Th i appare t m o t i o w soo d to be c ed b y the

s n n e n n a us

r e l m oti o o f the t r i o ch dj c t tr ck
a n a n n su a a en a .

D r i g t h c o ti
u n ce o f t h i ppa re t m o ti o o f o r
e n n u an s a n n u

c i f w obs er v e
ar , m o ti o l
e t r i o the tra ck to o r a n es s a n n u

left it l o h t h ppe r c f
,
a s as hor t ti m e o f m o
e a a an e, or a s , a

ti i t he m e d i recti o t h t o
on n sa c ppea r s t o be n a ur ar a

m o vi g n .

Th pp re t m o ti o o f the tr i to o l ft s l ts fr o m
e a a n n a n ur e , re u

t he p i t c f vi l i m pre i o
er s s a n x pl i ed i C h p
e O sua ss n s, e a n n a

ter I He e a t he pp e t m o ti o
. r O f t wo t ai s
re a ar n ns r n ,

w h i ch e e ll y t r t c
ar ed b y t he m oti o f a t h i d
r a a es , au s n O r

t ai w h i ch pp ars t o be t r s t
r n a e a e .

A g i w he o t rai i s e ll y i m ot i o w ith a g r eat

a n, n ur n r a n n

v el o c ity t ees h ou s e s fe ces a d t he l a d s cape n ear t h e

, r , ,
n n n
 D o es th e E a r th R o ta te 1 39

t r ack appear i n r ap i d m o ti o n i n a d i rec ti o n O pposite to

th at O f o u r m o ti o n .

A gai n i f we s h u t o u t o f vi ew al l obj e cts e x t er i or t o o u r

,

car a n d d i r ec t o u r ob s e r v a ti o n e x cl u s iv e l y t o t he i n t er i o r
,

O f t he ca r i n r a p i d m o ti o n w e s ee m to be at res t ,
.

I f we obs er v e fro m o u r m o ti o n les s t r ai n an o t he r t r ai n ,

r eall y i n m o ti o n o n t he O ppos it e s hore l i n e O f a w i de r iv e r ,

w h i le it does n o t a ppea r w h i le l o ok i n g a t it t o b e i n m o
, ,

ti o n y et afte r t he l aps e o f a s hor t ti m e w e obser v e it i n a

, ,

n e w po s iti o n w it h r e fere n ce t o u s w h i ch pr o v es t h at it ,

h as m o v ed .

I f o u r tr a i n be i n m o ti o n a n d th a t o n t he oppos ite s h o r e
b e a t r es t the a pp a re n t ch a n ge O f p os iti o n o f the l a tter i s
,

the s a m e as i n t he for m er i n s tan ce He n ce m e re O b se r va .

ti o n w i l l n o t i n fo r m u s w h i ch t ra i n i s i n m oti o n i n t he ,

i n st an ces j u s t c ited .

S o m e o f the fo r eg o i n g i l l u strati o n s s h o w th at a n appa

r e n t m o ti o n m ay n o t be r e a l w h i le o t he rs s ho w t h a t re a l ,

m o ti o n s m ay n o t be a pp a r e n t W h i le the c ase o f t h e t w o .

tr ai n s o n O pp os ite s i des o f a w i de riv er s ho ws t h at where

, ,

o n e o f t he t w o i s a t res t a n d t he o t her i n m o ti o n m e r e o h ,

s e r v a ti o n w i ll n o t de t er m i n e w h i ch o n e o f t he m is i n
m oti o n .

Fr o m the O per at i o n o f l i ke cau s es it ca n n o t be det er ,

m i n ed w he t he r t he O bs e r v ed phe n o m en a o f t h e he a v e n l y
bo d ies appeari n g t o re v ol v e abou t the ear th i s a rea l m o ,

ti o n o r th at the rota ti o n o f the ea r th is t he cau s e o f s u ch

,

a
p pe r ce a an .

W e e the i m po i b i l ity o f the xi t c o f y f c t o

r ss e s en e an a r

p he o m en o cl l y pro
n v ed t he
n o e xi t e c
ea rf s ch f c t ,
n n -
s n e O u a

o rphe o m e o w o ld be r g ded s eq iv le t to o
n n n u e ar a u a n c n

cl s i v
u e vi de ce o f the o n e xi te ce o f s ch f c t o p h
e n n -
s n u a r e

n o m en o n .

W h i le , on the o ther h an d t he ba re poss i b i l ity o f t he

,

ex isten ce o f s u ch fac t o r phe n o m e n o n wo u ld a m o u n t p er ,

1 40 I s the Cop ern ica n Sy s te m of A s tr o n omy Tr u e 3
'

se to no e vi de n c e w h tvr
a e e of the e xi s te n ce of su ch f c t a or

phe o m o n en n .

H c t h po i b i l ity t h t t h
en e, e r th m y ro t te b c s e
ss a e ea a a ,
e au

d i d it d t h ph o m ob r v d w o ld b the m e
o so , e en ena se e u e sa

d i d t h h v l y bod i e r v ol v e bo t it m o t to o
ea en es e a u ,
a un s n

e vi d c p en th t t h
e rth ro t t
er so a e ea a es .

Y t t h b r po i b i l ity f
e e a e h o t ti o i i t l ly ss o su c r a n s v r ua re

g rded b y a t ro o m r
a q iv s l t t o no m vi de ce
e s as e O f u a en s e e n

su ch ro t ti o a n .

W h i l l l t h ph o m e a th t c it d b y C o per ni c u s
e en en a a e

an d t ho giv i b se ti w it h r i l w y
en n wo l d
o n n ec on a a s u ar

g u m t t i
en a l y ho w t h po
ve i b i l it y o f t h es ro t ti o O f e t he ss a n

ea rt h co i t tl y w ith t h O b r d ph o m
,
n s s en
y t t he e e se ve en e n a, e s
'

do o t f r i h t h l i g h t t e vi de c th t t h
n u n s e s r t h doe es n e a e ea s

rot t b t a e, co i t t w ith t h th ory h r i m i

u ar e n s s en e e , e e n a n

t i a ne d th t t h h ,
l y bod i r ol v bo t t h r t h
a e e av e n es ev e a u e ea .

I r g r d to th
n e r p c tiv e m o t i o it i ked i t he
a ese es e n s, s as n

l t q o t ti o W h i ch th i m or l i k l y to be i m o
as u a n ,

,
en ,
s e e n

t io the rth or t he w hol iv r o t i d o f it

n ,
ea e un e se u s e

I r pl y t o t h i i t m y be
n e i d t h t t h pl ts s, ad sa a as e an e an

t h m ooe co c d d to b i m o ti o i t m y r ti o ll y
n ar e n e e e n n a a na

b co c d d th t m o ti o
e n e e f l l t h he v e l y bod ia i pon o a e a n es s s

s i bl d l l f th m t h t
e , an a vi i bl h v the pp r ce
o e a are s e a e a ea a n

o f m o ti o h v t h pl t d m o
n as a e e an e s an o n .

Th q o t ti o co t i
e u a n n n u es

I w h te v e r propor ti o t h h v

n a g r ter th n e ea en s a re ea an

th rth i n t h m proporti o m t thei r m oti o b

e ea ,
e sa e n us ns e

m r r p id to c
o e ya t h m d i t w t
ar r
y fo r h o u r e ar o u n n en u s .

R epl y ,

th b i f th di t c s ho w i C h p te

O n e as s o e su n s s an e , as n n a r

II t h r p i d ity f i t m o ti o bo t t h e r th i
,
e a o st n a u e a s no n e ce s

s ar ily rg m t g i t t h po i bi l ity
an a u en r evea a ns the e ss ,
no n

prob b i l ity f ch m o t i o f t h fo l lo w i g r o
a o su n , or e n e as ns .

Th by i d o f the t l cop pp e r s gl o be
e su n ,
a
'

e es e a a s a a

of d i
r e, an ery g it te d co d itio n a v a a -

n n .

A m e teo r i s i g ited a co se
q e ce o f i t
n s a
p i d m o ti
as o n n u n r
 D oes t h e E ar th R o ta t e 9 .
:
141

v
t h r oug h r i t i g m d i m b t h pos i bl l i m its o f
a es s n e u ,
a o ve e s e

th e t m o ph r i
a s cord c wi t h the m ch i cal
e e, n ac an e

. e an

t h ory f b t
e o l l f w h ich i
ea ,

a ho w i Ch p t r III
o s s n n a e .

Co i d r i g t h
ns e f c t i r g rd to m t or i co
n e se a s, n c e a e e s, n nne
-

ti o w ith t h red c d d i t c f t he
n e u e ho w i
s an e o su n as s n n

C h p t II it m y
a er , t b a
p h i lo ophno i c l t o co e cl deun s a n u

t h t the pp r t m o t i o f t h
a a a en bo t t h r th i 2 4
n o e su n a u e ea n

ho r i r l m o ti o
u s, s a ea d t h t it i i g it d b y i t
n ,
an pi d a .
s n e s ra

m o ti o n m ly na e m il ,
ho r i t h m et or es a n u as s e e

b y i t p ge thro g h t h m r i ti g m d i m t h t
s as s a u e sa e es s n e u as a

w h i c h red t h m t or
.

m l y t h t m d i m w h i ch i
e e e ,
na e ,
a e u s

a bo v e t h po i bl l i m i t f t h t m o ph r w h i ch i pro v d
e ss e o e a s e e, s e

t o xi t b y t h f t t h t m t o
e s e ac i g it d b y p i g
a e e rs ar e n e as s n

thro g h ch r i ti g m d i m b y o d
u su es s n ch l i m it e i
u e n su , as s

s ho w i Ch p t r 1 11 S ch ig iti o i bo th c
n n a e . u n n ,
n ase s , re

ro ch c l h r o f He t

su
l ti
g fn m t h m

i t e y e an a eo a .

I r g rd to t h r pi d m o ti o
n e a ef t h pla t i d to be n o e a n e s sa

n ec ry to c rry th em bo t t h
ess a a r th i 2 4 ho r it a u e ea n u s,

m y b a i d t h t t h d i t ce f t h
e sa a e i dopted by as
s an o e su n s a

t o r nom me
e r s as a ri g rod or it o f m as u n m t by , un eas u r en

w h i ch t h d i t c o f t h pl t m t b det r m i ed
e s an es e an e s us e e n .

Th th i d i t c m t b r d c d i p roporti o to
en e r s an es us e e u e n n

th r d e e d di t c f t h
u ce s an e o fo d by t h e w su n , as un e ne

m r m t f ch d i t c
eas u e en o su s an e .

O th i b i t h d i t c f t h pl t M rc y f o m
n s as s , e s an e o e an e e ur r

th e s un i s m il It lo i t y th i t i m t i
es . s ve c on s es a e s

m il ho es a nI t v l ity ur . d i g to t h pr t s e oc a cc o r n e es e n

as t ro o m y in m il
s ho T h o t h r pl es a n t ur . e e an e s

wo l d r q i
u e gr t r l o ity to c rry th m bo t t h
u re a ea e ve c a e a u e

ea rth i 2 4 ho n i p op o t io t th i g
u rs, n r t di t r n o e r rea e r s a n ce

fro m t h e su n .

Th q o t t i o e u ti a nP t l m y h im l f h w t h t
co n n u es .

o e se s o s a

th h v imm th t t h th w b t

e ea e n s a re s o e n s e, a e ea r as u a

p o i t i n co m p n i o d f ar s
y t h i n g, t han t i k o w or an n a s n n ,

th y m y d i t i fi i t y Th w ho ld q i

e t a ex en n o n n . en e s u re u re
"
a n i n n i t e vl
e o cit y o f r e v o l u t i o n T h e r e fo e i t i s m o r e . r
1 42 I s t h e Cop er n i ca n Sy s tem f
o A str on o my Tr u e

l i kel y th t th i co m par tiv e po i t t u s n d th at t h e

a s a n rn , a

un iv e rs e i x ed t h t he e ve s es , an r r .

R epl y .

A it or s i gle p od cti o does o t p pe

un ,
n to be the r u n n a ar

m eth o d o f t re y w he e b t r th t h t o f m l ti pl i c
na u an r , u a er a u a

ti o n an d d i ve i t y h ce fo y t h i g k
rs o w m l,t i en ,

r an n n n

u

pl ied m ill i o o f sy t m s o f w orld m y e xte d i to i

ns s e s

a n n n n

ity each h vi g ce t e o f m oti o

,

a co ected w ith
n a n r n un nn

O u rs .

Wh at o t co cer ed i he e i t the co j
we a r e m s n n n r s no n ee

t r l
u a t he i vi i ble d i ite he e
or b t w it h the
n s an n n av n s, u

n ite d vi i ble he v e
an The l tte co i ts o f the
s a ns . a r ns s sun ,

m oo pl t d vi i ble t r
n, an e s an s s a s

.

A t he re l d i t ce
s f l l t he b od i
a x cep t p
s an s o a se es e , er

h p the m o o
a s, k ow ho w i C h pte I
n ar e u n n n , as s n n a rs

an d VI t h rg m e t fo ded the d i t ce f the e

, e a u n , un on s an s o s

bod i g i t thei r e ol ti o bo t the e th i ded ced

es , a a ns r v u ns a u ar s u

fr o m f l e pre m i ea m el y t h
a s p o por t i o l b t o t s , na , e r na , u n

re l d i t ce f th bod i
a s an s o ese es .

Co i der i g t h t t he m oo
ns d pl e t n t x ed
a n an an s ar e no ,

an d o e f t he he v e l y b od i e h v e the
n n o ppe ce f a n s a a a r an o

b i g x d it doe t e m there fo e m l i k ely t h t

e n e , s no se

r or e a

t h e th t r
e ar d th t the iv er e i xed th a t he
u n s an a un s s n re

v e se r .

 D oes t h e E ar th P r o r ess
g in an O r bi t 9 . 1 43

C HA P T E R V .

D O E S TH E E ART H P RO G R ES S I N A N O R B I T ?
A cco r d i n g t o t he Co per n i ca n t heor y o f as t r o n o m y the ,

ear th progress es abo u t t h e s u n m o vi n g i n a n O rb it 5 7 0 ,

m i ll i o n s o f m i l e s i n c i r c u m fe re n ce He n ce the d i a m eter .
,

O f th i s o rb it i s a bo u t 1 90 m i ll i o n s o f m i l es .

Vi e wed from a n y par t o f the earth s su r face the N or t h

,

pole o f the ear th appear s t o po i n t o n the po le s tar .

I n ord e r t o a cc o u n t fo r t he s eas o n s i n acco r d a n ce w it h ,

t h is t heory the ear t h s a xis i s pl aced o bl i q u el y to the o r

,

b it a n d pa r allel to itsel f i n e very par t o f t h e or bit as the

ea rt h prog ress es i n it .

N o t w ith s tan d i n g t h i s obl i q u ity o f t he ear t h s a xis t o the

pl an e o f t he ecl i pti c t h e No r th pole a ppears to po i n t o n

,

t h e N o r t h s ta r a ll t he ti m e j u s t as it w o u ld d i d t he e ar t h
,

n o t pr og ress i n t he orb it .

It is r eas o n able t o s u ppos e t h at it d oes so p o i n t at s om e

ti m e I f i t r ea ll y do es so at a n y p os iti o n it m u st d iv erge
.
, ,

a t le as t 9 5 m i ll i o n s o f m i les a t a n y o t h e r pos iti o n w h i ch

m ay be as m u ch as the o n e fo u r t h o f the c i r c u m fere n ce -

fu r ther i n the O rb it th a n t he p os iti o n r s t m e n ti o n ed

,
.

Fo r e x a m ple s u ppos e the N or th p o le r ea lly to p oi n t

, ,

i n D ece m ber o n the N o r t h s ta r co n s i de r i n g th a t t he

, ,

ear th s a xis i s a l way s parallel to its el f ; i n Mar ch the a xi s

w o u ld p o i n t a way fro m t h e s ta r 9 5 m i ll i o n s o f m i l es ,

n a m e l y t h e s e m i d i a m e ter o f t h e orb it
,
-
.

D i d i t r ea ll y p o i n t i n S e p te m b e r o n t he s ta r it w o u ld , ,

i n M a rch d iv e rge fro m t h e s t a r 1 90 m i ll i o n s o f m i les

, ,

n a m el t he d i a m e te r o f t h e or b it
*
y , .

li
By co n s u t n g a n as t r o n o m a ic l ch
ar t, s o hw ii
i n g t h e p o s t o n s O f t h e e ar t in h
th e di bi
ffe r e n t p a r t s o f t h e o r t , i n i t s p r o g r e ss i o n ab o t t h e s un y t h e t ru t h o f t h es e
u

asser t i o n s wi ll
b e ap p ar e n t .
1 44 Is th e Cop er n i ca n S y s t e m o
f A s tr o n o m y Tr u e 9 .

Th i p p r t co st t poi ti g o f the N orth pole o f

s a a en n an n n

th e ea rth t h N ort h t r i l l p r t f t h orbit co

on e s a ,
n a a s o e ,
n

i t t w it h r l d iv rg c fro m it i x pl i d by
s s en a ea e en e , s e a ne as

tro n o m t h t h ory t h t t h p o l
ers o n e t r i
e t ch a e e s a s a su a

g r t d i t c fro m t h r th th t t h r l d i rg c o f
ea s an e e ea a e ea ve en e

th e pole fro m t h t r i t p p r t e s a s no a a en .

Th y t i m t t h d i t c f t h t r fro m t h e r th t
e es a e e s an e o e s a e a o

b t w m i ll i o r d ii f t h rth orb it m l y t w m il
e o n a o e ea s ,
na e , o

l i o ti m t h m i d i m t r f t h r t h orbit
n es e se -
a e e o e ea

s .

A s an an s w r to t h i ti m t it h
e b s how i
es a e, as ee n s n n

C h pt r I i
a e
q o t
, t i o
n fro m
a S i u Joh aH r ch ln" t h t r n e s e ,
a

no p ll x f y ob r v d t r i pp r t
a ra a o an se e s a s a a en .

I th n m ch p t r i
e sa e
q o t ti
a o fro m eM ,
Bi o t
n a he u a n .
,

sa y t h t t he p r ll
s a of a a
p l t v ax i t i l y no ane e en , s cer a n

k own n .

Th ti m t d d i t c f t h pl t
e es a e s an re t the e th e o e an e n ea s ar ,

na m ly V e ,
i bo t 30 m i ll i o f m i l
e n us, s a u ns o es .

C lc l ti o w i ll ho w b
a u a n d th e ti m t th t the
s , ase on es es a es , a

pol t r i m or th i m i l l i o ti m f rth fro m the

e s a s e an s x n es u er

ea rt h th i V an s e n us .

P l ci g t h pol
a n t r t th i d i t ce i x pected to
e e s a a s s an s e se

co t f t h d i rg c
un or e ec ry to t h Co p r i c
ve en e n es s a e e n an

t h ory e f t h pol fro m t h

o e t r i ord to e x pl i the
e e s a , n er a n

a pp t p o i ti g co i t t w i t h r l d iv r g c
aren n n n s s en a ea e en e .

I vi w f t h
n e d m itt d f c t th t t h d i t c f
o e a e t a a e s an e o n o s ar

i k
s w no it b
n ,
i d t h t pl i i g t h
can e sa m ly af ex a n n e an o o o

an a
pp r ta
p o i ti
en g f t h p o l n nt h t r o co i t e t e on e s a , n s s en

wi t h l di g c
a r ea ff c t f t h g r t d i t ce f
ve r en e , as a n e e o e ea s an O

su c h t r i ith r ph i lo oph i c i i t m thod or r l i ble

s a , s e e s n s e ,
e a as

d d ct i 7

a e u on

Th i ere O b r d f t wh i h m p rti e tl y to
s an se v e ac c co es e n n

th mi d i c ti wi th t h th f th rt h
e n ,
n o n n ec on e eo r v o e ea s

p g ro ivr es sm t i o e o n .

F m pl
o r e xa pp o obe, su r r t o b t he
se a n t rop i c se ve e on

o fC ra n ce th 2 1 t f J
, O n e d h Ob sv o t r on u n e, an e se r es a s a

t h a t d a
y t o e a
a r t h e z e n it
r n h o f t he o b s e r ve r .
 Do es the E a r th P r o r ess
g in an O r bi t 9
. 1 45

O n t he
2 l st o f D e m r , aft r t ar th i s s u pp o ed
ec be s to e he e
h av e cro ed o b
ss i ts r i t, a n d tr a v a is tan ce e l o
q ua t 1 90 eled d
ll o le
m i i n s o f m i s , i f m as u r e ed gh e
i n a s t r a i t l i n , n am y , el
t he d e e o b he e he b e e oo k
i am t r o f t h e r it t r t O s r v r l s fo r t h e
,

s tar he h ad s i x m n t so h be o e b e e
f r , O s r v d in J e
u n , at t h e

e h
z n it i n Can cer, a n d he d h
n s t i s sa m e
s t ar a t t hez e n

h o
it i n Cap r i c r n , y e t it is n o t de e h
n i d t at t h e s ta r s ar e
xed .

Th is w o ld be the es l t d i d t he ea th h av e n o p o g es
u r u r r r

s iv e m o ti o n .

W he it is co s i de ed t h at t he d is ta ces o f t h e s tar s a e
n n r n r

u k ow
n n he ce th t it ca ot be k o w t h t t h is O b
n, n a nn n n a

s e ve d phe o m e o
r is n effec t o f ch u k ow d is t a ce
n n an su n n n n ,

t h i s at t v i ew ppe s t w w ith t he t h eo r y o f t he
rs a ar a ar

p r o g r ess i v e m o ti o o f t he e t h i t he o bnit ar n r .

It was t h is f c t w h i ch p e v e ted the celeb ate d D a is h

a r n r n

as tr o n o m e Ty ch o B ahe f o m accep ti g t he Cop er i ca n

r, r ,
r n n

t h eo y r .

A s t o the d iv e ge ce o f t he o th p o l e f o m t h e n o th

r n n r r r

s ta r,it m y be sa i d a a d a e x m i ti o o f t h e t
n h e o r
y n a na n

,

b y ai d o f ch a r ts w i l l p r o v e t h t ch r e l d iv er ge ce is a su a n

es se ti l to acco t fo the eas o s acco d i g to t h e

n a un r s n ,
r n

t heor y

.

D id th i eces ry e l d iv e ge ce t ke pl ce
s n sa r m el y
a r n a a na

,

n ot l t h 95 m i ll i o o f m i le wo ld o t o m e d iv e
e ss an ns s u n s r

ge ce be pp re t ? E v e
n a u m i g it t o be t u
a n th t t he n as s n r e a

s tar i s d i t t f o m t h e ar t h t w o m i l l i o
s an r d ii o f t he
e n ra

ea th o bit
r

s r .

I t he d i re ct i o o f t he pos i b i l ity o f t h is it m y be
n n id s , a sa ,

t h t cco d i g t o t o o m i c l e ti m te the s
a a r n as r i s ab ou t
n a s a un

93 m i ll i o s o f m i le f o m the e t h
n s r ar .

I ts e xt em e d iv erg ce o t o pe k m e su ed a o u d
r en , s s a , a r r n

th e c v e o f the ear t h
ur d e xt e d i g f o m o e t op i c to, an n n r n r

t he o t her i b o t t hree th o s d t h ee h n d d m i les

a u u s an r
q
re ,

mo v i g i n th is d i s tan ce c oss 4 7 o f l ati tud e: Y et Wer e

n a r

10
1 46 I s th e Cop er n i ca n Sy s tem o f A s tr o n o my Tr u e 9 .

t i g h t l i n es
s ra ro m t he d
t o e ch t O p i c the
r aw n f sun a r ,
an

gle w o ld b p rc pti ble w o ld be t h t for m ed by

u e as e e as u a

t he m i te h d o f clock i m o vi g l o g i t d i l fro m
nu an a n n a n s a

1 2 to 3 Th ch g o f pl ce f the
. e m a ked o an the e a o su n , r n

e r t h i ob er ble fro m d y to d y b y the ey e as sm l l

a , s s va a a ,
a as

su ch ch ge i an s .

W he it i co i de d o t h o h d t h t t he es ti
n s ns re n e ne an , a

m t ed d i t
a c f th i 9 3 m i ll i o
s an f m i les
e o d th t e su n s ns o , an a

i t s pp e t ch ge o f pl ce i cl d d w ith t h e l i m it
a ar n an f a ,
n u e s o

3 200 m i le m e red ro d t h c r v e o f the e r th i s

s as u a un e u a ,

pl i l y ob er v ble v e i f m
a n s ed fr om d y to d y
a e n e as u r a a .

A d wh n o t h o t her h d it i co i d ed th t t h
en , n e an ,
s ns er a e

e ti m ted d i ta ce o f t he pol t r i t w o m i ll i o d ii o f
s a s n e s a ,
s n ra

t h e rth o bit d th t t h po i ble d i pl cem e t o f t he

e a s r , an a e ss s a n

p ol fro m t h t r i t h d i m ter f the rth o rb it

e e s a s e a e o ea

s ,

na m el y 1 90 m i l l i o ,
f m i le i ccord c w ith l a w o f ns o s, n a an e a

propor ti o th re ho ld b i s i m o th v e y p rcep
n e s u e, n x n s, a r e

ti bl d i pl ce m t f t h or t h pole fro m t he t
e s a en o e n s ar .

W he t h h do w i vi i bl y d i pl ced i
n e su n s s

d y a s s s a n a a ,

w he t he r l tiv e d i t
n c f th e a d t he s t d s an es o e su n an ar , an

t h di te c f the s an d pol m o v e
es o l tiv el e co su n a n e re a y ,
ar n

s id d l w o f pr o por t i o
er e , a w i l l e q i re
a vi i ble d i pl ce n , r u a s s a

m t o f the pole fr o m t h t r i s i m th s
en e s a n x on .

In th i s se c ti o
ded cti o i m de th t the ea t h do n , a u n s a a "

r es

n o t p o g re s i the
r ig d o b it s n a ss ne r .

Th f c t e m er t d i th i
e a cti o w re co i d r d i n
s nu a e n s se n e ns e e

t he l t pr c d i g ch p t r
as d f oth p rpo th
e e n a e ,
an or an er u se an

t h t th r i
a co t m pl t d
e e n n e a e .

The f c t d t h d d c ti o
se m d f o m th m i t h i
a s, an e e u ns a e r e n\ s

s ec ti o b y t h w r it r
n , follo w e e ,
ar e as s :

1 A t 1 0 mi l
. bo v e t h e r th the t mo ph er h lo t es a e a ,
a s e as s

Be v e n e ei
ght hs of t he d en si t y i t h as at t h e surface of t h e
ocean.
 D oes t h e E a r th P r o r ess
g in an O r bi t 9 . 1 47

2 t h is d i s tan ce ab o v e the e ar t h it i s so a tte n u ated

. A t
as t o be i n ca p a bl e o f s u s ta i n i n g t he v apors o f w h i ch cl o u ds

ar e fo r m ed n e ar e r t he e ar t h .

3 A t 4 5 m i les ab o v e t he ea r th it h as bec o m e s o r e d u e
.

ed i n den s ity as to be i n capable o f reec t i n g t h e r ay s o f

,

t he s u n .

4 Sp a ce at t h e d i s ta n ce o f 8 0 m i les a bo v e the e ar th i s
.
, ,

a t m os phe r e fo r a l l p r a c ti c able p u rp os es

v o id o f a n
H
.

er sch e l .

Meteor i
5 . i g ited c o d iti o wer ge er ll y o b
s n an n n n e n a

s er ved at b o t 7 5 m i les b o v the e th a d d i ppea ed

a u a e ar n sa r

,

a t 55 m i le bo ve i t N w o m b s a . e c .

6 The e w
. po itiv e e vide ce o f thes e be i g i an
r as

s n ,

n n

i g ited tate
n m ch s 1 00 m i l s
s ,
b o ve the e t h
as u a e a ar .

N en c o m h .

7 . e rth m o vi g i the o rb it w ith t he v el oc ity

D id t he a ,
n n

o f 1 9 m i les p co d m et m et or t re t t he e r th b y
er s e n ,
e a e a s , a

s t i k i g it w o ld t h
r n ge e te d g ee o f he t
u us n ra e r s a .

N ew c o m b .

8 e i i g m ed i m occ pi e p ce a the press re o f

. A r s st n u u s s a , s u

s ch m ed i m dec e
u e t h v locity d ed ce t he v is i
u r as s e e an r u s

,

ble eb l osity o f co m ts m o vi g i i t H h l
n u e n n . er s c e .

The foll ow i g co cl i o ded c d from the fo e

n n us n s ar e u e r

go i g e m e t d f ct
n nu ra e a s .

1 Th t tho e m et o
. a ob e v ed i si g i t ed co d i
e r s, s r n an n n

t io t t he d i t
n a ce f 1 00 m i le bo v e the r th w e e ot
s an o s a ea .
r n

i g it d b y i m p ct w i t h t h
n e t m o phe e as p ce i oi d
a e a s r ,
s a s v

of tm o phere bey o d ig h ty m i les

an a s n e .

2 Th t m e t eor
. t t he d i t
a ce o f 1 00 m i l b o v e t h e
s a s an es a

e r th w ere i g it d b y m o vi g r p i dl y i
a n ees i ti g m n a n a r s n e

d i m e xi ti g i
u , p c bo v t h po i ble l i m it f t h t
s n n s a e a e e ss s o e a

a c co r d a ce w it h t h m e ch i c l theo ry

m o phe s i r e, n fn e an a o

h e at .

a
Th e f o r eg o i n g . ar e re3arded as facts in standard We; 35 mai n; 5 of the
and ki ndred sub ects.
j
1 48 Is the C p er
o n i can Sy stem of A str on omy Tr u e I

In iew o f the foregoi g e m er ted f cts a d the co

v n nu a a n n

e l u s i o s ded ce d fro m t he m w e h
n e fo o co s i deration
u , av r ur n

a g ig tic m eteor m el y the e r t h d i t atm o phere

an ,
na , a , an s s ,

progress i g i t h orbit w ith the n nm eloc ity as th at

e sa e v

w h i ch i g i t e d m e teor m el y 1 9 m i les i a s eco d

n d s, n a ,
n n ,
an

m o v i g w ith th i v eloc ity t h o gh t he s m re i sti g m e

n s r u a e s n

di m u v
bo e t he pos i ble l im it o f t he t m os phere w h i ch
a s s a

ig ited t h m e teors a d wh i ch ccordi g t o the m ech

n e , n , a n

an

i cal theory o f he t w o ld dev elop adegrees o f

,

u

hea t .

Y t t h e e r th w it h t h i r pi d m o ti o i t he orb it m o
e a , s a n n , v

i g i t he
n m e m ed i m as th t w h i ch re t rd s a d co m
n sa u a a n

pres e co m e t s s d i p s i g t hro gh w h i ch m eteor a e

s, an ,
n a s n u , s r

i g ited w holl y f ils to m i fe t to e s ti o or to o b

n , a an s s n a n se r

va tio i gle degree o f he t k ow t o res l t e pected

n one s n a n n u ,
x

to res l t or bel i e ed to e l t from thi s ca e t t h e e rth

u , v r su us , a a ,

either i i ts t m o phere o i t n rf ce or i i t w ter

a s ,
*
n s su a , n s a s .

W he t he e f cts nw e i ghed a d co
s i dered d o th ey
a ar e n ns ,

n o t am o t to rg m e n t d ers e t o the t h eo v th at t h e
un an a u a v r

ear t h progr es es i the orbit ? s n

The aberra t io n o f t h e l igh t fro m a s t a r obse r v ed i n a ,

tel es cope i s tho u gh t by as tr o n o m ers t o de mo n strat e t h e

,

progress i v e m o ti o n o f t h e ea r t h i n i t s orb i t .

S o s a ti s ed a r e the y o f t h i s t h a t M Bi o t e x pres s es t h e , .

ge n era l Op i n i o n w h e n h e t er m s i t an i n co n tes table ,

t rut h .

Th is aberrat i o n i s e x pl a i n ed i n co n n ectio n with Fig 1 7 .

,

cop i ed fro m P ro f N e wco m b s P op u l a r A s t ro n om y

.

.

I n Fi g 1 7 l e t S be a s ta r a n d T O a t eles cope
.
,

poi n ted at i t The n i f t h e teles cope i s n o t i n m o t i o n

.
, ,

t h e r ay 8 O T e m a n a ti n g fro m t he s t a r a n d e n ter i n g t he
"
,

W h at w o u l d e t h e e ffec t o n t h e
a t m osp he r e did i ik t str e th er in
o o o vi i o l oc it y
e an s p ace
d u g h t o C m p r e ss c m e t s , m h h etih w t of 19
ond A l l ob v bl ff o ph
e n se e n ng n s uc er a ve
d
m i les
t li
e r se c
oper at i d bf w
o el l d ow l
h
se r
i nd p d n n
a e a
aws
ec t s o n
e en
t e at m s
e t o f s uc h sup p o
ere ar e
d
ac co u n t e
H
i5t16h s
fo r
 Does the E a r th P r ogr ess i n an O r hi t 9 . 149

ce n tre o f t h e object gl as s w il l pass do w n e r t h e righ t

,
n a

h a d edge o f the y e p i ece a d t he s ta r w i ll appea r i

n e -
,
n n

the ri gh t o f the el d o f i e w v .

B t i s tea d o f be i n g t re t al l o
u n a telescopes a e ca
s , ur r r

r ied alo g w ith the ear t h i i ts orb it ro u d the su at

n n a n n

5
" t
he r t e o f 1 9 m iales s eco d a n .

* S ppo e t h is m oti o to b e i n the

u s n

d i rectio o f the rro w t he w hi l e

n a n,

t h e m y i s p as si n g d o wn t h e t e l escop e,

t
t h e l a t er m o v es a s hor t it
d s an ce, so

th t t h ay o lo ger t i kes t h e
a e r n n s r

ri gh t h d edg o f the ey p i ece b t
an e e -

, u

s o m e po i t f r t her t o t h e le ft i f the

n u , as

s t r were i the di rec ti o S a d t h e

a n n n

ay follo w ed the d i rec ti o o f t h e do tt ed

r n

l i e I order t o e the t r ce t ral
n . n se s a n

l y t he ey e e d o f the teles cope m u s t
, n

be dropped a l ittle beh i d s o th t i n n , a

s tead o f po i ti g i the d i rectio n S

n n n ,

it wi ll be reall y po i ti g i the d i ec n n n r

ti o S ho wn by the dotted l i e
n

, s n .

Th is w i ll the repres e t t he ap p s

n n

re t d i rectio o f the st r w h i ch w i ll
n n a ,

eem d i pl aced i the d i rec ti o n i
s s n n

w h i ch t h ea rt h i s m o v i g

e n .

It w ill be s ee fro m the foregoi g n n

qu otati o th t the phe o m e o the re

n, a n n n

i m e ti o ed occ r
n n w h il e t he ay i s
n u s

r

p ss i g do w t h e tele cope
a n d tha t
n s ,

an

the c e o f the ob er ed berr ti o n o f

au s s v a a

th e y i s ttri b ted to the m otio the

ra a u n

telescope h s i com m o w ith t h e a n n

a n
e rth i i t orb it d r i g t he ti m e t h e
s u n

ray i s o i t t r av eln o t fro m s t he o h s n

s er ved s tar b t fro m the t o p o f t h e u

FI G . telescope t o the botto m o f it .
1 50 I s t he Cop er n i can Sy sten
t of A s tr on omy Tr u e
'

9
.

Th is phe n o m e n o n rel i ed o n b y astro n om ers as

is t h e
t h e i n co n tes ti bl e t r u th w h i ch pro v es t h e progress i v e

,

mo ti o n o f the ea r t h i n i ts orb it .

I n order to s ho w t h at t he m o ti o n o f the l i gh t fro m t he

obser ved s ta r d u r i n g the ti m e it i s pass i n g do w n the tel e
,

scope co m b i n ed w it h t h a t o f t he e a r t h d u r i n g t he s a m e
,

ti m e ca n n o t be the k n o wn ca u se o f the obser v ed phe n om

,

en on t h e follo w i n g c alcu l a ti o n o f the po ssi b i l ity o f t h is

, ,

an d co n cl u s io n fro m it i s s u b m i t ted fo r co n s i der a ti o n

.

A s l i gh t a ccord i n g t o t he ge n eral e s ti m at e h as a v e
l o ci t y o f m i les per s eco n d an d t he ea r th i n t he
,

o rb it a v eloc ity o f 1 9 m i les per s e co n d t he v eloc ity o f l i gh t

,

t hen i s m ore th an ti m es greater th an t hat o f t h e

ear t h .

I n order t o te s t the poss i b i l ity o f t he co m b i n ati o n o f

these t wo m oti o n s be i n g the k n o w n cau se o f the obl i qu ity
o f t he r ay as ob s er v ed i n t he t eles cope le t it be s u ppos ed , ,

fo r e x a m ple t h at obs er v a t i o n o f a s tar i s m ade w i t h t he

, ,

r es u l t m e n ti o n ed i n co n n ecti o n w i t h Fi g 1 7 t hro u gh a 2 6 .

fee t t eles cope h a v i n g a 2 fee t object gl as s

, .

A s l i gh t t rav el s m i l es i n a s ec o n d h o w s hor t a ,

ti m e w o u ld be requi red fo r it to trav el 2 6 feet t h e len gth ,

o f t he t ele s cope ?

C alc u l atio n w i ll pro v e th at th e ti m e requ i red t o d o th i s

,

is t h e p a r t o f on e s eco n d Can s u ch ti m e be co n
.

c e i v e d ? C a n s u ch v eloc ity be obs er v able ?

The r ay is obser v ed i n the teles cope t o pas s fro m t h e

r i gh t t o the le ft h an d o f t h e ey e p i ece s ay a bo u t a n i n c h
, .

Ho w lo n g a ti m e wo u ld be req u i red t o do th is w ere s u ch ,

m o ti o n o f t he r ay cau s ed b y the m o ti o n o f t he ear t h i n t he

orb it a lo n e ?
Calcu l a ti o n w i ll s h ow th at th e ear t h m o v es i n t h e orb it
an i n ch i n t he p ar t o f o n e s econ d .

The t wo n ecessary s i des o f a pa rallelogra m b y wh i ch a d i

a go n a l co u ld be for m ed w h i ch s ho u ld m e as u re the obl i q u ity
,

o f t h e r ay e m a n ati n g fro m t h e obs er v ed s tar wo u l d b e t h e ,

 Do es the E art h P r ogr ess i n an O r bi t 1 51

hor izo n tal l i n e o f the ear th s m o ti o n i n the orb it an d the

,

d i rec ti o n o f t he r ay perpe n d i cu l ar t o th is The d i ago n a l .

o f t h i s pa ral l elogr am w o u l d be form ed i n t he p ar t o f

o n e s eco n d h a d t he r ay fro m t h e obs er v ed s t a r
, n e a rl y ,

the sam e v eloci t y as th at o f the ear th b u t when i t is co n ,

s i d e r e d t h at t he r ay t r a v el s alo n g o n e s i de o f t h i s p a r a llelo

gram to the botto m o f t h e t e l o sco p e i n the

, p ar t o f
O n e s eco n d h o w co u ld t h e d i a go n a l o f th i s p a r a llelogra m
,

be co n s t r u cted accord i n g to the l a w o f t he com pos iti o n

a n d res ol u ti o n o f forces .Ho w cou ld th is d iago n al o r o h

l iq u i t y res u l t i n g fr o m these t wo m o t i o n s be poss i bl y

, , ,

o bs er va b l e ? Co u ld s u ch i n n i t ess i m al de v i a t i o n o f t he r ay

fro m a s trai gh t l i n e h e m eas u ra ble ?

S u ch aberra t i o n o f t h e r ay w ou ld be i n v is i ble t o the ey e
e ven wit h the ai d o f t h e m os t po werfu l m i cros cope ev e r
e m ploy ed to m ag n i fy the m i nu te e v e n w ere it cap a ble o f
,

bei n g u sed i n th is i n sta n ce He n ce it i s r ati o n a l t o co n

.

cl u d e t h a t su c h a berr a t i o n h as n e v er bee n seen .

It w ou ld n o t be a n ex aggerat i o n w ere it sai d th at t h e

,

i n con ce i vable v eloci ty o f ligh t i n m o v i n g the len gt h o f a

teles cope i n co m par is o n w i t h t h e v eloc i t y o f the teles cope
,

i ts el f m o v i n g w i t h the ear t h i n the orbit n am el y

, , ,

ti m es iess th an the speed o f l igh t wo u ld be as t h e v elocity

o f l i gh t n i n g t o t he ga it o f a To r to i s e .

I n order to co n ce i ve o f t h e s p eed o f l i gh t i n co m p ar i ,

s o n w i t h t he v eloc i t y o f t h e e a r t h i n t he or b it s o m e rel a t i v e ,

com pa ri s o n m ay be real ized w he n it i s co n s i dered th at i n

,

t h e t i m e req u i red fo r t h e e a rt h t o j og alo n g 1 9 m i les i n

' '

the pat h o f t h e orb it l igh t w o u ld trav el far e n o u gh t o

,

cross the A t l an t i c O cea n 8 0 ti m es w ere the ocea n su p,

posed t o be 2500 m iles w i d e .

F r o m t h e s p eed o f l i gh t le t it be deter m i n ed h o w far

the m o t ion o f the ear th m ov i n g at a ri gh t a n gle t o t h e d i ,

r ec ti o n o f t h e m o t i o n o f t h e l i g h t co m i n g fro m t he s ta r ,

an d m ov i n g ti m es slo wer th an l i g h t w o u ld deec t ,

1 52 Is the Cop er n ic a n Sy stem of A str on omy True I

th e l atte r an d es pec ially vi s ib ly deect it d u ri n g t he ti m e

, ,

i t m ov ed 2 6 fee t i n des ce n d i n g t h e teles cope .

In stead how ev er o f t he phen om en on j u s t m en tion ed

, ,

b e i n g ev i d en ce o f t he progress i v e m otion o f t h e ea rth i t ,

m ay poss i bly res u l t fro m o n e or m ore o f the follow in g

en u m erate d facts w h i ch ar e fou n d b y the obs er v ati o n s o f
,

as tro n o m ers . I t i s s tated b y the m th at

N0 le n s w ill bri n g al l the ray s o f l igh t t o absol u t el y

the sam e focu s .

Wh en l i gh t pass es throu gh a pris m i ts v ariou s colors ,

ar e re fr ac t ed u n eq u all y red be i n g re frac t e d t he le as t an d

, ,

v i ole t the m os t

It i s t he sa m e wh en l i gh t is refra cted b y a len s an d t he ,

co n se q u e n ce i s the red ray s w i ll be bro u gh t to the fa r t h

es t focu s an d t h e v i ole t t o t he n ea res t w h i le t he i n t e r m e

, ,

di ate colors w ill be s ca ttered be tw ee n

.

Here it w i ll he n oti ced th at the re fracti on n am ely , ,

ch an ge i n the d irection o f the r ay i s n o t s u ppos ed to be

,

ca us ed b y t h e progress i v e m o ti o n o f th e ea r th y e t t he r ay ,

wou ld pass d o w n t h e teles cope obl i qu e to i t s pa ra llel s i des ,

a n d a d m itte d to be c au s ed b y i ts le n s y e t fro m s u ch phe

, ,

n o m en o n as th i s th e progress i v e m o ti o n o f t he ea r th i s de
,

d u ced n am el y t he obl i q u e d i recti on o f t he r ay i n pass i n g

, ,

down the teles cope The qu o tati on s fro m N ew co m b s

.

P opu l ar A s tro n o m y ar e con ti n u ed He say s :

.

A s al l the l i gh t i s n o t bro u gh t t o t he sa m e foc u s it i s ,

i m poss i ble to ge t a n y a cc u rate i m age o f a s tar or o t her

obj ec t at wh i ch t h e teles cope i s po i n ted the ey e see in g

o n l y a con fus ed m i x t u re o f i m ages o f va ri o u s colors .

A s l arger a n d m ore perfect a chrom ati c t eles copes w ere
m a de a n ew so u rce o f a b er r a ti o n w as d is cov ered n o p r ac

, ,

ti cal m etho d o f correcti n g wh i ch is y e t k n ow n .

It arises from the fact th at in t gl as s as co m pa red w ith
crow n gl as s d is pers es t he bl u e e n d o f t he s pec t r u m m ore

th an t he r ed en d .
 . Does the E ar t h P r ogr ess i n an O r bi t t 1 53

the ey e p i ece be p shed i o th t t h e s tar is see
If u n s a n ,

o t a a po i t b t as m all d i c the ce tre o f t h di c

n s n , u a s s , n e s

w i ll be gree o y ello w w h i le t h border w i ll be redd is h

n r ,
e

p rple B t i t h e i m m e s e refr ct ors o f t wo fee t ap er

u . u , n n a
"
t re or m ore o f wh ich gre t m ber h e bee prod ced
u , a a nu av n u

o f l te y e r t i o co s t i t t es the m os t

a t h e eco d ry b e
a s, s n a a rra n n u

s er i ou s O p ti c l de fec t ; d it i s a d e fect w h i ch r i i g

a an , a s n

fro m t h proper ti e o f gl ss i t el f o d i m i is h

e t ca s a s , n ar n n .

I f the s ta r obs er ed t hro g h t h te les cope s ho ws b u t a

v u e

co f ed m i t re o f i m ges
n us x u a co s eq e ce o f t he l i g h t a , as n u n

n o t be i g bro gh t t o the
n m e foc
u o t he le s d if sa us n n , an

s eco d a ryn be ti o co ti t tes t h m o t s eri o s O p ti cal

a rra n ns u e s u

defect co tit ti g ,
ns w s o rce of aberr at i o
u n w h i ch i s
a ne u n,

sa i d to a r is e fro m a proper ty i gl ss i t sel f wh ich

d n a , an ,

t ca d i m i i s h i i

n o ar n a e t here y anppl ce s o f
, s c e ce
r an an n

so d el i c t e d y e t so rel ia ble as to de t erm i e w it h m ath e

a an n

m t i c l cert i t y
a a th t t h e berr t i o refr ct i o o
a n a a a n, a n, r

obl iq ity o f the y ob er ed i t he t eles cope does o t e

u ra s v n n r

s l t fro m s o m e o f t h e c
u s e o f error m e ti o ed au s n n .

O fro m c se o f error o t m e ti o ed
r a au m el y th t n n n , na , a

the obl i q ity f t h y re l ti g fro m t h e progress i e

u o e ra su n v

m o t i o o f t he e r th m
n t co seq e ce o f t he elocity
a , us , as a n u n v

o f l i gh t i co m p r i o w it h t he
, n ig ed eloci t y o f the
a s n ass n v

e rt h i t h orbit be so g re t t h t s h obl iq ity i f e is t

a n e ,
a a uc u x

i n g at al l w o u ld be obs er v able n ot .

S u ch co n cl u s i on s hou l d n o t appear i rrati o n al when it is ,

co n s idered th at th ere ar e he r e t h ree d is t i n c t cau ses o f aber

rati on each o f w h i ch i t i s a d m i t ted res u l ts i n a n obli q u i ty
, ,

o f t he r ay e m a n a t i n g fro m a s ta r
, i n i t s d es ce n t o f t h e ,

teles cope Th is res u l t n am el y aberra ti on proceed i n g

.
, ,

fro m ea ch o f th ese cau s es m u s t be s epa rated a n d m eas ,

u r e d a n d o n e o f t he m s ho w n t o be t h e e ffec t o f t h e pro
,

r es s i v e m o ti o n o f t h e ea r th
g .

Thes e cau ses o f a berra ti o n a r e :

1 Th at w h i ch re fract s l i gh t i n t he le n s as n o len s
.

,
1 54 Is t he Cp
o er n c a n i Sy s te m o f A str o n omy Tr ue .
9

w ill br i g n al l the rays of l i gh t to bsol tel y

a u the s am e

foc u s .

2 Th a
. t
o rce o f a berrati o n aris i n g fr o m t he

n ew s u

properties o f gl ass i t s el f .

3 Th at att r i b u ted t o t he com b i n ed m o t i o n s o f l i gh t a n d

.

o f t h e e a r th i n t he orb i t .

Th is l a t ter n a m ed a ber rati o n or obl i q u ity o f the r ay o h

s er v ed i n t h e t eles co p e m u s t be s e a r a ted fr o m t h e t w
p , o

for m er m ea s u red a n d clea rl y recog n iz ed as t h e d iago n a l

, ,

o f a p a r allelogram r es u l t i n g fro m t h a t l i gh t fro m t he o h

.

s er v ed s ta r w h i ch i s p r oj ec t ed t hro u gh
, t h e t eles cope i n
th e par t o f o n e s eco n d co m bi n ed w i t h t he su p ,

pos ed progr ess i v e m oti o n o f t h e ea r t h w h ich m o v es a cros s

t h e e y e p i ece o f t h e t eles cope l n the pa r t o f a s eco n d .

Can t h i s l att er obl i q u ity o f t h e r ay be s epa ra t ed fro m

the t w o for m er an d s ho w n t o r esu l t fr o m t h e progress i ve
,

m o ti o n o f t h e ea r t h ? I n e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h l ig h t o n a
pris m th at e m i n e n t as t r o n o m e r A rago a co l a borer w it h
, ,
-

M Bi o t fo u n d i n t h e l a n gu age o f M Bi o t :
.
, , .

Very d i ffere n t fro m w h at w e s ho u ld e x pec t th a t al l ,

li gh t w het he r terres t r i al o r celes t i al d i rec t o r reecte d

, .

u n dergoes e x a c t l y t h e s a m e d e v i a ti o n i n

w h a t e v er d i r e c

ti o n i t i s e m i t t ed . Thes e co n s i d
e r a t i o u s w it h m an y o t her s pro v e t h a t o u r k n o w ledge o f

the n at u re o f l igh t i s y e t v ery i m per fect .

Fro m t hes e ex p eri m e n t s t h e co n cl us i o n m ay be ded u ced

th at aberrati o n o f a r ay w o u ld res u l t i n depe n d e n t o f m o ,

ti o n he n ce t h at s u ch wou ld r es u l t fr o m an obs er ved s tar

, ,

w heth e r the e a r t h w ere a t res t o r i n m o ti o n a n d s eco n d , ,

th at e r ror i n o u r con cl us io n s as t o p h en e m en a obs er v ed

i n co n n ect i o n w it h l i gh t m i gh t ar i s e fro m o u r i m perfec t
k n o w ledge o f l i gh t .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e co m pl i ca ti o n s ca u s ed b y the ac ti o n
o f t h e le n s o n l i gh t i n s ol v i n g t h e proble m o f t he e ar t h s

progress i ve m oti o n ded u ced fro m t h e aberrat i o n o f l igh t

,

as obs e r v ed i n the t eles cope t he d i ffere n t m ot i o n s i v e n

g ,
 Do es th e E ar t h P r ogr ess i n an :
O bi t r 9
. 1 55

to the earth b y as tro om er sho ld be correctly e ti m ated n s, u s

a d ded c t ed fro m t h t berr t i o t

n u p po ed o : b e
a ca s ed a a n su s u

b y the progres i e m oti o o f t h e t h i t h orb it by t ho e

s v n e ar n e s

w h o be l i e e i l l t he e m o ti o
v n a d wh o l o b el ie e
s n s, an a s v

th t the aberr ti o o f the l igh t f om st r ob er ed i

a a n r a a s v n

the tele cope pro e c h progre i e m oti o

s v s su ss v n .

A ccord i g to t h co cl i o
n f t ro o m ere th e rth
n us ns o as n s, e a

h as e m o tio
v e c h e ti rel y i depe de t f the ot her
n s, a n n n n o ,

n am el y

1 Th . m ot ioe i the orb it 2 O i ts i 3

n n . . n ax s . .

A r o d t he s t r phere i co m m o w i t h t h
un a s ol r y te m , n n e s a s s

a n n u al l y 4 The ea rt h a n d m oo n aro u n d a co m m o n ce n
. .

t re o f grav ity 5 A r o u n d t h e pole o f t h e heav e n s ca us

. .
,

i n g t he precess i o n o f t h e eq u i n o x es .

When t h e e xtre m e m i n u te n ess o f the aberration d u e t o

m o ti o n o f t he ea r t h i n t h e orb i t i s co n s i dered i n co n n ec ,

tio n w ith t h e foregoi n g e n u m era ted m oti o n s o f the eart h ,

the u n cert ai n t y o f o u r k n o w led ge o f l igh t the aber r at io n ,

o f l i gh t i n co n n e cti o n w i t h t h e le n s t he r e i s reas o n t o ,

do u b t t h at t he a berrat io n o f l i gh t obs er v ed i n a t eles cope

an d e m a n ati n g fro m a s ta r w o u ld be an y e v i de n ce o f t h e

progress i v e m ot i o n o f t he ear th i n t h e o r bit e ve n were it a .

fac t th at it h a d su ch m oti o n .

I n s pea k i n g o f t he a p p a re n t m o t i o n s o f t h e s t a rs as co n
rm i n g t he t heo r y t h a t t h e a berrat io n o f l i g h t p r ov es t he
progress i v e m otio n o f t h e ea r t h M Bi o t say s : , .

Thes e v ery re m ark able phen o m e n a ar e n ecessa ry co n

s eq u e n ces of the e art h s a n n u al m o t i o n let u s see

whe t her t he y a r e co n r m ed by ob s er v a t i o n

W e n d i n fact t h at t hey ar e so v e r y ex actl y A l l
, , , .

the s t ars appea r t o des cr i be an n u all y i n the heav en s ,

s m all ell i p s es t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f w h i ch a r e p r ec i se l y

thos e wh i c h res u l t fro m t h e p reced i n g t heory .

Na m el y t h at t hes e s m all elli p ti ca l or b i ts a r e o n ly ap

,

are n t as co n s eq u e n ces o f t he an n u a l m o ti o n o f the e a r t h

p
156 Is the Cbp er n ica n Sy stem f
o A s tr o n o m y Tr u e ?

as pro v ed b y the aberratio n o f l i gh t fro m a sta r obs er ved

i n t he t eles co p e .

A s p a r t l y a n a n s wer t o t h is w e q u ote fro m P ro f N e w ,

.

co m b s P opu l ar A s t ro n o m y P a rt I V w here he say s i n

,

, ,

s pea k i n g o f a s t a r : I f i t be m o v i n g d i rec tl y to w ard s u s

,

o r d i r ec t l y a w ay fr o m u s w e co u ld n o t s ee a n y m o t i o n a t

al l
. The co m ple t e m o t i o n o f the
s t a rs c an n o t t here fore be de t er m i n ed b y m ere t el es cO p i c

obs er v ati o n s . The m o t i o n o f each

i n d i v i d u al s tar is so e n t i rel y d iffere n t from th at o f i ts fel

"

lo ws as s ee mi n gl y t o precl u d e al l reas o n able probabi l ity

,

th at thes e bodi es ar e re v ol v i n g i n de n ite orbits aro u n d

g re a t ce n t res o f a t t r a c ti o n .

I f the s t ars w ere m o v i n g i n a n y reg u l a r c i rc u l a r orbits ,

w h at e v er h a v i n g a co m m o n ce n t re w e co u ld t race s o m e

, ,

reg u l arity am o n g t he i r proper m ot i o n s b u t n o s u ch regu ,

l ar i t y ca n be s ee n . The s ta rs i n a ll parts o f
t h e hea v e n s m o v e i n a l l d i rec ti o n s a n d w ith al l s ort s o f

v eloc i t i es F ro m t h e o b s er v ati o n o f t h e m ot i o n o f a

s i n gle s t a r it i s i m o ssi b l e t o d ec i d e h o w m u ch o f t h is a p

, p

pare n t m o t i o n i s d u e t o t h e m o t i o n o f o u r s y s t e m an d ,

h o w m u ch t o t h e real m o t i o n o f t h e s ta r

I f t hes e q u o tat i o n s fro m P ro f N e w co m b a r e t r u e an d

.
,

i n po i n t o f fa c t t here ca n be o do u bt o f t h i s h o w ca n it
n

poss i bl y be t r u e as ass e rt ed by M Bi o t t h at : A ll the

,

.
,

s t a rs ( n a m el y 50 m i ll i o n ) a ppe a r t o des cr i be a n n h al l

, , y

i n t h e h ea v e n s s m a ll ell i ps es t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f w h i ch ar e
,

r ec i sel y t h a t w h i ch res u l t fro m t h e preced i n g t h eor

p y ,

n a m el y t h e progres s i v e m o t i o n o f t he e a r t h i n t h e orb i t
, .

B y t u r n i n g t o C h a p t er I a q u o tati o n fro m S i r " n o , .

Hers chell m ay be fo u n d w here i n h e says th at t h e m ost

,

m i n u te p a rall ax o f a n y obs er v ed s tar h as n o t b ee n fo u n d ,

a n d t h a t s o pe r fec t ar e t h e i n s t r u m e n ta l iti e s fo r t h i s
p ur

pose th at h ad t here bee n a p arall a x s o m i n u t e as o n e se c

,

o n d it co u ld n o t h a v e es ca ped i n s ta n t de tec ti o n
, O ne .
 Does the E ar t h P r ogr ess i n an O r bi t 1 57

se co n d w o u ld n o t be o f the d i m e n s i o n s o f o n e h al f t h e -

t h i c k n ess o f the w i re o n t he m i cro m e t er .

The n it ca n n o t be tr u e as ass erted b y M Bio t t h at

, .

thes e s m all ell i p ti cal orbi ts o b s er v ed o f al l t he s ta rs a r e ,

m erely opt i ca l i ll u s i o n s ca u sed by the p r o g r es s m n o f t he

ea rt h i n t h e orb i t .

Becaus e i n order to co n r m the t heory t h at t h e d iffer

,

i n g appa re n t d i m e n s i o n s o f the orb i t s o f the s ta rs w ere

d u e to t h e real p rogres s i o n o f t h e ea rt h i n t h e orb it t he ,

d ist a n ce o f the ea rth fr om the o b s er v ed s t a r w o u ld be

n ecess ar y t o be k n o w n i n order t o de ter m i n e w het her t h e

a p pa re n t d i m e n s i o n o f t h e orb it o f t h e obs er v ed s ta r w ere

s uch: as w ere d ue t o s u ch d i s ta n ce an d t o t he progres s i o n,

o f the ea r t h i n i t s o r b it a n d as t here i s n o p a rall a x o f a n y

,

obser v ed s ta r as s tated b y He rschel " s u ch d is ta n ce ca n

, ,

n o t be k n o w n .

A n d th i s d i s ta n ce m u s t be k n o w n i n order t o de t er m i n e
w hether t he a p p a re n t d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e orb it o f the s ta r ,

i s t h at d u e t o t h e re al progress io n o f t h e ear t h i n i t s orb i t ,

o r n ot .

B es i d es , P ro f N e wco m b v i r t u all y , a l t ho u gh i n d i rectl y

.

a n d o f co u rs e u n i n te n ti o n all y , c o n r m s t he correc t n e s s o f

th is con cl us io n w he n he says : F r o m t h e obs e r v a t io n o f

t h e m o t i o n o f a s i n gle s t a r i t i s i m po s s i b le t o d e c i de h o w

m u ch o f t h is appa re n t m o ti o n i s d u e t o t h e m o t i o n o f o u r
s y s te m , a n d h o w m u ch i s d u e t o t he r ea l m o ti o n o f t he

s ta r .

It will ben o ti ce d ,
in th is q ot t io
h at P r of N e w
u a n ,
t .

com b d oes n o t s ay h o w m u ch o f t h e a ppare n t m oti o n o f

t h e s t a r i s d u e t o t h e re al m o t io n o f t h e ea r t h i n t h e o r b i t .

Ta k i n g the fo r ego m g q u o t a t i o n s fr o m P r o f N e wco m b .

a s au t hor i t at i v e as t hey d o u b t le ss a r e i t ca n n o t b e t r u e as
, , ,

asser ted b y M Bi o t t h a t the ell i p t i c al o r b i ts o b s e r v ed o f

.
,

the s t ar s ar e m erel y a p p ar e n t d ue t o the real p r og r ess io n

,

o f t h e ear t h i n t h e o r b i t ; He n ce , t h at t h e d i m en si on s o f
1 58 I s the Cp
o er n i can Sy s te m f
o A s tr on o my Tr u e

ch s tell ar o r b i ts the progre i o

su do n ot p ro v e ss n of the
eart h i n it s orb it .

A n other a r g u m e n t o f M Bi o t m ay pro p erl y be h e r e

.

n o ti ce d w he r e i n he a t t e m p ts t o pro v e t he prog re s s i v e m o
,

t i o n o f t h e ea r t h i n th e o r b it b y t he u se o f an an alogy ,

co m parable t o the a b er r ati o n o f l i gh t He s ay s .

T h u s i f a pe r s o n i n a s t eady boat u n der s ail or pro
, ,

s te a m s ho u ld e n de a v o r t o hold a t u be s o as t o

p e l l e d b y , ,

catch d rops o f ra i n o r s n o w t h at m ay be su ppos ed to fall

erpe n d i c u l a rl y he w o u ld be o b l i g e d : o i n cl i n e t he t u b e

p ,
t

i n t h e d i r ec t i o n o f h i s m o t i o n i n order t h a t t he drops
,

m i gh t des cr i b e l i n es p a r allel t o the a x i s ; t h at i s th e t u b e

m u s t for m t h e d i ago n a l o f a p a rallelogra m the s i des o f

wh i ch wo u ld b e t he v eloc i t y o f t h e bo at a n d t h at o f t he

fall i n g drop s .

I f the e a r th h as reall y a progress i v e m o ti o n a ro u n d
t h e s u n it m u s t p r od u ce a s i m i l a r effect u po n t he l i gh t

co m i n g fr o m t h e heav e n l y bod i es ; a n d the im press i o n

o f t h i s l i gh t u po n t he ey e ca n n o t t a ke pl ace i n t h e a c t u a l

d i recti o n o f t he ray s .

T h i s i s w h at ac t u all y h a ppe n s a n d i t co n s ti t u tes w h at
,

i s called t h e a be r rat i o n o f l i g h t

.

Here i t w ill be read i l y pe r ce i v ed t h at t h e a n alogu e co n

s is t s i n t he m o v i n g b o a t r ep r es e n t i n g t h e ea r t h p r ogre s s i n g

i n t h e o r bi t t h e s t a t i o n a r y cl o u d s t a n d s fo r t h e m o t i o n
less sta r t h e t u be fo r t h e t eles co pe a n d the rai n fall i n g ,
'

i n t o i t i n a d i r ecti o n obl i q u e t o t h e n o r m al d irecti o n o f

t h e fa l l o f w a t e r d r ops i s i n l ie u o f t h e r ay fr o m t h e s ta r
-

des ce n d i n g t h e t eles cope obl i qu el y

W h ile a l l t h at i s s ai d i n t h e q uo ta ti o n is tr u e y et i t does

n o t follo w t h a t t h e bo a t m u s t m o v e i n t h e o n e cas e n or ,

the ear th i n t h e oth er i n or d er to p rod uce t h e ob ser ved

h en o men a i n t h e t ub e an d in t h e t el escoP e
p .
 Does th e E a r th P r ogr ess i n an O r bi t.
9 1 59

The force o f co n v i cti o n r es u l ti n g fro m a m athe m ati c al

de m o n st rati o n co n sis ts i n t h e fa c t th at n o reas o n able h y
o t h e s is i s poss i ble a d v e r s e t o t h e de m o n s t ra t i o n
p ,
.

A n d where s u ch h y po t hes is i s poss i ble t h at w h i ch i s

cl ai m ed as a m athe m at ical ded u cti o n ca n i n n o s e n s e be ,

co n s i dered a de m o n s trat i o n .

The fall acy o f the ded u c ti o n m ade i n the l as t preced i n g

se c ti o n
, res u l t s from r s t ass u m i n g t he progress i v e m otio n
o f th e e ar t h t o be t r u e a n d t he n i n a tt e m p ti n g t o pro v e
,

s u ch m o ti o n b y obs er v ed phe n o m e n a w h i ch a r e po ss i ble

o n a n o t her a n d oppo s i t e t heory .

I n o r de r to i ll u s t ra te t h e t r u t h o f t h i s as s er t i o n l e t it be
s u ppos ed fo r e x a m ple t h a t t h e bo a t m e n ti o n ed i n t h e l as t
, ,

q u o tatio n were re ll y w i t ho u t m o t i o n a n d a clo u d w as

a ,

ra pi dl y pas s i n g d i r ectl y o v er i t a n d fr o m w h i ch rai n w ere

,

fal l i n g pe r pe n d i c u l a rl y w e r e t h e tu be m e n ti o n ed held
d i ago n ally to t h e d i rec ti o n s u ch rai n w ere fall i n g an d i n
a d i rec ti o n op os ite to th a t i n w h i ch s u ch clo u d w ere m o v
p
i n g i t w i ll n o t be do u bted t h a t i t wo u ld be pos s i ble fo r
,

the rai n t o des ce n d t h e t u be obl iq u e t o t h e d i rect io n the

clou d w ere m o v i n g a n d t o t h a t i n w h i ch t he ra i n w ere
fall i n g fr o m t h e clo u d .

S u ppos e it w ere n o n k n o w n w h i ch w as i n m o t i o n n a m el y ,

the boat or the clo u d wo u l d t he obl i q u ity i n the d i r ec ti o n

,

o f the fal l o f t h e r ai n n ecessa r i l y pro v e t h at t he bo at an d ,

n o t t he clo u d h a d m o ti o n ?

A ga i n s u p p os e it w e r e n o t o the r wis e k n o w n a n d it

,

i s n o t th a t t h e e a r th h as a p r og r ess i v e m o t io n wo u ld t h e ,

obl i qu i t y i n t h e d i rec t i o n o f a r ay fro m a s tar a s o h ,

s er v ed i n t h e t eles co e ro v e s u ch m o ti o n a n m o r e t h an
p p y
it w o u ld pro v e t h e m o t ion o f t h e obs er v ed s t ar
I t i s d i f c u l t t o keep s o m e s t a r s i n v i e w i n t h e t el es cope
S i r i us fo r e xa m plei n co n seq u e n ce o f t he i r a p p a r e n t
,

rap i d m o ti o n .

A l l t h e st ars h av e ap p ar en t m o ti o n s i n s ma l o r b it s a n d
l
,

i n add i tio n all obser ved seem to h ave a dr ift west war d .
1 60 I s the C p er n i c
o an Sy stem o f A s tr on o my ue 2

Were it ppo ed th t the e rth w ere m otio le

su s a d a n ss an

th t r i r pi d m otio
e s a s n they ppe r t h w ere the
a n as a a o e,

tele cope poi ted

s st r i e pl i ed i
n co ec t i o
on a a as s x a n n nn n

w i t h Fi g 1 7 t he y
. w o ld ppe r t he r i ghrat h d i due a a on an s

o f the ey e p i ece f t h t ele cope o e s .

The r pi d pp re t m o t io f the t r w o l d re l t i
a a a n n O s a u su n

t he y cro i g t h ey e piece d ppe r i g

ra ss n e th left an a a n on e

o f it ,
d w ere t h tele cope ed t he t r wo ld r p i dl y
an e s x , s a u a

d i p p e r fro m the eld f i e w

sa a O v .

Wo ld t t he e phe om e
u no cle rly p o e the the
s n n a as a r v

or y t h t t heat r h e m o ti o n the O
s a sp p o i t e av m el y , as s o n e, n a

th t the e r t h h
a progre i e m oti o f the phe o m
a as a ss v n, or n

en a i pp rt f e i t he t heory i t h
n su o me ?
O r s e sa

A d th i i
n t t h for m er s m ed t heory
s no r ti o l
e na as a na as

the l tter ? a

The d i t ce d m g it des f the t r

s an s an e t i rel y
a n u O s a s ar e n

un k n o wn .

They al l a p pea r t o h av e progress i v e m o t io n s .

There is n o s e n s i ble e vi de n ce th at the eart h h as s u ch

mot ion .

A ll t h e obs er v ed heav e n l y bod i es h a v e the app ea ra n ce

O f h a v i n g proper m o ti o n s .

S o m e O f t hes e fo r e xa m ple the pl a n e ts a n d t hei r s atel

, ,

l i t es a n d t h e m oo n a r e k n o w n t o h a v e s u ch m o t io n s
, .

I n rega rd t o t h e a be r r ati o n o f l i gh t Obs er v ed i n the

t eles cope pro v i n g m o ti o n O f the earth o r s ta r the d i ffer , ,

e n ce o f t h e t h eo r i s a l l th a t m a kes t he d i ffere n ce i n t he
y
d ed u c t i o n .

F o r t h e re as o n t h a t t h e ph e n o m e n o n r el i ed o n as d e m
o n s t r a t i n g t h e p r ogre ss i v e m o t i o n O f t h e ea r t h w o u ld pro v e ,

a t h eory o f t he pr o g r es s i v e m o t i o n o f t h e s t a r s fo r t h e
phe n o m e n o n rel ied o n t o pro v e t he p r og r e s i o n o f t he s

ea rth n am el y the ob l iq u ity o r aberrati o n O f t h e r ay e m

, ,

i n at i n g fro m a n Ob s er v ed s tar wo u ld be Observ ed i n t h e ,

tel escope d i d t h e s t ar h ave a pr ogress i ve m ot i on h en ce ,

 D oes th e E a r th P r o r ess
g in an O r bi t 1 61

p ro v es s u ch m o ti o n as fu ll
y as it do es t he pro g r ess i v e m o

tion o f the ear th .

The re v ol u ti o n s O f t h e pl an et Ve n u s an d the earth i n

the i r res pecti v e orbits together with the Obse rv ed phen
,

om en a o f Ve n us i n co n n ec ti o n w ith the geog raph i c p ar

allel s o f the e art h co n s titu te the bas i s o f a n argu m e n t ad

v e rs e t o t he as t ro n o m i ca l t heory o f t he progress iv e m o ti o n

o f t h e ea r t h i n i t s O rb it .

I t i s an O bs e r v ed fact an d i s ass er ted i n as t ron om i ca l

,

work s o f a u t hor ity t h a t Ve n u s i n p rogres s i n g i n i t s orb i t

obl i q u el y crosses the geog r aph ic parallels o f the ea rth

.

M Bio t Sec 4 1 6 i n s p e a k i n g o f the d i recti o n s o f

.
-
.

t h e m o t i o n s O f t h e pl a n e ts Merc u ry a n d Ve n u s i m pl i es
'

th is al s o whe n he say s

We p erce ive t h at they d o n o t co n ti n u e i n the sam e

parallel to t h e eq u ator n o r do t h ey m o v e exa c t l y i n t h e

,

pl an e O f the e cl i p ti c .

B u t a l l the p l an e t s e x cep t thos e l a tel y d is co v ered de
, ,

v i at e ver
y l it t l e fro m t he l as t pl a n e

.

The i n c l i n atio n O f th e orb it O f Ve n u s t o t h e pl an e o f

t h e ecl i p ti c is na m el y les s th an 3 t
.

Th e ea rt h accord i n g t o t he t h eory as i s well k n ow n

, , ,

progress es alo n g t h e pat h O f t he ecl i p ti c fro m w es t t o eas t .

The ax is o f the ea rth is p arallel t o i t s el f throu ghou t i ts

rev ol u tio n i n t h e ecl i p ti c .

Th e obl i qu ity O f the ecl i p ti c t o t h e s u n as al s o th at O f
t h e eq u ator O f t h e e ar t h t o t he ecl i p ti c i s abou t 2 3 t
.

A s a re su l t o f th i s th eory O f the ear th s progress i o n the

,

v e r ti ca l r ay s O f an i m m o v a ble s u n pass o v er t he equ a tor

obl i q u el y fro m o n e tropi c to the o ther as a co n s equ en ce ,

O f t he progre s s i ve m o ti o n O f t he e a r t h a lo n g the O bl i q u e

p ath O f the ecl i p t i c w h i le the a n gle O f the e a rt h its el f t o

,

t h e pl an e O f the ecl i p ti c re m ai n s u n ch an ed d u ri n i t
g g s
e n t i re re v ol u ti on .

11
1 62 I s th e Cp eo r n i can Sy s tem f
o A s tr on o my ue 9
.

The eq u a tor i s 2 3 t fr o m ea ch t r O p i c a n d the d i recti o n

,

O f t he ecl i pt i c i s Obl i q u e t o t h e eq u a t or a n d e x t e n d s fro m ,

o n e t rop i c t o t h e o ther .

The p h e n o m e n a o b s er v e d O f the progres s i v e m o ti o n o f

'

Ve n u s across the pa rallel s s h o u ld be i n h a r m o n y w i t h ,

t h e t heory O f t he ea r t h s p r og r ess i o n i n i t s orb it i n order

,

t o re n der s u ch theor y t e n a b le .

Ven u s m a kes a rev ol u tio n i n i ts orb i t i n 2 24 d ay s the ,

ear th i n 3 65 d ay s .

A ccord i n g t o t h e as t r o n o m ic al t heory Ve n u s l i ke t he , ,

earth p r o gress es fro m W es t t o Eas t a n d i t i s fo u n d th at ,

the orbit o f Ve n u s i s n earl y co i n ci den t i n d i rectio n w it h

th at O f the ecl i pt i c i n w h i ch the ear th progresses b y the
,

theor y .

Were it su pposed fo r e xa m ple th at bot h Ven u s a n d

, ,

the ear t h m ade thei r res p ect i v e re v ol u t i o n s i n t h e sa m e

ti m e it w i ll be read il y perce i v ed t h at w h ile t h e r ay s O f
,

t h e s u n w ou ld appea r t o cros s the ea r t h s p a rallel s a n d the

,

ear th s m o ti o n w o u ld be across t h e celes ti al pa rallel s V e

,

n u s wo u ld n o t cr o s s a n y t e r re s t r i a l p a r a llel n o r w o u ld it ,

h a v e the appea r a n ce O f s o do i n g bec au s e h av i n g the sa m e , ,

v eloc ity as t he e a r th a n d m a k i n g a re v ol u t i o n i n t h e s a m e

ti m e as the ea r t h as i s t h e cas e j u s t s u p p os ed Ve n us cou ld

, ,

n e it her a d v a n ce n o r recede fr o m i ts rel a ti v e pos iti o n to

w a rd s th e ea r t h he n ce i n s u ch cas e o v er w h ate v er pa ral
, ,

lel O f the ea rt h Ve n u s w e r e v e r t i cal at the co m m e n ce m e n t

o f i t s re v ol u ti o n s u ch w o u ld be i t s po s i t i o n rel a t i v e t o t h at
,

o f t he e a r t h a t i t s cl o s e .

F ro m w h i ch the co n cl u s io n is d e d u cab l e th at the appa

,

re n t v eloc i t y w i t h wh i ch Ve n u s w o u ld cros s t h e p a rallel s ,

i n m o v i n g i n t h e s a m e d i r ec t i o n as t h a t O f the e a r t h a n d
p ar all e l t o i t w o u ld be i n p r opo r t i o n t o t h e r e l a ti v e v el o ci
,

t i es O f Ve n u s a n d t he e a r t h .

I n rega r d t o the v a r i o u s obs e r v ed p os i t io n s o f Ve n u s i n

d i eren t p ar ts O f i ts orbit w i t h r e fere n ce t o t h ose o f t h e
'

,
 . Do es the E a r th P r ogr ess in an O r bi t 9 . 16 3 '

ea r th i n its orb it , as a s l o to the su n , M . Bi ot ,

i n Sec 4 1 2 ,
.

sa v e :

Whe Ve n ppea rs as an e n tire ci rcle i ts d i am e ter
n us a ,

i s v ery sm all n o t am ou n ti n g to m ore th a n

,
It is th en
"
b ey o n d t he s u n w ith res pec t t o t he ea rt h O n t he co n .

t rar y w he n i t s ph as es d i m i n i s h a n d i t s i ll u m i n ated face

, ,

i s t u r n ed m ore a n d m ore fro m u s i t s a pp a re n t d i am e ter ,

i s o n t he i n creas e w h i ch i n d i cates t h at it i s n o w n e arer

,

t h e e a rth Las tl y i n t h e i n ter val be t w ee n i ts d isa ppea r

.
,

i n g i n the e v e n i n g a n d r e appear i n g i n t he m or n i n g w e
-
,

s o m e ti m es s ee it m o v i n g o v er t h e s u n s d is c w it h t he ap

r a n ce o f a ro u n d bl ack s po t an d i t s a p p a re n t d i a m e

p ea ,

ter i s the n the greates t i t e v er attai n s d u ri n g a r e vo l u

ti on a m ou n ti n g som eti m es t o
,
o r v er y n ea rl y

M Bi o t i n S ec 4 1 3 say s
.
, .
,

The orb it O f Ve n u s does n o t e m brace t h e ea rth s i n ce ,

i f it d i d t h is pl a n e t w o u ld s o m e t i m es be i n t he p a r t O f
,

t h e heav e n s O ppos ite t o t he s u n t he ear th be i n g be t w ee n

the m w h ich n e ver h a ppe n s

, .

Ne i t her i s i ts orbit w holl y bey on d the s u n with res pect
t o t he ea rt h ; fo r i f it w ere Ve n u s w ou ld n e v er ap p e ar

b e t w ee n t he s u n an d t h e ea rt h ; w hereas it i s s o m etim es ,

s ee n pas s i n g o v er t he s u n s d is c

.

Las tl y w h i le the s u n m o v es o r a ppe a rs t o m o v e i n
, ,

the ecl ip t i c Ven us n e v er dev iates bey o n d i ts cu sto m ary

,

l i m i ts a n d i t s os ci ll ati o n s abo u t t h e s u n o r i ts el o n g a
, ,

ti on s a r e a l way s n ea rl y o f t he s a m e e x te n t

, .

These facts ta ken toge ther m an ifes tl y pro ve th a t V e
, ,

n u s m o v es a bo u t th e s u n i n a n orb it w h i ch ret u r n s i n t o

itsel f an d w h ich a cco m pa n i es the s u n i n i ts apparen t

,

ell i p tical m o ti o n .

From these w ell as cer tai n ed an d ack n ow ledged facts

,

the con cl usi o n is i m perati v e i f we ad d t h e facts t h at the

v eloc i t i es the ti m e s O f re v ol u ti o n a n d t he c i rc u m fere n ce s

,

o the orb i ts O f Ve n u s a n d the e a r t h a r e d i ffere n t

f th a t
Ve n u s d u ri n g i ts re vol u tio n is som e ti m es m ov in g i n th e
164 I s t h e Cop er n i can Sy stem o
f A s tr o n o my Tr u e.
9

s am e d i rec ti o n as the ear th s o m eti m es m ov i n g i n an O p

,

p o s i t e d i rec ti o,n a n d a g ai n at d i ffere n t ti m es a t v ar i ou s

a n gle s t o the e a r t h .

Ho w sh o u ld Ve n u s a p pe ar t o cross the earth s parallels

a ccord i n g to the t heory o f t h e ear t h s progress i o n i n th e

orb it at a ti m e whe n Ve n u s a n d the earth w e re o n O p p o
s it e s i des O f t he i r res pec ti v e o r bits s ay at a ti m e w h e n t he
,

earth were m o v i n g eas t w ard an d Ve n u s w ere m o v i n g

w es t w a rd
Whe n i n s u ch an d s i m i la r pos iti on s o w i n g t o the i m ,

m e n s i t y o f each o f the i r orb i t s Ve n u s a n d t he ea rt h w o u ld

,

m o v e a lo n g a l m os t s t ra i gh t l i n es fo r lo n g d is tan ces be fore

,

the s l i gh t cu rv es O f their orbits w ou l d pl ace them at a

percep ti ble an gle to each o ther .

I f th i s v ie w be co r r ec t an d Ve n u s a n d the ear t h w ere

,

i n the rel at i v e pos i t i o n s j u s t m e n ti o n ed Ve n u s fro m t h e , ,

ea r th w o u ld a ppe a r t o cro ss t h e e ar t h s p a ra llel s w i t h a

'

rap i d ity d ue t o the tw o v eloc iti es n am el y th at d u e t o i t s

, ,

o w n proper v eloc ity i n o n e d i rec t i o n a n d t h a t d u e t o t he ,

e arth s v elocity i n a n oppos i t e d i rectio n w h i ch w o u l d be

,

eq u i v ale n t i n app a re n t res u l ts s o far as the phe n om e n o n o f

,

Ve n us cros s i n g the p a ral l els wo u ld be Obs er v ed as thou gh ,

t he earth s progress i v e m ot i o n w ere i n s ta n t ly s topped an d

,

Ve n u s h ad at the sa m e i n s ta n t t h e pre v i o u s v eloci t y o f

, ,

t he earth a d d ed t o i ts o w n pro per vel oci t y .

The appea ran ce i n s u ch case w o u ld be a n alogo u s t o

, ,

th at o f t w o rai l way trai n s o n p a rallel t racks clos e t o each

,

o ther m ov i n g i n oppos ite d i rec ti o n s say each w ith t he , ,

s a m e v eloc ity i n t h i s cas e ea ch co u ld a ppe a r t o the o the r

, ,

at t he ti m e t he y w ere p ass i n g t o b e m o v i n g w it h do u bl e
,

i ts real v elocity .

A n d i n a cer ta i n s e n s e each t rai n h as dou ble t he ve

,

l o ci t y p r operl y belo n g i n g t o it n a m el y i n t h e se n s e th a t
, ,

t h e O bs er v ed t ra i n a c t u all y does m o v e p as t t he o ther i n

o n e h al f t he ti me i t wo ul d Wer e t h e tr ai n o f t h e ob ser ver
e

wi th out mot ion .

 Does the E ar t h P r og r ess i n an O r bi t.
9 1 65

Fo r e xam ple w ere pl a i n l y v is i ble v erti cal p arallels

, ,

pl aced o n the s ide o f ea ch t rai n ea ch t rai n w o u ld m o v e ,

pas t s u ch pa rallel s o n t h e o t h er trai n i n o n e h al f t h e ti m e

su ppos i n g the v eloci t i es O f t he trai n s equ althat t hey
-

w o u ld w ere e i t her t rai n a t r es t a n d t he o ther i n m o ti o n

,

w it h i t s o wn proper v eloc i t y .

S u ch a pp are n t ly i n creas ed v elocity O f ea ch m o v i n g

t ra i n Observ ed fro m the other i s s t ri k i n gl y percepti ble
, , ,

b y co m pa riso n aft er t he trai n j u s t pass ed h as go n e from

,

the v ie w b y o b se r vi n g s tatio n ary Objec ts o n t h e road s i de

.
,

I n s u ch case o u r t rai n does n o t a p pea r t o m o v e pas t s u ch

,

Objects wit h the rapi d ity Obser v ed O f the pas s i n g trai n ,

whe n m o v i n g i n a n O p p os ite d i rec ti o n .

By an alogy to the i ll us t ratio n O f t h e t wo trai n s m o v i n g

as t ea c h o ther i n o p pos ite d i rec ti o n s w ere O bs er v ers o n
,

e n u s a n d o n t h e ear th O bs erv i n g the Oppos it e body as

,

each m o v e d pas t the o t her i n oppos ite d i rec ti o n s s u ppos

i n g s u ch m o ti o n s percep ti b le t o t h e O bs er v ers t h e s u p
o s ed Obse rv er loca ted o n Ve n u s wo u ld see t h e e a r t h p r o
p
ress i n g w ith a v eloci t y w h i ch w o u ld n o t be obs er v a ble i n
g
an y o t her rel a t i v e pos iti o n O f Ve n u s a n d t he e a r t h a n d i n ,

s uch c as e the Ob s er v er O n t h e ea r t h co u ld see Ve n u s cros s

,

the parallel s O f the eart h w ith a v elocity w h i ch w ou ld n o t

b e o b s e r vab l e were t hes e t wo bod i es pl aced i n a n y o ther
pos iti on rel ati v e t o each o ther .

J u st as an O bse r v er o n o n e o f the s u ppos ed t rai n s wo u ld

Obs erv e t h e v er t i cal pa rallel s o n t h e s ide o f t h e trai n n ear
,

es t h i m m o v e p as t w it h a ra p i d i t y d u e t o t h e v eloc iti es O f
,

b oth t rai n s w h i ch d ou ble v elocity w o u ld n o t be Obs er v ed

,

we re t he t rai n O f t h e O bs er v er i n m o ti o n w h i le a t t h e ,

sa m e ti m e t he t ra i n o n the o th er t r a c k w ere a t res t

, .

The d i ffe r e n ce i n t h e ti m es O f re v ol u t i o n O f Ve n u s an d
t h e eart h res u l t s m ore fro m the co m pa ra ti v e c i rc u m fer

,

e n ces o f t h e i r orb i t s t h a n fro m t h e d i e r e n c e O f v eloc it

'

, y .

A ccord i n g t o as t ro n o m i c al es ti m a t e the ci r c u m fer ee n ce

,
1 66 I s the Cp
o er n can i Sy stem f
o A s tr on omy ue 9
.

of the orb it O f Ve i o t f fro m 408 m i ll io s O f m i les

n us s n ar n .

Th t o f th e e rth i s 5 7 0 m i ll i o s o f m i les
a a n .

A ccord i g t o th i esti m te t he orb it O f t he e r th i s

n s a , a

m u ch m ore t h o th i rd gre ter th t h t o f Ve u s

an ne -
a an a n .
0

Wh ile the orb it O f the e rth i th s m ch larger th a a s u u n

th a t O f V e i t v eloc ity i le s l t ho gh t hes e v eloc ities

n us, s s s ,
a u

m ore e rl y appro im a te t h a the i r orbits

n a x n .

Ve i ro d
n u s, n m bers progres e i i t s orbi t w ith a
un nu , s s n

v eloc i t y o f m i les a ho r d t he e art h w ith n u , an a

v eloc ity o f m i les ho r an u .

A s h as bee i d Ve s m kes a rev ol ti o i it s orb it

n sa , nu a u n n

i 2 24 d y s
n d the e r th i 36 5 d ay
a ,
an a n s .

A co eq e ces o f t he d iffere ce i ti m es o f re v ol ti o
s ns u n n n u n

o f t he e bod i e
s d the d i ffere ce O f the i r v elociti e t here
s , an n s s,

m u t be gre at a d frequ e t d i ffere ces i

s n thei r relati v e
n n n

pos iti o n to e ch other

s a d t h t s ch re ll y i t he fact
, an a u a s ,

p l a inl y a ppe a r s i t he l s t q o t ti o
n m a de fro m aM Bi o t s u a n .

Work .

A s res u l t o f thes e d i fferen t positi on s o f Ve n u s rel a

a ,

to those o f the earth Ve n u s sho u ld appea r t o cross

t i v el y ,

th e p arallels o f th e earth w ith obser vabl y d ifferen t v e

l o c i t i es .

In order to es ta bl ish the correctn ess o f th is con cl u s i on ,

su ppos e fo r e x a m ple a gre at m a n y s t r ai gh t l i n es t o p as s

,

throu gh the su n s cen t re an d t o be con ti n u ed u n ti l they

,

each cros s e d t he orb its o f Ve n u s a n d t he ea r th .

W h e n t hese m o v i n g bod ies w ere both at t he sam e ti m e

i n s u ch pos iti o n w it h re fere n ce t o each o ther as w ou ld ,

l a ce t he m o n a n y o n e O f t he s e s u ppos e d l i n es a n d w ere
p ,

b o th m o v i n g p a rallel t o e ach o ther i n t h e sa me d i rec t i o n .

Ve n u s i n s u ch eas e w o u ld appear t o cross the pa rallel s O f

, ,

t h e ear th w ith a greatl y d i m i n i s hed v elocity n am el y

, , ,

with t h at equ al t o the d ier en ce be t w ee n t he t w o real v e

l oci t i e s n a m el y t hos e o f V en u s an d t he ea r th
, ,
.

Th is appare n t v elocity o r d i ffere n ce between the t wo ,

r e a l v eloc iti e s w o u ld be eq u i v ale n t t o 7 000 m i le s an ho u r

 Does the E ar th P r og r ess i n an O r bi t 1 67

fo r Ve n u s as th is d i ffere n ce m ay be ded u ced fro m t h e

,

rel ati v e v eloc ities o f t hes e bod ies before m e n ti o n ed .

Th is w o u ld be t h e s a m e i n v is i ble res u l t s s o far as V e ,

n u s appa re n t cross i n g t h e p a r a llel s o f t h e e a r th w o u ld be

o bs er v ed as t ho u gh t h e e a r t h w ere w i t ho u t progress i v e
,

m oti o n a n d Ve n u s cross ed i t s p a r allel s w ith a v elocity o f

,

7 000 m i les a n ho u r .

O n the o ther h a n d w ere Ve n u s a n d the ear th o n a n y

,

o n e o f t h e s tra i gh t l i n es j u s t m e n t i o n ed o n oppos ite s i d es ,

o f t he i r res pec t i v e orb i t s a n d t h u s m o v i n g i n op p o si te d i

,

recti o n s a t a n d n e ar s u ch l i n e t h e appa re n t v elocity O f

,

Ve n u s the obs er v ed bod y w ou ld be th at d u e t o i t s
proper v eloci t y toget her w i t h t h a t o f t he ear th s s o far as
,

,

t h e a pp are n t s peed o f Ve n u s co u ld be O bs er v ed o n th e
ear th cross i n g t h e p arallel s
, .

Thes e co m bi n ed v eloc iti es n am el y th at O f the earth s , ,

i n o n e d i r ecti o n a n d th at o f Ve n u s i n a n Op p os ite d ir e c

,

t io n wou ld be as t o the obs e r v at io n O f Ven u s c r oss i n g the

,

p arallel s practi call y t he s a m e as t ho u g h t h e earth s pro

,

r es s i v e m o ti o n w ere i n s ta n t l y s t o p ped a n d i t s j u s t pre v i o u s

g
v eloc ity w ere at t h e s a m e i n s ta n t t r a n s ferred t o Ve n u s as ,

j ust s tat ed .

Th e O b s er v ed res u l t o f th i s w ou ld be d u r i n g t he ti m e ,

thes e t wo bodi es were o n a n d n ear the s trai gh t l i n e m e n

t i o n e d t h a t Ve n u s w o u ld p rog r ess w i t h i ts p r oper v eloc ity
, ,

n a m el y 7 ,
m i les a n h o u r a n d w o u ld a l s o appea r t o
,

h a ve th at O f th e ea r th s n a m el y
,
m i les a n ho u r
, ,

w h i ch rea l a n d a ppa re n t v eloc i t i es w o u ld be eq u i v ale n t to

a v eloc ity o f Ven u s o f m i les an ho u r .

Th is w o u ld gi v e Ve n u s t h e appe ara n ce o f cross i n g the

a r a l l el s w i t h t h e i n c r e as ed v eloc ity d u e t o t h i s a par e n t
p p
a dd iti o n a t t h e ti m e the t wo b o d i es w ere p as s i n g ea ch
,

o ther j u s t the sam e as i n the i n s t a n ce ci t ed o f the t wo

,

rai l way tra i n s pass i n g each o t her i n Oppos ite d i rec ti on s .

Th is appa re n t v elocity o f Ve n u s w he n it an d t he ea rth ,

were o n Op p os ite en d s o f s u ch s t ra i gh t l i n e wo u ld d i m i n ,
1 68 I s the Coper n i can Sy stem of A s tr o n omy Tr u e 9
.

is h i n pr o porti on t o the m ag n itu de o f the an gle fo rm ed

betw ee n the tw o bod ies an d as it becam e gr eat e r as i t
, ,

w o u l d as t h e t wo bod i es were rem o v ed from s u ch rs t p o

,

s iti o u .

W ith the v elocity o f t he earth apparen tl y added t o th at

o f Ve n u s d u ri n g the ti m e the t wo bodi es w ere o n a n d

,

n ea r the s tr a i gh t l i n e m e n ti o n ed an d w h i le they w ere ,

a r allel t o e a ch o ther o r n e a rl y so a n d m o v i n g i n oppo

p , ,

s it e d i rec ti o n s V e n u s w o u ld h av e t h e a ppe a ra n ce to a n O h
,

s er ver O u t he ea r th O f cro ss i n g the e a r t h s p ar allel s w ith

,

s o m e t h i n g m ore th a n 2 0 ti m es t h e v eloc ity it w o u ld a p

pear t o h av e at an oth er ti m e n am ely w he n Ve n u s an d , ,

t h e e ar t h were o n O n e o f thes e s u ppos ed s trai gh t l i n es

a n d t he t w o bod i es were m ov i n g p ar allel t o e ach o th er
a n d i n the sa m e d i re cti o n .

For i n th is l atter s u ppos ed po siti on Ve n u s w ou ld pro

,

gress as be fore sai d w ith an app aren t v elocity o f 7 000 ,

m i l es a n h o u r across the p ar allel s n am el y with the d iffer , ,

e n ce be t wee n the actu al v elocit i es o f Ve n u s an d t h e

e ar t h s
.

Wh ile i n the form er rel ati ve p os itio n Ve n u s shou ld ,

a ppea r t o cros s t he p a rallel s w i t h a v eloc ity d u e t o

m i les a n hou r w h i c h i n co m p ar i s o n w it h a n a pp a re n t v e
,

l o ci t y o f m i les an ho u r i s m ore t h an 20 ti m es ,

g re a t er .

I n order t o s ho w the d i er en t pos iti o n s O f V e n u s an d

'

the earth i n thei r orbits w it h re fere n ce to each other as

, ,

e ffects o f the i r d i ffere n t v elociti es a n d ti m es o f re v ol u ti o n

al th o u gh s o m ew h at e x agger ated i n
res u l ts let it be
s u ppos ed fo r the p u rpo se O f i ll u s t r ati o n t h at t he orb i t s O f
, ,

thes e bod ies w ere s qu ares .

V en u s m akes a rev ol u tio n i n 7 t cale n da r m o n th s ; t h e

e ar t h i n 1 2 m o n t h s Ven u s w ou ld m ake o n e fo u rt h o f a
.
-

r e v ol u ti o n m o v i n g fro m W es t t o E as t
,
n a m el y o n e s i de , ,

o f t he s q u are i n 1 % m o n t h s,
The ear th w o u ld progress .
 Does the E a r th P r ogr ess i n an O r bi t 9 . 1 69

the le gth o f o e si de o f th e q are o f i ts orbit i 3 c le d r

n n s u , n a n a

m o thn s .

S u ppose the t wo bod i es t o m o e i m l t eo l y e as t v s u an us

war d say fo e x a m ple fro m t he ort h wes t

, ,
r g le s o
,
f t he i r n an

respec ti v e sq a res u .

Whe n Ve s h d rri v ed t the orthe st gle o f i t s

nu a a a n a an

rs t s i de o f t h e s qu a re the ea rt h wo ld o t h e arr i v ed
, u n av

at t he or t heas t gle O f t h e rs t ide o f i t s q are i

n an s s u , n

co seq e ce o f i ts low e r el oc ity an d l arger q are a d

n u n s v s u , n

w o u ld h e t r eled i I t m o th s b t l i t t le m ore t h a
av av n n u n

t wo t h i rd s the le g t h O f s ch i de
-
n u s .

The t wo bod i es m o i g i t h s am e d i rectio v n d p ar n e n , an

allel t o e ach o t her t h e e r t h bo e V e u Ve , w o ld

a a v n s, n us u

m o v e w i t h t h e v eloc i t y o f t he ea r t h pl s t h e d i ffere ce o f u n

thei r res pect i v e orm l v eloci t i n a m el y w it h a

a eloc ity es , n , v

of m i les n ho u r a .

Thes e g res m e s re t h e x ss o f the v eloci t y o f Ve

u a u e ce

n u s o v er t h at O f the e ar th .

W he t hese bod ies w ere i t h rel ti ve positio s res l t

n n e a n u

i g par tl y fro m t hes e d iffere t eloc iti es a d pa rt l y fro m

n n v , n

the gre ter orb it o f t he e rt h Ve us w o ld h a e t r ed

a a ,
n u v u n

the r t gle O f th e sq u re o f i ts orbit form ed b y the

s an a ,

r t s d s eco d i des o f it
an nd w o ld be m o v i g lo g
s ,
an u n a n

s u ch s eco d i de n s .

Ve w o ld t h
nus m o e i t he d i rec ti o n o f r i gh t a gle
u en v n a n

to th t i wh i ch the earth were the n m o i g fo the e rth

a n v n , r a

wo u ld be t he m o v i g lo g the rs t s i de o f t h e q
n n a re o fn s ua

i t orb it p r llel t o the r t i de o f t he s q re o f Ve

s , a a s s ua n us

orb i t w h i le Ve
, wo l d be m o i g lo g t h
n us eco d si de
u v n a n e s n

o f the s q re o f i t orbit he ce t
ua ri gh t
s
g le t o t
, he n ,
a a an

d i rec ti o O f t h m oti o o f the e th

n e n ar .

The effect o f t hes e rel ti ve po iti o s O f the t w o bod ie s a s n

t h e pp re t eloc i t y o f Ve i cros i g t h ea r th s

o n a a n v n us, n s n e

parallel w o ld be t h t d t o t h earth
s, u elocity l
a ue e

s v a on e .

F o it w i l l be re d i l y co ce i v ed th t d i d Ve
r a m ov e n a n us

i n a d i re ctio at a ri gh t an gle t o t h at o f t h e ear th s m o t i o n

n
170 Is the Cp e
o r n ca ni Sy s tem f
o A s tr o n om
y Tr u e

w h ate v er m i gh t be the for m s o f the orb its i t cou ld n o t ,

as a n effec t o f i ts o w n proper m ot io n cross a n y o f t h e ,

ear th s p a rallel s a n d wh a t e v er m i gh t be t h e a ppea ran ce

,

o f i t s do i n g s o w o u ld be t he e ffec t o f t he ea r t h s p r o g r e s

,

s i v e m o ti o n alo n e .
m

A t t he t erm i n u s O f 3 % m o n t h s fro m t he ti m e Ve n u s
h ad de p a rted fro m t h e n or t h w est er n a n gle o f i t s su ppos ed
o r bit i t w o u ld h av e arri v ed a t the s ou t h eas ter n an gle o f
,

i ts s q u a re h a v i n g t ra v eled t he d is ta n ce i n cl u ded w i t h i n
,

t wo s i d es o f it eq u al t o o n e h al f i t s re v ol u tio n
,
.

W hen arri v ed at t h e ter m i n u s o f s u ch seco n d s i de the ,

pl a n e t co m m e n ces i t s m otio n o n the th i rd s i de o f t h e s quare ,

m o v i n g w e s t wa r d .

A t t h e ti m e i t co m m e n ces t o m o v e i n t h is l atter d i rco

t i o n t he e a r th w ill h a v e t u r n ed t h e a n gle for m ed b y t h e
,

j u n c t i o n O f t h e r s t an d s eco n d s i des o f i ts s u ppos ed s qu a re

or b i t a n d w i ll h a v e proceeded alo n g s u c h seco n d s i de
,

a bo u t O n e fo u r t h t h e le n g t h O f s u ch s eco n d s i de
-
.

When t hese l as t n am ed rel ati v e pos i t ion s O f Ve n u s a n d

the ea rt h ar e co n si dere d it w ill be m a n i fes t th at the pos i
,

tio n o f Ve n u s w i t h re fe r e n ce t o th e parallels o f the ea rth

, ,

w i ll be th a t O f a n a c u t e a n gle t o t he m i n fa c t fo r a s hor t ,

t i m e Ve n u s w o u ld be n ea rl y at a r i gh t a n gle to t he i r d i
,

rec t i o n o n t h e ea rth a n d i n s u c h pos i t i o n Ve n us wo u l d

,

be v ery n ea rl y par allel w i t h t h e ea r t h s s u r face Th at i s

.

t o s a y s u ch wo u ld be t he c as e a t the co m m e n ce m e n t o f
,

Ve n u s p r ogress o n t h e t h i rd s i de o f i ts s u ppos ed o r b i t at

w h i ch t i m e t h e e a r t h w o u ld be n o t fa r fro m t h e beg i n n i n g
o f t h e s eco n d s i de o f i t s s q u a re orb it .

Ve n u s w o u ld reach t h e wes ter n ter m i n u s o f the th i rd

s i de o f i t s s q u a re i n 5 3 m o n t h s fro m
, t h e t i m e i t h ad
s ta r t ed o n i ts s u ppo s ed re v ol u t i o n .

B y t h e ti m e Ve n u s h ad a r r i v ed a t t he w es ter n e n d o f
t h e th i rd s i d e o f i t s s q u are t h e e a r th w o u ld h a v e beg u n at
,

t h e eas t t o m o v e w e s terl y alo n g the t h i rd s i de o f the s qu a re

o f i ts orb i t A n d as V e n u s co m m en ces t o m o v e alo n g t h e
.
 Does the E ar t h P r ogr ess i n an O r bi t 9 . 17 1

fou r th s i de o f i ts q re the ear t h wil l h a e progress ed a

s ua , v

s hor t d is ta ce o the th i rd i de o f i ts sq re
n n s ua .

A g i fo
a n, s hor t ti m e w he
r a the bod i es w ere i these ,
n n

r el ati e po iti o s V e
v ss ee fro m the ear th w o ld b e
n ,
nu ,
as s n , u

at a c te a gle t o t h e d i recti o o f t h e par llel

n a u n d n a s, an

w o u ld b e rly par llel with t h ear t h

e n a rf ce ; he ce
a e

s su a n ,

wo u ld a ppe r t o c o the p r llel s ery lo wl y d ri g

a r ss a a v s , u n

the p p re t co ti an ce o f t hes e rel ati e positi o wh i ch

a a n n nu v n s,

s pe e d i pp re t cro si g the paral l el wo ld ppe r to

n a a n s n s u a a

i n cr eas e Ve p sed f r ther alo g the fo u rth s i de O f

as n us as u n

i t s s quare d t he ea rth m o ed f r t her lo g o the t h i d

,
an v u a n n r

s i de o f i t s s q u are .

N o w w h i le th i s p pos iti o o f sq u re orbi t

, s i m gi ed
u n a s, a n

fo r t he p rp ose o f i ll tr ti o m ore cle rl y ho w s the d i ffer

u us a n, a s

e t
n pp re t veloc it i es wit h wh i ch Ve
a a n w ou l d cros t he n us s

p arallel o f the eart h s re l t o f i ts d i ffere t rel ti e p o

s a su s n a v

si t i o to w rds the earth m o i g i i t orbit ; y et t hes e

ns a v n n s

d i ffere ces o t h in ppos itio w o u ld be gre ter perh ps

n s su n, a , a

m ore cle rl y de ed a d c r tai l y m ore h arpl y d i s ti ct

n , an e n s n ,

th co l d be ob er ble where the orbi ts o f the e bod ies

an u s va s

ell i p ti c l as i s t he for m
a , ccord i g to t he t heory a n .

The ppo iti o o f q re orbi t m y s er e to ho w b y

su s n s ua s a v s

w ay f i ll t r ti o
O d as o
us ppro ch to a
a n , an
pp o i m n a a n a r x a

ti o the ppare t a d d i ffere t eloc iti e with wh i ch V e

n, a n n n v s

n u s s ho ld cros t h u ea t h p r llels to wh at r eall y w o u ld

s e r

s a a

be ob er ble were t hes e e ti m tes m de fo ell i p tica l o

s va s a a r r

b its .

A c l c l ati o o f t h e rel ti e po iti o

a u n o f Ve s d t he a v s ns nu an

ea r t h d i f
,
an t i l l y o f t he d i ffere t
n er r e n pp re t elocia n a a n v

ties O f Ve s i c o i g the p r llel f t h e earth m y

nu n r ss n a a s o , a

be fo d i the fo l lo wi g t ble the c l c l ti o be i g

un n n a ,
a u a n n

m de o the b a i t h t the orb i t o f t he e bod i e

a n s s e l l ip
a s s s ar e

ti c l i for m
a n .

Th i s t ble i i te ded t o h o w t h e d i ff e t po i t io s o f
'

a s n n s er n s n

Ve i i ts orbit with refere ce t o tho e o f the e th i

n us n n s ar n

i ts orb it d t h us to atte m p t t o s ho w w ith w h at pp re n t

, an a a
172 I s the Cop er n ic a n Sy s tem of A s tr o n o my Tr u e
. 9
:

v elocit i es Ve n u s s ho u ld cross the ea r th s parallel s o n t h e

t heory O f the e a r th s progres s i v e m ot i o n i n i ts orbit

.

Th es e d i fferen t pos iti o n s o f Ve n u s i n i t s orbit w ith refer

e n ce to t hos e o f the earth ar e res u l ts o f d i ffe r e n ces O f the ,

c i rc u mfere n ce o f t h e o r b i ts ti m es O f re v ol u t i o n a n d o f d i f ,

fere n ce o f v elocity o f the s e t wo bod i es .

P r oper p r opo r ti o n al orbi t s o f Ve n u s a n d t he ea rt h w ere

co n s tr u ct ed Thes e orbits were i n t ers ected by l i n es d i
. .

v i d i n g e ach i n t o fo u r eq u al p a r ts e ach pa r t repres e n t i n g ,

O n e fo u r t h o f a re v ol u ti o n a n d t h e pos i t i o n
-
o f ea ch bo d y , ,

w ith refe r e n ce t o t he o t he r a t t he t er m i n u s o f ea ch o n e
fou r th o f a re v ol u ti o n i n acco r d a n ce w i t h t he res pe c ti ve
,

v eloc iti es w ere n o t i ced a n dgdh e e O n e fo ur t h

,
re v ol u ti o n s
,
e
s

o f V e n u s w ere m ad e n o te s of, Th is met hod o f d e t er m i n ;

m g t h e rel a ti v e po s i t i o n s o f the t wo bod ie s was co m p u te d

fo r fo u r y ea rs .

Thes e d i fferen t pos iti o n s o f Ve n u s i n t h e orbit w i t h

refere n ce to t hos e o f t h e ea rth w ere n oted i n order t o de ,

te r m i n e i n accord a n ce w ith the l a ws O f m o ti o n w i t h wh a t

, ,

v eloc ity Ve n u s s ho u l d a ppe a r t o cross t h e p a rallel s o f t he

ea rth i n accord a n ce w it h the theory o f th e progress i ve

,

m o ti o n o f t h e e ar th .

The pos it i o n s o f Ve n u s a n d t h e earth w ith re fere n ce t o

each other fo r each O n e fo u r t h O f a re vol u t io n O f V en us
,
-

co m p u ted fo r fou r y ea rs as follows ,

F i r st Q ua r te r, l s t y ea r , V an d E ly p l l l m o v i g m d i io
n ea r ar a e n sa e r ec t n

l o p o i m o v i op p o i d i i o
. .
,
.

2n d n ear y p s te, ng s te r ec t n.

3r d 40 f
ig h l i f o E
r o m str a So h t n e, r m as t to ut

4t h m di
sa eio V d E p r ll l
re c t n, . an . a a e .

Seco n dQ ua r t e r , l st y e ar , V an d E an g e o l f
ly o p p o s i t e o v i g o p p o it d i i o
. .

6
2n d n ear m n s e re ct n

ovi g di io gl
, .

3r d m n s am e r ec t n , an e
u u 6 u 6 u 6 b
30 0
.

T hi d Q u r ar t e r , l et y ea r , V an d E n ear ly p ll l h uf
ar a e to e ar t

s s r ace .

o v i g i op p o i di io l
. .
,

2nd m n n s te r ec t n , an g e

3r d m ovi g m n di ion ngl

sa e r e ct ,
a e
u
4t h 30
a c u 0
u or g 3 H
x .
.
 Does th e E a rth P r on i n an O r bi t 17 3

Fou rt h Qu a r te r , l at y e a r , V an d E at a n gl e

ovi g m di io gl
. .

0
2 nd m n sa e r ect n , an e

3 rd n ea r l p ll l m di io
y a ra e sa e r ec t n.

ov i g op p o i di io
,
6
4th m n s te rec t n s, a n g e

U p o n a n a n al y s is o f t he forego i n g t a b le it w i ll be fo u n d
th at i n the s hort per iod o f e v e n o n e y ear , Ve n us w i ll p r o
gress i n i ts orbit i n a d i rec ti o n pa r allel t o t h e eart h s s u r

fa ce ; agai n , oppos i t e i n d i r ect i o n t o t h at o f t he e ar th a n d

s o m e ti m es i n t h e s a m e d i rec ti o n a t o n e ti m e t h es e t w o

bodi es w i ll be m o v i n g pa rallel to each o ther, e i t her i n t h e

s a m e or i n a n oppo s i t e d i rec t i o n , a n d ag ai n w i ll be a t
v a r i o u s a n gles t o a s t r ai gh t l i n e d r aw n fro m t h e e a r t h to
t h e su n .

A ccord i n g to the l a ws o f rel a t i v e m o t i o n s , t a ke n i n co n

n e ct i o n wi t h th e theo r y o f the p r og r es s i v e m o t i o n o f t h e

ea rt h i n i ts o r b i t , Ve n us s ho u ld , at the ea rt h , be bs er v ed O
to cross the parallel s a n d m eri d i a n s o f the earth w i t h v ery
d i ffer e n t a p p a re n t v elocit i es .

The n e x t q u es ti o n co n s i dered w ill b e w h at ar e t h e phe

n o m e n a , O b s e r v ed i n co n n ec t i o n w i t h Ve n u s i n cross i n g
t he eart h s p ar allel s ; a n d as ge r m an e t o t h i s q u esti o n ,

h o w the s u n cros s es t h es e pa rallel s .

The i r r eg u l a riti es O f t h e s u n i n d ec l i n atio n a re s l i gh t ,

i n pass i n g fro m t r o p i c t o t r O p i c , a n d t here i s a n u n i for m i t y
i n t h e rec u rre n ce o f t h e i r r eg u l a r i t i es .

Th is m ay b e Obs er v ed o n co n s u l t i n g t h e as t ro n o m ical
ta b les w here t h e su n s decl i n ati o n s ar e recorded
.

M B i ot S ec 1 60 s ay s
.
, It w e tak e t h e d i ffere n ces o f
.
,

t hese d ecl i n at i o n s i t w i ll be s ee n t h a t they a r e t o a ce r t ai n

d eg r ee r egu l a r a n d s y m m et r i c al o n O p p os it e s i des o f the

eq u ator b u t the p r og r ess O f t hes e v a r i ati o n s a r e u n eq u al

,
.

They a r e m ore r ap i d w h e n t h e s u n i s n ear the pl a n e o f

t h e eq u a t o r

O n fu r ther i n v e s t i ga ti o n the y w i l l b e fo u n d u n rf or m a l l y
so .

I n s p eak i n
g of th e l o ngitude of t h e sun , M . Biot .
sa S ,
y
17 4 I s th e Cp o er n i ca n S
y s tem o f A s tr o n o my Tr u e .
9

S ec 1 7 2 : I n thes e tables the d i ffere n ces O f lo n g itu de

'

fro m d ay t o d ay , m ay b e de ter m i n ed w it h great a c cu rac y ,

as the y ar e the s a m e e v e r y y e a r , a n d re t u r n i n the sa m e

o r d er f

I n s p e a k i n g o f the peri od i c ch a n ge s o f the s u n s m o ti o n

fr o m y e ar t o y ea r , he s ay s , S e c 1 7 9
Th a t t he y c o m .

pe n s ate each o t her by r e tu r n i n g thro u gh t h e sam e de

g r ees ; s o t h at t he y m a ke t h e s u n os ci l l a t e co n ti n u ally
t hr ou gh a m ea n s t a t e fr o m w h i ch it dep a r t s b u t l itt le

.
,

Thes e q u ot a tio n s s ho w t h at the a pp are n t m o ti o n s O f the

s u n a b o u t t he e ar t h a n d b e t w ee n the t r o p i c s t h a t i s t o say , ,

i n bo t h l atit u de a n d lo n git u de ar e ge n er all y reg u l a r , b u t

a t ti m es a cco m p a n i ed b y s l i gh t i r r eg u l a r i t i es an d th at ,

thes e l att er ar e r eg u l ar l v co m pe n sated wit h i n the y ear .

The fo regoi n g q uo tati o n s ar e s u i c i e n t O f t he m s el v es

a lo n e w i t ho u t O b s er v a t i o n
,
the regu l ar i t y a n d ge n era l
,

u n i for m ity w ith w h i ch t he s u n cros s es t h e p a r a llel s o f t h e

e ar t h .

The n e x t q u es ti on cl a i m i n g co n s i derati o n i s the rel a ti o n s

O f Ve n u s t o t h e s u n .

O n t h is poi n t M Bi ot s ay s i n S e c 4 1 3
.

Ve n u s m o ves
,
.

a bo u t t h e s u n i n a n orb i t w h i c h re t u r n s i n t o i ts el f a n d
"
,

w h i ch acco m pa n i es t he s u n i n i t s a p p a re n t ell i p ti ca l m o

ti on .

I n S pea k i n g o f Ve n u s a n d Merc u r y S e c 4 1 6 he s ay s :
'

.
, ,

T h ese t w o pl a n e ts as s ee n fr o m t h e e ar t h a l way s a p pea r

, ,

t o a cco m pa n y t h e s u n The i r an g u l a r d i s t a n ces n e v er

e x ceed ce r t a i n l i m i t s w h i ch ar e n e a r l y co n s ta n t Th e
, .

s a m e c a n n o t be s a i d O f t he o t her pl a n e t s thes e d i v erge

fr o m t h e s u n t o a l l pos s i ble a n g u l a r d i s ta n ces .

The k n o w ledge here i m p a r ted i s Ob tai n ed b y o b s e r va

tio n as i t i s Obser v ed t h at Ve n u s a n d t h e s u n ar e al way s
,

t og e t he r s o t o s pe a k .

I n w h ate v e r pos i t i o n the s u n i s Obs e r v ed i n the he av e n s

,

w he t her o v e r t he t rop i cs o r eq u a t o r an d a t a l l i n t e r m ed i ,

a t e pos iti o n s i n t he he a ve n s be twee n those w h e re t h e

,
 Does the E a rth P r ogr ess i n an O r bi t 17 5

su n m ay be obs er v ed the r e i s Ve n u s als o O bs er ved o cc u

, ,

py g i n t h e s a m e rel a t i v e po s iti o n to ward t h e s u n Ve n us ,

m us t as a co n s eq u e n ce an d w h i ch t h e obs e r v ed phe n o m
,

e n a pro v es cross t h e e a r th s p a rallel s wi t h t h e reg u l ar ity

,

a n d u n i for m ity ob s er v ed b y t h e s u n .

Ta k i n g i n to co n s i derati o n al l t h e forego i n g qu o ta ti o n s
m ade i n th is s ec ti o n toge ther w ith the O bs er v ed phe n o m
,

e n a t he follo w i n g co n cl u s i o n s a r e rea ched n a m el y

, ,

1 Th a t bo t h V e n u s a n d t h e s u n a r e obs e r v ed to cros s
.

t h e m e r e d ia n s a n d p arallel s O f the e a r t h i n a n obl i q u e d i

rec ti o n

.

2 Th at the s u n as ded u ced fro m as t ro n o m i c a l t ables

cross es t hem wit h a ge n erall y u n ifor m v eloc it y a n d reg
.

u l ar i t y a n d w he n i rreg u l a r i n
,
i t s v eloc it y i n cross i n g
t he m th is is co m pe n s ated o n i ts n e x t ret u r n th us prod u c
,

i n g a ge n e r a l u n i fo r m i t y .

3 Th at Ve n us i s as co n s ta n t t o t h e s u n as a sat e l l it e t o
.

i t s pr i m a r y be i n g al w ay s o b s e r v ed a t the s a m e a n gu l a r
,

d is tan ce fr o m it an d appears to m ov e as t h e s u n does

,
'

a bo u t the ea r t h a n d fro m t rop i c t o t rop i c

, wit h t h e sam e
,

u n i fo r m v el oc ity t h a t t he s u n a ppe a r s t o h a v e .

4 T h at Ve n u s a p p e a r s to cross t he m er i d ia n s a n d p a r
.

all el s O f t h e ea r t h wi t h t he sa m e a pp a re n t veloc i t y an d ,

u n i for m i t y t h a t t he s u n does .

Wi t h a v ie w o f co n t r ast i n g the Obser v ed phe n om e n a

j us t e n u m erated wi t h t h e phe n o m en a w h ic h w o uld be O h

,

s e rv a b l e an d a re n o t l id Ve n us cr oss t h e p a r allel s i n
a cco r d a n ce w i t h t h e theo r y O f t h e e a r th s p r og r e ss i v e m o

t i o n i n i t s o r b it t h e follo w i n g a n al y s is a n d e n u m er a t i o n i s
,

m ad e n a m e l y
,

1 W he n Ve n u s a n d t he e ar t h w e r e pr o g r ess i n g i n the
.

sa m e d i r ec t i o n a n d w e r e a t Oppo s i t e e x t r e m i t i e s O f t h e
,

s a m e s t ra i gh t l i n e d r a w n t h r o u gh t h e c e n t r e O f t h e s u n ,

be fore m e n t io n e d t h e a p p a r e n t v eloc i t y O f Ve n u s a t a n d
, ,

n ea r s u c h l i n e obs er v ed fr o m t he ea r t h i n c ros s i n g t h e
,
176 I s t he Cp
o i
er n c a n Sy stem f
o A s no y f e .
t r o m l u 9

pa rallel s w ou ld b e th at O f the d if er en ce O f the rea l v eloc i

ti es o f thes e t wo b od i es .

2 A t t h e ti m e bo th bod ies were o n O p pos ite s i des i n the i r

.

orb its a n d a t Op p os ite e x tre m iti es o f t h e sa m e s t r aigh t l i n e

,

m e n t i o n ed a n d progress i n g i n oppos ite d i rec t i o n s Ve n u s

, ,

w o u ld a p pe ar t o c r o ss t he p a r a llel s w it h a v eloc i t y d u e t o
i ts o w n p r oper m o ti o n co m b i n ed w it h t h at o f t h e ea r th s

.
,

3 W h e n Ve n u s a n d t h e ea r t h w ere progres s i n g at o r
.
,

n ea r a r i gh t a n gle to t he d i rec ti o n s o f ea ch o t hers m o t i o n ,

Ve n u s w o u ld c r oss the parallels w ith a v eloc ity d u e t o t h e

m o ti o n o f t he e a r t h a l o n e w h i ch a ppa re n t v eloc ity w ou l d
,

be d i ffe r e n t fro m ei t her O f t h e t wo for m er .

4 A t a ti m e w he n Ve n us w as at a n a c u te a n gle t o t h e
.

d i recti o n O f t h e pa rallel s a n d a t the sa m e ti m e n ea res t

,

parallel t o the e a rt h s s u r fa ce Ve n u s w o u ld cross the p a r

,

a llel s w i t h les s a p a re n t v eloc ity th a n w o u ld b e o b s er v a

p
ble w e r e it a t a n y other po s iti o n rel ati v e to t h at o f t h e
e a r th .

5 W he n Ve n u s a n d the ear t h w ere prog r es s i n g i n t h e

.

s a m e d i rec ti o n a n d Ve n u s w ere o n a l i n e w it h t h e a x i s O f
,

the ea rth Ve n us w o u l d n o t appear to c r os s t h e p arallel s

,

a t a l l fo r w h i le i n t h i s po s iti o n i t a n d t h e ea r th w o u l d
'

both b e prog r es s i n g i n a d i r ecti o n pa rallel t o t h e p a rallel s .

Thes e d i e r e n ces i n t h e a ppa r e n t v eloci t i es o f V e n u s

'

obser v ed fro m the ear th d i d Ve n u s co n t i n u e o n or cross

,

the para llel s accord i n g to t h e theory o f the ear th s pro

,

g r e ss i v e m o ti o n a r e n ece s
, s a r y res u l t s o f t he follo w i n g
c a u s es n am el y ,

1 Th e d i ffere n ce O f t h e v eloc i t y O f Ve n u s fro m t h a t o f

.

the ea r t h .

2 The d i ffere n ce O f c i r c u m fere n ce O f the i r o r b i t s

. .

3 The t wo bod i es m o v i n g alo n g t h e s a m e pl a n e n a m e

.
,

l y the ecl i p ti c
, .

4 R es u l t i n g i n t he t w o bod ies mak i n g th ei r r es pecti ve

.

r e v ol u t i o n s i n d i ffe r en t t i mes .
 Does th e E ar t h P r og r ess in an O r b it 17 7

Wh t ho ld be the phe o m e ob e ed the e rth

a s u n na s rv on a ,

as res l t f the d i ffe e t pp e t elociti e f Ve

u s O r n a ar n v s o n us on

cro i g the p r llel fro m t he

ss n e j t t ted i
a a s cau s s us s a , n co n

e ti w it h t he t heory f the e r t h progre i e m o ti o ?

n c on o a s ss v n

The ph e o m e ob er ble wo l d be t h t Ve
n na s t va u , a n u s, a

on e t i m e w o ld h e th t pp re t r pi d m o ti o
, u av cro a a a n a n a ss

the p r llel wh i ch w o ld re l t fro m

a a s, pp re t l u su an a a n v e oc

it y f o m ile ho r ch eloci ty bei g p t i s an u ,

su v n r ac

c ll y the re l t f the pp re t co m b i ti o f t h eloc i

a su o a a n na n o e v

tie f Ves O d the e t h t t he ti m e t he e bod i e were

n us a n ar , a s s

p rog e i g
r t he
ss n oppo it i de f
ont he i r or b it d m s e s s o s , an ov

i n g i oppo i te d i rec ti o
n t ted
s n s , as s a .

A t other ti m e Ve
an ho ld b Ob er ed to cro th e
,
n us s u e s v ss

p r llel w i t h
a a p p e t elocity t we ty ti m e l
s an a th ar n v n s ess an

th t j t m e ti o ed m el y w ith
a us n n p p re t elocity
,
na , an a a n v

d ue t the re l eloc i t y f 7 000 m i le

o a v ho r Th i b o , s an u . s e

i g the d i ffere ce i t h rel ti e eloc iti e f Ve

n n n d the e a v v s o n u s an

e rt h t ti m e w he t h e e bod i e w ere m o g
a ,
a a n the s s vi n ln

sa m e d i recti o d p r llel to e ch o t he
n an before t teda a a r , as s a .

A t other ti m e Ve
an ho ld ppe r to cro the p ,
n us s u a a ss ar

a llel w i t h s elo ity d to th t f t h e th i i t orb it

a v c ue a O e ar n s .

Th i w o ld occ r t t h ti m e w he the d i rectio n f the

s u u a e n o

progr i e m oti o e ss v f the e rt h d th t f Ve ns o w ere a an a o n us

a t O e r r i gh t gle t e ch other
r n a a an o a .

Th i l t t er elocity f Ve
s a w o ld be
v pp re tl y o n us u a a n ,

gre ter th t h t l t m e t io ed
a an d le a th the r t
as n n , an ss an s

m e ti o ed
n n .

A t other ti m e Ve
an ho ld ppe r t cro the p ,
n us s u a a o ss ar

a llel w i t h s eloci ty le th a v
y f t he e be fore m ss an an o s en

t i o n ed .

Th i s w ou ld tak e pl ace a t a t i m e w hen Ve n u s w ere pro

r ess i n g i n a d i r ec ti o n n ea r l y p a r al lel t o th e e a r th s

g s u r

fa ce A t s u ch t i m e Ve n u s w o u ld a ppe a r t o cr oss the

.

p a r a llel s v e r
y s l o wl y i f ob s er v a ble a t a l l , .

A t a n o ther t i m e V e n us co uld n o t b e o bser ved t o cr oss

12
178 I s t h e Cop er n i ca n Sy s tem o
f A s tr on o m y Tr u e 9
.

the p ar a llel s a t al l . Th i s
o l d occ u r at a ti m e w he n
w u
Ve n u s a n d t h e a x i s o f t h e e ar t h w er e o n t h e sa m e s tr a igh t
l i n e n a m el y at a t i m e w he n t h e s t r ai gh t l i n e o f the
,

ear th s a x is i f p r ol o n ged w o u ld pass t h ro u gh Ve n u s

.

I n s u ch p o s i t i o n Ve n u s w o u l d m o v e pa r allel to t he e a r t h s

p arallel s a n d the e a r t h prog r ess par allel t o t he p r o g r es

,

s i v e m o t i o n O f Ve n u s .

To t h e l as t fo r ego i n g v i e w s i n r ega r d t o the appa re n t

v eloci t i e s o f Ve n u s i n c r o s s i n g t h e p ar allel s as r es u l t s o f ,

i t s d i ffe r e n t pos i t i o n s rel at i v e t o the e ar t h it m i gh t be ob

, ,

d h a t Ve n u s m i gh t n o t r e m a i n i n t h e d i ffe r e n t rel a
j e c t e t
t i v e p o s it i o n s a lo n g e n o u gh t i m e t o c au s e t he i r e ffe c ts t o
be obs er v able o n t h e ear th y e t s u ch Obj ect i o n w o u ld
,

s ca r cel y be te n a ble w he n it i s co n s i d ered t h a t Ve n u s in ,

m a k i n g i t s re v o l u t i o n foll o w s t h e lo n g l i n e o f a n ell i p s e
,

4 08 m i ll i o n s o f m i les i n le n gt h w h i c h d is t a n ce it c o m
,

ple tes i n 22 4 d ay s t h a t t h e o r bi t o f t h e ea r t h o f l i k e fo r m
, ,

h as a c i r cu m fe r e n ce o f 5 7 0 m i ll i o n s o f m i les al o n g w h i ch ,

i t t ra v el s i n 3 6 5 d ay s w h i l e Ve n u s o n a n a v erage c r o s s e s
,

fr o m o n e p a r al l e l t o a n o t her i n s o m e th i n g less t h a n fo u r
d ay s .

W he n it i s co n s i dered t h a t t h e di s ta n ces tra veled b y

the ea rt h a n d Ve n u s a n d t h e lo n g pe r iod s requ i r e d t o
,

m a ke t he i r r e v o l u t i o n s a n d t h e fu r t her fac t th a t i n t he
,
a

s ho r t pe r i od o f fo u r d a y s t h e o r b i t s o f Ve n u s a n d the
,

e art h w o u ld co n t i n u e t o be al m os t s t r ai g h t l i n es the ap ,

e a r a n c e s o f V e n u s i n t h i s s h o r t t i m e w o u ld be ob s e r v a ble
p
a s i t c r o s s e d fr o m o n e p a r a l lel a n d t h r o u gh a n o t her w it h
,

the appar e n t v eloci t ies d u e t o t h e di ffere n t rel a t i v e pos i

ti o n s i t w er e i n w i t h refe r e n ce t o t h e e art h
,
.

The fo ll o w i n g co n cl u s i o n s ar e d e d u ce d fr o m the f ore

g o i n g n a m el y :
,

1 V e n u s s h o u l d c r o s s t h e p a r all e l s a n d m e r i d i a n s o f
.

t h e e a r t h w i t h d i ffe r e n t v e lo c i t i es w h i c h s h o u ld be O h

serv bl a e as e ff s
e c t o f t h e r
p go r es s i ve m o t i o n o f t h e ear t h i n
 D o es the E ar t h P r og r ess in an O r bi t 179

the orb it , an d su ch ar e n o m ore ob s er vable of Ve n us th an

o f the su n .

2 .The ob ser v ed phen o m e n a o f Ve n u s cross i n g the p ar

allel s a n d m er i d i a n s a r e ad v ers e t o the t heory o f t h e

ea rth s progress i v e m oti o n

.

3 I f t he t wo forego i n g co n cl u s i o n s be te n able the theory

.
,

th at the earth progresses i n an orbit abou t the su n is u n

ten able .
180 I s th e Cp o er n i ca n Sy s tem o
f A s tr o n o m y Tr u e 9 .

CH A P TE R VI .

THE I TA N C ES O TH
D S P R O G R ESS I V E M O
F E P L A N ETS THE .

TI O NS O H O O N A STA R S F T E M N D .

A the s by the w m e re m e t i b t o e m ill i o

su n ,
ne as u n , s u n n

m i le fro m t he e t h the pl
s et o t h i b i c ar ,
ot an s n s as s an n

h e the m e
av d d i t ce gi e t he m b y
as s s a n tro o m er s an s v n as n s,

fo h d t he y
r a c h they co l d t be i th t p opor t i o t
su u no n a r n o

the red ced m u d d i st ce f t h as s a n eq i red b y the an o e sun r u

l w o f tt c t i o
a a ra n .

Th i e ti w ill be pp
s as s r t wh e
on it i co i dered a ar e n n s ns

th t b y t h w m e e m e t t h
a e ne d i t ce i d i m i
as u r n e su n s

s an s n

i h d to o
s e m i ll i m i le
ne d it m ed ced to t h t i
on s , an s a ss r u a n

cor e po d i g t t h t f d i m e te O f 94 8 3 m i le
r s n n o a o a a r s .

Th i ed c t i o f t h d i t ce f t h
s r u n o pl ce it t the e s an o e su n a s a
1
93 p t f th
ar o t o om i l d i t e ce ; t h i ece
as r n
il y i ca s an s n s sa r n

a ccord ce w i t h l w f p o p o t i o
an eq i
a a corre o r r n r u r es a s

po d i g ed c t i o i t h m e
n n r u d d i t ce o f the
n n e a ss s an s an s

pl etan s .

The tro o m i c l e t i m t e o f t h d i t ce o f the pl

as n a s a s e s an s an

t
e s ar e m d e b th t h a t i ll y d pr c t i c l l y
o eo r e ca an a a .

I t beco m e i m po t t t c s id e d t ttem pt t
r an o ons r an o a o

s ho w t h i f ci y f t h f d t i o
e n su en cw h i ch t he e o e oun a ns on s

es ti m te a b ilt s ar e u .

O f t h p ct i l m t h o d m t
ne o e ra li d caf th i e s os re e on or s

p rpo e i t h t by p ll
u s s Th i m eth o d f
a ch ara ax . s , or su

p u r po e h s be ,
c i de ased i C h p t
en r I ons r n a e .

B y eferr i g t t h t ch p t e t h
r n e d m y t h ere d
o a a r, e r a er a n

th t a tro o m e d
as nt pl ce i m pl i i trs d o d o b ti g
no a c an un u n

fai t h i n its suf cien cy fo d i g t h e r eal d is tan ces o f r n n

 . Do es t he E ar t h P r og r ess i n an O r bi t 9 . 181

e i t her s ta r s pl a n e t s o r the s u n a n d t h e m e t hod s o appl i ed

, ,

m ay be r ega rde d as u n ce r ta i n he n ce u n rel ia ble as a de , ,

d u ct io n fr o m t h e fac t s s t a t ed i n t h a t ch ap te r .

The r e i s a m e th o d e m ploy ed by as t ro n o m ers b y w h ich ,

t h e m o t i o n s o f t h e p l a n e t s a r e d e t e r m i n e d w h i ch w ere it , ,

rel ia ble wo u ld no t o n l y e s t abl is h t hei r v eloc it ies b u t fr om

, ,

w h i ch co u ld be ded u ced b y a m a t h e m a t i ca l fo r m u l a t he i r , ,

d i s ta n ces al s o I n t h is l at t er v i e w it m ay be proper t o
.

a n a l yz e t h e s u f c i e n c y o f t h e m et hod p er s o .

Th is m e t hod m ay be u n d e r s t oo d fr o m t h e follo wi n g
q u o t ati o n fro m M Bi o t s w o r k w here he say s S e c 1 5 1
.

, . .

I n de t er m i n i n g t h e m o t i o n s o f t h e h eav e n l y bo d i es w e ,

Obs e r v e the p o i n t each d a y i n w h i ch they a r e fo u n d o n

t h e cele s t i a l s phe r e a n d a ft er w a rd s w e as cer t a i n the for m

o f t h e t r ajec t o r y fro m t h e co n d i t i o n t h a t t h e body h a s

, ,

pas s ed s u ccess i v el y t hro u gh al l t hes e p os i t i o n s i n t he

order i n w h i ch t hey w ere obser v ed .

The u n certa i n t ies o f t h is m et hod m ay be i ll u s t r ated b y

s u ppo s i n g the obs er v e r o f t h e m o t i o n o f t h e pl an e t t o be
at E F i g , 38
. .

S u ppos e , fo r h at the tru e t rajec t o r y o f the

e x a m ple ,
t
c u r v e w ere P P a n d t h e o r b i t 3 6 4 5 A s al l c i rcles

, , , .

h a v e t he s a m e n u m ber o f d e gr ees i t m a y be fo u n d th a t ,

P P i s i n t h e s a m e p r op o r t i o n t o t h e c i rcle 3 4 5 6 th a t

, , , ,

8 9 is t o t h e c i rcle A B C D t h e n t he r e ar e t h e s am e , , , ,

n u m ber o f deg r e es i n t h e a r e P P as i n t he a r e 8 9 of

,

t h e c i r cle A B C D , , ,
.

To a n Obs er v er a t E t h e e a r t h Fi g 38 t h e lin e o f . .

v i s i o n t o t h e Obs e r v ed p l a n e t n a m el y fr o m po i n t t o po i n t , ,

o f the t rajec to r y w o u ld be t h a t co i n c i de n t i n d i r ec ti o n
,

w i t h t h e l i n es E P 8 a n d E P 9 a n d a t t h e e x t r e m i t i es o f ,

these l i n es bet wee n w h i ch i s the t r aject o r y r es u l t i n g from

,

t h e pl an e t s m o t i o n be t w e e n t h e s e po i n ts

.

Y e t poss i bl y t h e Obs e r ve d pl a n e t m i g h t be i n m ot i o n
, ,

i n t h e o r b i t 3 6 4 5 o r i n t h e o rb i t A B C D a n d fro m
, , , , ,

o bser v at io n it co u ld n o t b e d et e r m i n e d i n wh i ch .
182 I s th e Cp o er n i c a n Sy stem o f A s tr o n o m y Tr u e 9 .

F IG . 38

Fo r , were it m o v i n g i n t he les s er o r bit say , fo r ex am ple ,

fro m P P y e t it w ou l d a ppe a r to a n obs er v er at E t o h av e

t he tr j ectory 8 9 He ce y c lc l tio b ed o o b
a . n ,
an a u a n as n

s er v ti o
a w o ld pl ce t h e pl
n u et i l rger orbit th
a it an n a a an

w ere i n ,
d w ere the v eloc ity or t he d ist ce de te r m i ed
an an n ,

fro m such u ppos ed tr j ec tory w o ld le d to a e or m o

s a u a n n us

ded cti o
u n .

The Ob er ver w ou ld be go v er ed b y the ppe r ce as

s n a a an ,

h e wo ld o t h v e o ther w is e y correct co cepti o o f th e

u n a an n n

ac tu l d i t
a ce o f t h pl e t
s an d t o s ch obs er ver it wo ld
e an ,
an u u

a ppea r tho gh i t were m o g t the t r

as u a n s s a s .

Th at th is co cl s io i bas ed o a uth o r ity will ap pear

n u n s n
 P r og r ess ive Ill o t i o n s o
f t h e bl o on an d S ta r s . 183

fro m th e follow i g q o t ti n u a on fro m Ne w co m b

s P op u l a r
A st r o om y
n .

He sa y s were t h e s u n an d s tars v i s i b le at the sam e

,

t i m e t he s u n w o u ld a ppea r t o be a m o n gs t t h e s t a r s
,
.

He th u s acco u n ts fo r s u ch phe n o m e n a ; he s ay s th i s ,

i s o wi n g to t h e fac t t h at w he n we loo k a t t wo objec ts at a

re a t d is t a n ce fr o m u s a n d bo t h o n t h e s a m e l i n e o f v i

g ,

s i o n ( as fo r e x a m ple a pl a n e t a t P a n d a n o t he r a t 8 b u t

, ,

b u t a t d i ffere n t d i s t a n ce s fr o m e ach o t he r as t h e pl a n e ts ,

a t P an d 8 w o u ld be ) w e d o n o t b y m e r e s i gh t recog n iz e

t h i s d i ffere n ce he n ce s u ch t w o Objec ts ( o r o n e objec t a t

, , ,

d i ffere n t d is tan ces o n the s a m e l i n e o f v is io n ) ap pear a t

,

the s am e d i s ta n ce .

A s t he res u l t o f the v i s u al i n s u i c i e n cy j u s t m e n ti o n ed ,

t h e obs er ve r a t E w o u ld be u n a ble t o de t er m i n e w he t her

the re al trajec t or y w e r e P P o r 8 9 he n ce co u ld n o t de
,

ter m i n e eit her the v eloci t y o r d is tan ce o f th e Obs er ved

pl a n e t by s u ch Ob s e r v ati o n
,
.

T h e d i i c u l t i es e n co u n t e re d i n a t t e m p ti n g t h e de ter
m i n a t i o n o f a pl a n e t s m o t i o n a n d co n seq u e n t v eloc i t y as

,

al s o i t s d i s t a n ce i s fu r t he r s ho w n i n t h e follo w i n g q u o t a
,

t i o n fr o m N e w co m b s P o p u l a r A s t r o n o m y p age 93

, ,

w here i t i s s a i d

The pr o ble m o f co m p u ti n g the m o t io n O f e ac h pl a n et
u n d er t he a t t r a c t i o n o f a l l t h e o t he r s i s ho w e v er

o ne of , ,

s u ch co m ple x i t y t h a t n o co m p le t e a n d p e r fec t s ol u ti o n

,

h as e v er bee n fo u n d .

O n page 94 it i s s a i d

To p u t t h e d i i c u l t y i n a n u t s hel l t h e geo m eter ca n ,

n o t s t r i c t l y de t e r m i n e t h e m o t i o n o f t h e pl a n e t u n t i l he

k n o w s t h e a t t r act io n s o f a l l t h e o t her pl a n e t s o n i t a n d ,

he ca n n o t de ter m i n e th es e w i t h o u t k n o wi n g t h e p osi ti o n
o f t h e pl a n e t t h a t i s w i t ho u t h a v i n g s o l v ed h i s pro b le m

, , .

Thes e ad m iss io n s leg i t i m atel y a n al yzed a m o u n t t o a

, ,

Th e p r esen t wi r t er h as m ad e t h e p a r e n t h i
e s s, in the a bo ve q u o ta t ion .
184 I s t he Cop er n i c a n Sy stem of A s tr o n omy u e 9
.

ro u n d abou t way o f practi ca ll y a ck n o w ledg i n g th at t h e

d i s tan ce o f n o pl an e t i s k n o w n .

B ecau se i f the pos iti o n th a t is to say the l ocu s i n qu o , ,

o f t he pl a n e t i s u n k n o w n w it h re fere n ce t o the o ther

pl an e ts an d t h e p os itio n s o f t h e other pl an et s ar e u n

,

k n ow n t h e ea rt h be i n g cl a s s ed as o n e o f t h e pl an e ts so

th at the g eo m et er can n ot s ol ve the proble m o f thei r attrae

tio n s a n d t hes e ar e th e s tate m e n t s t h i s i s tan tam ou n t i n
c e c t t o th a t o f a d i rec t ad m i ss i o n t h a t the d i s t a n ces o f t he
'

pl an ets ar e u n k n o w n .

How e ver the d is ta n ces o f th e pl an ets fr o m the s u n a r e

, , ,

dedu ced fro m Kepler s th i rd l a w wh i ch is as follow s

,

The sq u are o f t he ti m e o f re vol u ti on o f each pl an et i s

proporti o n al to the c u be o f i ts m ean d i s t a n ce fro m the

sun

.

M Bi o t S ec
. . 43 3 de ta i l s t he me thod by wh ich Kep
l er fo u n d th i s l a w, n am el y
By co m p ri g i v i ety o f i ta ce t hei r re ol a

a n n a ar ns n s v

ti o w it h thei r d i t ce Kepler d i cov ered th i s i g l r

ns s an s, s s n u a

rel ti o ; th t the q re o f t h ti m e o f t he i r e vo l

a n a s ua s e s r u

tio e p opor ti o l to the c be o f the i r m e

n s ar r dina u s ,
an s
"
ta ce Th i i Kepler s th i rd l w
n s . s s

a .

There c n be o do b t th t the ti m es o f the re ol tio s

a n u a v u n

o f t he pl ets e k o w n Th i k o wled ge i s O bt ai ed b y
an ar n . s n n

ob er i g the ti m e o f t h e ret r o f e ch pl et t o t h e
s v n u n a an

n ode o f i t orb it s .

B t h o w co ld Kepler h v e
u cco m pl i hed the o ther
u a a s

n ece r y p t f th i s t k ?
ss a m el y t h t o f co m p r i g
ar o as na ,
a a n

t he d i t w i t h t he ti m e o f re ol ti o
s a n ces o f t he pl a e ts s v u ns n

.

Fo t o om
r as r tell befo e q oted th t t h e d i
n er s us as r u a s

t ce o f th e pl et m y be fo d ft er the d i t ce o f
c

an s an s a un a s an

the su n i s fo u n d , b u t n ot befor e .

Th at the s u n s d is tan ce h as n o t been fo u n d is e v i de n t

,

whe n as tro n om ers tell u s as t hey d o t h at t h e d is ta n ce o f

,

t h e s u n i s o n e o f the ca p i t al proble m s o f m oder n as tro n

a n d th is d i s t a n ce was s o u gh t b u t a fe w y e ars ago

o my ,
 D o es the E ar t h P rogr ess i n an O bt
ir9 . 18 5

on the occ i o as n of th e tr an s it of Ve n u s o ver the su n s

d isc .

Were it m i t i ed th t Keple a n a n l a w n o t o n l es
a r s

th i rd y
ta bl i h t he proporti o l b t t h
s es na , u e rea l d s a n ces O f t h e it
pl an et s , t he n o n e o f t w o ass e r t o n s o f as r o n o m ers i n i t
t y i
rega rd t o pl a n e a r d s t a n ce s m u s t be u n t e n a b le fo r he t
t y
reas o n t h a t he a r e co n t ra d c t or o f each o he r i y t .

i
F o r i n s t a n ce , i f t h e d s t a n ce o f a pl a n e r es u l t s fro m a t .

i t
p r oport o n fo u n d b e wee n t h e c u be o f i ts d s t a n ce , a n d t h e i
s q u ar e o f t h e ti
m e o f i t s re v ol u t o n , an d h s p r oport o n i t i i
it
res u l ts , an d t h e d s an ce o f t h e pl a n e i s fo u n d i n d e p e n t
t
de n o f a k n o wledge o f t h e r ea l d s t an ce o f t h e s u n , w h ch i i
t i
m u s h a v e bee n t h e ca s e w t h Kepler , as su ch d i s t a n ce y e t
i it
rem a n s a p r o bl em , can be t r u e , as asser ed b y as t r o m o t
t
m ers , t h a a k n o w ledge o f t h e d s t a n ce o f t h e s u n i s essen i
i
ti a l , he n ce , prereq u i s t e t o n d n g he d s a n ces o f t h e i t it
pl a n e t s ?
t t
O n he o her h a n d , i f a k n o w ledge o f he s u n s d i s

t
t i
t a n ce be h u s es s e n t a l t o n d n g t h e d s t a n ces o f he i i t
t
pl an et s a n d as q u o ed as ro n o m e r s say i t i s a n d he d is t t
t a n ce o f t h e s u n be n o t y e t fo u n d , a n d i s a d m t ed h a it it t t
i t h as n o t , he n t it i
w ll follo w h a t Kepler s d s co v er

tof i y
i
t h s s i n g u l a r rel a t o n

i
ca n n o t det er m n e he r ea l d i s i t
t a n ces o f t h e pl a n e t s .

A n d as a co r r o l l a r y , i t m ay n o t be m per t n e n o re i i t t
i i
m ark i n t h s co n n ec t o n t h a t if t h e h rd l a w o f Kepler t i
t i
does n o t n d he r ea l d s t a n ces o f he pl a n et s h o w can t ,

t i t
ak n g he p ara l l a x o n t h e occ as o n o f he t r a n s t o f Ve n u s i t i
o v e r t h e su n s d i s c, ai d i n s u ppl y n g he d e c e n c i n t h e

i t i y
k n o w ledge o f t h e s u n s d s t an ce ?

i
i
A s t h e d s t a n ce o f t h e s u n i s u n k n o w n , h o w co u ld h s t i
i ti
propor t o n a t e rel a o n o f t h e c u b e t o t h e s q u a r e h a v e bee n
fo u n d b Kepl er ? y
I n su ch c as e i t co u ld o nl h a v e be e n fo u n d b y s u ar
q y
i i
i n g t h e t m e o f re v ol u t o n o f a pl a n e t fo r he t m e o f i t s t i
ti
r ev ol u o n i s k n o wn ~
an d t
he n n d n g b y calc u lat on , 3 i i .
 1 86 Is t he Cop er n ic a n Sy s te m of A s tr o n o my Tr u e 9

d is ta n ce w hose u n it whe n c u bed w o u ld b e proporti o n ate t o

t h e s qu are o f t he t i m e o f re v ol u ti o n o f s u ch pl a n e t a n d ,

the n t o ass u m e by reaso n o f t h is s i n gu l ar r el at i o n t h a t

t h e d i s t a n ce t o the s u n were i n accord a n ce w i t h s u ch pro

porti o n .

B u t t h is w o u ld o n l y s ho w a propor ti o n ate rel at i o n a n d ,

n o t t h e re a l d i s t a n ce O f t h e s u n o r t h e pl a n e t s fo r w ere ,

t h e d is t a n ce o f t h e s u n fro m a pl a n et red u ced fo r i n s ta n ce ,

the eart h a n d w ere t h e d is t an ces O f al l t h e pl a n ets fro m

,

t h e s u n d im i n is h e d i n l i k e propor t i o n t he c u b es o f t h e d i s ,

tan ces O f t h e pl a n e ts fro m t h e s u n wo u ld re m a i n pr op or

t i o n at el y t h e s a m e he n ce t h e s q u a re s o f t he i r t i m es o f
, ,

re v ol u t i o n wo u ld be i n t h e s am e proport i o n at e relatio n s t o
t h e c u bes o f t hes e red u ced d is t a n ces as t hey w ere b e fore
s u ch red u c ti o n s .

Th is i s al m os t s elf e v ide n t b u t an e x a m ple m ay be per

,

m issable .

F o r e x a m ple l e t the c u be a n d s q u a re o f re v ol u tio n o f

,

the pl an et M ars be calcu l ated .

The m ean d is ta n ce o f t h i s p l a n e t fr o m t h e s u n accord ,

i n g t o as t ro n o m i c al es t i m a te i s 1 4 1 m i ll i o n s o f m i les
, .

O n t h e bas is o f t h e n e a r e s t a s t ro n o m i cal d i s t an ce o f th e
s u n t o t h e e a r t h bei n g m i le s le t t h i s d is ta n ce
,

be take n fr o m w h i ch t o n d t h e cu be O f M a rs d is t a n ce
.

By e m ployi n g t h e a s t r o n o m i ca l d i s t a n ce o f
t h e s u n as a d i v i s o r o f 1 4 1 m i ll i o n s t h e e s t i m a t ed m ea n
, ,

d is t a n ce o f M a r s we h a v e as t h e q u o t i e n t
, w h i ch
,

g i v es t h e u n i t d is t a n ce o f M a rs wh ich i s as l ai d do wn i n
,

a s t r o n o m i ca l w o rk s o f a u t h o r i t y .

The c u be o f is The peri od O f re v ol u ti o n

o f M a rs i s fo u n d b y obs e r v a t i o n t o be
, y ears
, .

The sq u a r e O f m ay b e fo u n d t o b e w h i ch
s ho w s i n a cc o rd a n ce w i t h t he t h i rd l a w O f Kepler
, t h at ,

t h e s q u are o f t h e ti m e O f re v ol u t i o n o f M a rs i s al m os t i n
i de n t i cal pr o por t i o n to t he c u be o f i ts u n i t d is t an ce .
 P r ogr ess ive IlI o ti on s f
o th e IlI o on an d Sta r s . 187

N o w su ppos e the d i s t a n ce o f t h e s u n to be red u ced to

m i les fro m t he e a r t h w h i ch i s i n a ccord a n ce ,

with t he n e w m e as u re m e n t o f s u ch d i s tan ce as e x pl a i n ed ,

i n Ch ap t er II a n d s u ppos e th at t h e d i stan ce o f M a rs fro m

,

the s u n w ere red u ced proporti on at el y ; th a t i s to say i n ,

the proport io n th at the es t i m ated as tro n om i

ca l d is ta n ce O f t he s u n bea r s to
, the red u ced
d ista n ce o f the s u n accord i n g t o the n e w m eas u re m e n t o f
,

s u ch d is ta n ce s h o w n i n C h a p ter II an d the d is ta n ce o f

,

M ars fr o m th e s u n aft er red u c ti o n u s i n g as a

,

di v isor of 1 4 1 000 000 w i ll be fo u n d t o be i n ro u n d

, , ,

n u m bers ,
m i les .

O n the b as is o f s u ch red u ced d is tan ce e m p l oy the sa m e ,

m e thod t o n d t h e u n i t d i s t a n ce as w as e m plo y ed fo r t h a t
p u rpos e before s u ch red u c t i o n n am el y u s i n g the r ed u ced , ,

di sta n ce o f the su n as a d i v is or o f t h e r ed u ced d is ta n ce o f

M a r s t h a t i s t o s ay d i v i de
, , by an d

t h e u n i t d i s t a n ce o f M a rs w i ll b e fou n d t o be as it was b e
fore s u ch r ed u ct i o n n a m el y , ,

The c u be o f i s o f co u r s e as it w as be fore s u ch
, ,

red u ction n a m el y, , a n d t h e s q u a re o f t h e t i m e o f i t s

rev ol u t i o n w i ll be fo u n d t o be as be fore .

I t w i ll be s ee n fr o m t h e for egoi n g calcu l a ti o n th at the

proport i o n O f the c u be o f t h e d i s tan ce t o t h e s q u ar e o f t h e
tim e o f r e v ol u ti o n i s rel at i vel y t h e sam e fo r Ma rs a fter
,

red u ct i o n o f i t s d is t a n ce as i t wa s be fo r e s u ch red u ct io n
, .

The w ri t er n d s b y calc ul at i o n t h e s a m e i de n t i t y o f
, ,

res u l t s wi t h al l t h e pl an e t s as t h at fo u n d fo r M a r s
, .

The sa m e i d e n t i ty o f pr opor ti o n bet wee n the c u be o f t h e

d is ta n ce a n d t h e s q u are O f t h e t i m e O f re v ol u t i o n w he t her ,

t h e d i s t an ce ass u m ed h e 2 3 4 6 6 t m i l lio n s o r a n y
, , , , ,

othe r pr opor ti o n al n u m ber o f m il es as the s u n s d i s t a n ce ,

w h i c h O f co u rs e w as t o h a v e bee n e x pect e d
, .

Th is fac t s h o w s at leas t s o far as i n th e i n s tan ces j u s t

,

m e n t i o n ed t h at t h e prop o r ti o n fo u n d be tw ee n t h e c u be o f
,

t h e d i stan ce a n d t he sq u ar e o f t h e ti m e o f r ev ol u ti o n i s a
188 I s t he Cop er n c a n i Sy s te m o f A s tr o n o m y Tr u e 9
.

i g
s n ul a r rel ati o n bas ed
O n an as s u m ed d is ta n ce of the
su n .

the
If be b t
sun m i le fro m h u e r th t h e s t e a ,

pl ets m t be e rer t h e th t h
an us the d i ta ces t
n a e ar an s n a

p e e t g i e t he m i o d r t h t t he i r ttr ct i o
r s n v n ,be i
n r e a a a ns n

pro po rt i o to ch red ced d i t ce

n su d p oport i o t el y u s an , an r na

red u ced m ass O f t h e s u n .

To n d s u ch d i s ta n ces t h e sa m e m e t hod m ay be e m ,

ploy ed as t h at wh i ch fo u n d t h e red u ced d is ta n ce o f t h e

s u n e x pl a i n ed i n co n n ec t i o n w i t h Fi g 5 C h a p t er II
, .
, .

To do t h i s le t a t eles cope a n d pl u m b l i n e n d t h e z e
,

n i t h o f t h e pl a n e t .

A t 4 0 o r 4 5 fro m s u ch po i n t let t he an g u l a r l i n e

corres p o n d i n g to the a n g u l ar l i n e A S F i g 5 po i n t o n , .

the Obs er v ed pl an e t at t h e t i m e i t i s O n the ze n i t h 4 0 o r

4 5 d is tan t

.

The n p u rs u e the sa m e m e t hod as th at w h i ch fo u n d t h e

d i s t an ce o f the su n de ta iled i n Ch ap t er II i n co n n ecti on
, ,

w i t h Fi g 5 a n d t h u s t h e d i s t a n ce o f t h e pl a n e t m ay be
.
,

fo u n d pro v i ded A S for m s a m e as u r able a n gle w it h the

,

ze n i t h or pl u m b l i n e .

S ay fo r e x a m p le t h at t h e t eles cope a n d pl u m b l i n e
, ,

w e r e a t t h e e q u a t o r a n d t h e o bs er v ed pl a n e t o n t h e z e n i t h
,

t here a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e l i n e A
, S Fi g 5 were , .
,

poi n ted o n s u ch pl a n e t a t o r 6 0 N or t h o r S o u th

o f t h e eq u a tor w e r e s u ch pl a n e t s o d is t a n t t h a t t h e l i n e
A S w o u ld be parallel w i t h t h e p l u m b l i n e at t h e eq u a tor ,

th at i s t o s ay w ere s u ch p l a n et at the s am e t i m e v ert i cal

,

o n t h e l i n e A S a n d o n t h e pl u m b l i n e t he m e t hod pro ,

pos ed co u ld n o t m eas u re t h e d i s t a n ce O f th a t pl a n et .

I n Ch ap er t III t
a n a t e m p t h as bee n m ade 130 s ho w h at

t

t h e fa c t s a n d ph e n o m e n a r el ed o n b y as ro n o m e r s i n proof i t
t t ti
o f he e a r h s ro t a o n a r e su s cep t ble , p h i IO S O p h i ca l l y , o f

i
i t t i i
an n erpre a t o n n dep e n de n t o f s u ch asser ed ro t a o n t ti .
 Does th e E ar t h P r ogr ess i n an O r bi t f 1 89

In the pre e t ecti o the tte m p t w i ll be m de i

s n s n, a a a .

te ded t o ho w th t t h e Ob er ed phe o m e i co ecti o

n s a s v n na n nn n

w it h the m o o m ot i o m y be r t i o ll y e x p l i ed o

n s n, a a na a n n

the t heory t h t th e e r th doe o t rot te

a a s n a .

SO f s thar ae rt h i i ol ed t h e
e a i tho gh t t be
s nv v , su n s u o

w itho t p ogr e i e m o t i o
u r he ce t h e t heory O f ecl i p es
ss v n, n s

of th e d m oo i t h t t hey
su n an c s ed by t h e m o
n s a ar e au

ti o O f t h m oo
ns ed th e th n an e ar .

The phe o m e o f ecl i p e O f t h e

n na d m o e t s s su n an o n ar a

tr ib ted by t ro o m er t o t h m o t hl y m otio o f t h e
u , as n s, e n n

m oo bo t the e t h f o m W e t t o E t co m b i ed w it h
n a u ar r s as ,
n

t h m o ti o
e of th e rt h i t h
ns m e d i ec tio
e a n e sa r n .

The p po ed su t l y m o t i o o f t h e m oo i i t i
s ea s er id n n s, s sa ,

f ll y co r m ed by t h f c t t h t i t recede f o m t h e s t r
u n e a a s r a s

in an e te l y d i recti o
as r d b th d d i t i o l f ct t h t
n , an y e a na a a

the w e t er l i m b f the
s n i t ecl i p ed
o d th t ch
sun s rs s ,
an a su

ecl i p es m o e g d l l y f o m W e t t o E t o er t h e f ce
s v ra ua r s as v a

o f the w h i ch phe o m e
su n , e g rded b y tro o m en n a ar e r a as n rs

as deci i e e i de ce th t the d i ect i o f t h m oo

s v v n a mo r n o e n s

tio i f om We t t E t
n s r s o as .

Ho w e e h o ld i t be t h f c t t h t the e th i i m m o v
v r, s u e a a ar s

a ble a n d t h e su n re v ol v es abo u t i t as t h e m oo n a n d t h e
, ,

o u t e r p l a n e t s d o a n d as a po r t i o n O f t h e s t a rs a ppea r to
,

d o n a m el y t h o s e w h i ch appe ar t o s e t i n the Wes t t he n

, , ,

t h e m oo n m u s t m o v e a r o u n d t h e ea r t h fr o m E as t t o W es t ;
fo r o n t h e h y p o t hes is t h at t he e a r t h do es n o t ro ta t e an ,

eas t e r n d i rec t i o n O f t h e m oo n s m o t i o n w o u ld m ake i t i m

poss i ble fo r t h e n e w m o o n t o s e t i n t h e Wes t w h ich w o u ld ,

pra ct i cally b e i n co n t r ad i c t i o n o f o b s e r ved phe n o m e n a ,

w h i ch phe n o m e n a ho we v e r a r e co n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e p r es
, ,

e n t a s t r o n o m i c a l s y s t e m as t h i s r e s u l t i s a t t r i b u t ed t o t h e
,

ro t a t i o n o f t h e ear t h fr o m W es t t o Eas t .

W e r e i t su p p os e d t h at t h e ea r t h i s i m m o v able th a t t h e ,

s u n re v ol v es a bo u t i t a n d t h a t t h e s t a r s ,
su n a n d m oo n ,

re v ol v e i n a w es t e r l y d i rec ti o n i n a ccor d a n ce wi t h t h e O h ,

s er v ed ph e n o m e n a an d t h e m o o n t o h a v e a s l o we r m o ti o n
,
1 90 I s th e Cop er n i ca n Sy s te m f
o A s tr o n o my Tw e

2

t h an th e r wh i h m t b
s u n a n d s t a s , al l o f th c if c us e e ase

th rt h d o o t rot t i ord r t o cco t f o b r d

e ea es n a e n e a un or se ve

ph o m en o ch hy po t h i t h
en a, n su d t r w ill p e es s , e s u n an s a s r

se n t th m ph e sa o m i t h i r m ot i o o r t h m oo
e en en a n e ns ve e n ,

as t ho ob r d t ch t i m
se se v e d w hich r l t ccordi g
a su es , an es u ,
a n

t o t h pr e t y t m f t ro o m y fro m
es e n s s e t w rd m o as n ,
a n ea s a o

t i o o f t h m oo
n th mo i g
e pp r t ly o r m ot io
n, us v n , a a en ,
ve a n

l es s s u n a n d m o t io l t r n ess s a s .

A o bj c t i o t t hi t h ory i t m y b id t h t i t i s
s an e n o s e a e sa a

n o t phil o op hic l b c s i t d f d d ci g t h t h or y
a ,
e a u se , n s ea o e u n e e

fro m t h f c t t h e f c t e a i m gi d i or d r t o p por t
s, a s ar e a ne n e su

t h e t h or y e .

To ch hy p o t h t ic l o bj ect i o i t m y b r p li d
su e a n a e e e

1 Th t t h e t h ory i b
. a d o o b r d ph o m e e s as e n se v e en n a,

na m ly t h i m m o bili t y o f t h
e , e rth d th we tw rd e ea , an e s a

m otio f th ns o t r d m oo d t h f ct o f
e s a s, s u n an ch n ,
an e a su

m otio i d d ct io fro m wh t h obse r e d p h o m

n s, s a e u n a su c v en

en a l g i t i m t ly i m ply
e a e .

2 A t ro o m r d o o t a
. s rt th t th r i
n e s y l w no f ss e a e e s an a

t r
na u e a d r t o ch hy pot h si b t m r ly cl i m t h t
v e se su e s, u e e a a

th e pr t o l r y t m i m ore i m p l
es e n s a d m ore p rob bl e
s s e s s e an a

bc e au s e o f th p po d gr t di t c f t h e su se d ea s an es o e su n an

t r
s a s .

I n an
y t h pp o d o b
c a se , j c t i o t o t h t h e
e suor y h e r e se e n e

a d o c t d wo l d co m w i t h b d gr c fro m t h o e m i
v a e , u e a a a e s a n

t i i g t h pr
a n n t ol r y t m f
e th r
es e n o t h t ob r d
s a s s e , or e e as n a se v e

ph o m en w h ich p p en a, r t o co t r dic t t h Cop r ic a ea n a e e n an

t h or ye m t m orp h o d i t o
,
ar e o m t hi g o t h r t h
e a se n s e n e an

wh t a ch p h o m w o ld orm lly i d ic t
su en en a u n a n a e .

A f w i t c e f t hi ill og ic l m t h o d m y b
n s an es o gi s a e a e ven

by w y f x m pl e a o e a

1 Th . r t h pp r m o t i o l
e ea I t i m d t o ro t t
a ea s n ess . s a e a e

on it d t progr
s a x es , a n bo t t h o ess a u e sun .

2 Th . h th pp r c f r o l i g bo t t h
e su n as e a ea a n e o ev v n a u e

ea r t h a t h e moo n h as I t is made to stan d still i n t h e

, s .

h eavens .
 P r og r ess ive M o ti on s o
f the M oon an d Sta r s . 1 91

3 All t h e h ea v e ly b odi es app ear t o m o e w es t ward

. n v .

Th e Cope r ic t h e or y r e e rs e n l l t h es e p p r e t d i ec
an v s a a a n r

t io s o f m ot io
n d t r s t h e m e s t wa rd n an u n a .

4 Th e i m m o bili t y o f t h e s ta r s gge t s t h e i m p o b a b i l
. s u s r

i t y t h t t h e ear t h h as a progress i e m o t i o
a v n .

Th e a bse ce o f di pl a c e m e t o f t h es b o d i e s as a r es l t
n s n e u

o f u ch progr es s i e m o t i o
s i s a cc o t e d fo by g i i g t h e
v n un r v n

s t rs s u ch v s t di t a c e s t h at t h e i r di s p l ace m e t w o ld
a a s ot n n u n

b e o b e r v e d s a r es l t o f s ch progre ss i v e m o t i o
s a
y e
u t u n

t h e di t a ce o f o s t ar i s k o w
s n n n n .

5 Th e c o s t e ll a i o H r c l es i s o bse r v e d to m o v e w e s t
. n t n e u

w rd a d i
a t h e di re c t i o o f t h e s
,
n n Thi s is acco t ed n un . un

fo o t h e t h e or y t h t t h e
r n progr esses eas t w ar d a su n .

B u t t o co t i e t h e c o s id e r a t i on o f t h e t h e ory h e r e i
nu n n n

ma i i d
n ta n e

I f t h f ct b i e ccor d c w i t h t h pp r c
a e m n a an e e a ea a n e , n a e

l y th t t h
,
t r mo
a w t w rd t h
e s a s p p r c f t r ve es a ,
e a ea a n e o a s a

E t f t h m oo
as o d oo ft r W t f i t wo ld r
e n lt, an s n a e es o u es u

fro m t h pro p r m o t i o e f th t r m o i g w t w rd w it h
e n o e s a ,
v n es a

gr t r l oci t y t h t h t f t h m oo m o i g i t h
ea e ve an a o e n v n n e

sa m di r c t i o
e e n .

I ch c t h pp r c wo ld b t h t f t h m oo
n su ase e a ea an e u e a o e n

mo i g v n t w rd e as a .

Th pp r c w o ld b i m il r t t h t f t w t m
e a ea a n e u e s a o a o o s ea

b o t m o i g i t h m di r ct i o
a s v n d f th m p
n e sa e e n , an one o e as s es

th oth r
e A t t hi i t t t h
e . low r l ogo t t h s n s an ,
e s e an a us o e

m oo h n th p p r c f m o i g i di r ct i o op p o
as e a ea a n e o v n n a e n

s i t t t h t f i t r l m ot io
e o a o s ea n .

I th c f th cli p r t p p ri g it

n e as e o e sun s e se, s a ea n on s

w t r
es e n li m b d t h cli p t h c m o i g o ,
an th e e se en e v n v er e

s u n e as t w rd dd c d id c t h t t h m oo m o
a ,
a u e as e v en e a e n v es

e as t w r d i t w ill b r dily p r c i
a ,
d t h t t h pp r c e ea e e ve a e a ea a n e

w o ld b u i m il r w r b t h
e s d m oo m o i g \V t a e e o s u n an n v n es ,

as bot h pp t d w r i t l o t h f c t t h t t h
a ea r o o, e e a s e a a e su n

r lly m o d t h f t r f i ch c t h w t r li m b
ea ve e as e , or n su as e e es e n

of t h e un wo ul d rst touch th e eas te n ed ge o f t he mo o n

s r ,
1 92 I s t he C p o er n c a n i Sy s tem f
o A s t r o o y T
n m r u e 9 .

a n d as or r pid w t r m ot i o co e red t he
i t , i n i ts m e a es e n n ,
v

body oo
o f t he m pp r c w o l d b e t h t o f an
n , the a ea a n e u a

e ast w r d m o i g m oo
a cli p i g i m m o bl
v n nd , e s n an va e sun an

t h m oo w o ld h
e n t hi pp r c i t h c o f an
u ave s a ea an e n e as e

e cli p o f t r w r i t t h f c t t h t bot h m oo
se a s a , d s t ar
e e e a a n an

m o d w t w rd
ve d th
es t r m o i g th f t r
a , an e s a v n e as e .

S ch wo ld b t h
u pp r c f t h r so t h t i t is
u e e a ea an e or e ea n a

an ob r d f c t t h t w h r t w bodi
se ve a mo i g i a th e e e o es a r e v n n

sa m di r c t i o
e p r ll l t ch o t h r b t t gr t d is
e n , a a e o ea e , u a a ea

tan c fro m ch o t h r t h b o dy r r t h o b r r i n
e ea e e n ea e e se ve

,

t hi c s t h m oo
ase lw e pp r t o b i m ot i o whil e
n a ay s a ea s e n n ,

t h f r t h r b o d y pp r t b m o t i o l
e u e t h t i s t o ay
a ea s o e n es s a s ,

su ch i t h pp r c wh t h e r r body i y m ch
s e a ea a n e en e n a e s v er u

n ea e r r t h ob r t h th f rt h r o
e se r v e i t h m oo i n an e u e n e , as s e n

c o m p r i o w i t h t h m ch gr t r di t c f t h e s n
a s n e u ea e s an e o u

fro m t h o b r r e se ve .

I co n
q c o
n sef t hi p h e
u eno m f i i o e m i f t e d s n ena o v s n an es

i co
n c t i o w i t h b odi m o i g p r ll l t o ch ot h r
n ne n es v n a a e ea e
,
i th
n m di r c t i o
e sa e d t g r t di t
e c p r t t
n , an h e a a ea s an e a a ,

m oo w o ld p p r t t o ch t h w t r li m b o f t h
n u a ea o n u e es e n e su

o n t h i r t pp r
e t co t c t w hi l
rs a t th m e ti m e th e
a en n a ,
e a e sa

s un w o l d pp r m o t i o l
u a ea n ess .

F om th r pp r c l o i t c o t b d t r m i d
es e a ea an es a ne an n e e e ne

wh i h f t h c o tw d r t h ori i t r
es e o at th mo ve se e es s u e , as o e .

t io ns o f th h ly bodi f t h r o t h t t h e p h e
e se ea v e n es , or e eas n a

mo m o b r d t h o cc i o f
en a, se ve cli p f t h e non e as n o an e se o su
,
o r of t r m a s a b r t i o l ly x p l i d c o i t t ly w i t h
ay e a na e a ne n s s en

e i t h r t h or y
e th
e h y p th i, don ch t h ory is e o es s an ea e

fo un e on
d d h y po t h i t h t l l t h b o d i m o w t es s a a ese es ve es .

w rda d th t t h
,
an d t r
a ry m ch f t h r
e su n an s a s ar e ve u ur e

fro m t h th th
e ear i t h m oo , an s e n .

I f i t b t h f ct t h t b o t h t h
e e a d t h m oo r o l e a e s u n an e n ev v

a bo t t h u th i e ea rw t w r d di r c t i o d m k t h ci r
n a es a e n , an a e e

c it o f t h h
u d ily
e t p k t h r wo ld b n
ea v e n s a ,
so o s ea , e e u . e a

ob r d d i ff r c b t w t h l o ci t i o f t h
se ve e en e bodi e ee n e ve es es e es ,

th e sun m o i g w i t h t h e gr e at er el o ci t y
v n it m y b oh v ,
as a e
 P r o r ess v e
g i M o ti on s o
f th e M oon a n d Sta r s . 1 93

r d t h t t h e m oo h as pp r t ly r t rogr d d ea t ward
se ve a n a a en e a e s

ea ch i gh t o t h c l e t i l ph r di t a ce w hich w o l d
n n e e s a s e e, a s n u

r eq i r bo t h o r t i m f i t t r ch t h po i ti o i t
u e a u an u

s e or o ea e s n

w as i o t h e p r c di g i g h t t t h
n n e e s me tim n did i t
n a e a e,

m o v w e t w r d w hich w o ld r q i r t w
e s a ,
ty h o ur to u e u e en -
ve s

co m pl t i ts ci rcl bo t t h rt h o f t h p r cedi g i gh t
e e e a u e ea ,
e e n n ,

w hil t h e p p r t o co m pl t t h e ci rc l e bo t t h e
e su n a ea s e e a u

ea r t h i t we t y fo r h o r s
n n -
u u .

I r g r d t o t h e c lip s o f t h moo
n e a th e
e c a ed
se e n es are us
i s w ell k o w b y t h e h d o w o f t h e e r t h b i g
,

as n n s a a e n

p roj ect d i to p c as e n ff c t o f t h
s a e, hi i g o t h e
an e e e sun s n n n

h m i ph r o f t h e r t h o ppo it e t h sh d ow i w hi ch
e s e e ea , s e a ,
n

s h d o w t h m oo
a b e c o m e v el o p e d t t i m o f i t s
e n es n , a es

e clip es i r ol i g bo t t h r t h
s ,
n ev v n a u e ea .

A s t h e m oo m o i o r bi t b o t t h e e rt h i t m s t
n v es n an a u a , u

b co m e clip d s r lt o f t h e ca j t s t t ed i d e
e e se a a es u u se us a , n

pe d t f t h e f ct t h t i t m o eit h r E t o W t d
n en o a a ves e as r es ,
an

a li t t l e r c t i o o t h e bj ct w ill t i fy t h e m i d t h at
e e n n su e sa s n

su ch r l t w o ld occ r w h t h er t h r t h r o tat es o n o t
es u u u e e ea r ,

did t h e d m oo
su n r ol e i
an we t rl y di r e c t i o
n ev v n a s e n

a bo t t h e r th fo i t i t h e p o i t i o o f t h e
u e a , r s rt h s ns s un , ea ,

an d m oo w i t h r e fe r c t o
n , ch ot h r a d t o t h e o h
en e ea e , n

s e r v r w hich c
e , s th e ph e om a u es
a d o t h o w s ch n en ,
an n u

r l t i e po it i o w ere b ro gh t bo t
e a v s ns u a u .

Th t o t ali t y o f
e clip o f t h e m oo m y c o t i u e
an e se n a n n ,

an d lly d oes co t i
u s ua bo t t wo d o e h l f h o r s
n n ue a u an n -
a u ,

an d i cl di g t h e p e
n u m b r or s h di g l e
n thnu t ot l o b a a n ss an a

s cu r a t io i t m ay co t i
n, d lly d o n lo g a d
n u e, a n u s ua e s , as n , n

s o m t i m o m e wh t l o g er t h fo r h o r b t bo t
e es , s a n an u u s, u a u

t wo an d o e h al f h o rs i t h e
n -
l d r t io of t t Z
u s u sua u a n a o a

e cli p se l t h o ugh t hi s t i m t e m y b e b u t
a s e
pp o xi m a a an a r a

t io n, b ec Th e h d o w o f t h
au s e ,

rt h i b t lit t l e d r k er
s a e ea s u a

th regi o o f t h rt h x t t o i t He ce i t

an th e n e ea ne . n ,

i s ve ry dif c lt t o d t rm i e t h e e xact t i m e w h en t h e
u e e n

m oo pas es fro m t h e
n s m b r i t o t h e sh ado w a d
p a n en u
n ,

13
1 94 I s t h e arp er n i ean Sy s tem o
f A s tr on o m y Tr u e

ro m t h e sh d w i t o t h e p m b r t h t i w h e t h e
f a o n en u a a s n

clipse b g i
e d e d P r k r s P hil P age 3 95
n s an en s .

a e

, .

A ccor di g t o t h n t h or y h r e i m i t a i d e e e n a n ne ,

o f th m oo e o ly t k pl ce
n ca n co s eq n c of th e a e a as a n u en e

e rt h s h d o w p as s i g o e r t h e m oo n r e l t i g fro m t h e

a s a n v , su n

v el o ci t y o f t h e s b i g gr t r t h t h t o f t h e m oo
un e n ea e an a n .

Th e l o ci t y o f t h e e r t h h d o w w o ld b e propor
e v a s s a u

t io l to th t o f th d w o ld b gr at r t h a t h t

na a e s u n s, an u e e e n a

of th m oo e h e c i te d o f t h e m oo e t r i g t hi
n s,

n e, ns a n n e n s

s h d ow a w hich i t h e r c i
d O p i i o t h m ore r pidly
s e e ve n n e a

m o v i g s h d o w w o ld p
n a o r t h m oo d t h s e clips e
u ass ve e n ,
an u

it .

For x pl ppo t h f ll m oo t o b
e am e, su t h m r id se e u n e on e e

ian of ob r r d t h
an t b
se v e t th m tim
,
an e su n o e a e sa e e on ,

o r n ea r t h m r idi o r t h r t h o r t h h m i ph re
, e e an , ve e ea ve e e s e

o ppo i t t h m oo
s e e n .

I c h c t h h d ow f t h rt h wo ld b p roj ted
n su as e , e s a o e ea u e ec

i t o p c i t h di r c t i o f t h
n s a e, n i t h o r t h pl c o f
e e n o e z en ve e a e

t h ob r r w h
e se v et h m oo t h r wo ld b
, en rt i l e n e e u e ve ca .

Th b i g t h t t h m oo
e su n e n t i po d t
us a y e

n s an es , so o sa ,

a t m id i gh t f t h o b r r wo l d m o
n o et w r d w hilse v e u ve eas a , e

sh d o w a f th r t h c t by i t i t h ighborh oo d f t h
o e ea as n e ne o e

m oo w o ld m o
n w t w rd
u co q c o f th i s
ve es a , as a n se u en e

eas t n di er ti f t h m o ti o
r ec f th
on o e n o e su n .

A th h d o w m o i g w t w r d w i t h gr t
s e s a , l o ci t y
v n es a ea e r ve

th t h t f t h m oo
an a o clip i t t h e t r li m b f t hn, e s es , e e as e n o e

m oo w ill b n cli p d t j t i t i o b r d t b
e e se d
rs ,
us as s se ve o e, an

th h do w w ill p o r t h m oo t h clip i g i t
e s a as s ve e n, us e s n .

Th t t h h d o w wo ld m o w t w r d wi t h gr t r
a e s a u ve es a a ea e

ve l o cit y t h t h m oo m o i g i t h m di r t i o
an e n v n n e sa e ec n , ac

cordi g t o t h t h ory h r i m i t i d m y b h o w
n e e e e n a n a ne ,
a e s n .

A ccordi g t o t hi t h ory t h m oo r o l
n s bo t t h
e ,
e n ev v es a u e

ea rt h i 2 5 h o r Th m di t c f t h m oo fro m
n u s . e ean s an e o e n

th rth i
e ea m il s t hi b i i t l o cit y i es , o n s as s s ve n re

v o l i n g ab o u t t h e ear t h i
v 2 5 h o rs wi l l b e ab o ut n u

m i l es an h o r u .
 P i
r o r ess v e
g M o ti o n s of t he M oo n a n d Sta r s .
'
1 95

Th e v el o ci t y o f t h e s u n s u ch b o d y b e i n
g on e m illi o n

il ro
m es f m t h e e a t , a r h ccordi g n r
t o t h e n e w m eas u e m e n t
o f i ts di c
st a n e o i g bo
m v n a rh
u t t h e ea t h o r il
i n 24 u s w l

be il
m es a n ho r u .

o rh h r
Th e s h ad w o f t h e ea t w e e i t w u o ld e n v e10 p e a n d

e clip se t h e m oo o ldn, w u di c
b e at t h e oo
st a n e o f t h e m n

ro rh
f m t h e ea t , n a m e , ly il m es .

I f th e di c ro
s t an e o f t h e s u n f rh ly
m t h e ea t , n a m e , o n e
m illi o il
n m es , b e r g rd d
e a e l ras a e v e lo r
of th e n e
g ar m ,

rh
t h e ea t lc r
as t h e fu h do
u m , th e s a h or r
w as t h e s t e ar m o f
hi l r
t s ev e , an d t h e m oo i gh
n as t h e w e r i ct or es s tan e, o n

c ic l p r i ci pl
m e h an a n xr iy
es , o f t h e e t em t lo g r
of th e n e ar m

l r o i
o f t h e ev e m v ed w t h t h e ve l oci y t of il m es a n
ho ru , th e s h or r t e ar m o f t h el r ly
e v e , n am e rh, t h e e a t

s

h do
s a w at t h e di c s t an e o f t h e moo ly
n , n ame ,

il ro
m es f m t h e ea t , w ur h o ld o ih l oci y
m ve w t a v e t o f 6 0,

il
000 m es an ho r u .

Th e m n ,oo il ro rh
m es f m t h e ea t a n d r ol i ev v ng

a bo rh
u t t h e ea t y h o r o ld h
i n t we n t v e
-
u s, w u a v e a v el o c

i ty i n
, ro dun br
n u m e s, o f il ho r
m es a n u .

c r h h d o o ld h
He n e, t h e e a t s s a w w u

l oci
av e a v e ty i n e x
c h
ess o f t at o f t h e m oo q l n e ua to il ho r
m es a n u ,

q l
e u a to ilm es i n 2 %h o r d ri u s, hich i
u n
g w t m e a n

e clip o ld p ro b bly c o i
se w u a o ld r q i r b o
n t n u e , as i t w u e u e a ut

h i
t at t m e fo r t h e s a h do p b yo d
w t o ass e n oo th e m n, an d

h il li h
t us u n v e i t s
g t t ppo d o b r r
o the su se cli p
se v e o f i t s e se .

Fro or go i g
m th e f e n ill ob r d h
it w be se v e t at t h e p h e
n o m en a o f t h e m oo c ip

n s e l ses m a cco d
y b e a u n te fo r o n

th e t eh ory o io
of the m t oo
n s of th e m hri
n an d su n e e n ad
v o ca t e d .

i gh
It m ppo d
t b e su h o ld g r d
se t h at ea t w u b e e n e at e , ac
cordi g n ch ic l h ory h
to th e me an dida t e oo of e at , th e m n

r o l bo
ev ve a rh y
u t t h e ea t h o r h ro gh
i n t wen t ve -
u s, t u th e
r i i g di
es s t n hi c o cc pi
me um w c ih h l ociu es s a e , w t
p a v e t y o f
il ho r
5 7 ,000 m es an u .
1 96 I s t h e Cbp er n i ean Sy ste m o f A s tr on o m y Tr u e 9 .

Y et i t is c h t th m f r i h
a fa t t a id f e oo n u n s es no ev e n ce o

h i g h t Thi i p ro d by t h f t t h t t h
av n ea . s s y ve e ac a e ra s

t h m oo
e co c t r t d
n , n l en d t h e c di r c t d
a e on a e n s , an n e e e on

to a s pi r it t h r m o m t r d e t r i e it t m p e e t o no a s s e era ure .

Th w t f h t f t h m oo m y b t h r
e an o ea o lt f ig e n a e e es u o

n eo u s a ct i o f which i t b r n , o i d c I t i p os ibl ea s ev en e . s s e

t h t i t c o m b t ibl m t t r b y t h c o n t
a s us e t d lo g
a e , e s an an n co n

ti nne d c ti o f i ta h t m y h
n o b ee
n e n se co t d ea , a a ve n n v er e

i t o i co m b t ibl r i d m d i c p bl f m i
n an n us e es uu , an n a a e o an

f t i g h t w i th
es n eal oci t y f m il a ve ho r ; o es an u o r,

t hi l oci t y m y h
s ve b ro gh t bo t t hi
a av e lt i t h u a u s r es u n e

l o g l p f i m r bl c t ri
n a se o nnu th t th
e a m tt r e en u es , so a e a e

co m po i g t h m oo i
s n l o g r c p bl f m i f t i g
e n s no n e a a e o an es n

t hi p h s om o en en n .

I co cl di g f t h r co id r t i o
n n u n f t h t h ory m i
ur e ns e a n o e e a n

t i
a ne d i th p r n t ec t i o
e i t m y b p rti
es e n t t q ot
s n ,
a e e n en o u e

M Bi o t w h
. y, o sa s :

I t i i m p o ibl b y m r o b r t i o t o

s ss e y w h t h e e se v a n sa e er

th e su n or t h rt h i i m o t i e ea s n ~
on .

Thi m o t t t ci t d m i io fro m ry high

s a un s o a a a ss n, ve au

t h i ty
or f th , b t r ct po ibili t y f t h m ot i f t h
o e a s a ss o e on o e sun

an d i m m o bili t y f t h rt h m i t i d i t h
o e ea pg ; , a n a ne n e se a es

f
or w r c h i c o i t t wi t h t r l l w o o b r d
e e su n n s s en na u a a r se v e

ph o m en m r ob r
en a, t io

wo ld n
e e r h b
se v a n

u eve av e ee n

i ok d
nv e m by w hich t h q t i o co ld p o ibl y
as a ea n s e u es n u , ss ,

h b a ve ttl d
ee n s e e .

pr t c t io w pr t f co id e r t io
I n the es e n se n, e es e n or ns a n

so m ob r d t r l ph o m
e se ve w hi c h m y ai d i
na u a en en a a n

sh o wi g t h p l
n b i l i t yeo f t h id a h
au s a e r i m i t a i ed e e , e n a n n ,

th t th e t r r ol
a bo t t h e e rt h fro m E t t o West
s a s ev ve a u a as .

A t t m p t w ill al o b m d e t o h ow t h e i n
n a e f ci e cys e a s su n

of t he id c re li ed o by t ro o m r o f t h ei r as t d i
ev en e n as n e s v s

tan ces wh i ch h o weve r n e ver have b een measured

, , , .
 P r og r essi ve M o ti o ns of the M o on a n d Sta r s . 1 97

or der t o co v ey id f t h i r i co c i bly gr t
In n an ea o e n n e va ea

di ta ce M Bi ot i Sec 5 2 a d 53 y t h t
s n s, .
, n s . n , sa s a ,

Th di m e i o

e of th e r t h c o m p re d w i t h t h e d i
ns ns ea a s

ta c s o f t h e st r e al m o t i i t l y m ll Th i

n e a s ar s n n e s a . en ,
n

d d t h e v i l r y d r w fro m di ff r t p rt f t h
ee ,
su a a s, a n e en a s o e

rf ce t o th e m st ar o gh t t o p p r p r ll l ; o
su a sa e ,
u a ea a a e r,

w h t am o u t t o t h e sa m e t hi g t h e rt h t th e

a n s n ,
ea as s ee n a

di t a ce o f t h e st r w o uld see m b t po i t
s n a s, u a n .

S i ce l l t h e v i
n l r y le di g t o t h m at t h s m e i
a su a a s a n e e a a

t fro m l l p a r ts o f t h e ea r t h e co id r d p r l

st an a ar ns e e as a a

l el i t fo ll o ws t h at t h e di ffe re t o bse r rs w o ld p roj ct

,
n ve u e

th m po t h s e sp h r i p oi t ex ct ly corres po d

e u n e e es n n s a n
v
in g o
.

r q i res n o arg m e t t o p ro v e t h t t h e li
It e u for m d u n a n es e

b y t h e v i s u l r y m t i o d i t h e bo e q o t t i o
a a s en ne n a v u a n

w o ld u t r e ll y b e p rall l b c
no e it i
a m t h m t ic l a e , e au s s a a e a a

axi o m t h t li e d ra w fro m di ff r t p o i t t o t h c t r e
a n s n e en n s e en

o f th m e s ph r e c
e sa ot b e p r ll el d t h e i l r y
e an n a a ,
an v sua a s

m tio
en d w o ld b e li ne o dr w u as n es s a n .

Were ch r y or li es re lly p r ll l t h y co ld o t
su a s, n a a a e e u n

m e t i t h e a m e st a r
e n it i lo s x i o m t h t p r ll l , as s a s an a a a a e

l i n es ca n n o t m ee t .

hr
Y et w e e a t ria gl e h s v ry rro w base i co m n a a e na n

p ri o i h
a s n w t thel gt h o f i ts resp c t i e id ch id es
en e v s es , su s

m y pp a as t h o g h p a r ll e l t o ea ch o t h r
a ea r d u ch a e , an su

w o ld b t h e appe r
u c were i t po ibl e t o d r w li
e a an e, ss a n es

from di ffe r t p rt s o f t h rt h t o t h e s m t r
en a m y e ea a e s a ,
as a

b e d ed c d fro m t h l t q o t t i o
u e W re ch p r ll l e as u a n . e su a a e

i m t h e o l y f c t fro m w hich as t ro o m r e t i m t t h d i
s n a n e s s a e e s

t c o f t h t r t o b e t wo m illio r dii f t h
an e e s a s rth n a o e ea

s

orbi t s ch wo ld o t b
,
u ec ry d d c t i o fro m ch
u n e a n ess a e u n su

p rall li m a w ill b e p r t ly t t m p t d t o b h o w
a e s , s ese n a e e e s n .

B t i t d o e fo ll o w
u a e ce ry c n q c o f t h
s ,
as n s sa o se u en e e

ap pare t p r l l li m o f t h e li e m t i o d i t h q ot
n a a e s n s en ne n e u a

tio t h at p r ll x o f t h e s t r
n , t t m pt d
a a
y wah e r w h r e a , a e e an e, e

s u ch l i es ppear parallel i s a i m p oss ib ili t y s th e p a

n a ,
n a r
1 98 I s th e Cop er n i ca n Sy stem f
o A str on o my Tr u e .
9

a ll xe of th e h
ly bo d y i t h ea v e n g l di t c b e s e an u ar s an e

th t r d p p r t i t t io o f t h bod y

tw ee n e u e an a a en s ua n e .

A c cor di g t t h i d i t i o
n o f p r ll x t h r p
s e n
q i
n o a a a ee r ere u s

i t e m t xi t b for p r ll x o f h
s us e s e e ly b ody i p o
a a a a ea v e n s s

s ibl m ly
e, n a e

1 Th r l i t t i o o f t h h
. e ea s ua l y b o dy n e ea v en .

2 It . pp r t it t i o di ff r t fro m i t r l i t t i o
s a a en s ua n, e en s ea s ua n

m t b k ow
us e d
n n , an

3 Th .
g l di
e an t c b
u ar t w t w i t
s an t i o s e e ee n o s ua n .

No o f w hich p r r q i it
ne b k ow ie e th
u s c e s ca n e n n n e ase

co id r d li d r w fro m y t w diff r t pl c
ns e e , as n es a n an o e en a es

on th rt h w ill pp r p r ll l i i rt ll y st t d t o
e ea a ea a a e , as s v ua a e

b t h f ct i t h l t pr c di g q o t t i o fro m M
e e a ,
n e as e e Biot n u a n .
,

h c th r
en e, tw
e e ar e n o i t t io o f t h t r o s w ri g t
ua ns e s a ,
an s e n o

t h r q ir m
e e u t o f the tr
en s d pp r t it t io o f
e ue an a a en s ua ns

su ch h l y body w hich
ea v e n c ry i ord r t o t k
, a r e n e ess a n e a e

i t p r ll x
s a a d i a ch c t h r do
,
an n su t xi t yase e e es no e s an

an g lu ardi t c p t ibl
s a n ce s u s e f m r m t d f t h
e o eas u e en , an or e se

r eas o p r ll x o f y t r i
ns a a a i m p o ibili t y p
an s a s an ss er se .

A d fo t hn m
r r o t h di t c f t h t r
e sa e eas n e s an e o e s a s,

n m l y t w o m illi o r dii f t h rt h or bi t i co j
a e ,
n a o e ea s , s n ee

t r l
u a ,
ch di t c
as s u t pr t
s an d d to b k w
es ar e no e en e e no n

o t h r wi e th se by p r ll x w h r t h di m t r o f t h
an a a a e e e a e e e

ea rt h orbi t i

s d t form t h b li o f t h c ry
s u se o e ase ne e n e ess a

t ri an gl d wh r t h
e, an m pp r t p r ll li m f i t
e e e sa e a a en a a e s o s

li d r w t o w rd t h m t r i o b r d
n es a n a s e sa wh e s a s se v e as en

s im il r li a d r w t o w r d t h m t r fro m diff r
n es ar e a n a s e sa e s a , e

en t p rt a f th s ort h e ea .

Thi pp r t p r l l li m f li
s a a en a a dr w e y fro
s m o p o n es a n , sa

p o ist ids s f t h es o r t h or f ro m e o pp
ea o i t id o f t h s e s es e

ea rt h
p p o d orbi t t o w rd t h
s su se m t r do a ot s e sa e s a , es n

c rily i dic t t h t t h di t c f ch t r m t b
n e ess a n a e a e s an e o su s a us e

th t a i g d i t by t ro o m r
as s ne i d d th t it i t
as n e s, n or n ee a s a a

gr t di t c i co m p r i o w i t h ch ig d di t c
ea s an e, n a s n su ass ne s an e .

Thi m y b h o w
s a fo ll o w
e s f x m pl
n as xm s : or e a e, an e a

i ti o
na f F i g I w ill h o w t h t t h
n o . . r t i c l li
s p e a e ve a ne re r
 P r ogr essi ve M o ti on s f
o th e M o on a n d Sta r s . 1 99

i
sen t n g a li
p pose d t o b e d r w f o m t h e eq to r t o
n e su a n r ua

th s
e a d t h e li e A S d r w
un , n t a a gl e t o i t
n f om a n a n n ,
r

40 N t o t h e u

pp t o b p
s r ll el
n a ea r e a a .

Y et t h e d is t a c o f t h e fro m t h
n ea t h
e m eas re d su n e r u

b y m ea s o f t h e app r t ly p r ll el li es i b t o e m il
n a en a a n , s u n

li o m iles whi ch di t ce i l m os t i co m p rabl y l ess t h an

n , s an s a n a

t h e di t ce si g d t h e t r p rt l y fro m t h e s m e
s an as ne s a s, a a

c e m l y t h e pp r t p r ll lis m o f li es d raw s
aus ,
na e ,
a a en a a e n n, a

i s s ppo ed fro m o ppo s i t e s id es o f t h e e r t h s orbi t

u s ,
a .

A ga i w ere t h e b se o f t ri gl e o i ch i le g t h
n, a a an ne n n n ,

a d t h e li es for m i g i t s s id e 1 00 f t l o g fro m b s e t o
n n n s ee n a

a p e x s c h li es w o ld
, u p p r p r ll l t o each o th er
n u a ea a a e .

Th i f ct h o ws t h t pp r t p r ll eli m i s poss ible

s a s a a a en a a s

w h e re t h e dis t ce fro m t h e bas e o f t h e t r ia gle t o i ts

an n

a p e x ( a m ely 1 00x 1 2 eq
n l , d oes o t x cee d 1 200 ua n e

t im t h l e gt h o f its b e
es e n as .

H c i t i s p ossi b l i ccord c w it h t h expe r i m e t

en e, e, n a an e e n

t h t t h e di t
a ce o f s t r m y o t e xc d 1 200 t i m es t h e
s an a a a n ee

l e g t h o f t h e bas e o f t h e t ria gl fro m w h ose ex t r m it i es

n n e, e

t h e di t a ce o f
s t r i
n t t m pt d a s a s a e e .

Th were li es ppo e d to b e d r w fro m O p p os it e

en , n su s a n

s id es o f t h e ea r t h t o t h m t r s ch li es b i g e sa
p e s a u n e n a

par e t l y p r ll e l t h e di s t
n a a c e of c h, t ar b y l og y an su s an a

t o t h e xp r i m e t ab o e m
e e t i o ed n d i fer ce
v en n ,
an as an n en

fro m s c h p p re t p r ll li s m m i g h t
u a a no t e xc e e d 1 200
a a e n

t i m es t h l gt h o f th b li fro m t h e e t r m it i e o f
e en e as e n e, x e s

w hich ch li es m y b e p p o ed t o b e d raw t o t h e sam e

su n a su s n

st r
a .

W re ch bas li e th e di m et r o f t h e rth i t w o ld
e su e n a e ea , u

be s y
, a m il es i l gt h d 8 000x 1 200 eq al n en an u

He ce su ch st a r m eas u red fro m t h e e x t re m i t i es o f t h i s

n

,

base li e m i gh t p oss ibly b e as i dicat ed by t h e appar

n , n

e t p ara ll e li s m o f t h e li es s pp o s e d t o b e d r a w n
n to th e n u

s am e s t ar m il es fro m t h e ear t h .
200: Is t he Cop er n ic a n Sy stem of A s tr on o my Tr ue 9 .

A n d e v en li n es as s h o w n by t h e s h or t e r li n es i n Fi
g

, .

l s h or t e r t h an t h es e m i g h t h e a ppa r e n t ly a l l e l a d
p r a n ,

as a r es u l t t h e s t a r m i gh t b e e v e n at a l ess di s t a ce t h an n

t h at j u s t g i v e n .

For w hil e t h e re is am pl e a d i n d u bi ta bl e e v id e ce t h at n n

t h e s t a rs a e m ore di s t a n t t h a
r th e su s u ch e v id e n c en n ,
:

d oes n o t ex ist t h at t h e s t a rs ar e di s t a n t t w o m illi o radii n

o f t h e ea r t h s or bi t

.

W hi l e i t is t r e t h at t h e ea r t h i s a p o in t at t h e dis t an ce
u

.

o f a st ar t h e i m p oss ibili t y o f n di g t h e pa ra ll a x o f a n

s t a r pro v es t hi s i t i s al s o t r u e t h at a t ar i s a p o i n t at t h e s .

distan ce o f t h e ea rt h fro m i t .

I t hi s v i e w i t m ay b e p ro pe r t o co n s id e r w h et h er or
n

n o t did t h e ea r t h ro t at e s u c h ro t a t i o n w o u ld g i ve s t a rs i n
, , ,
"

t h e s a m e q u a r t e r o f t h e h e av e n s as t h at o f a o bser ved n .

s t a r a n a ppea ra c e o f r e v o l u t i o
,
n i n case s u ch s t a rs we re n,

s o s i t u a te d t h a t t h e y c o u ld o t b e c o ce n t r ic w i t h t h e a x is
n n

o f ro t a t i o o f t h e e ar t h
n .

Fo r ex a m pl e t ak e t h e s t ars c o n st i t u t i g t h e cl us t e r
, n

n a m e d U r s a M j or o r t h e G r e at B e a r
a ,
.

This cl ust er appears to re v o l ve t h e hi g h e r st a rs fro m ,

l eft t o r i gh t t h e l ow e r o es fro m r i gh t t o l e ft i f t h ey ar e
,
n ,

o bse r v ed t h ro u g h a t e l es co pe ; b u t ast ro om i cal t el es co pes n

a pp a r e n t l y r e v e r s e t h e di rec t i o n o f t h e m o t i o n s o f b e a v

e l y b o di es o b s e r v e d th ro g h t h e m
n h e n ce t hi s appe ar
u ,

a n c e i n di cat es a m o t i o n o f t h es e s t a r s fro m r i g h t t o l e ft fo r

t h e hi g h e r a d fro m l eft t o r ig h t fo t h e l o w e r s t a rs
,
n ,
r .

Thi s cl u s t e r h o we ve r i s ass ert e d t o h a v e n o m ot i o n o f

, ,

re v o l u t io n ; t h e appeara ce o f su ch i s at t ribu te d by as n ,

t r o n o m er s t o t h e ro t at i o o f t h e ea r t h
,
n .

I f t h e ear t h b e a m e re p o i t a t t h e dis ta ce o f t h e n n

st a rs a d li e s d r aw
n n fro m o p po s i t e id e o f i t m e e t i n
n s s

t h e s am e s t a r as p a r a ll e l li e s h o w i s i t p oss ibl e fo r t h e
n

rot at i o n o f su ch p o i t n am ely t h e eart h t o b e t h e c u se

n , , , a

o f t h e a p p ea r a ce o f r e v o l u t i o
n w hich i s o b s e r ve d o f t his
n

cl us ter .
 P r ogr essive M o ti on s of t he M oo n an d Sta rs 201

In ord e r to s h o w by ill t r t i o t h e i m p ro b bili t y

, an us a n, a

t h t t h e ro t t i o o f t h e ea r t h i t h e ca s e o f t hi
a a n p pe r s u s a a

an c ppos a l rge s u rf ce t o b e o
e, su e a pl ai o pr i r i a n a n r a e

pe rpe dicu l r t o t h e h or i o
n a d h i g l u m i o u p oi t s z n , an av n n s n

t i ter l al l ro d t h e ci rc m f re ce o f ch rf ce

a n va s un u e n su su a ,

t h e s po i t will re p res
e n s t th t r s co s t i t t i g t h
en cl s e s a n u n e u

m e d t h e G rea t B r l t h o g h t h es cl t e r

te r na ea a u e , as a us ,

ar e n o t pl c e d i a c i r cl
a n e .

S p po u
g l o b
se au l e s ay o e i x t e e t h o f a, i ch l
n s -
s n n n , or es ,

i di a m e te r t o re p rese t t h e r t h
n d t h at s c h g l o b l e
n e a , an u u

w re pl ac d t o t h e ey
e e d t h e li o f v i s io
e, a n th c di ne n en e

r ec e t d to o f t h e l m i i o s p o i ts o
on e u the rf c m
n u n n su a e en

t io ned L et p all e l l i
. b e d r w fro m o p p os i t
ar n es id o f a n e s es

t hi gl o b l
s d l et i t b e
u e an ppo d t h a t ch li es w o ld su se su n u

m ee t i o f t h ese l m i o
n on e p o i ts d
u t th n sa m eus n , an a e

t i m b p r ll l w it h
e e a a ch o t h r
e ea e .

T h i co m p rat i el y l m o t i i tely s m ll gl o b l e d
s a v , a s n n , a u , an

l mi i
u p o i t j s t m t i o d m y b e r g rd d
n o us n s u en ne a e a e as an

a l o go t o t h e e r t h r du
us d by dis t ce t o po i t o
a e ce an a n , s

t h t lia d awn fro m i t s O ppo s i t e ides wo uld m t i a

n es r s ee n

s at r nd y e t w o ld b e p r ll l t o a c h o t h e r
a u a a e e .

L t it b e u ppo se d t h t w hil
e s t h es e p r ll l li a re e a a e n es a

p a i t i
n g o n o e d
n t h n m t
an a r t h t t h e g l o
e sa b l i s o e s , a u e r

t te d
a i t s xi ; t h e fo ll o w i g d e d c t i o
on a s m ay b m de n u ns e a ,

na m ly e

Th t i f t h e l u m i o u po i t m e t i o ed h d
a n s m ot io
n s n n a no n

,

of r ol i o t e ro t i o o
ev t h
u t n, f t h gl o b le w h os p r ll l
a n e u e a a e

li es m t i o n e a d t h m t ar co ld o t i ccor d
n ee n n e sa e s -
u n n a

an c w it h y k o w l w f i i o o a y k o w l w o f
e an n n a o v s n, r n n n a

m o t i o g i e t h e ci rc l o f l m i o
n , v po i t s m t i o d t h e
e u n us n en ne ,

a p p r ce o f re o l i g d co e r ly did i t r lly h e
ea an v v n , an nv se ea av

su ch p pe r ce it co u ld o t b e t h res u l t f t h rot t i
a a an n e o e a on

of th gl o b l
e u e .

I t m y b e co ce d ed t h t t h v i i o
a n o f th ob r e r
a e s n e se v

su p p o i g h i m p l a c e d o t h gl o b u l e
s n w o ld ot b e
n e u n

n ec ess r il y co n n ed t o t h
a l u m i o us p o i n t o bser v d f o m e n e r
202 I s th e Cop er n i ca n Sy stem f
o A s tr on o m y Tru e

the gl o b l b t m i gh t o b r e t h e re ol t io o f th e wh o l e
u e, u se v v u n

ci rcl o f l m i o p o i ts b t s ch o b e r d phe o m a
e u n us n , u u s ve n en

w o ld o t b e t h r
u n l t O f opt ical ill s i o c sed by t h e
e es u an u n au

ro tat io o f t h e gl o b l fo t h e re o t h t t h s weep O f i ts
n u e, r as n a e

rot t i o w o uld t e xt e d b y o d t h e ra ge O f t h e l u m i n
a n no n e n n

o us poi t t o which t h s p pos d p r ll l li es were d r awn ;

n e u e a a e n

h c t h w p o f t h e gl ob l rot t io be i g co n ed
en e, e s ee u e s

a n n n

to b t o u o f t h e l mi o
ne
p o i t s c o l d o t
u
p o d u cen t h e us n u n r

O pt ic l ill si o t hat al l t h po i ts w re i m o t io as an ef
a u n e n e n n

fect o f t h e ci r c m s c r ib d ro t at i o w h os e e x t re m es t s ww p
u e n

d oes t xt d bey o d t h e co o f i gle t r

no e en n n n es a s n s a .

H ce did ch ci rcl o f l m i o po i t h e t h e p
en , su e u n us n s av a

pe r c o f re o l t io i t wo ld i dic t re l a d pr op er
a an c v u n u n a e a a n

m oti of th
on gro p e u .

Th i i l l st t i o m y pp r m or e cl e r w re i t s u p

s u ra n a a ea a , e

p os d fo x m pl t h t t h
e ,
r e rf c m e t i o d
a e, be i g
a e su a e n ne as n

p e r p di c enl r t o t h e h or i o
u a w er m il i di m ete r z n e ve es n a ,

a d t h at ft e
n g lo b m il p rt d c h 1 00 y rd
en es , a e a a , an ea a s

i di m t r w e r p l c d ro d t h e ci rc m f r ce O f ch
n a e e e a e un u e en su

s u rf c o
a e, pl c d i rr g l rl y o i t d t h e glo b e co rres
r a e e u a n , an ,

p o di g i p o i t i o t o t h gl o b le b fo re m t i o ed we re
n n n s n e u e en n ,

l o 1 00 y rd i n di m t r d w re pl c d y o e h l f
a s a s a e e , an e a e
, sa , n -
a

m il fro m e ch s rf c L t i t b su p p o d t h at li es
u a e . e e su se n

w r d r w fro m O ppos i t
e e a nid f t h l t t r m d gl o b e e s es O e a e na e

t o t h o pp o i t
e id O f g l o b s th
e s f c m t i o ed
es a e on e sur a e en n ,

an d t h t u c h li s w r p r ll l
a s d t ne i g h t gl t o e e a a e , an a r an es

th rf c t o w hich t h ey w re d r w
e su a e e a n .

N o w s pp os ch g l o b pl c d o e h l f m il fro m
u e su e, a e n -
a e

su ch rf ce t b e rot t d
su a c t r l x i O f m ot i o
, o a e on a en a a s n .

To O b r r o ch ro t t d gl o b t h e gl o b s o t h e
an se ve n su a e e, e n

su rf c m t i o d d pl c d m i l p r t w o ld o t t o
a e en ne . an a e a e a a , u n ,

s ch O b
u r r h t h p p r c o f r ol i g fo t h e
s e ve , ave e a ea a n e ev v n , r

r so b for g i
ea n e m ly t h at t h ci r cl e d c r ibe d b y
e ve n , n a e , e es

s ch ro t t i g b o dy w o ld o t i cl d th gl o bes ro u d
u a n u n n u e e n

t h e ci rc m f r e c u o r i rregu l r l y pl ace d as t h e case m i h t

e n e,
g a ,

b e o su c h s u rf ce
,
n a .
 Hogr essive M o ti on s of th e M oon
.

an d Sta rs . 203

If t hi
rg m t b e l gi t i m t e o t h b i t h t p r l
s a u en e a , n e as s a a a

l el li es wo ld m eet o
n t he
u m e st r i f d r w s ay fro m
n sa a , a n , ,

Oppos i t e id O f t h e e rt h t h rg u m t d d ce d fro m
s es a , e a en e u

t h e e x a m pl j t gi e w ill ppl y t o t h cl ter o f st a r

es us v n, a e us , s

m en t i o ed a d i f s o t h e ro t t i o n O f t h
n ,
n r t h will o t c a e ea n a

co u t fo t h e p p ea r ce O f r e vo l ut i o o f t h cl us t er ; h ce
n r a an n e en ,

t h e co cl us i o i reach e d t h t uc h a pp ea r
n n s ce O f e l , a s an r vo u

t i o i s r al
n d t h at t h e cl s t r o f s ta s co st i t u t i g t h e
e , an u e r n n

G re at B e r d o re o l e d t h t t h di ect io ch

of

a v v , an a e r n su

m ot i o n is fro m E s t t o \Ves t a .

Fro m wh t h as bee h re s id t h e foll o w i g d ed u c t i o s

a n e a n n

ar e m ad e

1 I f t h e ar t h by i t s di t nce f o m t h e s t r b e a m r e
. e , s a r a s, e

po i t i n pac t h e rot at i o o f u ch p o i t w il l o t ex pl i
n s e, n s n n a n

t h e a pp a r t r e o l u t i o O f t h s t a rs j t b for m e t i o
en v n d e us e e n ne ,

h e c t h e p p re t re ol t i o o f t h e m y b e ra t io na ll y
n e, a a n v u n se a

reg rd ed fro m t hi s ta d po i t s co q ce o f t h ei r
a , s n n a a n se uen

r l re o l u t i o
ea v n .

2 I f t h e e rt h h as a r e l m g i t d
. a t t h di t c of a a n u e a e s an es

t h e t a rs s d i t o w ro t t i o w i t hi
, an s ci rcl O f l s t h
n a n n a e e s an

m il es m el y i ts o w , ci rc m f re c ca s t h e
na , n u e n e, use

a p p ea ra ce f t h e re o l t i o O f t h e cl t r f tar m e
n O v u n us e o s s n

t i o ed i t pp e r
n , l m os t i c r dible t h t did t h e rt h
a a s a n e , a e a

p rogress i or bi t o f 57 0 m illi o O f m il i ci rcu m f r

n an ns es n e

.

e ce
n a d t hi i t h e ss i g e d di m e
n s io O f t h e O r bi t
s a n ns ns

t h t o st a r i
a n t h e h ea h o ld app r t b di plac d
n ve n s s u ea o e s e

e t O f ch re o l t i o d t h i i s p ro ed
'

a as n e c su vd d u n , an s v , an a

m i t t ed to b t h e f c t s e t r how y p
a r ll, x a no s a s s an a a a as a

r l t o f t his s pp osed re l t i o o f t h e r t h i i t orbi t

es u u vo u n ea n s .

Th ere i o t h r re l s an pp re t m o t i o o f so m t r
e , a or a a n , n e s a s

w hic h i s t t m p t d t o b e a cc o t d fo
e e ap p r t a un e r as an a en

m o t i o by M Bi o t i t h fo ll o w i g q o t t i o
n .
Sec 4
n e n u a n .

I s pe k i g f t h e s u
n a h n y I f w O b r e t hi l
o n , e sa s

e se v s u

mi yn are r t h t i mne O f i
a t t t i g fo
e r l d y s i s se n , r se ve a a n

su ccessi o d w h e n i t i s b el o w t h e h or i o
n , an ex am i e z n, n

t h e st ars w hich fo l l o w i t a d w h i c h se t i m m ed i t el y

,
n a
204 I s t he Cop er n ica n Sy s te m o f A s tr o n o my I i ue

9
.

a ft e r hy it, t ily di t i g i h d by t h g r
e a r e ea s s n u s e e u es nu

w hich t h y pp r i t h h f r r l

d er e a ; ea n e eav en s a te se v e a

d y th y
a s t f i t t b
e are Th r
oo a not h r t r o e s ee n . e e ar e e s a s

w hich fo ll o w t h d t i m m di t ly ft r i t

e sun , an se e a e a e .

Th

m t r
es e s a th p r c di g d y did t t
e s a s on e e e n a s no se

t ill o m t i m ft r t h h t h r for d

s e the a e e su n e su n as e e e a

d t o w r d t h m fro m W t t E t i
v a n ce a e d i r ct i o es o as ,
n a e n

co t r ry t t h di r l m o t i o
n a o e u na n .

mi th h i t h m or i g om tim

If w e exa ne e ea v en s n e n n , s e e

b for t h ri i g f t h
e e e ths n pp r c w ill b t h e
O e su n , e a e a an es e

r r f t h t h t r w hich ri t d y t t h
e v e se o ese , e s a s m se o -
a a e sa e

tim rly t h m t i m w i t h t h ft r rl

e , o r n ea e sa e e e sun , a e se v e a

d y w ill ri
a s o m t i m b for it Th y w ill pp r t o
se s e es e e . e a ea

h r c d d i th h
ave e e e fro m E t t W t or w h i c h
n e ea v e n s as o es ,

i th m t hi g t h w ill h r m o d fro m t h m

s e sa e n , e sun ave e ve e

i t h di r c t i o fro m \V t t E t
n e e n F i t i m or im es o as . or s e s

p l te pp o o sut h t h se p rop r m o t
e su ni o t h ot o a ve a e n, an

su ppo th t l l t h t r h
se a wi t h r l tio
a t
e s a s th av e, e a n o e su n ,

a co m m o m o t i o n n .

By t hi pr p r m ot i o t h

s o m e t d c r ib t h n e su n s ee s o es e e

w h o l ci r cl f th h fro m W t t E t

e e o . e eav e n s , es o as .

Th q i ry w hich gg t i t l f i h t hi
e en u sut r es s se s, as s eas e n

di r ct i o f t h m o t i o f t h
e n o e y o t h e r fo n O d t i o e su n an un a n

th anth i m pli ci t y f t h ppo i t i o t h t i t h

e s o ech su s n a as su

m o t io f i t w il l b
n or fro m t h f or go i g q o t t i o e see n e e n u a n

from M Bi o t t h t w i t h h i m i t r t
.
,
ath i b i es s o n s as s .

Th r i b t e e o t h r r o gi
s u one f it f e th e as n ven or , so a r as e

w ri t r h e b bl t d d t hi i h o w i t h f l
as ee n a e o n ,
an s s s n n e o

l o w i g q o t t i o f o m H r ch l A t ro o m y t i t l F i x d
'

n u a n r e s e s s n , e, e

wh r i S i " o h H r ch l gi Op i i o f

St ar s ,
e e n th
r n e s e v es e n n o

S i W i l li m H r c h l
r a t hi po i t H
e s e on s n . e sa y s

A g r l r c co ld b p rc i d i t h p r i cip l

en e a e ess u e e e ve n e n a

t r
s a s, fro m t h t po i t o cc pi d by t h a t r H rc l n u e e s a e u es ,

t o w rd po i t di m t r ic ll y o p po i t Thi g er l t

a a n a e a s e . s en a en

d y w f rr d by h i m t m o t i o f t h Ol
en e as re e e
y o a n O e s ar s s

t em i o ppo i t di r c t i o
n an Th t i t
s e c rtai n
e n .

a s o sa y , e
 P r og r ess i ve M ot i o n s o
f th e M oon a n d S tar s . 205

r ppe r d t o b e m o i g
s ta s a a e t hi ph om
v n s en

en a b e t t r ib t d t o t h m o t i o o f t h
a u e d w h ol e o l r
e n e su n an s a

s ytmi s e t e r di r c t i o
n a n eas n e n

.

M Bi o t S . 16 1 y i p ki g f t hi s ppo d
ec . sa s, n s ea n O s u se

e t er n m o t i o
as f the n o su n

Th e m o t i o O f t hi bo dy fro m W s t t o E t co s id r d

n s e as , n e e

s p r ll l t t h eq t or t k l c r g l r

a a a e o p e i ua a m , a es a e n a e u an

t h o gh i for m ly d i t h c o rse o f y r

e
n r, t
u no un an n e u a ea

.
,

Fro m t h for m e r q o t t i o fro m M Bi ot whic h ot h

e u a n n

.

i g n id by H rsch l co t r dic t t h e
sa e ert e d e a t e r n a s a ss e s n

m otio o f th e n h o fo d t i o b y o d c o j e ct r
su n as n un a n e n n u e .

Th r d O o t ppe r y r so fo ch co j ec t r
e e es n a a an ea n r su n u e,

o t h r t h t h t i f t h t m o e fro m E t t o Wes t o f
e an a e s ars v as

t h i r o w prop r m o t i o
e n s ch m o t i o
e
p t t co
n, t r u n ro a n o, n a

dict s t h e Co p r ic y t m f as t o m o m y w hich m i
e n an s s e o r , a n

t i a ns th t t h a t r h e
e s a s progre s i e m o t i o s b t o n l y
av no s v n , u

an a pp ra c O f s c h c d by t h e ro t t i o O f t he ear t h
ea n e u a use a n .

D id c h t r m ot i o o f t h
su e as e n a d th w h o le n e su n n e so

l ar s y t m x i t t h rt h wo ld be i cl d d i t h e g
s e e s , e ea u n u e n en

r l t r d i ft d t h
e a eas e n r co ld r ol
, an bo t t h e su n u ev ve a u e

ea r t h t h o gh i t we re i m m o bl e fo i t s m ot i o i co m
as u va , r n , n

m on wit h th t f t h s a w o ld h
O o t h r ff ct
e un , u ave no e e e on

th e su n i it r o l ti o
n s bo t t h rt h t h w o u ld b
ev u n a u e ea ,
an e

O bs er ed we r t h l tt e r body i m m o bl e A lit t l r
v e e a va . e e

t io w i l l
ec n t i fy t h e m i d o f t h e t r u t h O f t hi
sa s n s .

I or d r t o h o w t h t t h r i
n e s ot hi g i co g r u o s i
a e e s n n n n u n

t h O pi i o t h t t h e p ro p r m o t i o O f t h o
e n n a t rs w es t w r d e n se s a a
tt rib t d t o r l ea t w r d m o t i o f t h s i s t h e
a u e a ea s a n o e un

r lcea f t hi O b r d ph o m e
ause O s w q ot fro m
s e ve en n a, e u e

N w c m b P op l r A t ro o m y p r t i p r i o ly q o t d

e o s u a s n , a v, ev us u e

i n an o t h r co c t i o H y
e n ne n . e sa s :

Th t r i e s a s l l p rt f th h
n a mo a i ll di
s o e e av e n s , ve n a

r ct i o w i t h l l or ts O f l oci t i s
e ns a s ve e .

Th i t w o uld p p r pl i b le t h t if t h t
en a ea m au s a e s ar s .

o ve

l l di r c t i o n t h t i t i po s ibl e t h t t hi a pp r

i n a e s, a . t s s a s a en

m o t i o n west ward o f those star s ob ser ved i n co n n ect io n wit h

206 I s th e Cbp er n i can Sy s tem f
o A s tr on o my Tr u e

th e s u n an d at t d t th r ib
t w d d i ect i
u te o of t h e e eas ar r on

m ot io f t hi l m i
n O y m ys ully m o n ar w t w rd,
a r ea ve es a as

t h y ppe a t do ea r o .

M Bi o t d o
. t p r
es n o
y ci p r i o d f t h
x o n an y e se e o e ea r

a t w hich t h ph o m h m t i o m y b O b er d
e en en a e en ns a e s ve .

Th i f r c t h
e n e en w o ld b t h t t h y m y b
e, en , Ob er ed
u e a e a e s v

a t any t i m e .

B t if u ch h o ld t b t h c
su s u d t h ph o m
no e e as e , a n e en en a

h m tio
e en p po d by h i m t b c d by t h
ns su se t o e a u se e eas

er n m o tio f th n O t ki g p l c e sun t t Oc r
as a n a e a s u n se , cu

b tw D c m b r d "
e ee n e e d t h o o cc rr i g t
e an u n e, a n se u n a su n

ri h o ld t k pl c t r i b t w
se s u a e a e a" d D su n se e ee n un e an e

ce mb t h ph
er , om e h m tio
en w o ld r en a l t fro m e en ns u es u

t h Ob re d pp r t m o t i o f t h
se ve a a en ns O e s un .

For x m p l e a ch d y b co m l o g r ft r t h l t ic
e , ea a e es n e a e e so s e

i D c mb r
n e e t il t h t i m
e f th
un ol t ic i " e h c e e o e s s e n un ,
en e,

b t w t h o p r i od t h
e ee n se ch d y w o ld b li t tl
e s, e s u n , ea a , u e a e

l o g r t i m bo t h h or i o t h
n e e a ve th e
p r c di g d z n an o n e e e n ay ,

an d , co q c f t hi f ct t h t r which did t
as a n se u en e O s a , e s a s no

t h pr c di g d y t ill o m c o id bl t i m ft
se t on e e e n a s e ns er a e e a er

w il l w by r o f t h d y b co m i g l o g r

th e su n , no eas n O e a e n n e ,

t i m m di t ly ft r i t

se e a e a e .

T h p h m m wo l d b t h r l t f t h pp r t
es e en o e a u e e es u o e a a en

th d i r ct i o f th m ot i o t th tim f th

n or er n e n o e sun s n , a e e o e

y r w h i t p p r t m o Nor t h t o w rd t h t p i f
ea en a ea s o ve a s e rO c o

C a n ce r .

W r t h ph o m m t i o d by M Biot s t ki g
e e e en en a en ne . a a n

pl c bo t b o t ri O b r d b t w
a e a u a u su n th se , mm se v e e ee n e su er

an d t h w i t r o l t ic t h
e n e th s b i g i t w y to
s e, e su n en e n on s a

th t pi e rO f C p r ic or
c o th ph o m
a co ld b
n , es e en en a u e ac

co t d fun e r lt f th
o r , as a pp r t m o t io i
es u O e sun s

a a en n n

t h t di r c t i o
a bc
e d ri g t h t i m t h
n , e au se pp r t u n e e e su n a ea s o

mo i t h di r c t i o
ve n e f C p ricor e i t ri l t
n o ch d y a n, s es a er ea a ,

d th t r w hich r i t d y t th t im
"
an e s a s m se o -
a a e sa e e, or

n ea rly t h m t i m w i t h t he sa e ft r e, rl dy e su n , a e se v e a a s

will r i s so m t i m e befo m e e app ear a ce

e it m y b s re , a e a r n ,
 P ro
g r es si ve M o ti o n : o f t he M o an a n d Sta r s . 207

n ot c a u se d by o io O f t h e b t b th e e
a n eas t e n r m t n su n , u e r

s lt of th e
u ri i g l t sun ch d y w hic h w o ld gi e
s n a er ea a ,
u v

the t rs t h
se s a
pp O f r i i g
e a l i ch d y w hic h
ea r a n c e s n ea r er ea a ,

i t h ph o m
s e O bse r d
en ena ve .

Th f c t t h t e a t r i o t m g i d wh
a a s a Ob er d s n a n e en s ve

t h ro g h u t l c op i r g r d d by
a e es t ro o m e r e s i s e a e , as n s, a ev

d c th t th t r
en e a t ry g e t di t ces
e s a s ar e a ve r a s an .

Th r o f t hi co cl i o i t h at s th e
e e as n or m oo s n us n s a su n , n,

an d pl t gr t ly m g i ed w h O b e r d t h ro gh
a n e s ar e ea a n en s ve u

as t ro o m ic l t l
n cop a d t h e t rs a e o t t h t t h e r
e es es , a n s a r n , a , e

fore t h , t rs m t be
e s a t m ch gr e t r di t a ceus t ha a u a e s n s n

th esebo d ies .

Thi co cl io i g or s t h e f ct t h t s ch b e ce o f
s n us n n e a a u a s n

m g it d m y b e c
a n u e d by t h i f ci cy O f t h t le
a a u se e n su en e e

s c o pe p ro p r i l ge cy f Obs r i g t h sta rs ;

as a e v s ua a n or e v n e

l o ppe r t o t k it fo gr t ed t h t ch w t O f m g
a s a a s a e r an a su an a

n it d c
u eo t r l t fro m y o t h r ca e t h t h e ry
an n es u an e us an ve

gr t di t ces f t h e t r
ea s an o s a s .

I po i t f f t h o w e r o m e t rs
n n O ac e m g i d wh
,
ev , s s a ar a n e en

O b r d t h ro gh ch t l co pe fo i Ne wc o m b A
se ve u su e es s, r n

s s

t o omy p g 1 19 it i
r n ,
a id e , s sa

I f t h ey p i ce i p h e d i

e e -
o th t the e t r i s s us n , s a s a s ee n ,

not po i t b t
as a m ll di c t h e c e t re O f t h e d i c
n , u as a s a s , n s

w ill b gr e or y ell o w &c

e en ,
.

P hi g i t h y pi c m k es t h e te l s cope ew i
us n n e e e -
e e a e a n n

s tr m u t p en t t , f Ob r i g t h
ro t rs fo by m
an o , s
or se v n e s a ,
r ea n

o f t hi s ch a g e t h t w hic h w n b for s
, m r po i t
a as e e een as a e e n ,

th b co m es m ag i ed t o t h di m e s i o s O f m ll d i c
us e n e n n a s a s .

Thi ch a ge i re l t by m e O f i r t l ch ge o f
s n n su s, an s a v ua an

i tr m t m k s
ns u en i fe r ce pla s ibl t h t t h s ppos d
, a e an n en u e a e u e

gre t di t c O f t h ta r m y o t b e t h e c se o f t h ei r
a s an es e s s a n au

no t b i g m g i ed b t t h t
e n a ch m ay r l t fro m w t
n , u a su es u an

o f d pt t i o o f t h i t r m t
a a a n m ely by i t s o t g t t i g
e ns u en ,
na , n e n

t h fo c l di t
e a c f th Ob r d t rs an e o e se v e s a .

I t i s t r e t h t P ro f N w c o m b t t m p t s t o e xpl i
u a the . e a e a n

cause O f t h is ch a ge i t h e appear a ce o f t h e O bser ved n n n

208 I s t h e Cop er n i can Sy s te m f A s tr o n omy Tru e 2

o

st a r , fo r t h e p rh p f h o w i g t h t t h i d i c p
p rpo
u se , e a s, O s n a s s a

p e a r a n ced o t m o t t es n or l m a g ai t d fun ch o a ea n u e o su

t r f
s a ,
h y or p g 1 42
e sa s, on a e

It i tr th t b r i gh t t r i t h t l c o p o m t i m

s ue a a s a n e e es e s e es

app r t h ea s p rc pt ibl d i c b t t h i i o wi g t
o ave a e e e s , u s s n o

va ri o i m p f t i i t h i m g h i g t h i r ori g i
us e r ec o ns n e a e, av n e n

i th n i t h i tr m t
e a r, d th e y l
nsl f wuhich h en ,
an e e e, a O ave

th ff c t f li g h t ly c t t r i g
e e e O s p ort i o f t h ligh t s a e n a n o e

w hich c o m fro m t h t r

es e s a .

Wh th r t h c e e ig d b t h t r Oe a u se s ass t ne e e ue n es or no ,

th r e lt r m i
es u m ly t h t e t r i
a n s, n a om ti m m g e , a a s a s s e es a

n i d i t h t l c o p w h ich f c t
e n e e esg ti th e, rt i o a ne a v es e as se n

t h t tha t r t m g i fi d i
e s a s ar e n o th t l cop bc a n e n e e es e, e au s e

o f t h i gr t di t c
e r ea s an es .

Th g r l f il r t m ag i fy t h t r Ob r d
e en e a a u e o n e s a s se v e

t h ro g h t h t l c op m y b c
u e d
e es e a e a u se

1 By w . t f t h pro p r fo can f th i tr m t
o e e us O e ns u en .

2 Fro m w t f r l m g i t d
. an f th O t r ea a n u e O e s a .

3 F o m t h di m
. r f t h l i gh t f t h
e t r p
n e ss O d e
r

o e s a er s e a n

i d p d t f i t r l or ppo d d i t c
n e en en o s ea su se s an e .

E yl ver h o ld b co t r c t d w i t h r f r c t t h
en s s u e ns u e e e en e o e

i o f t h O bj ct t b O b r d t h ro g h i t t h di t c
s z e e e o e se v e u , e s an e

o f ch o bj c t d t h i t i t y or q t i t y f t h li gh t
su e , an e n en s u an O e

by w h ich t h O bj c t b co m i ibl e e e es v s e .

Th c i t y f co id r t i o o f t h f ct m y b
e n e es s or a ns e a n es e a s a e

n o t ic d i co c t i o wi t h t h ordi ry p ct cl gl s
e n nne n e na s e a e as s e .

S ch gl
u co t r c t d f h or t i gh t d p r o
as ses as a r e ns u e or s -
s e e s n s,

m g i fy O bj c t o ly t r
a n g p r ci ly ad pt d t t h
e s n a an es e se a e o e

e y f ch p r o
es o su ch gl b i g co t ct d o m
e s n s, su as s es e n n s ru e s e

w h t di ff r
a t ly f o m t h o
e en d by p o h i g d r s e u se e rs ns -

av n e

f t ec s O f i io oth th
v s t hi n er an s .

S o m gl e co t r c t d t m g i fy m ll Obj ct
as s e s a r e ns u e o a n s a e s

O rd i ry i d l ph b t ic l l t t r f x m pl
na -
s z e a a t h or t
e a e e s, or e a e, a s

di t c f o m t h y
s an es rd wil l n o t m g i fy t h e m t
e e e, an y a n a an

ot h er .
 P r ogr essi ve M o ti o n s f
o th e M o on an d St a r s . 209

In ch gl
su if t h l t t r h b ro gh t q i t
as s es , e r e e s e u u e n ea th e

e y b
e, o r r m o ed b yo ed t h fo vel di t c efro m i t t
n h y e ca s an e ,
e

b co m i o m i t c ob c r d d i o t h r t h y
e e, n s e n s an es , s u e , an n e s e

a r e, app r n t ly t i r ly o bli ter ted

a e , en e a .

A t h op t ic l l w go r i g i g
s e a r l t h co t r
a s ve n n , n en e a , e ns ue

t io n Of th l p p ly t t h co t r ct i o f t h l
e e n s, , a o f e ns u n O e en s o

th e t l co p e es i m il r p h o m e, s ri i g f om lik
a en en a a s n r e

c m y b
a u s es , x p ct d t r l t to t hi i t m t wh
a e e e e o es u s ns ru en , en

O bj ct e f di ff r t
s O d i p plic b l
e en i an h i g gr at na a e s z es , o r av n e

l y di ff r i g di t c
e n or t t m pt d t b m d i ibl o
s an es , a e e o e a e v s e r

gr t l y m g i d by li gh t f lit t l i t i ty
ea a n e q t it y o e n en s or u an ,

ar e O b r d t h ro g h t h m
se v e u e .

Al l , y f w
o r an hich c m o i g h t r l t i t h O bj c t
a u s es es u n e e

no t b i g Ob r d t t h
e n p rop r foc l d i t c f ch
se v e a e e a s an e O su

o bj ct e .

I f thi co cl i o b w ll fo d d t h
s n us n l m o t t ot l b
e e un e ,
e a s a a

s en c f m g i t d Ob r d f t h t r m y po ibly
e O a n u e se v e O e s a s a ss re

su l t from om d i m y c
s e , an fro m l l t h ,
n c an as e s a , es e a u s es .

A d w hil t h t l c op m y h
n e e th e es fo c l r g e f a av e e a an e O

th e sun ,m oo d pl t n
y t i
, t m
an
y t h i t f
an e s , t h e a no av e or e

t
s a rs , w hich i f ci cy m y p o ib l y b c
n su en d by w t a ss e a u se an

O f d pt t io
a a f th l
a f t h t l c o p fro m t h di m e
n o e en s o e e es e, e n ss

o f th t r ligh t or fro m w t f i t
e s a

s , f ci t l y gr t an O s su en ea

m g i t d or b c
a n u e, th t r a at g r
e au s e t r dis t c
e s a s re ea e an es

th an th pl t
e su n or an e s .

I f t h f il r t m g i fy t h
e a u e t r h o ld b c d b y
o a n e s a s s u e a u se

th e d f t f t h t el es co pe
e ec s O ch d f c t e m y b p o ibl y , su e e s a e ss

r m di d by f t r di co v ry fo t h t l cop i o t
e e e u u e s e , r e e es e s n a

p er f ct i t r m t h c ca o t b pp o d t b b yo d
e ns u en , e n e, nn e su se o e e n

i m p ov m t d p ci lly w h i t i co i d r d t h t
r e en , an es e a so en s ns e e a

it i f m o d r co t r c t i o
s O e n i co m p r i o w i t h t h m
ns u n , n a s n e a

t iq ity f t h
u O l c pi t l ppli c i i d f th rt
e us u a a a a an es n a O e a s

an d ci c s g r ll y i t d t s b ck t o m o d r n
en es , en e a , as a e a o s e 3.

pe io d t t h r ly p r t f t h 1 7 th ce t u ry
r as o e ea a O e n .

14
21 0 I s th e Cop er n i ca n Sy stem of A str on om y True 9
.

H ist ory ch t h t di co eri t ea Oft m d which

es a s v es a r e en a e

h av e gi e ch i m p t t k o wl dg f t h m t ter
v n su an e us o n e e o e a s

t which
o c h di co ri r l tsu t sto i h ve tho es e a e , as o as n s ev en se

b t r d i ch m t t r d j d gi g by t h
es v e se n su a lo e s , an u n es e an a

g i r cor d d i hi t ory ch m y l t i m t ly r l t to t h
es e e n s , su a u a e es u e

t l co p
e es e .

Th q e t i ty d i t
u an i t y f ligh t m t i g fro m
an n en s o e an a n an

o b r d O bj c t h
s e ve f co r e m ch t d , w it h t h
as , O di u se, u o o e s

ti t
n c n es s o f it i ibili t y l o w i t h t h pp r t i f
s v s , as a s e a a en s z e O

su ch Obj ct e .

Thi i swi t h r f r
s so c to t h t r t r
e e en f th e e s a s, as a s a O e

r t m g it d i o t rm d b
s a n u e i t b l o g t o t h cl s
s s e e e ca u se e n s e a s

o f t h b r i gh t t
e es .

A ill t r t io f thi
s an us l o h ow i g t h ff ct f
a n O s , as a s s n e e e o

th ct io O f l ig h t P of N wco m b p g 1 4 1 y
e a n , r . e ,
a e , sa s

Th di m t r f t h p pil f t h

e a e e y bO i g b t eo u O e e e e n a ou ne

ft h f i ch m ch li gh t fro m t h t r f ll
O an n ,
as u e s a as a s on a

ci rcl wi t h t hi di m t r i bro gh t t foc

e s a th e e s u o a us o n e re

ti l t h q t i t y f li g h t i f ci t t b

d
n a, a n u n es s e u an O s su en o e

p rc pt ibl t h t r w ill t b
e e e, e s a N W w m y no e s ee n . O , e a

lik t h t l cop t
en e Cycl o pe es y fe w hic h
o a t h

ea n e e,

O e

Obj ct gl i t h p pil &

e as s s e u ,

c .

H c w h th r t r b
en e, p rc p t ibl
e e a s a t d e eve n e e e, or no , e

p d en th q
s on tity f i t li gh t
e If th
uan q t it y b O s . e u an e

s m ll t h
a ,
t r w ill p p e s a r d i m d if i t b ry d i m t h a ea ,
an e ve , e

t r w ill b b r ly i ibl
s a e d fro m t hi c
a e v s m ig h t i e, an s a u se , n

d dbee ppo bly i i ibl

e, su sa , nv s e .

From t h m r di m e f t r it c
e e ot b i m pli d n ess o a s a ,
an n e e

t h t i t i t h r for
a s t gr t di t c
e e di m
e a ia t ea s an e , as n e ss s no a

c ry q li ty or co di t i o pp rt i i g t g t d i
n e ess a ua n n a e a n n o r ea s

tan c f t h r o t h t i t i Oft fo d i co ct i o
es , or e eas n a s en un n nne n

w it h O b r d o bj ct w hich i k o w t b t
an se v e e h ort
,
s n n o e a a s

di t c f x m pl t h d i m li gh t m t i g fro m a
s an e, or e a e, e e an a n

t ll o w ca dl i
a c h m be dj c t
n e n a a r a a en .

A s t hi i s t r u e i t woul d seem t o fo ll o w t h at th e ab sen ce

s ,

o f ap p ar en t m agn i t ud e of t h e st ar s m ay r es ul t from d i m
 P r og r essi ve M o ti o n s o
f t he M oon a n d Sta r s . 21 1

n es s o f th e sta rpe r se, h e n ce , w t i h o t r g rd to t h i r

u e a e d is
t an c es .

c h t t h t l cop do
Th e fa t t a t m g i fy t h e t r
e es e es n o a n e s a s,

m y p a ibl y b b c o ss e e au s e

1 It h . t t h fo c as n o i t bl t t h ob r d t r e us su a e o e se ve s a , as

a co q c p rh p f t gr t di t c f t r i
n se u en e, e a s, o oo ea a s an e O a s a n

on e i t c r f t o h or t di t c i
n s an e . o o ot h r o s a s an e n an e .

2 For w t f
. f ci t m g i t d f t h O b r d t r
an o su en a n u e O e se ve s a .

3 Fro m i
. f ci cy f t h li g h t m
n su t i g fro m i t t
en O e e an a n , o

th t xt t th t th Cy cl o p r c

a e en a y m y o te t i t ean e e a n e e

wit h f ci t i t
su i ty fro m i t r t i
en n en st p k s e n a, s o o s ea .

H c t h i f r c f t ro o m r t h t t h t r
en e, e n e en e O as n e s a e s a s ar e

su n s f ot h r y t m or d ate ch gr t di t c
s s e s, an to su ea s an es as

b im m
e r bl d t
e as u a pp r m r ly gli t t ri g po i t
e, an o a ea e e as e n n s

i t h t l cop m y
n e e es t b co cl i o j t i d fro m
e, a no e a n us n us e

su ch p r m i e se .

I co cl di g t h p r
n n u t w or k n phil o o phic pot h gm e es e n a s a e

O f Si I c N wt o m y b q o t d
r s aa e h o wi g t h po p
n a e u e , as s n e o

l ar m thod f i e t ig ti g t r t h h
o y
n v es a n u ,
e sa s :

Th m i b i

e f
a n t r l phil o oph y i
u s n ess O t rg na u a s s o a ue

f m ph
ro o m w i t h o
en t f i g i g h y p
en ao t h d d u e n n es es , an e

d c c u e fro m ff ct
a u s es e e s .

Th fo d r f t h Co p r ic
e un e y t m t o ly d o o t
O e e n an s s e , no n es n

a rg e fro m ph e o me b t h e f i g h h y p o t h
u n co t r
na u e s es es n a

d i t o y o f ph e o m a i
c r
y i tn c i w hich
en ph n ev er n s an e n en

,

o m d r t t h y t m h d oc t
e n a ar e a ve se o d ll e s s e e a v a es , an a

O b er d t r l p h o m h i g y co ct i o wi t h
s ve na u a en en a av n an nne n

t h e y tem s s
d e t it h i fol lo wer goi g
ar e a ve r s t o s s n e v en o
t h ex te t O f f i g i g t h hyp o t h i t h t t h
en e n n r ol v e es s a e su n ev es
fro m W t t E t w h es t h O b r d ph
o as om , i th en e se ve en en a s e

r r f t hi
e v e se o s .

A d th n d o c t f th y t m do th i
e a v a es o gro d e s s e s on un s
which wo ld b x cl d d i y Co rt f l w t chi y
u e e u e n an u o a ,
no , e

t h t th y w r i
a d m i ibl
e e e i com p t t id c b t
na ss e as n e en ev en e, u

ra t h r b c aue th y w r e t
se i d n c at ll e e e no ev e e a .