Table 7.3.

Reactions of glucose with amino acids

Amino acids Aroma / Color

Glycine Dark brown to black / burnt sugar, pungent

Valine Dark brown to black / burnt sugar, pungent

Threonine Dark brown to black / burnt sugar, pungent

Leucine Dark brown to black / burnt sugar, pungent

As shown in Table 7.3, glycine, valine, threonine and leucine exhibited the same pungent and
burnt aroma and the formation of a dark brown-black color, upon reaction with glucose. These
amino acids reacted with glucose under the presence of heat, resulting to their said color and
aroma. This was achieved by the process known as Maillard reaction. The amine group of the amino
acid was allowed to interact with the reducing group of the carbohydrate, which results to the
formation of protein-liquid matrix of selected color pigments giving the dark brown color and
distinguishing aroma. Based on scientific studies, amino acids contribute highly to the flavor and
aroma of foods. It may contribute bitterness, sweetness or other flavors. Furthermore, the
resulting aroma and color upon the reaction of sugar and amino acid under heat depends on the
structure and properties of the sugar and amino acid and the degree of heat applied.

Maillard reaction is a form of non-enzymatic browning of foods, which results from a

chemical reaction between an amino compound, usually an amino acid, and a carbonyl compound,
usually a reducing sugar, such as glucose (Nurnsten, 2005). It begins to occur at lower temperatures
and higher dilutions than caramelization. In addition, this process accelerates in a basic
environment because the amino acids do not neutralize. Maillard reaction is important in food
processing, particularly its contribution to flavor formation, antioxidative effects, desmutagenic
activity and the improvement of the functional properties of proteins. Strecker degradation plays
several roles in the formation of flavor compounds in processed foods. It is the major pathway of the
conversion of amino acids into structurally-related aldehydes resulting to a more diverse flavor and
compound formation.

The Strecker degradation of amino acids is a key reaction in the generation of potentaroma
compounds during Maillard-type processes (Ledl and Schleicher, 1990) . Certain amino acids (leucine,
valine, methionine or phenylalanine) are knownto produce Strecker aldehydes with significant odor
strength such as 3-methylbutanal,methylpropanal, methional or phenylacetaldehyde. These aldehydes
have been confirmed askey contributors to many thermally processed foods (Hofmann et al., 2000).
Besides aldehydeformation, Strecker degradation also contributes to flavour formation during Maillard
reaction by reducing dicarbonyls to hydroxycarbonyls (e.g. formation of 1,4-dideoxyosone from 1-
deoxyosone) (Nedvideket al., 1992) or by generating - aminocarbonyl compounds, whicharepyrazine
precursors (Weenen and Tjan, 1994). As for the flavors produced, chocolate flavors can be prepared by
heating glucose with amino acids such as serine, glutamine,tyrosine, leucine, threonine or phenylalanine
(Herz and Schallenberger, 1960; Lane andNursten, 1983).

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS:

1. Strecker degradation is the interaction of an -amino acid with a carbonyl compound in

aqueous solution or suspension to give carbon dioxide and an aldehyde or ketone containing one
less carbon atom. Inorganic oxidizing agents can also be used to bring about the reaction:

2. Maillard reaction is a type of non-enzymatic browning which involves the reaction of reducing
sugars and amino acids, usually requiring the addition of heat.

3. Maillardderivedaroma compounds of wheat and rye bread are Furaneol and the
Streckeraldehydesmethional, 3-methylbutanal and methylpropanal. They contribute to the
caramel-like and malty aroma of bread. The Maillard products 2-furfurylthiol, Furaneol, sotolon,
methanethiol, 2,3-butanedione, 2,3-pentanedione, 2-ethyl-3,5-dimethylpyrazine (EDMP), 2,3-
diethyl-5-methylpyrazine (DEMP), methylpropanal and3-methylbutanal contribute to the flavour
of coffee brews. Maillard reaction with hydrolysed proteins as precursor can generate chocolate
flavors.

4. The different products from the Maillard reactions of various combinations of sugars and amino
acids can form countless flavors. Further study regarding the reactions of certain reducing sugars
and amino acids would eventually result to production of new flavors.
Table 7.4. Foams

Volume (mL)/ Time (s)

Sample
10 20 30 40 50 60

Unheated eggwhite 3 4 6 7 10

Heated eggwhite (350 C) 5 7 10 15 20 25

Eggwhite with Na-K tartrate 4 5 8 11 15 20

Based on the results shown in Table 7.4, it was observed that as the beating time (in
seconds) increases, the volume (in mL) also increases, showing a directly proportional relationship.
This is because more air is trapped in the foam as time goes by. The heated eggwhite sample
produced the highest volume of foam, followed by eggwhite treated with sodium potassium tartrate
then lastly, the unheated eggwhite as the control. Theoretically, we expect the eggwhite sample
treated with sodium potassium tartrate to yield the highest volume since it is acidic, thus lowering
the pH of the albumin to denature the proteins and allow the faster production of foams as the
denatured proteins are aligned between the air bubbles and water molecules. An acidic
environment also makes the proteins have the same charge, making them more likely to aggregate
and force water out of the foam to increase its stability. The lowered volume could be attributed to
the heating that could have cooked the proteins making them unable to form a higher volume of
foam.

Most foams are a two-phase medium of gas and liquid, with a specific structure made up of
gas pockets trapped in a network of thin liquid films and level borders (Joseph, 1997). They can be
formed by mixing, beating or any method of incorporating air in a material in liquid state. The
protein, which acts as an emulsifier, in the liquid phase denature slightly such that the protein
molecules are parallel to the surface of an air bubble, which then holds the foam structure. One way
to control foam formation is through the use of antifoams or defoamers, such as mineral oil or
vegetable oil. These substances are usually surface-active and incapable of forming a stable foam on
their own. Foams can also mechanically collapse by using force, pressure changes, suction or
ultrasonic energy.

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS:

1. Foams are made up of gas bubbles dispersed in a liquid. It is mainly used in the production of icings in
cake and other desserts.

2. Foams are formed when the protein component of eggs becomes denatured. To do this, stirring is first
required to produce more tiny bubbles so the foam will be easily formed,
3. Foam formation can be controlled by either increasing or decreasing its temperature and pH, or adding
solutes like sugar and salt.

References:

Nurnsten, Harry. (2005). The Maillard Reaction: Chemistry, Biochemistry and Implications. The
University of Reading, Reading, UK. Atheneum Press Ltd.: Cambridge, United Kingdom. pp. 1-2.

Science of cooking: Why foods brown The Maillard Reaction (retrieved from
http://web.mnstate.edu/provost/BCBT100%20Browning.pdf)

Joseph, D.D. (1997). Understanding foams and foaming. University of Minnesota.