Journal of Research in Biology - Volume 4 Issue 5

Journal of Research in Biology ISSN No: Print: 2231 6280; Online: 2231 - 6299.
An International Scientific Research Journal

Original Research
Record of Pillaia indica Yazdani 1972, an endangered earthworm eel (Teleostei:

Chaudhuriidae) from the streams of Brahmaputra drainage in Northeast India
Authors: ABSTRACT:
Journal of Research in Biology
Sewali Pathak1, Mrigendra

Mohan Goswami2 and Pillaia indica Yazdani 1972, a threatened earthworm eel under
Nripendra Nath Sarma3. Synbranchiformes, is recorded from Langkhar (2646N and 9032E) and Teklai (2647
Institution: N and 9035E) streams near Assam-Bhutan border of Chirang District, Assam, India.
1. Department of Zoology, Pillaia indica is dis.nguished from its congeners in having dorsal so8 rays 34 36, anal
Bijni College, Bijni, Chirang so8 rays 34 36, vertebrae 66 and unpaired ns con.nuous. The head length 15.1-
-783390, Assam, India. 15.2% SL, dorsal n base length 43.6 44.8% SL, anal n base length 44.8 46.3% SL,
2. Department of Zoology, anus to anal n distance 2.9 3.1% SL, eye diameter 5.2 5.7% HL and head depth 36.8
Gauhati University, 37.9% HL.
Guwahati-781014, Assam,
India.
Keywords:
3. Department of Zoology,
Chaudhuriid, earthworm eel, new distribu.onal record, Assam-Bhutan
Bajali College, Barpeta,
Assam-781346, India. streams
Corresponding author: Abbrevia on:

Sewali Pathak. IUCN-Interna.onal Union for Conserva.on of Nature, MSUMNH-
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University Museum of Natural History, USNM-US Na.onal
Museum of Natural History
Ar cle Cita on:

Email Id:
Sewali Pathak, Mrigendra Mohan Goswami and Nripendra Nath Sarma.
Record of Pillaia indica Yazdani 1972, an endangered earthworm eel (Teleostei:
Chaudhuriidae) from the streams of Brahmaputra drainage in Northeast India.
Journal of Research in Biology (2014) 4(5): 1365-1370
Web Address: Dates:

http://jresearchbiology.com/ Received: 10 May 2014 Accepted: 30 May 2014 Published: 30 Jun 2014
documents/RA0450.pdf.
This article is governed by the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/2.0), which gives permission for unrestricted use, non-commercial, distribution and
reproduction in all medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
1365-1370 | JRB | 2014 | Vol 4 | No 5

An International
Scientific Research Journal www.jresearchbiology.com
Pathak et al., 2014
INTRODUCTION Brahmaputra drainages. The IUCN Red List of

The family Chaudhuridae known as South Asian Threatened species enlisted it as an endangered species
Mastacembeloid fish includes six genera and ten species following the IUCN criteria (Britz and Chaudhry, 2010).
viz. Chaudhuria caudata Annandale 1918, C. fusipinnis The specimens were collected from near the foot-hill
Kottelat and Britz 2000 (Kottelat, 2000), Pillaia indica streams of Assam-Bhutan border of Chirang District.
Yazdani 1972, P. kachinica Kullander, Britz, and Fang Mostly, they were found clinging to submerged
2000, Garo khajuriai (Talwar, Yazdani, and Kundu vegetation based along the edges of the streams or lying
1977), Nagaichthys filipes Kottelat and Lim 1991 in at the bottom of streams. They feed on aquatic plant
Kottelat 1991, Chendol keelini Kottelat and Lim 1994, debris, algae, insects, crustaceans and other decaying
C. lubricus Kottelat and Lim 1994, Bihunichthys materials. The juveniles were observed during the period
monopteroides Kottelat and Lim 1994 and Chaudhuria of April-May. The adults are dark reddish brown than the
ritvae Britz 2010 (calacademy.org/research/ichthyology). young ones and they occur with other dominant species
The genus Pillaia Yazdani and the type species P. indica of the genera like Amblyceps, Badis, Barilius, Danio,
were described from Khasi hills of Meghalaya (Yazdani, Devario, Lepidocephalichthys, Mastacembelus,
1972). Recently, Arunachalam et al., (2014) reported the Microphis, Nemacheilus, Olyra, Puntius, Pterocryptis,
range extension of P. indica from Khasi hills of Psilorhynchus, Schistura etc.
Meghalaya to Darjeeling District, West Bengal. Bakalial
et al., (2014) reported the species from Lakhimpur MATERIALS AND METHODS
District of Assam. During an ichthyological Method of counts and measurements were done
reconnaissance of Langkhar (2646 N and 9032E) and following Kottelat and Lim (1994). The collection and
Teklai (2647N and 9035E) streams near Amteka of preservation of fishes were made following the protocols
Chirang District of Assam, India, we report Pillaia prescribed by Brooks (2011). Parts of the body are
indica Yazdani 1972 as a new distributional record of expressed as percentages of standard length (SL) and
Figure 1: A-Lateral view and B-ventral view of P. indica (GUZM 1175, 1, 81.9 SL)
1366 Journal of Research in Biology (2014) 4(5): 1365-1370

Pathak et al., 2014
Table: 1 Morphometric data of Pillia indica Yazdani, 1972 from Teklai
Standard length (SL) Range (76.2-81.9) MeanSD

% SL
Snout to dorsal fin origin 57.0 - 57.3 57.1 0.15
Snout to anal fin origin 55.8 - 56.1 55.9 0.15
Pre-anus length 53.7 - 54.8 54.1 0.61
Anus to anal fin origin 2.9 - 3.1 3.0 0.09
Dorsal fin base length 43.6 - 44.8 44.1 0.61
Anal fin base length 44.8 - 46.3 45.4 0.78
Caudal fin length 6.2 - 6.5 6.3 0.12
Pectoral fin length 2.4 - 2.6 2.5 0.06
Pre-pectoral length 15.4 - 5.6 15.5 0.11
Body depth at anus 7.2 - 7.3 7.2 0.05
Maximum body width 5.5- 6.7 6.1 0.61
Head length 15.1 - 15.2 15.1 0.03
% HL
Head depth at eye 25.7 - 26.4 26.0 0.37
Maximum head depth 36.8 - 37.9 37.4 0.55
Maximum head width 36.5 - 37.3 37.0 0.42
Snout length 25.3 - 29.0 27.4 1.95
Pre-nasal length 17.8 - 18.6 18.2 0.40
Eye diameter 5.2 - 5.7 5.4 0.24
Inter orbital distance 12.1 - 12.5 12.4 0.23
Inter nasal distance 13.9 - 15.4 14.8 0.86
Post-orbital head length 69.5 - 70.1 69.8 0.33
Upper jaw length 26.8 - 30.7 28.3 2.09
subunits of head as percentages of head length (HL). The Diagnosis

Fin rays were counted under stereo-zoom light Pillaia indica Yazdani 1972 differs from its
microscope (Leica ATC, 2000). The specimens are congeners in having dorsal soft rays 34 - 36, anal soft
deposited in the Gauhati University Zoological Museum rays 34 - 36, vertebrae 66 and unpaired fins continuous.
(GUZM 1175 and 2175, unregistered). Snout short with fleshy rostral appendage bearing
anterior tubular nostrils, eyes prominent, no fin spines,
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION scales absent.
Pillaia indica Yazdani 1972 (Figure-1) Description
Material examined Biometric data of Pillaia indica Yazdani 1972 is
GUZM 1175, 1, 81.9 mm SL, Langkhar (2646 given in Table-1; body straight, elongated, eel like,
N and 9032E) near Amteka, 28 November 2013; slender and laterally compressed. Head anteriorly
GUZM 2175 (4), 76.2 - 80.0 mm SL, Teklai (2647N depressed, snout short, sub-conical, lip folds well
and 9035E) near Amteka, 25 December 2013, Chirang developed, median snout narrow, mouth wide, gill
District of Assam opening wide, gill membranes free from isthmus,
branchiostegal rays 5 - 6 (5), Dorsal fin continuous with
Journal of Research in Biology (2014) 4(5): 1365-1370 1367

Pathak et al., 2014
Figure 2: Map of Chirang District showing the habitat locality of P. indica Yazdani 1972
(Source: Sewali Pathak et al., 2013)
caudal fin bearing 34 - 36 (5) soft rays, anal fin confluent Travers (1984a, 1984b) published the first
with caudal fin bearing 34 - 36 (5) soft rays, pectoral fin comprehensive osteological description of
originates at the end of gill opening with 7 - 9(5) soft Chaudhuriidae and Pillaiidae and reviewed their
rays, pelvic fin absent, caudal fin tapering with 8 - 10(5) phylogenetic relationships with Mastacembelidae. Three
soft rays. Body colour of fresh specimen is dark brown species of Chaudhuridae are known from northeastern
and ventral dull white where as it turns light and fade India (Talwar et al., 1977) and Pillaia indica from khasi
brown in the preserved specimen. and Jaintia Hills of Meghalaya. Pillaia khajuriai was
Distribution described by Talwar et al., (1977) and later the genus
Presently known from the Langkhar (2646 N was replaced by Yazdani and Talwar (1981) as Garo
and 9032E) and Teklai (2647N and 9035E) hill khajuriai, from Rongrengiri, Garo hills, Meghalaya and
streams near Amteka, about 36 - 40 km north of Bijni from Baguri, Kaziranga Wild life Sanctuary, Sibasagar
town in Chirang District, Assam, India (Figure-2). District in Upper Assam (Kullander et al., 2000).
P. indica was first described from Sumer stream, about Recently, P. indica Yazdani 1972 was reported from
22 km north of Shillong and Umsing stream, 13 km north Anthojora stream in Darjeeling District, West Bengal by
of Shillong, Khasi and Jaintia Hills of Meghalaya, India. Arunachalam et al., (2014), the occurrence of which is
Recently, it was reported from Anthojora stream in unexpected since the two valid species P. indica and
Darjeeling District, West Bengal and also reported by G. khajuriai are distributed in northeastern India. The
Bakalial et al., 2014 from Lakhimpur District of Assam, records of new distribution of P. indica contribute the
Northeast India. range extension from khashi hills of Meghalaya to the
foothills of Assam-Bhutan in northeast India. Biometric
Pathak et al., 2014
variables in the certain parameters of P. indica from in Khasi Hills of Meghalaya. They dwell in a clear,
Langkhar and Teklai streams in Chirang District of shallow, moderately flowing hill stream with a sandy
Assam justifies its close with the descriptions predicated bottom. The nature of hiding or buried at the bottom to
by Arunachalam et al., (2014) from West Bengal. avoid light is one of the characteristic features of this
Morphologically, the P. indica is fairly distinguishable species. The geographical distribution and some
from the other three congeners in pectoral-fin rays biological aspects of P. indica are quite insufficient.
(P. indica 7 - 9, P. kachinica 10 - 11 and G. khajuriai Conservation of habitat for the species is highly
19 - 20) and caudal-fin rays (P. indica 8 - 10, recommended.
P. kachinica 10 - 12 and G. khajuriai 12) as refer from
comparative materials. The dorsal soft rays of P. indica ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
are 34 - 36 and anal soft rays 34 - 36 which is differ from We are thankful to University Grants
other congeners (Britz and Kottelat, 2003). Commissions for financial assistance under MRP and
Comparative materials from published information UGC-SAP (DRS) Programme of Zoology Department of
Pillaia indica Yazdani, 1972: Gauhati University for providing necessary laboratory
USNM 372577, 1, 85.8 mm SL; USNM 372577, and other facilities; and to Arunachalam et al., 2014,
1, 61.0 mm SL; Materials collected from: Sumer stream Britz and Kottelat 2003 for access data.
(22km north of Shillong) of Khasi and Jaintia Hills,
Meghalaya, India, elev. 1069 m., (Britz and Kottelat REFERENCES
2003). MSUMNH C17, 8 ex. 37.6 - 70.0 mm SL; CMA Arunachalam M, Raja M, Nandagopal S,
(Collections of M. Arunachalam) 26, 2 ex, 42.2 - 47.5 Vijayakumar C, Malaiammal P and Bhat SA. 2014.
mm SL; West Bengal, Anthojora stream near Gajoldoba Range extension of endangered earthworm eel Pillaia
Reservoir, Baikunthapur, Darjeeling District (26511.3 indica Yazd ani, 1972 (Synbr anchifor mes:
th
N, 862357.7E), 27 Nov. 2012 (Arunachalam et al., Chaudhuriidae) from West Bengal, India. Research and
2014). Reviews: J. Ecol. and Env. Sciences, 2(1):5 - 8.
Pillaia kachinica Kullander, Britz and Fang 2000:
Annandale N. 1918. Fish and Fisheries of the Inle Lake.
Native to Myanmar (mainland), known only
Rec. Indian Museum, 14: 33 - 64.
from two streams in the area of Myitkina, Myanmar
(Britz and Kottelat 2003). Bakalial B, Biswas SP and Baruah D. 2014. Report of
Garo khajuriai (Talwar, Yazdani and Kundu 1977): IUCN Red Listed Pillaia indica Yazdani, 1972 from
Holotype, 68.0 mm SL, from a paddy field at Lakhimpur District of Assam, Northeast India with a
Rongrengiri, Garo Hills District, Meghalaya; coll. H. note on its habitat ecology. Archives of Applied Science
Khajuria, 18 January 1957, Zoological Survey of India Research, 6(1): 223 - 228.
regd. No. FF 815, Proceedings of the Indian Academy of
Brooks JL. 2011. An Introduction to the Study of Fresh
Science, 1977, 85B (2): 53 - 56.
Water Biology. Asiatic Publishing House, Delhi P.107.
CONCLUSION Britz R and Chaudhry S. 2010. Pillaia indica. In:

Pillaia indica is a threatened spineless IUCN 2013, IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
earthworm eel reported by IUCN and this species is Version 2013.2. www.iucnredlist.org Accessed on 17
restricted to northeast region. It is known to be endemic June 2014.

Pathak et al., 2014
Britz R and Kottelat M. 2003. Descriptive Osteology of Sciences, 85B (2): 53 - 56.
the family Chaudhuriidae (Teleostei: Synbranchiformes,
Travers RA. 1984a. A review of the Mastacembeloidei,
Mastacembeloidei), with a discussion of its relationships.
a suborder of synbranchiform teleost fishes. Part I:
American Mus. Novitates, 3418: 1- 62.
anatomical descriptions. Bulletin Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist.
Britz R. 2010. A new earthworm eel of the genus (Zoology), 46(1): 1- 133.
Chaudhuria from the Ayeyarwaddy River Drainage,
Travers RA. 1984b. A review of the Mastacembeloidei,
Myanmar (Teleostei: Synbranchiformes: Chaudhuriidae).
a suborder of synbranchiform teleost fishes. Part II:
Zootaxa, 2571: 62 - 68.
Phylogenetic analysis. Bulletin Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist.
Kottelat M. 1991. Notes on the taxonomy and (Zoology), 47(2): 83- 150.
distribution of some western Indonesian freshwater
Yazdani GM. 1972. A new genus and species of fish
fishes, with diagnoses of a new genus and six new
from India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 69(1): 134 - 135.
species (Pisces: Cyprinidae, Belontiidae, and
Chaudhuriidae). Ichthyo. Explo. Freshwaters, 2(3): 273 - Yazdani GM. 1976. A new family of mastacembeloid
287. fish from India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 73(1): 166 -
170.
Kottelat M. 2000. Diagnoses of a new genus and 64 new
species of fishes from Laos (Teleostei: Cyprinidae, Yazdani GM. 1977. Fishes of Khasi Hills, Meghalaya
Balitoridae, Bagridae, Syngnathidae, Chaudhuriidae and (India), with observation on their distributional pattern.
Tetraodontidae). J. South Asian Nat. Hist. 5(1): 37 - 82. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 74(1): 17-28.
Kottelat M and Lim KKP. 1994. Diagnoses of two new Yazdani GM and Talwar PK. 1981. On the generic
genera and three new species of earthworm eels from the relationship of the eel-like fish, Pillaia khajuriai Talwar,
Malay Peninsula and Borneo (Teleostei: Chaudhuriidae). Yazdani and Kundu (Perciformes, Mastacembeloidei).
Ichthyo. Explo. Freshwaters, 5(2): 181 - 190. Bulletin zool. Surv. India. 4(3): 287 - 288.
Kullander SO, Britz R and Fang F. 2000. Pillaia

kachinica, a new Chaudhuridae fish from Myanmar, with
observations on the genus Garo (Teleostei:
Chaudhuriidae). Ichthyo. Explo. Freshwaters, 11(4): 327-
334.
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Sewali Pathak, Mrigendra M. Goswami and
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Mastacembeloidei) from India. Proc. Indian Acad.

Journal of Research in Biology ISSN No: Print: 2231 6280; Online: 2231- 6299

Original Research
Microbiological control agents for cooling systems in

hydroelectric power plants
Authors: ABSTRACT:
Paulo RD Marangoni1*,
Carolina Gracia Poitevin2,
Patricia R Dalzoto2,
Marcos AC Berton1 and Many hydroelectric power plants and industries use chemicals to minimize
Ida C Pimentel2. problems caused by clogging and corrosion consequence from accumulated organic
material in cooling systems. The chemicals used to avoid these processes must be
Institution:
strictly controlled, especially those based on chlorinated compounds, potential
1. Servio Nacional de
precursors of trihalomethanes, which are carcinogenic to humans and other animals.
Aprendizagem Industrial
SENAI, Instituto Senai de This study compared the sensitivity of potential alternatives to the use of chlorinated
Inovao em Eletroqumica, compounds in cooling systems, releasing free chlorine in the riverbed downstream of
CEP 80215-090, Av. hydroelectric plants, besides the evaluation of the efficiency of these compounds in
Comendador Franco 1341, the control of bacteria that are surface colonizers and potential biofilms formers.
Jardim Botnico, Considering microbiological aspects, the results indicated three options for replacing
Curitba (PR). Calcium Hypochlorite. Such products are MXD-100, anolyte of water electrolysis
system of Radical Waters, and application of NaOH for changing the pH in cooling
2. Universidade Federal do
systems. The use of efficient methods to control the adhesion of microorganisms in
Paran, Setor de Cincias
Biolgicas, Laboratrio de cooling systems assists the power plants in reducing unscheduled maintenance of
Microbiologia e Biologia equipment that are exposed to corrosion processes influenced by microorganisms and
Molecular, CEP: 81530-900, consequently suffer mechanical failures, which interferes in the duration and
Av.Cel Francisco H dos frequency of electricity production interruptions.
Santos s/n Jardim das
amricas, Curitba (PR)
Brasil.
Corresponding author: Keywords:

Paulo RD Marangoni. Antimicrobial agents, biofilm, water treatment, biocides, biocorrosion,
hydroelectric power station
Email Id: Article Citation:

Paulo RD Marangoni, Carolina Gracia Poitevin, Patricia R Dalzoto, Marcos AC Berton
and Ida C Pimentel.
Microbiological control agents for cooling systems in hydroelectric power plants.
Web Address: Dates:

http://jresearchbiology.com/ Received: 15 May 2014 Accepted: 30 May 2014 Published: 30 Jun 2014
documents/RA0451.pdf.
1371-1380 | JRB | 2014 | Vol 4 | No 5

An International
Marangoni et al., 2014
INTRODUCTION et al., 2001), the total cost (corrective, direct and

Microbial corrosion, or biocorrosion, is the indirect) with corrosion in the electricity sector was
electrochemical process of metal dissolution initiated or $ 17.3 billion, which is 2.5 times the value presented in
accelerated by microorganisms. The formation of FHWA and NACE International report (FHWA and
deposits on the surface of equipment is generically NACE, 2002). In Brazil, this scenario presents itself
denominate fouling or accumulation. The negative effect differently due to the level of industrialization and
of such deposit is a significant decrease in the especially the differential energy matrix, as the main
equipments efficiency and life cycle (Videla, 2003). source is hydroelectric, with 69% of the whole
According to the medium and material, two main production, instead of nuclear thermoelectric and fossil
corrosive mechanisms may occur, electrochemical and fuel (Agncia Nacional de Energia Eltrica, 2014). The
chemical. In the electrochemical mechanism, chemical indices presented above are used by the Brazilian
reactions involving charge or electrons transfer occur Association of Corrosion - ABRACO Associao
through the interface or electrolyte, while in the chemical Brasileira de Corroso - as parameters for sizing
mechanism direct reactions between the material and the corrosion costs in Brazil (Associao Brasileira de
corrosive media occur, with no electric current Corroso, 2012). Several sectors are affected by
generation (Gentil, 2011). In accordance with FHWA biocorrosion: industries in general (naval, petrochemical,
and NACE International reports (FHWA and NACE bioprocess, chemical, refineries, etc.), buried pipelines,
2002) about costs of corrosion and prevention strategies sealing fuel tanks in aircraft and vessels, power
in the United States, the direct cost of corrosion generation plants (thermoelectric, hydroelectric, nuclear,
represents 3.1% of national GDP, that is US$ 276 billion, etc.), but it is estimated that 20% of the deterioration of
according to data collected in 1998 from across the metallic surfaces are derived from biological processes
North American industrial chain. The same report shows related to electrochemical factors inherent to corrosion
that the cost of corrosion prevention represents 1.38% of (Beech and Gaylarde 1999). Effective control of biofilms
GDP resulting in US$ 121 billion. If control techniques, can be achieved by understanding the type and nature of
such as paints and coatings, cathodic protection, contamination on the surface (carbohydrates, fats,
application of corrosion inhibitors and biological control proteins, minerals) and microorganisms involved in that
agents, were adopted, it is estimated that between 25% to colonization. The selection of sanitizers and microbial
30% of the total cost of corrosion could be saved biocontrol agents depend on their effectiveness and
annually, which means between 69 and 82 billion (1% safety to the applicator and to the environment, therefore
of U.S. GDP). The direct cost of corrosion in the U.S. the corrosive nature of the product should be observed so
electricity sector (generation, transmission and that it does not amplify the deterioration of the surface
distribution) is US$ 6.9 billion, shared by the major colonized by microorganisms (Simes et al., 2010). The
sources of American energy as follow: US$ 4.2 billion compounds to be used can be disinfectants,
for electricity generated by nuclear power, US$ 1.9 preservatives, sterilizing or antimicrobial agents
billion for corrosion in sources of energy generated by (Sondossi, 2004). The development of antimicrobial
fossil fuels, US$0.15 billion for corrosion in resistance mechanisms is not entirely clear, but recently
hydroelectric power plants and other sources and US$ several studies have shown a wide variety of models and
0.6 billion for transmission and distribution. According explanations for the factors that influence the resistance
EPRI, Electrical Power Research Institute (Gorman, of microorganisms to antimicrobial agents (Simes et al.,
2010; Bauer and Robinson 2002; Sondossi 2004; Mah who live around power plants. In the present study,
and OToole 2001). There are multiple mechanisms synthetics and natural products were tested for their
involved in resistance presented by biofilms, each of efficiency in the control of colonizing surface bacteria
them contributing to the group's survival and better and potential biofilms formers. Some industrial biocides
adaptation to the environment where they live. The applied to water treatment, cooling towers and cooling
factors vary depending on the bacteria on the biofilm, water systems are presented by Sondossi (Sondossi
type of control agent to be used, product concentration, 2004), who presents some compounds used in the present
equipment design and operating conditions (Mah and work, such as Hypochlorite, Sodium Hydroxide and
OToole 2001; Simes et al., 2010; Egua et al., 2008; Glutaraldehyde. However, the present work proposes the
Hquet et al., 2011). Each of these mechanisms form replacement of chlorine compounds by substances that
physical and chemical barriers to the penetration of the reduce the concentration of free chlorine in natural water
biofilm control agent that, due to the combination of treatment systems that are used in industrial cooling
these factors, shall have an "own phenotype", which systems, because it should meet quality requirements in
should be evaluated so that the best strategy may be order to keep equipment in operation and not to harm the
used. As each microbiological control agent may be environment when used in open circuits.
applied to a particular type of biofilm, preliminary
studies are necessary in order to assess the type of MATERIALS AND METHODS
"contamination" (adhesion) occurring on the surface to The microbial biocontrol agents used for
be treated (Simes et al., 2010). To control biofilm disinfecting surfaces were: glutaraldehyde (1 ppm),
formation and biocorrosion, several hydroelectric power bleach (1 and 3 ppm), calcium hypochlorite (1 and 3
plants in Brazil use chemical compounds to avoid ppm), sodium hydroxide (pH 9 and 12), dichloro (1 and
clogging in cooling systems and hence interruption of 3 ppm), ECA anolyte (RW) (1, 3, 5 and 10 ppm), MXD-
electric power generation. For that, most use chlorine 100 (1 and 3 ppm), azadirachtin (1 and 3 ppm), extract
compounds for treatment of natural water used in the of neem (1 and 3 ppm), neem Oil (1 and 3 ppm), orobor
cooling system. Currently, it is meant to replace these (1 and 3 ppm), copaiba oil (1 and 3 ppm), clove oil (1
compounds, since it is known that in contact with and 3 ppm).
organic material they can influence the formation of Antimicrobial Activity in Solid Medium
trihalomethanes, a group of organic compounds derived To evaluate the sensitivity of microbiological
from methane in which three molecules of hydrogen are control agents disc diffusion method on agar (NCCLS
substituted by an equal number of atoms of halogen and CLSI 2003; NCCLS and CLSI 2005) was used.
elements such as chlorine, bromine and iodine (Hong The microorganisms employed for this study were:
et al., 2007; Xue et al., 2009; Hong et al., 2013; Palacios Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29212, Escherichia coli
et al., 2000). These compounds are known for their toxic ATCC 25922, Escherichia coli ATCC 35218,
action and carcinogenic potential (Liu et al., 2011; Haemophilus influenzae ATCC 49247, Haemophilus
Takanashi et al., 2001), therefore it is important to influenzae ATCC 49766, Klebsiella pneumoniae
monitor the use of a microbial control agent to ensure the ATCC 700603, Neisseria gonorrhoeae ATCC 49226,

efficiency of cooling systems (Morato et al., 2003; Ps eu d o mo n a s a e ru g in o sa AT C C 27853,

LeChevallier et al., 1988) and maintain the quality of Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923 and Streptococcus
waters from the rivers that are normally used by people pneumoniae ATCC 49619.

The strains were inoculated into tryptic soy broth concentration was reached in the positive control so it
(TSB) and incubated at 35 C in an incubator for 18h. was possible to compare the results between samples
After culture, turbidity was measured using a with microbial biocontrol agents and the positive control.
spectrophotometer UV/VIS in a wave length of 600nm, The antimicrobial activity was evaluated using the
8
equivalent to McFarland 0.5 (approximately 1,5 x 10 methodology of test tubes with liquid medium and the

UFC/mL of E. coli ATCC 25922). turbidimetric analysis using a spectrophotometer UV/
Holes were done in tryptic soy agar plate using VIS, in the range of 600 nm. Transmittance was
sterile metallic punch (8 mm in diameter and 4mm in measured and compared to a standard curve established
depth) aiming deposition of biocidal test solutions for the through the spectrophotometer measures of MacFarland
bacteria of interest. This step was performed prior to the scale patterns.
inoculation of microorganism with swab to ensure that Experimental design
no contamination and differential growth occurred due to The experiment was completely randomized and
the time of preparation of these plates with holes. The data were analyzed by Factorial Experiments followed
plates were incubated (non-inverted) in an incubator, at by Tukey test for the comparison of means (p<0.01)
35C, up to 15 min after the application of inoculum and using software ASSISTAT v7.6 (Silva and Azevedo
Biocide with swab and were incubated for 24 h (Gelinski 2009).
et al., 2007; Siqueira Jr et al., 2000).
The diameters of the total inhibition halos were RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
measured in millimeters using a pachymeter, including Through disc diffusion test and turbidimetry,
the diameter of orifice. which tested the different microbial biocontrol agents
Antimicrobial activity in liquid medium against bacteria precursor of biofilm formation, it was
For the test in tubes with liquid medium, only possible to identify potential substitutes for chlorinated
one microorganism of each family mentioned below was compounds, which results are shown in Figure 1 and
used: Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853 Figure 2. It is possible to identify biological control
(Pseudomonadaceae), Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 agents with antimicrobial power similar to commercial
(Enterobacteriaceae), Staphylococcus aureus ATCC compounds such as Sodium Hypochlorite and Calcium,
25923 (Micrococcaceae). The media used were: M9 that are currently used for the disinfection of natural
Minimum Salts (M9), Peptone Water (PW) and Tryptic waters in cooling systems (Netto and Samuel, 2011;
Soy Broth (TSB). Giordani et al., 2005), and consequently used to control
The strains were inoculated into tryptic soy broth the corrosion influenced by microorganisms.
(TSB) and incubated at 35C in an incubator for 18 h. The product MXD-100 was effective
After culture, turbidity was measured using a in controlling the growth of microorganisms by diffusion
spectrophotometer UV/VIS wave length of 600 nm, in solid and liquid medium in the two concentrations
equivalent to McFarland 0.5 (approximately 1,5 x 10 8 tested, 1 ppm and 3 ppm (Figure 1 and Figure 2).

UFC/mL of E. coli ATCC 25922). In each of the test It is also possible to verify that there are other options
6
tubes, 10 UFC/mL was inoculated (concentration such as using NaOH (Figure 1 and Figure 2) to change
obtained by diluting the standardized inoculum). the pH of the cooling system for pH 9 and pH 12.
8
Concentration less than 10 CFU/ml was used because at These compounds were as effective as commercial
the end of cultivation in liquid medium this bleach at 3 ppm (Figure 1 and Figure 2), which is

used as surface sanitizer. The prevention and treatment of biocorrosion

Usually, in hydroelectric power plants such have as main feature the reduction and control of biofilm
products are applied: calcium hypochlorite, sodium development. Chemical treatments applied to control
hypochlorite, dichloro, gaseous chlorine, sodium biofilms involve the use of microbial control agents
dichloroisocyanurate, and other chemical compounds (Biocides), other penetrant and adsorbent substances
such as Sodium Hydroxide, Ozone, Copper Sulfate and among others to aid penetration and dispersion of these
antifouling paints (Giordani etal., 2005). The chlorine- compounds to increase efficiency in the treatment
based compounds follow environmental laws, (Guiamet and Saravia, 2005).
establishing a limit of 0.01 mg/L for total residual The criteria for selecting a good agent for
chlorine (free + combined) downstream the power plants, microbiological control are summarized as follows:
when the receiving water body is classified as Class I 1) effective control of microorganisms in general,
freshwater, that meets the standards of human 2) penetration and destabilization of mature biofilms,
consumable supplies with primary treatment and 3) physicochemical stability with other products, eg.
protection of aquatic communities. The same law corrosion inhibitors and environmental factors (pH,
provides a limit of 250 mg/L Chloride for Class II rivers temperature, etc.), 4) low risk of handling and easy
that meet the former requirements and are also destined storage, 5) biodegradable, 6) low cost (Gaylarde and
to human and animal consumption after primary Videla, 1992).
treatment, balneability, and use in agricultural activities Currently, three criteria are very important:
(Conselho Nacional do Meio Ambiente 2005). efficiency, toxicity and biodegradability. Due to this,
In the tests performed in this study, the calcium new sources, mainly of natural compounds for the
hypochlorite to 3 ppm showed 68.95% of efficiency in control of microorganisms in water pipes and cooling
controlling the growth of bacteria in the disc diffusion systems are studied (Guiamet and Saravia, 2005). There
test (Figure 1), and 75.57% in the liquid medium test are numerous plants, oils and alcoholic and aqueous
(Figure 2) compared to positive and negative controls, extracts of plants with antimicrobial effects (Heisey and
respectively. But currently new molecules are being Gorman 1992; Masood et al., 1994; Baranowski et al.,
studied to avoid the use of this compound in open 1980; Gilliver and Osborn, 1994; De and Banerjee, 1999;
systems (Liu et al., 2011; Hong et al., 2007). Mercedes et al., 2011; Lavania et al., 2011; Prabhakar
et al., 2010).
Figure 1 Sensitivity of bacteria to microbial biocontrol agents on solid media Disc diffusion test.
* Significant at 1% probability (p < 0.01)
** Results presented with same capital letter not represent significant differences between of samples

Figure 2 - Sensitivity of bacteria to microbial biocontrol agents in liquid medium - Turbidimetry

* Significant at 1% probability (p < 0.01)
** Results presented with same capital letter not represent significant differences between of samples
These compounds were as effective as bleach to "Radical Water" to 10ppm (Figure 1 and Figure 2)
3 ppm (Figure 1 and Figure 2), which is used as surface proved to be a substitute for Calcium Hypochlorite in
sanitizer. It is usually applied in power plant products controlling biofilm formation in hydroelectric power
with the same principle of action of bleach, such as plants. Its active principle is based on the action of
calcium hypochlorite, sodium hypochlorite, dichloro, hypochlorous acid, which is less harmful than
gaseous chlorine, sodium dichloroisocyanurate, and other hypochlorite, and does not require storage of any
chemical compounds such as sodium hydroxide, ozone, chemicals such as sodium hydroxide. Its production is
copper sulfate and antifouling paints (Giordani et al., based on the electrolysis of water and requires only
2005), The chlorinebased compounds follow electricity and conductive solution of 2.5% NaCl iodine
environmental laws, establishing a limit of 0.01 mg / L free (Thantsha and Cloete 2006). As hydroelectric power
for total residual chlorine (free + combined) downstream plants have periods of low electricity production due to
the power plants, when the receiving water body is reduced demand during certain periods, for example, at
classified as Class I freshwater, that meets the standard night, the turbines operate in "standby" mode and
of human consumable supplies with primary treatment therefore, the energy required for water electrolysis
and protection of aquatic communities. The same law could be enhanced by using this energy. The control
provides a limit of 250 mg / L Chloride for Class II efficiency of the tested bacteria in the liquid medium and
rivers that meet the former requirements and are also disc diffusion test were respectively 72.09% (Figure 1)
destined to human and animal consumption after primary and 77.62% (Figure 2), results that are close to those
treatment, balneability, and use in agricultural activities obtained with Calcium Hypochlorite, which is currently
(Conselho Nacional do Meio Ambiente 2005). used by hydroelectric power plants to control fouling.
In closed systems, glutaraldehyde can be used. The addition of sodium hydroxide solution 50%
However, this compound exhibits high toxicity. Thus, in to change the pH of the solution to pH 9 resulted in
the present work, it was used only for comparison reducing the growth of bacteria in disc diffusion test
purposes, since it is normally used at 50 ppm in cooling 85.81% (Figure 1), and in liquid media test it was
tower systems, where there is no open circulation 89.75% (Figure 2).
(Sondossi 2004). This compound showed 76.76% Comparing to other products, MXD-100 showed
efficiency at a concentration of 1ppm (Figure 1) and the best results in controlling the growth of bacteria in
80.40% in a liquid medium (Figure 2). Nevertheless, the disc diffusion test and turbidimetry in liquid medium. It
use of the anolyte of the electrified water system was observed a reduction of 87.57% (Figure 1) in the

growth in solid medium using a concentration of 3 ppm, The results observed in this study suggest
and a reduction of 92.06% (Figure 2) in a liquid medium potential alternatives to the use of Calcium Hypochlorite
using the same concentration. in the primary treatment and improvement of natural
Other compounds based on natural sources have waters used in cooling system in Hydroelectric Power
shown effectiveness in reducing the growth of bacteria in Plant located in northern Brazil. The replacement of this
disc diffusion and turbidimetry tests: azadiractin 3ppm compound for products such as MXD-100, anolyte ECA
(respectively 73.52% and 79.37%), orobor 3ppm and NaOH which have better efficiency in the control of
(respectively 76.49% and 81.29%) and clove Oil 3 ppm biofilms, can help to reduce costs with maintenance and
(respectively 78.81% and 84.49%). However, further repairs on equipment immersed or in contact with natural
studies are necessary to allow its use in industrial waters, in addition to improving the quality of water
systems, in order to correct problems such as cost and / released downstream from the power plant and that
or solubility in water (Figure 1 and Figure 2). serves the local population.
Most hydroelectric power plants use Calcium
Hypochlorite as control fouling agent and sanitizer of CONCLUSION
cooling systems (Giordani et al., 2005; Mder Netto Among evaluated microbiological control agents,
2011). This compound is currently suffering some three options may be considered for treating natural
restrictions due to the ability to form trihalomethanes and waters in heat exchanger systems in hydroelectric power
haloacetic acids in the presence of residual chlorine with plants, due to greater efficiency in microbial control:
organic matter (Hong et al., 2007; Xue et al., 2009; MXD-100, anolyte ECA and NaOH. Removing biofilms
Hong et al., 2013; Palacios et al., 2000; Gagnon et al., in natural water treatment systems in thermal exchange
2005), being potential carcinogens (Liu et al., 2011; systems of power plants is important due to the clogging
Takanashi et al., 2001). and biocorrosion processes, which interfere the
The mechanism of action of chlorine when added production of electricity in hydroelectric plants. Brazil
to water follows the following reaction: Cl2 + H2O has most of its energy matrix based on hydropower,
HOCl + HCl, forming hypochlorous acid, HOCl, and being approximately 67% of generated energy. Thus, the
+
hydrochloric acid. HOCl dissociates into H ions and results obtained are relevant in order to minimize
-
ClO ion, hypochlorite, which is the active oxidizing problems and economic losses in the energy sector,
agent. The action of the hypochlorite oxidant is most arising from the exposure of equipment to the influence
effective at pH values between 6.5 and 7.5, becoming of natural waters.
ineffective above pH 9. This compound reacts rapidly
with inorganic reducing agents, such as sulfides, sulfites ACKNOWLEDGMENT
and nitrites, and organic matter (Gentil 2011; Lpez- We thank Centrais Eltricas do Norte do Brasil
Galindo et al., 2010). Some studies show the formation S/A for financial support and availability for the
of these compounds in natural waters, both marine development of this work, Instituto de Tecnologia para o
environment (Lpez-Galindo et al., 2010) and freshwater Desenvolvimento LACTEC and Laboratrio de
(Hong et al., 2013), but particularly in water treatment Microbiologia e Biologia Molecular press Universidade
systems for both human consumption and industrial Federal do Paran for support, providing infrastructure
cooling systems (Lpez-Galindo et al., 2010; Murthy and staff.
et al., 2005; Gagnon et al., 2005; Egua et al., 2008).

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Original Research
Knowledge of diseases and animal control methods at the

Grand Kanem in Chad
Authors: ABSTRACT:
Ban-Bo Bebanto Antipas1, The purpose of this study at first was to know the level of knowledge of
Mian-Oudanang Koussou2, farmers on recurrent diseases in Grand Kanem and ways to fight against them; and
Mopate Logtn Youssouf 2,
secondly to provide NGOs and policy makers with ways to improve the animal health
Nakour Nargaye2, and
Brahim Guihini2. situation of animals in this region. Two team of experts were formed to cover the area
of study in 10 days. Operating income for the livestock system is concerned mainly in
the study. Sheets serving as guides for interviews focused on the following points: the
most common diseases, the disease name in the vernacular, the periods of their
appearance, the manifestation of these diseases, the major difficulties to fight against
these diseases and so on. The individual interviews with farmers and groups (focus)
helped to know the level of knowledge of recurrent diseases in the region. The
description of the manifestation of certain diseases, their time of onset and the
Institution:
1. Faculty of Exact Sciences socioeconomic consequences show familiarity among breeders with these
and Applied - University of conditions. Although most farmers are aware of the products that can protect their
N'Djamena Po Box:1027, flock, non-mastery of preventive practices is a serious handicap for the development
NDjamena, Chad. of this segment of the population in Chad. Viral, bacterial and parasitic diseases
remain a major challenge for the health of animals in the area. Pastoralism is the best
2. Livestock Research organized farming system of the area which seems to be one of the factors favoring
Institute for Development
the emergence of diseases. Access to services, products and the lack of respondent
Po Box: 433, NDjamena,
breeders are also factors favoring the emergence of disease. Risk factors are not
Chad.
known by breeders, technical care and treatment are also not mastered by
them. Preventive measures associated with these diseases are poorly
understood. Awareness and training programs should be done for breeders in order to
improve appropriate techniques and practices in the conduct of improving healthy
livestock, through vaccination of livestock breeders and structures are contributing to
improve the quality of animal health in the area.
Corresponding author: Keywords:

Ban-Bo Bebanto Antipas. Diseases, Factors favoring, Prevention, Health status, Breeders, Grand Kanem,
Chad.
Email Id: Article Citation:

Ban-Bo Bebanto Antipas, Mian-Oudanang Koussou, Mopate Logtn Youssouf,
Nakour Nargaye and Brahim Guihini.
Knowledge of diseases and animal control methods at the Grand Kanem in Chad.
Web Address: Dates:

http://jresearchbiology.com/
documents/RA0455.pdf. Received: 09 Jun 2014 Accepted: 07 Jul 2014 Published: 21 Jul 2014

1387-1396 | JRB | 2014 | Vol 4 | No 5

An International
Ban-bo et al., 2014
INTRODUCTION Chari-Baguirmi and Hadjer-Lamis which are reception

Since 90s, a period of privatization in Chad, areas for farmers from Grand Kanem during the dry
certain animal diseases are increasingly recurrent and season. Two teams of five persons each have been
prevalent in the area. According to the Direction of established to cover the area in ten days. The first team
Veterinary Services, telluric diseases (anthrax, blackleg traveled across Northern Kanem and Lake Chad, and the
and pasteurellosis), pleuropneumonia (CBPP) and other other team travelled across the Bahr El Gazal and
viral bacterial and parasitic origins of diseases are more Hadjer-Lamis. The routes for both the teams were by
recurrent in Chad. However, the health protection of formulated technicians of the ACF with more or less
livestock is a concern for both administrative authorities flexibility due to difficulties encountered in the field
and farmers. The withdrawal of the state, not perceptible such as dispersion breeders and difficulty of the
presence of private, inadequate immunization coverage movement. In total 11 villages and 24 wells and ferrick
in the country, the lack of knowledge of predisposing were surveyed by both these teams.
factors onset and propagation, not mastery of technical Investigations
care and treatment animals are the problems that seem to Three investigative tools have been implemented
be the cause for the recurrence of diseases. In order to in the field viz: the Focus Group, individual surveys and
propose ways of improving the health, a study was observations. Various contexts which were faced, have
conducted in the Grand Kanem region by the NGO led to the flexibility in implementing these two
Action Against Hunger (ACF-France). This region is the methods. When meeting with the farmers were held at
trait of union between desert and Sudanian zone that the well or in a place where there was a ceremony,
imposes husbandry practices. These practices and the Focus Group has been consistently favored over
traditional breeding techniques handed down from individual interviews.
generation to generation seem to be well It is arrived in some villages visited fricks the
mastered. Transhumance is one of the best mastered number of farmers present was insufficient to hold
practices known to be found among them. However, a Focus Group, in these cases, we conducted individual
difficulties observed in the sanitary practices of this area interviews.
make the work of NGOs ineffective. Hence, objective of The survey, conducted in the form of focus and
this study is to know the level of knowledge of diseases individual interviews focused among others on the
by farmers to better understand the ways of prevention following points: farming practices, the most common
and fight against them. illnesses, the disease name in the vernacular, the periods
of their occurrence, manifestation of these diseases, the
MATERIALS AND METHODS major difficulties to fight against these diseases, etc.
Study Area Direct Observation
It corresponds to the area of intervention of the In this study we watched some sick animals that
ACF. This is a set of three administrative regions: Lake have been presented. But different case did not justify a
(Lake area and the islands), Kanem (North Kanem, levy to be made.
Northern Nokou) and Bahr El Ghazal (Soulia). They The results were discussed with representatives
form what is called the Grand Kanem; farmers of the local veterinary authorities and with
spend there in the rainy season-an attachment area representatives of the ACF to ensure knowledge of these
for ranchers. These three regions are added to diseases by farmers. Direction of Veterinary Services
Ban-bo et al., 2014
which has a data bank collected over several decades was evaluation in the study and symptomatic treatment
accessed, in order to reconcile the information collected observed in farmers field, we would like to use terms to
and those it holds. The analysis focused on the definition describe suspicion results. Ticks are not diseases, but
of this concept to prioritization of common diseases by cause diseases; in some places especially in northern
species and sites, the timing and frequency of their Kanem farmers consider ticks as diseases. They are the
occurrence, the manifestation of the disease, risk factors cause of chokes, observed among animals
(endemic diseases), the current health system in the weaknesses. The name of the disease is most often
country and the need for producers to participate in the confused with the tick (Table I).
prevention of diseases. Most cattle diseases described above are known
to losses and socioeconomic consequences they cause
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION in the study area. In some households the
Animal Diseases survey identified 3-7 mortalities of livestock
The diagnosis of pathologies in Grand Kanem is breeder. These are anthrax and symptomatic coal and
based solely on clinical and epidemiological data. While pasteurellosis, trypanosomiasis, Contagious Bovine
considering the results, obtained by certain medical Pleuro-Pneumonia (CBPP), sore mouth (orf) and Foot
Table I: Pathology described by farmers in cattle
Onset period Suspicion

Some symptoms of pathological
manifestations
Local Arab English Local languages English
Gorane : Djoufour;
Flickering, tearing, hair bitten,
Kanembou : Bou Trypanosomiasis
anorexia, uremia, throat swelling, Sef Hot dry season
Foulani : I am;
weight loss
Arabic : Djoufar
Local swelling with crackling on Gorane : Darkatchok;
Blackleg
palpation in muscle (Member), chit Cool season Arabic: Abouwarama, Ambeidi;
hair bitten, prostration Kanembou : Bantou foutouna
Gorane : Dachounou;
Diarrhea, prostration, sudden
Kanembou: Balto Anthrax
death of animals in good Kharif Season rains
Fulani : Balki;
overweight
Arabic : Amdrdim
Significant edema, prostration, Gorane : Goufoudou Pasteurellosis
chit Cool season
nasal discharge Kanembou : djourdjour
Contagious bovine
Weakness, cough, dyspnea with Gorane : Safo / dofonagna;
pleuropneumonia
noise, discharge, prostration, no Sef Dry season Kanembou : Foufou;
(CBPP)
diarrhea Arabic : Amfachfache
Gorane : Kagna
Sores in the mouth, teats and Foot and mouth
Kanembou : Talam
hooves, salivation, loss of appetite, Sef Dry season disease
Fulani : Mborou
weight loss.
Arabic : Ablissane
Mouth sores, hypertrophy of Orf
chit Cool season Gorane : Bouloum
lymph maxillary
Small nodules throughout the Smallpox
Sef Dry season Gorane : fourtoum
body, blindness
Gorane : manassou
Thinning hair bitten Sef All seasons
Arabic : amgourdam
Prostration, deep set eyes, died Gorane : Gire Heatstroke
Sef Warm season
after drinking Fulani : Dam

Ban-bo et al., 2014
Table II: Implementation rate sheets by Regional Delegation of Livestock
Regional delegation Number of monitoring Rate of

Total pages / Month Forecast Achievements
Livestock stations achievement
Hadjer - Lamis 14 5 70 0 0.0
Lake 13 5 65 0 0.0
Kanem 14 5 70 0 0.0
Source: DSV, 2011
and Mouth Disease (FMD). They appear on the list of Diseases of camels
diseases to be monitored across the country. According Among the recurrent and emerging diseases in
to the definition of the OIE, they are subjected to camels, there are also diseases to be monitored. Telluric
mandatory reporting. But their monitoring remains very diseases prominently with important socioeconomic
low or non-existent in the area of ACF project (Table II). consequences are antipasteurellique. The vaccination has
According to the annual report of the Ministry not been an obligation regulated since 2001.
of Pastoral Development and Animal Productions, Some ectoparasites are also worth mentioning:
the rate of vaccination against anthrax and symptomatic the haemonchoses, intestinal worms, ticks,
coal is very low in the study area (less than Hygromas gallus, etc. According to farmers these
1%). According to the same source, no vaccination parasites play an important role in the impairment of the
against the pasteurellosis has been is made in 2010 in quality of meat and milk. (Table III).
the study area (DSV, 2011). Diseases of small ruminants
As for soil-borne diseases, vaccination against Diseases of small ruminants in the area identified
pleuropneumonia (CBPP) is normally imposed on all on the list of diseases are to be monitored in Chad. It
cattle on Chadian territory in its entirety, although no should be noted that among the diseases mentioned,
regulatory text is to formalize the mandatory nature of plague of peste des petits (PPR) dominates in this species
this prophylaxis. The Lake Chad region is an area of high (Figure 1). Vaccination is not practiced for these
prevalence of CBPP, and should therefore be subjected
to greater vaccination effort. However, there is coverage
of 2.25 Lac; 3.53% in Hadjer-Lamis; 0% at Barh El
Gazal and Kanem (DSV, 2011).
Trypanosomiasis in cattle is particularly
important in the Lake. Breeders of Ngouri believe that it
causes more than 40% mortality. FMD and orf are of
equal important. Farmers have a good knowledge of
these diseases prevalent regularly in the area and are
monitored. But none were found to be reporting about
them. Smallpox and heatstroke generally are
socioeconomic consequences.
Figure 1 : Goat reached PPR

Ban-bo et al., 2014
Table III: Pathologies identified in camels

Some symptoms of the disease
outbreak
Gorane : Darkatchok
Swelling of the hind limbs (shoulders),
Kharif Rainy season Arabic : Abouwarama, Blackleg
uremia, lameness
ambeidir
Pasty diarrhea, weight loss, abortion of Gorane : Cherchina

Kharif Rainy season Haemonchosis
female Arab Somal
Tearing, hair dive, edema in the lower
Gorane : Djoufour
abdomen, emaciation, agalactia, loss of
Sef Dry Season Kanembou : Bou Trypanosomiasis
appetite, urinary retention and / or strong
Arabic : Djoufar
odor.
Swelling of the neck and mandibular
Gorane : Djahdir Pasteurellosis
lymph nodes, hair bitten, constipation, Kharif Rainy season
Kanembou: ndjourndjour
diarrhea greenish abortion
Cool and rainy Gorane : Bouloum
Sore on the lips, swelling of the head Kharif Ecthyma contagious
season Arabic : Amdedche
Hair loss, itching sores on the skin, Gorane : tourkom

Sef Dry Season Hygroma Galus
weight loss, Arabic : Djarab
Emaciation, edema lower neck, agalactia, Hot and Dry Gorane : Kouli
Sef Intestinal worms
abortion Season Arabic : Dout
Gorane : manassou
Thinning hair bitten Sef Dry Season Parasitic external
Arabic : amgourdam
Prostration, deep set eyes, died after Gorane : Gire

Sef Warm season Heatstroke
drinking. Fulani : Dam
diseases. According to farmers, it causes a mortality of pyrotechnica and Prosopis sp. Cause abortion in cows in
between 20 to 47.8% (Table IV). the last trimester. That is why the animals are sent to the
By cons, vaccination against pasteurellosis is Lake to December to March (a form of prevention
very little practiced in some regions (DSV, 2011) and against this phenomenon, which is observed in recent
also Contagious Caprine Pleuro Pneumonia (CCPP) five years) (Table V).
caused by a mycoplasma is quite recurrent in the area. Cases of neck stiffness and torticollis, followed
Unidentified by farmers Diseases by death in camels were reported in the region of Bahr el
Some farmers reported the presence of Ghazal and Hadjer-Lamis, but rather in ov / cap the same
Goran oasis Yeguil I, II and Bour in the flowers symptoms have been described. The causes of these
of plants, Kangar (Prosopis sp.) at the Northern diseases are unknown.
Kanem region. Consumption of these flowers causes It would be interesting to conduct a study to
contractions and torticollis in camels, cracking teeth in determine the nature of these species, consisting
cattle and goats. In camels food bowl often remains essentially of Leptadenia and Prosopis in Kanem and
in the mouth. Others argue that it is rather the case Lac. It is the same for other diseases (sorop,
or give Leptadenia sp. jaw that causes this Cherchina daoufoudi in Goran) and those that are not
paralysis. Death occurs thereafter. By cons known in French and Goran.
in the Lake until Ngouri consumption leaves Leptadenia

Ban-bo et al., 2014
In general, all the above diseases have been well in the livestock grazing forage through contaminated
described by breeders. Periods of disease onset are also wounds and skin lesions during seasonal variations
well known to breeders. This shows that farmers are (Emma, 1989; HCSP, 2011). Considering these
familiar with these diseases, also the level of knowledge observations, the ubiquity of ticks and tabanits observed
of these diseases to farmers. As for treatment, the source in the Lake region may be vectors of pathogens that
of disease and especially prevention (anticipation of the borne for diseases. Pets (cats, dogs, horses, chickens,
onset of these diseases), they are far from being known etc.) accompanying their transhumance routes can collect
and controlled by them. bacteria, viruses and other parasites in the cursed fields
In view of the above tables and field and convey among transhumant animals. Inadequate
observations, clinically diagnosed diseases are endemic health personnel can provide advice and treatment on the
and well known breeders. They are viral, bacterial and field; non mastery of techniques and farming practices
parasitic origin. According to the farmers surveyed, these by farmers (care, mismanagement of corpses) squeezed
diseases are recurrent and have a very important socio- between other recurring causes of disease observed in the
economic impact (ACF, 2013). region. These observations confirm the provisions of the
Factors Promoting the Spread of Disease OIE (OIE, 2002). Moreover, during the transhumance
Infectious agents of soil-borne diseases livestock concentration from different backgrounds is
are bacteria (Bacillus anthracis, Clostridium chauvoei observed around traditional wells. Direct contact
or Clostridium septicum and Pasteurella Multocida between animals - animals is established. Which would
or Pasteurella haemolytica).Spores amplify the fields of action of mechanical vectors (ticks
of Bacillus and Clostridium are very resistant infectious and Tabanidae) of certain diseases, source of infection
agents in nature. Some authors argue that soil bacteria and reinfection (Ban-bo et al., 2012).
can survive for years in soil and contaminate fodder and Corpses dumped in nature are counted in the
forage surfaces. Other authors report that pets harbor hundreds (Figure 2 and 3). These animals died due to
microorganisms, viruses, bacteria and other contaminates disease are usually not diagnosed. Some breeders say
Table IV: Pathologies identified in Small Ruminants (Ov / cap)

Some symptoms of the disease outbreak
Cough, purulent nasal discharge and watery Gorane : Ari

Dry season Plague of Small
eyes, swollen lips and edematous, profuse chit Kanembou : Kourfou
and fresh Ruminants
diarrhea or soft Fulani : Fufu
Cough, nasal discharge, dyspnea, no Dry season

chit Fulani : Karganguel PPCC
diarrhea, legs apart and fresh
local edema (members), diarrhea, hair bitten, Dry season Gorane : In in Pasteurellosis
chit
prostration and fresh Kanembou : ndjourndjour
Gorane : Dachounou
Kanembou : Balto
Jitters, diarrhea, high mortality, sudden death Kharif Rainy season Anthrax
Fulani : Balki
Arabic : Amdrdim

Ban-bo et al., 2014
that they bury the dead animal bodies which were animals. The problem of under dosing veterinary
affected by suites contagious diseases like two products is also recurring. Non mastery of technical care
coals. Others believe that the corpses littering the can develop resistance in animals that eventually become
corridors are the corpses of starved animals. In all cases, a source of re-infection in the herd.
after death, the animals were buried, are burned, or left in Access to inputs is strongly related to veterinary
the wild. Non-control technique for the destruction of facilities in the area. Aside from veterinary stations, there
carcasses make these places as called "cursed fields" and are no other structures, to respond and to ad hoc calls;
in turn become sources of infection. According to several but veterinary officials are obliged to protect some
authors the direct contact between healthy carriers and products (antibiotics and vaccines). The real problem
diseased animals, dead and / or contaminated areas are a remains the movement of the agent. Although a
source of infection and viral or bacterial reinfection in minimum of 1,000 animals seems to be exaggerating to
susceptible hosts. The virus of Newcastle disease in pigs move a veterinary technician over 50 km, we must
shows the transition of the pathogen from one host to recognize that no agent cannot move if it is not sure to
another (Moura et al., 2010; Ban-bo et al., 2012; Yuan cover its expenses. Pharmacies and drug stores are
et al., 2012), which explains in part the endemicity of virtually nonexistent. Private veterinarians are not
coal and pasteurellosis. installed in the study area. Access to veterinary structures
Means to Fight seems to be very difficult; access to quality products are
Care of sick animals also limited. Which promotes the proliferation of
Since the privatization of livestock breeders and vendors and products coming in all the weekly markets
auxiliaries are not assisted as in the past, self-medication and created resistance and the emergence of diseases.
is common among farmers; auxiliary farmers turned into Prevention
health workers. Products of all comers are often The main diseases in cattle and camels are borne
administered to animals for the most cases they diseases for which vaccines are produced at Veterinary
eventually die. Lack of control over health care is a real Research Laboratory and Zootechnical Farcha: anthrax,
problem that usually leads to the death of the blackleg and pasteurellosis, trypanosomiasis; peste des
Table V: Diseases identified
Some symptoms of the

Period Animal species Cases by farmers Local name
disease outbreak
Diarrhea with traces of

Dry season Cattle Dirty water, fed Gorane : Cherchina
blood
Camels, Cattle,
Crack teeth, contraction, Kangar (Tree bafon) Gorane : Shemei /
Warm season Sheep / Goats, don-
torticollis, death or Propsopis sp. Guefiri
keys
Warm season season indicate the name
Maxillary swelling and Leptadenia
indicate otherwise Camels otherwise remove the
paralysis pyrotechnica
remove the line line
Ingestion of foreign bod-
Dry season Cattle Mineral deficiency Gorane : Sorop
ies, earth, corpses, urine
Swelling of the head and
neck, runny nose, gasp, Dry Season Small ruminants Unknown Gorane : Daoufoudi
cough
Camels, Sheep /
Stiff neck, torticollis, death Dry season Unknown Not
Goats

Ban-bo et al., 2014
petits ruminants in small ruminants. All diseases Awareness and Training

diagnosed in the area make losses and / or have This is a cross-cutting activity that allows
significant socio-economic impact, but prevention still partners to agree on the action to be taken on the
remains optional. But since 2001, an order is made by ground. It also helps to assess the degree course work
the authorities in charge of livestock for mandatory and ownership of technologies and practices in healthy
telluric diseases (Arrt n 204/ME/DG/DERA/2001 du breeding behavior. The themes to be developed will
12/06/01). But the problem lies in the prevention and include: the importance of vaccination act, how to avoid
care of animals. Farmers say that they vaccinate when the disease; groups and their role etc. All actors will be
their observe mortalities in the other breeders; no involved in this practice Communication tools should be
precaution is taken before. This practice is far from used to get information effectively.
limiting mortality in flocks. Vaccination
For the cracking of teeth and contraction, stiff This activity already exists but it is not prevalent
neck and abortion of pregnant animals during the period on the ground. To be quite operational, it will be
from December to March, farmers of South Kanem send preceded by an awareness campaign at different
animals to Lake Chad to avoid abortion and other levels. Telluric diseases and peste des petits ruminants
complications that can cause the Leptadenia and will be affected by the vaccination because of the
Prosopis. This form of prevention against new significant losses they cause. Vaccines against these
phenomenon, which is observed for more than five years diseases are accessible at any time simply because they
is the result of a chance; because during this period diet are produced in Chad. The vaccination certificate must
and water are scarce in this part of Grand Kanem. be accompanied vermifications by the region. In the
Improvement of the Health Status of Animals in region Bahr El Gazal and Hadjer-Lamis, pesticides will
Grand Kanem be used as anthelmintics, by cons in Kanem and Lac it
In the strategy to improve the health status in the will be the douvicides. Wormers are given free for the
area, we propose: awareness and training; vaccination of first two years. For subsequent years, farmers will
livestock; structuring breeders. support expenses related to gradually worming at 25%,
50%, 75%. In the past year, the farmer is supposed to
Figure 2: Goat thrown in nature (lake) Figure 3: Cattle kouri badly burned (Lake)

Ban-bo et al., 2014
understand the importance of vaccinating all of its farmers which is the main cause of lack of respondents in
livestock. terms of action to be taken on the ground. Some new
Ten control farmers in each region will be diseases were appeared in the recent days. According to
chosen to accompany the process. A protocol will be farmers, the Leptadenia and Prosopis cause the jaw
signed between the partners to better assess the results at paralysis and abortion in camels and cattle. These plants
the end of each year. have a long history and are consumed by livestock, but
Structuring the manifestation of the disease in camels and cattle is
To be effective it is necessary to have the recent and deserves special consideration. The
respondents on the ground. These respondents will be of organization of farmers should be studied extensively
different chefs members. They are professionals because auxiliaries usually disappear and leave farmers
responsible to communicate, educate, and inform to their fate. It also allow the respondents on the ground
farmers. Pastoral societies are loaded, they even set up to act in real time, and solve the issue of access to
groups of pastoral interest; unions of groups in the products. The appropriation of good practices and
attachment points with the support of the project. These farming techniques is an activity that must be taught as a
structures are the sponsors or representatives of the long term course to farmers. Awareness and training
farmers forconcrtent actions on the ground. They will should be the basis of this activity can improve the health
practice the practical management and concerted quality of animals in the area.
equipment (bikes, fuel), veterinarians and other work
tools products (mobile phone) for better ACKNOWLEDGMENT
management. This will reduce the distance and the cost Our gratitude and thanks to the team of the
of providing services. A set of specifications will be Action Against Hunger (ACF-France), staff IRED, the
developed to determine the mission of each. Direction of Veterinary Services and veterinary officers
in the field.
CONCLUSION
The diseases mentioned by farmers in Grand REFERENCES
Kanem are well known veterinary diseases. Most of them Action Contre la Faim. 2013. Mexisol-Rapport de
are on the list of diseases called "Contagious Diseases mission, 97p.
Known Legally Animal in the Territory of the Republic
Arrt n 204/ME/DG/DERA/2001du 12/06/01, portant
of Chad" because of the socio-economic consequences
vaccination obligatoiredans les zones des foyers de
they entail. The endemicity of some of these diseases are
charbonsbactridien et symptomatique.
due to the presence of reservoirs and contributing factors
which include: (i) the permanent presence of potential Ban-bo Bebanto Antipas, Idriss Oumar Alfaroukh
disease vectors (ticks, flies, snails, etc.). (ii) inadequate and Alhadji Mahamat Souleymane. 2012. Dynamique
pastoral wells in the area that causes a concentration of de la peste porcine africaine au Tchad, Science et
diseased animals and healthy carriers can infect animals technique, Sciences naturelles et agronomie. 32, ns 1 et
or reinfection; (iii) the difficulty of access to products 2 -2010-2012.
and processing for microbial load in animals; (iv) lack of
Ban-Bo Bebanto Antipas, Kebkiba Bidjeh and
qualified staff dealing promoting non-technical skills of
Mopate Logtene Youssouf. 2012. Epidemiology of
treatment and care; (v) the low level of organization of

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newcastle disease and its economic impact in chad. Euro.

J. Exp. Bio. 2(6):2286-2292.
Belal Emma. 1989. Pasteurellosesepticmique des

bovins au cameroun. Thse de doctorat du 20 juillet,
(29):130p.
Direction des Services Vtrinaires. 2011. Rapport

annuel. 53p.
Haut Conseil de la Sant Publique (HCSP). 2011. Les

maladies infectieusesmergentes :tat de la situation et
perspectives. Editeurs : La Documentation franaise.
209p.
Moura JA, McManus CM Bernal FEM and DE Melo

CB. 2010. An analysis of the 1978 African swine fever
outbreak in Brazil and its eradication. Rev.sci. tech., 29
(3): 549-563.
OIE. 2002. Seminairesur la surveillance sanitaire et les

maladies emergentes. Addis Abeba (Ethiopie), du 28 au
30 janvier 002. www.oie.int/doc/ged/d4004.pdf.
Xiaoyuan Yuan, Youling Wang, jinxing Yang,

huaiying Xu, yuxia Zhang, zhuoming Qin, hongbin Ai
and Jinbao Wang. 2012. Genetic and biological
characterizations of a newcastle disease virus from swine
in china. virology journal. 9(1):129
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Original Research
Evaluation of spherical agglomerated crystals of Lomefloxacin by IR and optical

microscopy
Authors: ABSTRACT:
Muthukumar N1 and
Harry Thomas Rodriguez A2
The spherical crystallization technique was studied to improve the dissolution
Institution: rate and bioavailability of lomefloxacin which is used as an antibacterial agent for
1. Associate Professor, Typhoid, Vaginal, GIT and ENT infection. In solvent change method, irregular shaped
Department of agglomeration was observed. Neutralization method was performed to maintain the
Pharmaceutical form of spherical crystals. In ammonia diffusion method, best form of spherical
Biotechnology, agglomerates with crystal form was obtained. Spherical agglomerated crystals of
Chilkur Balaji College of lomefloxacin were evaluated by IR and optical microscopy. The results suggested that
Pharmacy, Hyderabad. the spherical crystal form of lomefloxacin shows greater dissolution rates and bio
availability.
2. Antarcticaa College of
Pharmacy, Tamil Nadu
India.
Keywords:
Spherical crystallization, Lomefloxacin, IR and Optical microscopy
Corresponding author:
Muthukumar N
Article Citation:
Web Address: Muthukumar N and Harry Thomas Rodriguez A
http://jresearchbiology.com/ Evaluation of spherical agglomerated crystals of Lomefloaxacin by IR and optical
documents/RA0463.pdf microscopy.
Journal of Research in Biology (2014) 4(8):1405-1416
Dates:
Received: 12 Jul 2014 Accepted: 27 Jul 2014 Published: 13 Aug 2014

1405-1416| JRB | 2014 | Vol 4 | No 5

An International
Muthukumar and Rodriguez, 2014
INTRODUCTION EXPERIMENTAL WORK

MATERIAL USED
The formulation and manufacture of solid oral Following laboratory grade solvents were used
dosage forms have undergone rapid change and Acetone, Dichloromethane, Strong ammonium
development over the last several decades. Direct solution (30-32% w/v), Glacial Acetic Acid,
compression technique facilitates processing without the Lomefloxacin Helios Pharmaceutical Pvt. Ltd.
need for moisture and heat. In the direct tableting The following Hydrocolloids were used,
method, the flow ability and compressibility of the bulk Tween 80, Span 60, PEG 6000 and CMC
powder is increased in order to retain a steady supply of INSTRUMENTS USED
powder mixture to the tableting machine. Besides the The crystalline structure characterization was
efficiency of the manufacturing process is increased for carried out using the following equipments:
better bioavailability of the drug by improving the Infrared spectroscopy Shimadzu 8300 Model
solubility of the bulk drug powder (Szabone et al., 1998). using KBr pellets, Melting point apparatus (Toshniwal),
To enhance the advantages of direct compressible drugs, Optical Microscopy Olympus bX40 Model, Olympus
a new crystalline technique has been introduced. It can Optical Ltd., JAPAN, Magnetic Stirrer - Remi
transform crystals directly into a compacted spherical Instruments, Mumbai.
form, which is found to have good flow ability,
compressibility, portability and also good solubility in METHODS
some cases. Hence, it is a novel particle design Solvent Change Method
technique, by which crystallization and agglomeration DMSO is a highly polar solvent and it was used
can be carried out simultaneously in one step. The to dissolve all selected fluoroquinolones. For non-
micromeristic properties of the particles vary greatly solvent, different hydrocolloids namely Span 60, Tween
when compared to the fine crystalline materials. 80, PEG 6000 and CMC were selected and it was used in
1%, 2% and 5% concentration respectively. Each drug
The principle of agglomeration was initially (500mg) solution was added either as both whole amount
applied to non-pharmaceutical materials such as coal and and drop wise method into hydrocolloid solution with
minerals (Capes et al., 1984). The hydrophobic constant stirring at 250 rpm to obtain compacted
properties of coals agglomerates with ease and separate agglomerated crystals. In both the cases, temperature
from the ash constituents by applying virtually any mode was maintained at room temperature and 182C
of agitation in the presence of sufficient hydrocarbons as throughout the process (Capes and Sutherland, 1967).
bridging liquid. In the field of pharmacy, this method Neutralization Method
does not mean any commercialization value in size The fluoroquinolones are zwitter ionic in nature
enlargement process (Smith and Puddington, 1960). and thus it is only soluble in acidic or alkaline solutions.
So, it was thought that neutralization method might be
The spherical crystallization technique is utilized suitable, in which the drug was dissolved in either acid or
for crystal modification. It also improves dissolution strong ammonia solution. Then the drug solution was
rates and bioavailability of drugs. So, in the present transferred into 2% hydrocolloid solutions of Span 60,
work, it was envisaged to prepare spherical crystals of Tween 80, Peg 6000, and CMC with constant stirring at
lomefloxacin by using suitable technique. 250 rpm. The strong ammonia solution or acetic acid
was added to neutralize acid base and crystallize out the process; the solvent mixture (ammonia water, acetone
drug in the form of agglomerates (Kawashima and and dichloromethane) was removed by vacuum filtration
Furukaw, 1981). and the agglomerated crystals were washed with
Ammonia Diffusion Method dichloromethane. Afterwards, they were dried under
The drug was dissolved in 20% w/v ammonia vacuum in desiccators until dry and then kept in a dark
water and maintained at 40C to avoid solubility and dry place .
problems. This solution was poured into a mixture of Three factors have been involved in
acetone and dichloromethane under agitation at 150-200 agglomerating method for Spherical crystallization.
rpm by using magnetic stirrer in 250 ml beaker. The They are substances dissolution medium, physical
system was thermally controlled at 181C throughout factors, such as agitation, temperature and chemical
Table (I) Selection of solvent to dissolve drug

Type of Solvent used (with Amount of solvent need to dissolve
Remarks
Drug) 500mg drug
Acetone (Lomefloxacin) 60ml at 40C Not Soluble at room temp
Methanol (Lomefloxacin) 75ml at 40C Not Soluble at room temp
DMF (Lomefloxacin) 8.5ml at 80-90C Not Soluble at room temp
DMSO (Lomefloxacin) 5ml at 80-90C Not Soluble at room temp
Table (II) Lomefloxacin

System Mode of addition of drug
Non solvent (100ml) Observation
Temperature solution
R.T. Needle shape crystals
Distilled water Whole amount
50-20 C Needle shape crystals
1% Tween 80 Whole amount
50-20 C Needle shape crystals with clumps
R.T. Irregular agglomerates with needle
50-20 C Irregular crystals with needle
R.T. Clumps with needle crystals
50-20 C Clumps with needle crystals
R.T. Agglomerate surrounded by needles
1% Span 60 Whole amount
50-20 C Agglomerate surrounded by needles
Good agglomerated with little
R.T. surrounding needle crystals
50-20 C Good agglomerated with too little
surrounding needle crystals
R.T. Clumps with very viscous solution
50-20 C Clumps
1% PEG 6000 Whole amount
50-20 C Needle shape crystals
R.T. Agglomerate with little needles
50-20 C Good agglomerated needle crystals
R.T. Clumps with needle crystals
50-20 C Clumps with needle crystals
R.T. Totally needle crystals
1% CMC Whole amount
50-20 C Needle crystals with clumps
R.T. More needle crystals & viscous soln.
2% CMC Whole amount
50-20 C Clumps
R.T. Clumps
5% CMC Whole amount
50-20 C Clumps

Table (III) Lomefloxacin

Non solvent System Mode of addition
Observation
(100ml) Temperature of drug solution
R.T. Needle crystals
Distilled water Drop wise
50-20 C Needle crystals
R.T. Agglomerate with needles
1% Tween 80 Drop wise
50-20 C Agglomerate with needles
R.T. Irregular and needle crystals
2% Tween 80 Drop wise
50-20 C Irregular agglomerate with needles
R.T.
5% Tween 80 Drop wise Clumps with few needle Clumps
50-20 C
R.T. Agglomerate with needles
1% Span 60 Drop wise
50-20 C Agglomerate with few needles
R.T. Agglomerated with few needle Good
50-20 C Spherical agglomerates with needle crystals
R.T. Clumps
50-20 C Clumps
R.T. Needle shaped crystals
1% PEG 6000 Drop wise
50-20 C Agglomerates with needle
R.T. Irregular agglomerate with needles. Good
50-20 C Spherical agglomerates with few needle
R.T. Clumps with more needle Clumps with needle
50-20 C crystals
R.T. Needle crystals
1% CMC Drop wise
50-20 C Needle crystals with agglomerate
R.T. Needle crystals with agglomerate.
2% CMC Drop wise
50-20 C Agglomerates with needles Clumps
R.T. Clumps with very viscous soln. Clumps with
5% CMC Drop wise
50-20 C very viscous soln.
factors, such as solubility, raw material concentration, RESULT AND DISCUSSION

and solvent quantity. Fluoroquinolones are antibacterial In solvent change method, when drug solution
agents, which are used to treat urinary tract infection, was added to distilled water with different proportion of
ENT infection, Typhoid etc. They have zwitter ionic hydrocolloid under controlled temperatures (RT and 50 -
molecular structures and are only soluble in acid or 20C), the stirring speed should be maintained at 250rpm
alkaline solutions. This is the reason why conventional throughout the process. From the results, it has been
technique to prepare spherical agglomerates cannot be observed that irregular shaped agglomeration was
employed (Kawashima et al., 1983). formed (Sano et al., 1992).
In neutralization method, a known quantity of
Selection of Solvents drug was dissolved in determined amount of either acidic
Fluoroquinolones are only soluble in acidic or or alkaline solution. Then drug solution was neutralized
alkaline solutions, reaching a maximum solubility value with basic or acidic solution in presence of 2%
of 12% w/v at pH 10.5. To obtain fluoroquinolones hydrocolloids in order to get agglomerated crystals.
agglomerates using the SC technique, a proper solvent Though the theory states that fluoroquinolones are
was selected. Accordingly, 20% w/v ammonia water zwitter ionic nature, this method can be suitable to give
was used because its pH is 11.0. The other solvents were spherical crystals, but practically this method was
acetone and dichloromethane (Kawashima et al., 1982). unsuitable to exist spherical agglomerates (Deshpande
et al., 1997).

Table (IV): Lomefloxacin Hydrocarbons

Type of acid/base Type of Agitation
Amount of base/
used to dissolve Hydrocolloid speed Observation
acid used
500 mg drug (ml) (conc.) (rpm)
2% Tween 80 200 300 Agglomerates with

more needles
2% Span 60 Agglomerates with
5% Ammonia water 200 300 more needles
Acetic acid (0.2ml)
(1.5ml)
2% PEG 6000 Needle crystals
200 300
2% CMC Needle crystals
200 300
200 300 Needle crystals
2% Tween 80 2%
30% Ammonia 200 300 Needle crystals
Span 60 2% PEG Acetic acid (39ml)
water (27ml) 200 300 Needle crystals
6000 2% CMC
Table (V): Lomefloxacin
Type of acid/base
Type of Hydrocolloid Amount of base/ Agitation speed
used to dissolve Observation
(conc.) acid (rpm)
500 mg drug (ml)
2% Tween 80 200 300
More needles with
irregular crystals
2% Span 60 200 300 Turbid colloidal
5% Ammonia water solution
Acetic acid (0.3ml)
(1.5ml)
Needle crystals
2% PEG 6000 200 300
Needle crystals
2% CMC 200 300
2% Tween 80 2%
30% Ammonia 200 300 Needle crystals
Span 60 2% PEG 6000 Acetic acid (8.5ml)
water(4ml) 200 300 Needle crystals
2% CMC
To improve spherical crystallization of amphoteric drug and Halogenated hydrocarbons were utilized as water
substances, a new technique developed by Kawashima immiscible solvents.
et.al. (1994) was used. Fluoroquinolones are slightly Spherical agglomeration mechanism using ADS
soluble in water and highly soluble in acidic or alkaline Invasion of acetone into ammonia water droplets
solution. Various type of immiscible solvents was tried Diffusion of ammonia in agglomerates to the outer
and it has been found that a mixture of partially solvents
immiscible solvents like acetone, ammonia water and Agglomeration ending
dichloromethane could be used to perform In this method, the drug was dissolved in
crystallization. In this method, ammonia water functions 20% w/v ammonia water solution. This solution was
as a as a liquid bridge as well as good solvent for having pH 11, which is suitable to dissolved
fluoroquinolones. Due to water miscible and poor fluoroquinolones. The other selected solvents were
solvent property of acetone, drugs got precipitated by acetone (in which drug is partially soluble) and
solvent change without forming ammonium salt.

Table (VI): Lomefloxacin

Type of acid/base Type of Agitation
Amount of base/
used to dissolve Hydrocolloid speed Observation
acid
500 mg drug (ml) (conc.) (rpm)
Acetic acid (0.1ml)
2% Tween 80 200 300 Needles crystals
2% Span 60 200 300 Turbid colloidal

5% Ammonia water solution
(1.5ml)
2% PEG 6000 200 300 Turbid colloidal
solution
2% CMC 200 300 Needle crystals

2% Tween 80 200 300 Agglo. with few
needle crystals
30% Ammonia 2% Span 60 200 300 Agglo. with few
Acetic acid (6.5ml)
water(4ml) needle crystals
2% PEG 6000 2% 200 300 Needle crystals
CMC 200 300 Needle crystals
Table: Ammonia diffusion method
Table (VII)
Combination of non solvent and

Observation
partially miscible solvent
Chloroform : Acetone Clumps with needle crystals
benzene : Acetone Clumps with needle crystals
Dicholomethane : Acetone Agglomerated
Table (VIII ): Lomefloxacin
Composition of Acetone :
Observation
Dichloromethane (ml)
40:20 Needle crystals with few agglomerates
45:15 Agglomerates with few needle crystals
50:10 Agglomerates with few needle crystals
46:14 Spherical agglomerates with few needles
47:13 Good spherical agglomerates
dichloromethane (immiscible with water). et al., 1994).

When an ammo nia-water solution Spherical agglomerated crystals of different
fluoroquinolones was poured into a mixture of acetone fluoroquinolones were evaluated by flowing methods.
and a water immiscible solvent, such as M.P. of Raw material differed form Spherical
dichloromethane, under agitation, an emulsion was agglomerated crystals by 2 to 5C,
formed. After that, a small amount of ammonia diffused Comparison of IR and Optical Microscopy: It was
out of the droplets to the outer organic solvent due to carried using Olympus BX40 model, Olympus Optical
invasion of acetone into ammonia-water droplets and its LTd., JAPAN under 10X/0.25 Ph1 and 40X/0.45 Ph2. It
ability as bridging liquid became weaker. It is noticeable also shows the formation of Spherical agglomerated
that small crystals are needed to achieve good crystals.
compaction as well as greater crystal surface (Morishima Optimization of experimental parameters such as

Table (IX): Stirring Speed of System

Agitation Speed (rpm) Observation
100 200 Spherical agglomerates
200 300 Irregular Spherical agglomerates
300 500 Completely irregular crystals
Table (X): Temperature of system

Temperature (C) Observation
5 10 Clumps with needle crystals
R.T. Mostly needle crystals
16 20 Spherical agglomerates
Table (XI) Mode of addition of bridging liquid

Table (XI) Mode of addition
Observation
of bridging liquid
Whole amount Good Spherical agglomerates
Drop wise Irregular Spherical agglomerates
concentration of bridging liquid, mode of agitation, above 200 rpm resulted in irregular spherical
effect of temperature, agitation speed, etc., was carried agglomerates and completely irregular crystals due to
out to get the maximum yield of spherically crystallized high shear force. The shape of the agglomerates became
drugs. more irregular and some adhere to the vessel wall at a
A best agglomeration was observed when speed slower than 1000 rpm.
acetone and dichloromethane was taken in the Temperature was also found as one of the
composition of 47:13 ml. Decreased concentration of it influencing factor for agglomeration. At low temperature
resulted in no agglomerates or agglomerates with more (5 - 10C), no agglomeration was found while at higher
needle crystals (Table VIII). temperature (16 - 20C), very good spherical
Uniform spherical crystals were produced at agglomeration were found. Their effects were only due
agitation speed of 100 200 rpm. The agitation speed to the difference in solubility of drug in solvent systems
Figure 1. IR Spectra of Lomefloxacin Pure

Muthukumar and Rodriguez 2014
Figure 2 IR Spectra of Lomefloxacin- Spherical
(Table X). structural change. Presence of traces of solvent, bridging

Drop wise addition of bridging typical during liquid etc., are responsible for existence of other peaks in
crystallization resulted into irregular spherical the spectra.
agglomerates (Table XI). The I.R. spectra of pure drug The slight frequency changes to IR spectra of
form and spherically crystallized forms were presented in different forms of drug (pure and spherical) may be due
the figure 1 2. to inter-molecular hydrogen bonding, reduced free
The presence of all prominent characterizing moisture and change in crystalline structure of drug.
p e a k s ( 1 7 2 8 c m - 1 , 1 6 1 0 Optical Microscopy
cm-1, 1420 cm-1, 1184 cm-1 etc.) indicates no chemical It reveals that the crystals of candidate drug

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Journal of Research in Biology ISSN No: Print: 2231 6280; Online: 2231 - 6299.

An International Scientific Research Journal

Record of Pillaia indica Yazdani 1972, an endangered earthworm eel (Teleostei:

Sewali Pathak1, Mrigendra

Corresponding author: Abbrevia on:

Ar cle Cita on:

Web Address: Dates:

1365-1370 | JRB | 2014 | Vol 4 | No 5

INTRODUCTION Brahmaputra drainages. The IUCN Red List of

1366 Journal of Research in Biology (2014) 4(5): 1365-1370

Table: 1 Morphometric data of Pillia indica Yazdani, 1972 from Teklai

Standard length (SL) Range (76.2-81.9) MeanSD

subunits of head as percentages of head length (HL). The Diagnosis

Journal of Research in Biology (2014) 4(5): 1365-1370 1367

CONCLUSION Britz R and Chaudhry S. 2010. Pillaia indica. In:

Journal of Research in Biology (2014) 4(5): 1365-1370 1369

Kullander SO, Britz R and Fang F. 2000. Pillaia

1370 Journal of Research in Biology (2014) 4(5): 1365-1370

An International Scientific Research Journal

Microbiological control agents for cooling systems in

Corresponding author: Keywords:

Email Id: Article Citation:

Web Address: Dates:

1371-1380 | JRB | 2014 | Vol 4 | No 5

INTRODUCTION et al., 2001), the total cost (corrective, direct and

efficiency of cooling systems (Morato et al., 2003; Ps eu d o mo n a s a e ru g in o sa AT C C 27853,

Journal of Research in Biology (2014) 4(5): 1371-1380 1373

1374 Journal of Research in Biology (2014) 4(5): 1371-1380

used as surface sanitizer. The prevention and treatment of biocorrosion

Journal of Research in Biology (2014) 4(5): 1371-1380 1375

Figure 2 - Sensitivity of bacteria to microbial biocontrol agents in liquid medium - Turbidimetry

1376 Journal of Research in Biology (2014) 4(5): 1371-1380

Journal of Research in Biology (2014) 4(5): 1371-1380 1377

REFERENCES Biodegradation. 62 (2): 7987.

1378 Journal of Research in Biology (2014) 4(5): 1371-1380

Journal of Research in Biology (2014) 4(5): 1371-1380 1379

Simes M, Simes LC and Vieira MJ. 2010. A Review

Siqueira Jr JF, Roas IN, Cardoso CC, Macedo SB

Sondossi M. 2004. Biocides (Nonpublic Health,

Sriyutha Murthy P, Venkatesan R, Nair KVK,

1380 Journal of Research in Biology (2014) 4(5): 1371-1380

An International Scientific Research Journal

Knowledge of diseases and animal control methods at the

Corresponding author: Keywords:

Email Id: Article Citation:

Web Address: Dates:

This article is governed by the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/

1387-1396 | JRB | 2014 | Vol 4 | No 5

INTRODUCTION Chari-Baguirmi and Hadjer-Lamis which are reception

Table I: Pathology described by farmers in cattle

Onset period Suspicion

Journal of Research in Biology (2014) 4(5): 1387-1396 1389

Table II: Implementation rate sheets by Regional Delegation of Livestock

Regional delegation Number of monitoring Rate of

Hadjer - Lamis 14 5 70 0 0.0

Source: DSV, 2011

1390 Journal of Research in Biology (2014) 4(5): 1387-1396

Table III: Pathologies identified in camels

Onset period Suspicion

Pasty diarrhea, weight loss, abortion of Gorane : Cherchina

Hair loss, itching sores on the skin, Gorane : tourkom

Prostration, deep set eyes, died after Gorane : Gire

Journal of Research in Biology (2014) 4(5): 1387-1396 1391

Table IV: Pathologies identified in Small Ruminants (Ov / cap)