Professional Documents
Culture Documents
on Digital Libraries:
Design, Development,
and Impact
Yin-Leng Theng
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Schubert Foo
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Dion Goh
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Jin-Cheon Na
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Copyright 2009 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by
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Product or company names used in this set are for identi.cation purposes only . Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does
not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark.
Handbook of research on digital libraries : design, development, and impact / Yin-Leng Theng ... [et al.], editors.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Summary: "This book is an in-depth collection aimed at developers and scholars of research articles from the expanding field of digital
libraries"--Provided by publisher.
ISBN 978-1-59904-879-6 -- ISBN 978-1-59904-880-2 (ebook)
1. Digital libraries. I. Theng, Yin-Leng, 1961-
ZA4080.H36 2009
025.00285--dc22
2008028570
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List of Reviewers
Foreword . ................................................................................................................................................xxxii
Preface . ...................................................................................................................................................xxxvi
Acknowledgment . ..................................................................................................................................xxxix
Section I
Design and Development
Chapter I
OpenDLib: A Digital Library Service System ................................................................................................ 1
Leonardo Candela, Istituto di Scienza e Tecnologie dellInformazione A. Faedo
(ISTI-CNR), Italy
Donatella Castelli, Istituto di Scienza e Tecnologie dellInformazione A. Faedo
(ISTI-CNR), Italy
Pasquale Pagano, Istituto di Scienza e Tecnologie dellInformazione A. Faedo
(ISTI-CNR), Italy
Manuele Simi, Istituto di Scienza e Tecnologie dellInformazione A. Faedo (ISTI-CNR),
Italy
Chapter II
Information Security and Privacy in Digital Libraries ................................................................................... 8
Mohammed Nasser Al-Suqri, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman
Esther O.A. Fatuyi, Elsie Whitlow Stokes Community Freedom Public School, USA
Chapter III
Digital Learning Objects and Metadata ........................................................................................................ 16
Sarah-Jane Saravani, Waikato Institute of Technology, New Zealand
Chapter IV
Extensible Digital Library Service Platform ................................................................................................ 27
Jian-hua Yeh, Aletheia University, Taiwan
Shun-hong Sie, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan
Chao-chen Chen, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan
Chapter V
Personal Digital Libraries ............................................................................................................................. 41
Juan C. Lavariega, Tecnolgico de Monterrey, Mexico
Lorena G. Gomez, Tecnolgico de Monterrey, Mexico
Martha Sordia-Salinas, Tecnolgico de Monterrey, Mexico
David A. Garza-Salazar, Tecnolgico de Monterrey, Mexico
Chapter VI
Comparing Open Source Digital Library Software . .................................................................................... 51
George Pyrounakis, University of Athens, Greece
Mara Nikolaidou, Harokopio University of Athens, Greece
Chapter VII
The Greenstone Digital Library Software .................................................................................................... 61
Ian H. Witten, University of Waikato, New Zealand
David Bainbridge, University of Waikato, New Zealand
Chapter VIII
Design and Development of a Taxonomy Generator: A Case Example for Greenstone .............................. 73
Yin-Leng Theng, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Nyein Chan Lwin Lwin, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Jin-Cheon Na, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Schubert Foo, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Dion Hoe-Lian Goh, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Chapter IX
From Digital Archives to Virtual Exhibitions ............................................................................................... 88
Schubert Foo, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Yin-Leng Theng, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Dion Hoe-Lian Goh, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Jin-Cheon Na, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Section II
Information Processing and Content Management
Chapter X
Standardization of Terms Applying Finite-State Transducers (FST) . ........................................................ 102
Carmen Galvez, University of Granada, Spain
Chapter XI
Extracting the Essence: Automatic Text Summarization . .......................................................................... 113
Fu Lee Wang, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
Christopher C. Yang, Drexel University, USA
Chapter XII
Metadata Interoperability . .......................................................................................................................... 122
K. S. Chudamani, JRDTML, IISc, Bangalore-12, India
H .C. Nagarathna, JRDTML, IISc, Bangalore-12, India
Chapter XIII
Semantic Association Analysis in Ontology-Based Information Retrieval ............................................... 131
Payam M. Barnaghi, University of Nottingham, Malaysia
Wei Wang, University of Nottingham, Malaysia
Jayan C. Kurian, University of Nottingham, Malaysia
Chapter XIV
Effective and Efficient Browsing of Large Image Databases ..................................................................... 142
Gerald Schaefer, Aston University, UK
Chapter XV
User Profiles for Personalizing Digital Libraries . ...................................................................................... 149
Giovanni Semeraro, University of Bari, Italy
Pierpaolo Basile, University of Bari, Italy
Marco de Gemmis, University of Bari, Italy
Pasquale Lops, University of Bari, Italy
Chapter XVI
Automatic Text Summarization in Digital Libraries ................................................................................. 159
Shiyan Ou, University of Wolverhampton, UK
Christopher S.G. Khoo, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Dion Hoe-Lian Goh, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Chapter XVII
Speechfind: Advances in Rich Content Based Spoken Document Retrieval . ............................................ 173
Wooil Kim, Center for Robust Speech Systems (CRSS), Erik Jonsson School of Engineering
and Computer Science, University of Texas at Dallas, USA
John H. L. Hansen, Center for Robust Speech Systems (CRSS), Erik Jonsson School of
Engineering and Computer Science, University of Texas at Dallas, USA
Chapter XVIII
Using Topic-Specific Ranks to Personalize Web Search ............................................................................ 188
Sofia Stamou, Patras University, Greece
Chapter XIX
Guidelines for Developing Digital Cultural Collections ............................................................................ 198
Irene Lourdi, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece
Mara Nikolaidou, Harokopio University of Athens, Greece
Chapter XX
Digital Libraries and Ontology ................................................................................................................... 206
Neide Santos, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Fernanda C. A. Campos, Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Brazil
Regina M. M. Braga Villela, Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Brazil
Chapter XXI
A Classification Scheme for Innovative Types in Scholarly Communication ............................................ 216
Svenja Hagenhoff, University of Goettingen, Germany
Bjrn Ortelbach, University of Goettingen, Germany
Lutz Seidenfaden, University of Goettingen, Germany
Chapter XXII
Improving Multimedia Digital Libraries Usability Applying NLP Sentence Similarity to
Multimodal Sentences ................................................................................................................................ 227
Stefano Paolozzi, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Italy
Fernando Ferri, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Italy
Patrizia Grifoni, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Italy
Chapter XXIII
Duplicate Journal Title Detection in References ........................................................................................ 235
Ana Kovacevic, University of Belgrade, Serbia
Vladan Devedzic, University of Belgrade, Serbia
Chapter XXIV
Word Segmentation in Indo-China Languages for Digital Libraries . ........................................................ 243
Jin-Cheon Na, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Tun Thura Thet, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Dion Hoe-Lian Goh, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Yin-Leng Theng, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Schubert Foo, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Paul Horng-Jyh Wu, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Chapter XXV
On the Effectiveness of Social Tagging for Resource Discovery ............................................................... 251
Dion Hoe-Lian Goh, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Khasfariyati Razikin, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Alton Y. K. Chua, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Chei Sian Lee, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Schubert Foo, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Jin-Cheon Na, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Yin-Leng Theng, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Chapter XXVI
Semantic Annotation and Retrieval of Images in Digital Libraries . .......................................................... 261
Taha Osman, Nottingham Trent University, UK
Dhavalkumar Thakker, Nottingham Trent University, UK
Gerald Schaefer, Aston University, UK
Section III
Users, Interactions, and Experiences
Chapter XXVII
Metadata and Metaphors in Visual Interfaces to Digital Libraries ............................................................. 270
Ali Shiri, University of Alberta, Canada
Chapter XXVIII
Usability Evaluation of Digital Library ...................................................................................................... 278
Judy Jeng, New Jersey City University, USA
Chapter XXIX
Digital Library Requirements: A Questionnaire-Based Study . .................................................................. 287
Stephen Kimani, Institute of Computer Science and Information Technology, JKUAT, Kenya
Emanuele Panizzi, University of Rome La Sapienza, Italy
Tiziana Catarci, University of Rome La Sapienza, Italy
Margerita Antona, FORTH-ICS, Greece
Chapter XXX
Handhelds for Digital Libraries .................................................................................................................. 298
Spyros Veronikis, Ionian University, Greece
Giannis Tsakonas, Ionian University, Greece
Christos Papatheodorou, Ionian University, Greece
Chapter XXXI
The CGIAR Virtual Library Bridging the Gap Between Agricultural Research and Worldwide Users .... 308
Mila M. Ramos, International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines
Luz Marina Alvar, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), USA
Cecilia Ferreyra, International Potato Center (CIP), Peru
Peter Shelton, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), USA
Chapter XXXII
Map-Based User Interfaces for Music Information Retrieval .................................................................... 321
Robert Neumayer, Vienna University of Technology, Austria
Andreas Rauber, Vienna University of Technology, Austria
Chapter XXXIII
Patent and Trade Secret in Digital Libraries . ............................................................................................. 330
Hideyasu Sasaki, Ritsumeikan University, Japan
Chapter XXXIV
User-Adapted Information Services ........................................................................................................... 336
Thomas Mandl, University of Hildesheim, Germany
Chapter XXXV
An Empirical Analysis of the Utilization of University Digital Library Resources ................................... 344
Hepu Deng, RMIT University, Australia
Chapter XXXVI
Visualisation of Large Image Databases . ................................................................................................... 352
Gerald Schaefer, Aston University, UK
Simon Ruszala, Teleca, UK
Section IV
Case Studies and Applications
Chapter XXXVII
Towards Multimedia Digital Libraries ....................................................................................................... 361
Cludio de Souza Baptista, University of Campina Grande, Brazil
Ulrich Schiel, University of Campina Grande, Brazil
Chapter XXXVIII
BIVALDI the Digital Library of the Valencian Bibliographic Inheritance . ............................................... 371
Nuria Lloret Romero, Polytechnic University of Valencia, Spain
Margarita Cabrera Mndez, Polytechnic University of Valencia, Spain
Alicia Sells Carot, Masmedios Ltd., Spain
Lilia Fernandez Aquino, Masmedios Ltd., Spain
Chapter XXXIX
Digital Libraries as a Foundation of Spatial Data Infrastructures .............................................................. 382
Rubn Bjar, University of Zaragoza, Spain
J. Nogueras-Iso, University of Zaragoza, Spain
Miguel ngel Latre, University of Zaragoza, Spain
Pedro Rafael Muro-Medrano, University of Zaragoza, Spain
F. J. Zarazaga-Soria, University of Zaragoza, Spain
Chapter XL
DL and GIS: Path to a New Collaboration Paradigm ................................................................................. 390
O. Cantn Casbas, San Jorge University, Spain
J. Nogueras-Iso, University of Zaragoza, Spain
F. J. Zarazaga-Soria, University of Zaragoza, Spain
Chapter XLI
Digital Libraries Beyond Cultural Heritage Information ........................................................................... 400
Piedad Garrido Picazo, University of Zaragoza, Spain
Jess Tramullas Saz, University of Zaragoza, Spain
Manuel Coll Villalta, University of Zaragoza, Spain
Chapter XLII
Reference Services in Digital Environment . .............................................................................................. 412
Wan Ab. Kadir Wan Dollah,MARA University of Technology, Malaysia
Diljit Singh, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Chapter XLIII
USGS Digital Libraries for Coastal and Marine Science ........................................................................... 421
Frances L. Lightsom, U.S. Geological Survey, USGS Woods Hole Science Center, USA
Alan O. Allwardt, ETI Professionals, USGS Pacific Science Center, USA
Chapter XLIV
Digital Preservation .................................................................................................................................... 431
Stephan Strodl, Vienna University of Technology, Austria
Christoph Becker, Vienna University of Technology, Austria
Andreas Rauber, Vienna University of Technology, Austria
Chapter XLV
Visual Pattern Based Compressed Domain Image Retrieval . .................................................................... 441
Gerald Schaefer, Aston University, UK
Chapter XLVI
Music Information Retrieval . ..................................................................................................................... 448
Thomas Lidy, Vienna University of Technology, Austria
Andreas Rauber, Vienna University of Technology, Austria
Chapter XLVII
The Strategic Plan of Digital Libraries ....................................................................................................... 457
Juha Kettunen, Turku University of Applied Sciences, Finland
Chapter XLVIII
Software Process Asset Libraries Using Knowledge Repositories . ........................................................... 465
Leonardo Bermn-Angarita, Carlos III University of Madrid, Spain
Antonio Amescua-Seco, Carlos III University of Madrid, Spain
Maria Isabel Snchez-Segura, Carlos III University of Madrid, Spain
Javier Garca-Guzmn, Carlos III University of Madrid, Spain
Chapter XLIX
The Role and Integration of Digital Libraries in E-Learning ..................................................................... 476
Han Lee Yen, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Chapter L
Development of Digital Libraries in Pakistan ............................................................................................ 482
Kanwal Ameen, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
Muhammad Rafiq, Government College University Lahore, Pakistan
Section V
Digital Library Education and Future Trends
Chapter LI
Core Topics in Digital Library Education . ................................................................................................. 493
Seungwon Yang, Digital Library Research Laboratory, Virginia Tech, USA
Barbara M. Wildemuth, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, USA
Jeffrey P. Pomerantz, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, USA
Sanghee Oh, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, USA
Edward A. Fox, Digital Library Research Laboratory, Virginia Tech, USA
Chapter LII
Digital Libraries as Centres of Knowledge: Historical Perspectives from European Ancient Libraries..... 506
Natalie Pang, Monash University, Australia
Chapter LIII
The European Approach Towards Digital Library Education: Dead End or Recipe for Success? ............. 514
Wolfgang Ratzek, Stuttgart Media University, Germany
Chapter LIV
New Roles of Digital Libraries ................................................................................................................... 520
Faisal Ahmad, University of Colorado at Boulder, USA
Tamara Sumner, University of Colorado at Boulder, USA
Holly Devaul, Digital Learning Sciences, USA
Chapter LV
A Review of Progress in Digital Library Education ................................................................................... 533
Yongqing Ma, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
Warwick Clegg, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
Ann OBrien, Loughborough University, UK
Chapter LVI
The Future of Learning with Digital Libraries ........................................................................................... 543
Chang Chew-Hung, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
John G. Hedberg, Macquarie University, Australia
Chapter LVII
Computational Sense for Digital Librarians ............................................................................................... 552
Michael B. Twidale, University of Illinois, USA
David M. Nichols, University of Waikato, New Zealand
Chapter LVIII
Digital Libraries Overview and Globalization . .......................................................................................... 562
Soh Whee Kheng Grace, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Index............................................................................................................................................................ 644
Detailed Table of Contents
Foreword . ................................................................................................................................................xxxii
Preface . ...................................................................................................................................................xxxvi
Acknowledgment . ..................................................................................................................................xxxix
Section I
Design and Development
Chapter I
OpenDLib: A Digital Library Service System ................................................................................................ 1
Leonardo Candela, Istituto di Scienza e Tecnologie dellInformazione A. Faedo
(ISTI-CNR), Italy
Donatella Castelli, Istituto di Scienza e Tecnologie dellInformazione A. Faedo
(ISTI-CNR), Italy
Pasquale Pagano, Istituto di Scienza e Tecnologie dellInformazione A. Faedo
(ISTI-CNR), Italy
Manuele Simi, Istituto di Scienza e Tecnologie dellInformazione A. Faedo (ISTI-CNR),
Italy
This chapter describes OpenDLib, a Digital Library Service system developed at ISTI-CNR to support the
creation and management of digital libraries. It addresses the characteristics of the contents that can be managed
by the system, a corresponding set of supporting functions, system architecture paradigm and technologies
utilised in the development of the system.
Chapter II
Information Security and Privacy in Digital Libraries ................................................................................... 8
Mohammed Nasser Al-Suqri, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman
Esther O.A. Fatuyi, Elsie Whitlow Stokes Community Freedom Public School, USA
This chapter examines how appropriate technologies and software must be ensured to enable digital library
systems to provide accurate, secure, and timely information over a sustainable future. Specifically, it addresses
issues protection of the information infrastructure and access control; identification and authentication; stan-
dards and policies; and ethical considerations.
Chapter III
Digital Learning Objects and Metadata ........................................................................................................ 16
Sarah-Jane Saravani, Waikato Institute of Technology, New Zealand
This chapter describes a case study undertaken by the Waikato Institute of Technology, New Zealand on OS-
LOR, an open source learning object repository of digital resources that are contributed by various education
communities. The key success hinges on the ability to develop a metadata application profile that is reducible
and extensible to ensure searchability, durability, and ultimate value of the repository.
Chapter IV
Extensible Digital Library Service Platform ................................................................................................ 27
Jian-hua Yeh, Aletheia University, Taiwan
Shun-hong Sie, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan
Chao-chen Chen, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan
This chapter outlines a digital system architecture designed to support flexible content management and
development of user services. A data model and storage with high portability and use of stackable service
features are proposed as part of the requirements of the X-System, which is a general digital library platform
that is capable of handling large-scale digital contents with flexible, extensible management features.
Chapter V
Personal Digital Libraries ............................................................................................................................. 41
Juan C. Lavariega, Tecnolgico de Monterrey, Mexico
Lorena G. Gomez, Tecnolgico de Monterrey, Mexico
Martha Sordia-Salinas, Tecnolgico de Monterrey, Mexico
David A. Garza-Salazar, Tecnolgico de Monterrey, Mexico
This chapter presents the services and functionality that a personal digital library system should provide,
including a reference architecture to support such a design. A current system, PDLib, is used to demonstrate
such a personal digital library that can be used to manage personal collections and its potential to become a
commodity and means of social interaction.
Chapter VI
Comparing Open Source Digital Library Software . .................................................................................... 51
George Pyrounakis, University of Athens, Greece
Mara Nikolaidou, Harokopio University of Athens, Greece
This chapter does a comparative evaluation of the basic characteristics and system features of five well-known
and extensively used open source digital library software, namely, DSpace, Fedora, Greenstone, Keystone,
and EPrints. The findings are summarized in a score table along with cases where each system is considered
as most suitable are proposed.
Chapter VII
The Greenstone Digital Library Software .................................................................................................... 61
Ian H. Witten, University of Waikato, New Zealand
David Bainbridge, University of Waikato, New Zealand
This chapter provides a definitive and coherent account of the Greenstone open source digital library project
developed at University of Waikato by its developers. In addition to its production system that is widely ad-
opted globally, it also serves as a framework for digital library research. It outlines a strategy for reconciling
this conflict of these two different dimensions of the project in the future.
Chapter VIII
Design and Development of a Taxonomy Generator: A Case Example for Greenstone .............................. 73
Yin-Leng Theng, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Nyein Chan Lwin Lwin, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Jin-Cheon Na, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Schubert Foo, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Dion Hoe-Lian Goh, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
This chapter addresses the issues of resource discovery and the importance of using knowledge organization
tools to build digital libraries. A prototype Taxonomy Generation Tool, utilizing a hierarchical classification
of contents by subjects, was designed and built to categorize contents in the Greenstone Digital Library
software. The taxonomy template supports controlled vocabulary terms and allows users to select the labels
for the taxonomy structure.
Chapter IX
From Digital Archives to Virtual Exhibitions ............................................................................................... 88
Schubert Foo, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Yin-Leng Theng, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Dion Hoe-Lian Goh, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Jin-Cheon Na, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
This chapter demonstrates how digital archives, and in particular, its derivative in the form of virtual exhibi-
tions can be developed using the multimedia digital contents of the archives. It presents a number of concepts
and design considerations and illustrates this with a proposed generic system architecture that encapsulates
the important issues of metadata, system architecture design, and developmental techniques for creating ef-
fective and usable virtual exhibitions.
Section II
Information Processing and Content Management
Chapter X
Standardization of Terms Applying Finite-State Transducers (FST) . ........................................................ 102
Carmen Galvez, University of Granada, Spain
This chapter introduces the standardization methods of terms using the two basic approaches, computational
and linguistic techniques, and justifies the application of processes based on Finite-State Transducers (FST).
Standardization of terms is the procedure of matching and grouping together variants of the same term that
are semantically equivalent.
Chapter XI
Extracting the Essence: Automatic Text Summarization . .......................................................................... 113
Fu Lee Wang, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
Christopher C. Yang, Drexel University, USA
This chapter presents a hierarchical summarization approach that generates a summary for a document based
on the hierarchical structure and salient features of the document. User evaluations conducted by the authors
indicate that the hierarchical summarization outperforms traditional summarization.
Chapter XII
Metadata Interoperability . .......................................................................................................................... 122
K. S. Chudamani, JRDTML, IISc, Bangalore-12, India
H .C. Nagarathna, JRDTML, IISc, Bangalore-12, India
This chapter describes the various Metadata standards for digital document description in the context of
bibliographic databases. It also examines metadata interoperability and mapping issues among the various
standards.
Chapter XIII
Semantic Association Analysis in Ontology-Based Information Retrieval ............................................... 131
Payam M. Barnaghi, University of Nottingham, Malaysia
Wei Wang, University of Nottingham, Malaysia
Jayan C. Kurian, University of Nottingham, Malaysia
This chapter firstly introduces various approaches towards ontology development, ontology population from
heterogeneous data sources, semantic association discovery, semantic association ranking and presentation,
and social network analysis. Then the authors present their approach for an ontology-based information
search and retrieval.
Chapter XIV
Effective and Efficient Browsing of Large Image Databases ..................................................................... 142
Gerald Schaefer, Aston University, UK
This chapter presents an effective and efficient approach for managing image databases which allow user-
centred navigation and visualisation of complete image collections. Image thumbnails are projected onto a
spherical surface so that images that are visually similar are located close to each other in the visualisation
space. Images are placed on regular grid structure to avoid overlapping and occlusion effect while large
databases are handled through a clustering technique paired with a hierarchical tree structure which allows
for intuitive real-time browsing experience.
Chapter XV
User Profiles for Personalizing Digital Libraries . ...................................................................................... 149
Giovanni Semeraro, University of Bari, Italy
Pierpaolo Basile, University of Bari, Italy
Marco de Gemmis, University of Bari, Italy
Pasquale Lops, University of Bari, Italy
This chapter introduces a machine learning-based approach which builds user profiles for intelligent document
filtering in digital libraries. This study exploits knowledge stored in machine-readable dictionaries to obtain
accurate user profiles that describe user interests by referring to concepts in those dictionaries.
Chapter XVI
Automatic Text Summarization in Digital Libraries ................................................................................. 159
Shiyan Ou, University of Wolverhampton, UK
Christopher S.G. Khoo, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Dion Hoe-Lian Goh, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
This chapter provides the literature review of various text summarization and evaluation techniques, and
discusses the application of text summarization in digital libraries. This chapter helps the reader to obtain a
clear overview of the text summarization field and facilitate the application of text summarization in digital
libraries.
Chapter XVII
Speechfind: Advances in Rich Content Based Spoken Document Retrieval . ............................................ 173
Wooil Kim, Center for Robust Speech Systems (CRSS), Erik Jonsson School of Engineering
and Computer Science, University of Texas at Dallas, USA
John H. L. Hansen, Center for Robust Speech Systems (CRSS), Erik Jonsson School of
Engineering and Computer Science, University of Texas at Dallas, USA
This chapter describes a number of advances in formulating spoken document retrieval for the National
Gallery of the Spoken Word (NGSW) and the U.S.-based Collaborative Digitization Program (CDP). Their
experimental online system called SpeechFind is presented, which allows for audio retrieval from the
NGSW and CDP corpus.
Chapter XVIII
Using Topic-Specific Ranks to Personalize Web Search ............................................................................ 188
Sofia Stamou, Patras University, Greece
This chapter introduces a personalized ranking function that encapsulates the user interests in the process of
ordering retrieved results so as to meet the user needs. The ranking function relies on a lexical ontology that
encodes a number of concepts and their inter-relations, and determines the semantics of both the query key-
words and the query matching pages. Based on the correlation between the query and document semantics,
it decides upon the ordering of search results so that these are personalized.
Chapter XIX
Guidelines for Developing Digital Cultural Collections ............................................................................ 198
Irene Lourdi, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece
Mara Nikolaidou, Harokopio University of Athens, Greece
This chapter introduces basic guidelines for developing and maintaining digital cultural collections in order
to be interoperable and easily retrievable from users. The requirements of cultural material are discussed and
it is shown how in combination with the adequate metadata schema policy, a digital cultural collection can
cover the various needs for learning and retrieving information.
Chapter XX
Digital Libraries and Ontology ................................................................................................................... 206
Neide Santos, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Fernanda C. A. Campos, Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Brazil
Regina M. M. Braga Villela, Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Brazil
This chapter describes a digital library for the e-learning domain which main service is a search engine that
retrieves information by tracing the domain vocabulary met on ontology. The digital library extends Web
portals functionalities, providing technical information and communication and collaboration spaces, and
hosts a wide variety of information. It provides services for cataloging, storing, searching, and retrieving
information, based on ontology-based semantic queries.
Chapter XXI
A Classification Scheme for Innovative Types in Scholarly Communication ............................................ 216
Svenja Hagenhoff, University of Goettingen, Germany
Bjrn Ortelbach, University of Goettingen, Germany
Lutz Seidenfaden, University of Goettingen, Germany
Modern information and communication technologies (ICT) introduce new publication forms and services
in the area of scholarly communication, which seem to enable a faster and more cost efficient distribution of
research results. This chapter presents a classification scheme which aims to allow describing new forms of
scholarly communication in a standardized way.
Chapter XXII
Improving Multimedia Digital Libraries Usability Applying NLP Sentence Similarity to
Multimodal Sentences ................................................................................................................................ 227
Stefano Paolozzi, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Italy
Fernando Ferri, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Italy
Patrizia Grifoni, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Italy
This chapter describes multimodality as a means of augmenting information retrieval activities in multimedia
digital libraries. Multimodal interaction systems combine visual information with voice, gestures, and other
modalities to provide flexible and powerful dialogue approaches. The authors propose a new approach to
match a multimodal sentence expressed by the user with a template stored in a knowledge base to interpret
the multimodal sentence and define the multimodal templates similarity.
Chapter XXIII
Duplicate Journal Title Detection in References ........................................................................................ 235
Ana Kovacevic, University of Belgrade, Serbia
Vladan Devedzic, University of Belgrade, Serbia
This chapter explores text mining techniques for matching abbreviated journal titles from citations with jour-
nals in existing digital libraries. The main problem is that for one journal there is often a number of different
abbreviated forms in the citation report, hence the matching depends on the detection of duplicate records.
The author uses character-based and token-based metrics together with a generated thesaurus for detecting
duplicate records.
Chapter XXIV
Word Segmentation in Indo-China Languages for Digital Libraries . ........................................................ 243
Jin-Cheon Na, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Tun Thura Thet, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Dion Hoe-Lian Goh, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Yin-Leng Theng, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Schubert Foo, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Paul Horng-Jyh Wu, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
This chapter introduces word segmentation methods for Indo-China languages. It describes six different word
segmentation methods developed for the Thai, Vietnamese, and Myanmar languages, and compare different
approaches in terms of their algorithms and results achieved. It provides underlying views about how word
segmentation can be employed in Indo-China languages to support search functionality in digital libraries.
Chapter XXV
On the Effectiveness of Social Tagging for Resource Discovery ............................................................... 251
Dion Hoe-Lian Goh, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Khasfariyati Razikin, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Alton Y. K. Chua, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Chei Sian Lee, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Schubert Foo, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Jin-Cheon Na, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Yin-Leng Theng, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
This chapter explores the effectiveness of social tags as resource descriptors. Social tags are freely selected
terms by users to resources, and shared among other users. Two text categorization experiments via Support
Vector Machines (SVM) were done for this research. The first study concentrated on the use of terms as its
features, while the second used both terms and its tags as part of its feature set.
Chapter XXVI
Semantic Annotation and Retrieval of Images in Digital Libraries . .......................................................... 261
Taha Osman, Nottingham Trent University, UK
Dhavalkumar Thakker, Nottingham Trent University, UK
Gerald Schaefer, Aston University, UK
This chapter presents an ontology-based semantic annotation scheme for image retrieval in digital librar-
ies. The authors show that the employment of a semantic framework for image annotation provides more
accurate retrieval results than general search techniques typically relying on statistical analysis of keyword
recurrences in image annotations.
Section III
Users, Interactions, and Experiences
Chapter XXVII
Metadata and Metaphors in Visual Interfaces to Digital Libraries ............................................................. 270
Ali Shiri, University of Alberta, Canada
Drawing on earlier information retrieval visual interfaces that have made use of thesauri, this chapter explores
metadata-enhanced visual interfaces. The chapter describes a study to explore the design of visual interfaces
for digital libraries design ideas and discusses implications for digital library interface design in terms of
metadata-based information search and retrieval features for visualization.
Chapter XXVIII
Usability Evaluation of Digital Library ...................................................................................................... 278
Judy Jeng, New Jersey City University, USA
This chapter gives a critical review of common usability evaluation methods and describes empirical user
studies employing a combination of usability methods to understand user interaction issues.
Chapter XXIX
Digital Library Requirements: A Questionnaire-Based Study . .................................................................. 287
Stephen Kimani, Institute of Computer Science and Information Technology, JKUAT, Kenya
Emanuele Panizzi, University of Rome La Sapienza, Italy
Tiziana Catarci, University of Rome La Sapienza, Italy
Margerita Antona, FORTH-ICS, Greece
This chapter describes a questionnaire-based study covering a wide range of issues pertinent to the design of
user interfaces for DLs, including: user characteristics/profiles, current experience in DL usage, functional
requirements, nonfunctional requirements, and contextual requirements.
Chapter XXX
Handhelds for Digital Libraries .................................................................................................................. 298
Spyros Veronikis, Ionian University, Greece
Giannis Tsakonas, Ionian University, Greece
Christos Papatheodorou, Ionian University, Greece
This chapter examines the services that can be accessed by means of portable devices and analyzes the main
sociotechnical issues that arise and influence user interaction. Factors that affect acceptance of these devices
are discussed, and future trends are presented to outline the research landscape in the future.
Chapter XXXI
The CGIAR Virtual Library Bridging the Gap Between Agricultural Research and Worldwide Users .... 308
Mila M. Ramos, International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines
Luz Marina Alvar, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), USA
Cecilia Ferreyra, International Potato Center (CIP), Peru
Peter Shelton, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), USA
This chapter introduces the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) Virtual
Library as a tool linking researchers and agricultural research results. The CGIAR is a strategic alliance of
countries, international and regional organizations, and private foundations supporting 15 international agri-
cultural Centers that work in partnerships with national agricultural research institutions and societies. The
chapter explains their work, and discusses implications to the design of virtual libraries.
Chapter XXXII
Map-Based User Interfaces for Music Information Retrieval .................................................................... 321
Robert Neumayer, Vienna University of Technology, Austria
Andreas Rauber, Vienna University of Technology, Austria
This chapter reviews alternative ways to access digital audio collections, and describes two applicationsPlay-
SOM and PocketSOMfor accessing audio files that are based on the Self-Organising Map, an unsupervised
neural network model. Alternative interfaces to large audio collections for both desktop computers and mobile
devices are discussed, and presents a practical approach to pressing issues in accessing digital collections.
Chapter XXXIII
Patent and Trade Secret in Digital Libraries . ............................................................................................. 330
Hideyasu Sasaki, Ritsumeikan University, Japan
This chapter reviews the patent and trade secret issues in digital libraries, especially patentable parameter set-
ting components implemented as computer-related inventions in digital libraries, restricted within the current
standard of the U.S. laws and cases in transnational transaction and licensing of intellectual properties regarding
digital libraries. The chapter then discusses the directions for embedding and protecting numerical parametric
information as trade secret in the patentable parameter setting components performing retrieval operations of
digital libraries and the future of intellectual property protection in multimedia digital libraries.
Chapter XXXIV
User-Adapted Information Services ........................................................................................................... 336
Thomas Mandl, University of Hildesheim, Germany
This chapter describes personalization strategies adopted in digital libraries as a means to improve the usabil-
ity of digital library services, and the modeling of these strategies based on users interests, search histories,
and documents accessed during the search process. Typical approaches and systems for individualizing the
results of information retrieval systems are also presented.
Chapter XXXV
An Empirical Analysis of the Utilization of University Digital Library Resources ................................... 344
Hepu Deng, RMIT University, Australia
This chapter presents a study based on an online survey in a university environment aimed to investigate
the extent to which digital resources are utilized and to identify the critical factors for the effective use of
digital resources. The study reveals that the usage of digital resources is significant in higher education and
the utilization of digital resources is very much dependent on users and purposes. The awareness and the
quality of information are critical for the use of digital resources. The findings of this study shed light on
the use of digital resources and help libraries better understand users perceptions and experiences of using
digital resources services in university libraries.
Chapter XXXVI
Visualisation of Large Image Databases . ................................................................................................... 352
Gerald Schaefer, Aston University, UK
Simon Ruszala, Teleca, UK
Following the ever-growing sizes of image databases, effective methods for visualising such databases and
navigating through them are much sought after. These methods should provide an overview of a complete
database together with the possibility to zoom into certain areas during a specific search. It is crucial that
the user interacts in an intuitive way with such a system in order to effectively arrive at images of interest.
In this chapter, several techniques are presented that allow for effective browsing and navigation of large
image databases.
Section IV
Case Studies and Applications
Chapter XXXVII
Towards Multimedia Digital Libraries ....................................................................................................... 361
Cludio de Souza Baptista, University of Campina Grande, Brazil
Ulrich Schiel, University of Campina Grande, Brazil
This chapter presents a multimedia digital library that copes with the storage and retrieval of resources of
different media such as video, audio, maps, images, and text documents. The main improvement with regard
to textual digital libraries is the possibility of retrieving documents in different media combining metadata
and content analysis. We discuss the problems and solutions associated each media.
Chapter XXXVIII
BIVALDI the Digital Library of the Valencian Bibliographic Inheritance . ............................................... 371
Nuria Lloret Romero, Polytechnic University of Valencia, Spain
Margarita Cabrera Mndez, Polytechnic University of Valencia, Spain
Alicia Sells Carot, Masmedios Ltd., Spain
Lilia Fernandez Aquino, Masmedios Ltd., Spain
The Biblioteca Valenciana was created to meet, conserve, and provide access to the Valencian bibliographic
inheritance and all the printed, sound, and visual production, about the Comunidad Valenciana. To support this
work, the Biblioteca Valenciana has embarked on the design and implementation of a digital library project,
the Biblioteca Valenciana Digital (BIVALDI). This chapter describes this endeavour, as well as discusses the
unique challenges associated with the project.
Chapter XXXIX
Digital Libraries as a Foundation of Spatial Data Infrastructures .............................................................. 382
Rubn Bjar, University of Zaragoza, Spain
J. Nogueras-Iso, University of Zaragoza, Spain
Miguel ngel Latre, University of Zaragoza, Spain
Pedro Rafael Muro-Medrano, University of Zaragoza, Spain
F. J. Zarazaga-Soria, University of Zaragoza, Spain
This chapter introduces Spatial Data Infrastructures (SDI) and establishes their strong conceptual and techni-
cal relationships with geographic digital libraries (geolibraries). The authors describe the origin of SDIs, and
highlight their role as geographic resources providers. The chapter also discusses the key differences between
SDIs and geolibraries, in order to provide a broader view of these infrastructures.
Chapter XL
DL and GIS: Path to a New Collaboration Paradigm ................................................................................. 390
O. Cantn Casbas, San Jorge University, Spain
J. Nogueras-Iso, University of Zaragoza, Spain
F. J. Zarazaga-Soria, University of Zaragoza, Spain
Challenges remain in serving users of Digital Libraries (DL) and Geographic Information (GI) services. This
is due to the proliferation of different representation formats, proprietary standards, protocols, and platforms
in which information is published. In this chapter, we share some of the lessons learned during architectural
design and standardization activities carried out in the GI domain.
Chapter XLI
Digital Libraries Beyond Cultural Heritage Information ........................................................................... 400
Piedad Garrido Picazo, University of Zaragoza, Spain
Jess Tramullas Saz, University of Zaragoza, Spain
Manuel Coll Villalta, University of Zaragoza, Spain
This chapter introduces Digital Libraries as a means of cultural heritage access and diffusion. It argues that
Digital Libraries, combined with superimposed information techniques, offer a potentially more substantive
approach to understanding the historical documentation analysis problem. The chapter also discusses how
techniques such as agents, information management, and information visualization can be incorporated to
implement a versatile digital library that meets the cultural heritage information needs of users need.
Chapter XLII
Reference Services in Digital Environment . .............................................................................................. 412
Wan Ab. Kadir Wan Dollah,MARA University of Technology, Malaysia
Diljit Singh, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Rapid development in information and communication technologies have significantly influenced both the
way libraries provide information services to their users and the way they choose to access information.
Digital reference services are thus gaining popularity especially in academic and public libraries. This chapter
discusses how such services can play a vital role in terms of providing personalized assistance to library users
in accessing resources to meet their information needs.
Chapter XLIII
USGS Digital Libraries for Coastal and Marine Science ........................................................................... 421
Frances L. Lightsom, U.S. Geological Survey, USGS Woods Hole Science Center, USA
Alan O. Allwardt, ETI Professionals, USGS Pacific Science Center, USA
This chapter describes the design and implementation of three related digital libraries developed by the U.S.
Geological Survey for topical and georeferenced information for coastal and marine science: the Marine
Realms Information Bank (MRIB) and its two offshoots, the Monterey Bay Science Digital Library and
Coastal Change Hazards Digital Library. The chapter also discusses important challenges facing digital
library developers.
Chapter XLIV
Digital Preservation .................................................................................................................................... 431
Stephan Strodl, Vienna University of Technology, Austria
Christoph Becker, Vienna University of Technology, Austria
Andreas Rauber, Vienna University of Technology, Austria
Digital preservation is one of the most pressing challenges not only within the digital library community, but
also in other areas such as archives and data centres. This chapter introduces the concepts and challenges in
the field of digital preservation. We provide an overview of the projects and initiatives worldwide dealing with
this challenge, and present preservation planning as a key concept at the heart of preservation endeavours.
Chapter XLV
Visual Pattern Based Compressed Domain Image Retrieval . .................................................................... 441
Gerald Schaefer, Aston University, UK
Compressed domain techniques are becoming increasingly important in processing or retrieving image without
prior decompression. In this chapter, we show that such midstream content access is possible, and present a
compressed domain retrieval methods based on a visual pattern compression algorithm. Experiments conducted
on a medium sized image database demonstrate the effectiveness and efficiency of the presented approach.
Chapter XLVI
Music Information Retrieval . ..................................................................................................................... 448
Thomas Lidy, Vienna University of Technology, Austria
Andreas Rauber, Vienna University of Technology, Austria
This chapter provides an overview of the increasingly important domain of Music Information Retrieval,
which investigates efficient and intelligent methods to analyze, recognize, retrieve, and organize music. The
chapter describes the background and problems that are addressed by research, and introduces methods for
the extraction of semantic descriptors from music. Next, music retrieval, music classification, and music
library visualization systems are described.
Chapter XLVII
The Strategic Plan of Digital Libraries ....................................................................................................... 457
Juha Kettunen, Turku University of Applied Sciences, Finland
This chapter describes the cooperation of academic libraries and the consortium of digital libraries of Finnish
universities of applied sciences. It argues that it is necessary to adopt networking and cooperative strategies
among libraries to provide electronic services of users. The findings of this chapter are useful to administrators
of educational institutions aiming to plan a networked strategy and improve the cost-efficient cooperation of
otherwise independent organizations.
Chapter XLVIII
Software Process Asset Libraries Using Knowledge Repositories . ........................................................... 465
Leonardo Bermn-Angarita, Carlos III University of Madrid, Spain
Antonio Amescua-Seco, Carlos III University of Madrid, Spain
Maria Isabel Snchez-Segura, Carlos III University of Madrid, Spain
Javier Garca-Guzmn, Carlos III University of Madrid, Spain
This chapter establishes the incorporation of Knowledge Management techniques as a means to improve
actual software process asset libraries. It presents how Knowledge Management contributes to the creation
of a new generation of process libraries as repositories of knowledge as well as the mechanisms to allow the
acquisition, storage, collaboration, sharing, and distribution of knowledge related to the software develop-
ment processes.
Chapter XLIX
The Role and Integration of Digital Libraries in E-Learning ..................................................................... 476
Han Lee Yen, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Educators and learners have long relied on libraries as their main sources of learning resources and libraries
have in turn provided the infrastructure that promotes the creation, assimilation, and leverage of knowledge.
However, with the growth of e-learning in recent years, libraries are facing new challenges to the way they
develop, manage, and deliver their services and resources to their users. This chapter discusses how libraries
can meet these challenges by providing electronic or partially electronic services.
Chapter L
Development of Digital Libraries in Pakistan ............................................................................................ 482
Kanwal Ameen, University of the Punjab, Lahore. Pakistan
Muhammad Rafiq, Government College University Lahore, Pakistan
This chapter aims to discuss the development of digital libraries in Pakistan. It gives an account of the digital
transformation taking place in the country and reviews a few digital library initiatives. It discusses a number
of issues associated with the development of digital libraries with specific reference to Pakistan. The major
issues appear are as follows: misconception about digital libraries; lack of technological applications; lack of
human resources with needed skills; copyright and publishing; cultural divide; digital divide; and insufficient
financial support. The authors believe that understanding the underlying issues will not only accelerate the
development of DL in Pakistan, but also in other developing countries with more or less common environ-
ment.
Section V
Digital Library Education and Future Trends
Chapter LI
Core Topics in Digital Library Education . ................................................................................................. 493
Seungwon Yang, Digital Library Research Laboratory, Virginia Tech, USA
Barbara M. Wildemuth, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, USA
Jeffrey P. Pomerantz, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, USA
Sanghee Oh, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, USA
Edward A. Fox, Digital Library Research Laboratory, Virginia Tech, USA
This chapter presents the effort of developing a digital library (DL) curriculum by an interdisciplinary group
from Virginia Tech and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. It describes the foundations of the
curriculum building, the DL curriculum framework, the DL educational module template, a list of draft modules
that are currently developed and evaluated by multiple experts in the area, and more details about the resources
used in the draft modules and DL-related workshop topics mapped to the DL curriculum framework.
Chapter LII
Digital Libraries as Centres of Knowledge: Historical Perspectives from European Ancient Libraries..... 506
Natalie Pang, Monash University, Australia
This chapter focuses on the core role of libraries as centres of knowledge using historical perspectives from
ancient libraries in Europe. The ways technological and social contexts have been adapted in ancient libraries
are discussed. This chapter contributes to a collective understanding of immediate and future directions of
libraries, their challenges and promises, and how they have evolved as places for local communities.
Chapter LIII
The European Approach Towards Digital Library Education: Dead End or Recipe for Success? ............. 514
Wolfgang Ratzek, Stuttgart Media University, Germany
With the rapid development of effective and efficient information and communication technology (ICT) and
the vital change of patron behavior, a library cannot offer its services without qualified staff. Thus, this chapter
describes the LIS (library and information science) educational and training programs in Europe, especially
in Germany, Great Britain, and the Nordic Countries.
Chapter LIV
New Roles of Digital Libraries ................................................................................................................... 520
Faisal Ahmad, University of Colorado at Boulder, USA
Tamara Sumner, University of Colorado at Boulder, USA
Holly Devaul, Digital Learning Sciences, USA
This chapter proposes the future of digital libraries (DLs) in terms of the support provided for the end us-
ers and distributed computer applications. The authors briefly present their methodology for systematically
exploring the future of DLs, and then highlight some of the roles a DL can play to support its diverse set
of users. A new breed of consumer is introduced with discussion on how DLs can provide support to this
consumer group.
Chapter LV
A Review of Progress in Digital Library Education ................................................................................... 533
Yongqing Ma, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
Warwick Clegg, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
Ann OBrien, Loughborough University, UK
This chapter reviews the history, development, and current status of digital library (DL) courses and pro-
grammes now being offered, mainly by universities/institutions with accredited programmes or courses by
CILIP (the Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals) and ALA (American Library As-
sociation). Trends in digital library education (DLE) are also presented.
Chapter LVI
The Future of Learning with Digital Libraries ........................................................................................... 543
Chang Chew-Hung, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
John G. Hedberg, Macquarie University, Australia
This chapter discusses the issues of current digital libraries (DLs) for learning. Then it proposes that the future
of learning with DLs rests on integrating supportive tools into a seamless learning environment.
Chapter LVII
Computational Sense for Digital Librarians ............................................................................................... 552
Michael B. Twidale, University of Illinois, USA
David M. Nichols, University of Waikato, New Zealand
This chapter presents the role of technology in digital library education. It investigates how elements of com-
puter science and library science can be merged to produce an appropriate computational sense for future
digital librarians. The discussion in this chapter aims to inform the development of digital library software
toolsparticularly those used in educational contexts.
Chapter LVIII
Digital Libraries Overview and Globalization . .......................................................................................... 562
Soh Whee Kheng Grace, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
This chapter presents an overview of how national libraries of 14 countries in Asia-Pacific region are involv-
ing in the digital library initiatives. Most libraries participate in the collaborative efforts to build the digital
libraries with the support from their government. With the understanding of the current situation in Asia
Pacific, the reader can understand the readiness of national libraries aiming for globalization.
Index............................................................................................................................................................ 644
xxxii
Foreword
Digital libraries are meant to provide intellectual access to distributed stores of information by creating
information environments which advance access beyond electronic access to raw datathe bitsto the
fuller knowledge and meaning contained in digital collections. Electronic access is increasing at a rapid
pace through global efforts to increase network connectivity and bandwidth, new information management
tools, and importantly, interoperability across systems and information content. The quantity of online digital
information is increasing ten-fold each year in a relatively uncontrolled, open environment. This pace of
information creation far surpasses that of the development of technologies to use the material effectively.
The number of people accessing digital collections though the WWW also shows explosive rates of growth.
Finally, internationalization is making a global information environment a reality. (Griffin, 1998)
As this statement by Griffin suggests, one of the seminal developments in the field of information man-
agement at the end of the last century and the early part of this century has been the rapid growth of digital
library initiatives. Griffin also hints at the key areas of development for digital libraries: network connectivity
and interoperability (design), knowledge and meaning (content), intellectual access (use). Ten years on from
Griffins 1998 observations, we now have before us the Handbook of Research on Digital Libraries: Design,
Development and Impact. In this collection, Professor Foo and his colleagues address these same issues in
considerable detail: design, content, use. The issues remain, but the solutions have advanced considerably in
the past decade as digital libraries have come to encompass not only libraries, but also institutional digital
repositories, certain kinds of portals and Web sites and digital archives.
The term digital library probably was coined in the 1980s during discussions among a number of U.S.
agencies that culminated in the Digital Libraries Initiative (DLI) in 1993 (Griffin, 1998). The impact of the DLI
began in earnest with the establishment of six DLI projects (http://www.cise.nsf.gov/iis/dli_home.html).
From the beginning, DLI was regarded as a community-based process which, although this may have
been downplayed in recent years, is resuming significance in current developments. The community basis of
early digital library initiatives was evident in the breadth of interest and involvement of researchers across
many disciplines; this extended quite rapidly to absorb researchers and practitioners from many disciplines far
beyond the hard sciences and information science into the human and social sciences. This much is evident in
the many digital library projects currently established or under development, covering such topics as ancient
Near Eastern materials, medicine, childrens literature, Greek and Latin classics, and much more.
In all such projects, whether community-based or otherwise, digital library design remains a significant
concern, and we are still seeking improvements on a number of fronts, some of which are becoming critical.
xxxiii
This is especially true of system architecture, which must become increasingly sophisticated in order to deal
adequately not only with the more complex content of digital libraries, but also with the greater expectations
of users in terms of flexible content management. Another important design consideration involves metadata
and metadata applications that can be developed and fine-tuned in terms of searchability and long-term
sustainability. And a third, perhaps most critical, issue is that of privacy and security in digital library ap-
plications. Interestingly, as these words are being written, Victoria University of Wellington has just hosted
the International Conference on Managing Identity in New Zealand: User-centric Identity in the 21st Century
(http://www.identityconference.victoria.ac.nz/). As the Conference publicity indicates, the representation
of personal identity in digital environments takes place on a different footing compared to identification
processes in the physical world. As a consequence, we now face new challenges on several frontssocial,
technical, legal, political, and economicto ensure secure identity management in an online environment.
It is within this framework that we must consider ways of ensuring secure and accurate information access
and transfer within digital libraries through the use of appropriate technologies.
From design, we move to digital library content, and especially how this content can be processed and
managed; again, there are several areas of critical importance. One of these may be broadly termed seman-
tics and ontology: how terms can be understood and standardized both to aid effective searching to improve
text summarization, which in turn leads to better search results. Also within the broad ambit of semantics
are metadata standards, and how these can be used to improve document description. A second major issue
in terms of content processing and management relates to use and usability. In order to improve processing
and management with a view to the use of digital library content, we face the enduring issue of user-friendly
interfaceswhat the technology can do must match what the users want it to do. Here, the concern is how
we can use the technology, particularly machine learning, to build user profiles in terms of their interests,
thereby improving search and retrieval functions in digital libraries. Through better understanding of user
needs and interests, it is possible, for example, to employ ranking functions when ordering retrieved results
in a manner most suited to individual requirements.
This focus on understanding the use of digital resources leads seamlessly into the third area of concern,
the use and users of digital libraries. How usable are digital libraries, and how can usability be evaluated?
What are the critical factors behind effective use of digital library content? What interfaces are available, and
how appropriate are they for the intended users? How effective is the visualisation feature of digital library
collections, and how navigable is the visual content of digital collections from the user perspective? These
are enduring use and user questions from the predigital era now translated into a digital environment, with
the advantage of better technological support for possible answers.
Design, content, and usethese three areas of principal concern in the digital library environment are
also addressed by the editors of the Handbook of Research on Digital Libraries: Design, Development and
Impact, which should come as no surprise to anyone who knows this team. The collection of papers in the
Handbook will go some way towards improving our understanding of how current research is addressing
these three areas of principal concern, and where this research may be taking us in the immediate future.
What must be addressed next by researchers is the community-based nature of digital libraries and how
this community basis can and must inform future digital library developments. Understanding the commu-
nity or communities of users, or perhaps the communities of practice, implies a more realistic awareness of
not only ICT availability in much of the world, but also the digital literacy of such communities where the
enabling ICTs are embedded in regional or national information infrastructures.
In the early 1980s, I participated in a Unesco-sponsored conference on the topic of documentation for
development (as in Third World development), at which a sadly misguided participant stated adamantly that
xxxiv
even the smallest information centre in the most underdeveloped part of the world has a desktop computer.
It was not true then, and it certainly is not true now, but a similar misconception is still with us:
One of the great boons of the Web is the online availability of the treasures of the worlds libraries and
museums. Great paintings, personal letters, dairies of the famous and infamous, ancient papyri, important
national documentsall are there for any student with a computer and Internet access. (Anderson & Max-
well, 2004, p. 1)
The operative phrase in this statement is any student with a computer and Internet access, with the
unstated assumption is that this applies to most students. However, the reality is different: in the USA alone,
it was estimated in 2004 that
The residents are reported as not using the Internet; in how many developing countries would the more
appropriate comment be unable to use because access does not exist or unable to use through lack of
digital literacy? For most of Africa, for vast swathes of Asia and Oceania, for much of the Middle East, for
significant parts of Latin America, this would be the reality.
Since digital libraries depend ultimately on the ability to access and to understand their content, it is incum-
bent upon researchers to tackle this double-edged sword of access and understanding with the same vigour with
which they have tackled the issues of design, content, and use. There is perhaps less we can do as researchers
in relation to regional and national information infrastructures, except to lobby for greater commitment and
investment and to make our expertise available for development, than in relation to understanding through
digital literacy. Indeed, as we broaden our horizons from literacy to information literacyand now to digital
literacythere is much that is already being done, as can be seen in Rivoltellas edited collection, Literacy:
Tools and Methodologies for Information Society. As long as the digital divide, digital illiteracy, and digital
exclusion are with us, digital libraries will be that much less effective than their potential warrants. Digital
exclusion [] is to remain incapable of thinking, or creating and organizing new more just and dynamic
forms of production and distribution of symbolic and material wealth (Fantin & Girardello, 2008, p. 312).
With this situation as an underlying imperative, the editors and authors who have contributed to the Hand-
book of Research on Digital Libraries: Design, Development and Impact deserve particular commendation for
the manner in which they have delved with insight and scholarly rigour into the areas underpinning forward
motion in digital library development and use. In 58 chapters, this collection addresses a range of issues under
the broad rubric of design-content-use that will inform our thinking on future digital library development for
some time. And in the final section, there are several chapters that serve as links between the specific technical
issues addressed in earlier sections and possible future developmentsfood for thought indeed.
References
Anderson, C.G., & Maxwell, D.C. (2004) Starting a digitization centre. Chandos Information Professional
Series. Oxford: Chandos Publishing.
Fantin, M., & Girardello, G. (2008). Digital literacy and cultural mediations to the digital divide. In P.C.
Rivoltella (Ed.), Digital Literacy: Tools and Methodologies for Information Society (pp. 310340). Hershey,
PA: IGI Publishing.
Griffin, S.M. (1998). NSF/DARPA/NASA Digital libraries initiative: A program managers perspective. D-Lib
Magazine (July/August). Retrieved August 30, 2008, from http://www.dlib.org/dlib/july98/07griffin.html
Rivoltella, P.C. (Ed.). (2008). Digital literacy: Tools and methodologies for information society. Hershey,
PA: IGI Publishing.
Stefl-Mabry, J., & Lynch, B.L. (2006). Knowledge communities: Bringing the village into the classroom.
Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press.
xxxvi
Preface
The history of digital libraries is rich and varied because the digital library concept is not so much a new
idea as an evolving conception of contributions from many disciplines. Digital libraries are interactive sys-
tems with organised collections of information. As digital libraries become more complex, the number of
facilities provided by them will increase, and the difficulty of learning to use these facilities will also increase
correspondingly. Like the Web, digital libraries also provide nonlinear information spaces in which chunks
of information are interconnected via links. However, they are different in character from the Web in several
important aspects: a digital library represents a collection for a specific purpose, and has search strategies
that are clearly defined and more powerful.
In recent years, there has been an emergence of subject-based digital libraries on the Web. Many people
have contributed to the idea, and everyone seems to have something different in mind. The metaphor of the
traditional library is both empowering and constraining: (i) empowering, because digital libraries automate
and extend opportunities offered by traditional libraries, as well as harnessing opportunities not possible
on the anarchic Web; and (ii) constraining, because the metaphor evokes certain legacy impressions, many
originating in arbitrary physical constraints.
The design of interactive systems, including digital libraries, is often inspired by what technology makes
possible. In user-centered design, design emphasizes users, their tasks, and needs. Because digital libraries
mean different things to different people, the design of digital libraries is, therefore, dependent of the percep-
tions of the purpose/functionality of digital libraries.
It is now more than ten years since the first digital library conference on Theory and Practice of Digital
Libraries was held in 1994 that predicted the beginning of an electronic period, but warned that we needed
to construct a social environment for the information highway. Digital libraries have matured from seemingly
static to more dynamic and interactive repositories of user-contributed resources with diverse applications.
They are part of the global infrastructure being envisioned to interconnect many computer networks and vari-
ous forms of information technologies around the world, a partial fulfillment of Bushs 1945 dream memex
of a personal microfiche-based system to tackle the problem of information overload. Digital libraries, more
organized and structured than the Web, are an overwhelming example of a shared world-wide collection of
information.
In such an emerging and ever-evolving field, educators, researchers, and professionals need access to
seminal works as well as the most current information about concepts, issues, trends, and technologies, and
hence, the motivation of this handbook.
This handbook aims to provide comprehensive coverage and definitions of the most important issues,
concepts, trends, and technologies relating to digital library technology and applications. This important new
xxxvii
publication will be distributed worldwide among academic and professional institutions and will be instrumental
in providing researchers, scholars, students, and professionals with access to the latest knowledge relating to
digital libraries. The authors of the chapters in this handbook are representatives from scholars and practitio-
ners with well-established research portfolios and expertise in digital libraries throughout the world.
The Handbook is divided into 5 sections with 58 chapters: (I) Design and Development; (II) Information
Processing and Content Management; (III) Users, Interactions, and Experiences; (IV) Case Studies and Ap-
plications; and (V) Digital Library Education and Future Trends. In addition, the Handbook also compiles a
compendium of terms, definitions, and explanations of concepts, processes, and acronyms.
In Section I: Design and Development, the focus is to highlight a range of design and development tech-
niques, challenges, and solutions in creating usable and effective digital library systems. Drawing from the
experiences of the various authors of these 9 chapters, readers are introduced to a series of digital library
projects, case studies and evaluative studies that addresse a wide facet of design and development issues
that include data modeling, application profiling, system architecture design, use of technologies, metadata,
security, and privacy.
In Section II: Information Processing and Content Management, the focus is on information processing
and content management. In these 17 chapters, the readers will encounter details in techniques and issues
related to information processing and content management for developing and organizing various digital
libraries. In the information processing related chapters, the following techniques are discussed: text sum-
marization, user-centred navigation for browsing large image databases, ontology-based information retrieval,
personalization, audio-based information retrieval, ranked query algorithm for personalization, multimodal
user interface for multimedia digital libraries, and word segmentation in Indo-China languages. In the content
management related chapters, the following techniques and issues are discussed: standardization of terms,
metadata interoperability, guidelines for developing digital cultural collection, a classification scheme for
new forms of scholarly communication, duplicate journal title detection in references, and the effectiveness
of social tagging for resource discovery.
In Section III: Users, Interactions, and Experiences, the focus is on the applicability, use, and impact on the
targeted users of the digital library systems. The 10 chapters cover the importance of these various forms of
digital libraries, and their roles, key success factors, problems, issues, and contribution to the society at large
are important aspects that are typically expounded in this section. Usability evaluation techniques employed
are also discussed in the development of large digital library systems, addressing users, requirements, and
context of use.
In Section IV: Case Studies and Applications, the focus is on designing and implementing digital librar-
ies, as well as important applications of digital libraries. The 14 chapters cover diverse, but important, areas
such as multimedia digital libraries, geospatial digital libraries, music as well as image information access,
and digital preservation. Other chapters discuss national digital library projects, as well as the challenges
associated with implementing large-scale digital libraries. Delivering effective electronic services in various
domains for digital library users are also covered in this section.
In Section V: Digital Library Education and Future Trends, the focus is on digital library education and
future trends. In these 8 chapters, the readers will encounter details in current status and issues related to
digital library education and future trends for digital libraries. In the digital library education related chapters,
the following topics are discussed: a digital library curriculum and its framework, trends in digital library
education, the LIS (Library and Information Science) educational and training programs in Europe, and the
role of technology in digital library education. In the future trends related chapters, the following issues are
xxxviii
discussed: the core role of libraries as centers of knowledge using historical perspectives, the new role of
digital libraries for a new breed of consumers, the future of learning with digital libraries, and an overview
of national libraries in Asia Pacific region, and their readiness for globalization.
Acknowledgment
The editors would like to thank all authors who have submitted chapter proposals, and reviewers for their
excellent contributions and insights, without which this book would not have been possible. Not forgetting
our editorial representatives, particularly Kristin Roth and Rebecca Beistline, who demonstrated patience and
extreme cooperation in the development and production of this handbook; and Lia Maisarah Umar, Eunice
Chua, and Dawn Tan provided valuable administrative support throughout the process. Special thanks go to
Gary Gorman who, despite his busy commitments, wrote the foreword and gave us a comprehensive overview
of the design, content, and use of digital libraries. We are also grateful to IGI Global for the opportunity to
publish this handbook, which we hope will be the first of many more books to come in the future.
Section I
Design and Development
Chapter I
OpenDLib:
A Digital Library Service System
Leonardo Candela
Istituto di Scienza e Tecnologie dellInformazione A. Faedo (ISTI-CNR), Italy
Donatella Castelli
Istituto di Scienza e Tecnologie dellInformazione A. Faedo (ISTI-CNR), Italy
Pasquale Pagano
Istituto di Scienza e Tecnologie dellInformazione A. Faedo (ISTI-CNR), Italy
Manuele Simi
Istituto di Scienza e Tecnologie dellInformazione A. Faedo (ISTI-CNR), Italy
A bs tra ct
This chapter introduces OpenDLib, a digital library service system developed at ISTI-CNR for easing
the creation and management of digital libraries. It discusses the motivations underlying the develop-
ment of such a system and describes it by presenting (i) the characteristics of the huge kind of content
it is capable of managing, (ii) the set of functions it natively provides its digital libraries with, (iii) the
powerful and .exibility of its component-oriented architectural paradigm as a key feature for addressing
different application scenarios, and (iv) the technologies the system development relies on. The authors
hope that understanding the OpenDLib foundational principles will not only inform stakeholders and
decision makers of the features implemented by this existing system, but also assist researchers and ap-
plication developers in the understanding of the issues, and their possible solutions, that arises when
building digital library systems aimed at serving such a broad class of application scenarios.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
OpenDLib
OpenDLib
EPrints, now in its third version, is among the DoMDL has been designed to represent struc-
first free repository software for building OAI- tured, multilingual, and multimedia objects in a
compliant repositories and probably one of the way that can be customized according to which
most diffused (in December 2007, there existed content has to be handled. For example, it can
240 known archives running this software). This be used to describe a lecture as the composition
new version is a major leap forward in func- of the teachers presentation together with the
tionality, aiming at simplifying the tasks of the slides and the summary of the talk transcript.
various players (e.g., depositors, researchers, and Moreover, the object may be disseminated as the
managers) involved in running and maintaining MPEG3 format of the video or the SMIL object
a repository. synchronizing its parts.
Digital repository systems, however, only pro- In order to represent objects with completely
vide core functionalities, such as search, retrieval, different structures, DoMDL distinguishes four
and access to information objects, which are not main aspects of document modelling and, us-
able to meet application specific requirements ing terms and definitions very similar to those
as those digital libraries are usually requested coined in the IFLA FRBR model (IFLA, 1998),
to satisfy. For example, during its lifetime a DL it represents these aspects through the following
may have to support additional functionalities for entities: document, edition, view, and manifes-
satisfy the needs of new organizations that join tation. The document entity, representing the
the DL, offering their specific information content object as a distinct intellectual creation, captures
and their computers to host the system; or it may the more general aspect of it. The edition entity
have to manage policies that regulate the access to models an instance of the document entity along
content and services. OpenDLib (Castelli & Pa- the time dimension. The preliminary version of
gano, 2002, 2003; OpenDLib) has been conceived a paper and the version published in the proceed-
to meet these specific DL requirements. ings are examples of successive editions of the
same object. The view is the way through which
an edition is perceived. A view excludes physical
O PEN DLIB FEA TURES aspects that are not related to how a document
is to be perceived. For example, the original edi-
OpenDLib was created as a software toolkit for tion of the proceedings of a workshop might be
setting up digital libraries capable of satisfying disseminated under two different views: (a) a
multifaceted needs expressed by heterogeneous structured textual view containing a preface
user communities. Because of this goal, it must created by the conference chairs and the list of
be capable of supporting a powerful and flexible thematic sessions containing the accepted papers;
content model, a set of functions for appropriately and (b) a presentation view containing the list
dealing with such potentially rich content, and an of the slides used in the presentations. The mani-
architectural paradigm making it capable to be festation models the physical formats by which an
exploited in application scenarios having different object is disseminated, for example, the MPEG
deployment requirements. file containing the video recording of a lecture
As regards the content, OpenDLib can handle given at a certain summer school, or the AVI file
a wide variety of information object types. This of the same video. These entities are semantically
capability originates from the fact that it exploits connected by means of a set of possibly multiple
a powerful and flexible document model named relationships, that is, there may be multiple edi-
DoMDL (Candela, Castelli, Pagano, & Simi, tions of the same document, multiple views of
2005). the same edition, and multiple manifestations of
the same view.
OpenDLib
Each of the entities of the model has a set of result-sets, session results, and other information.
attributes that specify the rights on the modelled In addition, a number of administration functions
document aspects. This enables, for example, are also given to support the preservation of ob-
to model possibly different rights on different jects, objects reviewing process, and handling of
editions, different access policies on different users and user group profiles.
views or on different parts of the same view, From the architectural point of view, OpenDLib
and so on. adopts a component-based approach. This ap-
The information objects of an OpenDLib plication development approach is the most suit-
digital library are organized into a set of virtual able to realize the OpenDLib goal because: (i)
collections, each characterized by its own ac- the system is assembled from discrete executable
cess policy. Authorized people can define new components which are developed and deployed
collections dynamically, that is, by specifying somewhat independently of one another, poten-
membership criteria. In the same digital library, tially by different players; and (ii) the system
for example, it is possible to maintain a collec- may be upgraded with smaller increments, that
tion of grey literature accessible to all users and is, by upgrading only some of the constituent
a collection of historical images accessible only components. In particular, this aspect is one of
to a specific group of researchers. Each collection the key points in reaching interoperability, as
is automatically updated whenever a new object upgrading the appropriate constituents of a sys-
matching the membership criteria is published in tem makes it able to interact with other systems.
the digital library. Furthermore, (iii) components may be shared by
From the functional point of view, the basic systems; this creates opportunities for reuse that
release of OpenDLib provides services to support heavily contributes to lowering the development
the submission, description, indexing, search, and maintenance costs and the time to market.
browsing, retrieval, access, preservation, and And (iv) though not strictly related to their being
visualization of information objects. These objects component-based, component-based systems
can be submitted as files in a chosen format or as tend to be distributed. OpenDLib implements
URLs to objects stored elsewhere. They can be de- this approach by realizing a service-oriented
scribed using one or more metadata formats. The architecture so it consists of an open federation
OpenDLib search service offers different search of services that can be distributed and replicated
options, such as free text or fielded (where fields on different hosting servers. By exploiting this fea-
can be selected from a variety of known meta- ture, OpenDLib supports three kinds of dynamic
data formats)or single or cross-language, with or expansions: (i) new classes of services can easily
without relevance feedback. Information objects be added to the federation; (ii) new instances of a
retrieved can be navigated over all their editions, replicated or distributed service can be deployed
versions, structures, metadata, and formats. All on either an existing or a new hosting server;
the above services can be customized accord- and (iii) the configurations of the services can
ing to several dimensions, such as, for example, be modified so that they can handle new object
metadata formats, controlled vocabularies, and types, new metadata formats, and support new
browseable fields. usages. Thus the architectural configuration,
OpenDLib is also equipped with other digital chosen when the digital library is set up, can be
library specific services, such as the ones provid- changed later to satisfy new emerging needs. For
ing the enforcement of access policies on informa- instance, a replication of an index instance can be
tion objects and the management of user-shelves created to reduce workloads when the number of
able to maintain information objects versions, search requests exceeds an established threshold,
OpenDLib
OpenDLib
OpenDLib
a digital library through the corresponding digital Institutional Repository: A set of services
library system. that a research institution offers to the members
of its community for the management and dis-
Document Model: The abstract representation
semination of digital materials created by the
of the physical or semantic structure of a given
institution and its community members. It is most
set of documents.
essentially an organizational commitment to the
Grid Computing: Computing model that stewardship of these digital materials, including
provides the ability to perform higher throughput long-term preservation where appropriate, as
computing by taking advantage of many net- well as organization and access or distribution
worked computers to model a virtual computer (Lynch, 2003).
architecture that is able to distribute process
Service Oriented Architecture: A style of
execution across a parallel infrastructure.
information systems architecture that enables the
Grid Infrastructure: The underlying basic creation of applications that are built by combining
framework for grid computing. loosely couplet and interoperable services.
Chapter II
Information Security and Privacy
in Digital Libraries
Mohammed Nasser Al-Suqri
Sultan Qaboos University, Oman
A bs tra ct
Deliberate exploitation of natural resources and excessive use of environmentally abhorrent materials
have resulted in environmental disruptions threatening the life support systems. A human centric ap-
proach of development has already damaged nature to a large extent. This has attracted the attention
of environmental specialists and policy makers. It has also led to discussions at various national and
international conventions. The objective of protecting natural resources cannot be achieved without the
involvement of professionals from multidisciplinary areas. This chapter recommends a model for the
creation of knowledge-based systems for natural resources management. Further, it describes making
use of unique capabilities of remote sensing satellites for conserving natural resources and managing
natural disasters. It is exclusively for the people who are not familiar with the technology and who are
given the task of framing policies.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Information Security and Privacy in Digital Libraries
libraries face in the new Digital Age. It addresses information delivery takes place will vary from
the following issues: protecting the information environment to environment, but change will
infrastructure; identification and authentication take place depending upon how libraries create
in security and privacy; standards and policies; (or react to) changes in their clientele, the work
access and control of digital information; ethi- that is performed, and the availability and cost of
cal decision making in design, implementation, technology. In fact, the big challenge for libraries
and evaluation of digital libraries; and privacy, is to use the evolution of the new technologies to
anonymity, and identity. The chapter concludes their benefit, so these libraries can continue as
with future trends of security and privacy in information providers.
digital libraries. Digital libraries became evident about a dec-
ade ago. They have created many opportunities
as well as challenges. One of the biggest chal-
IN TRO DUCTION lenges for digital libraries is to select appropriate
technologies and software so they can continue
The future has always been regarded with fascina- to progress in providing accurate, secure, and
tion. For some people it is because of the perceived timely information to its users.
benefits that will be realized; for others because Digital libraries, according to the Digital
it will bring change and create problems that will Library Federation, are organizations that
need to be resolved. One thing that everyone agrees provide the resources, including the specialized
with, however, is that the future inevitably brings staff, to select, structure, offer intellectual access
with it change, and life will, in some ways, be to, interpret, distribute, preserve the integrity of,
different. Today we live in a world economy and and ensure the persistence over time of collec-
one in which great distances can be traveled much tions of digital works, so that they are readily
more quickly than 100 years ago. In like manner, and commercially available for use by a defined
the transmission of information has moved beyond community or set of communities. Likewise,
print and now includes digital text and images. Ershova and Hohlov (2001) define it as a distrib-
Libraries, as traditional providers of information uted information systems ensuring reliable storage
and knowledge, are undergoing particularly chal- and effective use of heterogeneous collections
lenging situations in transitioning from owner- of electronic documents -text, graphics, audio,
ship of materials to accessing knowledge and video, and so forth. - via global data transfer
information from networked, electronic sources, networks in a way convenient for the end user.
from providing users with the information that In other words, digital libraries are organizations
they are looking for to teaching users how to find that would have all the information resources in
the information for themselves, and from moving the digital form.
from an environment that has changed slowly
over the past 150 years to one in which change is
necessary, constant, and revolutionary. BA CKGRO UN D: INFORMA TION
While it can be said that all libraries are in OF DIGI TAL LIBRARIES
some degree alike, they are also different in
rather critical ways. Technology should be viewed Emerging digital culture has paved the way to
as a tool and a means for accomplishing a task. the creation of digital libraries, which have made
The definition of the task to be performed must it easier for users to access information through
be identified by librarians taking a careful and digital systems and networks. With the global
ongoing assessment of users. The details of how increase in the quantity of information and the
Information Security and Privacy in Digital Libraries
digital devices that store it comes an increase a computer to assist more patrons to find books,
in the issues of security and privacy for library audiovisual media, and online resources simul-
users and digital materials. Users of such digital taneously. For instance, Google search engine,
devices would need to understand the capacity of a product of digital libraries which emanated
each device and the restrictions associated with from Stanford University, has left paper-based
the information being disseminated. The cost of libraries behind with its tremendous capacity of
updating current technologies and the security 250 million searches per day (see http://computer.
of information has become a vital concern for howstuffworks.com/search-engine1.htm).
digital librarians. Also of equal concern is the Digital libraries are more interested in the
environmental impact of the security and privacy preservation of data in a more durable format
of information available to its originators and its and in the provision of access to vast information
users in digital libraries. while keeping pace with the changing technolo-
The digital library is a hybrid library designed gies. Such libraries are able to address the issues
to perform and serve the same primary functions of compatibility between old and new technolo-
and tasks as those of a traditional library. What gies while transferring information and provid-
makes it different, though, is that it uses data stored ing access to the end user. There is, however, a
on computerized devices instead of books and need for digital libraries to focus on ensuring the
research paraphernalia. As the debate over their protection of the information infrastructure and
validity continues, digital libraries still provide the privacy of end users. According to Sturges,
services in the method used by traditional librar- Davies, Dearnley, Iliffe, Oppenheim, and Hardy
ies but with a greater focus on technical issues. (2003), library users believe that libraries will
In todays globalize world, data are transmitted have policies on privacy and data protection in
across the planet through a network system known force (p. 49).
as the Internet. This technology has enhanced
the chance of educating people since the Internet
makes access to information easier and more PRO TE CTING THE INFORMA TION
prevalent. While providing universal learning INFRAS TR UCTURE
within the globe, this technology is required to
keep digital information preserved and available Standards for the protection of information in any
for the next generations. format and especially in digital forms are very
The primary functions performed by libraries important for several reasons. As the informa-
are developing and producing information records tion explosion is recorded around the globe, and
in print and nonprint, managing the information as technology changes and improvements in the
records, and distributing the information for future storage of information are made, earlier informa-
generations access. This arduous role of libraries tion records stored in print need to be saved to the
as a mechanism that facilitates information ac- newer technologies and transferred yet to another
cess and freedom has been widely discussed by as many technologies become obsolete. Similarly,
many researchers (Borgman, 2000; Hamilton & there is a need for the ease of information transfer
Pors, 2003; Sturges, 2001). The constant evolu- from one record to another.
tion of technology and the interface between the The privacy of end users will be more eas-
user and the information changes the librarians ily addressed as long as set standards of digital
professional environment. Fifty years ago, a li- laws are met. There is a need for the filtration of
brarian would help patrons find a book through information in digital forms by set standards to
a card catalogue, but today, digital librarians use assist in creating contents that could shape and
10
Information Security and Privacy in Digital Libraries
guard the dissemination of such information to tive information. Digital libraries identification
end users. Digital information users have access to and authentication of users involves continued
a wide range of information and sources through verification of their claims or their statements
agencies and agents to facilitate the selection of of identity.
quality and relevant information. The information age is considerably changing
This concept allows end users to access digital the ways and circumstances by which consumers
information that is subject to the standards of a are identified and authenticated. The use of pass-
particular source. It also ensures strict adherence word and identification cards is becoming critical
to the rules and regulations that could protect the in prevention of identity theft, and other frauds.
users security and privacy. These sets of standards E-mail-based identification and authentication
are increasing and adjusting to the proliferations (EBIA) is emerging and provides purposeful
of information on the Web and the demands of security. Garfinkel (2003), while discussing the
usage. Digital information professionals are en- advantages, weaknesses of EBIA, and how it
joined to identify and authenticate the security could evolve into a security system with stronger
and privacy of their patrons. features posit, this technique uses an e-mail
address as a universal identifier and the ability
to receive e-mail at that address as a kind of au-
IDEN TIFI CATION AN D thenticator (p. 22).
A UTHEN TICATION IN The digital information professional is a key
SE CURI TY AN D PRI VA CY player in the digital library environment for the
identification and authentication of quality and
The fundamental roles of information profession- relevant information. The public must have ac-
als have changed due to the information explosion, cess to the digital information professional for
different forms of recording information, different inquiries and assistance in retrieving the needed
processes of information, different procedures for information in a digital format. As technology
dissemination of information, and the increase changes and the need for information grows, the
in the number of users. Governments in every environment will change to help the professionals
country know how important it is to protect its assist in identifying the information needs of users
citizens privacy in the online world, and have and in retrieving and disseminating the requested
policies to properly enlighten them on their rights information. The entire identified procedures
for being accurately informed on protection of will need to be followed and authenticated with
personal information submitted to Web sites. standardized policies beneficial to the informa-
Digital libraries are also aware that they should tion profession.
respect the privacy of their patron.
The Internet and its enabling technology are
constantly charging; in similar vein, the standards S TAN DAR DS AN D POLI CIES IN
for privacy are also on the increase. Privacy laws DIGI TAL LIBRARIES
are effectively in place to aid digital libraries to
ensure that users personal information are pro- Information is a main component of a government.
tected with security safeguards appropriate to As digital information becomes more popular, and
the sensitivity of the information. Identification as competition over the velocity of information dis-
and authentication of digital library users can semination sometimes overshadows integrity, the
assist in the protection of privacy and reduction regulations and policies that govern the circulation
in authorized disclosures of private and sensi- of information have also become more complex.
11
Information Security and Privacy in Digital Libraries
Hence, an information professionals role is to the result of easy access to vast information, which
provide accurate information in a timely manner opens easy opportunities for slack security, which
and ensure that the integrity of that information consequently invokes a possibility of wrong-doing.
is not compromised. Copyright laws, such as the The Information Age is generating more reasons
American Copyright Revision Act of 1976 and for security-consciousness with the Internet and
the Software Copyright Act of 1980, are in place digital libraries. This is essential for the access
to protect software. and control of digital information in order to
As extensive databases and storage systems prevent all from being lost to our own plunders
are being developed to preserve digital informa- as we raid the information superhighway.
tion, standards and policies should be enforced
to protect the security and privacy of users. The
Digital Revolution has made information more A CCESS AN D CON TROL OF
accessible; it has also affected societys morals by DIGI TAL INFORMA TION
altering the perception of standards and policies
of retrieving information or downloading media The more information pumped into a society the
from the Internet. It is sometimes perceived the more complex are the regulations needed. Today,
same as borrowing electronic devices from a the information superhighway is where all the
friend. information is collected and kept in databases,
Information seekers are often found to put laws retrieval systems, and digital libraries for the use
and moral implications aside when they choose of patrons. Access is given to the content of such
to pirate or rectify information for their own illicit materials based on the users skills and knowledge
purposes based on their own ethical standards. (Borgman, 2000). Control is given to creators,
For instance, 1997 records confirm instances of and government is given ownership as a means
commercial software being copied not only by to initiate statutes, laws, and guidelines on the
customers but the programmers themselves. Ac- use and distribution of the information. Many
cording to Seadle (2004), even a reasonable fair nations have taken to using agencies to regulate
use in ethical terms could still be an infringement information for national defense and broadcasting
in strict legal judgment (p. 109). Hence, there is a reasons. Access to information gets affected by
need to have an enforcement mechanism in place, how organizations control it. Content of infor-
instead of the current trends where peer pressure mation determines where and what agency will
ethical judgments are enabling or discouraging oversee its access. Governments help protect all
intellectual property infringements. That is why matters of national or global interest from finances
the guidelines set by law need to be enforced to homeland defense. Global and national agencies
on how digital criminal behavior shall be dealt and commissions assist in keeping information
with. Many governments have created protection flowing through a society. These same agencies
stipulations in the form of copyrights, but such help to protect digital information, its content, its
stipulations protect only an intellectual thought, access, its design, and its implementation, while
leaving information in physical and digital forms simultaneously regulating its ethical usage. The
as victims of chance. digital library as an agency has a key role to play
The information superhighway, epitomized in ensuring access to digital information as well
by the World Wide Web and digital libraries, is as controlling it. Today, the digital library is a
constantly faced with security issues, such as central hub to the world of digital information
identity theft, data corruption, illegal downloads, and institutional study. Digital libraries are now
and piracy.These moral issues could be seen as enjoined to provide access and control to the
12
Information Security and Privacy in Digital Libraries
information from the stacks of old by compiling PRI VA CY, ANONYMI TY, AN D
them into digital format for preservation. Since IDEN TITY
the act of preservation has always been a primary
function of libraries, they are now concerned about Digital information professionals have higher
future preservation of materials in the digital skills of retrieving information than other
paradigm, a function that is slowly shifting to people.Hence, there is a need tobe extra sensi-
the publishers (Urs, 2004, p. 206). tive in terms of anonymity and identity on how
information being provided is going to be used.
Sometimes digital libraries may be unable to stop
E THI CAL DE CISION -MAKING an executive from using information incorrectly,
IN DESIGN , IMPLEMEN TATION but they should not stand on the excuse that they
AN D E VAL UATION OF DIGI TAL were following orders. They should voice their
LIBRARIES objection if information is to be used unethically.
For instance, digital libraries should be cautious
Information ethics in digital libraries is extremely with the privacy and identity of patients while
vital.Digital librarians have the responsibility disseminating information on medical issues.
to keep information confidential and to use it The wavelet technology discovered at Stanford
only in a professional way. Digital information by Wang, Li, and Wielderhold (1997, 2001) is an
professionals have the responsibility to abide image processing technology, a project under-
by the four principles of information ethicsas taken in order to avoid violations of security and
described by Severson (1997). While designing, privacy of medical images. The researchers use
implementing, and evaluating the usage of digital the electronic medical records such as x-rays as
information, digital library professionals should domain, and the technology provides the image
consider customer protection as a top priority filtering services within the broader context of
ethical obligation. security mediator architecture.
In the Information Age, security and privacy Severson (1997) aptly describes how the moral
are the main issues.Digital librarians need to character of humans dictates how we make de-
protect patrons research interests because people cisions based upon the usage and organization
took the time to log, record, report, research, and of information.The privacy concern of digital
create the information from day to day in libraries libraries is to prevent patrons information from
or in business settings. Hence, having regulations being disseminated among other users and orga-
for digital information implementation and evalua- nizations in an unethical manner.Digital librar-
tion is a practical tool in information ethics. This is ians cannot give out information to parties not
necessary to safeguard the interest of all those who associated with the patron, and must not violate
are affected by the copyright or illegal distribu- the patrons privacy. Furthermore, in a university
tion of digital information.The digital librarians setting, digital information professionals should
professional ethics should regard personal intel- prevent the sharing of student information and
lect in nonprint materials, artworks, music, and should uphold their rights to privacy.
other creative ideas as personal property.As such, There is a need for digital libraries to apply
digital information professionals should make the four models of information ethics: principles
efforts to preserve the privacy of these valuable of respect for users intellectual property, privacy,
resources and safeguardthem. fair representation, and principles of nonmalefi-
cence to daily information dissemination to users
(Severson, 1997). For instance, the American
13
Information Security and Privacy in Digital Libraries
14
Information Security and Privacy in Digital Libraries
Severson, W. (1997). The principles of information Wang, J. Z., Li, J., & Wiederhold, G. (2001).
ethics. Amonk, N.Y: M.E. Sharpe. SIMPLIcity: Semantics-sensitive integrated
matching for picture libraries. IEEE Transactions
Shiri, A. (2003). Digital library research: Cur-
on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence,
rent developments and trends. Library Review,
23(9), 947-963.
52(5), 198-202.
Sturges, P. (2001). The library and freedom of
information: Agent or icon? Alexandria, 13(1),
K ey Terms
3-16.
Sturges, P., Davies, E., Dearnley, J., Iliffe, U., Access and Control: A custodial contract gov-
Oppenheim, C., & Hardy, R. (2003). erning the relationship of digital library materials
and users; it provides strategies and procedures
User privacy in the digital library environment:
for usage of digitalized materials.
An investigation of policies and preparedness.
Library Management, 24(1/2), 44-50. Information Ethics: Exploration and evalu-
ation of the development of moral values in the
Urs, S. R. (2004). Copyright, academic research
travel of information from production to the
libraries: Balancing the rights of stakeholders in
ultimate consumption.
the digital age. Program: Electronic Library and
Information Systems, 38(3), 201-207. Privacy: A conformance to authorizations in
regards to dissemination of individual or corporate
Wang, J. Z., Li, J., & Wiederhold, G. (1997). TID
private information.
- Trusted image dissemination: Image filtering
for secure distribution of medical information. Security: This refers to a conformance to
Retrieved October, 12, 2007, from http://infolab. proper authorizations for data movement/release
stanford.edu/pub/gio/TIHI/TID.html out of digital libraries for patrons.
15
16
Chapter III
Digital Learning Objects
and Metadata
Sarah-Jane Saravani
Waikato Institute of Technology, New Zealand
A bs tra ct
This chapter describes a learning object repository case study undertaken at the Waikato Institute of
Technology, Hamilton, New Zealand, during 2005 to 2006. The project, known as the open source learn-
ing object repository (OSLOR), involved establishing a functional learning object repository, using open
source software, able to be populated with digital resources from across the various education commu-
nities. Input from librarians was deemed a critical success factor; high quality metadata determine the
searchability, durability, and ultimate value of the repository. The metadata application profile developed
was specific to a learning object repository but was also designed to be both reducible and extensible.
It was also interoperable to ensure future viability. Close consultation with the National Library of New
Zealand was an additional prerequisite. The author hopes the decisions underpinning the application
profile design will inform others involved in describing digital resources for a specific community.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Digital Learning Objects and Metadata
support the translation of the interface into mul- seen as a way to bring about increased flexibility,
tiple languages, in this case the Pasifika languages customisation, ease of update, searchability, and
of Maori, Tongan, and Samoan. The open source manageability to rich stores of content and learn-
learning management system Moodle, already in ing resources that are available from publishers
widespread use across the secondary and tertiary or that have been created by faculty members or
education sectors in New Zealand, was utilised for teachers (CANARIE, 2002, p. 5).
front-end access to the open source learning object A distinguishing feature of repositories is their
repository (OSLOR). The library was approached architecture, including a tailored user interface,
to provide a metadata application profile suited and the manner of incorporating structure and
to the specific requirements of the repository, organisation around the information that is con-
resources, and the environment. tained to facilitate the location and use or reuse
of such material. From research undertaken for
the Australian Flexible Learning Network, Higgs,
DE VELO PMEN T OF LEARNING Meredith, and Hand (2003, p. 60) suggest that
OB JE CT RE POSI TORIES in order to provide access to learning objects,
a repository must include a series of function-
The exponential growth of repositories for the alities that include searching, quality control,
controlled storage of digitally-created resources maintaining, gathering from other repositories,
has resulted from the need to link communities and publishing (i.e., providing metadata to other
of practice or interest with resources within a repositories).
contextual dimension. The increasing use of Early repository development concentrated
information technologies to create new learning on building intrainstitutional models, a silo
resources, to manage existing learning resources, trend that quickly extended into collaborative,
and to aggregate learning content from a wide international projects designed to allow aggre-
variety of academic and publishing sources has gated collections with multisearching capabili-
completely altered expectations for teaching and ties. The initial intraorganisational repositories
learning. Around the world, academic institu- were regarded as useful in promoting sharing
tions, professional associations, and corporations and reuse within the organisation. At the same
are striving to make better use of networks and time, far-sighted educationalists warned of their
databases to efficiently and effectively achieve limited potential that ran the risk of becoming
learning and professional development goals. One closed systems (Downes, 2001). Network initia-
of the ways they have chosen to pursue these goals tives were made possible through the application
is to make learning resources readily accessible of interoperable metadata that permitted cross-
to educators and learners through learning object repository searching.
repositories (CANARIE, 2002, p. 5). The online repositories or collections of learn-
The fundamental purpose of learning object ing objects that support higher education needs is
repositories is to support teaching and learning a targeted growth area currently showing almost
through the storage, retrieval capabilities, and limitless potential. A quick scan of the reposi-
maintenance of learning objects. Object reposito- tory environment reveals a few well-established
ries are seen as key enablers for bringing increased players:
value to learning resources by providing oppor-
tunities for reuse, repurposing, or reengineering ARIADNE Foundation runs a network of
to suit a variety of purposes and end user needs. knowledge pool systems and has contributed
Creating learning resources in object formats is to the development of several standards
17
Digital Learning Objects and Metadata
18
Digital Learning Objects and Metadata
learning objects were deemed nonstatic, able to Innes,Boskic, &Larwill, 2006). Additionally,
be shared freely across communities of practice during the process of establishing the open source
in both predicted and nonpredicted ways. It was learning object repository, requirements were
anticipated that benefits of increasing availability addressed to ensure that determined levels of
of information and lowered access barriers would quality would be implemented at critical stages,
result from such a participatory and self-regula- that accepted standards would guide procedures,
tory approach to managing information. Critical and that, where extensibility and interoperability
to the use and reuse of learning objects was the between systems or repositories were likely, such
requirement to describe them in a manner that fundamental drivers would be incorporated into
would allow discovery and access within an the architecture of the repository.
educational context. Specht and Kravcik(2006) The creation of metadata is a commitment to
have advocated the need to contextualise data to quality and preservation. The elements chosen
allow appropriate use for adaptive learning on for a particular purpose should not be adapted
demand and personalised learning experiences. to any other purpose as this decreases potential
Context rather than content allows flexible access interoperability. It was acknowledged that differ-
to learning objects. For the purposes of the OSLOR ent collections have different metadata require-
metadata profile developed, learning objects were ments, and learning objects, by the very lack of
defined as a set of digital, specifiable files and file agreement over their definition, possess a range
types, available via the Internet, and associated of features that could test the chosen schema to
with a unique identifier. their limits.
The library was invited onto the project be-
cause of its acknowledged expertise in indexing,
META DATA AN D ITS RELA TION classification, and ability to provide ongoing ac-
TO LEARNING OB JE CTS cess to categories of resources. Members started
with a number of requirements which were seen
The purpose of metadata in their practical ap- as necessary for developing a profile for resource
plication to learning objects is to facilitate the discovery. These included the need for the profile
storage, maintenance, access, and reuse of these to be able to interoperate with similar profiles
digital resources in a manner suited to purpose. or standards, to offer improved searchability for
A metadata profile for learning resources is a users of the repository, to be cost effective, easy
multipart referencing that specifies substructures to use, extensible, able to accommodate automa-
and data elements. The acknowledgement and tion of field entry, and devolve as much tagging
potential integration of standards and guidelines as possible, and able to draw on the expertise of
is an underlying factor in the consideration of a number of contributors. It should include both
metadata application. Duval, Hodgins, Sutton, free text input and the use of controlled vocabu-
and Weibel (2002) have defined an application laries and thesauri.
profile as an assemblage of metadata elements A wide range of metadata standards and
selected from one or more metadata schemas and initiatives relating to digital preservation are
combined in a compound schema. now in existence and their number is growing
The basic functions of a digital repository steadily. ISO/IEC JTC1 SC32 WG2 (2007) is
are to accept, store, maintain, preserve, and en- the multination working group that develops
sure access; in other words, to undertake that international standards for metadata and related
the contained resources continue to serve their technologies and their Web site contains one of the
purpose and to be accessible (Ally, Cleveland- more comprehensive listings of standards under
19
Digital Learning Objects and Metadata
20
Digital Learning Objects and Metadata
creating and using rich learning experiences. For Dublin Core-Education application profile
the purposes of the OSLOR project SCORM was (DC-Ed AP) was used as a base for all consid-
identified as suitable to the requirements of the erations relating to resource description. The
project and employed for this purpose. The ap- DC-Ed AP defines metadata elements for em-
plication profile created contained the mandatory ployment in describing properties of resources
LOM elements that comprise SCORM. related to their use in teaching and learning. It
Mapping between various metadata schemas also suggests vocabularies in association with
is important for searching. Various mapping these elements.Three areas of purpose underpin
combinations were undertaken to ensure a profile use of DC-Ed: creating a description of an edu-
sufficiently robust to accomodate interoperability. cational resource; repurposing a general resource
It needed to be fit for both immediate, particular as an educational resource; and determining
purposes and also for any future requirements. the quality of an educational resource descrip-
In the end, the metadata profile compiled for tion (Dublin Core Metadata Initiative, 2007).
the OSLOR included elements from three educa- The grouping of elements within the OSLOR
tion-related schemas: AP highlighted the strength of DC-Ed within the
description and contribution categories; UK LOM
EdNA metadata standard elements to de- accounted for the other categories, with EdNA
scribe the intended audience being incorporated with the contextualisation
DC-Ed elements to describe the object category.
UK LOM elements to describe educational
and technical attributes
S UBMISSION RES PONSIBILI TY
EdNA metadata was identified as suitable for
inclusion as a consequence of close similarities The application of metadata to learning objects
between the resources developed by the Educa- was regarded as an interdisciplinary, cross-func-
tion Network Australia and those applicable to tional undertaking. At the heart of its activity lies
the New Zealand curriculum. Education Network the requirement, not to describe a digital resource
Australia (EdNA) is Australias leading online submitted by its creator to the repository, but
resource collection and collaborative network for rather to describe that resource in a manner likely
the education and training community. Its sec- to enhance successful searching by its intended
tors include early childhood, school, vocational user. This moved the emphasis traditionally
education and training, adult, and community found in the learning paradigm and involved a
and higher education. These were the sectors the crossing of boundaries between diverse subject
OSLOR project had identified as target audiences disciplines, different instructional levels, and a
with the expectation that the functioning reposi- broader spectrum of specialists associated with
tory would be populated with objects relevant to learning. It also demanded a limited degree of
the New Zealand education environment, possibly contextuality being assigned to ingested resources
Australasian. Recommendations were offered to ensure the potential for repurposing was not
which included use of New Zealand standard unduly constrained.
classification of education (NZSCED), developed The library team agreed that a multilayer
by the New Zealand Ministry of Education, also arrangement of contribution would be most ef-
the Australian Schools Catalogue Information fective in developing a seamless and sustainable
Service (SCIS), and, specifically, EdNA online infrastructure: collaboration between the three
categories, such as, Edna-audience, Edna-cur- layers of creator (resource creator and submitter),
riculum, Edna-sector, and Edna-user level.
21
Digital Learning Objects and Metadata
Platform Require-
Technical. Other
of the resources
ments
Educational. Description
Learning Resource Type
Annotation. Description
Annotation. Entity
Annotation. Date
Contributor
Technical. Format
input.
The next contributor technical added
Language
Format
Classification. Purpose
content of the resource
General.
Relation
Relation
Staff Staff
Mandatory 10 4 3
Optional 10 3 1 3
22
Digital Learning Objects and Metadata
loguer) added identifier (1), catalogue (2), entry, data schemas which had the result of erecting the
metadata schema, and completed a final check very barriers that they were intended to overcome.
for accuracy and the learning object resource was Flexibility across metadata schemas came to be
ready to appear publicly in the repository. recognised as critical to successful exposure of
The integration of encoding schemes was repository contents.
recommended for those elements that allowed Heery and Patel (2000) proposed the ground-
this structured concept. Both free-text language breaking development of the application profile
(DC-ED. Description), entered by the resource concept, with their requirement to break down
creator, and controlled vocabulary schemes the perceived boundaries of established metadata
(DC-ED. Subject, LOM.Classification.Purpose) schemas, and to recognise that implementers both
entered by both creator and editor, were accom- needed and demanded more flexibility to achieve
modated within the profile. The reasons behind their aims (Hillmann & Phipps, 2007). Their
this decision were the requirement for flexibility definition remains the standard for all subsequent
and applicability on the one hand, and taxonomic work in the field: Application profiles consist of
consistency or standardisation of terminology on data elements drawn from one or more namespace
the other. schemas combined together by implementers
The benefits of this common approach are the and optimised for a particular local application.
collaborative use of technology within the learning Application profiles are useful as they allow
environment, the pooling of disparate expertise the implementer to declare how they are using
into an identifiable outcome, development of se- standard schemas (Heery & Patel, 2000). The
mantic consistency, and the extending of existing ability to mix and match elements from one
workflows and systems into a new architectural or more different element sets, while ensuring
environment. Disadvantages include a need to that any new elements introduced required their
attain a coherent approach and an acknowledge- own namespace schema, provided the flexibility
ment of interdependence, a required common to tailor descriptive requirements for particular
understanding of processes, potential quality communities.
assurance difficulties, including those of intel- The librarians working on the learning object
lectual property management, and determination repository were allocated the responsibility of
of initial and ongoing cost-effectiveness. determining specific, local requirements and
examining existing schemas for suitability. They
then constructed an application profile fit for
A DVAN TAGES OF A DO PTING purpose that would also enable the sharing of
A PPLI CATION PROFILES resources submitted to the repository.
23
Digital Learning Objects and Metadata
the project and resulted in the creation of a meta- CanCore Learning Resource Metadata Initia-
data application profile based upon recognised tive. (2007). CanCore guidelines for the access
standards and suited for the purpose of managing for all digital resource description metadata
shared, reusable educational resources. elements. Retrieved November 15, 2007, from
http://www.cancore.ca/guidelines/drd/
Carr, L., & Harnad, S. (2005). Keystroke economy:
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weibel/04weibel.html tion/International Electrotechnical Commission
Joint Technical Committee. (2007). Metadata
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files/uklomcore/uklomcore_v0p2_may04.doc
Higgs, P. E., Meredith, S., & Hand, T. (2003).
Technology for sharing: Researching learning Metros, S. E. (2005). Learning objects: A rose
objects and digital rights management. Final by any other name EDUCAUSE Review, 40(4),
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pdf/ERB0219.pdf
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Moodle. (2007). Moodle: A free, open source Learning Objects: Self-contained, reusable
course management system for online learning. small units of learning that can be aggregated
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org/
Learning Object Repository: A site intended
Nash, S. S. (2005). Learning objects, learning to develop, establish, maintain, and refine inte-
object repositories and learning theory: Prelimi- grated sets of reusable learning objects to support
nary best practices for online courses. Interdis- and sustain educational networks.
ciplinary Journal of Knowledge and Learning
Metadata: Information about data or a data
Objects, 2005(1), 217-228. Retrieved November
source. It is associated with objects or systems for
22, 2007, from http://ijklo.org/Volume1/v1p217-
the purposes of description, administration, legal
228Nash.pdf
requirements, technical functionality, usage, and
New Zealand. Ministry of Education. Te Kete preservation. Metadata terms include elements,
Ipurangi. (2007). The metadata record. Retrieved element refinements, encoding schemes, and
November 15, 2007, from http://www.tki.org. vocabulary terms.
nz/e/tki/help/metadata.php
Namespace Schema: A schema in which
Specht, M., & Kravcik, M. (2006). Authoring of namespaces are declared using a family of
learning objects in context. International Journal reserved attributes, for example, an extensible
of ELearning, 5(1), 25-33. Retrieved November 16, markup language (XML) namespace is a collec-
2007, from Academic Research Library database tion of names, identified by a URI reference, which
(Document ID: 986665391). are used in XML documents as element types
and attribute names. The namespace declaration
University of Milwaukee, Center for International
is considered to apply to the element where it is
Education. (2007). What are learning objects?
specified and to all elements within the content
Retrieved November 15, 2007, from http://www.
of that element, unless overridden by another
uwm.edu/Dept/CIE/AOP/LO_what.html
namespace declaration.
Wiley, D. A. (2000). Connecting learning objects
Open Source: Source code is available to the
to instructional design theory: A definition, a
general public for use and/or modification from
metaphor, and a taxonomy. The instructional
its original design free of charge.
use of learning objects (section 1). Retrieved
November 15, 2007, from http://reusability.org/ XML Namespace: A simple method for quali-
read/chapters/wiley.doc fying element and attribute names used in XML
documents by associating them with a collection
of names identified by URI references.
KEY TERMS
26
27
Chapter IV
Extensible Digital Library
Service Platform
Jian-hua Yeh
Aletheia University, Taiwan
Shun-hong Sie
National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan
Chao-chen Chen
National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan
A bs tra ct
In this chapter, we describe X-system, a general digital library platform which is capable of handling
large-scale digital contents with flexible, extensible management features. The development of X-system
achieves several important goals of modern digital library systems, including a fully functional system,
neutral and portable architecture, stackable modules, data exchange, and universal access. The model
and architecture are discussed in this chapter. Moreover, several extension case studies of X-system are
demonstrated to show the extensibility of our system. In addition, to act as a basic digital archive/li-
brary system, the X-system has been adopted as various different usages, including e-learning platform,
knowledge management platform, and library circulation system.
IN TRO DUCTION Chen, & Chen, 2001; Dempsey & Heery, 1997).
One issue that has not attracted much attention
Advances in computer network and storage but is essential to digital library development
technologies have inspired the design of digital is the flexible design of digital library systems.
libraries in recent years. The emergence of digital After the construction of a digital library, it is
libraries has introduced a number of important natural for the digital library to push the content
issues (Chen, Chen, Chen, & Hsiang, 2002; Chen, circulation and application as much as possible
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Extensible Digital Library Service Platform
in order to show its maximum effect. Based on 1. Fully functional digital library system:
this point of view, it is important to design a The design of X-system aims at handling
suitable architecture to support flexible contents multiple metadata formats which meet the
management and fast service development. For the needs of various digital content applica-
flexible contents management aspect, it is known tions. For example, digital archive systems,
that if a closed data storage system is adopted, the knowledge management systems, and e-
circulation of digital library contents decreases. So learning systems all require various kinds of
the data model and storage with high portability metadata coexisting in a repository system.
is necessary for easy data access and manipula- So the ability of handling various metadata
tion. For the fast service development aspect, it is formats becomes a fundamental requirement
more competitive for a system architecture with of digital library systems. This is also one
stackable service features to develop digital library of the basic features of function design in
services according to different information needs. X-system.
If a digital library system meets the requirements 2. Platform neutral, fully portable system
of both flexible contents management and fast architecture: The development of X-system
service development, it is more likely to create is totally based on platform-independent
many kinds of information service based on it. technologies, including Java programming
The evolving trend of digital library technologies language, Java application servers, XML
contains several issues: (1) from closed system data presentation, XSL/XPath (Clark &
to open system; (2) from table-based schema to DeRose, 1999) data transformation, and so
extensible markup language (XML)-based data on. Also we use a Java-based, native XML
model; (3) from modular or object-oriented design database server as the metadata storage,
to component-based design; and (4) from single which means the whole system is fully
purpose (digital archive) only to multipurpose portable. Currently the X-system has many
scenario. In this chapter, we introduce X-system deployment experiences, including Win-
(Yeh & Chen, 2003), a general digital library dows-based systems, Linux-based systems,
platform which is capable of handling large-scale and Solaris-based systems. Any platform
digital contents with flexible, extensible manage- which supports Java virtual machine will
ment features. run our system.
3. Stackable information service modules: In
addition to the modular and object-oriented
DESIGN ISS UES OF DIGIAL design concepts, the X-system introduces
LIBRARY SYS TEMS the layered function design concept, which
makes system services stackable. Any
As mentioned earlier, the most important newly extended service (we call them up-
features of a modern digital library system are per-layer services) may use basic services
flexibility and generality. Since 2003, the year of (lower-layer services) provided by the base
X-systems announcement, several extensions and system, and the extended services will also
applications have been developed and deployed. be used by future extended services. The
The aim of our research is to create a powerful layered architecture makes X-system more
digital library system which meets the following extensible than many current digital library
important design issues: systems, and there will be several extension
28
Extensible Digital Library Service Platform
29
Extensible Digital Library Service Platform
Figure 1. The structure of metadata documents in X-system, (a) a single document (b) hierarchical
relationship of documents is supported
30
Extensible Digital Library Service Platform
31
Extensible Digital Library Service Platform
A handle is a representative of one or more sifies the service level and functionality.
copies of identical digital contents, including The core levels also create the modular
metadata documents and digital objects. design rules: The higher core level functions
In X-system, any service related to digital (upper-layer services) must be formed by
content uses handle as identification. the lower core level functions (lower-layer
services); if a function cannot be formed
S ervice A rchitecture from the lower level functions, then it should
stay in the lower level, or it should be the
The service architecture of the X-system is shown most generic function. Currently, the front-
in Figure 4. end proxy in X-system contains two core
In Figure 4, the service architecture of X- levels called core level 0 and core level 1
system contains front-end service manager, functions, as shown in Figure 5.
backend service manager, physical storage service 2. Backend service manager: The backend
manager, and handle service manager. These service manager is the communication
services provide main functions of X-system, as gateway of front-end service manager and
discussed below: underlying database systems. The core level
functions in the front-end service manager
1. Front-end service manager: The front-end
service manager acts as a single service entry Figure 5. Core level functions of X-system
for all add-on modules to access X-system
functions; the front-end service manager is
also called a front-end proxy. The design of
the front-end proxy is to provide a single, in-
tegrated service interface for other modules
or parties; it thus increases the extensibility,
scalability, and availability of the X-system.
The module structure of front-end proxy
consists of several core levels, which clas-
32
Extensible Digital Library Service Platform
33
Extensible Digital Library Service Platform
Figure 6. X-system in operation: (a) user group setup page (b) schema setup page (c) metadata editing
page (d) presentation page
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
34
Extensible Digital Library Service Platform
provides necessary functions, including schema transformation in X-learning. The right part of
mapping rule setup, sharable content object refer- Figure 8 also shows a content packaging interface
ence model (SCORM)-compatible (ADL, 2001; for e-learning content aggregation.
IMS, 2001, 2003) content packaging service,
IEEE LOM (IEEE, 2002) transformation, and so X-O ntology: G overnment
on. X-learning is designed to act as a SCORM- O ntology Management S ystem
compatible learning content management system
(LCMS), which is capable of packaging and The number of Web sites of the Taiwan govern-
previewing e-learning packages. The packaging ment has grown fast in recent years, which has
and previewing of e-learning packages are made Taiwan a popular e-government country.
supported in content aggregation authoring Due to the quantity and the diversity involved
services of X-learning. Figure 8 shows a schema in e-government presentations and operations,
mapping configuration page for content metadata traditional approaches to Web sites informa-
Figure 8. The screenshots of X-learning (left part: schema mapping rule setup; right part: content
packaging/manifestation utility)
35
Extensible Digital Library Service Platform
tion management have been found to be rather the basic information form of the selected con-
inefficient in time and cost. Consequently, the cept along with associations with other concepts
necessity naturally arises regarding the trend to (intrahierarchy or interhierarchy is possible).
establish government knowledge management The lower-right part of the applet maintains the
system, so as to speed up information lookups, additional information, which comes from the
sharing, and linkups. Moreover, a knowledge thesaurus existed in the system.
management system would in turn enhance e- The ontology presentation service in X-0ntol-
government effectiveness as it helps to store and ogy is quite straight-forward, that is, the informa-
transmit information, be it explicit or implicit in tion contained in the concept is presented. Figure
nature. The first thing of knowledge management 10 shows a tree-based Web page for ontology
system is building up the government ontology and presentation in X-ontology. The user can interac-
thesaurus. Upon the completion of the ontology tively traverse the hierarchy, check the thesaurus
and thesaurus needed, semantic searching can information, and jump to other concept through
begin to function properly, that in turn would the association created by ontology maintenance
kick into place mechanisms required for effective interface.
information management.
Figure 9 shows that there are two major set X-L ibrary: L ibrary A utomation
of functions of X-ontology: maintenance service S ystem
module and ontology presentation support. The
major component in X-ontology (Chen, Yeh, & As the number of digital library system grows, it is
Sie, 2005) is the ontology hierarchy maintenance more important for a traditional library automation
service. The X-ontology provides a tree-based system to be able to handle pure digital contents.
hierarchy maintenance interface for user to ma- The X-library system evolved from X-system to
nipulate a concept hierarchy at a time. In addition, define a library automation system over the base
associations between hierarchies (ontologies) digital archive system. Besides the migration of
can also be maintained in this interface. Figure a library automation system on X-system, it is
5 shows the tree-based hierarchy maintenance possible to extend the linking possibilities between
applet. The upper-right part of the applet shows digital contents and physical library materials in
36
Extensible Digital Library Service Platform
Figure 10. The screenshots of X-ontology (left part: ontology editing tool; right part: ontology navigation/
presentation)
order to provide more consolidated information by the base system, X-library has developed
to library users. library-specific functions that are comparative
Figure 11 shows that there are two major set of to a traditional library automation system. In
functions of X-library: reader service module and reader service module, a user of X-library is not
cataloguing/circulation support. The X-library only able to browse and search library catalogue
provides users with a simple interface to look up but also able to make reservations on books
bibliographic records, reserve books, organize interested. Another service module of X-library
personal favorites using a shopping cart function, operated by library staff contains cataloguing
and so on. and circulation functions; these functions are
The library cataloguing and circulation process similar to a traditional library automation system.
supported by X-library includes various features Figure 12 shows the operation screenshots of the
based on the underlying X-system. Except for X-library system.
the bibliographic records maintenance supported
37
Extensible Digital Library Service Platform
Figure 12. The screenshots of X-library (left part: reservation management; right part: bibliographic/
MARC records maintenance)
38
Extensible Digital Library Service Platform
Chen, C. C., Yeh, J. H., & Sie, S. H. (2005). Gov- 12, 2008, from http://www.doi.org/overview/
ernment ontology and thesaurus construction: sys_overview_021601.html
A Taiwan experience. In Proceedings of the 8th
Laux, A., & Martin, L. (2000). XUpdate - XML
International Conference of Asian Digital Librar-
update language, XML:DB initiative. Retrieved
ies (ICADL2005), Bankok, Tailand.
August 12, 2008, from http://www.xmldb.org/
Chen, C. C., Yeh, J. H., & Sie, S. H. (2006). A xupdate/xupdate-wd.html
research project to convert traditional Chinese
Lynch, C. A. (1991). The Z39.50 information re-
calligraphic paintings to SCORM-compatible
trieval protocol: An overview and status report.
e-learning materials. In Proceedings of the 9th
ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication
International Conference of Asian Digital Librar-
Review, 21(1), 58-70.
ies (ICADL2006), Kyoto, Japan.
Macromedia, Inc. (2001). Getting started with
Clark, J., & DeRose, S. (1999). XPath: XML path
eLearning standards. Retrieved August 12, 2008,
language (Version 1.0). Retrieved August 12,
form http://download.macromedia.com/pub/solu-
2008, from http://www.w3.org/TR/1999/REC-
tions/downloads /elearning/standards.pdf
xpath-19991116
The MASIE Center e-Learning Consortium.
Dempsey, L., & Heery, R. (1997). Metadata: An
(2002). Making sense of learning specifications
overview of current resource description practice.
& standards: A decision makers guide to their
Peer review draft of deliverable for Work Pack-
adoption. Retrieved August 12, 2008, from http://
age 3 of Telematics for research project DESIRE.
www.masie.com/standards/S3_Guide.pdf
Retrieved August 12, 2008, from http://www.
ukoln.ac.uk/metadata/DESIRE/overview/ McLean, N. (2001). Collaborative online learning
and information services (COLIS) consortium.
Freed, N. (1996). RFC 2046, MIME part two:
Retrieved August 12, 2008, from http://www.
Media types. IETF. Retrieved August 12, 2008,
colis.mq.edu. au/goals/synopsis.htm
from http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2046.txt
McLean, N. (2002). Libraries and e-learning:
IEEE. (2002). Draft standard for learning object
Organizational and technical interoperability.
metadata. IEEE 1484.12.1-2002. Retrieved August
Retrieved August 12, 2008, from http://www.
12, 2008, from http://ltsc.ieee.org/doc/wg12/
colis.mq.edu.au/ news_archives/demo/docs/
LOM_1484_12_1_v1_Final_Draft.pdf
lib_e_learning.pdf
IMS Global Learning Consortium, Inc. (2001).
MuseiCapitolini.Net (MC). Retrieved August
IMS digital repositories white paper version 1.6.
12, 2008, from http://museicapitolini.net/hyper-
Retrieved August 12, 2008, from http://www.
record/index.xml
imsproject.org/imsdr_whitepaper_v1p6.pdf
MyCoRe open source project (MyCoRe). Retrieved
IMS Global Learning Consortium, Inc. (2003).
August 12, 2008, from http://www.mycore.de/
IMS digital repositories interoperability: Core
functions information model version 1.0 final Staken, K. (2001). XMLDB: Application pro-
specification. Retrieved August 12, 2008, from gramming interface for XML databases, XML:
http://www.imsglobal.org/digitalrepositories/in- DB initiative. Retrieved August 12, 2008, from
dex.cfm http://www.xmldb.org/xapi /xapi-draft.html
The International DOI Foundation (IDF). (2002). Sun, S. (1998). Internationalization of the handle
DOI introductory overview. Retrieved August system: A persistent global name service. In
39
Extensible Digital Library Service Platform
40
41
Chapter V
Personal Digital Libraries
Juan C. Lavariega
Tecnolgico de Monterrey, Mexico
Lorena G. Gomez
Tecnolgico de Monterrey, Mexico
Martha Sordia-Salinas
Tecnolgico de Monterrey, Mexico
David A. Garza-Salazar
Tecnolgico de Monterrey, Mexico
A bs tra ct
This chapter presents the services and functionality that a personal digital library (PDL) system should
provide. The chapter includes a reference architecture for supporting the characteristics and function-
ality of the personal digital library. In particular, a currently available project called PDLib is used as
an example of this type of system. The authors address some of the particular problems that personal
libraries impose with respect to the overall administration of personal collections of digital documents
and how personal libraries may become a commodity and a way of social interaction. The chapter
objective is to increase the research interests on personalized digital libraries and their usability in our
daily live.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Personal Digital Libraries
places (i.e., our personal Web page and/or a Web tions happen at different levels in the context of
sharing repository) where others can access our PDLib.
digital content. We are not only producers, but also
consumers of digital documents; more and more
frequently we get our daily news from the Web B aC KGRO UN D
or via an e-mail service subscription. Also, while
doing research in our area of interest, we consult Digital library research has produced special-
the digital content available through the digital ized, cohesive repositories, typically delivered
library services that our local library provides. via a Web interface and targeted to support both
The personal computer is the place where we academic and industry organizations. A require-
collect our personal digital archives and we have ment to bridge organizational boundaries has
been using hierarchical folders to classify this been issued as the interoperability challenge
information; with the increase in volume data (OAI, 2006), which calls digital library systems
the search utilities provided by operating systems to take measures to share data with other digital
are inadequate to ease the finding of documents, repositories. Traditional digital library systems
e-mail messages, or multimedia files because are seen as large data repositories that provide
they do not analyze content. In the last couple of services to multiple users. Many of these systems
years, the search engine industry has introduced are supported by distributed architectures for scal-
desktop search engines, tools that try to index ability purposes (Janssen, 2004; Smith, Barton,
the data in the file and gather as much metadata Bass, Branschofsky, McClellan, Tansley, et al.,
available (Cole, 2005) to provide a better search 2003; Witten, Boddie, Bainbridge, & McNab,
experience. 2000; Witten, Moffat, & Bell, 1999).
We organize all of those documents into col- We propose a different perspective of the digi-
lections, which will form in a way our personal tal library, that is, a PDL universally available.
library. Each user decides the contents of each The objective of personal digital libraries is to take
collection following the users own classification the concepts of traditional (or collective) digital
schema. Creating, organizing, sharing, search- libraries to the user level and provide tools to
ing, and retrieving documents from our personal promote the social interaction. Our PDLs concept
collections are the intentions of personal digital proposes the notion of providing one repository
libraries. A personal digital library (PDL) includes for each user, enabling users to interact with each
traditional digital library services for individual other with regards to both personal and shared data
users. objects. We also emphasize on universal access,
In this chapter, we present and discuss the that is, users should be able to access their own
services, functionality, and characteristics of personal libraries wherever they are.
personal digital libraries in the context of our Personal digital libraries provide traditional
own development project called PDLib (Alvarez, digital library services such as document sub-
Garza-Salazar, Lavariega, & Gmez-Martnez, mission, full-text and metadata indexing, and
2005). PDLib is a universally available personal document search and retrieval, augmented with
digital library. It is universally available in the innovative services for the moment-to-moment
sense that it allows the user to access personal information management needs of the individual
digital library from most computing devices con- user. These innovations include provisions to cus-
nected to the Internet, including mobile phones and tomize the classification of documents, interact
PDAs, therefore granting access from anyplace with other digital libraries (whether personal or
at anytime. We also discuss how social interac- collective), and support user-to-user exchange of
generic digital content.
42
Personal Digital Libraries
The creation of the personal digital library Traditional digital libraries provide services
implies the submission of digital documents and such as digital document creation, efficient stor-
their placement on the personal digital library age, classification and indexing, capabilities to
under user-defined classification schemas. The search, filter, and summarize big volumes of data,
documents of a personal digital library must be images, and information, use of interfaces suitable
accessible via a mechanism capable of providing for the presentation of results, distribution of the
meaningful answers to users queries. In a personal library content to the end user, and administration
digital library system, search and retrieval mecha- and access control. Also in traditional DL systems
nisms must adapt to the personalized classification there are at least three types of users:
schema defined by the users of the system. The ef-
fectiveness of the document retrieval process from Administrators: This group of users is the
personal digital libraries must be assured with the technical people who create users accounts
provision of an intuitive classification schema and and access rights to the collections in the
the indexing of documents. A personal digital DL. Administrators are responsible of the
library must provide each user with mechanisms normal operation of the DL system.
to restrict unauthorized access to their personal Contributors: This group represents people
digital library and with administrative tools to authorized to submit documents in the digital
manage digital library content. collections. They are authors, curators, or
Since PDLs extend the traditional library ser- information science experts.
vices for the mobile environment in order to realize Common users: This group represents the
the abstraction of personal libraries, we must cope information consumers. People that browse
with the technological challenges imposed by the in the DL collection or search for specific
implementation of digital library services (Adam, works based on some metadata such as
Holowczak, Halem, & Yesha, 1996; Bhargava & author, topic, publication date, and so forth.
Annamalai 1995; Garza-Salazar & Lavariega, Searches may be also set as a combination of
2003), the mobile environment (Barbara 1999; metadata elements and document content.
Madria, Mohania, Bhowmick, & Bhargava, 2002;
Pitoura & Samaras, 1998), and the specific require- In traditional DL a user may play more than
ments of personal digital libraries. In the next one role simultaneously, but it is not a requirement.
sections we present the services, characteristics, In contrast, in a personal digital library, a user
architecture, and relevant problems presented in necessarily plays the three roles simultaneously.
personal digital libraries. The user needs to define who is granted access
in the users personal collection (or collections);
also, users are responsible for placing content in
Personal L ibrar y S er vice S the users personal collections and set a classifica-
tion criterion for the submitted documents. And of
Traditional digital library systems grant to a course the user can search for information inside
group of users access to a digital library. Personal the users own collection or in the collections of
digital library systems provide a digital library other users who have authorized others to browse
to each user with supporting functionality found and search in their collections.
in traditional digital libraries plus services that Another notable difference between traditional
allow users to form their own collections, share and personal digital libraries is the notion in nor-
documents with other users, and have universal mal DL that users go to someplace to search and
access to the library contents. browse in well-formed collections (i.e., collection
43
Personal Digital Libraries
which content has been validate and approved by the document according to the collections
a collegiate body). On the contrary, in personal metadata set.
DL, personal collections travel or move with Search and retrieval: Search and retrieval
the user, and collections content is defined by the mechanisms must adapt to the personalized
user. In personal digital libraries there exists the classification schema defined by the users
notion of universal available collections due to of the system.
the traveling of users collections. This notion Universal access: In order to provide uni-
is mainly realized by providing access to collec- versal access to the documents and services
tions through any personal device (i.e., laptops, of the personal digital library, several client
PDAs, and cellular phones). Dealing with mobile application types suitable for mobile and
devices of limited capabilities presents interesting fixed hosts of mobile environments must be
challenges for a personal digital library (Barbara, considered. Clients with diverse capabilities
1999) such as limited display space, and connec- may be supported.
tion availability. Administration and access control: The
In order to support our vision and illustrate the owner of a personal digital library always
functionality and capabilities of the PDL concept, has unrestricted access to the owners per-
we developed PDLib. PDLib is a personal library sonal digital library content. In addition,
system that allows the user to shape and access the owner has the capability to grant other
the users digital library from anyplace at anytime users with access to the owners individual
using nearly any computing device (i.e., universal personal digital library.
access). To realize universally available digital Interoperability: Interoperability with
libraries, the following requirements were defined other personal library users and with other
for the PDLib system. The following functional digital library systems using well-known
requirements define the personal digital library interoperability protocols must be provided.
services available in PDLib: Interoperability happens in PDLib with other
systems by using the open archive initiative
Flexible collection and metadata man- protocol OAI-PHM (OAI, 2006). However,
agement: Collections must be provided as users should be allowed to define their own
a mechanism for document classification. document descriptors. It is also desirable to
Users should be provided with the ability support direct interaction with digital con-
to define the metadata set that will be used tent providers such as Web search engine,
to describe the contents of each collection. as well as to store the results from the Web
These interactions will allow the user to search into a personal collection.
customize a personal library as desired. Data model: Personal digital libraries must
Digital document submission: The user provide a simple and flexible data model
should be able to add any digital document where each users library is composed of
to a personal digital library. Submission from collections. Collections contain, in turn,
several device types should be supported. other collections and/or documents. Users
The personal digital library must be able can interact with personal digital libraries
to accommodate several document formats by creating and deleting collections and sub-
for the same document. Additionally, the mitting, moving, copying, or downloading
user must be able to (a) select or create the documents. In addition, users can define the
collection that will contain the document metadata set that will be used to describe the
and (b) provide metadata information for contents of each collection. These interac-
44
Personal Digital Libraries
tions allow the user to customize a personal clients. Web applications typically focus on
library as desired fixed thin clients.
2. The server tier includes the server system
infrastructure that provides services to
AR CHI TE CTURE OF PERSONAL clients: (a) data server, (b) mobile connec-
DIGI TAL LIBRARY tion middleware (MCM), and the (c) Web
front-end. These components are addressed
An overview of the PDLib system is shown in in a further section within this chapter.
Figure 1. The PDLib software architecture consists 3. The interoperability tier which allows the
of three layers: connection to other (PDLib) data servers
and/or to OAI-PMH (OAI, 2006) compliant
1. The client tier includes the variety of de- digital library systems.
vices with which a user can interact with
PDLib. Clients can be classified depending The devices of the client tier communicate
of their mobility and client-side architecture with the server tier to access PDLib digital library
into: mobile thin client, mobile thick clients, services. The access type of the client tier with the
fixed thin clients, and fixed thin clients. In server tier varies according to the client devices
thin clients, the application is delivered on capabilities: middleware access supports mobile
a browser or microbrowser, while in thick devices, especially those with limited comput-
clients both code and data may reside in ing resources; Web access provides hypertext
the client device. Mobile thick clients are transfer protocol (HTTP) access to any device
especially important to achieve off-line that includes a Web browser (WML/hypertext
operations possible, therefore mobile ap- markup language [HTML]); and direct access
plications should be based in this type of for applications with very particular require-
45
Personal Digital Libraries
ments can access the data server directly. PDLib Connection support: It is required by mo-
architecture (Figure 2) is supported in two main bile clients in order to perform adaptation to
components: 1) mobile connection middleware the high bandwidth variability of the mobile
and 2) data server. environment and to cope with the frequent
disconnections of mobile devices.
Mobile Connection Middleware Process delegation: Execute functions that
would demand an excessive (or unavailable)
One of the main problems to solve in order to amount of computing resources to the mobile
provide the data server services is the fact that device.
the data server has been designed to be used by a Mobility support: Operations such as
wide range of devices and not just mobile devices. prefetching can be performed to speed up
However, there is a clear difference in computing the retrieval of documents from the data
resources between mobile and fixed devices. This server and store them in cache servers that
computing resource disparity makes it difficult to are closer to the user. When the user changes
adapt the data server to the capabilities of mobile location, it would be necessary to support
devices and signals the need of a middleware migration of the information between dif-
component to mediate the interaction of the mobile ferent instances of the MCM.
device and the data server. We call this middleware Device interaction support: Performs
the mobile connection middleware (MCM), which adaptation of content according to the
provides the following functionality: characteristics of the device on which it is
desired to show the information.
46
Personal Digital Libraries
47
Personal Digital Libraries
48
Personal Digital Libraries
of PDLib library servers. There are other issues OAI. (2006). The open archive initiative. Retrieved
such as scalability of the collections, consistency of December 2006, from www.openarchives.org
information, and optimal document management
Pitoura, E., & Samaras, G. (1998). Data manage-
that need to be addressed not only in PDLib, but
ment for mobile computing. Kluwer Academic
also in personal information systems.
Publishers.
RSS. (2006). RSS 2.0 specification. RSS advisory
R eferen ce S board. Retrieved December 2006, from www.
rssboard.org/rss-specification
Adam, N. R, Holowczak, R., Halem, R., & Ye-
Saavedra, A. (2007). Context based search in
sha, Y. (1996). Digital library task force. IEEE
personal digital libraries. Unpublished maters
Computer, 29(8).
thesis, Tecnologico de Monterrey.
Alvarez, F., Garza-Salazar, D., Lavariega, J., &
Schuler, D. (1994). Social computing. Communi-
Gmez-Martnez, L. (2005, July). PDLib: Per-
cations of the ACM, 37(1), 28-29.
sonal digital libraries with universal access. Paper
presented at the Joint International Conference on Smith, M., Barton, M., Bass, M., Branschofsky,
Digital Libraries, Denver, CO. M., McClellan, D., Tansley, R., et al. (2003).
Dspace: An open source dynamic digital reposi-
Barbara, D. (1999). Mobile computing and data-
tory. D-Lib Magazine, 9(1).
bases: A survey. Knowledge and Data Engineer-
ing, 11(1), 108-117. Witten, I. H., Boddie, S. J., Bainbridge, D., &
McNab, R. J. (2000). Greenstone: A comprehen-
Bhargava, B. K., & Annamalai, M. (1995). Com-
sive open-source digital library software system.
munication costs in digital library databases. Da-
In Proceedings of the 5th Conference on Digital
tabase and Expert Systems Applications, 1-13.
Libraries (pp. 113-121). ACM Press.
Cole, B. (2005, March). Search engines tackle the
Witten, I. H., Moffat, A., & Bell, T. C. (1999).
desktop. IEEE Computer, 38(3), 14-17.
Managing gigabytes: Compressing and indexing
Garza-Salazar, D., & Lavariega, J. (2003). Infor- documents and images. Morgan Kaufmann.
mation retrieval and administration of distributed
documents in Internet: The Phronesis digital
library project. Knowledge based information
K ey Terms
retrieval and filtering from Internet (pp. 53-73).
Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Digital Document: Any document in a digital
Janssen, W. C. (2004). Collaborative extensions format. A digital document can be text, image,
for the uplib system. In Proceedings of the 4th video, or any combination of these formats.
Joint Conference on Digital Libraries (pp. 239-
Middleware: Any software component that
240). ACM Press.
mediates between an application server and a set
Madria, S., Mohania, M., Bhowmick, S., & of mobile clients.
Bhargava, B. (2002). Mobile data and transaction
PDLib: The personal digital library project
management. Information SciencesInformatics
developed at Monterrey Tech. Information and
and Computer Science: An International Journal,
product available at http://copernico.mty.itesm.
141(3-4), 279-309.
mx/pdlib.
49
Personal Digital Libraries
Personal Collection: A set of digital docu- clients have both application code and data resid-
ments that belongs to a specific user. ing on the client device (e.g., desktop, laptop,
PDA, or cell phone)
Social Computing: The ways of using com-
puter applications to enhance and influence forms Thin Client: Software product that request
of social relations. The term social computing information to a central information server.
also refers to the social and ethical implications In thin clients, the application is delivered on
that software professionals have in an increasing a browser (for large or middle size devices) or
computerized society microbrowser (for a more restrictive device such
as a PDA). Thick and thin clients can coexist in
Thick Client: Software product that request
a single device.
information to a central information server. Thick
50
51
Chapter VI
Comparing Open Source Digital
Library Software
George Pyrounakis
University of Athens, Greece
Mara Nikolaidou
Harokopio University of Athens, Greece
A bs tra ct
In the last years, a great number of digital library and digital repository systems have been developed
by individual organizations, mostly universities, and given to the public as open-source software. The
advantage of having many choices becomes a great headache when selecting a digital library (DL)
system for a specific organization. To make the decision easier, five well-known and extensively used
systems that are publicly available using an open source license are compared, namely DSpace, Fe-
dora, Greenstone, Keystone, and EPrints. Each of them have been thoroughly studied based on basic
characteristics and system features emphasizing multiple and heterogeneous digital collection support.
Results are summarized in a score table. Cases for which each of these systems is considered as the
most suitable are proposed.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Comparing Open Source Digital Library Software
a number of installations worldwide. Using these 1. Object model: The internal structure of
basic restrictions, we selected for comparison the the digital object (Kahn & Wilensky, 2005)
following five broadly used DL systems: (entity that integrates metadata and digital
content) in the DL system. Existence of
DSpace (DSpace Federation), developed by unique identifiers for the digital object and
the MIT libraries and Hewlett-Packard Labs every part of it is also important to ensure
(BSD open source license) preservation and easy access.
Fedora (Fedora Project), jointly developed 2. Collections and relations support: Col-
by Cornell University and the University of lection description metadata, definition of
Virginia Library (educational community subcollections, and templates that describe
license) the format of the digital objects or the pre-
Greenstone (Greenstone digital library sentation of the collection. It is the definition
software), produced by the University of of relations between objects of the same or
Waikato (GNU general public license) different types.
Keystone (Keystone DLS), developed by 3. Metadata and digital content storage: The
Index Data (GNU general public license) storage capabilities are stated, along with
EPrints (EPrints for digital repositories), de- the preservation issues. It is important for
veloped by the University of Southampton the DL system to ensure standards as well
as user-defined metadata sets and multiple
Each of these systems has been thoroughly formats of digital content.
studied based on basic characteristics and system 4. Search and browse: The mechanisms used
features described in the following sections. The for indexing and searching the metadata. It
latest versions of those systems were examined. is important for the DL system to support
When writing this chapter, the versions provided indexing not only for a restricted metadata
were: DSpace 1.4, Fedora 2.2, Greenstone 3, set, but also for selected metadata fields.
Keystone 1.5, and EPrints 3. The DL systems 5. Object management: Methods and user
are compared based on stated characteristics interfaces provided from the DL system to
and the level of support on each of them. In the manipulate (i.e., insert, update, and delete)
following section, the characteristics needed by metadata and digital content.
a modern DL system are discussed. In the third 6. User interfaces: Provided user interfaces for
section the five DL systems are compared based end-user access on the DL, its collections,
on each of the DL characteristics and the results and the digital objects.
are summarized in a score table. Finally, in the 7. Access control: Support for users and
fourth section, the results of this comparison are groups and authentication and authorization
commented on and cases for which each of these methods. It provides a level of restriction
systems is suitable are proposed. for access and update (e.g., DL, collection,
digital object, and content).
8. Multiple languages support: Multiple
DL S ys tems Chara cteris tics languages should be supported in the user
interface, in the metadata fields, and in the
The basic characteristics and features that are digital content. The character encoding is of
expected from modern integrated DL software great importance in order for the DL systems
are: to be fully multilingual.
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Comparing Open Source Digital Library Software
In the following, the five open access DL systems Keystone: Basic entity in Keystone is document.
are compared based on the characteristics identi- The internal structure of each document is defined
fied in the previous section. The level of support in a user-defined XML schema corresponding to
of each characteristic and specific considerations a specific document type. The directory structure
for each DL system are discussed. of the documents represents the objects structure.
A persistent identifier is not used to uniquely
O bject Model identify documents.
DSpace: The basic entity in DSpace is item, EPrints: Basic entity in EPrints is the data object,
which contains both metadata and digital content. which is a record containing metadata. One or
Qualified Dublin Core (DC) (DCMI metadata more documents (files) can be linked with the data
terms) metadata fields are stored in the item, object. Each data object has a unique identifier.
while other metadata sets and digital content are
defined as bitstreams and categorized as bundles Collections and R elations S upport
of the item. The internal structure of an item is
expressed by structural metadata, which define DSpace: Dspace supports collections of items and
the relationships between the constituent parts of communities that hold one or more collections.
an item. DSpace uses globally unique identifiers An item belongs to one or more collections, but
for items based on the CNRI handle system (The has only one owner collection. It is feasible to
handle system). Persistent identifiers are also used define default values for the metadata fields in a
for the bitstreams of every item. collection. The descriptive metadata defined for
a collection are the title and description. There is
Fedora: The basic entity in Fedora is digital no support of relations between different items.
object. The internal structure of a digital object
is determined from the Fedora Object XML Fedora: Fedora supports collections using RELS-
(FOXML), which is based on metadata encoding EXT datastream that contains a basic relationship
and transmission standard (METS) (Library of ontology. In this datastream, the relationships
Congress). A digital object contains metadata and between digital objects (like isMemberOfCol-
53
Comparing Open Source Digital Library Software
lection or isPartOf) are expressed as resource support level is defined for every bistream for-
description framework (RDF) (W3C). Fedora mat, indicating the level of preservation for the
does not provide a mechanism to manipulate specified file format.
these relations.
Fedora: Metadata and digital content are both
Greenstone: A collection in Greenstone defines a considered datastreams of the digital object.
set of characteristics that describe its functional- Datastreams can be stored (a) internally on the
ity. These characteristics are indexing, searching digital object XML file, (b) on filesystem as
and browsing capabilities, file formats, conversion managed content, or (c) on an external source.
plugins, and entry points for the digital content One or more metadata sets can be concurrently
import. There are also some characteristics for the used, while different file formats can be stored
presentation of the collection. The representation as separate datastreams in a digital object. Basic
of hierarchical structure in text documents is sup- technical metadata are stored for each datastream,
ported for chapters, sections, and paragraphs. The such as multipurpose Internet mail extensions
definition of specific sections in text document is (MIME) type, file size, and checksums, ensuring
implemented through special XML tags. XLinks content preservation. Fedora supports versioning
in a document can be used to relate it with other of specified datastreams, allowing user to access
documents or resources. older datastream instances.
Keystone: Collections in Keystone are not defined Greenstone: Both documents and resources are
as entities but they are imposed by the directory stored on filesystem. Metadata are user-defined
structure of the documents. The document XML and are stored in documents using an internal
schema specifies common behavior (i.e., elements XML format.
are viewable, repeatable, mandatory, multilingual,
and use a restricted vocabulary) for the documents Keystone: Each object in Keystone contains its
of the specific type. There is no definition of rela- metadata in an XML document. The metadata
tions between documents, except using URLs in are not restricted to a specific metadata standard
specific metadata fields. but are stated in a user-defined XML schema
denoting each document type. Digital content is
EPrints: There is no consideration of collections stored in the directory structure that contains the
in EPrints. Data objects are grouped depending on XML documents.
specific fields (e.g., subject, year, title, etc.). There
is no definition of relations between documents, EPrints: Metadata fields in EPrints are user-de-
except using URLs in specific metadata fields. fined. The data object, containing metadata, is
stored in a MySQL database (MySQL database)
Metadata and Digital Content and the documents (digital content) are stored
S torage on filesystem.
54
Comparing Open Source Digital Library Software
55
Comparing Open Source Digital Library Software
Greenstone: The default Web user interface Greenstone: A user in Greenstone belongs to
provides browsing and searching into collections, one of two predefined user groups, that is, an
navigating into hierarchical objects (like books) administrator or a collection builder. The first
using a table of contents. Presentation of docu- user group has the right to create and delete users,
ments or search results may differ depending on while the second builds and updates collections.
specified XSLTs. End users have access to all the collections and
the documents.
Keystone: Presentation of a document is con-
trolled by an XSLT style sheet that reflects the Keystone: A simple access control is supported
associated document type. The main Web user where you can define administrators and simple
interface is based on a portal-like environment. users that have access rights on specific parts of
In this environment a user may browse the the documents structure.
documents directory structure and search in the
digital library. EPrints: Registered users in EPrints are able to
create and edit objects. Users are logged in using
EPrints: The Web user interface provides brows- their username and password pair.
ing by selected metadata fields (usually subject,
title or date). Browsing can be hierarchical for Multiple L anguages S upport
subject fields. A searching environment allows
user to restrict the search query using multiple All the DL systems use Unicode character encod-
fields and selecting values from lists. ing so the support of different languages can be
supported. Every system can use multiple lan-
guages in the metadata fields and digital content.
Keystone and EPrints provide an XML attribute
56
Comparing Open Source Digital Library Software
on metadata fields to define the language used presentation interventions. Another disadvantage
for the field value. Greenstone provides ready to is the full support of only specific file formats as
use multilingual interfaces already translated in digital content.
many languages.
Fedora: In Fedora, every digital object can follow
Interoperability F eatures a different content model that describes its format.
It is also possible to provide multiple behaviors
All the DL systems support OAI-PMH in order in it that determine the access and manipulation
to share the metadata of the DL with other re- methods of the digital object. These two charac-
positories. Greenstone and Keystone also support teristics result in a fully customizable DL. The
Z39.50 protocol (Z390.50 maintenance agency user interface, although by default is poor, is fully
page) for answering queries on specific metadata customizable based on two APIs (i.e., access API
sets. Fedora and DSpace are able to export digital and management API).
objects as METS XML files. Both systems also
use persistence URIs to access the digital content Greenstone: It provides customization for the
providing a unified access mechanism to exter- presentation of a collection based on XSLTs and
nal services. DSpace also supports OpenURL agents that control specific actions of the DL.
protocol (NISO) providing links for every item Greenstone architecture provides (i) a back end
page. EPrints exports data objects in METS that contains the collections and the documents
and MPEG-21 digital item declaration language as well as services to manage them and (ii) a
(DIDL) format (Bormans & Hill, 2002). Web-based front end that is responsible for the
presentation of collections, documents, and their
L evel of Customization searching environment.
DSpace: Although DSpace has a flexible object Keystone: Documents structure is based on a
model, it is not so open in constructing very dif- customized document type, which is formed by
ferent objects with independent metadata sets an XML schema. In addition, the presentation of
because of its database-oriented architecture. The a document is dependent on the XSLTs associ-
user interface is fixed and provides only minor ated with the document type. The separation of
Table 1.
Characteristics DSpace Fedora Greenstone Keystone EPrints
Object model 4 5 3 3 2
Collection support and relations 4 4 5 2 1
Metadata and digital content
storage 4 5 3 3 3
Search and browse 4 3 4 2 4
Object management 4 2 2 3 4
User interfaces 4 2 4 4 4
Access control 5 4 2 2 2
Multiple languages support 3 3 4 4 4
Interoperability features 5 5 4 4 5
Level of customization 3 5 4 5 3
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Comparing Open Source Digital Library Software
document storage and presentation layer, as well 2. Consider a case where an organization needs
as the typing of documents, provides a fully cus- one digital collection to publish its digital
tomizable DL architecture. content in a simple form and in strict time
limits. In addition, the organization prefers
EPrints: The data objects in EPrints contain user- to integrate the Web interfaces of the DL
defined metadata. Plugins can be written in order with a portal-like Web site. In that case, the
to export the data objects in different text formats. most appropriate DL systems are Keystone
A core API in Perl is provided for developers who or EPrints, since they separate the concerns
prefer to access basic DL functionality. of presentation and storage, are not bound
Based on the aforementioned analysis, the to specific metadata standards, and provide
five DL systems were graded for each of the simple Web interfaces for the submission and
characteristics, the minimum score is 1 and the presentation of documents and metadata.
maximum is 5. 3. Consider a case where an organization is
responsible for digitizing collections from
libraries, archives, and museums and hosting
Con cl usion an d Su gges tions them in a single DL system. The organization
has human resources and the amount of time
It is difficult to propose one specific DL system in order to customize the DL system and
as the most suitable for all cases. Each system develop extra modules. The highest priority
has its advantages and drawbacks, as stated in needs are the support of preservation issues,
the aforementioned comparison, categorized by the use of multiple metadata standards, and
basic DL system characteristics and features. That the different formats of digital content. In
comparison can only be used as a guideline by that case, the most suitable DL system is
an organization in order to decide if one of these Fedora, since it provides a very customizable
DL systems is suitable to host its digital collec- modular architecture. Although it does not
tions. Usually the needs for each organization provide easy-to-use Web interfaces or built-
vary depending on the number of collections, the in functionality, it is the best choice for the
types of objects, the nature of the material, the case where many collections and different
frequency of update, the distribution of content, material must be hosted.
and the time limits for the development of a DL. 4. Consider a case where an organization
In the next paragraphs, guidelines for the selec- wants to electronically publish books in an
tion of a DL system are provided depending on easy-to-use customizable DL system. In
different organization needs. that case, the most appropriate DL system
is Greenstone, since it is easy to represent
1. Consider a case where an institution or books in a hierarchical manner, using table
university needs a digital repository for of contents, while the full text of chapters
research papers and dissertations produced can be searchable.
by students and staff. In that case, the most
appropriate DL system is DSpace, since it
by default represents communities (e.g., R eferen ces
university departments) and collections (e.g.,
papers and dissertations), while workflow Apache Lucene. Retrieved August 14, 2008, from
management support is important for item http://lucene.apache.org/
submission by individuals.
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Comparing Open Source Digital Library Software
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Comparing Open Source Digital Library Software
60
61
Chapter VII
The Greenstone Digital
Library Software
Ian H. Witten
University of Waikato, New Zealand
David Bainbridge
University of Waikato, New Zealand
A bs tra ct
This chapter describes the evolution of the Greenstone digital library project through its first 10 years of
development. It provides an overview of the software, which includes both production and research ver-
sions, as well as a chronological account of notable events that occurred in this period. The chapter also
focuses on the tension that occurs between trying to support two versions of the software, and our strategy
for resolving this conflict, that is, of reconciling production values with a research framework.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
The Greenstone Digital Library Software
adopters, and our approach to the key issues of Countless digital libraries have been built with
sustainability, support, and interoperability. The Greenstone. They range from historic newspa-
existence of two flavors creates a tensionthe pers to books on humanitarian aid, from eclectic
versions compete for the resources that we can multimedia content on pop-artists to curated first
commit to their developmentand the chapter editions of works by Chopin, and from scientific
culminates in a discussion of our strategy for institutional repositories to personal collections
reconciling this conflict. of photos and other documents. All kinds of top-
ics are covered: the black abolitionist movement,
Production Version bridge construction, flora and fauna, the history
of the Indian working class, medical artwork, and
The production version of Greenstone provides shipping statistics are just a random selection.
the ability to create collections of digital content, Greenstone accommodates a wide variety of
display the content in a Web browser (either over data types. Document formats include HTML,
the intranet or standalone from CDROM or simi- PDF, OpenOffice, Word, PowerPoint, and Excel.
lar), and access and search the collections that Metadata formats include MARC, Refer, Dub-
have been built. Its development was informed lin Core, learning object metadata (LOM), and
by the experience of non-governmental organi- BibTeX. Greenstone also accepts a wide variety
zations (NGOs) such as Human Info and United of image, audio, and video formats. Full-text
Nations agencies such as UNESCO and Food and indexing of all document text and metadata is
Agriculture Organization (FAO) in facilitating the standard and supplied by default. Greenstone
the dissemination of humanitarian information, supports numerous interoperability standards,
particularly in developing countries. Through including open archives initiative protocol for
UNESCO sponsorship the software is fully metadata harvesting (OAI-PMH), Z39.50, and
documentedright down to configuration options metadata encoding and transmission standard
embedded in scriptsin all six official UNESCO (METS). Collections can be exported to Fedora,
languages of English, French, Spanish, Russian, DSpace, and MARC. See our Web site www.
Chinese, and Arabic. The Web interface has been greenstone.org for more details.
translated into over 50 other languages through End users experience Greenstone through a
the efforts of a large cohort of volunteers. Web interface such as the one shown in Figure1,
Figure 1. Screenshots of Greenstones Web-based readers interface: (a) the collection interface; (b)
reading a document
(a) (b)
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The Greenstone Digital Library Software
taken from the Human Info NGOs Humanity collections searching and browsing capabilities,
Development Library. Documents in this collec- and the crafting of presentation details. Although
tion can be searched by chapter title, as well as collections are designed individually, the design of
the standard full text search by chapter or book. an existing collection can be copied and populated
Alternatively, users might choose to browse al- with new material.
phabetically by title or hierarchically by subject or
organization. In Figure1(a) the user has searched R esearch F ramework
within chapters for the word environment and
a ranked listed of matches has been displayed. In As the development of Greenstone matured, our
Figure1(b) they are viewing the document that research group became concerned that while
results from selecting the second matching item, its growing adoption in developing countries
that is, Chapter 3 of Teaching Conservation in provided strong motivation and a great deal of
Developing Nations. Greenstone collections are personal satisfaction, it was beginning to stymie
designed individually, depending on the document innovation within the software. There is a disin-
formats and metadata available and the facilities centive to introduce new research-led concepts
that the designer wants to offer the user. Figure into a maturing code base because they are less
1 shows a representative example, but other col- reliable, difficult to test on multiple platforms,
lections often look completely different. and often entail substantial upheavals of the code.
Figure2 shows the Greenstone librarian Regression testing is difficult to apply to digital
interface (GLI), an interactive application for library systems in a comprehensive manner.
creating and maintaining collections such as Given the wide gamut of people and platforms
the Humanity Development Library. Through a using the production system, seemingly modest
system of tabbed panels accessed along the top changes sometimes introduced bugs that affected
of the interface, the digital librarian decides what users in unforeseen ways. Our desire to support
files to include in the collection, what metadata to the developing world led to unusual challenges;
assign manually (in addition to that automatically for example, Greenstone collections could be
extracted by Greenstone from the source files), the viewedand searchedon any Windows
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The Greenstone Digital Library Software
platform from 3.1 upwards. Even Microsoft no spatial searching (Jones, Jones, Barr, & Keegan,
longer supports prior versions of their operating 2004), and ontologies (Buchanan, 2006), amonge
system! Moreover, the fact that the interface and other things. Figure2 is actually a snapshot of the
documentation have been translated into many research framework version of the Greenstone
languages has a conservative, even stultifying, librarian interface (coincidentally demonstrat-
influence on new developments. ing backwards compatibility). The functionality
Our solution was to formulate a redesign of invoked by the rightmost tab (labeled FRBR for
the software with the express intention that it functional requirements for bibliographic records)
constitutes a new research framework, based is not a feature of the production version. However,
on the experiences we had learned thus far. In it was easy to introduce this functionality in the
order to take advantage of new developments research framework and launch the graphical
in software technology we decided to start the interface with a tab that invokes it.
implementation afresh. Java was chosen as the We have also been exploring the role of AJAX
primary programming language to minimize in supporting wider integration tasks based
cross-platform dependencies. Our goals included around a digital library infrastructure. This tests
extensive backwards compatibility, different our ability to provide future compatibility, for
levels of customization, software modularity, AJAX has arisen subsequent to the inception of
dynamic services, distributed architecture, fu- Greenstone3. Koru (Milne, Witten, & Nichols,
ture compatibility, integrated documentation, 2007) is a new search interface to digital library
self-describing modules, and integration into the content that offers effective domain-indepen-
computing environment. The resulting software dent knowledge-based information retrieval. It
was named Greenstone3 to differentiate it from exhibits an understanding of the topics involved
the production version, retrospectively dubbed in both queries and documents, allowing them
Greenstone2 (to coincide with the version num- to be matched more accurately and evolving
bering we had already been using). queries automatically and interactively. Flax (Wu
In essence, Greenstone3 is based upon a & Witten, 2006) melds language learning with
distributed network of modules and uses simple digital libraries to automate the production and
object access protocol (SOAP) to stream extensible delivery of practice exercises for overseas students
markup language (XML) messages between them, who are learning English. Leveraging off digital
with the option of customization of messages at library software allows teachers and students to
any point through the use of XSL transforms. capitalize on top-quality prose and multimedia
Dynamically loadable services (preferably Web- resources already present in the worlds libraries.
service based) are layered on top of this commu- This yields an unprecedented supply of linguistic
nication channel. A describe-yourself call is a material for students to practice on. Realistic 3D
mandatory fixture that allows service discovery in books (Liesaputra, Witten, & Bainbridg, in press)
a heterogeneous world of communicating applica- interact with a digital library at a subdocument
tions; it also assists future compatibility. METS is level (i.e., chapters, page-level, and illustrations)
used to represent ingested documents. For more to provide an enhanced reading experience.
details, refer to work by Buchanan, Bainbridge, Although versions of Greenstone 3 have been
Don, and Witten (2005). released, continual demands from users for further
Using this framework we have investigated development of Greenstone 2 have drawn more
dynamic text mining (Witten, Don, Dewsnip, & heavily on our time than we had envisaged when
Tablan, 2004), query visualization (Rger, 2005), we embarked upon the reimplementation. We
alerting services (Buchanan & Hinze, 2005), return to this point and the tension it creates at
the end of the chapter.
64
The Greenstone Digital Library Software
65
The Greenstone Digital Library Software
to the per-megabyte charging scheme that our of one million lengthy metadata records for radio
university levied for both outgoing and incoming and television programs. They decided to aug-
Web traffic). Our employers were not particularly ment their heavy-duty mainframe database with
happy when our licensing fait accompli became a fully-searchable Greenstone system that could
apparent years later, but have grown to accept (and run on ordinary desktop machines. A Greenstone
perhaps even appreciate) the status quo because collection was duly built and delivered (within
of our evident international success. 2 days of receiving the full dataset). We tried
An early in-house project utilizing Greenstone to get them to the point where they could main-
was the Niupepa collection of Mori-language tain it themselves, but they were not interested;
newspapers. We began the work of OCRing instead we updated it for them regularly (inci-
20,000 page images in 1998, and made an initial dentally providing us with a useful small source
demonstration collection. In 2000-2001 we re- of revenue). They eventually moved to different
ceived (retrospective!) funding from the Ministry technology in early 2006, with the aim of making
of Education to continue the work. Virtually the the metadata (and ultimately the program content)
entire Niupepa was available online early in 2001, publicly available online in a way that resembles
but the collection was not officially launched until what Amazon does for books, something that we
March 2002 at the annual general meeting of Te think requires a tailor-made portal rather than a
Rnanga o Ng Kura Kaupapa Mori (the control- general-purpose digital library system.
ling body of Mori medium/theology schools).
Niupepa is still the largest collection of online S ustainability
Mori-language documents, and is extensively
used. Apperley, Keegan, Cunningham, and Witten We became acquainted with UNESCO through
(2002) give a comprehensive description of how Human Infos long-term relationship with them.
it was developed. On November 13, 2000, in a Although they supported Human Infos goal of
moving ceremony, the Mori people presented producing humanitarian CD-ROMs and distrib-
our project with a ceremonial toki (adze) as a gift uting them in developing countries, UNESCO
in recognition of our contributions to indigenous were really interested in sustainable develop-
language preservation (see Figure3). ment, which requires empowering people in
In 1999, the BBC in London were concerned those countries to produce and distribute their
about the threat of Y2K bugs on their database own digital library collectionsfollowing that
66
The Greenstone Digital Library Software
old Chinese proverb about giving a man fish vs. included in the Internet distributions because
teaching him to fish.2 We had by then transferred they can be obtained from other sources (links
our collection-building technology to Human Info, are provided).
and triedthough without successto transfer When we and others started to give workshops,
it to the BBC, but this was a completely differ- tutorials, and courses on Greenstone we naturally
ent proposition, that is, to put the power to build benefited from the expertise built up of producing
collections into the hands of those other than IT self-contained CD-ROMs. We further extended
specialists, typically librarians. the resources included and adopted a policy of
We began by packaging up our PERL scripts putting all instructional material (i.e., PowerPoint
and documenting them so that others could use slides, exercises, and sample files for projects)
them, and slowly, painfully, came to terms with on a workshop CD-ROM, and began to include
the fact that operating at this level is anathema this auxiliary material on the UNESCO distribu-
for librarians. In 2001, we produced a Web-based tions also. This almost led to their downfall, for
system called the Collector that was announced the company producing the CD-ROMs began to
in a paper whose title proudly proclaimed Power question the provenance of some of the sample
to the people: end-user building of digital library files they contained, and ultimately demanded
collections (Witten, Bainbridge, & Boddie, explicit proof of permission to reproduce all the
2001). However, this was never a great success: information and software. Although everything
Web-based submission to repository systems was, in principle, open source, some of the exter-
(including Greenstone collections) is common- nal software projects used in Greenstone did not
place today, but we were trying to allow users to always provide meticulous licensing details, and
design and configure digital library collections at such short notice so much had to be stripped out
over the Web as well as populate them. The next that the 2006 CD-ROM distribution was seriously
year we began a Java development that became emasculated. Over the next year licenses were
known as the Greenstone librarian interface clarified and clearer copyright statements collated.
(Bainbridge et al., 2003), which grew over the Alternatives were utilized when copyright holders
years into a comprehensive system for designing did not reply to our enquiries or no longer seemed
and building collections and includes its own to exist (a research project, for instance, that had
metadata editor. reached its end of its funding and members had
From the outset, UNESCOs goal was to pro- moved on to other work).
duce CD-ROMs containing the entire Greenstone
software (not just individual collections plus the S upport
run-time system, as in Human Infos products)
so that it could be used by people in developing Good documentation was (rightly!) seen by
countries who did not have ready access to the UNESCO as crucial. They were keen to make the
Internet.3 There were the tangible outcomes of a Greenstone technology available in all six official
series of small contracts with UNESCO. We feel UNESCO languages; we began with English
that the CD-ROMs are more of symbolic than ac- Spanish, French, and added Russian and Arabic
tual significance because in practice they rapidly and Chinese only recently. We already had ver-
became outdated by frequent new releases of the sions of the interface in these (and many other)
software appearing on the Internet. They have languages, but UNESCO wanted everything to
been produced every year from 2002 onwards. be translated; not just the documentation, which
The CD-ROMs contain all the auxiliary software was extensive (four substantial manuals) but all the
needed to run Greenstone as well, which are not installation instructions, README files, example
67
The Greenstone Digital Library Software
collections, and so forth. We might have demurred been several changes of personnel. It is amazing
had we realized the extent to which such a massive what excellent programmers can do.
translation effort would threaten to hobble the With UNESCOs encouragement (and oc-
potential for future development, and have since casional sponsorship), we have worked to enable
suffered mightily in getting everythinginclud- developing countries to take advantage of digital
ing last-minute interface tweakstranslated for library technology by running hands-on work-
each upcoming UNESCO CD-ROM release. The shops. This has enabled team members to travel
cumbersome process of maintaining up-to-date to many interesting places. In what other area, for
translations in the face of continual evolution of example, might a computer science professor get
the softwarewhich is, of course, to be expected the opportunity to spend a week giving a course
in open source systemsled us to devise a scheme at the UN International Criminal Tribunal for
for maintaining all language fragments in a version Rwanda in Arusha, Tanzania, at the foot of Mount
control system so that the system could tell what Kilimanjaro, or in Havana, Cuba, Windhoek,
needed updating. This resulted in the Greenstone Namibia, or Kathmandu, Nepal? Recognizing
translators interface, a Web portal where officially that devolution is essential for sustainability and
registered translators can examine the status of the we are now attempting to distribute this effort
language interface for which they are responsible, by establishing regional Greenstone Support
and update it (Bainbridge et al., 2003). Today the Groups; the first, for South Asia, was launched
interface has been translated into 48 languages in April 2006.
(with a further 11 in progress), 36 of which have Greenstone won the 2004 IFIP Namur award,
an active designated volunteer maintainer. which recognizes recipients for raising aware-
Most people are surprised by the small size ness internationally of the social implications of
of the Greenstone team. Historically, for most of information and communication technologies; and
the duration of the project we have employed 1-2 was a finalist for the 2006 Stockholm Challenge,
programmers, although recently the number has the worlds leading ICT prize for entrepreneurs
crept up to 3-4. Several faculty involved in aspects who use ICT to improve living conditions and
of digital library research are associated with the increase economic growth. Our project received
project, but only two (the present authors) have the Vannevar Bush award for the best paper at the
viewed the Greenstone software as their main in- ACM Digital Libraries Conference in 1999, the
terest, partly because although the work is ground- Literati Club Highly Commended Award in 2003,
breaking the research outputs are of questionable and the best international paper award at the Joint
value in the university evaluation and promotion Conference on Digital Libraries in 2004.
process. Graduate students rarely contribute to Greenstone is promoted by UNESCO (Paris)
the code base directly because of concerns about under its Information for All program. It is
retaining the production-level code quality and distributed with the FAOs (Rome) Information
programming conventions painstakingly acquired Management Resource Kit (2005), along with
over many years, although several students work tutorial information on its use. It forms the basis
in areas cognate to digital libraries. Our external of the Institute for Information Technology in
users tend to be librarians rather than software Educations course on Digital Libraries in Educa-
specialists and we have received few major con- tion (2006). An extensive early description appears
tributions or bug fixes from them. To summarize, in Witten and Bainbridges (2003) book How to
the Greenstone digital library software has been Build a Digital Library. In 2002-2003, our princi-
created by a couple of skilled people working over pal developer at that time left the project to form
a 10-year period, and along the way there have DL Consulting, an enterprise that specializes in
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The Greenstone Digital Library Software
building and customizing Greenstone collections whatever language and toolkit suits their needs)
and has won several awards as the regions fast- that integrate with the infrastructure, potentially
est-growing exporter and ICT company. at a deeper level if required. In applications that
run locally with respect to the digital library core,
Interoperability the communication can be bypassed in favor of
direct procedure calls through the API.
Many early digital library projects focused on We have found that maintaining two inde-
interoperability. Although this is clearly a very pendent versions of Greenstonein particular,
important issue, we felt that this attention was ensuring backwards compatibility when new
premature; we well remember a digital library and enhanced features are still being added to
conference where interest was so strong that there Greenstone 2is beyond our resources. Conse-
were two panel discussions on interoperability, the quently we have committed to a new vision, that
only catch being that they were parallel sessions, is, to develop Greenstone 3 to the point that, by
which permitted no interoperability. We adopted default, its installation and operation is, to the
the informal motto first operability, then interop- user, indistinguishable from Greenstone 2. We
erability, and focused on other issues such as have invested significant resources over the last
ingesting documents and metadata in a very wide year to achieve this goal, and the first release of
variety of formats. More recently we have added Greenstone 3 encapsulating this new vision was
many interoperability features, which, as we had made available in November 2007. This was only
expected, were not hard to retrofit: communica- 1 month before the completion of this chapter, so
tion with Z39.50, SRW, OAI-PMH, DSpace, and it is too early for any substantial remarks about
METS are just a few examples (Bainbridge, Ke, how successful (or not) this has been. However,
& Witten, 2006). here is a summary of the key points included in
the work undertaken.
We have ported the InstallShield procedure
R e con ciling R esear ch utilized by Greenstone2 to produce a comparable
an d Pro duction cross-platform installation wizard which contrasts
markedly with the former Greenstone3 command-
Greenstone 3 was originally envisaged purely as line repository checkout and compile experience.
a research framework; backwards compatibility Multilingual translations have been migrated to
would be possible but required IT skills. We have Greenstone3 in a semiautomated fashion and
achieved this aim. It is now much easier for external enhancements made to the default services so the
projects to build upon the digital library core and readers interface (experienced through a Web
a selection of examples such as alerting services browser) could be matched, step for step, with
and language learning were mentioned above. what users already experience in Greenstone2.
By and large these projects work by developing Previously, although Greenstone3s default func-
new or enhanced functionality that augments tionality matched Greenstone2, the interaction
the document searching, browsing, and access steps were not the same; these enhancements cor-
already provided. Some projects, notably ones that rected this and other minor differences. We have
utilize AJAX, develop Web-browser embedded also developed automated regression tests to help
interfaces that issue requests to the (potentially minimize the work of checking for undesired side
distributed) digital library infrastructure and effects of recently committed changes. Workshop
manipulate the XML messages that are returned. and tutorial material have also been checked to
Other projects develop standalone applications (in ensure they work with Greenstone3 just as they
did for Greenstone2.
69
The Greenstone Digital Library Software
70
The Greenstone Digital Library Software
Bainbridge, D., Ke, K.-Y. J., & Witten, I. H. on Information and Knowledge Management,
(2006). Document level interoperability for Lisbon, Portugal (pp. 445-454).
collection creators. In Proceedings of the Joint
Rger, S. (2006). Putting the user in the loop:
Conference on Digital Libraries, Chapel Hill,
Visual resource discovery. Paper presented at
NC (pp. 105-106).
the Workshop on Adaptive Multimedia Retrieval
Bainbridge, D., Thompson, J., & Witten, I. H. (AMR, Glasgow, July 2005) (LNCS 3877, pp.
(2003). Assembling and enriching digital library 1-18).
collections. In Proceedings of the Joint Confer-
Witten, I. H., & Bainbridge, D. (2003). How to
ence on Digital Libraries, Houston.
build a digital library. San Francisco: Morgan
Bell, T. C., Cleary, J. G., & Witten, I. H. (1990). Kaufmann.
Text compression. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
Witten, I. H., Bainbridge, D., & Boddie, S. J.
Hall.
(2001). Power to the people: End-user building
Bell, T. C., Moffat, A., & Witten, I. H. (1994, June). of digital library collections. In Proceedings
Compressing the digital library. In Proceedings of the Joint Conference on Digital Libraries,
of the Digital Libraries 94, College Station, TX Roanoke, VA.
(pp. 41-46).
Witten, I. H., Cunningham, S. J., Vallabh, M., &
Buchanan, G. (2006). FRBR: Enriching and in- Bell, T. C. (1995, June). A New Zealand digital
tegrating digital libraries. In Proceedings of the library for computer science research. In Pro-
Joint Conference on Digital Libraries, Chapel ceedings of the Digital Libraries 95, Austin
Hill (pp. 260-269). (pp. 25-30).
Buchanan, G., Bainbridge, D., Don, K. J., & Wit- Witten, I. H., Don, K. J., Dewsnip, M., & Tablan,
ten, I. H. (2005). A new framework for building V. (2004). Text mining in a digital library. Interna-
digital library collections. In Proceedings of the tional Journal of Digital Libraries, 4(1), 56-59.
Joint Conference on Digital Libraries, Denver
Witten, I. H., Moffat, A., & Bell, T. C. (1994).
(pp. 23-31).
Managing gigabytes: Compressing and indexing
Buchanan, G., & Hinze, A. (2005). A generic documents and images. New York: Van Nostrand
alerting service for digital libraries. In Proceed- Reinhold.
ings of the Joint Conference on Digital Libraries,
Wu, S., & Witten, I. H. (2006). Towards a digital
Denver (pp. 131-140).
library for language learning. In Proceedings of
Jones, S., Jones, M., Barr, M., & Keegan, T. K. the European Conference on Digital Libraries,
(2004). Searching and browsing in a digital library Alicante, Spain.
of historical maps and newspapers. Journal of
Digital Information, 6(2), 12-19.
K ey Terms
Liesaputra, V., Witten, I. H., & Bainbridg, D. (in
press). Creating and reading realistic books. IEEE
Greenstone: The name given to our open
Computer Magazine.
source digital library software that encapsulates
Milne, D. N., Witten, I. H., & Nichols, D. N. (2007). over a decade of research led by the digital library
A knowledge-based search engine powered by group at the University of Waikato, New Zealand.
Wikipedia. In Proceedings of the ACM Conference Greenstone2 is a production version of the soft-
71
The Greenstone Digital Library Software
72
73
Chapter VIII
Design and Development
of a Taxonomy Generator:
A Case Example for Greenstone
Yin-Leng Theng
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Jin-Cheon Na
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Schubert Foo
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
A bs tra ct
This chapter addresses the issues of resource discovery in digital libraries (DLs) and the importance of
knowledge organization tools in building DLs. Using the Greenstone digital library (GSDL) software as
a case example, we describe a taxonomy generation tool (TGT) prototype, a hierarchical classification of
contents module, designed and built to categorize contents within DLs. TGT was developed as a desktop
application using Microsoft .NET Framework 2.0 in Visual C# language and object-oriented program-
ming. In TGT, Z39.19 was implemented providing standard guidelines to construct, format, and manage
monolingual controlled vocabularies, usage of broader terms, narrower terms and related terms as well
as their semantic relationships, and the simple knowledge organization system (SKOS) for vocabulary
specification. The XML schema definition was designed to validate against rules developed for the XML
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Design and Development of a Taxonomy Generator
taxonomy template, hence, resulting in the generated taxonomy template supporting controlled vocabu-
lary terms as well as allowing users to select the labels for the taxonomy structure. A pilot user study
was then conducted to evaluate the usability and usefulness of TGT and the taxonomy template. In this
study, we observed four subjects using TGT, followed by a focus group for comments. Initial feedback
was positive, indicating the importance of having a taxonomy structure in GSDL. Recommendations for
future work include content classification and metadata technologies in TGT.
74
Design and Development of a Taxonomy Generator
75
Design and Development of a Taxonomy Generator
Content management: The survey carried found. Plug-ins for each specific col-
out by Goh, Chua, Khoo, Khoo, Mak, and lection were identified in the collection
Ng (2006) shows that Greenstone was able configuration file (Bainbridge et al.,
to meet most of the important demands in 2004).
DLs because of its strong support for end- The building (buildcol.pl) process
user functionality, and hence achieving high handles all the indexes and data struc-
scores for content management and acquisi- tures necessary to make the collection
tion compared to other DL building tools work. Greenstone offers three levels
such as Fedora, EPrint, and CDSware. The of index for each document, that is,
GUI-enabled librarian interface manages document level, section level, and
the documents in an easy and simplified paragraph level, with each described
manner, even for end users without a library inside the document itself. The building
science background. Before a collection goes process also compresses the text of the
online, it undergoes two processes (Witten documents for better disk utilization
& Bainbridge, 2003): and faster retrieval of the contents.
Importing (import.pl) is a facility to Indexing and compressing techniques
create new collections, add more con- are handled by managing gigabytes
tents, or delete the collection. Each (MG), which is the core engine in
document and its associated metadata Greenstone that makes use of the GNU
are converted to the XML-compliant database manager program (GDBM)
Greenstone archive format at this stage for storing and retrieving the objects
of importing. Greenstone allows more by unique keys. To facilitate browsing
than one metadata sets associated to for available metadata, modules called
the document collections. Existing classifiers are used to create various
metadata sets such as DC are read- types of browsers, such as scrollable
ily available in the system as well as lists, alphabetic selectors, dates, and
new sets can be created according to arbitrary hierarchies (Bainbridge et al.,
user needs (Bainbridge et al., 2004). 2004). Based on classifier types listed
Metadata in documents and metadata in the collection configuration file, the
sets are stored as XML files. For each building process initializes each by
document to be persistent across the obtaining the metadata value on which
collection, an object identifier or OID is the document is to be classified. With
calculated and stored as an attribute in advanced skills on programming, both
the documents archive file. In order to plug-ins and classifiers can be written to
support extensibility, the task of format customize functions for new document,
conversion and metadata extraction is metadata formats, and new browsing
processed by software modules called and document access facilities. Once
plug-ins where each input document is the building process is finished suc-
passed through until a suitable plug-in cessfully, the collection is ready to go
is found. For example, HTML pages are online and be accessible to the users.
converted to the Greenstone archive Browsing: What make DLs superior over
format with the extracted metadata physical libraries are its better resource
such as title, document name, source, discovery capabilities. Greenstone has
and so forth until the HTML plug-in is implemented a browsing system consisting
76
Design and Development of a Taxonomy Generator
of classifiers, that is, structures constructed metadata-driven DLs, catered with simple, cus-
through available metadata in documents. tomizable browsing structures for users from
The possible structures in a collection ad- novices to experts.
dress various levels, for example, section Although the classifier system automates
level or document level. During collection the browsing system, there are weaknesses in
building time, documents are grouped into the design of the system. McKay et al. (2004)
classes according to their metadata while point out two weaknesses to the current classi-
browsing structures are prebuilt and avail- fier system. The first weakness is that because
able upon request (McKay, Shukla, Hunt, & of the ability to switch between searching and
Cunningham, 2004). Greenstone supports browsing, Greenstone treats search and browse
different kinds of classifiers: features as two standalone systems, displaying
List classifier is the simplest form search results in a list structure without ranking
which presents the sorted documents and sorting facility. Most browsing classifiers
in a single list structure. built from metadata are not able to search. The
Alphabetic classifier is slightly different second weakness is due to the rigidity of the clas-
than the list structure in which docu- sifier system in terms of using only static, prebuilt
ments are organized into A to Z indexes browsing structures presenting a collection in a
displayed on top of the alphabetically predetermined format only.
sorted list. With powerful indexing mechanisms like MG,
Hierarchical classifier is more complex it offers full-text search to all contents available
than list classifiers with each having an in the collection. However, in the current clas-
arbitrary number of levels to narrow sification system of GSDL, the categorization of
down the hierarchy, which is specified resources according to subjects is still not sup-
during metadata tagging (Bainbridge ported yet, although the powerful indexing and
et al., 2004). rich metadata support is already present.
Date classifier is like the alphabetic Although Greenstone provides the facilities in
classifier, categorizing the documents multilingual, metadata, and customizable content
by date metadata instead of the A to Z classifiers for browsing the collection, the current
list used (Bainbridge et al., 2004). support for browsing lacks a normalized structure
Phind classifier creates the classifier not for hierarchically organizing the terms. McKay et
based on metadata values but on a word al. (2004) discuss the current browsing structure
or the phrases in the documents during of Greenstone and highlight the importance of
collection building time (McKay et al., term suggestion, vocabulary control, and the role
2004). of thesaurus in searching and browsing of digital
contents. The browsing system in Greenstone is
entirely based on the metadata tagged to each
Ou r Pro posal document and limits the way it is structured.
Additionally, the controlled vocabulary tool for
Need for Better Classi.cation multiple subject access is not managed in the
of R esources in G reenstone current scenario of Greenstone browsing system.
Controlled vocabulary is important to provide
On the whole, Greenstone provides a new way of the consistent usage of the terminology in the
collecting and representing the digital contents digital resources for better management of index-
on the Internet in the form of fully-searchable, ing and searching capability. Hence, controlled
77
Design and Development of a Taxonomy Generator
Requirement Specification
System Design
Object-Oriented Concept
Implementation
Three-layered Architecture 4. .NET Framework
Package
TGT Application Setup and Deployment
(.exe) Project (.msi)
Modify Validation
78
Design and Development of a Taxonomy Generator
Step 5: Integrates the taxonomy template and be back in its preinstallation state.
with GSDL. 2. System requirements: For optimum ap-
plication performance of TGT, the machine
Figure 1 shows the overview processes of TGT that the TGT application will be resided in is
conceptually grouped onto the software develop- recommended to have the following system
ment lifecycle (SDLC) phases. requirements (see Table 1):
The TGT prototype was developed using the 3. Application package: To install the TGT
Visual C#.NET 2.0 and XML technologies and prototype into the hard drive, the Windows
we describe briefly these six areas: installer file Taxonomy Generation Tool.
msi has to run. The package will load the
1. Development platform: Visual C#.NET is step-by-step installation wizard and install
the object-oriented programming language the necessary files to the designated loca-
and provides easy setup and installation tion (the default location is C:\Program
mechanisms. We used a three-layered Files\Taxonomy Generation Tool\Taxonomy
architecture to implement this prototype, Generation Tool). Once the installation is
that is, forms for the presentation layer, finished, the application will be accessible
codes (C# language) for the application from Start Menu or from Desktop Shortcut.
logic layer, and XML for the data storage From the Start Menu, users are allowed to
layer. The resultant XML template records do two operations: load TGT or read User
each term and their relationships inside the Guide for assistance in operating TGT.
taxonomy hierarchy. There are two solution 4. System design: Two main functions for this
files included in the project: one for the tax- prototype have been developed, namely,
onomy generation application and another creating the new taxonomy template and
one for the setup and deployment project updating the existing taxonomy template.
which generates the Windows Installer to The help facility includes User Guidance
distribute the application. The setup project and About information. Figure 2 shows the
would produce the installer taxonomy overview process flow diagram of TGT.
generation tool.msi file, which contains 5. User interface and features: The user
the application, any dependency files, and interface and layout settings are designed
application-related information. However, as closely related to the existing editor in
one needs to make assure the prerequisites Greenstone package. The control settings
(e.g., .NET Framework 2.0 to be installed) and operation allows multiple language in-
are well-placed before the installation is puts as the term properties are structured to
made. Otherwise, the process would fail conform to Greenstone editor for metadata
set (GEMS). To support the multilingual
service, Greenstone uses one XML file
named languages.xml stored in the folder
Table 1. Recommended system requirements
C:\Program Files\Greenstone\gli\classes\
Operating Systems Windows XP and later versions xml which contains 139 languages from
Memory 256 MB RAM or higher various countries. Language names and their
Hard Disk
60 GB with minimum 30 MB of associated codes, stored in the languages.
free space xml file, are retrieved by calling the private
Processor 1.8 GHz or faster method private void prepareCom-
Software Requirement .NET framework 2.0 boItems() in code behind and populated
79
Design and Development of a Taxonomy Generator
Edit
Save Concept
Describe
Taxonomy Changes
Yes Tree Describe
Concept
Save
Taxonomy Edited
uses one XML file named languages.xml
Taxonomy
Template
stored in the folder C:\Program
Files\Greenstone\gli\classes\xml
Taxonomy which contains 139 languages from various countries.
Template
Language names and their associated codes, stored in the languages.xml file, are retrieved
by calling the private method private void prepareComboItems() in code behind and
populated inside the Combo
Create box whose
No selected value will be stored in taxonomy template as
End
New?
xml:lang attribute value. The language name and their associated language code used in
languages.xml file are presented in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Languages.xml from Greenstone digital library
80
Each concept in the taxonomy is seen as an object and stored in memory. An application
session-based model is used for temporarily storing the various concept objects in memory
Design and Development of a Taxonomy Generator
inside the Combo box whose selected value document interface (MDI) while Exit
will be stored in taxonomy template as xml: menu (Alt+F4) will quit the application
lang attribute value. The language name without saving anything. Creating the new
and their associated language code used in taxonomy scheme can be logically divided
languages.xml file are presented in Figure into three parts: describing the taxonomy,
3. describing the concept, and managing the
Each concept in the taxonomy is seen as an taxonomy tree.
object and stored in memory. An application a. Describing the taxonomy: Informa-
session-based model is used for temporar- tion related to the taxonomy such as
ily storing the various concept objects in name, objective, and scope is recorded
memory using hash table object class Ap- before the taxonomy tree is constructed
plicationSession.cs (see Figure 4). (see Figures 6 and 7).
The user interface and features are designed b. Describing the concept: For each label
to be understandable for users from novices in the taxonomy tree, the associated
to experts. The simple tab-based incorpora- properties are recorded before it is saved
tion to describe the concepts and their related to the taxonomy tree (see Figure 8).
properties, guiding users step-by-step and The prototype allows for the creation
with descriptive labels, aims to provide no of alternate labels (see Figure 9) and
barriers for users in operating the features related labels (see Figure 10).
provided by the system. c. Managing the taxonomy tree: After
The taxonomy scheme can be created by the concepts have been described for
using a New menu item or by simply using the taxonomy tree, they are allowed
the shortcut by pressing Ctrl+N. The Close to remove, edit, or save the tree (see
item in the File menu (Figure 5) will unload Figure 11).
the active form opened inside the multiple
private ApplicationSession()
{
}
81
Design and Development of a Taxonomy Generator
File Edit
File Menu Sub Menu
Figure 7. Taxonomy tree description form Figure 10. Related labels tab
Concept
Description
Taxonomy
Tree Region
82
Design and Development of a Taxonomy Generator
Figure 12. Hierarchical tree for fashion taxonomy and its associated nodeID
rdf:nodeID:1
rdf:nodeID:2
rdf:nodeID:4 rdf:nodeID:3
rdf:nodeID:6
rdf:nodeID:5
rdf:nodeID:8 rdf:nodeID:7
Figure 13. Taxonomy template generated for fashion taxonomy for NodeIDs 1-4
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?>
<rdf:RDF xmlns:rdf="http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#"
xmlns:skos="http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/core#"
xmlns:rdfs="http://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema#">
<rdf:RDF> rdf:nodeID:1
<skos:Concept rdf:nodeID="1">
<skos:prefLabel xml:lang="en">Fashion Taxonomy</skos:prefLabel>
<skos:definition xml:lang="en">DDC for Fashion Taxonomy</skos:definition>
<skos:scopeNote xml:lang="en">
This fashion taxonomy is developed using the Costume through time Singapore
book developed by National Heritage Board and NLP
</skos:scopeNote>
<skos:narrower> Member
<skos:Collection> Collection
<skos:member rdf:NodeID="2"/>
<skos:member rdf:NodeID="7"/>
</skos:Collection>
</skos:narrower> rdf:nodeID:2
</skos:Concept>
<skos:Concept rdf:nodeID="2">
<skos:prefLabel xml:lang="en">Costume and personal
appearance</skos:prefLabel>
<skos:definition xml:lang="en">
Costume and personal appearance regarding to specific age and sexes
</skos:definition>
<skos:altLabel xml:lang="en">Dress</skos:altLabel>
<skos:altLabel xml:lang="en">Set of clothes</skos:altLabel>
<skos:altLabel xml:lang="en">Personal style</skos:altLabel>
<skos:broader rdf:NodeID="1"/>
<skos:narrower>
<skos:Collection>
<skos:member rdf:NodeID="3"/>
</skos:Collection>
</skos:narrower> rdf:nodeID:3
</skos:Concept>
<skos:Concept rdf:nodeID="3">
<skos:prefLabel xml:lang="en">Costumes of specific ages and
sexes</skos:prefLabel>
<skos:definition xml:lang="en">Costumes of specific ages and
sexes</skos:definition>
<skos:altLabel xml:lang="en">Dress style relating to specific ages and
sexes</skos:altLabel>
<skos:broader rdf:NodeID="2"/>
<skos:narrower>
83
Design and Development of a Taxonomy Generator
6. XML output generated by TGT: Once the classification (DDC) of fashion taxonomy.
user saves the taxonomy after defining the Figure 12, for example, shows the DDC for
concepts and their descriptions, a taxonomy the fashion taxonomy. Internally, TGT sets
template is generated by TGT. The tool was each label in the hierarchy a unique id with
validated by inputting several taxonomy tag name rdf:nodeID. Figure 13 shows the
structures, one of which is the sample XML template generated for the hierarchical
taxonomy data using the Dewey decimal representation of the fashion taxonomy.
84
Design and Development of a Taxonomy Generator
85
Design and Development of a Taxonomy Generator
tagging remain important issues for managing McKay, D., Shukla, P., Hunt, R., & Cunning-
digital repositories and emergent technologies, ham, S. J. (2004). Enhanced browsing in digital
such as Semantic Web and ontology (Zeng, 2005; libraries: Three new approaches to browsing in
Zeng & Chan, 2004). This chapter proposes TGT, Greenstone. International Journal on Digital
a taxonomy generator tool with a hierarchical Libraries, 4(4), 283-297.
classification of contents module, designed and
Witten, I. H. (2003). How to build a digital library.
built to categorize contents in GSDL. TGT, built
Morgan Kaufmann.
upon a common framework for taxonomy con-
struction, is customizable to other DL building Witten, I. H., & Bainbridge, D. (2005). Creat-
environments. ing digital library collections with Greenstone.
A pilot user study was conducted to evaluate the Library Hi Tech., 23(4), 541-560.
usability and usefulness of TGT and the taxonomy
Witten, I. H., McNab, R. J., Boddie, S. J., & Bain-
template. Initial feedback was positive, indicating
bridge, D. (2000). Greenstone: A comprehensive
the importance of having a taxonomy structure in
open-source digital library software system. In
GSDL. Recommendations for future work include
Proceedings of the Fifth ACM Conference on
content classification and metadata technologies
Digital Libraries DL 00. ACM Press.
in TGT a way of addressing data management
of resources in Greenstone, focusing specifically Yan, H. (2004). Digital content management: The
on incorporating taxonomy in GSDL and search for a content management system. Library
Hi Tech., 22(4), 355-365.
Zeng, M. L. (2005). Construction of controlled
Ac knowle dgmen t
vocabularies: A primer. Retrieved May 25, 2007,
from http://www.slis.kent.edu/~mzeng/Z3919/in-
The authors are grateful to David Bainbridge for
dex.htm
his inputs on design and implementation of the
taxonomy generator, and the subjects for their Zeng, M. L., & Chan, L. M. (2004). Trends and
feedback on the usefulness and usability of the issues in establishing interoperability among
generator. knowledge organization systems. Journal of the
American Society for Information Science and
Technology, 55(5), 377-95.
R eferen ces
86
Design and Development of a Taxonomy Generator
ers needs; and (c) provide services and resources Metadata: A set of attributes that describes
to people (e.g., students, faculty, others, etc.). To the content, quality, condition, and other charac-
the computer science community, digital libraries teristics of a resource.
may refer to a distributed text-based information
Taxonomy: According to the definition by
system, a collection of distributed information
ANSI/NISO (2005), taxonomy is a collection
services, a distributed space of interlinked in-
of controlled vocabulary terms organized into a
formation system, or a networked multimedia
hierarchical structure with each term having one
information system.
or more parent/child (broader/narrower) relation-
DSpace: It is jointly implemented by Mas- ships to others. It gives a high level view of contents
sachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and systematically and provides users a roadmap for
Hewlett-Packard (HP) laboratories and was discovering knowledge available. Taxonomies can
released in November 2002. DSpace (see http:// appear as lists, trees, hierarchies, polyhierarchies,
www.dspace.org) aims to provide a digital in- matrices, facets, or system maps.
stitutional repository system to capture, store,
Usability: ISO 9241-11 defines usability as
index, preserve, and redistribute an organizations
the extent to which a product can be used by
research data.
specified users to achieve specified goals with
Fedora: It was originally implemented as effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction in a
a DARPA and NSF funded research project at specified context of use. Usability of hypertext/
Cornell University and later funded by the An- Web is commonly measured using established us-
drew W. Mellon foundation. Fedora (http://www. ability dimensions covering categories of usability
fedora-commons.org) offers a service-oriented defects such as screen design, terminology and
architecture by providing a powerful digital system information, system capabilities and user
object model which supports multiple views for control, navigation, and completing tasks.
digital objects.
Usefulness: This is debatable. Some make
Greenstone: Greenstone (http://www.green- the distinction between usability and usefulness.
stone.org) is produced under the New Zealand Although it is impossible to quantify the useful-
Digital Library Project, a research project for text ness of a system, attempts have been made to
compression at University of Waikato. It focuses measure its attainment in reference to system
on personalization and construction of the digital specifications and the extent of coverage of end
collection from end-user perspectives. users tasks supported by the system, but not on
end user performance testing.
87
88
Chapter IX
From Digital Archives to
Virtual Exhibitions
Schubert Foo
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Yin-Leng Theng
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Jin-Cheon Na
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
A bs tra ct
Digital archives typically act as stand-alone digital libraries to support search and discovery by users
to access its rich set of digitized materials. Additionally, content stored in these archives have been
utilized and combined to create different thematic online virtual exhibitions (VEs). Such exhibitions
are important complimentary counterparts to physical exhibitions, especially in the context of cultural
institutions such as museums, archives, and libraries. Well constructed VEs can offer alternative expe-
riences to the real thing and open up other opportunities that include education and learning, more
content beyond physical exhibits, support for active participation and contribution by visitors through
forums and uploads, online shopping, and others. This chapter outlines a number of concepts and design
considerations for the development of VEs from digital archives. When supported by the right tools and
approaches, creation of VEs can be highly effective and efficient with minimal technological knowledge.
By considering the important issues of metadata, system architecture design, and development techniques,
it becomes possible to generate a series of VEs to meet the needs of different user groups and at the
same time cater to the constraints of the client computers, thereby providing the users the best possible
experience in engaging with the VEs.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
From Digital Archives to Virtual Exhibitions
89
From Digital Archives to Virtual Exhibitions
sumers expect high quality facilities and services, Some examples of early VEs include Building
and free public access to information stemming a National Collection: 150 Years of Print Collect-
from public funds. ing at the Smithsonian by the National Museum
The aforementioned examples have a common of American History (americanhistory.si.edu/
thread among them in that all have potential in prints/index.htm), American History Documents
education even though they are not originally con- (www.indiana.edu/~liblilly/history/ history.html),
ceived as an educational service, but as repositories Birds: A Virtual Exhibition by Canadian Heritage
of information that are made accessible to users Information Network (www.virtualmuseum.ca/
for knowledge and information discovery. In the Exhibitions/Birds/Birds/), Colours of the Wind
context of this chapter, we will focus on digital by the National Archives of Singapore (www.
archives and how these contents can be packaged a2o.com.sg/a2o/public/html/online_exhibit/mi-
and developed into virtual exhibitions which have sas/exhibit/index2.html; Leong, Chennupati &
an educational aspect beyond the exhibits. Foo, 2002, 2003), and others.
Over the last decade, improvements to these
areas have been seen and virtual exhibitions
Vir tual Ex hibi tion Defini tion have reached a stage of sophistication, although
an d Case for Supp or t for a number of fundamental challenges remain.
De velo pmen t While the basic tenets of virtual exhibition have
not changed, an updated definition of virtual
A virtual exhibition (VE) was earlier defined as exhibition is proposed (Foo, in press):
an online Web-based hyper-textual dynamic col-
lection devoted to a specific theme, topic, concept, A virtual exhibition (VE) is a Web-based hyper-
or idea (Silver, 1997). Most virtual exhibitions media collection of captured or rendered multi-
are attributed to museums and archives to make dimensional information objects, possibly stored
visible their collections to end users, generally in distributed networks, designed around a spe-
the public or specialized user groups (e.g., Hunt, cific theme, topic concept or idea, and harnessed
Lundberg, & Zuckerman, 2005). Original artifacts with state-of-art technology and architecture to
are digitally captured and rendered into 2D or 3D deliver a user-centered and engaging experience
objects which are packaged together and linked of discovery, learning, contributing and being
by hyperlinks to allow nonlinearity or multiple- entertained through its nature of its dynamic
linearity by users (exhibition visitors). Virtual product and service offerings.
exhibitions are viewed as dynamic entities as they
often undergo ongoing change in terms of design, The case for investing in the design and
activity, and content, including encouraging us- development of VE has been well documented
ers to contribute towards its collective memory, in literature (e.g., Chennupati, 2007; Lester,
thereby adding to its dynamism. 2006). First and foremost is the recognition that
Many early virtual exhibitions are undertaken hosting VEs provides a gateway to showcase an
as distinct projects and packaged as standalone institutions collections that are not bound by time
exhibits with little regard on the reusability of (temporal), distance (spatial), and space (spatial)
objects, and the adoption of standards to support constraints, unlike physical exhibitions. This
interoperability, extensible, and scalable system addresses the important issue to make valuable
architectures to support growth and pervasive- artifacts available to the masses while playing the
ness of exhibitions. role of custodianship of national and international
treasures.
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From Digital Archives to Virtual Exhibitions
Users are unlikely to pay visits to these insti- of extending outreach has significant long term
tutions unless they are aware of their collections returns of investment once these VEs are curated
and holdings. One way round this is to create VEs and implemented for public access and use.
that are coupled with educational functionality to While VEs have been critiqued in the past
promote the institution as a center for learning, for its inability to provide the experience of the
and to further encourage users to physically access real thing, VEs can allow users to understand,
the brick-and-mortar building, or virtually access discover, learn, and do far more than physical
and retrieve digitized information objects. Such exhibitions. By adopting a carefully researched
an approach helps to demonstrate institutional rel- user-centered design, VEs through hyper-linking
evance and societal value through a strong public support both linear and nonlinear discovery and
profile. In turn, high usage figures can be used learning pathways, creating learning opportu-
to help secure adequate funding and resources nities that are difficult to replicate in physical
for survival, sustainability, and growth of the exhibitions.
institution into the future. In view of this, user The ability to engage in multiple forms of
outreach through VEs is seen to be an important media (e.g., text, image, audio, sound, video,
strategic activity that needs to be properly planned augmented reality, and virtual reality compo-
and executed. Other forms of more traditional nents) on one page, having the ability to reverse,
outreach activities like publications, Web sites, revisit, translate, and read text tailored for differ-
tours, talks, demonstrations, and other activities ent user groups, proficiencies, and requirements,
can be undertaken alongside VEs to create the and immersion in well crafted theme-games and
impact and yield the desired outcomes. so forth, collectively help to establish a deeper
Online strategies (VEs and Web sites) have sense of understanding, awareness, and learn-
particular advantages: it is relatively easy to add ing of contents than physical exhibits. VEs are
new products and services or revamp existing ones therefore no longer viewed as passing fads but
in the form of adding new materials; updating and an important logical companion and extension
reusing existing materials; adding new learning to physical exhibitions.
and edutainment components; online shopping; While the discussion of VEs has so far being
online forums; and users contributions, to name related to nonprofit institutions such as museums
just a few. and archives, it should be borne in mind that the
VEs, through digitization and rendering, also ideas put forth subsequently are equally applicable
have the distinct advantage to create and use to profit organizations for the marketing of its
electronic surrogates of original fragile or sensi- products and services. While some functionality
tive records, or priceless artifacts which might and features are no longer slanted towards the
otherwise be damaged in physical consultation. social responsibility aspects in such organiza-
Established institutions such as Smithsonian tions, these VEs still rely on similar character-
Institute (www.si.edu), Auckland Art Museum istics such as the ability to deliver attractive,
(www.ackland.org/index.php), and most national interesting, engaging, and intriguing exhibits
heritage boards and museums around the world through user-friendly interfaces to encourage
have a permanent and rich set of VEs hosted users (buyers) to visit and access the site, and
on their servers. Collectively, they are able to ultimately become customers of the organization.
display and make available a significant amount These sites typically have the common features of
of treasures held by the institution which is hyper-animated graphics, brief exhibitions, and
by far much than what physical exhibitions can high interactivity zones to showcase products and
display and achieve at any one time. This means services, online areas for mailing list sign-ups,
91
From Digital Archives to Virtual Exhibitions
and online stores to order and make purchases. 1. Curator, who is knowledgeable of the infor-
However, it should be made aware that these VEs mation objections and primarily responsible
are often characterized with biased education in for artifact selection (i.e., identifying and
an attempt to gain competitive advantage over selecting the artifacts for the VE).
other competitors VE sites, which one should 2. Photographer, who is responsible for digital
really expect in todays competitive landscape. In acquisition to create the information objects
contrast, VEs developed by nonprofit organiza- to be stored in the digital repository.
tions and government agencies are almost always 3. Cataloguer, who is responsible for data
constructed with different objectives in mind: management to describe, catalogue, and
archival, preservation, discovery, education, and group individual objects together.
others. They are deemed more authoritative, and 4. Modeler, who is responsible for model
contain better researched and trusted resources, refinement to create and describe object
and higher educational value. interpretations and/or refinements.
Nonetheless, a similar set of user-centered 5. Curator exhibition designer, who is respon-
design paradigms, use of technological tools, sible for exhibition building.
well designed system architectures to high level 6. End users, who are the consumers of the
of automation with minimal human intervention, final VE.
and effort to create new versions of VEs are
equally applicable for all forms of organizations. The first five categories of stakeholders are
At a higher abstract level, we may consider VEs typically part of the VE team, each with a dif-
as digital libraries that contain a set of informa- ferent set of knowledge, expertise, and skill and
tion objects that can be accessed individually, or differing metadata requirements. VE teams can
packaged together by applications supported by be large and can comprise professional writers,
the DLs. artists, archivists, graphic designers, multimedia
The aim of this chapter is to treat VEs from technicians, technical specialists, and curators.
this generic angle to examine a number of issues External advisory and editorial committees may
in the design and delivery of virtual exhibitions. also be roped in the VE design and construction to
This includes addressing the stakeholders of VEs, create a more balanced and effective exhibition.
the important role of metadata, and approaches to End users, on the other hand, can evolve from
system architectural design and development. a myriad of different user groups: children and
adults, students and teachers, academics and re-
searchers, novice and expert users, tourists and
Stakehol ders of Vir tual casual Internet surfers, and the general public and
Ex hibi tions professional users (i.e., archivists, librarians and
information professionals).The important aspect
Virtual exhibitions are extraordinary difficult to to note in this multiplicity of stakeholders is that it
design and develop. One main reason is the num- translates into a varying and large set of differing
ber of stakeholders involved in the process. Patel, user requirements and expectations throughout
White, Mourkoussis, Walczak, Wojciechowski, the process of designing, developing, and using
and Chmielewski (2005) suggest that there are the exhibition.
actually six groups of stakeholders involved in A one size fits all paradigm is almost certain
the process of creating and using the VE, with to fail to meet these expectations. VEs need to
each group playing different roles: be carefully curated and designed to ensure the
92
From Digital Archives to Virtual Exhibitions
potential for success. Typically, this encompasses does not specifically deal with museum, archive,
a need for good metadata design and management, and education requirements that have their own
novel and effective ways to generate different set of detailed metadata elements.
versions of VEs at least, or acceptable costs and This overwhelming amount of metadata has
high productivity in order to satisfy the needs of prompted the proposal for having a system for
different user groups. With this, we can expect authoring, maintaining, and managing metadata
to find the requirement to tailor varying levels to support the development of the augmented
of content generation and online media types to representation of cultural objects (ARCO) system
cater to the needs of these different types of us- for museums to create, manipulate, manage, and
ers. Contents would typically include multimedia present small to medium artifacts in VEs for both
elements, 2D, 3D, augmented reality (AR), and internally within museums and externally on the
virtual reality (VR) (Gotz & Mayer-Patel, 2005; Web (Patel et. al., 2005). They envisaged the cre-
Lim & Foo, 2003). ation of digital artifacts providing opportunities
to develop virtual learning environments (VLEs)
which in turn entail creating new additional
Me ta data R eq uiremen ts metadata such as those defined by ADL sharable
content object reference model (SCORM) or IEEE
Metadata has always been an extremely crucial learning object metadata (LOM) standards to
aspect for describing and managing artifacts in support e-learning. Furthermore, they envisage
the collection. When these are digitally acquired commercial exploitation by institutions in the
and transformed into information objects, a new form of virtual loans for VEs (through information
set of corresponding metadata becomes neces- objects) that requires the support of a digital rights
sary. When new applications such as VEs are management system (DRMS). All this translates
developed, more metadata are required to describe into more and more need for metadata.
and manage the exhibition, page contents, access Two issues are particularly important for
information, and so on. The different stakeholder metadata in the context of VEs. First is the
groups in the previous section provide an idea of highly recommended use of standards to support
the wide ranging metadata requirements needed interoperability. When this becomes not possible
by various constituents of the cultural heritage for whatever reasons, the exchange of metadata
industry. information across systems becomes more costly
Active researches done on metadata and due to the need for validation, optimization, and
continuing developments of standards such as mapping. In terms of metadata definition and
SPECTRUM, EAD, Dublin Core, and other meta- storage, extensible markup language (XML) has
data schemes attest to the importance of having turned out to be the de-facto emerging preferred
relevant metadata to support a variety of needs. means to manage information objects and VEs.
Metadata can typically be classified as descrip- VE exhibition pages contain a series of exhibi-
tive metadata, technical metadata, presentation tion objects that can be neatly encapsulated in a
metadata, preservation metadata, administrative XML-based conceptual hypermedia document
metadata, and resource discovery metadata. It model. Such a document typical includes dif-
should be noted that while Dublin Core is an ferent types of information, such as text, data,
important, well-established metadata standard graphics, images, hyperlinks, and other elements.
for descriptive and resource discovery across Likewise, the information objects metadata can
domains and used by all almost all systems, it be neatly based on the XML structure. Effectively,
93
From Digital Archives to Virtual Exhibitions
an XML-based solution exhibits the advantages versions of the same original photograph. These
such as platform independence, clear structuring versions may contain resized, enhanced, or digi-
and encapsulation, modularity, and so on. tally-manipulated variations (e.g., colour, addition
The second issue pertains to the need to create of borders) of the original photograph.
a range of representations for one same original The same approach can be adopted for textual
artifact. As an example, an image can be captured artifact metadata to incorporate the standard DC
at different resolutions and sizes. They can be used elements plus text specific elements. For example,
as thumbnails, medium resolution for browsing, the content_version element can be used the
and very high resolution for zooming and detailed support layering of information through differ-
analysis. These different versions of content basi- ent descriptive layers of a textual artifact. These
cally share the same metadata except for those text descriptions can range from summarized
entities that are distinct and different. abstract information to detailed information, or
Figure 1 shows an example of a photograph specially text written for children or adults, and
metadata set in XML format (Lim & Foo, 2003). In so on. Likewise, we can adopt the same approach
this example, the accession ID is used to uniquely for different audio, video, and other artifacts to
identify a photograph artifact while the location cater for different network conditions, resolutions,
element is used to define the repository directory and the like. In doing so, we have one associated
where all the images are stored. As indicated metadata record across different content versions
previously, the image element can be defined that can be drawn by the VE to create a series of
more than once to cater to the different available VEs for different users.
Figure 1. Example of photograph metadata document type definition (Lim & Foo, 2003)
94
From Digital Archives to Virtual Exhibitions
Crea tion of Mul tiple Lara, Chen, and Hong (2002) in the development
Versions of VE s E ffe ctivel y of a distributed content management framework
an d E ffi cien tl y for digital museums based on XML and XSL
techniques. Using this framework, they developed
By using this approach of layering metadata and a Lanyu Digital Museum for the Lanyu Island and
use of style sheets, Lim and Foo (2003) developed its Yami inhabitants, and a Lanyu Virtual Exhibi-
a VE authoring system to interface with the tion Hall. In a related article by Hong, Chen, and
National Archives of Singapore digital archive Hung (2004), they propose an intelligent styling
to support the creation of VEs. The XML-based system to help museums efficiently and effectively
digital archive provides different artifact types produce and publish attractive VEs through the
that form the contents in the exhibition through use of loosely coupled fine-grained style modules
the reference and reuse model. This means that (FGSM) to present specific content fragments
only one copy of information object resides in the coupled with a hypermedia authoring system.
repository which is in turn referenced and used
by more than one VE as necessary. Information
objects and exhibitions are endowed with rich G eneri c S ys tem A r chi te cture
metadata that include the Dublin Core elements for De velo ping Vir tual
and other new attributes to support enhanced Ex hibi tions
search support for field and free text searches. An
authoring tool using a grid-layout approach is used At the formative stages of VE development, we
to define and layout the exhibition contents. XMLs witness the emergence of different stand-alone
cascading style sheet and extended style sheets are proprietary systems as one would expect. Over
then selected from a range of predefined templates a period of time, there is a growing emergence of
and applied to the XML documents to yield the acceptance of standards and techniques, notably
final VE in hypertext markup language (HTML) in the areas of metadata definition for VE arti-
format. By adopting the notion of information facts, XML for storing metadata and exhibition
layering in the descriptors or different editions data, utilization of style templates for generat-
of the information objects, and the application of ing versions of VEs, and inclusion of e-learning
different style sheets, it becomes possible to cre- functionality in VEs.
ate multiple versions of the same exhibition that Examples of different system architectures
varies in content, layout, and interface to create have been report in literature. These include the
different versions of VEs for different user groups. virtual exhibition system (VES) by Lim and Foo
The use of style sheets is particularly useful as (2003), virtual archive exhibition system (VAES)
it allows content and structure to be separated by Yang et al. (2007), and the Lanyu Digital Mu-
cleanly so that the information can be rendered seum architecture and proposed framework for an
to yield different look-and-feel interface versions integrated digital museum system by Hong, Chen,
of VEs, thereby enhancing the productivity of Hung, and Hsiang (2005). The salient features
creating VEs and updating existing VEs. A second and approaches of these systems have also been
version of this system was subsequently developed described previously.
(Yang, Chennupati & Foo, 2007) to enhance the Although these and other current VE applica-
authoring aspect by supporting a WYSIWYG tions have adopted different system architecture
interface for VE content layout and addition of for their systems, they tend to share a number of
different information objects types. basic components to support VE functionality.
A similar approach was also adopted by Cruz- Figure 2 attempts to encapsulate a generic system
95
96
VirtualExhibitionUsers
(DifferentversionsofVEsfordifferentusergroups)
VirtualExhibitionTeam
UserProfile
ExhibitionAuthoringSystem Manager
eLearning Metadata Presentation
Authoring Management Manager
System System Information Exhibition Presentation (VEgeneration)
Object Manager Template
Manager Manager DigitalRights
Manager
Figure 2. Generic system architecture for VE development
Learning DatabaseManagementSystem
Management (XML/Relational/ObjectOriented)
System
9
From Digital Archives to Virtual Exhibitions
architecture that can be used as a useful platform of the exhibition pages. This functionality can be
for the development of VE systems in future. The integrated as one system, or split into different
architecture aims to support effectiveness and modules for exhibition page definition, page ele-
efficiency in generating, maintaining, and man- ment selection, and presentation definition. This
aging VEs. It attempts to provide VE exhibition latter approach attempts to clearly separate data
teams with useful tool sets to generate different from structure and layout. Using an information
versions of the same VEs for end users consump- object manager, exhibition pages can incorporate
tion, taking into account users needs and system background music or a background image, use a
constraints of the clients setup in accessing the specific layer of information, and select differ-
exhibition. ent layout settings and font settings during the
The primitive data level contains all the in- authoring stage.
formation objects that can be used for VEs: text, As mentioned previously, different presen-
image, audio, video, 3D graphics, interactive tations are usually achieved through different
media, and so on. These information objects can presentation or style templates selected during
be different versions of digitized artifacts or born this authoring stage. These templates can be
digital objects. When e-learning is considered, predefined for selection, or created and managed
this can also include questions for quizzes for by a more sophisticated presentation template
assessment, and other learning activities. These manager. The exhibition manager defines and
primitive learning and information objects can manages the whole exhibition and combines these
be combined to form larger learning entities various pages together to form the exhibition
through the learning management system (LMS) whose metadata can be stored in the exhibition
or e-learning authoring system (which can either repository for future reference, editing, or updates.
be stand-alone or an integral part of the LMS) to The internally generated VE definition can be
generate stand-alone learning objects which in stored in a suitable data exchange format that is
turn can be aggregated to form larger learning used by the presentation manager, whose role is
modules. These variations of learning content can to render and generate the VE into its final form
be incorporated into VEs as necessary. for use by users.
Each primitive information object is defined Depending on the way the exhibition authoring
by a set of appropriate metadata which is created, system is designed, all the necessary informa-
updated, and maintained through a database man- tion can be made available for the presentation
agement system (DMS). If necessary, a metadata manager to complete the work so that VEs can
management system (MMS) can be used to pro- be generated off-line. Alternatively, VEs can be
vide an interface to the DMS to support various generated on-the-fly to take into account client
metadata operations. This system is not confined system characteristics and end-users character-
to managing primitive information objects; it can istics or preferences. As such, the presentation
also be used to manage metadata for the exhibi- manager may be interfaced with a user profile
tion, presentation templates, and other metadata manager to manage these aspects of system and
which the system uses. user requirements.
The exhibition authoring system forms the System requirements would typically consider
crux of VEs authoring. The VE exhibition team client computer processing capability, network
uses the system to define the exhibition frame- bandwidth, and so on, in order for the content to
work, select information objects (including learn- be adapted as necessary. For example, different
ing objects if these are present in the VE) for page resolution image, sound, and video may be used
contents, and create the layout and look-and-feel as necessary to attain an acceptable quality of
97
From Digital Archives to Virtual Exhibitions
service for the VEs with different constraints; Table 1. Data types, desirable content and fea-
and resource intensive 3D graphics may be elimi- tures of VEs
nated if they cannot be adequately by the client Information Objects
computer. User characteristics would typically Text: ASCII, Unicode
Image: GIF, JPEG, PNG, SVG, BMP, TIFF
consider age, literacy level, motive for using Audio: MP3, MP4, MIDI, SND, WMA, WAV
VE, kind of experience desired, and so on in Video: MPEG, AVI, MOV, WMD, QT
Interactive Media: Java applets, Flash, Shockwave, X3D, VRML
order for the VE to be adapted as necessary. As Metadata: Dublin Core, SPECTRUM
such, the user profile manager may require some Learning Object Metadata: LOM, SCORM
Style/Presentation Templates: XSL
form of interaction and inputs from the user to Database Management System: XML database
complete the information necessary for the VEs Metadata/Internal document representation: XML, XDE
Across server access and information exchange: SOAP (Simple
to be generated. Object Access Protocol)
Another component that might be interfaced to VE Contents
the presentation manager might be a digital rights Comprehensive and well organized contents
Contextual information to ensure understandability by Web visitors
manager to support a digital rights management Online courses (eLearning)
system in the case where VEs are loaned out to Educative interactional games
Engaging multimedia
other institutions and where constraints are placed Frequently asked questions
on the information objects use. Such a system Guest book
User forums (for ideas, comments, critiques, suggestions)
may allow other VEs from other institutions to User resource contributions (e.g., users own photographs, stories,
have access to the primitive information objects oral history)
Online shopping (e.g., souvenirs)
as content for these VEs. Such an attempt to Downloadable content (e.g., wallpaper, screen-savers, free content)
Educational resource center for teacher classroom teaching
either provide free or fee-paying access can help List of useful resources for further research
promote reusability and sharing, and potentially Help (e.g., How to Navigate, Technical support)
enhance the quality of the final VEs. Features
Through the presentation manager and these Different versions for different user groups
High aesthetics and appealing
other interfaces, a stand-alone or many different User-centered styles and interactivity
versions of the same exhibition may be generated at Good navigation design (including possible automatic navigation)
Good browsing and searching capability
one pass. Ultimately, the aim is to generate differ- Use of standards to support interoperability
ent versions of VEs to meet the needs of different Metadata details upon users request (for research)
98
From Digital Archives to Virtual Exhibitions
A list of desirable VE contents and features are Cruz-Lara, S., Chen, B. H., & Hong, J. S. (2002,
also articulated to aid future VE development. November 14-15). Distributed content manage-
The continuing developments of Web 2.0 and ment framework for digital museum exhibitions.
Library 2.0 work, VE researches, wireless, and In Proceedings of EUROPIX Scholars Network
other technological advances are likely to change Conference, Tampere, Finland. Retrieved Febru-
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applications in future.
Farmer, L. (2007). Digital library of informa-
We believe that virtual exhibitions can, and
tion science and technology. Reference Reviews,
are expected to, survive and grow as they stand
21(2), 11.
to yield a rich set of both tangible and intangible
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in this Internet age. The key is to keep close (Defence Scientific Information & Documentation
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Gotz, D., & Mayer-Patel, K. (2005). A frame-
Friendster, Facebook, MySpace, Flickr, and many
work for scalable delivery of digitized spaces.
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Hong, J. S., Chen, B. H., & Hung, S. H. (2004).
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describe attributes of a resource, characterize its
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interaction with these components to form a
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International Conference on Dublin Core and media collection of captured or rendered multi-
Metadata Applications (DC-2007), Singapore dimensional information objects, possibly stored
(pp. 96-105). in distributed networks, designed around a spe-
cific theme, topic concept or idea, and harnessed
with state-of-art technology and architecture to
deliver a user-centered and engaging experience
K ey Terms of discovery, learning, contributing, and being
entertained through its nature of its dynamic
Digital Archives: An information retrieval product and service offerings.
system that stores digitized primary sources
100
Section II
Information Processing and
Content Management
102
Chapter X
Standardization of Terms
Applying Finite-State
Transducers (FST)
Carmen Galvez
University of Granada, Spain
A bs tra ct
This chapter presents the different standardization methods of terms at the two basic approaches of
nonlinguistic and linguistic techniques, and sets out to justify the application of processes based on finite-
state transducers (FST). Standardization of terms is the procedure of matching and grouping together
variants of the same term that are semantically equivalent. A term variant is a text occurrence that is
conceptually related to an original term and can be used to search for information in a text database.
The uniterm and multiterm variants can be considered equivalent units for the purposes of automatic
indexing. This chapter describes the computational and linguistic base of the finite-state approach, with
emphasis on the influence of the formal language theory in the standardization process of uniterms and
multiterms. The lemmatization and the use of syntactic pattern-matching, through equivalence relations
represented in FSTs, are emerging methods for the standardization of terms.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Standardization of Terms Applying Finite-State Transducers (FST)
terms they have in common. For this reason the Jacquemin, 1997). This is done by means of com-
queries and documents are represented as sets of putational procedures known as standardization
characteristics or indexing terms, which can be or conflation algorithms, whose primary goal is
derived directly or indirectly from the text using the normalization of uniterms and multiterms
either a thesaurus or a manual or automatic index- (Galvez, Moya-Anegn, & Solana, 2005). In
ing procedure. In many IRS, the documents are order to avoid the loss of relevant documents, an
indexed by uniterms. However, these may result IRS recognizes and groups variants by means of
ambiguous, and therefore unable to discriminate so-called conflation algorithms. The process of
only the pertinent information. One solution to standardization may involve linguistic techniques
this problem is to work with multiword terms such as the segmentation of words and the elimina-
(or phrases) often obtained through statistical tion of affixes, or lexical searches through thesauri.
methods. The traditional IRS approach is based The latter is concerned with the recognition of
on this type of automatic indexing technique for semantic variants, and remains beyond the scope
representing documentary contents (Croft, Turtle, of the present study.
& Lewis, 1991; Frakes, 1992; Salton, 1989). This chapter focuses on the initial stage of
Matching query terms to documents involves automatic indexing in natural language, that is,
a number of advanced retrieval techniques, and on the process of algorithmically examining the
one problem that has not yet been solved is the indexing terms to generate and control the units
inadequate representation of the two (Strzal- that will then be incorporated as potential entries
kowski, Lin, Wang, & Prez-Carballo, 1999). At to the search file. The recognition and grouping of
the root of this problem is the great variability of lexical and syntactic variants can thus be consid-
the lexical, syntactic, and morphological features ered a process of normalization; when a term does
of a term, variants that cannot be recognized by not appear in a normalized form, it is replaced
simple string-matching algorithms without some with the canonical form. Along these lines, we will
sort of natural language processing (NLP) (Hull, review the most relevant techniques for grouping
1996). It is generally agreed that NLP techniques variants, departing from the premise that confla-
could improve IRS yields; yet it is still not clear tion techniques featuring linguistic devices can
exactly how we might incorporate the advance- be considered normalization techniques, their
ments of computational linguistics into retrieval function being to regulate linguistic variants.
systems. The grouping of morphological vari-
ants would increase the average recall, while the
identification and grouping of syntactic variants the problem of term
is determinant in increasing the accuracy of re- varian ts
trieval. One study about the problems involved
in using linguistic variants in IRS is detailed by During the first stage of automatic indexing in
Sparck Jones and Tait (1984). natural language we encounter a tremendous
The term standardization is the process of number of variants gathered up by the indexing
matching and grouping together variants of the terms. The variants are considered semantically
same term that are semantically equivalent. A similar units that can be treated as equivalents in
variant is defined as a text occurrence that is IRS. To arrive at these equivalencies, standard-
conceptually related to an original term and can ization methods of variants are used, grouping
be used to search for information in text data- the terms that refer to equivalent concepts. The
bases (Jacquemin & Tzoukermann, 1999; Sparck variants can be used to extract information in the
Jones & Tait, 1984; Tzoukermann, Klavans, & textual databases (Jacquemin & Tzoukermann,
103
Standardization of Terms Applying Finite-State Transducers (FST)
1999). Arampatzis, Tsoris, Koster, and Van der dominant language in IR experiments. However,
Weide (1998) identify three main types of varia- with a view to the reduction of uniterm variants,
tions: (a) morphological variation linked to the English features a relatively weak morphology
internal structure of words, by virtue of which a and therefore linguistic techniques are not nec-
term can appear in different forms (e.g., connect, essarily the most suitable ones. To the contrary,
connected, connecting, and connection because English relies largely on the combination
are reduced to connect. which is considered of terms, the linguisitc techniques would indeed
to be identical for all these morphologically and be more effective in merging multiterm variants.
conceptually related terms); (b) lexico-semantic The procedures for the reduction of variants of
variation linked to the semantic proximity of the single-word terms can be classified as: (1) nonlin-
words, so that different terms can represent the guistic techniques, which are stemming methods
same meaning, and multiple meanings can be consisting mainly of suffix stripping, stem-suffix
represented by the same term (e.g., anoxaemia, segmentation rules, similarity measures, and clus-
anoxemia, and breathing problems are re- tering techniques; and (2) linguistic techniques,
duced to breathing disorders); and (c) syntactic which are lemmatization methods consisting of
variation linked to the structure of the multiword morphological analysis. That is, term standard-
terms, where altenative syntactic structures are ization based on the regular relations (RR), or
reduced to a canonical syntactic structure (e.g., equivalence relations, between inflectional forms
constructions that are structurally distinct but and canonical forms, represented in finite-state
semantically equivalent, such as consideration transducers (FSTs).
of these domain properties and considering cer- On the other hand, the multiterms that represent
tain domain properties are conflated to the single concepts are included among what are known as
structure considering domain properties). complex descriptors. Fagan (1989) suggests two
In most cases, the variants are considered types of relationships: syntactic and semantic.
semantically similar units that can be treated First, the syntactic relationships depend on the
as equivalents in IRS (Hull, 1996). To arrive at grammatical structure of these same terms and are
these equivalencies, standardization methods of represented in phrases. The syntactic relationships
variants are used, grouping the terms that refer are of a syntagmatic type, allowing the reduction
to equivalent concepts. Standardization methods of terms used in document representation, and
are applied when the terms are morphologically their contribution in the IRS is to increase aver-
similar. But when the similarity is semantic, lexi- age precision. Second, the semantic relationships
cal search methods are used. To reduce semantic depend on the inherent meaning of the terms
variation, most systems resort to lexical lookup involved and are represented in the classes of a
to relate two words that are completely different thesaurus. The semantic relationships are of a
in form (Paice, 1996). The problems involved in paradigmatic type, allowing us to broaden the
fusing the lexico-semantic variants remain beyond terms used in the representation of the docu-
the scope of the present review. ments, and their purpose in the retrieval systems
is to increase average recall. Multiword terms
are considered to be more specific indicators of
an a pproa ch to document content than are single words, and for
s tan dar diza tion metho ds this reason many methods have been developed
of terms for their identification. Basically there are two
approaches: (1) nonlinguistic techniques, which
Term standardization methods have essentially are statistical methods based on the computation
been developed for English because it is the pre-
104
Standardization of Terms Applying Finite-State Transducers (FST)
of similarity coefficients, association measures, terms, the content identifiers are known as in-
and clustering techniques by means of word and n- dexing terms, keywords or descriptors, and they
gram cooccurrence; and (2) linguistic techniques, are represented by uniterms. Uniterms may on
which are syntactic methods based on syntactic occasion be combined or coordinated in the ac-
pattern-matching according to local grammars tual formulation of the search. When multiword
(LG) represented in finite-state automata (FSA) (a terms or NPs are used for indexing purposes,
LG consists of rigorous and explicit specifications they can include articles, nouns, adjectives, or
of particular structures) and pattern standardiza- different indicators of relationship, all parts of
tion through equivalence relations, established a process known as precoordination (Salton &
between syntactic structure variants and canonical McGill, 1983). In indexing multiword terms, most
syntactic structures, represented in FSTs. extraction systems employ part-of-speech (POS)
The application of standardization techniques taggers, which reflect the syntactic role of a word
to single-word terms is a way of considering the in a sentence, then gather together the words that
different lexical variants as equivalent units for are components of that NP (Brill, 1992; Church,
retrieval purposes. One of the most widely used 1988; Tolle & Chen, 2000; Voutilainen, 1997).
nonlinguistic techniques is that of stemming When standardization algorithms are applied
algorithms, through which the inflectional and to multiword terms, the different variants are
derivational variants are reduced to one canonical grouped according to two general approaches:
form. Stemming or suffix stripping uses a list of term cooccurrence and matching syntactic pat-
frequent suffixes to conflate words to their stem terns. The systems that use cooccurrence tech-
or base form. Two well known stemming algo- niques make term associations through different
rithms for English are the Lovins stemmer (1968) coefficients of similarity. The systems that match
and the Porter stemmer (1980). Another means syntactic patterns carry out a surface linguistic
of dealing with language variability through lin- analysis of certain segments or textual fragments.
guistic methods is the fusion of lexical variants In addition to the surface analysis and the analysis
into lemmas, defined as a set of terms with the of fragments from the corpus, many systems ef-
same stem and, optionally, belonging to the same fectuate a POS category disambiguation process
syntactic category. The process of lemmatization, (Kupiec, 1992). The syntactic variants identified
or morphological analysis of the variants and their through these methods can be grouped, finally,
reduction to controlled forms, relies on lexical in canonical syntactic structures (Schwarz, 1990;
information stored in electronic dictionaries or Sheridan & Smeaton, 1992; Smadja, 1993; Str-
lexicons. One such example is the morphological zalkowski, 1996).
analyzer developed by Karttunen (1983). The recognition and standardization of linguis-
In addition to these approaches, it is possible to tic structures in IRS is an area pertaining to NLP.
group multiword terms within a context, assign- Within the NLP understanding of the mathemati-
ing specific indicators of relationship geared to cal modelling of language, there are two clearly
connect different identifiers, so that noun phrases distinguished conceptions: symbolic models and
(NPs) can be built (Salton & McGill, 1983). NPs probabilistic or stochastic models. These models
are made up of two or more consecutive units, can be traced back to the contribution of Kleene
and the relationships between or among these (1956) regarding finite-state mechanisms and
units are interpreted and codified as endocen- to the work by Shannon and Weaver (1949) on
tric constructions, or modifier-head-structures the application of the probabilistic processes to
(Harris, 1951). When we deal with single-word finite automatas. Chomsky was the first to con-
105
Standardization of Terms Applying Finite-State Transducers (FST)
106
Standardization of Terms Applying Finite-State Transducers (FST)
107
Standardization of Terms Applying Finite-State Transducers (FST)
Figure 2. The FST N01 associates the sets of suffixes of the DELAS entries to the corresponding inflec-
tional codes (s, singular, and p, plural). In order to obtain the inflected forms from the lemmas in the
DELAF entries, the last letter f of the lemma should be eliminated using the delete operator L (Left)
Dictionary of Canonical Forms (DELAS) Dictionary of Inflected Forms (DELAF)
leaf,leaf.N01:s
leaf,N01 leaves,leaf.N01:p
thief,N01 thief,thief.N01:s
wolf,N01 thieves,thief.N01:p
... wolf,wolf.N01:s
wolves,wolf.N01:p
...
FST N01
Lves
p
appearing with certain frequency (Fagan, 1989). model (HMM) (Cutting, Kupiec, Pedersen, & Si-
The subsequent indexing of the documents is bun, 1992; Kupiec, 1992, 1993); the NPtool phrase
based on the identification of the phrases using analyzer (Voutilainen, 1997); or the AZ noun
the lexicon. Salton and McGill (1983) demon- phraser (Tolle & Chen, 2000), which combines
strate that the statistical procedures suffer from tokenizing with POS tagging (Brill, 1993).
certain weaknesses: (1) the selected phrases are Whether general linguistic resources or
very often improperly structured from a syntac- specific tools are used, recognizing the variants
tic standpoint; and (2) the lack of control in the of phrases continues to be a problem. Ideally,
selection of the phrases may lead to errors that programs would be able to reduce all the variants
reduce the efficiency of the IRS. to normalized forms, where each phrase would
To reduce these problems, we need NLP lin- be assigned a clearly defined role reflecting the
guistic methods that can identify the syntactic complexity of the syntactic structure. This net-
structures of these constructions and establish work of nodes and transitions tagged with POS
some sort of control in the selection of multiword categoriessuch as N (noun), AT (article), ORD
terms. The application of NLP to texts involves (ordinal), CARD (cardinal), and DEM (demon-
a sequence of analytical tasks performed in the stratives pronouns)determines sequences in
separate modules that constitute the linguistic the input, and supplies some form of linguistic
architecture of the system. Among available tools information as the output. An entry stream is rec-
for NP extraction are: the category tagger based ognized and transformed into a normalized stream
on Brills (1992) rules; the Xerox morphological if a path is produced from one node, considered
analyzer (Karttunen, Kaplan, & Zaenen, 1992); the initial state, to another node, constituting the
disambiguation devices of POS categories based final state.
on stochastic methods, such as the hidden Markov
108
Standardization of Terms Applying Finite-State Transducers (FST)
To recognize multiword terms through a FST, an equivalence relation between the different
their structures must be described using regular syntactic structures and an unified structure, or
expressions (RE), defined as a metalanguage for standardized NP:
the identification of syntactic patterns. Through
this technique, we use the specification of RE to N = NP01
determine the language formed by syntactic pat- DEM N = NP01
terns. The association of each possible RE with the AT CARD N = NP01
FSA is represented graphically, with the graphic AT ORD N = NP01
editor FSGraph (Silberztein, 1993, 2000). In order
that the FSTs themselves recognize the syntactic
patterns, a previous morphological analysis will F UTURE TREN DS an d
be needed, giving POS tags to the lexical units. A Con cl usion
path between two FST nodes takes place only if
the input chain string belongs to the category with In IRS, the textual documents are habitually trans-
which the transition is tagged. In order to use this formed into document representatives by means
formalism of the IRS as a means of controlling of linguistic structures configured as indexing
NP structures, we propose the transformation of terms, classified essentially as single-word terms
the canonical syntactic forms into identifiers of or uniterms, and multiword terms or multiterms.
enumerated NP which will be implemented as The single-word terms have morphological vari-
groupers of structures (Figure 3). ants that refer to the same meaning, and their
The similar structures can then be transferred grouping would improve average recall. Although
to a FST, where the syntactic patterns will be uniterms may be ambiguous, they usually have
recognized and be standardized into hand-made relatively few variants, and from a computa-
standardized structures. Thus, we considered tional treatment, they are easier to formalize.
that a FST is a method for reducing syntactic In contrast, multiterms are much more specific,
structures, comprising two automata that work but the grouping of their variants is plagued by
in a parallel manner. One automata identifies difficulties in their identification, because IRS
the surface strings, and the other establishes tend to work under the assumption that similar
<CARD>
<DEM>
(Modif )
<N>
(NP01 )
Regular Relation
109
Standardization of Terms Applying Finite-State Transducers (FST)
syntactic structures have similar meanings, and specific applications, such as digital information
should be treated as equivalents, and this is very extraction, bibliometrics, and bioinformatics.
difficult to regulate in view of the variability of The development of finite-state methods may
syntactic structures. also, however, afford advantages that have not
There are morphological, lexical, and syntactic yet been properly explored and evaluated, and
variants that cannot be recognized other than their alternative or complementary use might
through standardization processes of terms. The enhance the management of term variants in
standardization methods most widely evaluated retrieval performance.
on retrieval performance involve stemming, seg-
mentation rules, assessing similarity measures
of pairs of terms, and clustering techniques. In R eferen ces
the linguistic framework, term standardization
methods could be considered equivalence tech- Abney, S. (1991). Parsing by chunks. In R. Ber-
niques, employed to regulate linguistic variants wick, S. Abney, & C. Tenny (Eds.), Principle-
and optimize retrieval performance. The applica- based parsing. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic
tion of NLP tools in IR involves morphological Publishers.
analysis, POS taggers, disambiguation processes,
Arampatzis, A. T., Tsoris, T., Koster, C. H. A.,
lemmatization, and shallow parsing for syntactic
& Van der Weide, P. (1998). Phrase-based in-
pattern-matching. Again we must insist on the
formation retrieval. Information Processing &
influence of language on the results of term stan-
Management, 34(6), 693-707.
dardization. The complexity of terms varies along
with the inflectional structure of a language. One Brill, E. (1992). A simple rule based part-of-speech
interesting study about the morphological phe- tagger. Paper presented at the Third Conference
nomena in IRS can be found detailed by Pirkola on Applied Natural Language Proceedings (pp.
(2001). Roughly speaking, synthetic languages, 152-155). ACM Press.
including French, Spanish, Italian, and the other
Chomsky, N. (1957). Syntactic structures. The
Romance languages, require term inflection to
Hague: Mouton.
indicate term function in the sentence. Yet analytic
languages such as English and German rely on Church, K. (1988). A stochastic parts program
the placement or the combination of terms to indi- and noun phrase parser for unrestricted text. In
cate their function in the sentence. The synthetic Proceedings of the Second Conference on Ap-
languages have many morphologic variants of plied Natural Language Processing (pp. 136-143).
single-word terms, whereas the analytic languages Austin, TX: ACL.
have many syntactic variants of multiword terms.
Croft, W. B., Turtle, H. R., & Lewis, D. D. (1991).
Further study should help clarify the positive and
The use of phrases and structured queries in in-
negative end effects of these factors on retrieval
formation retrieval. In Proceedings of the SIGIR
effectiveness.
1991.
To conclude, data quality and standardization
are complex concepts governed by multiple dimen- Cutting, D., Kupiec, J., Pedersen, J., & Sibun, P.
sions on many variables. Now-a-days, electronic (1992). A practical part-of-speech tagger. Paper
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the standardization of terms based on finite- Natural Language Processing (pp. 133-140).
state techniques would adapt well to many other ACM Press.
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Fagan, J. L. (1989). The effectiveness of a non- and Development in Information Retrieval (pp.
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Lovins, J. B. (1968). Development of a stemming
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Frakes, W. B. (1992), Stemming algorithms. In W. tational Linguistics, 11, 22-31.
B. Frakes & R. Baeza-Yates (Eds.), Information
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Standardization of Terms Applying Finite-State Transducers (FST)
112
113
Chapter XI
Extracting the Essence:
Automatic Text Summarization
Fu Lee Wang
City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
Christopher C. Yang
Drexel University, USA
A bs tra ct
As more information becomes available online, information-overloading results. This problem can be
resolved through the application of automatic summarization. Traditional summarization models consider
a document as a sequence of sentences. Actually, a large document has a well-defined hierarchical struc-
ture. Human abstractors use the hierarchical structure of the document to extract topic sentences. They
start searching for topic sentences from the top level of the document structure downwards. Similarly,
hierarchical summarization generates a summary for a document based on the hierarchical structure and
salient features of the document. User evaluations that have been conducted indicate that hierarchical
summarization outperforms traditional summarization.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Extracting the Essence
Moreover, automatic summarization is indispens- and their relationships, and use graph theories to
able in digital libraries. This chapter will review determine the significance of units. The discourse-
techniques in automatic summarization. We will level approaches model the global structure of the
also introduce hierarchical summarization, which text, and the text units are extracted based on the
is a new summarization technique (Yang & Wang, structure. Generally, the deeper approaches are
2003a, 2003b). more promising to give more informative sum-
The traditional summarization models con- maries. However, the surface-level approaches
sider the source document as a sequence of sen- are proved to be robust and reliable (Goldstein,
tences and ignore the hierarchical structure of the Kantrowitz, Mittal, & Carbonell 1999). They are
document. Similar to the abstracting process of still widely adopted at present.
human professionals, hierarchical summarization The summarization systems can be evaluated
generates a summary by exploring the hierarchi- either by intrinsic or extrinsic evaluation (Sparck-
cal structure and salient features of the document Jones & Galliers, 1996). The intrinsic evaluation
(Yang & Wang, 2003a). Experimental results judges the quality of the summarization by direct
have indicated that hierarchical summarization analysis of the summary (Kupiec, Pedersen, &
is promising and outperforms traditional sum- Chen, 1995). The extrinsic evaluation judges the
marization techniques that do not consider the quality of the summarization based on how it af-
hierarchical structure of documents. fects the completion of some other tasks (Morris,
Kasper, & Adams, 1992). A number of general-
purpose summarization systems have been devel-
B a ckgro un d oped. Experiments have been conducted on these
systems. All the systems identify an upper bound
In general, automatic summarization is rep- for the precision of the summarization system,
resented by a three-stage framework, that is, the performance of the system grows fast with
representation of source document, extraction of addition of extraction features, and they reach
information, and generation of summary (Sparck- their upper bound after three or four extraction
Jones, 1999). Most of the current research work features (Kupiec et al., 1995).
focuses on the second stage. Traditionally, the
summarization system calculates the significance
of sentences to the document based on the salient Aut oma tic S UMMARIZA TION
features of the document (Edmundson, 1969;
Luhn, 1958). The most significant sentences are Related research has shown that human abstrac-
then extracted and concatenated as a summary. tors use readymade text passages from a source
The compression ratio of the summary can be document for summarization (Endres-Nigge-
adjusted to specify the amount of information meyer, 2002). Eighty percent of the sentences in
to be extracted. A lot of extraction features have the man-made abstracts are closely matched with
been proposed. sentences in the source documents (Kupiec et
The extraction approaches are usually clas- al., 1995). As a result, selection of representative
sified into three major groups according to the sentences is considered as a good approximation
level of processing in the linguistic space (Mani of summarization (Aminin & Gallinari, 2002).
& Maybury, 1999). The surface-level approaches The existing automatic text summarization is
use salient features of a document to extract the mainly the selection of sentences from the source
important information. The entity-level approach- document based on their significances in the docu-
es build an internal representation for text units ment using statistical techniques and linguistic
114
Extracting the Essence
analyses (Aminin & Gallinari, 2002; Luhn, 1958). appropriate heading (Baxendale, 1958).
The statistical approach of selection of sentences The heading feature is very similar to the
is conducted based on the salient features of the thematic feature. A heading glossary is a list
document. The thematic, location, heading, and consisting of all the terms in headings and
cue features are the most widely used extraction subheadings. Positive scores are assigned
features. to the heading glossary, where the heading
terms will be assigned a score relatively
The thematic feature is first identified by prime to the subheading terms. The heading
Luhn (1958). Edmundson (1969) proposes to score of a sentence is calculated by the sum
assign each term a thematic score based on of heading score of its constituent terms.
its term frequency. The thematic score of a The cue approach, proposed by Edmundson
sentence is calculated as the sum of thematic (1969), is based on the hypothesis that the
score of its constituent terms. In informa- probable relevance of a sentence is affected
tion retrieval, absolute term frequency by by the presence of pragmatic words such as
itself is considered as less useful than term significant, impossible, and hardly. A
frequency normalized to the document cue dictionary is preconstructed to identify
length and term frequency in the collection. the cue phrases, which comprise of three
As a result, the term frequency, inverse subdictionaries: (i) bonus words that are
document frequency (TFIDF) method is positively relevant; (ii) stigma words that
proposed to calculate the thematic score of are negatively relevant; and (iii) null words
keywords (Salton & Buckley, 1988). Most that are irrelevant. The cue score of sentence
recent summarization systems use TFIDF is computed as the sum of the cue scores of
score to compute the thematic scores. constituent terms.
The location feature is proposed based on
the hypotheses that representative sentences Most of the existing summarization sys-
tend to occur at the beginning or in the end tems choose a hybrid combination of different
of documents or paragraphs. Edmundson extraction features. The systems calculate the
(1969) proposes to assign positive scores significance score of a sentence for each feature
to sentences according to their position in separately. The sentence score is calculated based
the document. There are several functions on a weighted sum of feature scores (Edmundson,
proposed to calculate the location score 1969; Lam-Adesina & Jones, 2001). The sentences
of sentences; they commonly assign the with a significance score higher than a threshold
sentences at the beginning or ending of value are selected. However, it has been proved
documents with relatively higher location that the weighting of extraction features does not
scores. Alternatively, the preference of sen- have any substantial effect on average precision of
tence locations can be stored in a list, and summarization (Lam-Adesina & Jones, 2001).
the sentences will be selected based on their
ordering in the list (Lin & Hovy, 1997).
The heading feature is proposed based on HIERAR CHI CAL S UMMARIZA TION
the hypothesis that the author conceives
the heading as circumscribing the subject A large document has a hierarchical structure
matter of the document. When the author with multiple levels, chapters, sections, subsec-
partitions the document into major sections, tions, paragraphs, and sentences. At the lower
the author summarizes it by choosing the abstraction level, more specific information can
115
Extracting the Essence
be obtained. Related studies of human abstraction is also considered (Yang & Wang 2003a, 2003b).
have shown that the human abstractors extract However, the traditional features cannot fully
the topic sentences according to the document utilize the hierarchical structure. The features
structure from top level to low level until they are modified to integrate with the hierarchical
have extracted sufficient information (Endres- structure.
Niggemeyer, Maier, & Sigel, 1995).
Advanced summarization techniques take Among the thematic features, the TFIDF
document structure into consideration to compute score is the most widely used approach;
the probability that a sentence should be included however, it does not take into account the
in the summary, but most traditional summariza- document structure in the traditional sum-
tions consider the source document as a sequence marization. Most researchers assume that
of sentences and ignore its structure. By contrast, the score of a term remains the same over
hierarchical summarization generates a summary the entire document. However, Hearst (1993)
based on the hierarchical structure (Yang & Wang, claims that a term should carry different
2003a). Hierarchical summarization was proposed scores at different locations of a full-length
to simulate the abstracting process of human document. For example, a term is consid-
professionals. Experimental results have shown ered more important in a range-block than
that hierarchical summarization is a promising other range-blocks if the term appears in the
summarization technique. range-block more frequently than others.
Hierarchical summarization partitions the In hierarchical summarization, the TFIDF
original document into range-blocks according of a term in a range-block is defined as
to its document structure. The document is then proportional to the term frequency within
transformed into a hierarchical tree structure, a range-block and inversely proportional to
where each range-block is represented by a node. the frequency of the range-block containing
The important information is captured from the the term.
source document by exploring the hierarchical Traditional summarizations assume that the
structure and the salient features of the document. location score of a sentence is static, however,
The system calculates the number of sentences to the hierarchical summarization calculates
be extracted according to the compression ratio. the location score based on which document
The number of sentences is assigned to the root level we are looking at. For example, if we
of the tree as the quota of sentences. The system consider the first and second sentences on
calculates the significance score of each node by the same paragraph at the paragraph level,
summing up the sentence scores of all sentences the first sentence is more important to the
under the nodes. The quota of sentences is allo- paragraph, however, the difference is in-
cated to child-nodes by propagation, that is, the significant if we are looking at the whole
quota of a parent node is shared by its child-nodes document. In hierarchical summarization,
directly proportional to their significance scores. the location score for a range-block is
The quota is then iteratively allocated to child- calculated by traditional methods, and the
nodes of child-nodes until the quota allocated is sentence quota is adjusted accordingly.
less than a threshold value and the node can be At a different abstraction level, some head-
transformed to some key sentences by traditional ings should be hidden and some are empha-
summarization methods. sized. For example, only the document head-
In hierarchical summarization, the traditional ing is considered if we look at the document
features are adopted and the hierarchical structure level. However, if we look at the chapter
116
Extracting the Essence
level, we consider the document heading and years. The discourse structure of a text document
chapter heading, and we consider the chapter is the explicit and implicit relationship between
heading as more important since the main sentences, groups of sentences, and elements
concept of this chapter is represented by the within a sentence (Kintsch & van Dijk, 1983;
chapter heading. Therefore, the significance Rumelhart, 1975). Discourse-level summarization
of the heading is inversely proportional to approaches model the global structure of the text,
its distance from the sentence. Propagation and its relation to communicative goals. Some
of fractal value (Koike, 1995) is a promising researches focus on utilization of discourse struc-
approach to calculate the heading score for ture in automatic summarization. For instance,
a sentence. Teufel and Moens (1998) present a summarization
When human abstractors extract the technique based on rhetorical structure. The text
sentences, they pay more attention to the units can be extracted according to their rhetorical
range-block when heading contains some role. In general, the summarization techniques
bonus words such as conclusion, since at discourse level can produce a summary with
they consider it as a more important part better quality (Teufel & Moens, 1998). However,
and more sentences are extracted. The cue the discourse-level approaches require an in-
feature of a heading sentence is classified as depth knowledge of linguistics, therefore they are
a rhetorical feature (Teufel & Moens, 1998). difficult to be implemented. Moreover, the time
Hierarchical summarization considers the complexity for analysis of discourse structure
cue feature not only at sentence level. Given for a text is high. They have been tested only in
a document tree, it examines the heading small-scale experiment.
of each range-block and adjusts their quota Traditional summarization techniques
accordingly. This procedure can be repeated generate a covering summary, which extracts
iteratively until sentence level. all the important information from the source
document. The information retrieval technique
To illustrate the feasibility of the model, ex- has been combined with the statistical learning
periments of hierarchical summarization have algorithms and user customization. User directed
been conducted (Yang & Wang, 2003a, 2003b). summarization is another trend in automatic
The hierarchical summarization model achieves summarization (Gong & Liu, 2001; Sanderson,
85.05% precision on average and up to a maximum 1998). A user can specify the information needed
of 91.25% precision, while the traditional sum- to be summarized by giving a query. The sum-
marization without considering the hierarchical marization system extracts specific information
structure of documents achieves 67.00% preci- from the source document based on the query, and
sion on average and up to a maximum of 77.50% generates a summary to answer the query. This
precision. This demonstrates that the hierarchical approach allows the user to control the contents
summarization has outperformed the traditional of the summary.
summarization without considering the hierarchi- Access to the Internet through mobile phones
cal structure of documents. and other handheld devices has been growing
significantly in recent years. The convenience
of handheld devices allows information access
R e cen t DE VELO PMEN T IN without geographical limitations. However, these
Aut oma tic S UMMARIZA TION devices have their shortcomings that restrict their
capability and limit the wireless access to infor-
The automatic summarization at the discourse mation. Automatic summarization of documents
level is one of the new research directions in recent
117
Extracting the Essence
can partially solve the problem (Yang & Wang, summarization provides an overview of a topic
2003b). It provides an ideal tool for visualizing based on a set of topic-related documents. We can
documents on handheld devices. In particular, understand a topic by reading the topic summary.
summarization of a Web page on a mobile device The research of automatic summarization for
has been well studied (White, Jose, & Ruthven, multiple documents is very important.
2001, Buyukkokten, Kaljuvee, Garcia-Molina, There may be a large number of documents
Paepcke, & Winograd, 2002). related to a topic. It is extremely difficult to
Recently, the research of automatic summari- summarize a large set of documents without a
zation has also been extended to summarization proper organization of documents. Techniques
of multimedia documents, that is, summarization have been developed to group documents into
of spoken document (Zechner & Waibel, 2000), document sets before summarization (Nobata,
video (Vasconcelos & Lippman, 1998), figures Sekine, Uchimoto, & Isahara, 2003). Related
(Futrelle, 1999), and so forth. Techniques have studies have shown that the hierarchical sum-
been developed to extract the key features of marization of multiple documents organized in
multimedia documents, and their summaries can a hierarchical structure significantly outperforms
be generated by extracting the key features. other multidocument summarization systems
without using the hierarchical structure (Wang
& Yang, 2006; Yang & Wang, 20036). A large
CON CL USION an d Futu re set of documents can be organized in a hierarchi-
tren ds cal structure by different classifications. Future
research will focus on the design of algorithms
The hierarchical summarization generates the that discover the document structure from a large
summary of a document by a recursive algorithm set of related documents and organize the set of
based on the document structure. Thematic fea- documents in a hierarchical structure to give an
tures, location features, heading features, and effective information organization.
cue features are adopted. An experimental result
has shown that the hierarchical summarization
can produce summary with good quality. The R eferen ces
hierarchical summarization is developed based
on the statistical analysis and the hierarchical Aminin, M., & Gallinari, P. (2002). The use of
structure of documents. It requires no special unlabeled data to improve supervised learning for
domain knowledge, and is easy to be implemented. text summarization. In Proceedings of the 25th
On the other hand, the time complexity for hier- Annual International ACM SIGIR Conference
archical summarization is low. Hence, it can be (pp. 105-112). ACM.
utilized for summarization for large documents
Baxendale, P. B. (1958). Machine-made index for
(Yang & Wang, in press). The hierarchical sum-
technical literature: An experiment. IBM Journal
marization is a promising technique in automatic
of Research and Development, 2(4), 354-361.
summarization.
Automatic summarization provides useful Buyukkokten, O., Kaljuvee, O., Garcia-Molina,
tools to support fast decision making. Research H., Paepcke, A., & Winograd, T. (2002). Efficient
of automatic summarization has been extended Web browsing on handheld devices using page
to multidocument summarization. In information and form summarization. ACM Transactions on
retrieval, most systems return a set of related docu- Information Systems, 20(1), 82-115.
ments in response to a query. The multidocument
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Edmundson, H. P. (1969). New methods in au- 18th Annual International ACM SIGIR Conference
tomatic extraction. Journal of the ACM, 16(2), (pp. 68-73). ACM.
264-285.
Lam-Adesina, M., & Jones, G. J. F. (2001). Apply-
Endres-Niggemeyer, B. (2002). SimSum: An ing summarization techniques for term selection
empirically founded simulation of summarizing. in relevance feedback. In Proceeding of the 24th
Information Processing & Management, 36(4), Annual International ACM SIGIR Conference
659-682. (pp. 1-9). ACM.
Endres-Niggemeyer, B., Maier, E., & Sigel, A. Lin, C. Y., & Hovy, E. H. (1997). Identifying topics
(1995). How to implement a naturalistic model of by position. In Proceedings of the Applied Natural
abstracting: Four core working steps of an expert Language Processing Conference (pp. 283-290).
abstractor. Information Processing & Manage- San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann.
ment, 31(5), 631-674.
Luhn, H. P. (1958). The automatic creation of
Futrelle, R. (1999). Summarization of diagram literature abstracts. IBM Journal of Research and
in document. In I. Mani & M. Maybury (Eds.), Development, 2(2), 159-165.
Advance in automatic summarization (pp. 403-
Mani, I., & Maybury, M. (1999). Advances in
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automatic text summarization. Cambridge, MA:
Goldstein, J., Kantrowitz, M., Mittal, V., & Car- MIT Press.
bonell J. (1999). Summarizing text documents:
Morris, G., Kasper, G. M., & Adams, D. A. (1992).
Sentence selection and evaluation metrics. In
The effect and limitation of automated text con-
Proceedings of the 22nd Annual International
densing on reading comprehension performance.
ACM SIGIR Conference (pp.121-128). ACM.
Information System Research, 3(1), 17-35.
Gong, Y., & Liu, X. (2001). Generic text sum-
Nobata, C., Sekine, S., Uchimoto, K., & Isahara,
marization using relevance measure and latent
H. (2003). A summarization system with catego-
semantic analysis. In Proceedings of the 24th
rization of document sets. Paper presented at the
Annual International ACM SIGIR Conference
Third NTCIR Workshop.
(pp. 19-25). ACM.
Rumelhart, D. E. (1975). Notes on a schema
Hearst, M. A. (1993). Subtopic structuring for
for stories. In D. G. Bobrown & A. M. Collins
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(Eds.), Representation and understanding: Stud-
the 16th Annual International ACM SIGIR Con-
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Kintsch, W., & van Dijk, T. A. (1983). Strate-
Salton, G., & Buckley, C. (1988). Term-weighting
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Koike, H. (1995). Fractal views: A fractal-based
Sanderson, M. (1998). Accurate user directed
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Kupiec, J., Pedersen J., & Chen, F. (1995). A train- 98) (pp. 45-51).
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Sparck-Jones, K. (1999). Automatic summarising: Zechner, K., & Waibel, A. (2000, May). Minimiz-
Factors and directions. In I. Mani & M. Maybury ing word error rate in textual summaries of spoken
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Automatic Summarization: A technique
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where a computer program summarizes a text.
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The existing automatic text summarization is
Symposium on Intelligent Text Summarization
mainly the selection of sentences from the source
(pp. 89-97), Menlo Park, CA: AAAI.
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Vasconcelos, N., & Lippman, A. (1998, October). ment using statistical techniques and linguistic
Bayesian modeling of video editing and structure: analyses.
Semantic features for video summarization and
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Extraction Feature: Most summarization
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Proceedings of 9th International Conference on
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White, R., Jose, J. M., & Ruthven, I. (2001). Query- thematic feature, location feature, background
based Web page summarization: A task-oriented feature, cue feature, and so forth.
evaluation. In Proceedings of the 24th Annual
Extrinsic Evaluation: Summarization
International ACM SIGIR Conference on Re-
evaluation methods which judge the quality of the
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(SIGIR2001), New Orleans (pp. 412-413).
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Yang, C. C., & Wang, F. L. (in press). Hierarchi-
Heading Feature: An extraction feature which
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calculates the significance of a sentence based on
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the presence of heading or subheading words in
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Hierarchical Summarization: A document
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Yang, C. C., & Wang, F. L. (2003b). Fractal sum- exploring the hierarchical structure and salient
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Extracting the Essence
maries by direct analyses in terms of some set Thematic Feature: An extraction feature
of norms. which calculates the significance of a term to a
document based on the properties of the terms.
Location Feature: An extraction feature
which calculates the significance of a sentence
based on the position of the sentence within the
document.
121
122
Chapter XII
Metadata Interoperability
K. S. Chudamani
JRDTML, IISc, Bangalore-12, India
H. C. Nagarathna
JRDTML, IISc, Bangalore-12, India
A bs tra ct
Metadata is data about data. Metadata originated in the context of digital information in databases.
This chapter looks at the various standards available for digital document description in the context of
bibliographic databases. It also describes the variety of metadata associated with such systems. Some
of the metadata standards examined are MARC21, Dublin Core (DC), and Libsys. The second part
examines metadata interoperability and mapping among these standards.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Metadata Interoperability
Day, metadata is defined literally as data about Metadata used with one application can be
data. The term is normally understood to mean used for several different purposes. Metadata in
structured data about resources that can be used a library catalogue can be used to provide a va-
to help support a wide range of operations. These riety of search options for the retrieval of items.
might include, for example, resource description Now-a-days, its main focus is on information
and discovery, and the management of information retrieval and improving retrieval on the Internet.
resources and their long-term preservation. The Dublin Core (http://www.dublincore.org/) is
Interoperable systems allow the exchange of currently based on a set of 15 data elements and
information and sharing of resources. They focus can be used as a markup language in hypertext
on the storage of data in a standard format. The markup language (HTML), extensible markup
role of metadata in facilitating interoperability can language (XML), or RDF.
be seen in number of contexts, such as: Metadata is required to allow users to search
on a number of fields, such as author, title, and
1. e-governance; description. These facilities are useful not only for
2. electronic record management; end users but also to the editorial team in order
3. educational technology; and to collate statistics needed to generate reports.
4. library management systems. Storing metadata in a certain format and then
converting it into HTML <META> tags using
Information about a resource needs to be em- programs or scripts is meant to make the metadata
bedded in the database. The catalogue record used conversion into other formats (such as XHTML)
for library management is the basis for identifying by altering the script.
individual items and their management. Machine Metadata is key in making resources acces-
readable cataloguing (MARC21) covers all kinds sible in the future. There are three main types
of library materials and is used in automated of metadata:4
library management systems in the Western librar-
ies. Although most library management systems 1. Descriptive metadata: These metadata
can import and export data in MARC21 (http:// describe a resource for purposes such as dis-
www.loc.gov/marc/bibliographic/ebcdmain.html) covery and identification. They can include
format, they usually have their own internal elements such as title, abstract, author, and
metadata standards. The availability of MARC keywords
records stimulated the development of searchable 2. Structural metadata: This type of metadata
electronic catalogues. The user benefited from indicate how compound objects are put to-
wider access to searchable catalogues, and later to gether, for example, how pages are ordered
a union catalogue, which allowed them to search to form chapters
several library catalogues at once. 3. Administrative metadata: The adminis-
Structured information is used to describe, trative metadata gather information to help
explain, and locate resources. According to manage a resource, such as when and how
Harrasowitzs home page on e-journal resource it was created, file type, and other techni-
guide,5 metadata functionality goes beyond the cal information. It also collects copyright
cataloguing functions of description and access information, such as who can accesses it.
to include content rating for filtering out sensitive There are several subsets of cataloguers who
or objectionable materials, the linking of physi- make decisions about whether a catalogue
cally separate information objects, and descrip- record should be created for a whole set of
tion of intellectual property rights of electronic volumes or for each particular volume in the
publications.
123
Metadata Interoperability
124
Metadata Interoperability
125
Metadata Interoperability
126
Metadata Interoperability
Table 1.
Dublin Core Libsys CONSER MARC21
Title Title Title (245) 245 : Title
Publishers Pub Pub (260) 260 : Pub
Combined with Pub Place Combined with pub Combined with pub
Country Country Country (combined with 257can be used
pub)
Location/URL Manual: Yes Yes (Electronic) (856) 856 (Electronic location)
Frequency Frequency (310) 310
Starting Date: Manual Yes (Electronic) (362) 362 (Starting electronic pub)
Language Language Language 041
(Lang)
Alphe code Not available 030
Control Number Control Number Control Number (010) 010
ISSN ISSN ISSN (022) 022
Description Available in separate file Available in separate file 841
Serials catalogers will soon be in position to format, as shown below. Some records were re-
utilize all the computer file-based bibliographic ceived in Excel format also.
record elements. CONSER has taken a major step
in developing policies for these new elements with 4500001000900000005001700009006001900
the publication. 02600700150004500800410006090600450010
Given in Table 1 is a mapping of journal de- 19250044001469550238001900100017004280
scription interoperable metadata between DC, 2000280044504000180047304200080049105
Libsys, CONSER, and MARC21 00022004990820015005212450117005362600
0430065330000450069649000540074150400
Metadata Interoperability for Books 5100795650003800846650003700884700002
60092170000160094783000480096385601170
A detailed metadata mapping for books in DC, 1011-13084766-20060728205444.0-m d -cr
MARC21, Libsys, and UNIMARC has been pro- cn ---aucaa-030206s2003 flua sb 001 0 eng
vided in an article by Chudamani and Nagarathna - a7bcbccorignewd1eocipf20gy-gencatlg-0
from the Planner 2006 workshop. Here a section aacquireb2 shelf copiesxpolicy default- apc22
of the mapping for two metadata elements, namely 2003-02-06 RUSH to ASCDcjf05 2003-02-11
author and title, is provided. to subj.djf02 2003-02-11 to slejf12 2003-02-11
Further, an experiment was conducted at to Deweyaaa07 2003-02-12aps09 2003-04-15
JRDTML to import e-book metadata into Libsys. 1 copy recd., to CIP ver.fpv10 2003-04-24
A description of the process involved is provided CIP ver to BCCDacopy 2 added jf16 to BCCD
here. The original record was received in MARC 05-15-03- a 2002041783- a0849316847 (alk.
127
Metadata Interoperability
Table 2. Mapping from Dublin Core to UNIMARC, MARC21, and LIBSYS for title and author
Dublin Core UNIMARC MARC21 LIBSYS
Title 245 title proper statement Title, Sub title, Alternate title,
200 $a Title Proper 210 abbreviated title Uniform title
200 $e Other Title Information 222 key title
(for subtitle) 240 uniform title
517 $a Other Variant Titles 242 collective uniform title
(for other titles) 246 varying form of title
247 former title
Creator 700 $a Personal Name 100 main entry personal name Main entry
- Primary Intellectual 110 main entry corporate name Corporate body., and so forth
Responsibility, or if more than 111 main entry meeting name Personal author
one: 130 main entry uniform title title
701 $a Personal Name
- Alternative Intellectual
Responsibility
710 $a Corporate Body
Name - Primary Intellectual
Responsibility, or:
711 $a Corporate Body Name
- Alternative Intellectual
Responsibility
200 $f First Statement of
Responsibility
Figure 1.
128
Metadata Interoperability
Figure 2.
129
Metadata Interoperability
Chudamani, K. S. (2005). Metadata and content Haynes, D. (2004). Metadata for information
management. Srels Journal of Information Man- management and retrieval. London: Facet Pub-
agement, 2, 205-209. lishing.
Chudamani, K. S., & Nagarathna, H. C. (2006). IEEE. (1990). Glossary. Retrieved August 17,
Interoperability between Dublin Core, UNI- 2008, from http://www.sei.cmu.edu/str/indexes/
MARC, MARC21, with AACR2R as the standards glossary/interoperability.html
frameworks for cataloging in the digital environ-
http://www.harrassowitz.de/top_resources/ejres-
ment. Paper presented at Planner INFLIBNET,
guidestandards.html
Silchar, India.
www.libsys.co.in/home.html
130
131
Chapter XIII
Semantic Association
Analysis in Ontology-Based
Information Retrieval
Payam M. Barnaghi
University of Nottingham, Malaysia
Wei Wang
University of Nottingham, Malaysia
Jayan C. Kurian
University of Nottingham, Malaysia
A bs tra ct
The Semantic Web is an extension to the current Web in which information is provided in machine-pro-
cessable format. It allows interoperable data representation and expression of meaningful relationships
between the information resources. In other words, it is envisaged with the supremacy of deduction
capabilities on the Web, that being one of the limitations of the current Web. In a Semantic Web frame-
work, an ontology provides a knowledge sharing structure. The research on Semantic Web in the past
few years has offered an opportunity for conventional information search and retrieval systems to mi-
grate from keyword to semantics-based methods. The fundamental difference is that the Semantic Web
is not a Web of interlinked documents; rather, it is a Web of relations between resources denoting real
world objects, together with well-defined metadata attached to those resources. In this chapter, we first
investigate various approaches towards ontology development, ontology population from heterogeneous
data sources, semantic association discovery, semantic association ranking and presentation, and social
network analysis, and then we present our methodology for an ontology-based information search and
retrieval. In particular, we are interested in developing efficient algorithms to resolve the semantic as-
sociation discovery and analysis issues.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Semantic Association Analysis in Ontology-Based Information Retrieval
132
Semantic Association Analysis in Ontology-Based Information Retrieval
these languages do not adequately provide a query (Guha, 2003) and KIM (Kiryakov et al., 2005).
mechanism to discover the complex and implicit The next section describes related work to se-
relationships between the resources. Such complex mantic association analysis, and then discusses
relationships are called semantic associations the community-based approach to discover and
(Aleman-Meza, Halaschek-Wiener, Sahoo, Sheth, analyze semantic associations.
& Arpinar, 2005; Sheth, Aleman-Meza, Arpinar,
Bertram, Warke, Ramakrishnan, et al., 2005). The S emantic-E nhanced S earch
process of discovering semantic associations is
also referred to as semantic analytics. This can TAP is an infrastructure for sites to publish
be viewed as a special class of search applications structured data, and for applications to consume
which facilitates obtaining decidable knowledge this data. The main ontology in TAP is a broad
from massive interconnected data resources. This knowledge base containing concepts such as
process assists information analysis and provides people (e.g., musicians, athletes), organizations,
new and unexpected insights to information search places, and products, and a set of properties. TAP
and retrieval (Aleman-Meza, Halaschek, Arpinar, improves search results by utilizing semantic-en-
& Sheth, 2003). hanced and context-based approaches. It provides
a simple mechanism to help the semantic search
module to interpret the denotation of a query.
RELA TE D WORK This is important because one needs to deal with
concepts ambiguity in the real world based on
The successful development of the Semantic Web semantics rather than focusing only on the syntax.
applications depends on availability and adoption It also enhances the search results by consider-
of ontologies and semantic data (Guha, 2003; ing search context and exploring closely related
Kiryakov, Popov, Terziev, Manov, & Ognyanoff, resources within a specified context.
2005; Shadbolt, Hall, & Berners-Lee, 2006). In the KIM introduces a holistic architecture of
last few years different thesauruses, ontologies, semantic annotation, indexing, and retrieval of
and metadata structures have been introduced, documents. Its aim is to provide fully automatic
such as friend of a friend (FOAF6) ontology, the annotation methods using information extraction
GENE ontology7, NCI meta thesaurus (Golbeck, methods. The annotation framework is built upon
Fragoso, Hartel, Hendler, Oberthaler, & Parsia, a semantic repository which consists of two major
2003), and Cyc ontology8. A number of works have components: a light-weight upper level ontology
been carried out to apply ontology-based informa- and a broadly-populated knowledge base. The
tion search and retrieval in various domains (e.g., ontology includes generic classes representing
Swoogle ontology search engine [Ding, 2004], real world entities across various domains, such
TAP generic semantic search framework [Guha, as people, location, organization, as well as their
2003], semantic annotation in KIM (Kiryakov et attributes and relationships. The advantage of
al., 2005), semantics-enhanced multimedia pre- using light-weight ontology is that it is easier to
sentation generation [Falkovych, Werner, & Nack, understand, build, verify, maintain, and get con-
2004; Rutledge, Alberink, Brussee, Pokraev, van sensus upon. The entity annotation for an object in
Dieten, & Veenstra, 2003], and the semantic-based KIM includes both a reference to its most specific
multimedia search engine Squiggle ]Celino, Valle, entity type in the ontology, and a reference to its
Cerzza, & Turati, 2006]). The following section entity description in the knowledge base. KIM
reviews two representative domain independent improves search precision and recall by index-
semantic search infrastructures, that is, TAP ing and searching documents using the semantic
133
Semantic Association Analysis in Ontology-Based Information Retrieval
annotation. Compared to traditional information semantic association discovery and analysis also
search and retrieval approaches, semantic search plays a significant role in business intelligence,
and ontology-based information retrieval methods antimoney laundry, gene relationship discovery,
demonstrate several salient advantages, such as medicine, and geographical systems.
being able to incorporate query denotation, con- Sheth et al. (2005) discuss an algorithm de-
text-based exploration, enhanced data integration, veloped to process different kinds of semantic
query expansion, and consequently better recall associations using graph traversal algorithms at
and precision. the ontology level. The relationships between two
entities in the results of a semantic query could
S emantic A ssociation A nalysis be established through one or more semantic as-
sociations. In this case the semantic associations
The conventional- and semantic-supported search could be represented by a graph which shows the
approaches typically respond to user queries by connection between entities. It is also important
returning a collection of links to various resources. to process and prioritize the semantic associa-
Users have to verify each document to find out the tion based on user preferences and the context
information they need; in most cases the answer of search. There are also ranking algorithms
is a combination of information from different proposed based on different metrics to grade
resources. Relations are at the heart of Semantic the semantic association (Anyanwu et al., 2005;
Web (Anyanwu, Maduko, & Sheth, 2005). Focus- Barnaghi & Kareem, 2007).
ing on Semantic Web technologies, the emphasis Baziz, Boughanem, Pasi, and Prade (2006)
of search will shift from searching for documents compare the classical keyword-based approach
to finding facts and practical knowledge. Relation with the concept-based approach for informa-
searching is a special class of search methods tion retrieval, and propose a fuzzy approach for
which is concerned with representing, discover- query evaluation. The target documents and user
ing, and interpreting complex relationships or con- queries are conceptually represented by means
nections between resources. As the development of weighted structures, and they are associated
of semantic-enhanced and community-based Web to an ontology. The documents and queries are
search continues, more ontologies are developed compared with the fuzzy model based on the
and used across the domains. This also leads to computation of degree of inclusion of features.
deployment and support of more semantic data The method holds its importance since the docu-
in different systems and applications. One can ments are retrieved based on conceptually-related
expect that connections between entities on documents, even if it does not contain weighted
Semantic Web will become more complex and query keywords explicitly.
obscure. However, in some applications it is ex- There are also ongoing researches to incorpo-
tremely important to have the ability to discover rate community interests and similarities amongst
those distant and obscure connections between different groups and individuals to provide en-
resources (Sheth et al., 2005). There are some hanced search results. The next section discusses
existing work which have demonstrated utilizing the main issues of a community-based approach
semantic association analysis in different applica- for a Web search.
tions, for example, detection of conflict of inter-
est (COI) (Aleman-Meza et al., 2005), detection S ocial N etwork A nalysis
of insider threat (Sheth et al., 2005), terrorism
identification and flight security (Aleman-Meza A social network indicates the ways in which
et al., 2005; Sheth et al., 2005), and so forth. The nodes (e.g., individual or organization) are con-
134
Semantic Association Analysis in Ontology-Based Information Retrieval
nected through various relationships to each other. In recent years, the Semantic Web community
The social network analysis, in this context, is a has been very active in promoting different ap-
way of processing and interpreting the nodes and plications of the proposed technologies in various
relationships to realize mutual interests and con- application domains. The above discussed work
nection between different groups and individuals outlines examples of several ongoing researches on
in a community. Several studies have been car- semantic-enhanced and ontology-based informa-
ried outmostly focusing on graph theory and tion search and retrieval. They demonstrate the
statistical methodsto analyze relationships and significance of semantic association analysis in
connections in a social network. The Semantic different applications.
Web technologies support social network analysis
by providing explicit representation of the social
network information (Ding, 2004). In recent years PRO CESSES AN D COM PONEN TS
some social network studies have been conducted OF SEMAN TIC ANALY TICS
to adapt Semantic Web technologies in the social
network research (Ding, 2004; Ding, Zhou, Finin, The semantic association analysis consists of
& Joshi, 2005; Matsuo, Hamasaki, Nakamura, several key processes and components. We dis-
Nishimura, Hasida, Takeda, et al., 2006; Mika, cuss ontology development, data set construc-
2005). Flink (Mika, 2005) is one of the early tion, semantic association discovery, semantic
works in this area that employs Semantic Web association ranking, results presentation, and
technologies for reasoning personal information performance evaluation in the following sec-
extracted from heterogeneous sources, including tions, respectively. However, there are also other
Web pages, e-mails, publication archives, and important issues such as entity disambiguation,
FOAF profiles. It presents the professional work data set maintenance, and so forth. As our focus
and social connectivity of researchers in the Se- is to describe semantic association identification
mantic Web area. In a similar context, Ding et al. and interpretation, we will not discuss these is-
(2005) performed a network study based on the sues in this chapter.
foaf:knows relation in a dataset constructed from
online FOAF documents using Swoogle and other O ntology Development
tools. The study primarily concentrates on basic
graph features of the extracted social network. The creation of an ontology has been made easier
The authors state that the social network could because of the availability of some open source
be an implicit trust network to support applica- ontology creation tools like protg,9 ontology
tions such as knowledge outsourcing and online libraries such as DAML10 and SchemaWeb,11 and
communities. search engines (e.g., Swoogle12). For example, if
Matsuo et al. (2006) utilize extraction, analysis, one wants to create an ontology about countries,
and integration of multiple social networks from the creator does not need to create it from scratch,
communities with similar characteristics. The instead, the creator may find an existing ontology
work indicates the efficiency and significance of (or one in a similar context) through browsing
the research for locating experts and authorities, the ontology library or using the ontology search
calculating trustworthiness of a person, detecting engines. Further more, existing authoritative
relevance and relations among people (e.g., COI ontologies or vocabularies such as FOAF and
detection), promoting communication, informa- Dublin Core13 also contribute to the ontology
tion exchange and discussion, ontology extraction engineering process. The adoption of existing
by identifying communities, and so on. vocabularies also promotes reuse and interoper-
ability of an ontology.
135
Semantic Association Analysis in Ontology-Based Information Retrieval
136
Semantic Association Analysis in Ontology-Based Information Retrieval
important reasons that most people prefer to use entities in semantic associations (Deligiannidis,
it. Most of the current search engines rank docu- Sheth, & Aleman-Meza, 2006).
ments based on vector space model and citation The entities are hyperlinked to those docu-
analysis (The PageRank algorithm can be seen ments which are able to provide external ex-
as a variation of the citation-based approach) planations that help users to explore relevant
(Brin & Page, 1998). In semantic association information regarding a submitted query. Figure
analysis, an important task is incorporating the 1 shows different components and layers in an
most meaningful associations out of all detected ontology-based information search, retrieval,
relations. However, new ranking algorithms need and presentation.
to be developed in order to utilize the advantages
of Semantic Web technologies. SemRank (Any-
anwu et al., 2005) describes a ranking algorithm SEMAN TIC SEAR CH
which uses semantic and statistical metrics. The AR CHI TE CTURE
semantic metrics consists of context, subsump-
tion, and trust. The value of trust is assigned We have built a test bed upon which our semantic
according to the trustworthiness of source that association discovery and ranking algorithms are
made a statement. The statistical metrics includes evaluated. The system uses a domain ontology
rarity, popularity, and link length. The weight of a and semantic annotated resources in fine arts
semantic association is the accumulated value of domain. When applied to fine arts (in particular,
six factors. In a similar work, we have developed painting), analytical modules of the MANA are
a relation robustness evaluation algorithm for typically able to extract the name of an artwork,
semantic associations which computes the weight its creator, details on its features (i.e., style, period,
of an entity in the knowledge base with the que- materials), its image file, and possibly some infor-
ried entity using context, association length, and mation about other related documents. Paintings,
popularity metrics (Barnaghi & Kareem, 2007). as well as other objects, are associated with other
It is worthwhile to note that the objects are being
ranked in this algorithm rather than the semantic
associations. Figure 1. Different components in a seman-
tic-enhanced information search and retrieval
R esults Presentation system
137
Semantic Association Analysis in Ontology-Based Information Retrieval
138
Semantic Association Analysis in Ontology-Based Information Retrieval
mation resources. In this chapter, we introduced Barnaghi, P. M., & Kareem, S. A. (2006). A
the problem of semantic association identification, flexible architecture for semantic annotation and
and we described the enhanced search methods automated multimedia presentation generation, In
based on semantic and community-based ap- Proceedings of the 1st International Workshop
proaches. A prototype of semantic association- on Semantic-enhanced Multimedia Presentation
based information search and retrieval is also Systems.
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Barnaghi, P. M., & Kareem, S. A. (2007). Rela-
Future work focuses on automated semantic
tion robustness evaluation for the Semantic as-
annotation and constructing a social network and
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142
Chapter XIV
Effective and Ef.cient Browsing
of Large Image Databases
Gerald Schaefer
Aston University, UK
A bs tra ct
As image databases are growing, efficient and effective methods for managing such large collections
are highly sought after. Content-based approaches have shown large potential in this area as they do
not require textual annotation of images. However, while for image databases the query-by-example
concept is at the moment the most commonly adopted retrieval method, it is only of limited practical
use. Techniques which allow human-centred navigation and visualization of complete image collections
therefore provide an interesting alternative. In this chapter we present an effective and efficient approach
for user-centred navigation of large image databases. Image thumbnails are projected onto a spherical
surface so that images that are visually similar are located close to each other in the visualization space.
To avoid overlapping and occlusion effects images are placed on a regular grid structure while large
databases are handled through a clustering technique paired with a hierarchical tree structure which
allows for intuitive real-time browsing experience.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Effective and Ef.cient Browsing of Large Image Databases
based techniques for retrieving images, much of While the application of techniques such as
which employs low level visual features such as MDS provides an intuitive and powerful tool for
color or texture to judge the similarity between browsing image collections, it is only of limited
images(Smeulders et al., 2000). use for medium-sized and large image collections.
The most common form of image retrieval For such databases it provides a relatively poor
systems is based on the query-by-example concept representation as many images are occluded,
(Jain, 1996) where the user provides an image either fully or partially, by other images with
and the system retrieves those images that are similar feature vectors. In addition, empty spaces
deemed to be most similar to the query. As this are common in areas where no images fall, cre-
approach requires an actual image as input, it is ating an unbalanced representation on screen.
only of limited practical use for various applica- Furthermore, some techniques (e.g., MDS) are
tions. An alternative is to employ the query-by- computationally expensive and hence not suitable
navigation paradigm where the user has the ability for real-time browsing environments.
to visualize and browse interactively an entire In this chapter we present an image database
image collection via a graphical user interface navigation method that addresses these issues.
and, through a series of operations, zoom in on Based on a spherical visualization space(Schaefer
those images that are of interest. Various authors &Ruszala, 2005), a navigation interface for
have recently introduced such intuitive navigation image collections is created. Yet in contrast to
interfaces(Ruszala & Schaefer, 2004). The basic the previous approaches, this is being done in a
idea behind most of these is to place thumbnails hierarchical manner which can cope also with
of visually similar images, as established by the large image datasets and has the advantage that
calculation of image similarity metrics based on all levels of the hierarchy can be precomputed,
features derived from image content, also close to thus allowing real-time browsing of the image
each other on the visualization screen, a principle database. In addition, images are laid out on a
that has been shown to decrease the time it takes regular grid structure which avoids any unwanted
to localize images(Rodden, Basalaj, Sinclair, overlapping effect between images. Furthermore,
& Wood, 1999). One of the first approaches the visualization space is better utilized by branch-
was the application of multidimensional scal- ing out images into otherwise unoccupied parts of
ing (MDS)(Kruskal &Wish, 1978) to project the screen. The proposed method hence provides
images being represented by high dimensional an effective, intuitive, and efficient interface for
feature vectors to a 2-dimensional visualization image database navigation, as is demonstrated
plane(Rubner, Guibas, &Tomasi, 1997). In the on a medium-sized image collection.
PicSOM system(Laaksonen, Koskela, Laakkso,
& Oja, 2000), tree-structured self organizing maps
are employed to provide both image browsing and H UE S PHERE
retrieval capabilities. Krishnamachari andAbdel-
Mottaleb (1999) employ a hierarchical tree to While MDS browsing typically employs a 2-di-
cluster images of similar concepts, while image mensional plane as navigation and visualization
database navigation on a hue sphere is proposed space, Schaefer andRuszala (2005) introduced the
bySchaefer andRuszala (2005). The application application of a spherical browsing interface. The
of virtual reality ideas and equipment to provide reasoning behind this is twofold. On one hand, the
the user with an interactive browsing experience concept of a globe will almost certainly be familiar
was introduced byNakazato and Huang (2001). to the average user as it is a direct analogy of the
Earth globe. It therefore provides a very intuitive
143
Effective and Efficient Browsing of Large Image Databases
interface to the user who will have experience on where images overlap with each other, as is the
how to navigate and find something on its surface. case in a typical MDS layout with those where
On the other hand, a sphere as navigation space images are placed on a regular lattice without
evolves naturally from the features that are em- any overlapping. The results demonstrated that
ployed in this approach. For each image the average users largely prefer the latter as overlap adds to
(or median) hue and brightness are calculated and confusion between images; hence, a visualiza-
serve as visual descriptors. As hues of 0 and 360 tion that avoids overlapping will lead to faster
are identical, hue describes an angular attribute retrieval times.
which goes from red to yellow to green to blue In our approach we adopt these findings and
back to red. All colors with high brightness values constrain images to be placed on a regular grid
are similar, that is, close to white, while all colors structure where images do not overlap each
with low brightness values are similarly close to other(Schaefer &Ruszala, 2006). That is, we
black. Black and white as achromatic colors do carry out the initial hue sphere calculations but
not have a hue quality, and hence, these two points then map each image to its closest grid cell. The
describe the poles of the sphere. size of the grid structure is typically dependent
Hue and value pairs are converted to latitude upon monitor size and resolution but can also
and longitude values and image thumbnails are be changed by the user. In our experiments we
placed at the calculated coordinates. The whole usually use grid sizes of either 24x30 or 27x35.
image database is then displayed in a global view. Clearly, and in particular for larger image sets,
Navigation is achieved through three kinds of this will mean that more than one image can be
operations: rotation which focuses on images mapped to a particular cell. Later, we will describe
with a different hue; tilt which allows one to see how we are handling this case in an efficient
brighter or darker images; and a zoom operation and intuitive way through the employment of a
which brings up previously hidden images. hierarchical structure.
144
Effective and Efficient Browsing of Large Image Databases
Performing this operation will usually fill approach we make direct use of the grid mapping
some, but not all, of the empty cells. However, introduced above to build a hierarchical tree based
repeating the process based on the newly gener- on clustering images. The resolution of the grid
ated layout will in turn fill more cells. Hence the layout (e.g., 24x30 cells) directly determines the
process is repeated a few (usually 3 or 4) times. maximal number of clusters present at a given
Not all empty cells will have been assigned after level (which will only be met if all cells are filled).
that, but then this is not desired as it would mean The grid cellsafter applying the filling strategy
images being positioned too far from their original explained earlieralso determine which images
coordinates, which in turn would distort the overall fall into which clusters. What remains to be per-
premise that images that are visually close should formed is the selection of a representative image
remain close on the browsing display. to be displayed on the visualization grid. To do
this we simply select the centroid image c, that
is, the image for which the cumulative distance to
all other images in the cluster Di = j =1 d ( I i , I j )
N
HIERAR CHI CAL BROWSING
where i is the ith of N images in the cluster and
As mentioned above, classical MDS displays d(.,.) denotes the distance between two images,
will provide only limited usability when being is minimal, that is, Dc < Di, i c. Note that we
applied to large but also to even medium-sized always keep both the original and the derived
databases of a few thousand images. The reason coordinates for each image.
for this is that due to the limited space on the This procedure is adopted at the each level of
visualization plane images not only overlap each the tree hierarchy, that is, first at the root node (the
other partially but many images do not appear at initial global display) and then for each nonempty
all due to occlusion; hence, only a partial view cell again in a recursive manner, where the images
of the database is provided(Schaefer &Ruszala, of each child node are again mapped to a grid
2006). Zooming in provides only a partial solu- structure, until the complete tree is derived.
tion, in particular if there are many images with The resulting interface provides an intuitive
similar image features. Furthermore, a zooming way of browsing to the user who can, starting
operation usually reapplies MDS on the selected from the initial display, successively select a rep-
images which, although it tends to spread the resentative image to refine the search. That image
images more evenly, also constitutes a serious clusterplus, if wanted, the eight neighboring
computational overhead. Zoom operations are clustersis then expanded in the next level of the
also employed in hue sphere navigation, although display where the user can again select an image
here no additional calculations are necessary. Here group to navigate further into the image collection.
however, images in the zoomed part are not spread Even based on a small grid of 24x30 cells and a
out and hence images that were occluded before fairly conservative estimate of 50% of cells be-
are still likely to be so after zooming in. ing filled on average, this approach requireson
In our approach we employ a hierarchical tree averageonly three levels of the hierarchy to
structure to address both the navigation through provide access to each of more than 370 million
large image collections and to eliminate the need images (i.e., 7203 = 3.73 * 108), which will suffice
for further computations. Hierarchical browsing for even the largest image databases.
environments such as the one described byKrish- The grid-tree structure also provides another
namachari andAbdel-Mottaleb (1999) have been advantage. As the structure is fixed it can be pre-
shown to provide an effective and efficient way computed in completeness off-line, together with
of moving through large image datasets. In our all possible grid view configurations the user can
145
Effective and Efficient Browsing of Large Image Databases
encounter, which in turn provides the user with whereas the next image from the cluster is placed
the possibility of real-time browsing of a large in the cell from the first ring (bump). The same
image collection. principle is applied to empty cells identified in the
third ring with images from the first and second
Image S preading in Tree Cells ring being moved (double bump).
146
Effective and Efficient Browsing of Large Image Databases
Figure 2. Hue sphere view after rotation and tilt operations (left) and a further zoom operation (right)
147
Effective and Efficient Browsing of Large Image Databases
148
149
Chapter XV
User Profiles for Personalizing
Digital Libraries
Giovanni Semeraro
University of Bari, Italy
Pierpaolo Basile
University of Bari, Italy
Marco de Gemmis
University of Bari, Italy
Pasquale Lops
University of Bari, Italy
A bs tra ct
Exploring digital collections to find information relevant to a users interests is a challenging task.
Information preferences vary greatly across users; therefore, filtering systems must be highly personal-
ized to serve the individual interests of the user. Algorithms designed to solve this problem base their
relevance computations on user profiles in which representations of the users interests are maintained.
The main focus of this chapter is the adoption of machine learning to build user profiles that capture
user interests from documents. Profiles are used for intelligent document filtering in digital libraries. This
work suggests the exploiting of knowledge stored in machine-readable dictionaries to obtain accurate
user profiles that describe user interests by referring to concepts in those dictionaries. The main aim of
the proposed approach is to show a real-world scenario in which the combination of machine learning
techniques and linguistic knowledge is helpful to achieve intelligent document filtering.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
User Profiles for Personalizing Digital Libraries
150
User Profiles for Personalizing Digital Libraries
sense disambiguation strategy that exploits the parts of speech (POS): noun, verb, adjective, and
WordNet IS-A hierarchy. adverb. The basic building block for WordNet
is the synset (s y n onym s e t ), which represents a
specific meaning or sense of a word. Synsets are
wor dne t-base d do cumen t structures containing sets of words with syn-
in de xing onymous meanings and are connected through a
series of relations. The hyponymy relation (IS-A)
Text categorization (Sebastiani, 2002) is com- serves to organize the lexicon into a hierarchical
monly described as follows: given a set of classes structure. There are separate hierarchies for nouns,
C={c1 ,....,cn} and a set of training documents verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. We addressed
labeled with the class the document belongs to, the WSD problem by proposing an algorithm
the problem consists of building a classifier able based on semantic similarity between synsets
to assign to a new document the proper class. We (Semeraro, Degemmis, Lops, & Basile, 2007).
consider the problem of learning user profiles as The WSD procedure is fundamental to obtain a
a binary classification task; each document has to synset-based vector space representation that we
be classified as interesting or not according to the called bag-of-synsets (BOS). In this model a synset
user preferences. The set of classes is restricted vector, rather than a word vector, corresponds to
to c+, the positive class (user likes), and c-, the a document. Another key feature of the approach
negative one (user dislikes). is that each document is represented by a set of
We propose a strategy to learn semantic sense- slots. Each slot is a textual field corresponding to
based profiles that consists of two steps. This a specific feature of the document, in an attempt
section describes the first one, that is, a document to take into account also the structure of docu-
indexing method that exploits word senses in ments. For example, in a paper recommendation
WordNet to represent documents. In the second scenario, each document could be represented by
step, described in the next section, a nave Bayes slots title, authors, and abstract.
approach learns semantic user profiles as binary The text in each slot is represented in the BOS
text classifiers from disambiguated documents. model by counting separately the occurrences
In the classic bag-of-words (BOW) model, each of a synset in the slots in which it appears. More
feature used to represent a document corresponds formally, assume that we have a collection of N
to a single word found in the document. documents structured in M slots. Let m be the index
We propose a document representation strategy of the slot, for n = 1, 2, ,N the n-th document is
that takes into account the senses of words found reduced to M bags of synsets, one for each slot.
in the training documents. Here, word sense is Each bag of synsets dmn is defined as follows:
used as a synonym of word meaning. The prob-
lem is that, while words occur in a document, d nm = tnm1 , tnm2 ,..., tnD
m
nm
m = 1, ... M n = 1, ... N
meanings do not, since they are often hidden in
the context. Therefore, a procedure is needed for where tmnk is the k-th synset in the slot sm of the
assigning senses to words. The task of word sense document dn and Dnm is the total number of synsets
disambiguation (WSD) consists of determining appearing in the m-th slot of document dn. For all
m
which sense of an ambiguous word is invoked in n, k, and m, tnk Vm where Vm is the vocabulary for
a particular use of the word (Manning & Sch- the slot sm (the set of all different synsets found in
tze, 1999). As for sense repository, we adopted slot sm). Document dn is finally represented in the
WordNet, a lexical database for English designed vector space by M synset-frequency vectors. Each
to establish connections between four types of synset-frequency vector fnm is defined as follows:
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User Profiles for Personalizing Digital Libraries
Word sense disambiguation by using Word- where S = {s1, s2, , s|S|} is the set of slots, bim is
Net the BOS in the slot sm of di, and nkim is the number
Token count and corresponding tf-idf com- of occurrences of token tk in bim. When training
putation is performed on BOS-represented documents,
tokens are synsets, and the induced model relies
The content profiler component implements the on synset frequencies. To calculate Equation (2),
learning algorithm which induces user profiles as the system has to estimate P(cj) and P(tk|cj, sm) in
nave Bayes classifiers. Details about the algorithm the training phase. The documents used to train
adopted in the content profiler follow. the system are labeled with a discrete rating, from
The algorithm adopted in the ITR system 1 to MAX, provided by a user according to the
(Degemmis et al., 2007) induces a probabilistic users degree of interest in the item. Following the
model by estimating the a-posteriori probability, idea proposed by Mooney and Roy (2000), each
P(cj|di), of document di belonging to class cj as training document di is labeled with two scores,
follows: that is, a user-likes score i+ and a user-dislikes
score i, obtained from the original rating ri:
P(c j ) P(tk | c j ) N (tk ,di )
tk di
P (c j | d i ) = (1)
P(di ) ri 1
i+ = i = 1 i+ (3)
MAX 1
where N(tk, di) is the number of times token (syn-
set) tk occurs in document di. Since, for any given The scores in Equation (3) are exploited for
document, P(di) is a constant with respect to cj, weighting the occurrences of tokens in the docu-
this factor can be ignored in calculating Equation ments and to estimate their probabilities from the
(1), because all we need is to find the hypothesis training set TR. The prior probabilities of the
with the highest posterior probabilitymaximum classes are computed according to the following
a posteriori hypothesisrather than a probability equation:
estimate. In ITR, each document is encoded as |TR|
a vector of BOS in the synset-based representa- i
j
+1
tion described in the previous section. Therefore, P (c j ) = i =1
(4)
| TR | +2
Equation (1) becomes
Equation 5.
N (t k , c j , s m )
if N (t k , c j , s m ) 0
| Vcj | + N (t i , c j , s m )
P (t k | c j , s m ) = i
| Vcj | 1
if N (t k , c j , s m ) = 0
| Vcj | + N (t i , c j , s m ) | V | | Vcj |
i
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User Profiles for Personalizing Digital Libraries
Equation (3) (see Equation 5.) where N(tk, cj, sm) interest of the user on those documents by using
is the number of weighted occurrences of the the Bayes classification formula (Equation 2).
token tk in the training data for class cj in the As a proof of concepts, we integrated the ITR
slot sm, Vcj is the vocabulary for the class cj, and functionalities to develop a service for support-
V is the vocabulary for all classes. N(tk, cj, sm) is ing users to plan the participation to a scientific
computed as follows: congress.
|TR|
N(tk ,c j ,sm ) = i
j
kim (6)
i =1
A n in telligen t ser vice for
In Equation (6), nkim is the count of occurrences digi tal libraries
of the token tk in the slot sm of the document di.
The sum of all N(tk, cj, sm) in the denominator of The conference participant advisor service is
Equation (5) denotes the total weighted length of based on ITR and provides personalized sup-
the slot sm in the class cj. In other words, P (tk | c j , sm ) port for conference participation planning. The
is estimated as a ratio between the weighted oc- semantic user profile of each participant registered
currences of token tk in slot sm of class cj and the to the service is exploited to suggest the most
total weighted length of the slot. The final outcome interesting talks to be attended at the conference
of the learning process is a probabilistic model by producing a one-to-one personalized confer-
used to classify a new document in the class c+ ence program.
or c-. This model is the semantic user profile, The prototype has been realized for the In-
which includes those tokens that turn out to be ternational Semantic Web Conference 2004, by
most indicative of the user preferences accord- adding to the conference homepage (a copy of
ing to the value of the conditional probabilities the official Web site) a login/registration form to
in Equation (5). access the service (Figure 2).
The content-based recommender performs the The user registers by providing an e-mail
matching between profiles and testing documents address and can browse the whole document
and assigns a score representing the degree of repository or search for papers presented during
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User Profiles for Personalizing Digital Libraries
Figure 3. The user selects the most appropriate sense for the keyword categorization
2002 and 2003 ISWC events, in order to provide possible senses listed, the user can choose one
ratings. The search engine used to select the train- or more of them according to the users wishes.
ing examples relies on the BOS model in order to In the proposed scenario, the user is interested in
allow users to perform a semantic search and to papers about text categorization, which is the
reduce the overload in providing the system with task of assigning documents to a list of predefined
appropriate training examples. Let us suppose that categories. Therefore, the most appropriate sense
the user now submits the query categorization for the query is the third one in the sense inven-
to the paper retrieval system. The search engine tory (Figure 3).
analyzes the query and shows the sense inventory Each retrieved paper can be rated on a discrete
corresponding to the keyword. Among all the rating scale, as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4. A paper retrieved by the semantic search provided by ITR and the interface for rating it
155
User Profiles for Personalizing Digital Libraries
Notice that the word matching against the Experiments were carried out on a collection of
query, highlighted by the search engine, is differ- 100 papers rated by 11 real users. Classification
ent from the one in the query issued by the user. effectiveness was evaluated in terms of precision
This is due to the fact that the two words are in the and recall (Sebastiani, 2002). We obtained an
same synset, thus the system was able to realize improvement both in precision (+1%) and recall
a semantic matching by exploiting the synonymy (+2%) of the BOS-generated profiles with respect
relation in WordNet. This semantic search allows to the BOW-generated ones (Degemmis, Lops,
for a more accurate selection of training examples; & Basile, 2006).
the document retrieved in the aforementioned
example would not have been retrieved by using
a traditional keyword search. Con cl usion an d f uture
Given a sufficient number of ratings (at present tren ds
the minimum number of training documents is set
to 20), the system learns the semantic profile of We presented the ITR system exploiting a Bayesian
the participant. In the profile, concepts represent- learning method to induce semantic user profiles
ing the participants research interests are stored. from documents represented using WordNet syn-
ISWC 2004 accepted papers are classified using sets. Our hypothesis is that replacing words with
the learned profile to obtain a personalized list synsets in the indexing phase produces a more
of recommended papers and talks, which is sent accurate document representation to infer more
by e-mail to the participant. Recommended talks accurate profiles. This is confirmed by the experi-
are highlighted in the personalized electronic ments carried out to evaluate the effectiveness of
program (Figure 5). the conference participant advisor service and can
An experimental evaluation of semantic pro- be explained by the fact that synset-based classifi-
files was carried out on ISWC papers in order cation allows one to select documents with a high
to estimate if the BOS version of ITR improves degree of semantic coherence, not guaranteed by
the performance with respect to the BOW one. word-based classification. As a future work, we
156
User Profiles for Personalizing Digital Libraries
plan to also exploit domain ontologies to realize Mitchell, T. (1997). Machine learning. New York:
a more powerful document indexing. McGraw-Hill.
Mladenic, D. (1999). Text-learning and related
intelligent agents: A survey. IEEE Intelligent
R eferen ces
Systems, 14(4), 44-54.
Callan, J., & Smeaton, A. (2003). Personalization Mooney, R. J., & Roy, L. (2000). Content-based
and recommender systems in digital libraries book recommending using learning for text
(Tech. Rep.). NSF-EU DELOS Working Group. categorization. In P. J. Nrnberg, D. L. Hicks,
& R. Furuta (Eds.), Proceedings of the 5th ACM
Degemmis, M., Lops, P., & Basile, P. (2006).
Conference on Digital Libraries (pp. 195-204).
An intelligent personalized service for confer-
New York: ACM.
ence prticipants. In F. Esposito, Z. W. Ras, D.
Malerba, & G. Semeraro (Eds.), Foundations of Pazzani, M., & Billsus, D. (1997). Learning
Intelligent Systems: Proceedings of ISMIS 2006, and revising user profiles: The identification of
16th International. Symposium on Methodologies interesting Web sites. Machine Learning, 27(3),
for Intelligent Systems (LNAI 4203, pp. 707-712). 313-331.
Berlin: Springer.
Sebastiani, F. (2002). Machine learning in au-
Degemmis, M., Lops, P., & Semeraro, G. (2007). A tomated text categorization. ACM Computing
content-collaborative recommender that exploits Surveys, 34(1), 1-47.
WordNet-based user profiles for neighborhood
Semeraro, G., Degemmis, M., Lops, P., & Basile
formation. User Modeling and User-Adapted
P. (2007). Combining learning and word sense
Interaction: The Journal of Personalization Re-
disambiguation for intelligent user profiling. In
search, 17(3), 217-255.
M. Veloso (Ed.), Proceedings of the Twentieth
Guarino, N., Masolo, C., & Vetere, G. (1999). International Joint Conference on Artificial Intel-
OntoSeek: Content-based access to the Web. IEEE ligence IJCAI-07 (pp. 2856-2861). San Francisco:
Intelligent Systems, 14(3), 70-80. Morgan Kaufmann.
Magnini, B., & Strapparava C. (2001). Improving Witten, I., & Bell, T. (1991). The zero-frequency
user modelling with content-based techniques. problem: Estimating the probabilities of novel
In M. Bauer, P. J. Gmytrasiewicz, & J. Vassileva events in adaptive text compression. IEEE Trans-
(Eds.), Proceedings of 8th International Confer- actions on Information Theory, 37(4), 1085-
ence on User Modeling 2001 (LNCS 2109, pp. 1094.
74-83). Berlin: Springer.
Manning, C., & Schtze, H. (1999). Word sense
disambiguation. Foundations of statistical natural K ey Terms
language processing (pp. 229-264). Cambridge:
The MIT Press. NLP (Natural Language Processing): A
subfield of artificial intelligence and linguistics
Miller, G. A. (1995). WordNet: A lexical data-
that studies the problems of automated generation
base for English. Communications of the ACM,
and understanding of natural human languages.
38(11), 39-41.
It converts samples of human language into more
157
User Profiles for Personalizing Digital Libraries
formal representations that are easier for computer User Profile: A structured representation of
programs to manipulate. interests (and disinterests) of a user or group of
users.
Personalization: The process of tailoring
products or services to users based on their user WordNet: A semantic lexicon for the English
profiles. language. It groups English words into sets of
synonyms called synsets. It provides short, gen-
Recommender System: A system that guides
eral definitions, and records the various semantic
users in a personalized way to interesting or useful
relations between these synonym sets.
objects in a large space of possible options.
Word Sense Disambiguation: The problem
Synset: A group of data elements that are con-
of determining in which sense a word having
sidered semantically equivalent for the purposes
a number of distinct senses is used in a given
of information retrieval.
sentence.
158
159
Chapter XVI
Automatic Text Summarization
in Digital Libraries
Shiyan Ou
University of Wolverhampton, UK
Christopher S. G. Khoo
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
A bs tra ct
This chapter describes various text summarization techniques and evaluation techniques that have been
proposed in literature and discusses the application of text summarization in digital libraries. First, it
introduces the history of automatic text summarization and various types of summaries. Next, it reviews
various approaches which have been used for single-document and multidocument summarization.
Then, it describes the major evaluation approaches for assessing the generated summaries. Finally, it
outlines the principal trends of the area of automatic text summarization. This chapter aims to help the
reader to obtain a clear overview of the text summarization field and facilitate the application of text
summarization in digital libraries.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Automatic Text Summarization in Digital Libraries
the most important information from a source An abstract is a summary at least some of
to produce an abridged version for a particular whose material is not present in the input.
user and task (Mani & Maybury, 1999, p. ix).
It is an important function that should be avail- Since extracts are much easier to be construct-
able in large digital library systems, information ed automatically than abstracts which require
retrieval systems, and Web search engines, where more complex techniques such as rephrasing
the retrieval of too many documents and the re- and paraphrasing, extracts are generally used in
sulting information overload is a major problem current digital library systems.
for users. With reference to the content and intended
In addition to facilitating the users searching use, a summary can be indicative, informative,
and browsing, text summarization can do much or evaluative (Borko & Bernier, 1975):
more in digital libraries. Rather than serving as
information providers, digital libraries are be- An indicative summary provides an indica-
coming knowledge repositories which strive to tion of what the original document is about.
add value to the collections that they create and It can help users to determine whether the
maintain. Text summarization is expected to be original document is worth reading or not,
most helpful in this aspect since it could perform but users have to consult the original for
knowledge integration and support knowledge details.
discovery and knowledge acquisition, especially An informative summary reflects the content
in a multidocument environment. of the original document and represents the
content in a concise way. It can be used as a
substitute for the original document so that
BA CKGRO UN D AN D TY PES users do not need to read the original.
OF S UMMARIES An evaluative or critical summary not only
contains the main topics of the original
Research in automatic text summarization has document but also provides the abstractors
had a history of almost 50 years since the earliest comments on the document content.
attempt by Luhn (1958). However, there was little
work and slow progress in the first 30 years. In the Indicative summaries are more generally used
1990s, as a result of information explosion in the in current digital library systems to help users
World Wide Web, automatic text summarization identify documents of interest. On the other hand,
became crucial to reduce information overload informative summaries are more often used for
and this brought about its renaissance. It could news articles to inform users about news events,
be used for different purposes and different users for example, Columbias Newsblaster1.
and, thus, various types of summaries have been Depending on the purpose and intended us-
constructed. ers, a summary can be generic or user-focused
Depending on the summarization method, a (Mani, 2001):
summary can be an extract (produced by sen-
tence extraction) or an abstract (produced by an A generic summary covers all major themes
abstraction process). Using Manis (2001a, p. 6) or aspects of the original document to serve
definition: a broad readership community rather than
a particular group.
An extract is a summary consisting entirely A user-focused (or topic-focused, query-
of material copied from the input; and oriented) summary favors specific themes
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Automatic Text Summarization in Digital Libraries
or aspects of the original document, which In the subsequent sections, the state-of-the-art
are relevant to a user query, to cater to spe- in the area of single-document and multidocument
cial needs or interests of an individual or a summarization is reviewed, and the major evalu-
particular group. ation techniques for the generated summaries are
also surveyed.
With the need for providing personalized
services in digital libraries, user-focused sum-
maries are becoming important to tailor content SINGLE -DO CUMEN T
to users intents and queries, though generic S UMMARIZA TION
summaries are still dominant in current digital
library systems. Most digital library systems attempt to address
Depending on the number of documents being the problem of information overload by ranking
encapsulated, a summary can be single-document documents retrieved by their likelihood of rel-
or multidocument (Hahn & Mani, 2000): evance, and displaying titles and snippets to give
users some indication of the document content.
A single-document summary is a shorter For example, the ACM digital library returns a list
representation of one document. of ranked document snippets to a search query
A multidocument summary is a shorter (see Figure 1). This snippet kind of summary
representation of a set of documents. could be constructed automatically using various
methods, for example, extracting the first few lines
Single-document summaries are generally of the document text (e.g., Alta Vista), extract-
used in current digital library systems, for ex- ing the text fragments which have the highest
ample, ACM digital library. Multidocument keyword similarity to the query (e.g., Google),
summaries are still seldom employed in real- and extracting those fragments which have the
world digital library systems, but will inevitably strongest correlation both to the query and the
grow in importance as the technology matures document semantics (Zotos, Tzekou, Tsatsaronis,
and system developers seek to make the digital Kozanidis, Stamou, & Varlamis, 2007).
library systems more useful to users.
A document snippet
indicating the document
content
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Automatic Text Summarization in Digital Libraries
Approaches for single-document summariza- and word cooccurrence (Salton, Singhal, Mitra,
tion can be divided broadly into extractive and & Buckley, 1997) to extract related sentences or
abstractive categories. Extractive approaches paragraphs instead of separate sentences for pro-
extract salient text passages (typically sentences) ducing more readable and coherent summaries.
from the original document using various cri- Although cohesion-based approaches can
teria and assemble them to form an extract. create fluent summaries, the resulting summaries
Sentence extraction can be divided into three still lack coherence because they do not convey a
types, that is, statistics-based, cohesion-based, full understanding of the text. The construction
and discourse-based, which represent increasing of highly coherent summaries depends on an
understanding of text and increasing complexity analysis of discourse structure. This focuses on
in text processing. linguistic processing of text to derive a discourse
The statistics-based approaches are domain representation of the text used for determin-
independent and do not attempt to understand the ing important text units in a text. Well-known
meaning and structure of the text. They make use discourse models that have been used for text
of statistical and linguistic features to measure summarization include rhetorical structure theory
the significance of sentences, thereby extracting (Mann & Thompson, 1988), rhetorically defined
the highest ranked sentences. The features used annotation scheme (Teufel & Moens, 2002), and
in most summarization systems include frequent text component identification model (Myaeng &
keywords, title keywords, cue phrases, and sen- Jang, 1999).
tence position (Luhn, 1958; Edmundson, 1969; In contrast to extractive approaches, abstrac-
Paice, 1990). To combine these features for iden- tive approaches create grammatical and coher-
tifying the most significant sentences, supervised ent new texts to paraphrase and replace salient
machine learning techniques are often used, such information extracted from the source document.
as support vector machines (Hirao, Isozaki, Mae- Real abstractive approaches that completely imi-
da, & Matsumoto, 2002), Bayes (Aone et al., 1999; tate human abstracting behavior are difficult to
Kupiec, Pedersen, & Chen, 1995), decision tree achieve with current natural language processing
(Lin, 1999), and gene expression program (Xie, techniques. Current abstractive approaches are in
Li, Di Eugenio, Nelson, Xiao, & Tirpak, 2004). reality hybrid approaches involving both extrac-
However, this is a difficult and time-consuming tion and abstraction. They are of three types of
task to prepare labeled training data for supervised approaches: sentence compression, knowledge
learning. Thus semi-supervised (Massih-Reza representation, and concept generalization.
& Gallinari, 2001) and unsupervised (Mihalcea, Sentence compression is a simple version of
2004) learning techniques are used instead if abstraction. It extracts important sentences and
labeled corpora are not available. drops unimportant constituents (mostly determin-
Using the statistics-based approaches, a col- ers, auxiliaries, or other low-content modifiers)
lection of sentences is extracted separately and from the extracted sentences based on the parse
thus often lack context. This sometimes results tree of each sentence and arranges the remaining
in unintelligible and even misleading extracts, words in the original order to form a short sentence
due to lack of cohesion and coherence as well as (Angheluta, Mitra, Jing, & Moens, 2004).
the presence of dangling anaphors. To solve the Knowledge representation involves a detailed
above problems, the cohesion-based approaches semantic analysis of the source document and
are developed, which use cohesive links, such as construction of a knowledge representation of
lexical chains (Barzilay & Elhadad, 1998), corefer- the meaning of the document. A set of domain-
ences (Azzam, Humphreys, & Gaizauskas, 1999), specific templates, frames, or scripts is usually
162
Automatic Text Summarization in Digital Libraries
predefined using domain knowledge to support and text corpora. The strengths of text abstrac-
extraction of the information relevant to each slot tion are in the conciseness and readability of the
of the template and filling it. When document resulting abstracts.
analysis is complete, the instantiated slots are used
as the material to generate a fluent summary using
natural language generation techniques. Such a MUL TIDO CUMEN T S UMMARIZA TION
kind of summarization system include FRUMP
(DeJong, 1982) and SISCOR (Jacobs & Rau, 1990), A weakness of single-document summaries is that
both of which were used for news articles. the documents retrieved by a query are related,
Concept generalization or concept fusion often contain overlapping information, and share
involves extracting important concepts and the same background. Thus their extracts are
generalizing them to capture the main content likely to be fairly similar to each other and do
of a document. Generalization is the process of not highlight unique information in individual
replacing a collection of concepts with a higher- documents. It is also hard to obtain an overview
level unifying concept (Lin, 1995), which can be of the content of a document set from the sepa-
performed at the semantic level or syntactic level. rate extracts. Furthermore, browsing so many
Lin (1995) and Hovy and Lin (1999) generalize similar extracts is tedious and time-consuming.
concepts based on semantic relations among con- Users have patience to scan only a small number
cepts such as instance, subclass, and part-of. Such of document titles and abstracts, in the range
generalization requires a thesaurus, ontology, or of 10 to 30 (Jansen, Spink, & Saracevic, 2000).
knowledge base to provide an appropriate concept Thus a multidocument summary would be very
hierarchy for a specific domain. In contrast, the useful in such a situation. A good example of
syntactic-level generalization is easy to realize but multidocument summarization can be found
not very accurate, since it identifies similar con- in PERSIVAL,2 a patient care digital library
cepts only according to their syntactic structures (Mckeown, McKeown, Chang, Cimino, Feiner,
rather than their meanings (Ibekwe-SanJuan & Friedman, Gravano, et al., 2001). It retrieves a
SanJuan, 2004; Ou, Khoo, & Goh, 2005). set of medical articles matching the input patient
For a computer program, extractive approaches record and produces a summary for the highest
are easier to implement than abstractive ap- ranked 10 articles that contain the most relevant
proaches since the program does not need to create information for the patient (see Figure 2).
new texts. Among the extractive approaches, the Multidocument summarization condenses a set
statistics-based type is the lowest-cost solution of related documents, instead of a single document,
according to its speed, scalability, and robustness, into one summary. It can be seen as an extension of
and thus most real-world summarization systems single-document summarization, but is also much
are implemented with this type of approach, for more. Multidocument summarization performs
example, MS-AutoSummarizer (MS Word97). knowledge synthesis and knowledge discovery by
Compared to extractive approaches, abstractive combining and integrating information extracted
approaches are knowledge-intensive, domain-de- from different documents, and thus can be used
pendent, and expensive, but produce better sum- for knowledge acquisition. A multidocument
maries for a specific domain. They often require a summary has several features different from a
sizable and complex domain-specific knowledge single-document summary. It provides a domain
base as well as involve natural language genera- overview of a document set and indicates com-
tion techniques, and thus they become complex to mon information across many documents, unique
implement and lack portability to other domains information in each document, and relationships
163
Automatic Text Summarization in Digital Libraries
164
Automatic Text Summarization in Digital Libraries
tion approaches do not always work well in a context, juridical analysis, and conclusion
multidocument environment. found in the legal text. Although the sentence-
In a set of documents, many of them are likely based scheme is extensively used to present a
to contain similar information and only differ in summary, a few studies also present concepts
certain parts. An ideal multidocument summary or terms as complements to the sentences in the
should contain similar information repeated in summary. Aone et al. (1999) present a summary
many documents, plus important unique infor- in multiple dimensions through a graphical user
mation present in some individual documents interface. A list of keywords (i.e., person names,
(Goldstein et al., 2000). Thus multidocument entity names, place names, and others) is pre-
summarization should mainly focus on the simi- sented in the left window for quick and easy
larities and differences across documents. Shallow browsing, whereas the full text is presented in
and deep approaches have been used to compare the right window where the important sentences
pieces of information extracted from different are identified and highlighted. Ando, Boguraev,
documents and synthesize them together. Shallow Byrd, and Neff (2000) identified multiple topics
approaches extract text passages based on statisti- in a set of documents and present the summary
cal and linguistic features, and remove repeated by listing several terms and two sentences that
information by vocabulary comparison (Mani were most closely related to each topic.
& Bloedorn, 1999). Deep approaches extract
text passages based on statistical and linguistic
features or predefined templates, and synthesize S UMMARIZA TION E VAL UATION
them using concept generalization (Lin, 1995;
Ou, Khoo, & Goh, 2008), summary operators Evaluation has long been of interest to the com-
(McKeown & Radev, 1995), and cross-document munity of automatic text summarization, with
rhetorical relations (Afantenos, Doura, Kapellou, extensive work carried out as early as the 1960s
& Karkaletsis, 2004; Zhang, Blair-Goldensohn, (Edmunson, 1969). Approaches for evaluating
& Radev, 2002). The deep approaches are more text summarization can be divided broadly into
promising for constructing multidocument sum- two types (Jones & Galliers, 1996): intrinsic
maries, since they involve information synthesis evaluation and extrinsic evaluation. In intrinsic
and some inferencing to produce a coherent and evaluation, the quality of summaries is judged
concise summary. directly according to some criteria (e.g., con-
Presenting a multidocument summary in ciseness, readability, and understandability),
fluent text and in a form that is useful to users or comparing them to ideal summaries. In
is an important issue. In the sentence-extraction extrinsic evaluation, the quality of summaries
approaches, the most important sentences are ex- is judged indirectly depending on how well the
tracted from original documents and arranged in summaries can help users complete some tasks,
a particular order that will hopefully make sense such as finding documents relevant to the users
to users. Most systems arrange sentences in the need and answering some questions related to the
same order as in the original document text or original documents.
in chronological order. Some systems organize In some studies, intrinsic evaluations were
the sentences in other formats to facilitate users performed by direct human judgment on the
reading and understanding. For example, Farz- grammaticality, cohesion, coherence, organiza-
indar and Lapalme (2004) present the extracted tion, and coverage of stipulated key/essential
sentences in a tabular format that is divided by ideas of summaries (Brandow, Mitze, & Rau,
such themes as decision data, introduction, 1995). Often, a machine-generated summary was
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also compared against an ideal summary (Ed- Compared to intrinsic evaluation, extrinsic
munson, 1969). Precision, recall, and F-measure evaluation is more attractive because it is based
are used to measure the degree of match between on objective evaluation measures. Tasks designed
the machine-generated summary and the ideal and used in extrinsic evaluation fall under two
summary. The main problem of usin an ideal main types: relevance assessment task and read-
summary as reference is that there is no single ing comprehension task (i.e., question-answering
correct summary. There could be a number of task). In relevance assessment tasks, human sub-
ways for humans to create abstracts for a given jects are presented with a document (full text or
document. summary) and a topic, and are asked to determine
Although most intrinsic evaluations still the relevance of the document to the topic. Time
depend on manual judgments, some automatic and accuracy (often precision and recall) are used
evaluation methods or tools have been developed to evaluate the performance of a summarization
to facilitate the judging process. To automati- system. The real-world activity represented by
cally measure the coherence of summaries, Foltz, this task is that of a human, conducting full-text
Kintsch, and Lndauer (1998) propose the use of search using an information retrieval system, who
latent semantic analysis, whereas Lapata and must determine quickly and accurately the rel-
Barzilay (2005) propose a syntactic model which evance of a retrieved document. Most researchers
abstracts local coherence as the distribution of performed their relevance assessment evaluations
entities among sentences and a semantic model by imitating this real-world activity (e.g., Mani &
which quantifies local coherence as the degree of Bloedorn, 1999; Tomros & Sanderson, 1998). In
connectivity across sentences. In Document Un- reading comprehension tasks, human subjects are
derstanding Conferences (DUC)3 2001 and 2002, asked to answer multiple-choice questions using
human assessors used an evaluation program full-text sources or summaries. Thus a humans
SEE4 to assess both the content and the quality comprehension based on the summary can be com-
of the summaries manually. SEE decomposes a pared with that based on the source. For example,
machine-generated summary and a human-gener- Morris, Kasper, and Adams (1992) carried out four
ated reference summary into a list of units (often multichoice graduate management admission test
sentences) and displays them in separate windows. (GMAT) reading comprehension exercises under
Human assessors then identify the matches be- four conditions of full-text sources, extracts,
tween summary pairs by examining unit by unit abstracts, and no text (depending on guess) to
and computing the overlap as precision and recall compare their impacts on the completion of the
scores. For DUC 2004, an automatic evaluation question-answering task.
package, ROUGE5, was used to measure the simi- The largest extrinsic evaluation carried out to
larity between a machine-generated summary and date is the TIPSTER text summarization evalua-
a reference summary by automatically counting tion (SUMMAC). It is the first large-scale evalu-
the number of overlapping units between them. ation effort of summarization systems and differs
Since ROUGE measures consider both word-level from earlier extrinsic evaluations in task details
and sentence-level overlap, it is expected to be and methodology. Although the SUMMAC evalu-
more accurate than the traditional precision, recall, ation also included an intrinsic acceptability test,
and F-measure which only consider sentence-level its main focus was on an extrinsic evaluation based
overlap. However, ROUGE focuses more on the on the tasks which modeled real-world activities
overlap of units (e.g., n-gram, word sequences, typically carried out by information analysts in
and word pairs) in form and does not consider the U.S. Government. In the SUMMAC evalu-
the meaningful relations among them, such as ation, three main tasks were performed: ad hoc
inclusion, synonymy, and entailment.
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Automatic Text Summarization in Digital Libraries
task, categorization task, and question-answering document summarization focused on the most
task (Mani, Firmin, House, Chrzanowski, Klein, important topics that are often repeated in many
Hirschman, et al., 1998). documents of a document set to create generic
Mani (2001b) points out that the choice of an summaries. Recently, there is a trend towards
intrinsic or extrinsic evaluation method depends developing advanced multidocument summaries
on the goals of the developers and the users of the that go beyond the classical, generic summaries
summarization system. In general, at the early to user-focused summaries, answer-focused sum-
development stages of the system, an intrinsic maries, and update summaries.
evaluation is recommended focusing on evaluating
the summarization components. As the system User-focused S ummaries
becomes more developed, an extrinsic evaluation
is more suitable, focusing on the test of the whole In the real world, different users have different
system involving real users. In previous stud- information needs to the same search query and
ies, intrinsic evaluations were used extensively even the same user may have different information
(e.g., Edumunson 1969; Kupiec et al., 1995; Paice, needs at different points in time for the same topic.
1990; Salton et al., 1997). Based on this fact, some intelligent search systems
In comparison to single-document summaries, (e.g., MyYahoo and Google Web History) return
multidocument summaries are more difficult to personalized results to users according to their
evaluate. Currently, there is no widely accepted behavior models and profiles. This idea leads to
procedure or methodology for evaluating mul- the development of user-focused summarization
tidocument summaries (Schlesinger, Conroy, systems, for example, WebInEssence (Radev, Fan,
Okurowski, & OLeary, 2003). Most of the tasks & Zhang, 2001), which select documents based
used in extrinsic evaluation were designed for on users personal profiles and produce user-fo-
evaluating single-document summaries. More- cused summaries with the selected documents.
over, it is more difficult to obtain uniform refer- A user-focused summary focuses on the content
ence summaries, since humans differ greatly from that matches the users specific requirement and
each other in summarizing multiple documents discards others to reduce information overload.
(Schlesinger et al., 2003). Since DUC 2005, user-focused summaries have
been extensively evaluated. These summaries
were produced based on the predefined context
F UTURE TREN DS that was modeled as a set of open-ended questions.
The ability to generate user-focused summaries is
Single-document summarization has been em- an important step towards a personalized digital
ployed in most digital library systems for helping library environment.
users to identify documents of interest. With the
growth of similar information across different A nswer-F ocused S ummaries
information sources, single-document summa-
rization cannot remove redundant information In DUC 2003 and 2004, a task was designed to
from a variety of related documents and thus often produce a summary of a document set which aimed
result in a set of similar summaries for individual to answer a given question like Who is X? (X
documents. In recent years, more attention has is a person name).This indicates a recent trend
been paid to multidocument summarization in towards answer-focused summaries which are
digital library systems (e.g., PERSIVAL digital related to but still different from user-focused sum-
library [Mckeown et al., 2001]). Initially, multi- maries. User-focused summaries aim to provide
167
Automatic Text Summarization in Digital Libraries
an indication of the main content of a document useful in a digital library of Web news to provide
or a set of documents according to a specific user a trace of a news event.
preference and help the user to locate documents
of interest quickly. However, users often want to
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(or sources) to produce an abridged version for a
K ey Terms
particular user and task.
Abstraction: A kind of summarization ap-
proach, with rephrasing or paraphrasing the main
content of a document to form a summary. en dno tes
Extraction: A kind of summarization ap- 1
The Newsblaster summarization system
proach that extracts important pieces of informa-
is accessible for educational or non-com-
tion (typically sentences) from the input to form
mercial research purposes at http://www1.
a summary.
cs.columbia.edu/nlp/newsblaster/.
Extrinsic Evaluation: An evaluation which 2
The PERSIVAL Digital Library is at http://
assesses the quality of summaries indirectly persival.cs.columbia.edu.
through user performance of some tasks using 3
Conference series focusing on summari-
the summaries. zation and the large-scale evaluation of
summarization systems, which is run by
Intrinsic Evaluation: An evaluation which
the National Institute of Standards and
assesses the quality of summaries through direct
Technology and started in 2001 in the United
human judgment of some criteria (e.g., grammati-
States, see http://duc.nist.gov/.
cality, conciseness, and readability) or comparing 4
Summary Evaluation Environment, see at
of ideal summaries.
http://www.isi.edu/~cyl/SEE/
Multidocument Summarization: The pro- 5
Recall-Oriented Understudy for Gisting
cess of representing the main content of a set of Evaluation, see at http:// www.isi.edu/~cyl/
related documents on a topic, instead of only one ROUGE/
document.
172
173
Chapter XVII
Speechfind:
Advances in Rich Content Based
Spoken Document Retrieval
Wooil Kim
Center for Robust Speech Systems (CRSS), Erik Jonsson School of Engineering and Computer
Science, University of Texas at Dallas, USA
John H. L. Hansen
Center for Robust Speech Systems (CRSS), Erik Jonsson School of Engineering and Computer
Science, University of Texas at Dallas, USA
A bs tra ct
This chapter addresses a number of advances in formulating spoken document retrieval for the National
Gallery of the Spoken Word (NGSW) and the U.S.-based Collaborative Digitization Program (CDP).
After presenting an overview of the audio stream content of the NGSW and CDP audio corpus, an
overall system diagram is presented with a discussion of critical tasks associated with effective audio
information retrieval that include advanced audio segmentation, speech recognition model adaptation
for acoustic background noise and speaker variability, and information retrieval using natural language
processing for text query requests that include document and query expansion. Our experimental online
system entitled SpeechFind is presented which allows for audio retrieval from the NGSW and CDP
corpus. Finally, a number of research challenges as well as new directions are discussed in order to
address the overall task of robust phrase searching in unrestricted audio corpora.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Speechfind
is serving as the platform for several programs The ability to achieve effective performance in
across the United States for audio indexing and changing speaker conditions for large vocabulary
retrieval, including the National Gallery of the continuous speech recognition (LVCSR) remains
Spoken Word (NGSW, http://www.ngsw.org) and a challenge, as demonstrated in recent DARPA
the Collaborative Digitization Program (CDP, evaluations focused on broadcast news (BN) vs.
http://cdpheritage.org). The field of spoken docu- previous results from the Wall Street Journal
ment retrieval requires an interdisciplinary effort, (WSJ) corpus.
with researchers from electrical engineering One natural solution to audio stream search
(speech recognition), computer science (natural is to perform forced transcription for the entire
language processing), historians, library archi- dataset, and simply search the synchronized text
vists, and so forth. As such, we provide a summary stream. While this may be a manageable task for
of acronyms and definition of terms at the end of BN (consisting of about 100 hours), the initial
this chapter to assist those interested in spoken offering for NGSW will be 5000 hours (with
document retrieval for audio archives. a potential of +60,000 total hours), and it will
The problem of reliable speech recognition for simply not be possible to achieve accurate forced
spoken document/information retrieval is a chal- transcription since text data will generally not be
lenging problem when data are recorded across available. Other studies have also considered Web-
different media, equipment, and time periods. based spoken document retrieval (SDR) (Fujii &
NGSW is the first large-scale repository of its Itou, 2003; Hansen, Zhou, Akbacak, Sarikaya, &
kind, consisting of speeches, news broadcasts, Pellom, 2000; Zhou & Hansen, 2002). Transcript
and recordings that are of significant historical generation of broadcast news can also be con-
content. The U.S. National Science Foundation ducted in an effort to obtain near real-time close-
recently established an initiative to provide better captioning (Saraclar, Riley, Bocchieri, & Goffin,
transition of library services to digital format. 2002). Instead of generating exact transcripts,
As part of this Phase-II Digital Libraries Initia- some studies have considered summarization and
tive, researchers from Michigan State University topic indexing (Hori & Furui, 2000; Maskey &
(MSU) and University of Texas at Dallas (UTD, Hirschberg, 2003; Neukirchen, Willett, & Rigoll,
formerly at Univ. of Colorado at Boulder) have 1999), or more specifically, topic detection and
teamed to establish a fully searchable, online tracking (Walls, Jin, Sista, & Schwartz, 1999),
WWW database of spoken word collections and others have considered lattice-based search
that span the 20th century. The database draws (Saraclar & Sproat, 2004). Some of these ideas
primarily from holdings of MSUs Vincent Voice are related to speaker clustering (Moh, Nguyen,
Library (VVL) that includes +60,000 hours of & Junqua, 2003; Mori & Nakagawa, 2001), which
recordings. is needed to improve acoustic model adaptation
In the field of robust speech recognition, there for BN transcription generation. Language model
are a variety challenging problems that persist, adaptation (Langzhou, Gauvain, Lamel, & Adda,
such as reliable speech recognition across wireless 2003) and multiple/alternative language modeling
communications channels, recognition of speech (Kurimo, Zhou, Huang, & Hansen, 2004) have
across changing speaker conditions (e.g. emo- also been considered for SDR. Finally, cross
tion and stress [Bou-Ghazale & Hansen, 2000; and multilingual-based studies have also been
Hansen, 1996; Sarikaya & Hansen, 2000] and performed for SDR (Akbacak & Hansen, 2006;
accent [Angkititrakul & Hansen, 2006; Arslan Navratil, 2001; Wang, Meng, Schone, Chen, &
& Hansen, 1997]), or recognition of speech from Lo, 2001).
unknown or changing acoustic environments.
174
Speechfind
Figure 1. Structure of (i) NGSW Audio Recordings speakers, microphone(s), recording media, and (ii)
segmentation and classification, speech recognition and transcript generation
a UDio Co nTen T: DePen Den T o n
To PiC & Time Per io D
input s PeeC h r eC o g n iTio n
r e Co r Ding o r a udio Un sU Per ViseD
Tr a nsmi ss io n s tream a UDio s Tr ea m a Co Us TiC l a n g Ua g e
meDia s eg men Ta Tio n mo Del in g mo Del in g
M IC RO P HO NE E DIS O N C Y L IN D E R D I S K
T YPE & C A S S E TTE T A P E
P L A C E ME N T R E E L - TO - R E E L T A P E
A M R A D IO B RO A DC A S T Tr a n s Cr iPT (t)
o ne o r mUl TiPl e FM R A DI O B R O A D C A S T g en er a Tio n
s Pea k e r s T V B RO A D CA S T
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Speechfind
Figure 2. Example Audio Stream (8kHz) spectrograms from NGSW: (A) Thomas Edison, recorded in
1908, (B) Thomas Watson, recorded in 1926, and (C) Pres. William J. Clinton, recorded in 1999
(a ) e Dis o n
(b ) w a Ts o n
(C) Cl inTo n
in Figure 2. The recordings are: (a)Thomas Edi- we provide seamless automatic transcription sup-
son, my work as an electrician (talking about port to improve online search capabilities. It has
contributions of 19th century scientists; original also been a major point to educate the library and
Edison cylinder disk recording, 1908), (b) Thomas information services sectors on what they can
Watson, as Bell was about to speak into the new expect from automatic transcription support, and
instrument, (talking about the first telephone mes- that while in some cases the resulting transcripts
sage from A.G. Bell on March 10, 1876; recorded can be used by users for reviewing audio content,
in 1926), and (c) President Bill Clinton, tonight I in other examples the transcripts contain such
stand before you, (State of the Union Address on a high level or word errors that they are useful
economic expansion, Jan. 19, 1999). This example only for audio search and indexing, since WERs
indicates the wide range of distortions present in can range from 5-70%, though WERs as high
the speech corpus. Some of these include: severe as 30-35% can still achieve reasonable search
bandwidth restrictions (e.g., Edison style cylinder performance (Abberley, Kirby, Renals, & Rob-
disks); poor audio from scratchy, used, or aging inson, 1999).
recording media; differences in microphone type
and placement; reverberation for speeches from
public figures; recordings from telephone, radio, S PEE CHFIN D SYS TEM O VER VIEW
or TV broadcasts; background noise including
audience and multiple speakers or interviewers; Here, we present an overview of the SpeechFind
as well as a wide range of speaking styles and system (see Figure 3) and describe several key
accents. modules. The system is constructed in two phases:
The CDP is a cooperative program providing (i) enrollment and (ii) query and retrieval. In the
oversight to more than 40 libraries and archives enrollment phase, large audio sets are submitted
interested in establishing or maintaining audio for audio segmentation and transcription genera-
collections. Their efforts include best practices tion and metadata construction (EAD: extended
for digital audio archives in terms of digitization, archive descriptor). Once this phase is completed,
recording, maintaining, and planning for future the audio material is now available through the
holdings. Our efforts here have concentrated on online audio search engine (i.e., query and re-
establishing a collaborative arrangement whereby trieval phase). The system includes the following
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Speechfind
Q U E R Y & R E T R IE V A L
A udio C lip R equests
Q uery
S e g m e n ta tio n /C lu ste r I n fo . M e ta d a ta
modules: an audio spider and transcoder, spoken speech segment into text. If human transcripts
documents transcriber, rich transcription da- are available for any of the audio documents,
tabase, and an online public accessible search the segmenter is still applied to detect speaker,
engine. As shown in the figure, the audio spider channel, and environmental changes in a guided
and transcoder are responsible for automatically manner, with the decoder being reduced to a
fetching available audio archives from a range of forced aligner for each speech segment to tag
available servers and transcoding the heteroge- timing information for spoken words. Figure
neous incoming audio files into uniform 16kHz, 4(i) shows that for the proposed SpeechFind
16bit linear PCM raw audio data (note: in general, system, transcript generation is first performed
the transcoding process is done off-line prior to which requires reliable acoustic and language
being available for user retrieval). In addition, models appropriate for the type of audio stream
for those audio documents with metadata labels, and time period. After transcript generation,
this module also parses the metadata and extracts Figure 4(ii) shows that three associated files are
relevant information into a rich transcript data- linked together, namely (i) the audio stream in
base for guiding information retrieval. (_.wav) format, (ii) the transcript (_.trs) file with
The spoken document transcriber includes time indexed locations into the audio file, and
two components, namely the audio segmenter (iii) extended archive descriptor (_.ead) file that
and transcriber. The audio segmenter partitions contains metadata information. The EAD file
audio data into manageable small segments by has an agreed upon format and structure from a
detecting speaker, channel, and environmental consortium of participating libraries (i.e., VVL,
change points. The transcriber decodes every U. S. National Archives, and U. S. Library of
Figure 4. (i) Automatic Transcript Generation (SDR), (ii) Statistical Information Retrieval (SIR)
M e ta -D a ta .ead
A udio A coustic Language T ext
S tream A u d io S tre a m .wav
M odeling M odeling T ranscripts
e ch n
T ranscrip t .trs gat es
ter mpea Nixo etnamTap
Wa I Vi
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Speechfind
Congress). Each audio stream has a reverse index the stream, speech recognition is performed
word histogram (with all stop words the, a, or, for transcript generation (Sec. 4.2). In Sec. 4.3,
... set aside) that is employed with the natural we consider advances also in acoustic model
language processing text search engine. These adaptation to improve transcripts for non-native
integrated files form the statistical information and native speakers. Finally, Sec. 4.4 considers
retrieval (SIR) engine. the text based information retrieval (IR) search
The online search engine is responsible for framework.
information retrieval tasks, including a Web-based
user interface as the front-end, and search and S poken A rchives S egmentation
index engines at the back-end. The Web-based
search engine responds to a user query by launch- The goal of audio segmentation and classifica-
ing back-end retrieval commands, formatting the tion is to partition and label an audio stream
output with relevant transcribed documents that into speech, music, commercials, environmental
are ranked by relevance scores and associated with background noise, or other acoustic conditions.
timing information, and providing the user with This preliminary stage is necessary for effective
Web-based page links to access the correspond- LVCSR, audio content analysis and understanding,
ing audio clips. It should be noted that the local audio information retrieval, audio transcription,
system does not store the entire audio archive audio clustering, and other audio recognition
collection, due to both copyright and disk space and indexing applications. Audio archive seg-
issues. Several hundred hours of audio have been mentation obtains manageable audio blocks for
digitized by MSU, and a portion is accessible via subsequent speech decoding, as well as allowing
SpeechFind (see Figure 5). for location analysis of speaker(s), channel, and
environmental change points to help track audio
segments of interest.
S PEE CHFIN D: TRANS CRIBING AN D The goals of effective audio/speaker segmen-
SEAR CH OF A UDIO AR CHI VES tation (Adami, Kajarekar, & Hermansky, 2002;
Lu & Zhang, 2002) are different than those for
As Figure 3 illustrates, the enrollment phase for ASR, and therefore features, processing methods,
an audio stream first requires audio segmenta- and modeling concepts successful for ASR may
tion and clustering (Sec. 4.1). Having segmented not necessarily be appropriate for segmentation.
Figure 5. (i) Sample Web Page & (ii) Output web page format. (http://SpeechFind.utdallas.edu)
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Speechfind
Features used for speech recognition attempt to cation (Lu, Zhang, & Jiang, 2002). We propose that
minimize the differences across speakers and a smoothed ZCR can be effective for segmentation
acoustic environments (i.e., speaker variance), (Huang & Hansen, 2006), which is computed using
and maximize the differences across phoneme five sets of ZCR evenly spaced across an analysis
space (i.e., phoneme variance). However, in window with no intermediate overlap; SZCR is
speaker segmentation for audio streams, we want the mean of the five sets for this frame.
to maximize speaker traits to produce segments FBLC: Although, it has been suggested that
that contain a single acoustic event or speaker, direct warping of the FFT power spectrum
and therefore traditional Mel frequency cepstral without filterbank processing can preserve most
coefficients (MFCCs) may not be as effective for information in the short-term speech spectrum
speaker segmentation. In this section, we consider (Yapanel & Hansen, 2003), we find that filterbank
segmentation for several features (e.g., PMVDR processing is more sensitive than other features
[Yapanel & Hansen, 2003], SZCR, and FBLC), in detecting speaker change. As such, the FBLC
and performance of the composite segmentation are the 20 Mel frequency filterbank log energy
scheme (CompSeg) for NGSW audio data. We coefficients.
consider three features and compare them to Table 1 shows that PMVDR can outperform
traditional MFCCs (Huang & Hansen, 2006). MFCC on all levels (Huang & Hansen, 2006) using
PMVDR: A high order minimum variance Hub4 96 training data and Hub4 97 evaluation
distortionless response (MVDR) provides better data obtained from the U. S. DARPA Broadcast
upper envelope representations of the short-term News corpus. FBLCs have a very small average
speech spectrum than MFCCs (Dharanipragada mismatch, implying they are sensitive to changes
& Rao, 2001). A perceptual-based MVDR feature between speakers and environments. Because
was proposed by Yapanel and Hansen (2003), PMVDR does not apply filterbank processing,
which we consider for segmentation here (i.e., we combine PMVDR and FBLC together. Also,
PMVDRs), that does not require an explicit the SZCR encodes information directly from the
filterbank analysis of the speech signal. We also waveform that we combine as well. The CompSeg
apply a detailed Bark frequency warping for (Huang & Hansen, 2006) algorithm combines
better results. PMVDR, SZCR, and FBLC features, applies
SZCR: A high zero crossing rate ratio (ZCR) the T2-Mean measure (Zhou & Hansen, 2005)
has previously been proposed for speaker classifi- for segments of less than 5 secs, and provides a
Table 1. SDR Segmentation Feature Performance. Note: (x.x%) represents the relative improvement
in FA: false alarm rate, MIS: miss detection rate, MMatch: average mismatch (msec), and FES: fused
error score
Feature FA: False Alarm MIS: Miss MMatch: mismatch in FES: fused error
Rate (msec) score
MFCC 29.6% 25.0% 298.47 237.58
FBLC 29.8% 25.3% 266.80 214.51
(-0.7%) (-1.2%) (10.6%) (9.7%)
MPVDR 25.9% 24.9% 284.29 215.21
(12.5%) (0.4%) (4.8%) (9.4%)
Combine 45-D 23.8% 24.3% 265.06 191.99
(19.6%) (2.8%) (11.2%) (19.2%)
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Speechfind
Table 2. SDR Segmentation performance using CompSeg with improved features, audio clustering and
false alarm compensation with (i) DARPA Hub4-97 Broadcast News data (relative improvements listed
in %), and (ii) sample 1960s NGSW audio materials
(i) Algorithm FA: False Alarm MIS: Miss MMatch: mismatch FES: fused error
Rate in (msec) score
Baseline 26.7% 26.9% 293.02 235.82
CompSeg 21.1% 20.6% 262.99 163.84
(21.0%) (23.4%) (10.2%) (30.5%)
(ii) NGSW Speaker Speaker MMatch Music & Sil Music & Sil False Alarm
1960s Change Change MMatch
Data
100% 129msec 26.9% 118msec 5.6%
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Speechfind
Table 3. Description & Evaluation performance of a sample portion of the NGSW audio corpus (29,628
words, 3.8hrs)
Decade # of Doc Audio Length (Min) # Words OOV(%) Avg. SNR (dB) Avg. WER (%)
1950 4 52 6241 1.42 26.63 38.6
1960 2 17 2142 1.52 21.34 36.7
1970 2 35 4434 0.81 20.87 25.6
1980 3 27 3330 0.63 17.97 60.1
1990 4 47 5951 1.28 14.79 48.0
2000 3 50 7530 0.78 26.81 59.1
rescoring using a more complex language model Model A daptation for A utomatic
could produce better text results. Transcription
To evaluate recognition performance, 3.8 hours
of sample audio data from the past 6 decades in From Sec. 4.2, it is clear that advances in acous-
NGSW is used as the test data. Table 3 provides tic model adaptation would improve speech
a summary of the audio statistics along with recognition performance. Currently, the most
WER averaged for each decade. Here we note commonly-used speaker adaptation algorithms
that average WER does not increase as we move include transformation-based techniques, the most
back in time, though the out-of-vocabulary (OOV) common being maximum likelihood linear re-
rate does. Instead, the first three decades achieve gression (MLLR) (Leggetter & Woodland, 1995)
better recognition accuracy, and the lowest WER achieved with affine transformations, and Bayes-
is observed for corpora from the 1970s. This ian learning that include maximum a posterior
can be attributed to the lower average SNR for (MAP) (Gauvain & Lee, 1994), which combines
the recordings used from the 1980s and 1990s. adaptation data with some a priori knowledge
For example, three long audio recordings of the concerning the model parameters. In addition,
1990s that contain 2,681 words have an average there are also several extensions to MAP and
SNR near 12 dB, which produce WERs above MLLR that have been extensively investigated in
75%, while other recordings with a higher aver- recent years that include regression-based model
age SNR of 21 dB achieve WERs less than 25%. prediction (RMP) (Ahadi & Woodland, 1997),
The average SNR of recordings from the 2000s structural MAP (Shinoda & Lee, 1997), block-
is relatively high, while the audio files are from diagonal MLLR (Neumeyer, Sankar, & Digalakis,
news conferences regarding the hand counting 1995), MAP linear regression (MAPLR) (Chesta,
of votes for the U.S. President in Florida. As a Siohan, & Lee, 1999; Chou, 1999), structural MA-
result, this portion becomes transcribed primar- PLR (Siohan, Myrvoll, & Lee, 2002), and others
ily as noise by the recognizer and as much as (Woodland [1999] details more comparisons).
35% of the overall WER is from deletions. This For relatively small amounts of adaptation data,
performance is sufficient for effective spoken transformation-based schemes have demonstrated
document retrieval; however, it is clear that all superior performance over MAP due to its global
possible methods for achieving robust speech adaptation via transformation sharing. On the
recognition will need to be brought to bear to other hand, MAP adaptation is more desirable for
further reduce the WER as the diversity of the its asymptotic convergence to maximum likeli-
audio materials continue to expand. hood estimation when the amount of adaptation
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Speechfind
data continues to increase (Gauvain & Lee, 1994). Table 4. WER (%) of non-nativespeakers (WSJ
However, both MLLR and MAP have not been Spoke3) with approximately 4.5 seconds of un-
able to show comparable improvements when only supervised adaptation data
limited amounts of adaptation data are available Baseline BD-MLLR EigMap SMLEM
(e.g., 5 seconds of adaptation data). (%) (%) (%) (%)
Here, we consider a novel approach based on Avg. Across 20.7 17.4 16.9 16.2
primary eignendirections called EigMap (EM) Speakers
(Zhou & Hansen, 2005). The basic idea of EigMap Relative --- 15.9% 18.4% 21.7%
Improvement
is to maintain the between-class variances (i.e.,
the discrimination power) of the baseline Gauss-
ian means along the first primary eigendirections
in the test speakers eigenspace. In EigMap, the (Witten, Moffat, & Bell, 1999). Here, the tfidf
baseline model is not only adapted through the weighting scheme is replaced with Okapi weight-
transformation, but also compressed with reduced ing (Robertson & Walker, 1999), and several
Gaussian dimensions of model mean, which fur- query and document expansion technologies are
ther suggests that faster recognition speed can incorporated. To ensure sufficient documents from
also be achieved using the adapted model due to the perspective of IR, the transcript from each rec-
reduced Gaussian computations. We point out ognition segment is treated as a single document.
that a number of extensions to this EigMap model In our case, many historical spoken documents
adaptation scheme have also been considered are typically longer than 30 minutes, so the use
(Zhou & Hansen, 2005). One such extension is of small segments as a search unit allows for a
structured maximum likelihood eigenspace map- more specific user search. The SpeechFind Web
ping (SMLEM), which extends the core EigMap interface provides the user access to the detected
algorithm by imposing a further shift in the model speech segments and automatic transcripts, and
space to maximize the adaptation data likelihood. allows the user to preview/listen to any parts of
To account for the adaptation data likelihood, the the entire audio file containing the original de-
EigMap formulation can be extended by adding tected segments.
a linear bias in the test speakers eigenspace. The An inherent difference exists between
linear bias is derived in a manner that maximizes transcribed spoken documents and typical text
the adaptation data likelihood. Since only the documents. Automatic transcriptions essen-
Gaussian means are adapted, we ignore other tially decode acoustic recordings using the most
model parameters in the auxiliary function using probable in-vocabulary word sequences. On the
the EM algorithm. Further details concerning other hand, text documents and queries written
this extension are discussed by Zhou and Hansen by humans tend to use a simplified notation. For
(2005). An example of improved transcript genera- example, 1960 could be widely used in human-
tion using EigMap and SMLEM of the baseline written documents to indicate the year 1960, but
(with no adaptation) and with block-diagonal it is usually not included in either the diction-
MLLR are shown in Table 4. ary or language models in most state-of-the-art
speech recognizers. Hence the audio phrase will
IR O ver A utomatic Transcripts & appear as nineteen sixty in automatic spoken
IR A dvances document transcripts. To address this issue, the
spoken transcripts and queries are normalized in
The current SpeechFind retrieval engine is a the SpeechFind system to bridge this gap. Through
modified version of managing gigabytes (MG) a predefined dictionary of mappings between
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Speechfind
spoken words and simplified human notations, eigenspace mapping. Information retrieval over
the automatic transcripts are filtered, which, for automatic transcripts was considered by combin-
example, replace N. B. C. with NBC. Using ing DE and QE using RF and PBRF.
an inverse of a similar dictionary, the queries are We note that recent advances in the following
filtered as well (e.g., we change the query word areas of (i) speaker accent/dialect (Angkititrakul
1st to first). & Hansen, 2006, 2007; Huang & Hansen, 2007),
Query expansion (QE) is an application that (ii) speaker stress/emotion (Varadarajan & Han-
could be used to address the problem of missing sen, 2006), and (iii) environment/noise analysis
query terms directly, or missing term relations (Akbacak & Hansen, 2007) offer some challenges
indirectly (Robertson & Sparck Jones, 1997). The as SDR technologies move to the general popula-
idea behind document expansion (DE) (Singhal tion. Some of these include: (i) How do speech
& Pereira, 1999) is that given a document, first researchers deal with dirty transcripts which
identify other parallel documents related to those have word errors when users (e.g., both librarians
in hand and bring signal words from the related and general users) expect perfect transcription
documents into the present document. To expand support? (ii) How do we interpret the text and
spoken documents, we first run automatic tran- intent of the transcribed message and enrich the
scription of the speech document as a query on a search capabilities? (i.e., transcripts have word
parallel collection, and then the query documents errors, users do not say their names, and topics
are expanded using parallel blind relevance feed- are sometimes assumed or known by those dis-
back (PBRF). The effect of document expansion cussing/talking) (iii) How do we assign labels
largely depends on the selection of the parallel when we do not know groundtruth for the audio
text collection, which should be related to the materials? (i.e., for audio streams, we may not
spoken corpus. know the identity of the subject, we may not know
the true accent/dialect of the subject speaking, we
may not know how angry or the stress level of a
S UMMARY AN D DIS CUSSION subject, etc.). Since many of these issues require
that the audio signal be tagged with labels which
In this chapter, we have addressed a number will have absolute certainty, it is important to
of advances in establishing spoken document emphasize how this knowledge is presented and
retrieval for a new National Gallery of the Spo- incorporated by the user in the search process.
ken Word. We first discussed an overview of the Further progress in SDR could benefit from
audio stream content of the NGSW with sample improving IR performance. In our task, reliable
audio files. Next, we presented the SpeechFind document categorization could be achieved with
system, an experimental online spoken docu- the help of metadata associated with some spoken
ment retrieval system for an historical archive documents (i.e., so called EAD extended archive
with 60,000 hours of audio recordings from the descriptor, files used in library archive services,
last century. We introduced the SDR system etc.), which narrows a search and hence improves
architecture, and focused on audio data transcrip- the retrieval precision.
tion and information retrieval components. We
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188
Chapter XVIII
Using Topic-Specific Ranks to
Personalize Web Search
Sofia Stamou
Patras University, Greece
A bs tra ct
This chapter introduces a personalized ranking function as a means of offering Web information seekers
with search results that satisfy their particular interests. It argues that userspreferences can be accurately
identified based on the semantic analysis of their previous searches and that learnt user preferences can
be fruitfully employed for personalizing search results. In this respect, we introduce a ranking formula
that encapsulates the users interests in the process of ordering retrieved results so as to meet the users
needs. For carrying out our study we relied on a lexical ontology that encodes a number of concepts
and their interrelations and which helps us determine the semantics of both the query keywords and the
query matching pages. Based on the correlation between the query and document semantics, our model
decides upon the ordering of search results so that these are personalized.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Using Topic-Specific Ranks to Personalize Web Search
to customize the ordering of search results in a users preference based on the analysis of the users
way that interesting pages show up first in the past clickthrough history (Chen & Sycara, 2004;
list of retrieved data. In this chapter, we propose Pretschner & Gauch, 1999, Sugiyama, Hatano, &
a technique that tries to automatically identify Yoshikawa, 2004). Pretschner and Gauch (1999)
users interests based on the semantic analysis for instance, describe how a users preference is
of their previous searches and we introduce a identified based on the five most frequent topics
personalized ranking function that explores the in the users log data.
similarity between the identified user interests On the other hand, Chen and Sycara (2004)
and the retrieved pages content in order to rerank generate multiple TF-IDF vectors, each represent-
results in way that satisfies the user interests. Our ing the users interests in one area. Sugiyama et al.
work aims at introducing some theoretical aspects (2004) employ collaborative filtering techniques
on Web search personalization and we defer ex- for learning the users preference from both the
perimental evaluation for a future study. The rest pages the user visited and those visited by users
of the chapter is organized as follows. We begin with similar interests. Likewise, Teevan, Dumais,
with an overview of related works on Web search and Horvitz (2005) employ rich models of user
personalization and personalized ranking. In the interests, built from both search-related informa-
following section, we present our approach on how tion and information about the documents a user
we can leverage a lexical ontology for identifying has read, created, and/or e-mailed.
the users interests though the semantic analysis A promising approach to personalizing search
of their search requests. We then discuss how is to develop algorithms that infer intentions im-
we can encapsulate the identified users interests plicitly rather than requiring that the users inten-
in the process of ordering search results and we tions be explicitly specified. For an overview of
outline a ranking function that combines the us- such approaches, we refer the reader to the work of
ers preferences and the pages relevance to the Kelly and Teevan (2003). A multitude of implicit
query keywords in order to prioritize among a set user activities have been proposed as sources of
of query relevant pages the ones that are highly information for enhanced Web search, including
probable of satisfying the users needs. Finally, the users query (Shen & Zhai, 2003; Speretta &
we conclude the chapter with some discussion Gauch, 2004) and browsing history (Sugiyama et
on our approach and we outline our plans for al., 2004). Sun, Zeng, Liu, Lu, and Chen (2005)
future work. explore the correlation between users, their que-
ries, and search results clicked to model the us-
ers preferences. A lot of research in metasearch
BA CKGRO UN D (e.g., Powel, French, Callan, & Connell, 2000;
Yu, Meng, Wu, & Liu, 2001) investigate mapping
There has been previous work in personalizing user queries to a set of categories or collections.
Web search. One approach to personalization is However, the above techniques return the same
to have users explicitly describe their general results for a given query, regardless of who sub-
search interests, which are stored as personal mitted the query. Our approach is different from
profiles (Pazzani, Muramatsu, & Billsus, 1996). the above in that we try to map user queries to
Personal profiles, specified explicitly by the us- particular topics based on the users preferences
ers have also been used to personalize rankings, for those topics.
such as the PageRank algorithm (Aktas, Nacar, & Besides statistical approaches that analyze
Menczer, 2004; Jeh & Widom, 2003). There also the users clickthrough history and past queries
exist many works on the automatic learning of a for learning the users search profile, researchers
189
Using Topic-Specific Ranks to Personalize Web Search
have also explored the role of semantics in the SEAR CH PERSONALIZA TION
personalization process. In this direction, there
exist several works that utilize ontologies (either In this chapter, we introduce a formal framework
lexical or topical) for processing users past search to investigate the problem of identifying a users
data and identifying their search preferences. Dai search interests through the semantic analysis of
and Mobasher (2002) propose the exploitation of the users previous searches. The proposed model
ontologies in order to identify the user interests, explores a topical ontology for disambiguating
which they subsequently transform into domain- user-issued queries as well as for identifying the
level aggregate profiles through the representation users hidden search interests. Throughout the
of every page as a set of related ontology objects. users search preferences detection process, there
Oberle, Berendt, Hotho, and Gonzalez (2003) is no burden put on the user as no feedback (nei-
propose a framework based on a Semantic Web ther implicit nor explicit) is asked from the user.
site that employs Web mining techniques on the Additionally, we equip our proposed model with
sites underlying RDF ontology in order to seman- a ranking function which measures the pages
tically analyze Web logs based on the ontologys relevance to the query semantics and orders them
concepts. Moreover, Kearney and Anand (2005) in way that reflects the correlation between the
use an ontology to estimate the impact that every users interests and the pages contents. Based on
ontology concept has on the users navigational a combined analysis of the users interests and the
behavior, and based on these estimations, they pages relevance values, our model personalizes
define the similarity between the different users retrieved results by prioritizing among a set of
and the user preferences in order to build per- query-relevant pages those whose contents match
sonalized recommendations for Web information the respective users preferences.
seekers. In a recent work (i.e., Tzekou, Stamou,
Kozanidis, & Zotos, 2007), we have introduced Motivation
a novel recommendation mechanism that relies
on a topical ontology for offering Web users with The main intuition for building our model is
customized site views. that every search query communicates implicit
Finally, researchers have proposed methods to information about the topic preferences of the
personalize Web search by modifying PageRank user. Based on this assumption, the problem of
to account for user personal preferences. Rich- identifying a users search interests translates
ardson and Domingos (2002) tailor the PageRank into finding the topics of the queries issued to a
vectors based on query terms but not by individual search engine by that user. For the effective query
users. Haveliwala (2002) introduces the topic- topic detection, we build upon previous work
sensitive PageRank scheme, which personalizes (i.e., Stamou, Ntoulas, & Christodoulakis, 2007),
PageRank values by giving different weights to where we showed the contribution of a topical
pages, one for each topic listed in the open direc- ontology for annotating Web pages with suitable
tory. Recently, Qui and Cho (2006) proposed a topical categories. Here, we expand our work and
formal framework for learning the users interest propose a model that automatically identifies the
and used that knowledge for further improve- users preferences through the analysis of the users
ment of the search quality of the topic-sensitive past searches. In particular, we investigate the
PageRank. correlation between the semantics of the users
queries and the semantics of the Web pages that
the user has visited in response to each of those
queries in order to build that users profile.
190
Using Topic-Specific Ranks to Personalize Web Search
User Interests Detection specifically, we collect for every query that the user
has issued the number of pages that the user has
Considering the multitude of topics that are dis- visited and we also record the amount of time the
cussed over the Web, it is reasonable to assume user spent on those pages. Assuming that the time
that a Web user is primarily interested in a small the user devotes on reading a page is analogous to
subset of topics in the users Web transactions. the pages size (i.e., amount of content), we firstly
Moreover, assuming that a Web user has a particu- normalize the time interval the user spent on every
lar interest in mind every time the user searches page by that pages size. Thereafter, we process the
for information on the Web, we might conclude contents of all the pages visited by the user for a
that every query issued by the user communicates single query for more that 30 seconds in order to
implicit information about a given interest at the derive information about their semantic content.
time of query submission. Based on these assump- Processing the visited pages accounts to hypertext
tions, we try to learn the users search preferences markup language (HTML) parsing in order to
based on the semantic analysis of the users past remove markup, tokenization, POS-tagging, and
queries. The main challenges that we have to lemmatization. Thereafter, we rely on the pages
deal with summarize to the following: first, we nouns and we map them to their corresponding
need to associate every query previously issued WordNet nodes in order to identify, for every noun
by the user with a particular interest, and second, inside a page, a suitable concept for representing
we need to identify among a set of interests that its meaning. In case a term extracted from a visited
might be associated with the same query across its page matches several WordNet nodes (i.e., its a
submissions a single user preference. In the end, polysemous term), we rely on the Resnik (1995)
we need to combine the different user interests, similarity metric in order to annotate every term
each corresponding to a number of past search with a concept that is most likely to express that
queries, into a rich user profile that reflects the terms semantics.
users general search preferences. Having annotated every noun inside a query-
For the first challenge, we leverage the Word- visited page with an appropriate concept, the next
Net lexical ontology (Fellbaum, 1998) in order step is to identify the topical categories to which
to analyze a users past clickthrough data and these concepts correspond. In other words, we
disambiguate the intention associated with each need to group the pages concepts into topical
of the users past queries. Having deciphered clusters that represent the pages semantic content.
the users preferences that are latent behind the Topical clustering is enabled though the exploita-
users previous queries, we try to deal with the tion of a topical ontology that we have built in the
second challenge, that is, how to select among a course of an earlier study (Stamou et al., 2007)
set of possibly distinct interests that characterize and which contains a number of topics borrowed
the same query across its different submissions a from the open directory taxonomy enriched with
single general preference that characterizes the their corresponding WordNet lexical hierarchies.
users intentions. Finally, we show how we can In brief, our approach works as follows: given the
combine the interests learned from each of the topical ontology and a set of concepts that have
users queries in order to build a user profile that been assigned to the pages nouns, we compute
corresponds to the users search preferences. the likelihood that every concept represents (i.e.,
For disambiguating the intention of every semantically relates to) each of the ontologys
query previously issued by the user, our method topics. For our computations, we rely on the
operates upon the semantics of the pages that the distance that the noun-matching concepts have
user has visited in response to that query. More to each of the ontologys topical concepts (i.e.,
191
Using Topic-Specific Ranks to Personalize Web Search
top level categories) so that the closest a noun- the other. Query-matching topics that do correlate
matching concept is to a topical node the greatest in the ontology graph are deemed as semantically
the probability that it belongs to that topic. Based similar and as such we employ their most specific
on the above, we estimate the probability with common subsumer as a more general topic that
which each of the ontologys topics is expressive can successfully represent the query intention. On
of the query matching pages terms as a function the other hand, in case the query matching topics
that averages the concept-topic probabilities over exhibit no semantic correlation with each other in
the pages terms. At the end of this process, we the ontology graph, we retain all identified topics
represent every page that the user has visited for describing that querys intention. At the end
for a single query as a set of topics weighted of this process, we end up with the most suitable
by their probability of being expressive of the topical categories for representing each of the
pages concepts. Based on the above information, users past queries.
we rely on the topical category that exhibits the We now turn our attention on how we can
greatest probability for representing the visited combine the topics associated with the users
pages semantics as the category that describes previous searchers in order to build that users
the query intention. profile. Recall that every query previously is-
After annotating every query in the users sued by the user is represented as a set of topics
search logs with a suitable topical category, the weighted by their probability of expressing the
next step is to identify a single topic for represent- query intention. To build the user profile we
ing a query that has been issued multiple times by concatenate the queries annotated with the same
the user, but every time with a different interest in topical category into a single user interest and
mind. In particular, we need to ensure that each we sum the query-topic probabilities in order to
query corresponds to a single topic and as such derive the degree of the user preference in each
we need to eliminate multiple query topic annota- the underlying topics. Having computed the user
tions. In this direction, we first identify the query interest in each of the topics expressed by the
keywords that have been associated with multiple users past queries, we model the users profile
ontology topics and we employ our topical ontol- as a set of weighted topics, each one representing
ogy in order to explore any underlying correlation the users preferences. We finally sort the topics
between these topics. In other words, we try to identified for building the users profile in terms
identify whether there is a semantic correlation of interest and we store them locally in order to
between the different ontology topics computed utilize them in the users future searches. In the
by our method for describing the query intention. following section, we present a ranking formula
In doing so, we essentially try to capture whether that takes the identified user interests into account
there is a single search interest latent behind a while ordering search results. Before that, let us
particular query or whether the query intended outline some practical issues pertaining to our
the retrieval of different information sources in user profiling method so that it can be fruitfully
terms of semantic content. For estimating the employed by others. Our method is completely
correlation between the different query match- automated in the sense that it does not ask for the
ing topics, we basically rely on the semantic user involvement in the profiling process. The only
relations that connect the query matching topics prerequisites for our model is a Web transactions
in the ontology and upon their identification we recording module that collects information about
compute their semantic distance as the number the users Web searches and clickthrough data, and
of nodes that need to be traversed in the ontology a topical ontology that helps us disambiguate the
graph in order to reach from one topical node to query intentions and utilize them for estimating
192
Using Topic-Specific Ranks to Personalize Web Search
the general user interests. However, our method is the next step is to combine this data into a single
not bound to a particular ontology or query sense function for ordering search results.
detection model and it can be fruitfully employed As said before, our ranking function operates
for any ontology or word sense disambiguation upon the traditional IR query page similarity
technique that one would like to use. values in order to determine a baseline ordering
for the query-marching pages, that is, the pages
Topic-Specific Rankings that contain the query keywords. Query-page
similarity is essentially based on the vector space
Having introduced our approach to the automatic model and estimates the degree to which each
identification of the users search preferences, of the query matching pages relates to the given
we now suggest the utilization of a topic-specific query. In particular, we represent every page p
ranking function for ordering retrieved results that contains the query keywords as a vector p =
in response to a query in a way that the most <wp1, wp2, , wpm> and we also represent every
important pages in a topic show up first. The query q containing m keywords as a vector q =
baseline ranking function upon which our model <wq1, wq2, , wqm>. We then estimate the query-
operates for personalizing search results can page similarity as
be any of those that have been proposed in the
m
literature. In the course of this study, we employ sim( p, q ) = w pk wqk
k =1
the traditional query-page relevance metric as
the core ranking formula and we further extend Based on the above similarity measure we
it by encapsulating the identified user interests measure the degree to which each of the query
in the results ordering process. In other words, matching documents relates to the query. Based
our proposed personalized ranking considers not on the above, we determine a baseline ordering
only the correlation between the query and each of for the query matching pages in the search results.
the retrieved documents but it also considers the Our next step is to personalize this ordering so
correlation between the identified user interests that the query-relevant pages that match the
and the semantics of the returned pages, in order users interests show up first in the list of search
to determine the ordering of search results. results. For personalizing the delivered rankings,
More specifically, given that our model we first measure the degree to which each of the
represents the user interests as a set of topics, returned pages matches the users interests. To
weighted by their degree of preference, we first enable that, we compute the similarity between
need to model Web pages in an analogous man- the topics identified for representing the users
ner. That is, we need to represent pages as a set of interests and the topics detected for representing
weighted topics, and based on this representation, the pages semantic content.
to estimate the likelihood that each of the pages Topical similarity values are computed in the
topics will satisfy the users search interests. For ontologys graph and they essentially rely on the
modeling documents as a set of weighted topics, amount of information that the examined topical
we proceed as before and rely on WordNet for concepts share in common. Specifically, consider
disambiguating the pages terms. Thereafter, we that the user is interested in topics Ta, Tb, and Tc
turn to our topical ontology for computing a set with preferences Pa for the topic Ta, Pb for the topic
of topical categories that are likely to describe the Tb, and Pc for topic Tc. Assume also that a query
pages contents. Having modeled user interests matching page contains concepts that belong to
and pages contents as a set of weighted topics, topics Ta and Tb. To estimate the probability that
193
Using Topic-Specific Ranks to Personalize Web Search
the pages matches the users profile we compute pages preference by the user issuing the query,
the paired similarity values between the concepts given by:
representing topics Ta, Tb, and Tc in the ontology
graph. Similarity is defined as the number of con- Rank(p) = sim(p, q) + P(p, u)
cepts that two topical concepts share in common
(Resnik, 1995) and is formally given by: Based on the above, we can estimate the rank-
ing of every page returned in response to some
sim(ci, cj) = log(mscs(ci, cj)) query and ensure that the ordering of search results
will reflect not only their similarity to the query
Where ci and cj are the concepts represent- keywords but also their closeness to the query
ing a pair of topics and mscs is the most specific intention. Note that in case the topic discussed in
common subsumer of ci and cj in the ontology a returned page is of no interest to the user (i.e.,
graph. The measure of the most specific com- P(p.u)=0) then the ordering of that page will solely
mon subsumer (mscs) depends on (i) the length rely on its relevance to the query.
of the shortest path from the root to the most Based on the process described above, our
specific common subsumer of ci and cj and (ii) ranking algorithm prioritizes among a set of query
the density of concepts on this path. Based on relevant pages the ones that are most likely to be
the above formula we compute paired similarity preferred by the user, thus it personalizes search
values between the topics used to represent the results. Finally, note that our ranking function is
users interests and the topics that correspond to not bound to a particular baseline ranking scheme
the pages concepts. We then rely on the average and as such it can be fruitfully combined with
similarity values between the page and the users any other ranking formula that one would like to
interesting topics in order to derive the probability use. One such option is to employ the PageRank
that a user interested in topic Tk will prefer page function that considers the pages popularity in
p discussing topic Ti as: conjunction to the pages query relatedness in
order to derive a baseline ranking for the retrieved
P ( p, u ) = sim(T , T )
i k results, and based on the delivered ordering, to
apply our personalization approach in order to
Where P(p,u) denotes the estimated user refine the ordering of search results in a person-
preference for page p and sim (Ti,Tk) denotes alized manner.
the average similarity values between the topic
Ti discussed in p and the topic Tk identified as
interesting to the user. F UTURE TREN DS AN D
Having computed the degree to which each CON CL USION
of the retrieved pages relates to the query and
having also estimated the degree of the users In this chapter, we investigated the search person-
preference in each of the returned pages, we put alization problem and we have presented a novel
those measures together to determine the ordering framework which automatically learns the users
of the retrieved pages in the search results so that search interests based on the analysis of their past
these are tailored to the users interests. Formally, clickthrough data. In particular, we investigated
our personalized ranking function determines how a topical ontology serves towards annotating
the ordering of search results as the sum of the the user-issued queries with a suitable topic. The
pages relevance to the query keywords and the topics assigned to the user-issued queries represent
the search interests of the respective users. Moreo-
194
Using Topic-Specific Ranks to Personalize Web Search
ver, we have proposed a ranking framework that Kearney, P., & Anand, S.S. (2005). Employing a
takes the identified user interests into account in domain ontology to gain insight into user behavior.
order to sort search results in a way that reflects In Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop on Intelligent
the probability that the user will prefer each of Techniques for Web Personalization, Scotland.
the pages retrieved in response to a query.
Kelly, D., & Teevan, J. (2003). Implicit feedback
In the future we plan, on the one hand, to ex-
for inferring user preference: A bibliography.
tensively evaluate the performance of our method
SIGIR Forum, 32(2), 18-28.
in personalizing Web search by comparing it to
the performance of other rankings schemes, such Oberle, D., Berendt, B., Hotho, A., & Gonzalez, J.
as the topic-sensitive PageRank (Haveliwala, (2003). Conceptual user tracking. In Proceedings
2002) or the personalized topic-sensitive Pag- of the 1st Atlantic Web Intelligence Conference.
eRank scheme (Qui & Cho, 2006). On the other
Page, L., Brin, S., Motwani, R., & Winograd, T.
hand, we plan to expand our framework to take
(1998). The PageRank citation ranking: Bringing
rich models of user interests into account, such
order to the Web (Tech. Rep.). Stanford University
as users activity while visiting a page, e-mail,
Database Group. Retrieved August 26, 2008, from
bookmarks information, and so forth.
http://dbpubs.stanford.edu:8090/pub/1999-66.
Pazzani, M., Muramatsu, J., & Billsus, D. (1996).
R eferen ces Syskill & Webert: Identifying interesting Web
sites. In Proceedings of the 13th National Con-
Aktas, M., Nacar, N., & Menczer, F. (2004). Per- ference on Artificial Intelligence, Portland (pp.
sonalizing PageRank based on domain profiles. 54-61).
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Powel, A. L., French, J. C., Callan, J. P., & Con-
Mining and Web Usage (pp. 83-90).
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Chen, L., & Sycara, K. (2004). Webmate: A on distributed searching. In Proceedings of the
personal agent for browsing and searching. In SIGIR Conference.
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Pretschner, A., & Gauch, S. (1999). Ontology-
on Autonomous Agents & Multiagent Systems
based personalized search. In Proceedings of the
(pp. 132-139).
11th IEEE International Conference on Tools with
Dai, H., & Mobasher, B. (2002). Using ontologies Artificial Intelligence (pp. 391-398).
to discover domain-level Web usage profiles. In
Qui, F., & Cho, J. (2006). Automatic identifica-
Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop on Semantic
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Web Mining, Finland.
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Fellbaum, C. (1998). WordNet: An electronic Web Conference (pp. 727-236).
lexical database. MIT Press.
Resnik, P. (1995). Disambiguating noun groupings
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In Proceedings of the 11th International World of the 3rd Workshop on Very Large Corpora.
Wide Web Conference (pp. 517-526). MIT Press.
Jeh, G., & Widom, J. (2003). Scaling personal- Richardson, M., & Domingos, R. (2002). The in-
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Using Topic-Specific Ranks to Personalize Web Search
196
Using Topic-Specific Ranks to Personalize Web Search
WordNet: WordNet is a semantic lexicon for The purpose is twofold: to produce a combination
the English language. It groups English words of dictionary and thesaurus that is more intuitively
into sets of synonyms called synsets, provides usable, and to support automatic text analysis and
short, general definitions, and records the various artificial intelligence applications.
semantic relations between these synonym sets.
197
198
Chapter XIX
Guidelines for Developing
Digital Cultural Collections
Irene Lourdi
National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece
Mara Nikolaidou
Harokopio University of Athens, Greece
A bs tra ct
This chapter presents basic guidelines for maintaining digital cultural collections in order for them to
be interoperable and easily retrievable from users. The requirements of cultural material are discussed
and it is shown how in combination with the adequate metadata schema policy a digital cultural col-
lection can cover the various needs for learning and retrieving information. The authors emphasize
the fact that various metadata schemas are used for describing cultural collections and that this leads
to problems for interoperability. It is analyzed that while designing a digital collection, the internal
structure of material must be followed and the metadata model must cover specific needs; furthermore,
a data preservation policy is a considerable issue in the digital era.
In the following, guidelines are discussed con- specific groups of objects, the whole collection
sidering the requirements and issues concerning and subcollections can easily be manipulated
the planning and organizing of a digital cultural as separate objects with their characteristics
collection in order to be functional for all user and metadata elements; like all the other digital
categories and easily retrievable through the Web. items, the attributes inherited from the collection
The focused issues are: i) material organization to subcollections are identified and the overall
and management policy, ii) metadata standards, collection can be effectively navigated by users
and iii) data preservation practices. There is a (Lourdi, 2005).
great need for cultural institutions (e.g., library, In case a cultural heritage collection consists
museum, or archives) to offer wide and easy of composite objects like texts with photographs
access to qualitative cultural data demands to or traditional dressings, it is a good practice to
approach all the issues above from an integrated separate them into their parts and represent their
aspect without concerning institutional or national structure. Composite objects must be decomposed
boundaries. Proposals need to satisfy various into their disparate parts since it is possible to
and sometimes different information seeking characterize them individually with the appropri-
behaviours by always keeping the authenticity ate metadata elements, as it is proposed above.
and integrity of cultural material. Besides material organization, another crucial
issue for a cultural collection is the management
policy, and more specifically the administration
Material organiza tion policy. In a digitization project, it is important to
an d managemen t poli cy preserve the holding institution policy concerning
the access restrictions and material protection
Cultural heritage institutions should adjust their rules. For instance, whether it is about unique
digital collection planning according to user needs and rare material with copyright issues or the
and the nature of material. In most cases, cultural purposes of the institution is not to provide the
collections contain heterogeneous material with material freely to audience, digital collection plan
unique characteristics, like written texts, photo- shall respect these matters and shall not give full
graphs, physical objects, sound recordings, maps, access to a collection and its contents.
or even born-digital material. Consequently, it is The most prevailing factor for a digitization
justifiable to have collections and subcollections project is material preservation. Most cultural
with complex structure and rich semantics. heritage institutions consider digitization as the
Since cultural objects are heterogeneous, they best solution for preserving rare and vulnerable
should be grouped according to criteria either, material in the future. So for administration pur-
facilitating users with easy access or expressing poses, a digital collection shall follow the most
internal standards following the holding institu- accepted digitization practices and shall preserve
tion (owner of the collection). As such, criteria can all the information related with digitization pro-
be, for instance, the topic coverage, the specific cess and devices.
usage or purpose that each resource has in the The main requirements for the cultural infor-
context of the collection, the provenance, the type mation management and dissemination process
of material, or the geographic region and histori- can be summarized by the following: a) the mate-
cal period the object covers. It is useful to create rial should preserve its unique characteristics; b)
subcollections (if they do not preexist), since it the semantic context of the collection and of its
is easier to represent composite structures and objects should be expressed clearly; and c) cultural
accredit rich semantics to any level. By defining data should be retrievable at any structural infor-
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Guidelines for Developing Digital Cultural Collections
mation level. It is obvious that for manipulating better administration of large collections. Thus,
and representing cultural information objects, it is required to offer a detailed collection- and
which are characterized by complexity and in- subcollection-level description with the appro-
tense heterogeneity, rich and flexible metadata priate metadata elements, after specifying the
models are required, capable of encapsulating structure of the collection.
and manipulating contextual information. Librarians understanding of the descriptive
and analytical needs of three-dimensional objects
has to be expanded. The descriptive metadata
Me ta data mo del/s tan dar ds needs not only to support the subject coverage
of the items but also to:
In the current digital environment, users are called
to find information among various resources a. Express the relationships between digital
without easily being able to criticize and define objects. It is necessary to represent all kinds
whether it is of their interest. For this reason the of relations that exist inside and outside the
basic parameter in a digitization project is to collection throughout structural levels, in
characterize meaningfully the material with the order to provide the users with all the infor-
metadata model. For this purpose, many metadata mation that is hidden in the collection. For
standards have been developed either by interna- example, the relation between a photograph
tional committees or by local projects describ- referenced on a text page and the actual
ing cultural heritage collections and providing photograph belonging in the photographs
semantically-rich information to users. subcollectionprobably in another format-
- should be identified (e.g., has format or
Metadata Model R equirements is converted to or is the same with).
b. Contain elements concerning the digitization
The metadata model for a cultural collection ought process and the digital surrogates of the items
to contain features that will provide users with (technical metadata). This is considered
effective services to access and retrieve data about important mainly for preservation reasons
the objects either by browsing the collections or and for protecting digital sources from future
by searching those using keywords. Metadata risks (e.g., data transfer, operational system
authoring practices must be compliant with com- changes, physical destructions, etc.) (Patel
munity accepted standard schema(s). et al., 2005).
The metadata model needs to be focused both c. Inform about the copyrights and material
on collection entity and item level. Collection-level usage restrictions (administrative meta-
description allows users to search for informa- data). This is a strong necessity in order to
tion across all kinds of memory institutions and keep all the valuable information for the
domains, enabling them to identify appropriate preservation, authenticity, and retrieval of
collections to visit or item-level searching. High- information.
level collection description is important in order
to help the navigation, discovery, and selection In general, the main metadata principles for a
of cultural content (Dempsey, 1999). The collec- cultural collection are: a) to be appropriate for the
tion-level description simplifies the retrieval of described material, users, and future uses; b) to
information because the user can decide whether support interoperability, standard, and controlled
the collection is of interest without getting into vocabulary employed to reflect content and a clear
details about the objects and also contributes to statement of conditions/terms of use; c) support
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Guidelines for Developing Digital Cultural Collections
the long term management of objects in the col- while others cover collection-level description
lection (distinctions: administrative, technical, (Dublin Core collection description application
and preservation metadata) (NISO, 2004); and d) profile; RSLP).
metadata records should be considered as objects At this point, no one can claim which metadata
themselves and so they should have the qualities schema is the most appropriate to apply. Never-
of good objects and should be authoritative and theless, the best practice for designing a good
verifiable. metadata model for a cultural collection is to be
compatible with general practices and protocols
Metadata S tandards/Interoperability that contribute to the effective resource discovery
Matters and to the maintenance of a high level of consis-
tency. A source that can be used as reference are
Information retrieval from heterogeneous resourc- the descriptive metadata guidelines for RLG
es is quite difficult since each memory institution cultural materials, which negotiate the different
(i.e., museum, library, and archives) follows dif- practices in the communities by establishing a
ferent material administration and metadata gen- guide to description that can be applied in any
eration policies. Due to the diversity of museum, case (RLG, 2005). So, the metadata schema for
archives, and library management perspectives, it a cultural collection needs to include all kinds of
is impossible to create a single metadata schema data: descriptive (describe the resources intellec-
meeting almost all the communities needs (Gill, tual content), structural (document the structure
2004). Therefore, a plethora of general standards of the objects and the relationships between
and local community-specific metadata models them). and administrative (provide information
have evolved for the documentation of cultural about the digitization process and the collection
collections. Parallel technologies for description preservation).
have been developed, meaning that they employ The above aspects are based on the expecta-
different data structures, data content rules, and tion to assure the greatest interoperability with
(to some extent) data formats to encode their other projects and applications and to be able to
collections. It is not possible to describe all the exchange and transfer data from other systems.
existing metadata standards for cultural heritage Let us not forget current user needs for access to
collections but a general statement about them is all available information across the board of digital
documented in the next paragraphs and emphasis libraries and virtual museums address information
is given in matters of interoperability. professionals to give priority to the task of creating
The existing metadata standards for cultural the highest feasible level of interoperability among
collections and items can be separated in two metadata models. Maintaining interoperable col-
categories: according to the coverage domain and lection-level and object-level metadata enhance
according to the description level. For instance, the facility to aggregate and disaggregate content
concerning the domain, there are metadata from multiple heterogeneous resources, without
standards that are used by libraries (e.g., MARC thinking of the type of holding institutions. For
and MODS), others by museum collections this reason, in recent years, numerous projects
(e.g., CDWA, VRA, SPECTRUM), and those by have been undertaken in the information com-
archives (e.g., EAD). Besides them, there also munity to achieve interoperability among different
exist some metadata standards for general use metadata schemas. Some of the mechanisms that
like Dublin Core and RSLP. On the other hand, have addressed metadata interoperability are the
concerning the description level, some of the following: crosswalks/ mappings, application
above standards cover item-level description profiles/modification, metadata framework/con-
tainer, and protocols.
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Guidelines for Developing Digital Cultural Collections
Many papers have been written about the chal- To combine or apply different metadata
lenging issues of creating crosswalks between standards in order to cover all the formats
standards but they are still considered to be a and types of physical and digital objects
widely applied solution. There have been a sub- (e.g., text, sound, image, etc.) and create af-
stantial number of crosswalks like: MARC21 to terwards mappings between these standards
Dublin Core, VRA to Dublin Core, EAD to ISAD, or mappings from these standards to only
and so forth. The concept of application profiles one schema for reasons of interoperability,
is based on the idea that in the heterogeneous persistency, and querying processes (Cornell
information environment each community has University, 2001).
different characteristics; consequently, metadata
standards are necessarily localized and optimized Since memory institutions handle all types
for specific requirements. So to cover various of material, the need for information integration
user needs, it is often required to mix elements is quite apparent. The goals of cultural heritage
from separate metadata schemas and to customize communities to provide wide usefulness, porta-
them according to local requirements. A metadata bility (across networks, systems, organizations),
framework is used as a container within which and longevity of digital cultural resources are
fields from multiple metadata schemas can be encapsulated by having interoperability between
accommodated. For instance resource description the metadata standards and models they use (Gill
framework (RDF) and metadata encoding and et al., 2002).
transmission standard (METS) are considered
to be examples At last, protocols for data share
between various digital services ensure the data Data preser vation poli cy
communication and transfer among digital library
services. The most public protocol for metadata Each organization dealing with digitization proj-
share is the OAI-PMH that supports standard- ects should also implement preservation standards
ized exchange of metadata, describing items in widely used from the international cultural com-
diffused collections. munity. The fact that information is increasingly
In general, for covering the needs of a cul- stored in digital form makes data preservation
tural collection with heterogeneous material and policy a considerable issue for a cultural digital
composite structure, there are two prevailing collection to manage. A preservation metadata
aspects: set is intended to include the elements that are
believed to facilitate digital information resources
To design a metadata model that will be persistency. It is meant to be not only a data input
based on a widely accepted standard (a core model, but also a data output model. It indicates
schema like DC) and further extend it to the information we want our metadata system to
cover other required aspects, such as: i) the preserve (i.e., what data should be entered, how
technique of digitization and the technical it should be entered, by whom, and at what time)
requirements; ii) meta-metadata information and also the information we want to take from
because of the heterogeneous material; and the system for a digital resource. In other words,
iii) the educational character and the purpose preservation metadata is the structured informa-
of every resource. change it according to tion that describes, explains, locates, or otherwise
project needs (either by extending it with makes it easier to retrieve, use, or manage an
additional local elements or with elements information resource.
from other metadata standards).
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Guidelines for Developing Digital Cultural Collections
So a digital project needs to design and clarify planning respects the institutions management
the preservation metadata set that is preferred policy and priorities; d) there is respect for the
to be kept for digital objects. The model needs intellectual property rights; and e) digital informa-
to contain information about the digital object tion resources fit into a larger context of significant
provenance (Who has had custody/ownership of related national and international digital library
the digital object?), authenticity, any preserva- initiatives (i.e., ability to contribute metadata to
tion activity (What has been done to preserve the more inclusive search engines) and be exchange-
digital object?), technical environment, and rights able across platforms.
management. There are some quite remarkable
efforts that deal with this matter, such as OAIS
reference model, PREMIS, CEDARS guide, and R eferen ces
many others.
Categories for the Description of Works of
Art (CDWA). Retrieved August 20, 2008, from
Con cl usion http://www.getty.edu/research/institute/stan-
dards/cdwa/
Crucial factors in designing an effective and flex-
Cornell University. (2001). Mixing and mapping
ible digital cultural collection are interoperability,
metadata to provide integrated access to digital
verification, documentation, reusability, persis-
Library collections. In Proceedings of the Interna-
tence, and so forth. Except from the selection of
tional Conference on Dublin Core and Metadata
digital repository system, focus should be given to
Applications (DC-2001), Japan. Retrieved August
the issues of composite collection/objects descrip-
20, 2008, from http://www.nii.ac.jp/dc2001/pro-
tion, metadata definition, and project purposes,
ceedings/product/paper-23.pdf
but there are not strict rules to follow. In order to
manage and expose the wealth of composite cul- Dempsey, L. (1999). Scientific, industrial, and
tural heritage collections, a functional metadata cultural heritage: A shared approach. Ariadne,
policy covering collection-level and item-level 22. Retrieved August 20, 2008, from http://www.
descriptions as well as facilitating effective access ariadne.ac.uk/issue22/
to digital content should be defined. This policy,
Dublin Core collection description application
in most cases, results in the integration of more
profile. Retrieved August 20, 2008, from http://
the one metadata schemes. Furthermore, there are
www.ukoln.ac.uk/metadata/dcmi/collection-ap-
metadata interoperability issues since a variety of
plication-profile/2003-08-25/
metadata standards are used to describe hetero-
geneous material collections. The basic purpose Dublin Core Metadata Initiative (DCMI). Re-
is to create a cultural digital collection that will trieved August 20, 2008, from http://dublincore.
serve not only local needs but will be reusable in org/
new and innovative contexts.
Encoded archival description (EAD). Retrieved
The most important indicators for an effec-
August 20, 2008, from http://www.loc.gov/ead/
tive planning of a cultural digital collection are
whether: a) users can easily find the information Gill, T. (2004, May 3). Building semantic bridges
they need (information retrieval); b) the digital between museums, libraries and archives: The CI-
collection administrator is able to preserve and DOC conceptual reference model. First Monday,
locate digital data and manage big collections 9(5). Retrieved August 20, 2008, from http://www.
without much effort (functionality); c) digital firstmonday.org/
203
Guidelines for Developing Digital Cultural Collections
Gill, T. et al. (2002, January). Re-inventing the Research Support Libraries Program (RSLP).
wheel? Standards, interoperability and digital Collection description schema. Retrieved August
cultural content. D-Lib Magazine, 8(1). Retrieved 20, 2008, from http://www.ukoln.ac.uk/meta-
August 20, 2008, from http://www.dlib.org/dlib/ data/rslp/
january02/01contents.html
RLG and the library consortium OCLC. (2005).
Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC). Preservation metadata maintenance activity.
Cedars project. Retrieved August 20, 2008, from Retrieved August 20, 2008, from http://www.loc.
http://www.leeds.ac.uk/cedars/indexold.htm gov/standards/premis/
Library of Congress. (2004). Metadata encoding The open archives initiative protocol for metadata
and transmission standard (METS). Retrieved harvesting. Retrieved August 20, 2008, from
August 20, 2008, from http://www.loc.gov/stan- http://www.openarchives.org/
dards/mets/
VRA core categories (2002, February 20). Re-
Library of Congress. (2005). Machine readable trieved August 20, 2008, from http://www.vraweb.
cataloging 21 (MARC 21). Retrieved August 20, org/vracore3.htm
2008, from http://www.loc.gov/marc/
W3C. Resource description framework (RDF).
Library of Congress. (2006). Metadata object de- Retrieved August 20, 2008, from http://www.
scription schema (MODS). Retrieved August 20, w3.org/RDF/
2008, from http://www.loc.gov/standards/mods/
Lourdi, E., Nikolaidou, M., & Papatheodorou, C.
(2004, December 27-29). Implementing digital K ey Terms
folklore collections. In Proceedings of ISCA Third
International Conference on Computer Science, Application Profiles: They usually consist of
Software Engineering, Information Technology, multiple metadata elements drawn from one or
e-Business, and Applications (CSITeA-04), Cairo, more metadata schemas, combined into a com-
Egypt. pound schema, and optimized for a particular
requirement.
MDA. SPECTRUM units of information. Re-
trieved August 20, 2008, from http://www.mda. Crosswalks: It is used to translate elements in
org.uk/spectrum.htm/ one metadata schema into those in another meta-
data schema. It is one of the most commonly used
NSO. (2004). Understanding metadata. NISO
methods to implement interoperability between
Press.
metadata schemas. The mechanism is usually a
Patel, M., et al. (2005, May). Metadata require- table that represents the semantic mapping of data
ments for digital museum environments. Interna- elements in one metadata schema (source) to those
tional Journal on Digital Libraries, 5(3), 179-192. in another metadata schema (target) based on the
Retrieved August 20, 2008, from http://www. similarity of meaning of the elements.
springerlink.com
Digital Cultural Collection: It is a digital
Research Libraries Group. (2005). Descriptive collection which contains digitized or born-digital
metadata guidelines for RLG cultural materials. cultural material.
RLG. Retrieved August 20, 2008, from http://
Interoperability: The ability of two or more
www.rlg.org/en/pdfs/RLG_desc_metadata.pdf
systems or components to exchange information
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Guidelines for Developing Digital Cultural Collections
and to use the exchanged information without exists as a transport object between and among
special effort on either system. repositories, clients, and agents. In its persistent
form, it exists as a first-class object in the informa-
Metadata: Metadata are data about data, that
tion infrastructure. That is, it is stored on one or
is, where that data are located and what they is
more servers and is accessible from these servers
used for. A good analogy is that of a library cata-
using a globally accessible identifier (URI). We
logue card which contains data about the nature
note that a container may also be wrapped within
and location of a book.
another object (i.e., one that is a wrapper for both
Metadata Container: It is the unit for ag- data and metadata). In this case the wrapper
gregating the typed metadata sets, which are object will have a URI rather than the metadata
known as packages. A container may be either container itself.
transient or persistent. In its transient form, it
205
206
Chapter XX
Digital Libraries and Ontology
Neide Santos
Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Fernanda C. A. Campos
Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Brazil
A bs tra ct
Nowadays, social, economical, cultural, and technological changes deeply stress the professional pro-
files. As a consequence, everyone needs to be continually improving his/her professional skills by means
of different kinds of continuing learning or lifelong learning. This changeable context also stresses the
teachers job. Networking technologies can be useful in helping teachers to improve their skills anywhere
(i.e., home, office, or school). However, the Web had grown up as a business space and has become an
important repository of all kinds of information. As a result, searching information is a hard and slow
process. Tools for data retrieval work at the syntactic level, disregarding the semantic aspects. Solutions
show up to Web Semantic technologies. Our contribution is to develop a digital library for the e-learning
specific domain using ontology-based semantic querying.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Digital Libraries and Ontology
searching for. Solutions point to the Semantic Web and collecting appropriate information resources
(Bernes-Lee, Handler, & Lassila, 2001) and a key that will define, with consensus and consistency,
point is the notion of ontology (Guarino, 1998). the terms used formally to describe the domain
Aiming to help lifelong learning initiatives of study.
and improve information search at the Web, we Ontology is beginning to be used in the context
are developing a digital library for the e-learning of digital libraries for many different purposes.
domain which main service is a search engine It can assist the extraction of concepts from un-
that retrieves information by tracing the domain structured textual documents (Embley, Campbell,
vocabulary met on ontology (Santos, Campos, Smith, & Liddle, 1998) by serving as a source
& Braga, 2005). Our digital library extends the of knowledge about the particular topic. In ad-
Web portals functionalities, providing technical dition, it can also assist in managing documents
information and communication and collaboration descriptions in large digital libraries (Weinstein
spaces, and hosts a wide variety of information & Alloway, 1997).
(e.g., technical papers, Web sites of systems and The understanding about digital library is
tools, Web sites of Brazilian and international quite different according to its specific users. A
experience on e-learning, and some e-learning digital library is a Web-based electronic storage
software artifacts to be used to create tailored and access environment for information stored in
e-learning applications). It provides services for the digital format either locally in a library, in a
cataloging, storing, searching, and retrieving in- group of networked libraries, or at a remote loca-
formation based on ontology-based semantic que- tion (Cleveland, 1998). It also means an integrated
ries. The next sections argue domain ontology and set of services for capturing, cataloging, storing,
e-learning ontology, describe the digital library, searching, protecting, and retrieving information.
and offer the conclusions and future works. It comprises digital collections, services, and in-
Domain Ontology and e-learning Ontology frastructure to support lifelong learning, research,
Ontology, in philosophy, refers to a concep- scholarly communication, and preservation.
tion of what can exist or be in the world. The For many people the Web is not a digital
artificial intelligence community has appropriated library, because digital libraries are libraries
the term to mean the construction of knowledge with the same purposes, functions, and goals as
models (Gruber, 1993), which specify concepts or traditional libraries, that is, collection develop-
objects, their attributes, and interrelationships. A ment and management, subject analysis, index
knowledge model is a specification of a domain, creation, provision of access, reference work, and
or problem solving behavior, which abstracts preservation. Due to its inherent complexity, the
from implementation-specific considerations current tendency in building digital libraries is to
and focuses instead on the concepts, relations, move forward in small, manageable, evolutionary
and reasoning steps in order to solve the problem steps, rather than in a rapid revolutionary manner.
(Shum, Motta, & Domingue, 2000). We are following this tendency.
Ontology specifies a shared understanding of a Building ontology means different things to
domain of interest and contains a set of concepts, different practitioners. The distinction of how
together with its definitions and interrelationships, one carries out describing something reflects a
and possibly encodes a logical layer for inference progression in ontology: from simple lexicons
and reasoning. The role of ontology is to reflect or controlled vocabularies to categorically orga-
a communitys consensus on a useful way to nized thesauri; to hierarchies called taxonomies
conceptualize a particular domain. Building on- where terms are given distinguishing properties;
tology implies acquiring the domain knowledge to full-blown ontologies where these properties
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Digital Libraries and Ontology
can define new concepts and where concepts have In a pragmatic point of view, ontology is a set of
named relationships with other concepts. concepts, properties, and restrictions. Properties
Ontology is composed of taxonomy and a of each concept describe features and attributes
set of inference rules (Berners-Lee et al., 2001). of the concept (slots, sometimes called roles or
Taxonomy describes classes of objects and the properties). Concepts are the focus of most on-
relationships among them. If it is properly de- tologies, because they describe the classes in the
scribed, it preserves the specific meaning of terms domain (Noy & McGuinness, 2001). A class can
and current expressions in knowledge domains. have subclasses that represent concepts that are
Taxonomy is not enough to put semantic on the more specific than the super class. Slots describe
Web because taxonomy information is expressed properties of classes and instances. From this point
under stanched and self-constrained categories, of view, developing ontology includes:
subcategories, classes, and subclasses, in our
ontology domains, subdomains, sectors, subsec- Defining classes in the ontology,
tors, functionalities, and subfuncitonalities. It Arranging the classes in a taxonomic (sub-
restrains relationship of information not explicitly classsuper class) hierarchy,
related. Our work assumes Berners-Lee vision of Defining slots and describing allowed values
Web ontology, that is, we have built taxonomy for these slots, and,
and some inference rules about the domain. Our Filling in the values for slots for instances.
search engine works by sweeping the ontological
terms and their relationships. We also adopted the We start to specify the e-learning ontology,
notion of domain ontology (Guarino, 1998), that studying the related concepts and the domain. We
is, to organize the common vocabulary related to have organized the domain vocabulary based on
a generic domain (e.g., medicine or automobiles). available works (e.g., Paulsen, 2002; The Learning
One way to express a domain ontology is the Technology Standards Committee, 2001; the e-
employment of a feature model (Cohen, 1994) learning Cybrary, www1.). Our ontology embod-
that specifies the domain vocabulary and shapes ies the main technical features of the e-learning
a semantic net of terms. The model captures the domain as showed in Table 1, which presents the
domain general features and allows the insertion main subdomains, sectors, and subsectors.
of new terms as domains grow up. The ontology was expressed using the ontology
Ontology development is necessarily an itera- editor Protg 2000 (www.protg.stanford.edu).
tive process. The first steps to build an ontology Protg 2000 is a free, open source ontology editor
imply delimitating the ontology scope, and ac- and knowledge-base framework based on Java,
quiring and validating the domain knowledge. and is extensible and provides a foundation for
We must: customized knowledge-based applications.
The digital library users can search informa-
Determine the domain and scope of the tion using any ontological term, and, based on
ontology, one or more ontological terms, the search engine
Enumerate important terms in the ontol- may expand the search using other related terms.
ogy, In the particular case of our ontology, some infer-
Define the classes and the class hierarchy ence rules were defined and expressed by a set of
and the properties of classes (i.e., slots and propositions. Table 2 details some of these rules
the facets of the slots), and to facilitate their comprehension.
Create instances. In order to discover new ontological relation-
ships, we defined a complementary set of rules
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Digital Libraries and Ontology
Table 2. E-learning ontology: Inference rules model and the analysis of the different kinds of
RULES
e-learning applications allow one to identify the
common functionalities and to start the process
All subdomains belong to a domain
of modeling the ontology. Table 1 presents a par-
All domains have at least a subdomain
tial representation of the ontology subdomains,
All sectors belong to a subdomain
All sectors may or not have a subsector sectors, and subsectors. Each term of the sectors
All sectors have at least a functionality and subsectors were described and related to
All functionalities may or not have a subfunctionality others related terms. The main functionalities,
subfunctionalities, and specific functionalities
of e-learning systems were also described. For
example, the subsector virtual classroom, was
to support the discovery process of new relation- defined as a multi user environments in where
ships into the same ontology or into a related online resources are used to facilitate the learn-
ontology: ing process among students, between students
and instructors, and between a class and wider
Synonym (A, B) Synonym (B, A): If academic and non-academic community. It also
term A has term B as synonym then term can be defined as a teaching and learning envi-
B has term A as synonym; ronment located within a Web based-instruction
Hyponym (A, B) ^ Hyponym (B, C) system.
Hyponym (A, C): If term A has term B as A virtual classroom subsector encompasses
hyponym (more specialized term) and B has many functionalities, subfunctionalities, and spe-
term C as hyponym then term A has term cific functionalities, converted in computational
C as hyponym. tools that support the work of its three kinds of
users: the administrator, the instructor (or teacher
Representing the ontological terms of a domain or tutor), and the student.
demands one to specify a model for the domain Administrator tools congregate, for example,
that gathers together terms and functionality the functionality management system tools that
commonly used by the community. The features in turn include one or more specific functional-
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Digital Libraries and Ontology
ities. These specific functionalities are known stored in the digital format. It comprises digital
by terms such as authorization tools, security collections, services, and infrastructure to support
access, remote access tools, crash recovery tools, lifelong learning, research, scholarly communica-
and so forth. Other functionality tools are course tion, and preservation.
management tools, which include a set of tools For many people, the Web is not a digital
or software facilities, defined by terms such as library, because digital libraries are libraries
student support tools, instructor support tools, with the same purposes, functions, and goals as
online registration, guest account creation, system traditional libraries, that is, collection develop-
installing tools, course fault retrieval tools, and ment and management, subject analysis, index
resource monitoring. creation, provision of access, reference work, and
Instructor tools include a set of functionality preservation. Due to its inherent complexity, the
able to provide support to: current tendency in building digital libraries is to
move forward in small, manageable, evolutionary
Course development by means of many steps, rather than in a rapid revolutionary manner.
software functionality, designed by terms We are following this tendency.
such as syllabus facilities, course materials The key point to the successful use of our
editing tools, multimedia features, auto- digital library is its search engine. Traditionally,
mated glossary tool, automated index tool, available approaches are based on the use of key-
importing/exporting capabilities, links to words and often work by searching information
supplemental resources capabilities, pre- at the syntactic level, returning to the user a large
senting information tools, and previewing amount of unwished results. It happens because
courses resources. it is lacking descriptive information about infor-
Students assessing by means of tools de- mation (metadata). In addition, it is also lacking
signed by terms such as assessing tools, the semantic about different vocabularies used to
self-evaluation, peer review, instruments describe similar information into a same context.
of assessment, with specific functionalities, These issues decrease the quality and accuracy
such as online testing, essays, portfolios, of many available search engines.
reports, tutorial, and automated grading Digital libraries commonly use more so-
tools. phisticated approaches. DLNET (Pushpagiri
& Rahman, 2002), a digital library for lifelong
Virtual classroom systems also offer a set of learning on engineering and technology domains,
student tools, such as productivity tools that gather for example, adopts other two approaches: an
together many software functionalities, designed advanced search and a taxonomy-based browse
by terms as bookmarks, calendar, progress review, search. A three-level taxonomy has been designed
orientation/help, search tool for course content, to subclassify the engineering field into two
student involvement tools, self-assessment, stu- subgroups. Our approach is a bit different since
dent community building, student portfolios, it provides ontological search to guide semantic
help online, online testing, file download, and querying, by using domain ontology built from
file upload. the features model basis. It is potentially more
precise because the search goes deeper, searching
Digital library on E -learning Domain information in a more detailed level of specificity.
In order to provide the ontological search, each
Our digital library is a Web-based electronic searchable information (i.e., documents, binary
storage and access environment for information code, URLs, etc.) must be classified according to
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Digital Libraries and Ontology
the domain terms. This classification is done by this disambiguation is manual in our approach,
the digital library administrator, together with a that is, the disambiguation process is done by the
domain engineer. Currently, it is a manual process domain engineer. It is so crucial for the approach
but it will be improved soon with a semiautomatic success that we ask the expert users to explicit the
mechanism based on agents. Successful matches straight of the relationship between the informa-
require correctness in this classification of the tion to be inserted into the library and the ontology
information at the moment of its storage into the terms. It is a value that the experts and other library
library database and it must follow closely the users assign to their classification of the informa-
ontology terms. tion regarding the ontology terms. When experts
We use a hypertree as a supporting tool for and users classify information, they assign the
information organization and visualization. The relationship level of the information with ontology
hyperbolic representation system (Lamping, Rao, terms, following the ontology organization, that
& Pirolli, 1995) has been used to create a site map is.: subdomain, sector, subsector, functionalities,
that allows the user to identify rapidly searched subfunctionalities, and specific functionalities.
information. Figure 1 shows a partial view of There are five relationship levels: tightly related
the ontological search graphical interface of our (score 4), partially related (3), related (2), loosely
digital library for the sector of integrated and related (1), and not related (score 0).
distributed learning environments (IDLE). At the digital library, users can query using
The library has three kinds of users to por- keywords or can use the ontological search:
tray different information meanings and points
of view: Keyword search: It aims to identify the
ontology terms related to the words typed
Library administrators: They insert and by users at the search engines interface. The
classify information according to ontology engine searches the term, looking at the
terms. synonym database, and if it does not find
Domain experts: They examine and classify any similarity, it searches for synonyms,
information. They evaluate the relationship hypernyms, hyponyms, and/or use rules
between stored information and user needs. described on Table 2 in the same ontology
They also evaluate the coherence between and also in related ontologies. In this manner,
the information classification and the ontol- the search universe will be enlarged, but the
ogy terms. These users have access to an search is more precise because it will involve
online Web feature that allows them to as- different vocabulary for the same domain.
sign values to the presence of the semantic Ontological search: The digital library
relationship of information and the domain presents a graphical interface with the
vocabulary. ontological terms (Figure 1). The users
Library end users: They utilize the search browse for information, through the different
engine to find information that fulfills their hierarchical levels of the ontology, choos-
needs. They use the ontology to select the ing at each level the interested terms. They
terms related to their search, according to must select one or more subdomain, one or
the interest features. more sectors, and one or more subsectors
(see Table 2). They also can search terms
Word sense disambiguation in semantic analy- for e-learning functionalities. The search
sis involves picking the correct set of senses in engine shows first all functionalities and
order to maximize the global needs. At this time, later all functionalities related to the chosen
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Digital Libraries and Ontology
Figure 1. The Ontological search graphical interface sector integrated and distributed learning envi-
ronments (IDLE)
IDLE
functionalities. At the end of this process, inter and intra domains terms, providing the nec-
the search engine presents the list of matches essary mapping among terms of the same domain
related to the terms as information links. and of different domains. In addition, it updates
domain information, reinforcing the straightness
The semantic issue also involves different or weakness of terms relationship.
vocabularies describing similar information in The library currently works with three kinds
similar domains or contexts. This is a complex of relationships: synonym (same semantic terms),
semantic problem that the digital library tries to hypernym (more generic terms), and hyponym
solve using a set of complementary rules, to link (more specific terms). These relationships are be-
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Digital Libraries and Ontology
ing improved using other types of relationships, classification in order to deliver the digital library
like meronyms. In this sense, some domain rules to its end users, that is, the teachers, soon.
described in Table 2 will be deprecated. In this Digital libraries follow the standard interface
way, the users search can be rewritten with the of Web pages, with common icons and highlighted
same semantic, replacing the searched term by links. Even so, future works intend to test system
related terms in the same ontology or in differ- interface usability, by means of laboratory tests.
ent ontologies using proposed mapping. A query In the computational point-of-view, over time, we
using unknown terms in a specific ontology can expect to improve the search engine accuracy by
be translated into terms of related ontologies, forming a knowledge base that will compare and
resulting in more satisfactory matches for users. accumulate the needs fulfillment of end users and
The mapping between ontologies works under a the provided information, making the searches
set of rules and an inference machine. progressively more accurate.
The Web is a useful repository of e-learning re- Berners-Lee, T., Handler, J., & Lassila, O. (2001,
sources, but finding information in its databases May). The Semantic Web. Scientific American,
is still a hard task, since it was conceived as a 35-43.
networked and not as a hierarchical model of
Cleveland, G. (1998). Digital libraries: Defini-
information. Its approach to information retrieval
tions, issues and challenges. Retrieved August
basically considers the syntactic aspects involved
21, 2008, from http://www.ifla.org/VI/5/op/ud-
in the searches, often neglecting the semantic
top8/udtop8.htm
aspects. The solution is the development of more
effective search engines than those available Cohen, S. (1994, November). Feature-oriented
nowadays. domain analysis: Domain modeling (tutorial
On the other hand, the speed of knowledge notes). Paper presented at the 3rd International
production changes marketplaces and stresses Conference on Software Reuse, Rio de Janeiro.
professional skills. The teachers job is being
Embley, D. W., Campbell, D. M., Smith, R. D., &
stressed by the increasing use of information and
Liddle, S. W. (1998). Ontology-based extraction
communications technologies, labeled under the
and structuring of information from data-rich
broad term e-learning. Our contribution to help
unstructured documents. In Proceedings of
Brazilian teachers to update their professional
the CIKM98: Conference on Information and
background was to develop a digital library on
Knowledge Management, Bethesda (pp. 52-59).
e-learning domain, with a search engine based
New York: ACM Press.
on ontology.
At the moment, the prototype is available at Gruber, T. R. (1993). A translation approach to
www.npqs.ufjf.br/bv. The challenge now is to portable ontology specifications. Knowledge
populate the digital library with information. The Acquisition, 5(2), 199-220.
authors of the chapter started this process, includ-
Guarino, N. (1998, June). Formal ontology in
ing some e-learning information. The expecta-
information systems. In Proceedings of FOIS98,
tion, moreover, is that our information providers
Trento, Italy (pp. 3-15). Amsterdam: IOS Press.
continually insert massive information following
the ontology terms and experts validate providers
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Digital Libraries and Ontology
Lamping, J., Rao, R., & Pirolli, P. (1995). A ACM Digital Library Conference, Philadelphia
focus+context technique based on hyperbolic (pp. 83-91). ACM Press.www.1. e-Learning Cy-
geometry for visualizing large hierarchies. In brary: http://www.co-i-l.com/elearning/about/
Proceedings of the ACM Conference on Human
Factors in Computing Systems, New York (pp.
401-408).
K ey Terms
Noy, N., & McGuinness, D. (2001). Ontology
development 101: A guide to creating your first Digital Library: A collection of texts, im-
ontology. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from http:// ages, and so forth encoded so as to be stored,
protege.stanford.edu/publications/ ontology_ de- retrieved, and read by the computer. It comprises
velopment/ontology101-noy-mcguinness.html digital collections, services, and infrastructure
to support lifelong learning, research, scholarly
Paulsen, M. F. (2002, July). Online education
communication, and preservation.
systems: Discussion and definition of terms.
Retrieved August 21, 2008, from http://home. Domain Ontology: Domain ontology, or
nettskolen.com/~mortenantos domain-specific ontology, models a specific
domain, or part of the world. It represents the
Pushpagiri, V. P., & Rahman, S. (2002). DLNET:
particular meanings of terms as they apply to
A digital library architecture for lifelong learning.
that domain.
In P. Kommers, V. Petrushin, Kinshuk, & I. Galeev
(Eds.), Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE International E-learning: Any technologically mediated
Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies, learning using computers, whether from a distance
Kazan, Russia (pp. 155-160). or in face-to-face classroom setting (computer-as-
sisted learning). It can cover a wide set of applica-
Santos, N, Campos, F. C. A, & Braga-Villela, R.
tions and processes such as Web-based learning,
M. (2005, October). A digital library for lifelong
computer-based learning, virtual classrooms, and
education on e-learning domain. In Proceed-
digital collaboration.
ings of the World Conference on E-learning in
Corporate, Government, Healthcare, & Higher Lifelong Learning: A continuum of the
Education (E-Learn 2005), Vancouver (Vol. 4, learning process that takes place at all levels,
pp. 3121-3128). that is, formal, nonformal, and informal, utilizing
various modalities such as distance learning and
Shum, S. B., Motta, E., & Domingue, J. (2000,
conventional learning. Also known as continuing
August/September). ScholOnto: An ontology-
education
based digital library server for research documents
and discourse. International Journal on Digital Ontology: A data model that represents a
Libraries, 3(3), 237-248. domain and is used to reason about the objects in
that domain and the relations between them.
The Learning Technology Standards Committee
of the IEEE Computer Society. (2001). Retrieved Ontological Search: A new type of search
August 21, 2008, from http://jtc1sc36.org/doc/ engine that understands semantics and the mean-
36N0175.pdf at July 4th 2005) ing of whole phrases, rather than just looking for
individual words or groups of words
Weinstein, P., & Alloway, G. (1997, July). Seed on-
tologies: Growing digital libraries as distributed, Search Engine: Software that enables users
intelligent systems. In Proceedings of the Second to search the Internet using keywords.
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Digital Libraries and Ontology
Semantics: Refers to the aspects of meaning Semantic Web: An extension of the current
that are expressed in a language, code, or other Web that will allow a user to find, share, and
form of representation. Semantics is contrasted combine information more easily. It relies on
with two other aspects of meaningful expres- machine-readable information and metadata
sion, namely, syntax, which is the construction of expressed in resource description framework
complex signs from simpler signs, and pragmat- (RDF). RDF is a family of World Wide Web Con-
ics, which is the practical use of signs by agents sortium (W3C) specifications originally designed
or communities of interpretation in particular as a metadata model using XML but which has
circumstances and context. come to be used as a general method of modeling
knowledge through a variety of syntax formats
(XML and non-XML).
215
216
Chapter XXI
A Classification Scheme
for Innovative Types in
Scholarly Communication
Svenja Hagenhoff
University of Goettingen, Germany
Bjrn Ortelbach
University of Goettingen, Germany
Lutz Seidenfaden
University of Goettingen, Germany
A bs tra ct
Information and communication technologies seem to bring new dynamics to the established, but partly
deadlocked, system of scholarly communication. Technologies are the basis for new publication forms
and services which seem to enable a faster and more cost-efficient distribution of research results. Up
to now new forms of scholarly communication have been described in the literature only in the form of
single and often anecdotic reports. Despite the large number of papers in that area, no classification
scheme for new forms of scholarly communication can be found. Therefore, this chapter aims at present-
ing such a classification scheme. It allows the description of new forms of scholarly communication in
a standardized way. A structured comparison of new activities is possible. For this purpose, original
publication media on the one hand and complementary services on the other are differentiated. With the
help of morphological boxes, characteristics of both kinds of new means of scholarly communication
are presented.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
A Classification Scheme for Innovative Types in Scholarly Communication
217
A Classification Scheme for Innovative Types in Scholarly Communication
Publication
Registration, Certification,
Awareness, Archiving
Researcher
Book trade
Subscription
agents
Funding
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A Classification Scheme for Innovative Types in Scholarly Communication
The key driver of the change process is the In recent years a large variety of new forms of
progress of new ICT. Traditional print media are scholarly communication has emerged. Although
substituted by electronic networks (Willinsky, there is a large set of sources describing these
2006). Firstly, traditional communication struc- new forms, these descriptions are typically lim-
tures were transferred from paper to electronic; ited to anecdotic evidence. However, up to now
printed books and journals are now substituted no classification of new communication forms
by e-books and e-journals. Secondly, the digital is available from the literature. Therefore, this
technology enables genuinely innovative forms of chapter aims at developing a classification that
communication, such as databases and reposito- reflects the outlined evolution.
ries, as well as search and usage tools (The British Basically two basic types of scholarly commu-
Library Board, 1998). nication means can be differentiated (see Figure
Further, the cooccurrence of the serials crisis 1): original publishing media and complementary
(Machlup, 1977; Woodward & Pilling, 1993) on services. The former provide a basis to publish
the one hand and the opportunities of electronic results of research and thereby fulfill all four
publishing as facilitator on the other hand cre- functions of scholarly communication (see above).
ated the open access movement, which demands The latter are services based on publishing media
free access to all scientific results (Bailey 2005a; which enhance the communication process by
BOAI, 2001; Crow, 2002; Lagoze & van de Som- providing additional functionality, for example,
pel, 2001). The growing support of this paradigm special certification services or enhanced search
can also be seen as a driver of the change process mechanisms. They intensify one or more of the
in scholarly communication. scholarly communication functions.
In this environment, libraries have to ask Starting with these two main types, a set of
themselves what their future role should be. criteria and characteristics were identified to
Their traditional task of selecting, providing, further classify the main type. The results of
and archiving physical media is loosing impor- these analyses are shown in Tables 1 and 2 as
tance. Digital content, for example, e-journals, is morphological boxes (read row by row).
frequently provided by the suppliers, that is, the The most basic classification is made according
publishers. The role of libraries is reduced to that to the output medium. Paper-based and electronic
of a license party. But a fundamental new task media are to be distinguished. Electronic media
is emerging, that is, future libraries will become can be further differentiated into off-line and
service providers and consultants for scholars in online media. Quality assurance plays an impor-
the area of electronic scholarly communication. tant role in scholarly communication because its
For example, they collect and assemble various standard determines the reputation of a medium.
digital material and tools for a specific discipline Thus, the review process can be seen as another
in a virtual specialized library. criterion to distinguish means of scholarly com-
To be prepared for these new tasks, it is es- munication. Review processes take place at many
sential that the libraries themselves gain a deeper different levels, but to keep the classification as
understanding of emerging tools and services in generic as possible it will suffice to differentiate
the area of electronic scholarly communication. between media with (formal) peer review and
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A Classification Scheme for Innovative Types in Scholarly Communication
media without (formal) peer review. Comple- alternative concepts because they may appear
mentary services may support media of different in combination (already now in some scientific
kinds and therefore comprise reviewed as well as disciplines authors are charged publishing fees
nonreviewed material (e.g., preprints). per page while there are also subscription fees
Communication media usually consist of to be paid by the user).
bundles of independently fragmented content. In addition to the classification according to
Therefore, media that bundle topic-specific con- revenue models, the means of scholarly com-
tent (of one or more scientific disciplines) and munication may be divided into for-profit and
media that bundle institution-specific content not-for-profit services. The former are run with
(e.g., from a universitys departments) are to be the intention of generating revenue while the lat-
differentiated. Complementary services may ter have nonmonetary objectives (e.g., fostering
offer across-the-board bundling, that is, their scientific development). This criterion has gained
content is restricted neither to specific topics nor importance in recent discussions as one of the main
to institutions. topics discussed has been the question whether it
It is obvious that access to scholarly informa- is socially acceptable for commercial publishers
tion is a central issue in scholarly communica- as a third party to generate revenue from publicly
tion (Willinsky, 2006). For this reason, it seems funded scholarly communication.
sensible to further distinguish means of scholarly As mentioned above, the means of publication
communication according to the kind of access cover all four functions of scholarly communica-
they offer: free of charge for users or user charges. tion. Complementary services are based upon
If the users are charged, a further distinction can means of publication, but they do not cover all
be observed based upon the type of charges. The functions (if they would cover the registration
first type is to charge users per item (i.e., pay per function, they would be means of publication
use or pay per submission) while the second type rather than complementary services); but they
is a flat fee. support certain functions. Therefore, it seems
The funding of scholarly communication reasonable to use the functions of scholarly com-
has been a major point in recent discussions. In munication as a criterion for the classification of
general, scholarly communication is publicly complementary services. However, it should be
funded. However, differences exist in the way kept in mind that not all functions are equally
the funding money is distributed between the important. As an example, the registration func-
actors. Therefore, the question arises how a tion is the publication of a contribution and its
service provider can cover its cost for running linkage to an author and, therefore, a prerequisite
the service (e.g., scientific journal or abstract & for other functions. The act of discovery is in-
indexing-service). The mode of distributing the complete without [] publication that enables the
revenue generated provides another distinction worlds peer group to validate by acceptance and
of the means of scholarly communication. In valuate by use (de Solla Price [1986] as cited in
addition to the traditional ways of funding, for Schauder, 1994). Therefore, only the certification,
example, through subscription fees or charging awareness, and archiving functions are used to
authors for the publishing of their works, a service classify complementary services.
may also be completely funded by public funds. To conclude this section, the criteria are
Although other revenue sources (e.g., through consolidated in morphological boxes whereas
advertising) are imaginable, they have not yet publication media (Table 1) and complementary
gained importance in scholarly communication. services (Table 2) are distinguished.
The revenue models mentioned above do not mark
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A Classification Scheme for Innovative Types in Scholarly Communication
It should be noted that interdependencies reader, but authors are charged a fee upon accep-
among criteria may occur. In certain cases a tance of their manuscript for publication.
specific characteristic of one criterion can only Research Papers in Economics (RePEc)
occur in conjunction with a specific characteristic (Karlsson, 1999) is a collection of discussion
of another criterion. papers and articles in economics. The aim of the
Now, the classification scheme developed services is twofold: firstly, it pursues the biblio-
above is applied to several scholarly communica- graphic aim to develop a complete description
tion forms to denote the heterogeneity of todays of economic research through the collection of
scholarly communication. The four cases detailed relevant literature, and secondly, to provide users
below represent innovative services that have at- free access to that material.
tracted a lot of attention in recent discussions. Scopus is a commercial database run by the
BioMed Central (BMC) (Poynder, 2005; Vel- publisher Elsevier that comprises a comprehensive
terop, 2002) is the first global commercial open collection of abstracts, references, and keywords
access publisher whose journals primarily cover of scholarly literature (de Groot & Knapp, 2004).
medicine and science topics. These peer-reviewed The aim of the service is to ease the search and
journals are available online free of charge for the retrieval of relevant literature primarily in the
221
A Classification Scheme for Innovative Types in Scholarly Communication
sciences and medicine. Users are charged a sub- Papers published in reviewed journals as well as
scription fee to access the database. discussion papers are found. Both the well known
Google Scholar is a specific search engine Google page rank approach and citation analyses
provided by the for-profit organization Google. are used for ranking the search results. Google
The service supports the awareness function scholar is financed by advertisement; therefore,
by searching the Web for all scientific material. the users do not have to pay anything.
222
A Classification Scheme for Innovative Types in Scholarly Communication
The four examples of innovative means of JSTOR, and Faculty of 1000). The following
scholarly communication are now described us- statements can be made:
ing the classification scheme developed earlier
(Tables 1 to 2). A lot of new players (e.g., software companies
The tables show very clearly the usefulness of like Google) entered the system of scholarly
standardized descriptions. Different cases can be communication. Established players like
compared in a structured way. This brings more publishing houses and libraries express
rationality into the discussion about transforming strong reservations about those activities
the traditional system of scholarly communication, in unusual unanimity.
which has often been emotionally charged and Comparing original publishing media with
politically motivated (serials crisis, open-access). complementary services, it has to be as-
The classification also allows for thinking about sumed that the latter will have more potential
combinations of characteristics which do not exist for innovation. While in the case of publish-
up to now and which may lead to new services no ing media innovations concerning business
one ever thought about. Examining a multitude of models arise (an author pays instead of sub-
new services by using the classification scheme scription fees), innovative complementary
also allows to identify factors of success, and to services afford possibilities the established
develop hypotheses about future developments of system did not have. Awareness services like
the scholarly communication system. Scopus or Faculty of 1000 are examples.
The previous aspect may be sharpened into
a hypothesis: It is thinkable that the tradi-
Futu re Tren ds tional responsibilities for different functions
in the system of scholarly communication
The classification scheme was used to describe will be inverted in the long run. Tradition-
and compare six innovative original publication ally, publishing houses are responsible for
media (i.e., arXiv, Public Library of Science, the original publication media and for dis-
Biomed Central Journals, EDoc, Research papers tributing content. The task of the libraries
in Economics, and Springer Open Choice), and six is to give access to the publications and to
innovative complementary services (i.e., Google support the awareness function by provid-
Scholar, Google Book Search, OAIster, Scopus, ing metadata and online catalogues for free.
223
A Classification Scheme for Innovative Types in Scholarly Communication
224
A Classification Scheme for Innovative Types in Scholarly Communication
Crow, R. (2002). The case for institutional re- Morris, S. (1999): Who needs publishers? Journal
positories: A SPARC position paper. Washington, of Information Science, 1(25), 85-88.
D.C.: Association of Research Libraries.
Poynder, R. (2005). Essential for science: In-
De Groot, S. P., & Knapp, A. E. (2004). Applying terview with Vitek Tracz. Information Today,
the user-centered design (UCD) process to the 1(22), 1.
development of a large bibliographic navigation
Schauder, D. (1994). Electronic publishing of
tool: A partnership between librarian, researcher
professional articles: Attitudes of academics and
and developer. Retrieved January 30, 2007, from
implications for the scholarly communication
http://www.info.scopus.com/news/white papers/
industry. Journal of the American Society for
wp1_usability_testing.pdf
Information Science, 45(2), 73-100.
De Solla Price, S. (1986). Little science, big Sci-
The British Library Board. (1998). Authors and
ence and beyond. New York: Columbia University
electronic journals. London: McKnight, C. &
Press.
Price, S.
Geurts, P., & Roosendaal, H. (2001). Estimat-
Velterop, J. (2002). BioMed central. Retrieved
ing the direction of innovative change based on
November 30, 2007, from http://www.library.
theory and mixed methods. Quality & Quantity,
yale.edu/~llicense/ListArchives/0205/msg00129.
35(4), 407-428.
html
Henderson, S. (2002). The growth of printed lit-
Willinsky, J. (2006). The access principle: The
erature in the twentieth century. In R. E. Abel &
case for open access to research and scholarship.
L. W. Newlin (Eds.), Scholarly publishing: Books,
Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
journals, publishers, and libraries in the twentieth
century (pp.1-23). Indianapolis: Wiley. Woodward, H. M., & Pilling, S. (Eds.). (1993).
The international serials industry. Aldershot,
Karlsson, S. K. T. (1999). RePEc and S-WoPEc: In-
Great Britain: Gower Publishing Ltd.
ternet access to electronic preprints in economics.
Retrieved November 21, 2007, from http://ideas.
repec.org/p/rpc/rdfdoc/lindi.html
K ey Terms
Kircz, J. G., & Roosendaal, H. E. (1996). Un-
derstanding and shaping scientific information
Complementary Services: Scholarly means
transfer. In D. Shaw & H. Moore (Eds.), Electronic
of communication that do not fulfil the registra-
publishing in science (pp. 106-116). Paris: ICSU
tion function. Complementary services enhance
Press & UNESCO.
scholarly communication by support to one or
Lagoze, C., & van de Sompel, H. (2001). The more of the scholarly communication functions.
open archives initiative: Building a low-barrier Examples are the certification service Faculty of
interoperability framework. In E. A. Fox & C. 1000 as well as the search engines Scopus and
L. Borgman (Ed.), Proceedings of the 1st ACM/ OAIster.
IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital Libraries
Electronic Publishing: Publishing process
(pp. 54-62). Roanoke, VA: ACM Press.
whose output is based on digital representation
Machlup, F. (1977). Publishing scholarly books of the content and is therefore independent of
and journals: Is it economically viable? The Jour- specific media.
nal of Political Economy, 85(1), 217-225.
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A Classification Scheme for Innovative Types in Scholarly Communication
Functions of the Scholarly Communication: that particular finding. Examples are journals
The four functions of the scholarly communica- and preprint servers.
tion are certification, registration, awareness,
Scholarly Communication: Authoring and
and archiving.
publication of scholarly material in order to com-
Open Access: Scholarly communication municate knowledge and to foster research within
forms that do not charge users to (legally) read, the scientific community.
download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link
Serials Crisis: In the last 30 years, prices for
to the full texts of their content.
scholarly journals increased well above the infla-
Publication Media: Scholarly communica- tion rate while the budgets of the libraries more
tion means which explicitly fulfil the registration or less stagnated. The libraries have therefore
function. They link a contribution to an author difficulties in providing scientists with the needed
and thereby guarantee the authors priority for scientific material. This situation is known as the
serial crisis.
226
227
Chapter XXII
Improving Multimedia Digital
Libraries Usability Applying
NLP Sentence Similarity to
Multimodal Sentences
Stefano Paolozzi
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Italy
Fernando Ferri
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Italy
Patrizia Grifoni
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Italy
A bs tra ct
This chapter describes multimodality as a means of augmenting information retrieval activities in mul-
timedia digital libraries. Multimodal interaction systems combine visual information with voice, ges-
tures, and other modalities to provide flexible and powerful dialogue approaches. The use of integrated
multiple input modes enables users to benefit from the natural approach used in human communication,
improving usability of the systems. However, natural interaction approaches may introduce interpretation
problems as the systems usability is directly proportional to users satisfaction. To improve multimedia
digital library usability users can express their queries by means of a multimodal sentence. The authors
proposes a new approach to match a multimodal sentence with a template stored in a knowledge base
to interpret the multimodal sentence and define the multimodal templates similarity.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Improving Multimedia Digital Libraries Usability Applying NLP Sentence Similarity
228
Improving Multimedia Digital Libraries Usability Applying NLP Sentence Similarity
According to Li et al. (2006), sentence similar- The last category is the descriptive features-
ity methods can be classified into three categories: based methods. The feature vector method tries
methods based on the analysis of the degree of to represent a sentence using a set of predefined
words co-occurrence, corpora analysis methods, features (McClelland & Kawamoto, 1986). Basi-
and descriptive features-based methods. cally, a word in a sentence is represented using
The word cooccurrence methods are com- semantic features; for example, nouns may have
monly used in information retrieval domains features such as HUMAN (with value of human
(Meadow et al., 2000). In these applications there is or nonhuman) or EDIBLE (with value edible or
a precompiled word list with a relevant number of nonedible). A variation of feature vector methods is
elements in order to include all meaningful words the introduction of primary features and composite
in a natural language. The similarity is measured features (Hatzivassiloglou, Klavans, & Eskin,
between documents or long texts. A query is 1999). Primary features are those primitive fea-
also considered as a document. Each document tures that compare single items from each text unit.
is represented in an n-dimensional vector using Composite features are the combinations of pairs
the words in the list. Relevant documents are then of primitive features. A text is then represented in
retrieved on the similarity between the document a vector consisting of values of primary features
vector and the query vector. and composite features. Similarity between two
Corpus-analysis methods are also widely texts is obtained through a trained classifier.
employed. The most used method is the latent Overall, the aforementioned methods compute
semantic analysis (LSA) (Landauer, Foltz, & similarity on the base of the cooccurring words
Laham, 1998). in the texts, ignoring syntactic information. They
LSA uses a term-document matrix, which work well for long texts because long texts have a
describes the occurrences of terms in documents; sufficient number of cooccurring words, but are
it is a sparse matrix whose rows correspond to not so useful in case of short texts.
documents and whose columns correspond to
terms, that is, typically stemmed words that ap-
pear in the documents. A typical example of the MUL TIMO DAL SEN TEN CE
weighting of the elements of the matrix is termed SIMILARI TY FOR
frequencyinverse document frequency (tf-idf): INFORMA TION RE TRIE VAL
the element of the matrix is proportional to the
number of times the terms appear in each docu- As the most complex and advanced multimedia
ment, where rare terms are upweighted to reflect information systems, digital libraries are emerg-
their relative importance. ing at an increasingly fast rate throughout the
This matrix is common to standard semantic world. One of the primary difficulties in build-
models as well, though it is not necessarily explic- ing a digital library is to support effective and
itly expressed as a matrix, since the mathematical efficient retrieval of the media objects from the
properties of matrix are not always used. A matrix whole library, including text, image, video, and
gives the relationship between terms and docu- audio. The current mainstream of the retrieval
ments. LSA transforms this into a relationship technologies in most digital libraries is keyword-
between the terms and concepts, and a relation based retrieval. Although such technology works
between the documents and the same concepts. well with textual document, it cannot, by itself,
The terms and documents are now indirectly accomplish the retrieval task in a multimedia
related through the concepts. digital library, mainly due to the limited expres-
229
Improving Multimedia Digital Libraries Usability Applying NLP Sentence Similarity
sive power of keyword to describe or index media (2004) definition, as a function of the multimodal
objects. message, the multimodal description that assign
A lot of applications have been developed to the meaning to the sentence, the interpretation
support information retrieval in multimedia digital function that maps the message with the descrip-
libraries, showing the importance of managing tion, and finally, the materialization function that
heterogeneous information. A first interesting maps the description with the message.
example of these applications is performing arts Starting from the hypothesis that speech is
teaching resources online (PATRON) (Lyon, the most relevant modality, this work assumes
2000). It is a framework for multimedia digital that the interpretation of a multimodal sentence
libraries to support learning and teaching in needs its corresponding sentence, expressed in
the performing arts. PATRON essentially at natural language form, which matches with one
two levels: first as a digital library delivering template contained in the knowledge base. An
resources on-demand to the user, and second as approximate interpretation, which uses a semantic
a contextual environment. A more recent project approach, can be provided. A template is the syn-
is MILOS (Amato, Bolettieri, Debole, Falchi, tactic structure expressed using natural language
Rabitti, & Savino, 2006). It is a multimedia con- that encapsulates some key concepts expressed
tent management system specialized to support according to the various modalities.
multimedia digital library applications. MILOS As discussed above, the need of interpreting
provides applications with functionalities for sentences by characterizing the multimodal dialog
the storage of arbitrary multimedia documents has led us to propose a process devoted to obtain-
and their content-based retrieval using arbitrary ing the exact interpretation or its approximation,
metadata models represented in extensible markup whose steps are the following:
language (XML). These approaches show the
importance of information retrieval, especially The user formulates his/her multimodal
for multimedia content. sentence.
The main concept of this chapter is a mul- The resulting sentence is transformed in a
timodal sentence. In this chapter, we give the natural language (NL) one and its template
definition of multimodal language, extending the is compared with the templates sharing the
definition of visual language given by Bottoni, same keywords (this reduces the number of
Costabile, Levialdi, and Mussio (1995), as a set the compared templates); the corresponding
of multimodal sentences. A multimodal sentence templates are selected.
contains atomic elements (i.e., glyphs/graphemes, If there are no matches, we extract from each
phonemes, etc.) that form the characteristic struc- one of the selected templates the relative
ture (CS). The CS is given by the elements which sentences that have been used to create (by
form functional or perceptual units for the user. example) it.
A CS consists of a set of perceivable events which Then the system computes the semantic
allow the user to evaluate the state of a virtual similarity between each of these sentences
entity, that is, a concept that extends the virtual and the users sentence.
device concept, where events can be multimodal The highest value of semantic similarity is
(i.e., visual, audio, or haptic). Virtual entities rep- used to choose the most similar template
resent the elements of an interactive system that with the given sentence.
interacts with the user through the input/output
devices. A multimodal sentence is defined, simi- A lot of semantic knowledge bases are readily
larly to Celentano, Fogli, Mussio, and Pittarellos available; in this chapter we address WordNet
230
Improving Multimedia Digital Libraries Usability Applying NLP Sentence Similarity
(Miller, 1995) for the English language. The taxo- have a higher similarity. Therefore, also the depth
nomical structure of the WordNet knowledge base of word in the hierarchy should be considered.
is important in determining the semantic distance In summary, we note that similarity between
between words. In WordNet, words are organized words is determined not only by path lengths but
into synonym sets (synsets), with semantics and also by depth (level in the hierarchy). Given two
relation pointers to other synsets. words, w1 and w2, we need to find the semantic
One direct method for similarity computation similarity s(w1,w2).
is to find the minimum length of path connecting More formally, given two concepts, c1 and c2,
the two words. we need to find the semantic similarity s(c1,c2).
However, this method may be not sufficiently Let l be the shortest path length between c1
accurate if it is applied to a large and general and c2, and h the depth of subsumer of c1 and
semantic net such as WordNet. For example, the c2 (i.e., the common ancestor of both c1 and c2).
minimum length from student to animal is 4 (see In the hierarchical semantic nets, the semantic
Figure 1), less than from student to professor; similarity can be written as:
however, intuitively, student is more similar to
professor than to animal. s(c1, c2) = f1(l) f2(h)
To address this weakness, the direct path length
method must be modified, as proposed by Li et The path length between two concepts, c1
al. (2006), utilizing more information from the and c2, can be computed according to one of the
hierarchical semantic nets. It is important to notice following cases:
that concepts at upper layers of the WordNets
hierarchy have more general semantics and less c1 and c2 belong to the same synset;
similarity between them, while words that appear c1 and c2 do not belong to the same synset,
at lower layers have more concrete semantics and but their synsets contains one or more com-
mon words; or
neither c1 and c2 belong to the same synset
Figure 1. A portion of WordNet semantic net nor do their synsets contain any common
entity word.
231
Improving Multimedia Digital Libraries Usability Applying NLP Sentence Similarity
232
Improving Multimedia Digital Libraries Usability Applying NLP Sentence Similarity
Li, Y., McLean, D., Bandar, Z. A., OShea, J. D., of computer input devices. In terms of human
& Crockett, K. (2006). Sentence similarity based senses, the categories are sight, touch, hearing,
on semantic nets and corpus statistics. IEEE smell, and taste. In terms of computer input
Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineer- devices, we have modalities that are equivalent
ing, 18(8), 1138-1150. to human senses: cameras (sight), haptic sensors
(touch), microphones (hearing), olfactory (smell),
Lyon, E. (2000). PATRON: Using a multimedia
and even taste. In addition, however, there are
digital library for learning and teaching in the
input devices that do not map directly to human
performing arts. Paper presented at the EDU-
senses: keyboard, mouse, writing tablet, motion
CAUSE 2000, Nashville.
input (e.g., the device itself is moved for interac-
McClelland, J. L., & Kawamoto, A. H. (1986). tion), and many others.
Mechanisms of sentence processing: Assigning
Multimodality: By definition, multimodal
roles to constituents of sentences. In D. E. Ru-
should refer to using more than one modality, re-
melhart, J. L. McClelland, & the PDP Research
gardless of the nature of the modalities. However,
(Eds.), Parallel distributed process: Vol. 2. (pp.
many researchers use the term multimodal,
272-325). MIT Press.
referring specifically to modalities that are com-
Meadow, C. T., Boyce, B. R., & Kraft, D. H. monly used in communication between people,
(2000). Text information retrieval systems (2nd such as speech, gestures, handwriting, and gaze.
ed.). Academic Press. Multimodality seamlessly combines graphics,
text, and audio output with speech, text, and touch
Miller, G. A. (1995). WordNet: A lexical data-
input to deliver a dramatically enhanced end-user
base for English. Communications of the ACM,
experience. When compared to a single-mode of
38(11), 39-41.
interface in which the user can only use either
voice/ audio or visual modes, multimodal appli-
cations gives them multiple options for inputting
K ey Terms and receiving information.
NLP: The term is the acronym of natural
Knowledge Base: A knowledge base is a
language processing (NLP). NLP is a range of
special kind of database for knowledge manage-
computational techniques for analyzing and
ment. It is the base for the collection of knowledge.
representing naturally occurring text (free text)
Normally, the knowledge base consists of explicit
at one or more levels of linguistic analysis (e.g.,
knowledge of an organization, including trouble
morphological, syntactic, semantic, or pragmatic)
shooting, articles, white papers, user manuals, and
for the purpose of achieving human-like language
others. A knowledge base should have a carefully
processing for knowledge-intensive applications.
designed classification structure, content format,
NLP includes:
and search engine.
Speech synthesis: Although this may not
Modality: The term is used to describe the
at first sight appear very intelligent, the
distinct method of operation within a computer
synthesis of natural-sounding speech is
system, in which the same user input can pro-
technically complex and almost certainly
duce different results depending of the state of
requires some understanding of what is be-
the computer. It also defines the mode of com-
ing spoken to ensure, for example, correct
munication according to human senses or type
intonation;
233
Improving Multimedia Digital Libraries Usability Applying NLP Sentence Similarity
Speech recognition: Basically the reduc- positive help in getting the job done. Usability it is
tion of continuous sound waves to discrete defined by five quality components: Learnability,
words. which defines how easy it is for users to accom-
Natural language understanding: Here plish basic tasks the first time they encounter the
treated as moving from isolated words to design; Efficiency, which defines users quickness
meaning; Natural language generation: in performing tasks; Memorability, which is im-
Generating appropriate natural language portant when users return to the design after a
responses to unpredictable inputs. period of not using it, in order to define how easily
Machine translation: Translating one they can reestablish proficiency; Errors, which
natural language into another. defines how many errors users make, how severe
are these errors, and how easily they can recover
Semantic Lexicon: A lexicon is a vocabulary, from errors; And satisfaction, which that defines
containing an alphabetical arrangement of the the satisfaction of the users using the systems.
words in a language or of a considerable number
User: A person, organization, or other entity
of them, with the definition of each. A semantic
that employs the services provided by an informa-
lexicon is a dictionary of words labelled with
tion processing system for transfer of information.
semantic classes so associations can be drawn
A user functions as a source or final destination
between words that have not previously been
of user information.
encountered.
WordNet: WordNet is a semantic lexicon for
Semantic Similarity: Semantic similarity,
the English language. It groups English words
variously also called semantic closeness /prox-
into sets of synonyms called synsets, provides
imity/nearness is a concept whereby a set of
short, general definitions, and records the various
documents or terms within term lists are assigned
semantic relations between these synonym sets.
a metric based on the likeness of their meaning/
The purpose is twofold: to produce a combination
semantic content. We define two entities to be
of dictionary and thesaurus that is more intuitively
similar if: (i) both belong to the same class, (ii)
usable, and to support automatic text analysis and
both belong to classes that have a common parent
artificial intelligence applications. WordNet was
class, or (iii) one entity belongs to a class that is
developed by the Cognitive Science Laboratory
a parent class to which the other entity belongs.
(http:// www.cogsci.princeton.edu/) at Princeton
Furthermore, two relationships are similar if (i)
University under the direction of Professor George
both belong to the same class, (ii) both belong to
A. Miller (Principal Investigator). WordNet is
classes that have a common parent class, or (iii)
considered to be the most important resource avail-
one relation belongs to a class that is a parent class
able to researchers in computational linguistics,
to which the other relation belongs.
text analysis, and many related areas. Its design
Usability: The term identifies that quality of is inspired by current psycholinguistic and com-
a system that makes it easy to learn, easy to use, putational theories of human lexical memory
and encourages the user to regard the system as a
234
235
Chapter XXIII
Duplicate Journal Title
Detection in References
Ana Kovacevic
University of Belgrade, Serbia
Vladan Devedzic
University of Belgrade, Serbia
A bs tra ct
Our research efforts are oriented towards applying text mining techniques in order to help librarians
make more informative decisions when selecting learning resources to be included in the librarys offer.
The proper selection of learning resources to be included in the librarys offer is one of the key factors
determining the overall usefulness of the library. Our task was to match abbreviated journal titles from
citations with journals in existing digital libraries. The main problem is that for one journal there is
often a number of different abbreviated forms in the citation report, hence the matching depends on
the detection of duplicate records. We used character-based and token-based metrics together with a
generated thesaurus for detecting duplicate records.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Duplicate Journal Title Detection in References
to their users in order to include those journals task of lexical heterogeneity has been explored in
in the library collection. In addition, we aim to different research areas, such as statistics, data-
help to improve the services offered to KOBSONs bases, data mining, digital libraries, and natural
users so that the users can find the resources they language processing. Researchers in different ar-
are interested in more easily. eas have proposed various techniques and refer to
This chapter presents part of our current work the problem differently: record linkage (Newcomb
on the realization of the illustrated research chal- & Kennedy, 1962), data duplication (Sarawagi &
lenge. Specifically, we are working on the identi- Bhamidipaty, 2002), database hardening and name
fication of those journals that are frequently used matching (Bilenko, Mooney, Cohen, Ravikumar,
by domestic researchers and are therefore relevant & Fienber, 2003), data cleaning (McCallum &
for inclusion in KOBSONs offer. An indication Wellner, 2003) or object identification (Tejada,
that a certain journal is read and considered im- Knoblock, & Minton, 2002), approximate match-
portant by a researcher is the appearance of the ing (Guha, Koudas, Marathe, & Srivastava, 2004),
journals title in the citations of the researchers fuzzy matching (Ananthakrishna, Chaudhuri, &
published papers. However, manual analysis of Ganti, 2002), and entity resolution (Benjelloum,
citations is impossible due to the large volume of Garcia-Molina, Su, & Widom, 2005).
data that need to be processed. Likewise, automatic Data heterogeneity can have a negative impact
analysis is impeded by the fact that authors tend to on many common data library services. In our
use different kinds of abbreviations when writing work we are addressing the problem of lexical
citations. Accordingly, we are currently working heterogeneity in general and duplicate record
on matching the journal title abbreviations found detection in particular. The technique for match-
in citations with the journals (i.e., their full titles) ing fields depends on the particular problem, and
in the KOBSON digital libraries. there is no absolute solution. Basically, these
In the following section we present the problem techniques may be classified into the following
of data heterogeneity that impedes the matching categories:
process and offer solutions for resolving this
problem in digital libraries. Character-based similarity metrics, which
consider distance as the difference between
characters, and is useful in the case of typo-
Data H e te R ogeni ty graphical errors (i.e., Levenshtein distance)
(Levenshtein, 1966), Jaro-Winkler metrics
In the real world, data are not perfectly clean and (Winkler, 1995), and Q-Grams (Ukkonen,
there are various reasons for that, such as data 1992).
entry errors, missing check constraints, lack of Token-based similarity metrics, which is
standardization in recording data in different based on statistics for common words, is
sources, and so forth. In general, data originating useful when word order is not important
from different sources can vary in value, struc- (i.e., atomic strings [Monge & Elkan, 1996]
ture, semantics and the underlying assumptions and WHIRL [Cohen, 1998]).
(Elmagarmid et al, 2007). This is the problem of Phonetic similarity metrics, based on the
data heterogeneity. There are two basic types of fact that strings may be phonetically similar
data heterogeneity: structural (differently struc- even if they are not similar in character or
tured data in different databases) and lexical token level (i.e., double metaphone) (Philips,
(diverse representations of the same word entity) 2000).
(Elmagarmid, Ipeirotis, & Verykios, 2007). The
236
Duplicate Journal Title Detection in References
The edit distance between two strings s1 and of token-base similarity metrics combined with
s2 is the minimum number of edit operations Jaro-Winkler.
(i.e., insert, delete, replace) of single characters Specifically for the bibliographic domain,
needed to transform string s1 into s2 (Levenshtein, Lawerence, Giles, and Bollacker (1999) proposed
1966). The simple edit distance with unit cost different hand-coded dedupliaction functions
metric is called the Leveinshtein distance. The based on character-based and token-based similar-
edit distance is good for identifying typographical ity metrics and subfield extraction for matching
errors, but is typically ineffective for other types citations.
of mismatches.
William Winkler (1995) proposed improve-
ments to Jaros (1976) metric. Jaros metric is In den tifying jornal titles
based on his algorithm, which has the following in referen ces
steps:
Our goal was to match abbreviated journal titles
1. Compute the string length of string s1 and found in part of Journal Citation Report2 (JCR,
s2 (len (s1), len (s2)). 2005) with the journals (i.e., their full titles) in
2. Find common characters in the two strings the digital libraries (KOBSON, 2005). However,
Nc. manual analysis of citations is impossible due to
Common characters are s1[i] and s2[j] for the large volume of data that need to be processed.
which s1[i]=s2[j] and The matching problem stems from the fact that
|i-j|<0.5 min{len(s1)len(s2)} in JCR, titles are represented with abbreviations
3. Find the number of transposition Nt (each and not with their full names. In addition, the
nonmatching character s1[i] between usage of abbreviations is not standardized, and
s2[i]). usually there is a range of different abbreviations
1 Nc Nc Nc 0.5 Nt
for one journal title. An additional source of these
Jaro (s1, s 2 ) = + + variations lies in errors made by authors, journal
3 len(s1) len(s2) Nc
editors, or ISI data entry persons (in the case of
Winkler improves Jaros metric by using the references from the JCR). For example, there are
length P of the longest common prefix of s1 and five different abbreviated titles, for the journal
s2 (Winkler, 1995). When P=max(P,4) then Communications of the ACM (Association for
Computing Machinery) in JCR, as shown in Table
P'
Jaro-Winkler(s1,s2)= (Jaro s1, s2) + (1 Jaro (s1, s 2 )) 1. Other identified problems include the change of
10
a journals name during time and the split of one
Cohen, Ravikumar, and Feinberg (2003) journal into several new journals with different
achieved the best results with the hybrid model ISSNs. To find the correct journal we had to use
Table 1. Examples of abbreviated titles (JCR, 2005) and potential matches among journal titles in KO-
BSON digital library
COMM ACM
COMM ACM JAN
COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM
COMM ACM MAR
(Association for Computing Machinery)
COMMUN ACM
COMMUNICATION ACM
237
Duplicate Journal Title Detection in References
After collecting data from various sources (e.g., First, we match the abbreviated titles from JCR
JCR, 2005; KOBSON, 2005), we have created with correctly abbreviated titles (from external
appropriate database tables and loaded data into source, such as http://scientific.thomson.com);
them. 57% of the titles were matched in this way. After
that we apply character-based similarity metrics
and then token-based metrics. After the initial
Table 2. Examples of journal titles and their ab- matching, in order to improve performance, we
breviated variations in citation reports divide the reference table into three subtables
of matched pairs, candidate matched, and
ACM TRANSACTIONS ON
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES &
unmatched pairs.
SYSTEMS (Association for Computing In the case of ambiguous matching, where we
Machinery) have several candidate titles for one abbreviated
title, we must carry out further research in order
ACM T PROGR LANG SYS to find the correct title (e.g., using metadata). In
ACM T PROGRAMMING LA our matching we take careful note of each ab-
breviated title in the ambiguous matching where
238
Duplicate Journal Title Detection in References
for one acronym title we have few candidate titles Web page of corresponding journal) or the help
and must perform further investigation in order of domains experts.
to find the correct title (e.g., using meta-data). In By using the Jaro-Winkler algorithm, we
our matching we take care of the frequency of an managed to match 16,099 (21%) out of 76,001
abbreviated title in the JCR, and we first try to unmatched records.
match the most frequent abbreviated title.
Thesaurus
Character-B ased S imilarity Metrics
A thesaurus can be very useful in the matching
We used a function (further referred to as the JWS) of abbreviated titles with full ones. The idea is
which is based on the Jaro-Winkler algorithm to the find the most frequent narrow terms of
(Winkler, 1995) shown before. We also tried the the abbreviated term. The combination of nar-
function based on the edit-distance algorithm, row terms can be used in further matching in
but it was not as efficient as the JWS. token-based similarity instead of the original
We applied the JWS function on the abbrevi- abbreviated title (form JCR). A thesaurus can be
ated title found in the citations and correct generated by extracting terms from proper ab-
abbreviation. We discovered that the threshold breviated titles and their corresponding full title
of 96 tends to be correct (Table 3). from previously matched titles. First, we select
In the JWS, the last letter(s) of a string has a those rows where the number of words in the ab-
negligible weight, but this is not so in our case; in breviated title is the same as their corresponding
the case of journal titles, that is, their abbreviations, full title. Subsequently, we load the content of
the last letters (e.g.,, A, B, C, D, E or AM, BR) usu- the terms from the abbreviated titles and terms
ally have a special meaning. For example, ACTA from full titles into the thesaurus. Finally, we
CRYSTALLOGRAPHICA A is a different create relations between the loaded phrases. To
journal than ACTA CRYSTALLOGRAPHICA improve the performance of the thesaurus usage,
B. Therefore, we are now working on improving when creating relations between terms/phrases
the process of matching, taking note of special we take note of the frequency of each term. So
last letter(s) of the abbreviation string. frequently used abbreviations should be loaded
The process of matching is incremental, that is, first, for example, T- TRANSACTIONS before
when we find a matched title for the abbreviated THROMBOSIS.
one, we can use that in future matching.
Sometimes for an abbreviated journal we get Token-B ased S imilarity Metrics
a few candidates (even after using metadata) and
we should use some external sources (e.g., the Matching only with Jaro-Winkler metrics was not
enough, so we decided to try with token-based
Table 3. The result of applying JWS in matching similarity metrics. We use token-based similar-
ity metrics for phrases that should appear in the
MATCHED ATITLE CORRECT ATITLE JWS
journal titles. Because we are trying to match
ASTROPHYS J SUPPL SE ASTROPHYS J SUPPL S 99
abbreviated titles with full ones, we first need to
BONE JOINT SURG A J BONE JOINT SURG AM 99
find an appropriate substitution for each token in
J BONE JOINT SURG B J BONE JOINT SURG BR 99
the abbreviated title and then to try to match them.
AM J SPORTS MED AM J SPORT MED 98 We used the previously generated thesaurus with
CURR OPIN GENE DEV CURR OPIN GENET DEV 98 token-based similarity metrics.
J NON-CRYST SOLIDS 1 J NON-CRYST SOLIDS 98
239
Duplicate Journal Title Detection in References
The thesaurus was generated by proper been verify with the metadata (i.e., issue, volume,
abbreviated titles and their corresponding full year, author, etc.), then it can be used for further
title from previous matched. We created rela- matching or for thesaurus generation.
tions between the loaded terms/phrases, so that
each term from an abbreviated title is related to
the corresponding full term in the full title. To Futut re tren ds
improve the performance of the thesaurus usage,
when creating relations between terms/phrases, There are a number of directions we will pursue
we take note of the frequency of each term and we in the immediate future. First, the presented ap-
can apply the JWS function (with high threshold) proach for journal matching needs to be further
on phrases generated after using the thesaurus improved. Besides the improvements already
and for use in further token-based matching to mentioned, we will also investigate the inclusion
improve recall. of semantics in the applied approach. To be more
precise, we plan to use journal classification into
Using E xternal S ources thematic categories. Currently these categories
(for some titles) are available in a flat form.
When we do not have enough information to dis- Second, having tackled the problem of journal
cover the corresponding journal for an abbreviated matching, we intend to develop a software tool that
one, we should use external sources. For example, tracks the usage of the resources (i.e., journals)
we can find the users published manuscripts and provided by KOBSONs digital libraries on one
extract references from them, or search Web sites hand and in accordance with KOBSONs user
that provide citation reports, such as Thomson interests on the other, to make recommendations
Scientific3 or CiteSeer4. If this is not enough, we to the KOBSON staff regarding the exclusion
must consult domain experts. of some of the existing resources as well as the
inclusion of some new resources.
Incremental Matching Additionally, we plan to develop a clustering
method to group duplicate records for a given
As previously mentioned, once the full title for real-world entity in digital libraries, thus helping
the abbreviated title has been found and it has us in further matching.
240
Duplicate Journal Title Detection in References
241
Duplicate Journal Title Detection in References
McCallum, A., & Wellner, B. (2003, August). Winkler, W. E. (1995). Matching and record link-
Object consolidation by graph partitioning with age. In B. G. Cox (Ed.), Business survey methods
a conditionally trained distance metric. In Pro- (pp. 355-384). Wiley.
ceedings of the ACM Workshop on Data Clean-
ing, Record Linkage and Object Identification,
Washington D.C.
KEY TERMS
McMartin, F., Iverson, E., Manduca, C., Wolf, A.,
& Morgan, G. (2006). Factors motivating use of Character-based Similarity Metrics: They
digital libraries. In Proceedings of the 6th ACM/ consider distance as the difference between char-
IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital Libraries, acters, and is useful in the case of typographical
Chapel Hill, NC (pp. 254-255). errors.
Monge, A. E., & Elkan, C. P. (1996). The field Data Mining: Data mining is an iterative
matching problem: Algortihms and applications. process of searching for new, previously hidden,
In Proceedings of the Second International Con- and usually unexpected patterns in large volumes
ference Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining of data.
(KDD96) (pp. 267-270).
Duplicate Record Detection: The process of
Newcomb, H. B., & Kennedy, J. M. (1962). Record identifying record replicas that refer to the same
linkage: Making maximum use of the discrimi- real-world entity or object in spite of the fact that
nating power of identifying information. Com- they are syntactically different.
munication of the ACM, 5(11), 563-566.
Lexical Data Heterogeneity: Refers to diverse
Philips, L. (2000). The double metaphone search syntax of the same word entity.
algorithm. C/C++ Users Journal, 18(5).
Phonetic Similarity Metrics: Based on the
Sarawagi, S., & Bhamidipaty, A. (2002). Inter- fact that strings may be phonetically similar if they
active deduplication using active learning. In are not similar in character or token level.
Proceedings of the International Conference.
Structural Data Heterogeneity: Refers to dif-
Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD02)
ferently structured data in different databases.
(pp. 269-278).
Token-based Similarity Metrics: Based on
Tejada, S., Knoblock, C., & Minton, S. (2002,
statistics of common words and are useful when
July). Learning domain-independent string trans-
word order is not important.
formation for high accuracy object identification.
In Proceedings of the Eight ACM SIGKDD In-
ternational Conference on Knowledge Discovery
and Data Mining, Edmonton, Canada. E n dno tes
Ukkonen, E. (1992). Approximate string matching 1
http://nainfo.nbs.bg.ac.yu/KoBSON/page/
with q-grams and maximal matches. Theoretical 2
for Serbian scientists
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http://scientific.thomson.com/
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http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/?form=citesearch
242
243
Chapter XXIV
Word Segmentation in
Indo-China Languages for
Digital Libraries
Jin-Cheon Na Yin-Leng Theng
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
A bs tra ct
This chapter introduces word segmentation methods for Indo-China languages. It describes six different
word segmentation methods developed for the Thai, Vietnamese, and Myanmar languages and compare
different approaches in terms of their algorithms and results achieved. The discussion and comparison
of these word segmentation methods will provide underlying views about how word segmentation can be
achieved and employed in Indo-China languages to support search functionality in digital libraries.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Word Segmentation in Indo-China Languages for Digital Libraries
such as Thai, Vietnamese, and Myanmar, it other Asian languages, the Thai language does
can be significantly challenging, mainly due to not use white spaces for word boundaries. Each
the nontrivial task of segmenting words. Word Thai letter is a consonant possessing an inher-
segmentation is an essential preprocess for the ent vowel sound as well as inherent tones. Both
full-text indexing of documents written in these the inherent vowel and tone can be modified by
languages in order to support search functionality means of vowel signs and tone marks attached to
in digital libraries. the base consonant letter. All of the tone marks
Unlike English, there are no white spaces and some of the vowel signs are rendered in the
between words in these languages. Dissimilar to script as diacritics attached above or below the
Chinese, a syllable can be composed of multiple base consonant. In the Unicode memory repre-
characters where a word can contain multiple sentation, these combining signs and marks are
syllables. It seems to be quite effortlessly easy encoded after the modified consonant (Unicode
for a native speaker to determine where word Consortium, 2004). One main cause of the prob-
boundaries are in a sentence or a document. For lems in Thai word segmentation is the lack of a
the very same reason, people expect computers clear definition of a Thai word (Wirot, 2002).
to determine the word boundaries automatically. Traditional methods of Thai word segmentation
Unless the issue of word segmentation is addressed are based on unclear criteria and procedures,
properly, the indexing of terms for search func- and have several limitations. Most of the word
tions in digital libraries will not be feasible. From segmentation approaches use a dictionary for
the information processing perspective, it is im- segmenting running texts.
portant to index and search words in documents A study conducted by Sornlertlamvanich,
contents rather than just metadata, such as titles Potipiti, and Charoenporn (2000) used automatic
and descriptions. In addition, for a document in corpus-based word extraction. It employed the
one language to be translated into another lan- C4.5 decision tree induction program (Quinlan,
guage, the first step is always to segment words 1993) as a learning algorithm for word extraction.
before doing any further processing. Therefore, The induction algorithm evaluates the content of a
word segmentation is basic yet essential in order series of attributes and interactively builds a tree.
to carry out any further information processing The leaves of the decision tree represent the values
for documents written in these languages. of the goal attributes. The method used C4.5 to
The following sections discuss word segmenta- prune the entire decision tree in order to reduce
tion methods for the Thai language, the Vietnam- the effect of over fitting. It recursively traveled
ese language, and the Myanmar language, and the to each subtree to determine if the leaf or branch
comparison of them. The last section summarizes could reduce the expected error rate. The attributes
the current status and discusses future work. of the learning algorithm are mutual information,
entropy, frequency, and string length. Evaluation
of the method was carried out with a corpus of
W or d segmen tatio N size 1 MB, consisting of 75 articles from various
fields. Thirty thousand strings were manually
The Thai L anguage tagged and compared with the results produced
by the method, which recorded a 84.1% accuracy
The Thai script is a member of the Indic family for the test dataset.
of scripts, descended from Brahmi. In the Thai Another study conducted by Wirot (2002) used
language, a word is difficult to define, as it does a two-part approach: a syllable-based trigram
not exhibit explicit word boundaries. Like many model for syllable segmentation, and maximum
244
Word Segmentation in Indo-China Languages for Digital Libraries
collocation for syllable merging. Syllable segmen- in Vietnamese is composed of a (sequence of)
tation was done on the basis of trigram statistics, character(s) separated by space. One of the most
whereas syllable merging was done on the basis difficult tasks in machine translation for Viet-
of collocation between words. Many word seg- namese is the elimination of ambiguity in human
mentation ambiguities were resolved during the languages (Dinh, 2002). A word in Vietnamese
syllable segmentation process. Using a training often has different meanings depending on its
corpus of 553,372 syllables, a newspaper was syntactical position in the sentence and the con-
manually segmented by syllables. Witten-Bell text. Another major problem is that there are few
discounting (Chen & Goodman, 1996) was used effective lexical resources available. The reliable
for smoothing and Viterbi algorithms were used option is to use pure statistical methods.
for determining the best syllable segmentation. The study conducted by Dinh, Kiem, and
When tested on another corpus of 30,498 syllables, Toan (2001) considered Vietnamese word seg-
the results were 99.8% correct. After syllable mentation as a stochastic transduction problem
segmentation, the strategy was to use collocation and it applied the weighted finite-state transducers
strength between syllables to merge syllables. The (WFST) model. The first step was a preprocessing
longest matching approach relies heavily on stage, where all the errors of sentence presenta-
words listed in the dictionary and it always prefers tion were eliminated. Then, the sentences were
compound words over simple words. However, the introduced to the WFST model, where reduplica-
maximum collocation approach does not exhibit tives, proper nouns, date-time, and numbers were
such preference. further defined. The dictionary was used in this
approach, and it was arranged in the multiway
The Vietnamese L anguage tree in which each node represented a Vietnamese
letter. The selection of the best word segmentation
Vietnamese, traditionally a spoken language, was done by the Like-Viterbi algorithm. Machine
is a monosyllabic language that belongs to the learning for ambiguous sentences through the
Southeast Asian language family. Even though its neural network model was used instead of a rule-
alphabet is based on the Latin alphabet, the dif- based model. The corpus used for calculating
ferences between it and Indo-European languages probability was about 2 million words from five
not only make it difficult for the Vietnamese to different sources. The size of the dictionary used
learn European languages but also to develop was about 34,000 entries. When the approach
techniques for natural language processing. The was evaluated by comparing it with a manually
available options are either to fit Vietnamese into annotated corpus, it achieved 97% accuracy on a
a well-established European language frame- corpus of Vietnamese electronic textbooks.
work or to come up with a new framework. The Le (2003) employed a pure statistical model,
former had been tried but did not achieve good applying the maximum probability of tri-gram in
results, while the latter requires a great deal of a given chunk of syllables. An unannotated corpus
human and material resources (Le, 2003). The of 10 million words was used in this study. The
Vietnamese language has a special linguistic aim was to maximize the probability of the chunk,
unit called tieng which is equivalent hanzi in using different segmentations. The probability of
Chinese. One tieng is one sound unit and has a chunk is the product of its n-gram probabilities,
one syllable. Unlike the hanzi of Chinese, one and the chunk with the maximum probability
tieng has only one way of pronunciation. One was selected as the final result. Evaluation was
or more sound units can be combined to form a conducted on 100 randomly selected chunks,
word in Vietnamese. Each syllable or sound unit containing 614 words identified by the model. A
245
Word Segmentation in Indo-China Languages for Digital Libraries
The syllable segmentation was tested with 16 cases, if BCDE is a correctly segmented word,
documents extracted from the Myanmar bible its positive collocation strength will be higher
and literature provided by the Myanmar NLP than its negative collocation strength. To sum
team. The heuristic rule-based approach for up, for each sentence or phrase, the segmented
syllable segmentation achieved 100% accuracy syllables are merged into words with the help of
for the Myanmar language. The next step was to a dictionary, and then the combination with the
merge the segmented syllables to determine word minimum number of segmented words is selected.
boundaries. The method initially adopted the When there are two or more such combinations,
longest matching approach to perform syllable their collocation strengths are calculated, and the
merging. This approach assumes that each syl- combination with the biggest collocation strength
lable boundary is a possible word boundary, and is selected.
each boundary will be discarded when a longer For syllable merging, test results averaged
match is found in the dictionary. The work is later 98.94% recall, 99.05% precision, and 98.99% F-
extended and improved by employing a diction- measure. The errors encountered can be catego-
ary-based statistical approach (Thet et al., 2008). rized into four groups: missing common words
The input text of segmented syllables is broken in the dictionary, proper nouns such as names
down into sentences and phrases by looking at of people and places, adopted words in Pali (or
punctuation marks and spaces. For each sentence other languages), and numerical words. The
or phrase, all possible combinations of segmented dictionary used in the study, with about 30,000
words (or merged syllables) are generated by entries, was provided by the Myanmar NLP team,
matching segmented syllables in the sentence or and its coverage has been found to be relatively
phrase with word entries in the dictionary. From effective compared to dictionaries in other lan-
the resulting combinations, the one with the guages. However, this proposed method should be
minimum number of segmented words is selected, evaluated on a larger data set. As more Myanmar
and taken as the correctly segmented words of documents become available in Unicode, the use
the sentence or phrase. This approach is biased of a large corpus and statistical models could
to choose longer matching words in the diction- lead to interesting results. Especially it would
ary. When there are two or more combinations be interesting to examine the application and
with the same minimum number of segmented effectiveness of pure statistical models without
words, the statistical approach is used to resolve using any dictionaries.
the problem. The mutual information of two syl-
lables (i.e., bi-grams) are precalculated with the
corpus, and then used to calculate the collocation Com parsion of the Me tho ds
strength of a sentence or phrase. The collocation
strength of a sentence or phrase is the sum of the Table 1 compares six word segmentation studies
collocation strengths of all the segmented words for the Thai, Vietnamese, and Myanmar lan-
in the sentence or phrase, whereas the collocation guages. Most methods use statistical approaches
strength of an individual word is the sum of the in combination with other techniques since avail-
positive strength minus the sum of the negative able dictionaries do not have adequate coverage.
strength. As an example, for the word BCDE Note that Vietnamese word segmentation does
in the sentence ABCDEF, its positive strength not require prior syllable segmentation because
is the sum of the mutual information of B-C, C-D syllables in Vietnamese words are separated by
and D-E, whereas its negative strength is the sum white spaces. In contrast, Thai and Myanmar word
of the mutual information of A-B and E-F. In most segmentation do require prior syllable segmenta-
247
Word Segmentation in Indo-China Languages for Digital Libraries
tion because syllables are not separated by white still need improvements for better accuracy and
spaces. The methods proposed by Wirot (2002) performance. Syllable segmentation is a prior
and Thet et al. (2008) are similar but they employ step to word segmentation in some languages
different approaches for syllable segmentation, like Myanmar and Thai, where a syllable can
that is, trigram statistical approach and heuristic contain multiple characters without any delimit-
rule-based approach. Sornlertlamvanich et al. ers. Since a syllable is a better defined unit than
(2000) tried to segment words directly, without a word, and also more consistent in analysis,
taking care of syllable segmentation first, but the methods with syllable segmentation prepro-
produced unsatisfactory results. Of the six stud- cess are more effective and reliable than other
ies, three (i.e., Dinh et al., 2001; Thet et al., 2008; methods which segment words directly without
Wirot, 2002) scored above 95% accuracy. syllable segmentation. Most word segmentation
approaches use a dictionary and when the coverage
of the dictionary is not adequate enough, it leads
Con cl usion to a large number of unknown or unrecognized
words, adversely affecting the results. Thus,
The word segmentation methods we have dis- some methods use a dictionary in combination
cussed are generally language dependant and with statistical approaches or other techniques to
Other Techniques
Statistics-based
Dictionary
Corpus
Thai word segmentation C4.5 learning algorithm using string length, Precision : 85%
(Sornlertlamvanich et al., frequency, mutual information and entropy Y Y Y Recall: 56%
2000) F-Measure:67.5%
Thai word segmentation Syllable Segmentation: Statistics based Precision : 96.36%
(Wirot, 2002) trigram model Y Y Recall : 97.16%
Syllable Merging: Maximum Collocation F-Measure : 96.76%
strength
Vietnamese word Syllable Segmentation: whitespace 97% Accuracy
segmentation Syllable Merging: Weighted Finite State Y Y Y
(Dinh et al., 2001) Transducer (WFST) model and Neural
Network
Vietnamese word Syllable Segmentation: whitespace Agreement : 51%
segmentation Syllable Merging: Statistical Model and Y Y Reasonable : 65%
(Le, 2003) N-gram model using
Maximum Probability
Vietnamese word Syllable Segmentation: whitespace Acceptable : 80%
segmentation Syllable Merging: Statistical model using Y Y Y
(Nguyen et al., 2006) online corpus approach and Genetic
Algorithm
Myanmar word segmentation Syllable Segmentation: Rule-based heuristic Precision : 98.94%
(Thet et al., 2008) approach Y Y Y Y Recall : 99.05%
Syllable Merging: Dictionary based F-Measure : 98.99%
statistical approach
248
Word Segmentation in Indo-China Languages for Digital Libraries
achieve better results. The accuracies achieved for Vietnamese text categorization: A online
by these methods are relatively very high. How- corpus approach. In Proceedings of 4th IEEE
ever, it does not necessarily mean that they are International Conference on Computer Science
very effective. Larger datasets and a wider scope - Research, Innovation and Vision of the Future,
of domains should be used for evaluations for HoChiMinh City.
the methods for their effectiveness. For future
Quinlan, J. R. (1993). C4.5 programs for machine
work, new approaches using machine learning
learning. CA: Morgan Kaufmann.
and statistical models can be explored for word
segmentation of these languages. Sornlertlamvanich, V., Potipiti, T., & Charoen-
porn, T. (2000). Automatic corpus-based Thai
word extraction with the c4.5 learning algorithm.
R eferen ces In Proceedings of the 18th Conference on Compu-
tational Linguistics (pp. 802-807). NJ: Association
Chen, S. F., & Goodman, J. (1996). An empiri- for Computer Linguistics.
cal study of smoothing techniques for language
Thet, T. T. (2006). Development of a word seg-
modeling. In Proceeding of the 34th Annual Meet-
mentation algorithm for Myanmar language.
ing on Association for Computer Linguistics. NJ:
Unpublished masters thesis, Nanyang Techno-
Association for Computer Linguistics.
logical University, Singapore.
Dinh, D. (2002). Building a training corpus for
Thet, T. T., Na, J.-C., & Ko Ko, W. (2008). Word
word sense disambiguation in English-to-Viet-
segmentation for the Myanmar language. Journal
namese machine translation. In Proceedings of
of Information Science, 34(5), 688-704.
the 19th International Conference on Compu-
tational Linguistics. Association for Computer Unicode Consortium. (2004). The Unicode stan-
Linguistics. dard 4.0, Southeast Asian scripts. CA: Addison
Wesley.
Dinh, D., Kiem, H., & Toan, N. V. (2001). Vietnam-
ese word segmentation. In Proceedings of Neural Wirot, A. (2002). Collocation and Thai word seg-
Networks and Natural Language Processing (pp. mentation. In Proceeding of Joint International
749-756). Tokyo. Conference of SNLP-Oriental COCOSDA 2002.
Thammasat University, Bangkok.
Le, A. H. (2003). A method for word segmentation
in Vietnamese. Research group in computational Witten, I. H., & Bainbridge, D. I. (2003). How to
linguistics. In Proceedings of Corpus Linguistic build a digital library. San Francisco: Morgan
2003. Lancaster. Kaufmann.
Manning, C. D., & Schutze, H. (2002). Founda-
tions of statistical natural language processing.
London: MIT Press. K ey Terms
Myanmar NLP. (2006). Myanmar Unicode refer-
Brahmi Script: Brahmi script is the oldest
ence documents and research papers. Retrieved
member of the Brahmic family of alphabets which
June 1, 2006, from http://www.myanmars.net/
was related to most of the scripts of South Asia,
unicode/doc/ index.htm
Southeast Asia, and Tibet.
Nguyen, T. V., Tran, H. K., Nguyen, T. T. T.,
& Nguyen, H. (2006). Word segmentation
249
Word Segmentation in Indo-China Languages for Digital Libraries
Compound Word: Compound words are Recall: Recall is the ratio of the number of
words that are composed of two or more simple correctly segmented words to the number of all
words. The meaning of a compound word may not the words in the documents.
be the sum of the meanings of its parts, though it
Simple Word: Simple words are words that
can be related to the meanings of its parts.
can have one or more syllables, but in the case of
F-Measure: F-measure, also known as bal- a multisyllable word, the meaning of the word is
anced F-score, is the weighted harmonic mean not related to the meaning of any syllable.
of precision and recall.
Syllable Segmentation: A syllable is a unit
ISO: The International Organization for of organization for a sequence of speech sounds.
Standardization (ISO) is an international stan- Syllable segmentation is the process of determin-
dard-setting body composed of representatives ing the syllable boundaries in a sentence or a
from various national standards bodies. document by computer algorithms.
Maximum Collocation: Syllable collocation Unicode: The Unicode standard is the in-
refers to cooccurrence of syllables observed from dustrial standard allowing computer systems to
the training corpus. If a word contains two or more consistently represent and manipulate text written
syllables, those syllables will cooccur. Thus, the in any languages. The Unicode Consortium, the
probability of cooccurrence will be much greater nonprofit organization, coordinates Unicodes
than by chance. development.
Precision: Precision is the ratio of the number Word Segmentation: A word is a linguistic
of correctly segmented words to the number of unit made up of one or more morphemes. Word
all the segmented words. segmentation is the process of determining the
word boundaries in a sentence or a document by
computer algorithms.
250
251
Chapter XXV
On the Effectiveness of Social
Tagging for Resource Discovery
Dion Hoe-Lian Goh Schubert Foo
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
A bs tra ct
Social tagging is the process of assigning and sharing among users freely selected terms of resources.
This approach enables users to annotate/describe resources, and also allows users to locate new
resources through the collective intelligence of other users. Social tagging offers a new avenue for
resource discovery as compared to taxonomies and subject directories created by experts. This chapter
investigates the effectiveness of tags as resource descriptors and is achieved using text categorization via
support vector machines (SVM). Two text categorization experiments were done for this research, and
tags and Web pages from del.icio.us were used. The first study concentrated on the use of terms as its
features while the second used both terms and its tags as part of its feature set. The experiments yielded
a macroaveraged precision, recall, and F-measure scores of 52.66%, 54.86%, and 52.05%, respectively.
In terms of microaveraged values, the experiments obtained 64.76% for precision, 54.40% for recall,
and 59.14% for F-measure. The results suggest that the tags were not always reliable indicators of the
resource contents. At the same time, the results from the terms-only experiment were better compared
to the experiment with both terms and tags. Implications of our work and opportunities for future work
are also discussed.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
On the Effectiveness of Social Tagging for Resource Discovery
252
On the Effectiveness of Social Tagging for Resource Discovery
and recall. The rationale here is that if a classifier serve as descriptors while tags primarily focus
is able to accurately assign documents to their on areas that are of interest to users. Kipp (2006)
respective tags, then such tags are useful for or- compared tags with author supplied keywords
ganizing resources, implying that users would be and indexing terms to determine the overlap in
able to utilize them for accessing information. The terms of usage. Results indicated that about 35%
remainder of this chapter is organized as follows. of the tags were related to the terms supplied by
In the next section, research related to this work the authors and indexing terms. However, the
is reviewed. A description of our experimental relationship between tags and terms were not
methodology and the results are then presented. defined formally in thesauri.
We then provide a discussion of the implications An early work on automatic text categorization
of our findings and conclude with opportunities in social tagging systems was done by Brooks
for future work in this area. and Montanez (2006). Their study employed
articles from the blogosphere. The authors used
350 popular tags from Technorati and 250 of the
RELA TE D S TUDIES most recent articles of the collected tags. Using
TF-IDF to cluster documents and pairwise cosine
The use of tagging has become a popular way of similarity to measure the similarity of all articles
organizing and accessing Web resources. Sites in each cluster, they found that tags categorize
such as del.icio.us, Flickr, YouTube, and Last.fm articles in the broad sense and users in a particular
offer this service for their users. Correspond- domain will not likely be able to find articles with
ingly, social tagging has also attracted much a tag relating to a specific context. Sun et al. (2007)
research, and work has mainly concentrated on focused on classifying whole blogs with tags, and
the architecture and implementation of systems compared the classification results based on tags
(e.g., Hammond, Hannay, Lund, & Scott, 2005; alone, tags together with blog descriptions (short
Puspitasari, Lim, Goh, Chang, Zhang, Sun, et abstract), and blog descriptions alone. It was found
al., 2007), usage patterns in tagging systems that tags together with descriptions had the best
(e.g., Golder & Huberman, 2006; Marlow et al., classification accuracy, while tags alone were
2006), user interfaces (e.g., Dubinko, Kumar, more effective than blog descriptions alone for
Magnani, Novak, Raghavan, & Tomkins, 2006), classification. Finally, in departure from the study
and the use of social tagging in search systems of tags in blogs, Razikin et al. (2007) conducted
(e.g., Yanbe, Jatowt, Nakamura, & Tanaka, 2007) a small scale study of the effectiveness of using
among others. tags to classify Web resources in del.icio.us. Us-
In particular, as tagging becomes an accepted ing a support vector machine (SVM) classifier,
practice among Web users, there is growing relatively high precision and recall rates of 90.22%
interest in investigating whether tags are a use- and 99.27%, respectively, were obtained.
ful means for organizing and accessing content.
For example, comparing tags with controlled
vocabularies provide a basis for evaluating how METHO DOLOGY
tags differ from keywords assigned by experts. Lin
et al. (2006) compared tags from Connotea and Tags and Web pages from del.icio.us were mined
medical subject heading terms (MeSH terms) and from the site from August 2007 to October 2007.
found that there was only 11% similarity between During this period, we randomly collected 100
MeSH terms and tags supplied by the users. The tags and 20,210 pages that were in the English
authors argued that this is because MeSH terms language. Pages that were primarily nontextual
253
On the Effectiveness of Social Tagging for Resource Discovery
(e.g., images and video) were discarded. Consistent Web-based text categorization studies with good
with the work of Brooks and Montanez (2006), performance. Specifically, the SVMlight package
we started mining the tags from the popular tags (Joachims, 1998) was used. Being a binary clas-
page. As such, our tags will be biased towards the sifier, we created one classifier for each tag with
more commonly used ones. The popularity of a the examples comprising Web pages belonging
tag indicates that there are a significant number (positive examples) and not belonging (negative
of documents related to it, and therefore provide examples) to that tag. In total, 100 classifiers were
a sufficient size for the training and testing of the trained with the default options of the package.
text classifier. The performance of the tags was evaluated based
In our dataset, each tag was associated with an on the macroaveraged and microaveraged preci-
average of 1,331 documents, and each document sion, recall, and F-measure.
was associated with an average of 6.66 tags. The The first experiment, which served as a base-
minimum number of tags for a document was line, used the terms from the Web pages as the
1 while the largest number of tags for a single features while the second experiment included
document was 65. Figure 1 shows the distribu- tags, in addition to terms, as part of its feature
tion of the tags for the number of documents. It set. The pages in our dataset were processed by
clearly demonstrates that power law distribution removing the hypertext markup language (HTML)
applies. Interestingly, the same was observed for elements, JavaScript codes, and cascading style
blogs (Sun et al., 2007). In the figure, there are sheets elements. This is followed by the process of
3,167 documents with one tag each while there is stop word removal and stemming of the remain-
only a single document with the largest number ing words. TF-IDF values of the terms were then
of tags (65). obtained and these values were used as the feature
Two text categorization experiments were con- vector for the SVM classifier. For each tag, we
ducted in the present research. The SVM was the selected all the pages that were tagged with the
machine learning classifier selected for our work as keyword and these were grouped as the positive
it is a popular machine learning classifier used in samples for the particular tag. An equal amount
70
60
50
number of tags
40
30
20
10
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
number of documents
254
On the Effectiveness of Social Tagging for Resource Discovery
of pages, which were tagged with a different tag, more objective and precise meaning than fun.
were selected as negative samples. From this set The recall values for these tags were lower than
of positive and negative samples, two-thirds of its precision values, implying the classifier tended
the pages were used as the training sample while to predict more true negatives than true positives.
the rest were part of the test set. In other words, the number of pages that did not
The second experiment augmented the first belong to the category was higher than the pages
with additional features added with the aim of belonging to it.
determining if these new features to the dataset Table 3 presents the macroaveraged and
would improve the results. The setup for the microaveraged values for precision, recall, and
experiment was similar to that done for Experi- F-measure. The macroaveraged precision and
ment 1. The only difference is the addition of the recall were 52.66% and 54.86%, respectively,
documents tags to the feature set. The TF-IDF while the standard deviation for precision was
values for the tags were obtained and used as the 4.21 and 19.05 for recall. In contrast with the
feature values. Likewise in this experiment, the standard deviation for precision, the standard
default parameters of the SVM package were deviation for recall varied greatly and a reason
used. could be contributed by the classifiers tendency
to misclassify a page which actually belongs to the
tag. The macroaveraged F-measure was 52.05%
RES UL TS FOR E XPERIMEN T and suggests that the classifier managed to predict
1 TERMS ONLY at least half of the test data correctly with a 10.99
standard deviation across tags.
Table 1 shows the top 15 tags which scored the Microaveraged values show how the classi-
highest F-measure obtained from Experiment 1. fier performed based on each document. Here,
Table 2 shows the bottom 15 tags with the lowest the microaveraged precision was 64.76% while
F-measure obtained from the same experiment. recall was 54.4%. From the F-measure value, the
In both tables, the extreme right column shows document had a 59.14% chance of being correctly
the difference in the F-measure values obtained classified. As shown in Table 3, both the mac-
in both. Entries in bold indicate an increase in the roaveraged and microaverage F-measure values
F-measure value for Experiment 2. The results are were quite close. However, the F-measure value
ranked in ascending order according to the tags suggests that the users are not exactly good tag
F-measure values obtained in this experiment. creators in the sense that other users would not be
As seen in Table 1, the top 15 tags that obtained able to locate related resources using these tags.
the highest F-measure values had very broad It was discussed previously that a large group of
meaning in that we were not able to determine a users would provide more reliable tags for resource
specific context with respect to the tag. Examples description in contrast to expert individuals, yet
include reference, howto, and politics. this is not the case as indicated by our results.
On the whole, the top 15 tags had better recall We surmise that the underlying reason is that
than precision values, indicating that the classi- tags can have multiple meanings and that there
fier was able to correctly assign the documents is no agreement on their usage in del.icio.us. As
which actually belong to the tag more than 75% a result, the Web documents that are associated
of the time. However, the bottom 15 tags paint a with a tag are not semantically related to each
different picture (see Table 2). These tags appear other, which in turn reduces the classifiers preci-
to have a narrower definition in contrast to the sion. The vocabulary problem (Furnas, Landauer,
top 15 tags. For example, the term adobe has a Gomez, & Dumais, 1987) is another reason that
255
On the Effectiveness of Social Tagging for Resource Discovery
256
On the Effectiveness of Social Tagging for Resource Discovery
could contribute to our results. In other words, classifier managed to predict the relevance of each
a tag would be associated with a diverse set of document with a precision and recall of 56.47%
pages, and most of these pages may have been and 54.93%, respectively. The microaveraged
tagged only once with a particular tag. value for F-measure was 55.69%.
It can be seen from Table 3 that the macroav-
eraged and microaveraged values obtained in
RES UL TS FOR E XPERIMEN T Experiment 2 were lower than those obtained in
2 TERMS AN D TAGS Experiment 1, implying that the addition of tags
as part of the feature set did not help in improv-
The results obtained in this Experiment 2 are ing the precision, recall, and F-measure values.
shown in the right columns of Tables 1 and 2. This is an interesting outcome, as making use
The same tags that were selected in Experiment of the terms only resulted in better performance
1 are again shown in the table. In addition, the than having terms together with tags. Although
difference between the F-measures obtained in tags are words themselves, they may degrade the
both experiments for the selected tags are shown, performance of the classifier because they appear
and entries in bold show an increase in values in every document associated with these tags,
from those obtained in Experiment 1. Here, only causing them to have smaller TF-IDF weights in
eight of the selected tags have an increase in the document collection.
their F-measure values. The tag icons has the
largest gain with 18.29. Documents belonging to
this tag have an increased chance of 18.29% to DIS CUSSION AN D CON CL USION
be selected than before. On the other hand, the
tag ajax suffered the largest drop in F-measure In contrast to taxonomies and subject directories,
value with a decrease of 22.27%. social tagging is an alternative means of organiz-
Table 3 shows the macroaveraged and microav- ing Web resources. It is growing in popularity and
eraged values for precision, recall, and F-measure is being used in a number of Web sites. In this
obtained for this experiment. On average, all chapter, we have investigated the effectiveness of
the categories had precision and recall values of tags in assisting users to discover relevant content
50.77% and 45.24%, respectively. The standard by employing a text categorization approach. Here,
deviation for precision was 6.06, smaller than we considered tags as categories, and examined
that for recall at 20.75. This was similar to the the performance of an SVM classifier in assign-
values obtained in the previous experiment. The ing a dataset of Web resources from del.icio.us
F-measure score suggests that the classifier only to their respective tags. Two experiments were
managed to predict 45.77% of the pages correctly conducted. The first examined the use of document
for each category on average, with a standard terms only as features while the second added the
deviation of 13.21. For microaveraged values, the documents tags in addition to the previous feature
257
On the Effectiveness of Social Tagging for Resource Discovery
set. Surprisingly, results from the first experiment Next, because not all tags are created equally for
were better than the second. The macroaveraged resource discovery, a social tagging system could
F-measure obtained from Experiment 1 was assist users by suggesting tags in addition to sup-
52.05% while the F-measure from Experiment porting free keyword assignment. For example,
2 was 45.77%. The microaveraged values from after identifying characteristics of tags that serve
both experiments were 59.14% and 55.69%. Put as good resource descriptors, such tags could be
differently, the use of terms only yielded slightly used as recommendations to a tag creator for a
better results than using terms and tags. given Web resource. In addition, a social tagging
The relatively low values for precision, recall, system might recommend different tags depend-
and F-measure suggest that not all tags are reli- ing on whether the tag would be for public access,
able descriptors of the documents content. Our in which case, the recommendations would focus
findings are similar to Sun et al.s (2007) work. only on good tags, or for private use, in which
In that study, the range of macroaveraged F- case the recommendations could include tags that
measure values obtained for the description-only have meaning only to the creator.
experiments ranged from 32% to 41%. Perhaps In conclusion, our findings have shown dif-
the much lower values were a result of using a ferent levels of effectiveness of tags as resource
shorter length of text as descriptions. It was re- descriptors. There are however, some limitations
ported that the description contained an average to our study that provide opportunities for future
of only 14.8 terms for each blog. While the work work. The first concerns the use of terms and tags
of Razikin et al. (2007) was similar to the pres- of the documents. These might not be the only
ent work, the results obtained in that study were features that could be used. Additional features
better. A reason for this could be the fact that the like the documents title and the anchor text could
tags chosen were not from the popular list, and prove useful for classification. Different weight
thus the Web pages that were associated with schemes could be attempted for different features
these tags tended to be more specifically related as well. Further, our corpus had an average of
to the tags themselves. As the present work used 1,331 documents per tag and future work could
the more popular tags, the likelihood of pages look into increasing the number of documents
being incorrectly assigned to a tag could have per tag, and utilize tags other than those that
been much higher because of greater usage by were popular.
a diversity of users, thereby contributing to the
poorer performance scores.
Some implications can be drawn from our A CKNOWLE DGMEN T
present study. First, proponents of social tagging
argue that the knowledge from a group of users This work is partly funded by A*STAR grant
could be much better than those provided by an 062 130 0057.
expert (Suroweicki, 2004). However, our results
have shown that this may not be applicable for
all the tags, as some tags were found to be good REFEREN CES
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On the Effectiveness of Social Tagging for Resource Discovery
Support Vector Machines: A vector-based Web 2.0: Web applications that enable the
machine learning technique which makes use of sharing or creation of resources by a group of us-
the maximum distance between vector classes as ers. Some of these applications include Weblogs,
a decision boundary. wikis, and social bookmarking sites.
Text Categorization: The process of assign-
ing documents to predefined labels using various
techniques such as statistical and vector space
models.
260
261
Chapter XXVI
Semantic Annotation and
Retrieval of Images in Digital
Libraries
Taha Osman
Nottingham Trent University, UK
Dhavalkumar Thakker
Nottingham Trent University, UK
Gerald Schaefer
Aston University, UK
A bs tra ct
While many digital image libraries allow access to large repositories of images, unfortunately, often
the provided free-text search returns unsatisfactory retrieval results. The reason for this is that search
techniques typically rely solely on statistical analysis of keyword recurrences in image annotations. In
this chapter we show that through the employment of a semantic framework for image annotation, vastly
improved retrieval can be accomplished. We present a semantically-enabled annotation and retrieval
engine which relies on methodically structured ontologies for image annotation, and demonstrate how it
provides more accurate retrieval results as well as a richer set of alternatives matchmaking the original
query.
IN TRO DUCTION for the user without the aid of effective search
tools. Most current public image retrieval engines
With the ever growing amount of available mul- rely on analysing the text accompanying the im-
timedia information, retrieving relevant informa- age to matchmake it with a user query. Various
tion from these repositories is an impossible task optimisations have been developed, including
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Semantic Annotation and Retrieval of Images in Digital Libraries
the use of weighting systems to emphasise those The concept of ontologies is fundamental to
keywords that appear in closer proximity to the the Semantic Web. An ontology represents an
image location, or advanced text analysis tech- area of knowledge that is used by people, data-
niques that use term weighting methods, which bases, and applications that need to share domain
rely on the proximity between the anchor to an information. Ontologies include computer-usable
image and each word in a hypertext markup definitions of basic concepts in the domain and
language (HTML) file (Fujii & Ishikawa, 2005). the relationships between them. The Web ontol-
However, despite these efforts, the searches re- ogy language (OWL) (Parsia & Sirin, 2004) has
main limited by the fact that they rely on free-text become the de-facto standard for expressing on-
search that, while cost-effective to perform, can tologies. It adds extensive vocabulary to describe
return irrelevant results as it is primarily based properties and classes and expresses relationships
on the recurrence of exact words in the text ac- between classes (e.g., disjointness), cardinal-
companying the image. ity (e.g., exactly one), equality, richer typing
Any significant improvement of the accuracy of properties, and characteristics of properties
of matchmaking results can only be achieved if (e.g., symmetry). OWL is designed for use by
the search engine can comprehend the meaning applications that need to process the content of
of the underlying data that describe the stored information rather than just presenting informa-
images. Semantic annotation techniques have tion to humans.
gained wide popularity in associating plain data Applied to image retrieval, the semantic
with structured concepts that software programs annotation of images creates a conceptual
can reason about (Wang, Liu, & Chia, 2006). understanding of the domains that the images
In this chapter we present a comprehensive represent, enabling software agents (i.e., search
semantic-based solution to image annotation and engines) to make more intelligent decisions about
retrieval that is suitable for the commercial image the relevance of the image to a particular user
provider market and acknowledges their require- query. The use of Semantic Web concepts in im-
ments for high quality recall without sacrificing age retrieval is likely to improve the computers
the performance of the retrieval process. understanding of the image objects and their
interactions. To attain such improved results, the
data need a better structure, so as to make sense
BA CKGRO UN D between different semantic concepts. Here, the
Semantic Web is likely to bring such a structure
The fundamental premise of the Semantic Web that integrates concepts and interentity relations
is to extend the Webs current human-oriented from different domains.
interface to a format that is comprehensible to
software programmes. For instance, in a Semantic
Web scenario, intelligent agents would be able to ON TOLOGY DE VELO PMEN T
set up an appointment between a patient and the
doctor, looking at both timetables, and finding the The approach that we describe in this chapter is
best way to the clinic without the patient having based on a case study conducted in collabora-
to interfere in the process. The user would only tion with a sports image provider with an image
have to specify the requirements of a task while repository in excess of 4 million images (Osman,
semantic agents will complete the task on their Thakker, Schaefer, Leroy, & Fournier, 2007). As
own (Berners-Lee & Fishetti, 2000). the companys search engine relies on free-text
search to return a set of images matching the
262
Semantic Annotation and Retrieval of Images in Digital Libraries
users requests, the returned results are often not ment classes. In addition, we also added action and
very relevant to the users query; in particular, if emotion classes to enable expressing relationships
the search keywords do not recur exactly in the between objects in an image. Figure 1 shows a
photo annotations. A significant improvement subset of the developed ontology tree.
can therefore be gained by semantically enabling Unlike database structures, ontologies repre-
the photo search engine. A semantic-based image sent knowledge rather than data, hence any struc-
search will enable the search engine software to tural problems will have a detrimental effect on
understand the meaning of the user request and their corresponding reasoning agents, especially
hence return more accurate results and a richer since ontologies are open and distributed by na-
set of alternatives. At the same time, semantic ture, which might cause wide-spread propagation
technologies can be used to build a classification of any inconsistencies (Rector, 2003). For instance,
and indexing system that critically unifies the in traditional structuring methodologies, usually
annotation infrastructure for all the sources of the part-of relationship is followed to express
incoming stream of photos. relationships between interdependent concepts.
An integrative structure that combines both So, for players that are part-of a team perform-
image attributes and domain specifications was ing in a particular event, the approach depicted
developed, consisting of two main types of ontol- in Figure 2 is commonly taken. In this example,
ogy classes: a player belongs to a team which takes part in a
tournament. However, if a player plays for two
Classes to localise the event in the picture different teams at the same time (e.g., a club and
(e.g., stadium, area, etc.), a national team) or changes clubs frequently, it is
Classes to characterise the picture itself (e.g., almost impossible to determine which team the
image size, creation date, etc.). player belongs to. The same problem occurs for
a team which can take part in different tourna-
Since we are dealing with sports images, many ments.
other classes are also required to describe the A better approach to the classification is
domain, such as player, team, match, and tourna- hence to start with the tournament. This solves
the problems mentioned above by storing the in-
formation only within the player class as shown
Figure 1. Subset of sport image ontology tree
in Figure 3.
Sport Image All semantic models use two types of prop-
erties to build relationships between classes:
datatype properties and object properties. When
assigning properties to a class, all its subclasses
Sport Human Person
Federation Stadium Characteristic inherit their parent classs properties. Deciding
Player
Manager Team Tournament
E vent T eam FirstName
Name.
LastName Name
R eferee hasNationality hasNationality
..
. hasTournament...
Photographer hasTeam..
Figure 2: Example of class relationships
263
hasNationality
. hasTournament... Name.
hasTeam..
approach to the classification is hence to start with the tournament. This solves the
s mentioned above by storing the information Furthermore,
only withinintheorder to increase
player the automation
class as shown in of available data, inverse properties are us
. Consequently, there is no privileged way to reason and all properties are added in a dynami
manner.
Figure 3. Reorganisation of player The example shown
classification in Figure
Figure 4 represents
4. Resolving thisproblems
coverage stage of the ontology.
in the
ontology
Tournament Team Player
Name. Team Player
Name FirstName
hasTeam Tournament
hasNationality LastName Name FirstName
..
hasPlayer... hasNationality Name. Season. LastName
. hasStartDate.. hasNationality hasNationality
hasEndDate... hasPlayer... isPlayerOf.
hasTeam isTeamOf. .
..
Figure 3: Re-organisation of player classification
Figure 4: Resolving coverage problems in the ontology
antic models useon twothetypes of properties
appropriate type oftoproperty
build relationships
to use is notbetween classes:
properties and object properties. When assigning properties
Object Properties tosuch
a class, Furthermore,
all in order
its sub-can have
as hasPlayer an to increase
inverse the automa-
property such as isPlayerOf. Such
a trivial task. While object properties link indi-
nherit their parent classs properties. Deciding on
propertiesthe appropriate
reveal the type
powertion
of of
of available
property
the to
semanticdata, webinverse
where properties
everything are used.
may be reused. These
viduals of different classes together, datatype
ot a trivial task. While object properties link inverse individuals of different
properties Consequently,
classes
automatically together,
state there
that if isTeam
no privileged
A way to reason
hasPlayer Player B, then Player B
properties can just point to immediate values (e.g.,
properties can just point to immediate values (e.g.
isPlayerOf text strings), whichand are
all meaningless
properties are added in a dynamic manner.
text strings), which are meaningless to a Team
reason-A. A high degree of understanding is given to the computer along with
oning software, except for performing a string-based automation. search. For instance, allocating
The example shown in Figure 4 represents this
ing software, except for performing a
properties to the person class in order to assign each new instance a stagestring- first name
of theand a
ontology.
e is a correct usebased search.properties,
of datatype For instance, allocating
because datatype
they cannot be reused by another
Object propertiesinsuch as hasPlayer can result
have in creating new
properties
al. On the other hand, objectto properties
the person areclassAdopting
in ordertothe
required latestsomeone
toassign
assign version aof the ontology
nationality. A such Figure 4 above will
tournaments every an
year, which inverse property
is rather as isPlayerOf. Such
eachstring
is more than a mere new instance
as it can ahave
first properties
name and sucha lastas name
a currency, a capital
properties city,inefficient.
reveal the power
No matter which players are playing fo
of the Semantic Web
wns and villages,isaalanguage,
correct use of datatype
a national team,
flagproperties,or
and anthem, which tournament
because
etc. A country a team
thus takes part into,
needs to may be reused. a team is a non-temporal class and needs
remain as an abstract where
entity. everything
Even though These inverse
they such
stance. Furthermore, cannot be reused
classes might byalready
another individual.
be defined Onexisting
in ontologies and the managers change, the players come and go, th
club entity that gathers properties
players, automatically
managers and fansstate staysthat
theifsame.
Team A
A higher degree of
n be reused. the other hand, object properties are required to
abstraction is required here. hasPlayer Player B,idea
The underlying thenconsiders
Player Bthe isPlayerOf
fact that a player is a membe
assign someone a nationality. A country is more
a team, which in turn is aTeam memberA. Aofhigh
a particular
degree oftournament.
understanding A isnew class is thus required,
given
h consistent, the than a meresolution
structural string asinitFigure
can have 3 properties
is incomplete such
namely a membership class as every year
which
to the a team will
creates
computer the indispensable
along with automation. link between teams and players
as a currency,
ange of players leaving either toaretire
capital
or city,
to playmany
well for towns and
another
as between team.
teamsThe and same problem
tournaments as illustrated in Figure 5.
Adopting the latest version of the ontology
with tournamentsvillages,
as from aone language,
year to aanother,
nationalteams
flag and anthem,
taking part in theintournament
Figure 4 will result in creating new tourna-
and so can
This problem however forth.
beAeasily
country thusby
solved needs
adding to be an in-
a start and end date for the
ments every year, which is rather inefficient. No
ent, rather than by engineering
stance. more such
Furthermore, complex object
classes might property
alreadysolutions. The same Membership
matter which players are playing for the team,
g can be appliedbe to defined
the Team in class, as ontologies
existing players canand change
henceteamscan every season, or even Player1_ClubA
es twice in a season. These indications, although basic for a human reasoning, or which tournament
isMemberOf
needPlayer2_ClubB
to a team takes part into, a
be reused.
ed explicitly in the ontology. team is a nontemporal class and needs to remain
Although consistent, the structural solution in
as an abstract entity. Even though the managers
membershipEntity
Figure 3 is incomplete as every year a team will
change and the players come and go, the club
have a range of players leaving, either to retire
entity thatClub gathers players, managers, and fans
or to play for another team. The same problem Player
stays the same. A higher degree of abstraction is
occurs with tournaments as from one year to an-
required here. The underlying idea
ClubA considers the
Player1
other, teams taking part in the tournament change. ClubB
fact that a player is a member ofPlayer2 a team, which in
This problem however can be easily solved by Player3
turn is ClubC
a member of a particular tournament. A
adding a start and end date for the tournament,
new class is thusFigurerequired, namely
5: Membership a membership
class
rather than by engineering more complex object
class which creates the indispensable link between
property solutions. The same reasoning can be
teams and players, as well as between teams and
applied to the team class, as players can change
tournaments (as illustrated in Figure 5).
teams every season, or even sometimes twice in
The instances from the membership class link
a season. These indications, although basic for a
together instances from two different classes. Ow-
human reasoning, need to be defined explicitly
ing to the properties of the membership class, all
in the ontology.
its individuals possess the following properties:
264
ments every year, which is rather inefficient. No matter which players are playing for the
r which tournament a team takes part into, a team is a non-temporal class and needs to
as an abstract entity. Even though the managers change, the players come and go, the
tity that gathers players, managers and fans stays the same. A higher degree of
tion is required here. The underlying
Semantic Annotationidea
and considers
Retrieval ofthe fact in
Images that a player
Digital is a member of
Libraries
which in turn is a member of a particular tournament. A new class is thus required,
a membership class which creates the indispensable link between teams and players, as
between teams and tournaments as illustrated in Figure 5.
Figure 5. Membership class Jena Java API (Carrol, 2004) was used to build the
annotation portal to the constructed ontology.
Membership
The central component of the annotation are
isMemberOf
Player1_ClubA the images stored (as OWL descriptions) in the
Player2_ClubB
image library,
The instances from the Membership as link
class illustrated
together in instances
Figure 6. Each
from two different c
membershipEntity
Owing to the properties image
of the comprises
Membership an object,
class, whose
all its main features
individuals possess the follow
properties: are stored within an independent object library.
memberEntity which Similarly,
links tothe object characteristics,
a person (Player, Manager, eventSupporter,
loca- Photograp
Club Player tion, and so forth are distinct from the image
isMemberOf whichlibrary. refers This
to thehighly
organisation (Club, Press Association, Comp
modular annotation model
ClubA Player1
ClubB
fromPeriod whichfacilitates
Player2 depicts thetheday when
reuse the person
of semantic was hired
information andby the organisat
ClubC toPeriod which states
Player3 reducesthe redundancy.
day when the person leaves the organisation.
Taking
Thus, a class with the listed properties intosolves
account allthe
thenature of theencountered
problems sports during the
Figure 5: Membership class domain, we concluded that a variation of the sen-
of this ontology. The club remains a static entity, as do players or managers. Moreove
tence structure suggested by Hollink, Schreiber,
memberEntity, whichrelational description
links to a person (i.e., allows retracing the career of a person. It should also be noted t
this example
player, manager, supporter, is built uponWielemaker,
photographer,
and Wielinga
the sports domain (2003) is best
it is expandable suited every other
to virtually
the society. to design our annotation template. We opted for
etc.)
an Actor Action Object structure that will
isMemberOf, which refers to the organisa-
allow the natural annotation of motion or emo-
tion (i.e., club, press association, company,
tion-type relationships without the need to involve
etc.)
SEMANTIC IMAGE ANNOTATION NLP techniques (Chen, 1995). An added benefit
fromPeriod, which depicts the day when the
of the structure is that it simplifies the task of the
person was hired by the organisation
Thethe
Protg ontology reasoner in matching actor and action annotations
toPeriod, which states day when the editor was used to construct the sport domain ontology. Protg
with entities that
frame-based knowledge representation andhave similar
adopts OWL characteristics.
as the ontology language (N
person leaves the organisation
2003). The Jena Java API (Carrol, 2004) was used to build the annotation portal to th
constructed
Thus, a class with the listed ontology.
properties solves
all the problems encountered during the build- SEMAN TIC IMAGE RE TRIE VAL
ing of this ontology. The The
club central
remainscomponent
a static of the annotation are the images stored (as OWL descriptions
entity, as do players or managers. Moreover, The image retrieval algorithm uses a tree compari-
image library as this
illustrated in Figure 6. Each image comprises an object, whose main
relational description allows son that traverses the ontology classes in order to
arefor the retracing
stored within an of independent object library. Similarly, the object characteristics, e
the career of a person. It location,
should also find a path that represents the nearest neighbour
etc.beare
noted
distinct from the image library. This highly modular annotation mod
that while this example isfacilitates
built upon the
the reuse
sportsof semantic information and reduces redundancy.
domain it is expandable to virtually every other Figure 6. Architecture of image annotation
domain of the society.
Image Library
Image#1
Object#o1
ObjectCharac#oc1
SEMAN TIC IMAGE ANNO TATION Location#l1
Date
The Protg ontology editor was used to construct
Object Location
the sport domain ontology. Protg uses frame- ObjectLibrary
Characterstic
Object#o1 Library
based knowledge representation and adopts OWL Class=person Library Location#l1
as the ontology language (Noy, Crubzy, Ferger- Name ObjectCharac#oc1
Object#o1
City#city1
Size Country#
son, Knublauch, Tu, Vendetti, et al., 2003). The Date Of Creation Characterstic=angry country1
265
Taking into account the nature of the sports domain, we concluded that a variation of
sentence structure suggested in (Hollink et al., 2003) is best suited to design our anno
Semantic Annotation and Retrieval of Images in Digital Libraries
to the query. The user is also allowed to assign The nearest neighbour matchmaking algorithm
preferences to different segments of the query, so continues traversing back to the upper class of
that, for instance, priority might be given to the the ontology and matching instances until there
player or the tournament in the specific query. In are no superclasses in the class hierarchy, that
order to allow a dialog between the query and the is, the leaf node for the tree is reached, giving a
annotated files, a semantic description generator degree of match (DoM) of 0. The DoM degree is
needs to be created. Figure 7 provides a high level calculated according to
view of the retrieval mechanism.
MN
User and administrator play two different roles. DoM = (1)
First, the administrator annotates the images in GN
order to give more consistency and structure to the where the MN is the total number of matching
annotation libraries. The user can only create new nodes in the selected traversal path, and GN is
requests. The semantic description generator (1) the total number of nodes in the path. Then the
transforms the query into an OWL query, which comparison values are weighted using the user
determines a first set of images (2) on which the preferences according to (Osman, Thakker, &
Semantic Web image retrieval algorithm can be Al-Dabass, 2006):
applied (3). During this stage, a dialog between
all the libraries is required. This algorithm uses a m = |lr - la|; p [0,1], v = p (2)
weighting system (4) previously set by the user in
order to fine-tune the final results in accordance where v is the value assigned to the comparison,
to the users query (5). The last stage consists of m is the matching level of the individuals, p is the
displaying the results (6). user preference setting, and lr and la are the levels
of the request and the annotation, respectively.
User
First
2 Person
R esults L ibrary
New Query
T eam
L ibrary
1 Semantic OWL
Request Match
description Image L ibrary L ibrary
generator
Indexed
annotation
New Annotation
Library Data Index
A dmin
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Semantic Annotation and Retrieval of Images in Digital Libraries
267
Semantic Annotation and Retrieval of Images in Digital Libraries
Semantic Image Retrieval: Image retrieval Web Ontology Language (OWL): A com-
that takes into account the meaning of the actions puter-readable language in which Semantic Web
and objects contained in images. ontologies can be expressed.
268
Section III
Users, Interactions, and
Experiences
270
Chapter XXVII
Metadata and Metaphors
in Visual Interfaces to Digital
Libraries
Ali Shiri
University of Alberta, Canada
A bs tra ct
This chapter introduces a new category of digital library user interfaces called metadata-enhanced
visual interfaces. Drawing on the earlier information retrieval visual interfaces that have made use of
thesauri, this chapter will review and analyze metadata-enhanced visual interfaces to digital librar-
ies based on two key variables, namely metadata elements used for visualization purposes and visual
metaphors incorporated into the user interfaces. The aim of this study is to inform the design of visual
interfaces for digital libraries through bringing together issues that have roots in such communities as
information retrieval, digital libraries, human-computer interaction, and metadata. The findings of this
study provide design ideas and implications for digital library interface design in terms of the various
metadata-based information search and retrieval features for visualization purposes.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Metadata and Metaphors in Visual Interfaces to Digital Libraries
related to digital libraries, namely bibliometric feedback by suggesting additional categories. Us-
studies, information retrieval (query and result), ers can jump easily from one category to another
scientific visualization, as well as knowledge and can search on multiple categories simultane-
domain visualization. This chapter will review ously. The visual MeSH (Lin, 1999) is a graphical
and analyze metadata-enabled visual interfaces to interface developed to interact with the MeSH
digital libraries based on the richness and variety thesaurus and Medline. It allows the user to look
of metadata elements used and the visualization up MeSH terms in a click-and-choose environment
approaches adopted on the interface. The first and assists users in exploring the MeSH terms by
part of this chapter will provide a brief overview providing several views of the concept, including
of visual interfaces developed based on thesauri tree view, neighbor view, and map view. On any of
as one source of subject metadata. The second the views, the user can double-click on a term to
part of this chapter will review and analyze in- select it. Sutcliffe, Ennis, and Hu (2000) describe
novative metadata-enabled visual interfaces to a visual interface enhanced with a thesaurus
digital libraries. The final section will present called the integrated thesaurus-results browser,
a general discussion of the reviewed interfaces which provides simultaneous access to query bar,
in terms of their visualization approaches and thesaurus terms and structure, as well as search
metadata elements used within the context of results. The thesaurus is a major feature of the
digital library developments. The current study interface, allowing for search term selection and
draws on the research carried out in the areas of query specification or modification.
digital libraries, interface design, human computer
interaction, and metadata.
INNO VATIVE VIS UAL IN TERFA CES
TO DIGI TAL LIBRARIES
EARLIER INFORMA TION
RE TRIE VAL VIS UAL IN TERFA CES Brner and Chen (2002) identify three usage
USING THESA URI scenarios for visual interfaces to digital libraries:
(1) support the identification of the composition
MeSHBrowse (Korn & Shneiderman, 1995), a of a retrieval result, understand the interrelation
prototype interface for browsing the medical of retrieved documents to one another, and refine
subject headings (MeSH) thesaurus, employs a search; (2) gain an overview of the coverage of
a concept space approach and a node-link tree a digital library and to facilitate browsing; and
diagram of the concept space. Hidden interrela- (3) visualize user interaction data in relation to
tionships of the terms are revealed once a node available documents in order to evaluate and
is clicked. The graphical nature of the interface improve digital library usage.
allows only for related categories of terms to be The present chapter aims to review and briefly
displayed in a two-dimensional tree structure. Cat- analyze a specific category of digital library vi-
a-cone (Hearst & Karadi, 1997) utilizes a three- sual interfaces that support information seeking
dimensional graphical interface which shows all and retrieval based on metadata representations.
of the top level categories initially and allows for I will call this category metadata-enabled vi-
the user to control the subsequent expansion. An sual interfaces. The focus of these interfaces is
alternative mode of interaction is to have the user mostly on the ways in which metadata elements
type in a category label and see which parts of and visualization approaches can be utilized to
the hierarchy match or partially match that label. richly represent the content of digital library col-
The interface also caters for a kind of relevance lections. This type of interface enables users to
271
Metadata and Metaphors in Visual Interfaces to Digital Libraries
gain a detailed insight into the variety and vastness VIS UALIZA TION : META PHORS
of digital library materials through exploring the AN D META DATA
metadata elements attached to digital objects.
Beheshti, Large, and Julian (2005) report In this chapter, the examination of visual meta-
the development of a 3-D visual interface called phors and metadata focuses primarily on a select
Virtual Reality Interface for Childrens Web number of prototype and operational visual in-
Portal. The interface utilizes a library metaphor terfaces. A few of the interfaces reviewed were
as a mechanism to support browsing purposes. created in the late 1990s, but most of the interfaces
Metadata elements such as title and brief descrip- examined here were developed after 2000. The
tions have been used to support users information rationale for choosing metadata and metaphors
seeking behavior. The National Science Digital as interrelated variables in the study lies in the
Library in the United States provides an interac- fact that the number of visual interfaces to digital
tive visual interface for browsing the collections libraries which have incorporated metadata ele-
held within the library using subject terms. The ments is increasing. It is important to examine
interface allows for browsing of the subject hi- the variety of visual metaphors and metadata
erarchy. Upon clicking on a subject category, the elements used in digital library interfaces to
interface shows the collections which have been inform the future development of digital library
assigned that subject category. The interface also user interfaces. Metadata are key components
offers a search option where you can search for of well-established digital libraries and if digital
a particular subject category within the subject libraries are to support users in their information
structure. The Alexandria Digital Earth Prototype exploration, effective visualization of already
(ADEPT) project (Ancona & Smith, 2002) has existing metadata elements will accommodate
adopted a concept-space approach to information information interaction and discovery. In the
visualization. The interface addresses a number following, two main themes will be discussed:
of issues, such as access, browsing, delivery, visualization metaphors and metadata-enhanced
and understanding of library items. The concept visual interfaces.
space in this project is generated from a database
of concepts produced by the ADEPT knowledge
organization team. Each concept record in this VIS UALIZA TION META PHORS
knowledge base includes any number of relation-
ships to other concepts. The visual concept map It seems as though interface developers agree
depicts concepts and their relationships as well that visualization can and should enable digital
as the type of relationship between and among libraries to facilitate navigation while minimiz-
those concepts. The Variations2 Indiana Digital ing cognitive load (Good, Popat, Janssen, &
Music Project adopts an innovative approach to Bier, 2005). The examination of visual interfaces
the visualization of a music library. The inter- demonstrates that digital library interfaces aim to
face takes advantage of such metadata elements visually provide users with a sense of familiarity
as composer, name of the musical instrument, and instinctive navigation. To this end, most visual
date, and performer. The interface shows a three interfaces employ real-world spatial metaphors.
dimensional space with the metadata elements The most common metaphor is geography, or
represented to support browsing and exploring the metaphor of exploring a geographic terri-
of the collection. tory (Constabile, Esposito, Semeraro, Fanizzi, &
272
Metadata and Metaphors in Visual Interfaces to Digital Libraries
Ferilli, 1998), where items or metadata represent ments such as title, place, duration, media, size,
points on a map. For example, the paper on the and collection. This prototype adds a color-coded
intelligent digital library (IDL) interface (Consta- relevance ranking scheme to thumbnails harvested
bile et al., 1998) uses this metaphor extensively; by a search. Fluid Interface is a visual interface
each subject is a city existing within a region which makes use of a large, old-fashioned desk-
of related subjects. The connections between top as its metaphor (Good et al., 2005). The aim
subjects (roads), and the lines where regions of the interface is to provide a usable interface
begin and end (borders), are also meaningful. for personal digital libraries. The image of the
These mapping metaphors also employ color in desktop as a metaphor clarifies the developers
recognizably geographic ways. objective of providing an interface enabling us-
There are some geographical user interfaces for ers to easily view several items at once. Just as
digital libraries which focus on real-life geographi- a large desktop would allow you to spread your
cal regions, such as BALTICSEAWEB (Laitenen papers out so as to refer back and forth among
& Neuvonen, 1998) and Historical Directories them, this interface relieves users of the hassles
of England and Wales. BALTICSEAWEB is a of opening and managing multiple windows and
collection of environmental information about applications while examining documents. The
the Baltic Sea region. Historical Directories is focus of the interface is on the visualization of a
a collection of antique trade directories. The document collection.
International Childrens Digital Library also
encourages geographical browsing by provid-
ing a clickable rotating globe. These interfaces META DATA
generally support only browsing, not searching.
Where visual information (e.g., paintings, photos, The role and importance of metadata and their use
and covers of books) is contained in the digital in the development of visual interfaces to digital
library, often metaphors such as a bookshelf or libraries has been emphasized in the literature
gallery are used. In these cases, rather than rely (Mitchell, 1999). Metadata elements can be ef-
primarily on metadata for the display, the inter- fectively used for providing a richer representation
face allows the user to view thumbnail versions of digital objects and collections. In the following,
of the actual visual information. Among the good we briefly review some of the visual interfaces that
operational examples of this are: have incorporated metadata elements into their
interface design to support users exploration of
LibraryThing, which encourages users to digital libraries.
arrange their books on a virtual shelf. New visual interface features offer some type
The International Childrens Digital Library of interactive dynamic mapping, most commonly
which enables browsing through book cov- in the form of a Java applet. These maps, which
ers by clicking graphics representing colors vary greatly in appearance, rely on metadata to
of books covers, categories of characters, illustrate the relationships among search results,
lengths of books, age groups, and so forth. or among items available for browsing. Here are
some examples.
An excellent visual interface, using variably
gridded thumbnails, is introduced by the Online National Science Digital Library (NSDL)
Picasso Collection digital library (Chang, Leggett, (Butcher, Bhushan, & Sumner, 2006)
Furuta, Kerne, Williams, Burns, et al., 2004). The o Features NSDL at a glance using color-
interface makes use of a variety of metadata ele- coded interactive strand maps.
273
Metadata and Metaphors in Visual Interfaces to Digital Libraries
o This map enables browsing by subject UpLib Fluid Interface (Good et al., 2005;
through the NSDL collections. Janssen, 2005a, 2005b)
o The interface provides users with a o Aims to blur the traditional separation
range of metadata elements such as between searching for materials and
title, URL, grade level, a short textual using them.
summary, and relevant educational o Incorporates a document-viewing func-
standards to allow easy navigation and tion (i.e., the ReadUp widget) into the
deeper conceptual analysis. interface along with searching, brows-
Intelligent Digital Library (Constabile et al., ing, and navigation visualizations.
1998) o The actual metadata fields used are up
o Focuses on specific metainformation, to the user, though the system makes
that is, provenance, form, functionality, good use of certain fields, such as title,
and usage statistics. date, and file type.
o Employs thesauri (e.g., INSPECs 629 MedioVis metadata browser (Grn, Gerken,
terms on Artificial Intelligence) to map Jetter, Knig, & Reiterer, 2005)
documents within areas of scholarly o Focuses on the pleasure principles of
interest browsing; that is, how browsing can be
o Bases color scheme on the impor- made as joyful and aesthetically pleas-
tance of each subject (i.e., the amount ing as possible. Like the UpLib Fluid
of literature assigned to that subject) Interface, MedioVis employs multiple
rather than on how subjects relate to coordinated views in pursuit of a joyful
each other. This allows users to filter browsing experience.
out less important literature. o Offers a 2-D scatterplot table visualiza-
o Also applies the importance color tion for search results. Here, the patron
scheme to the links between subjects chooses which metadata are used to plot
(i.e., based on the amount of literature the points on the table. For example,
sharing that link). given a set of search results, usage
Sequence Retrieval System (SRS) Browser statistics might form the Y axis, and
(Mane & Borner, 2006) publication date the X axis.
o Relies on the intrinsic relationships o Can also employ shelf location meta-
between biological entities to visualize data to create a map of the location of
both these relationships and the rela- a specific item within a physical library
tionships between works of scientific space.
literature. o Some of the metadata elements used
o Draws from the metadata contained by the interface are title, author, year,
in different databases (e.g., GeneNet; media type, full text, and description.
PubMed) to generate strand maps of VisAmp prototype using semantic fisheye
search results. view (SFEV) (Janecek & Pu, 2005; Janecek,
o Using these metadata (primarily index- Schickel, & Pu, 2005).
ing terms) enables users to search for o Aims to enhance the search process for
both information about a biological en- less efficient searchers, such as those
tity (e.g., a gene) and information about searching in an unfamiliar subject area,
that entitys position within the litera- and for users performing imprecise,
ture (e.g., which genes are commonly exploratory browsing.
studied alongside one another).
274
Metadata and Metaphors in Visual Interfaces to Digital Libraries
o The WordNet semantic structure is in- library shelves, strand maps, and multiple views.
corporated into the interface to support These techniques have the potential to visualize
users exploratory search experience. complex information spaces. Findings of this study
The interface allows the user to expand suggest that metadata-enhanced visual interfaces
and modify their query using both the represent varying levels of focus on stages of the
semantic links within WordNet and search process. For instance, some interfaces put
fisheye views of the image collection. more emphasis on the query formulation stage,
o Addresses the challenges of visualizing while others focused on collection visualization.
dense fields of information. Rather than A few interfaces used metadata and visualization
the color-coding of other interfaces, techniques to cater for both query formulation
SFEV relies on degrees of interest- and result presentation. In order to maximize the
ingness; more interesting results are benefit of metadata for interface design, future
bright and in sharp focus, while less research should explore the ways in which meta-
interesting results are faded. data can be used to support all stages of the search
process, namely query formulation, reformulation,
expansion, and results presentation. For instance,
CON CL USION subject metadata, taken from such sources as
thesauri and taxonomies, can provide users with
An increasing number of prototype visual in- additional search terms to expand or reformulate
terfaces for digital libraries are developed and a particular query. As was found in this study,
reported at various digital library conferences metadata contributes to the rich representation of
and in different journals. This trend points to the collection and items in visual interfaces. One
the growing popularity and acceptance of these approach to this type of design would be to have
types of interfaces for multimedia, multimodal, metadata presented to the user along with a subset
and multilingual information repositories and of the collection as a context. This will provide
digital libraries. An examination of a number users with a better understating of the collection
of digital library visual interfaces showed that and enable them to formulate more specific and
metadata elements, whether created manually or precise queries. With the growing number of
automatically, are capable of providing various multimedia digital collections, item-level and
ways in which information can be represented collection-level metadata will allow for various
and visualized on the interface. As a key ele- forms of collection surrogates to be created to
ment in any digital library, metadata have the support users understanding of collections.
potential to contribute not only to information
organization but also to visual interface design,
human information interaction, and to a richer REFEREN CES
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277
278
Chapter XXVIII
Usability Evaluation of
Digital Library
Judy Jeng
New Jersey City University, USA
A bs tra ct
This chapter introduces the concept of usability and provides examples of how usability has been used
in digital library evaluations. Usability is a user-centered evaluation and has a theoretical base in
human-computer interaction. The most concise definition of usability is fit for use. The dimensions
of usability may also include usefulness, usableness, ease of use, effectiveness, efficiency, satisfaction,
learnability, memorability, and error tolerant. The common methods of usability evaluation are described
in this chapter, including formal usability testing, usability inspection, card sort, category membership
expectation, focus groups, questionnaires, think aloud, analysis of site usage logs, cognitive walkthrough,
heuristic evaluation, claims analysis, concept-based analysis of surface and structural misfits (CASSM),
paper prototyping, and field study. Some evaluations employed one method; some used a combination of
methods. There is a need for more empirical studies in order to understand users needs. Culturability
is an interesting area to explore.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Usability Evaluation of Digital Library
279
Usability Evaluation of Digital Library
He calls for more attention to user choice, prefer- practitioners); is often, but not always, guided
ence, perception of aesthetics, frustration, and by user tasks; and has the goal of predicting us-
sense of enhancement or accomplishment. ability problems that users will encounter in real
Rushinek and Rushinek (1986) found that usage (Hartson, Shivakumar, & Prez-Quin o nes,
system responsiveness (response time) is the most 2004).
important variable affecting users happiness. Heuristic evaluation is also sometimes called a
usability audit or heuristic expert review. A small
group of evaluators analyzes the interface of the
Me tho ds of Usabili ty site using a list of recognized usability principles,
Eval uation called heuristics (or rules of thumb). Aaccording
to Blandford et al. (2004, p. 28), it is probably the
There are a number of methods to evaluate us- most widely used usability evaluation technique
ability. The techniques include formal usability because it is perceived to yield reasonable benefits
testing, usability inspection, card sort, category for low cost. As Nielsen and Mack (1994) state, it
membership expectation, focus groups, question- is easy, fast, and cheap. However, it tends to focus
naires, think aloud, analysis of site usage logs, cog- on micro features of an interface rather than the
nitive walkthrough, heuristic evaluation, claims global picture. Heuristic evaluation is often best
analysis, concept-based analysis of surface and done at the beginning of a project and then repeated
structural misfits (CASSM), paper prototyping, at later stages of development (Hom, 2000).
and field study (Askin, 1998; Blandford, Keith, Cognitive walkthrough is another method that
Connell, & Edwards, 2004; Campbell, 2001; involves expert evaluators. The evaluators design
Jeng, 2006, p. 20-24; Kantner & Rosenbaum, specific task scenarios. The users goals and pur-
1997; Keith, Blandford, Fields, & Theng, 2003; pose for each task are defined and tasks are broken
Levi & Conrad, 2002; Nielsen & Mack, 1994; down into relatively small pieces. The evaluators
Pearrow, 2000; Popp, 2001; Rosson & Carroll, role is to play the part of the user working with
2002; Snyder, 2003). the site, noting problems, paths, and barriers,
Formal usability testing is the most produc- and essentially reviewing the ease of learning
tive technique in that the information gained is of the site (Wharton, Rieman, Lewis, & Polson,
the most detailed and closest to the actual user. 1994). Cognitive walkthrough is a relatively cheap
Formal usability testing has five characteristics: method of cleaning up a Web site or a digital
(a) The primary goal is to improve the usability library. Since it does not involve actual users, it
of a product; (b) The participants represent real can be conducted any time and as frequently as
users; (c) The participants do real tasks; (d) The desired. Cognitive walkthrough is more limited
things participants do and say are observed and in scope than heuristic evaluation because of its
recorded; and (e) The data are analyzed, the real rigid structure, but, at the same time, it provides
problems are diagnosed, and recommendations to a clear structure for conducting the analysis once
fix those problems are made (Dumas & Redish, user profiles and tasks have been defined.
1993). Claims analysis is less structured than cogni-
Usability inspection has several characteris- tive walkthrough. It is more difficult to learn than
tics: it applies to early designs, well-developed heuristic evaluation and cognitive walkthrough
designs, and deployed systems; is usually less (Blandford et al., 2004, p. 32), but it supports the
expensive than lab-based formal usability test- analyst in thinking about usability issues more
ing; does not employ real users; is expert-based deeply. Claims analysis provokes thinking about
(i.e., conducted by trained usability engineering why things are the way they are, and how they
280
Usability Evaluation of Digital Library
could be different. In this method, the usability org). They found that the digital librarys design
engineer identifies significant features in a design was function-oriented and not user-oriented. The
and generates hypotheses about the consequences terminology used in the digital library was also a
these features might have for users engaged in problem; there was jargon and the use of terms was
activities. designer-centered rather than user-centered.
Some usability evaluations use one primary The evaluation of DeLIver applied a mixture
method while some use a combination of meth- of methods, including transaction log analysis,
ods. surveys, interviews, focus groups, and formal
usability testing to measure accessibility (Bishop,
2001; Neumann & Bishop, 1998). This evaluation
Prior Usabili ty Stud ies demonstrated the value of data triangulation. The
evaluators found the evaluation process enabled
This section briefly describes select digital library them to pursue social issues surrounding digital
evaluations which use usability as the evaluation libraries while dealing with specific usability
criteria. problems.
The study conducted by Theng, Mohd-Nasir, The evaluation of eLibraryHub also applied the
and Thimbleby (2000) utilized questionnaires and approach of triangulation of data (Theng, Chan,
heuristic evaluation to measure usability of the Khoo, & Buddharaju, 2005). The study employed
ACM Digital Library (http://www.acm.org), the both quantitative and qualitative methods, includ-
Networked Computer Science Technical Refer- ing questionnaires and claims analysis, to study
ence Library (http://www.ncstrl.org), and the effectiveness, usefulness, and satisfaction.
New Zealand Digital Library (http://www.nzdl. Dorward, Reinke, and Recker (2002) evaluated
org). Their study helps to explicate the purpose Instructional Architect, which aims to increase the
of digital libraries. utility of NSDL resources for classroom teachers.
Sumner and Dawe (2001) studied usability of The methods they employed included formal us-
the Digital Library for Earth System Education ability testing and focus groups. The evaluation
(DLESE, www.DLESE.org), focusing on its role centered on interface design and contents. Partici-
in the process of educational resource reuse. The pants of the evaluation recommended additions
study found that the design of the search result of an introductory tutorial, better graphics, and
page plays a critical role in supporting users com- a preview screen.
prehension. The study also found that metadata The usability study of the Belgian-American
play a central role to support comprehension and Research Collection at the University of Wisconsin
modification processes. Digital Collections Center also used both focus
Sumner, Khoo, Recker, and Marlino (2003) group and formal usability testing methods (Clark,
conducted focus groups to study DLESE and the 2004). The evaluation helped to bring in more
National Science Digital Library (NSDL, www. logical and intuitive interface design.
NSDL.org). The purpose of this study was to Minnesotas Foundations Project is a mul-
identify educators expectations and requirements tiagency collaboration to improve access to en-
for the design of educational digital collections vironmental and natural resources information
for classroom use. (Quam, 2001). The researchers conducted two
Hartson et al. (2004) applied usability inspec- usability studies: one to study ease of use of the
tion method to evaluate the design and functional- interface and one to study usefulness of controlled
ity of the Networked Computer Science Technical vocabulary. The formal usability testing was the
Reference Library (NCSTRL, http://www.ncstrol. primary evaluation method, supplemented by
281
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282
Usability Evaluation of Digital Library
283
Usability Evaluation of Digital Library
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286
287
Chapter XXIX
Digital Library Requirements:
A Questionnaire-Based Study
Stephen Kimani
Institute of Computer Science and Information Technology, JKUAT, Kenya
Emanuele Panizzi
University of Rome La Sapienza, Italy
Tiziana Catarci
University of Rome La Sapienza, Italy
Margerita Antona
FORTH-ICS, Greece
A bs tra ct
The gathering of user requirements is key to the gaining of a deeper understanding of the needs evolv-
ing from the users operational context and from the use of the system. User requirements are pivotal
in guiding the development process of any system. This is no less true in the arena of digital libraries
(DLs). The gathering of DL requirements should be conducted with the understanding that the antici-
pated DL user interface should accord support to the user throughout the entire DL usage/interaction
process. This chapter describes a questionnaire-based study of DL requirements based on the foregoing
understanding. The study covered a wide range of issues pertinent to the design of user interfaces for
DLs, including: user characteristics/profiles, current experience in DL usage, functional requirements,
nonfunctional requirements, and contextual requirements. To the authors knowledge, this is the first
systematic empirical investigation of DL requirements that covers such a wide range.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Digital Library Requirements
IN TRO DUCTION During the first year, one of its specific objectives
was to investigate the requirements for a DL user
It has been said that the digital library in a interface design. To that end, the cluster embarked
broader context is nothing but a database ...the on the gathering/identification of the functional
objective of any digitization process should be requirements and nonfunctional requirements of
the empowerment of the people (TERI, 2004). It DL users and stakeholders based on a question-
is worth noting that there exist many definitions naire-based study.
of the term digital library (e.g., Borgman, 1999; The investigation involved a wide variety of
Digital Library Federation, 1999); however some issues pertinent to the design of user interfaces
of the common points across different definitions for DLs, ranging from user characteristics and
are: digital libraries (DLs) can be comprised of profiles to current experience in the use of DLs,
digital as well as nondigital entities; the realm of through functional and nonfunctional require-
libraries is constituted not only of library objects ments, to requirements specifically related to the
but also of associated processes, actors, and com- context of use. While there exist lots of related
munities; and the content of DLs can be extremely efforts (e.g., Marcum, 2003; Pasquinelli, 2002;
heterogeneous. It appears that the bottom-line DL Schilit, Price, & Golvchinsky, 1998), our study
issue in this matter is to provide a coherent view is, to the authors knowledge, the first systematic
of the (possibly) large collection of the available empirical investigation of DLs user requirements
materials (Lynch & Garcia-Molina, 1995). With that covers such a wide range of aspects. In this
the foregoing statement in mind we may, to a large chapter, we describe the overall requirements
extent, regard a DL as an information environ- emanating from the study3.
ment. In this environment, there are producers In the rest of the chapter, we describe the ques-
and consumers of information and knowledge tionnaires that were used in the DL requirements
(including collaborators and stakeholders), and study; we then give some background informa-
they may change their role or play more than one tion pertaining to the questionnaire participants.
role at the same time. The DL requirements are then described and we
The gathering of user requirements is instru- then highlight future trends and conclude the
mental to the gaining of a deeper understanding chapter.
of the needs evolving from the users operational
environment and from the use of the system. User
requirements are of key importance for guiding USER AN D S TAKEHOL DER
the development (and evaluation) process of any Q UES TIONNAIRES
system. This is no less true in the arena of digital
libraries. WP4 user interface and visualization is Potential or real DL users (i.e., stakeholders and
a cluster within the DELOS network of excellence end users) have a key role toward the success-
on digital libraries2. The clusters ultimate goal is ful design of DLs, and the questionnaires can
to develop methodologies, techniques, and tools encourage them to word their recommendations
to establish a theoretically motivated and empiri- on possible support offered by a DL. The ques-
cally supported frame of reference for designers tionnaires also enable DL users to contribute to
and researchers in the field of user interfaces and the definition of the scope of DLs functional and
visualization techniques for digital libraries, so nonfunctional requirements. Apart from their use
as to enable future DL designers and developers in the context of the data collection performed by
to meet not only the technological, but also the the cluster, the questionnaires can also be reused
user-oriented requirements in a balanced way. in the process of designing digital libraries for
288
Digital Library Requirements
the purposes of the user requirements collection DIGI TAL LIBRARY REQ UIREMEN TS
phase. The questionnaires3 consist of four parts:
user background and demographics; users current This section describes the key needs and require-
experience; DL functional requirements; and DL ments concerning both the functionality of digital
nonfunctional requirements. libraries and other nonfunctional characteristics
related to interaction and importance of user
interface design. The requirements are analyzed
DEMOGRA PHI CS AN D USER and then organized into high and low importance
BA CKGRO UN D requirements for both DL stakeholders and end
users. The realization constitutes a handy resource
There were 45 library users (14 female, 25 male, for guiding the development and evaluation of
6 not specified) who responded to the online future DLs.
questionnaire. Most of the respondents range
from 20 to 55 years old and they all come from F unctional R equirements
Europe. Although many of them are in the field
of computer science, the samples contain very It is important for the developers and providers
divergent backgrounds (from computer scientists of DL services and systems to be well informed
to humanities studies and librarians). Only a few about the prevalent DL stakeholder and user
participants reported a considerable degree of functionalities. It is also important to know
disability in one or more of the following cat- how important those functionalities are to the
egories: cognitive, intellectual, and visual. The stakeholders and users. This subsection gives an
sample of these 45 DL users is also characterized analysis of various DL functional requirements
by multilingualism, high level of education, high in terms of prevalence and importance. The study
experience with computing and the Internet, analyzed the following functionalities: functions
as well as relatively high experience with DLs. for locating information, functions for presenting
Questionnaire results indicate that the users fre- resources, functions for personalization of content
quently access a DL and thus they are aware of and services, facilities for communicating and
the weakness, advantages, and drawbacks of the collaborating with other DL users, and other
current digital systems. In addition, as far as the common DL functions (e.g., social navigation
type of access used for data retrieval is concerned, support, multilingual support, personal annota-
the vast majority of concerns are public or free tion, notification/alerting services, glossaries,
access, indicating that the users are not willing thesauri and dictionaries, printing/print preview
to pay a lot for retrieving data and knowledge facilities, and downloading/uploading facilities).
from a digital archive. Moreover, Web access is In addition, some participants expressed their
by far the most popular medium. Two thirds of interest in, and attached importance to, the need
the DLs gathered through the questionnaires sup- for help and guidance.
port English as the only language of interaction.
Slightly less than a quarter of all the DLs support Integration of knowledge: Integration of
both English and some other local language. Very knowledge is a stakeholder-oriented task.
few DLs offer multilingual support or only the In fact, in the stakeholders questionnaire
local language. we listed the content management func-
289
Digital Library Requirements
tionalities of the DL. Among all the content and storing metadata about resources as of
management related functionalities listed highest importance. Figure 1 provides an
within the questionnaire, deleting resources overview of common DL functions (content
was rated as of low importance to stakehold- management) at the stakeholder site and
ers, whereas moderate importance ratings their importance to the stakeholders. The
were allocated to: editing existing resources; DL stakeholder functional requirements
creating new classification schemes; index center around two main functional areas:
preview facilities, and facilities;
downloading/uploading facilities).
creating new resources; retrieving In addition, some participants
content management and membership man-
expressed their interest in, and attached importance to, the need for help and guidance.
content; and glossaries, thesauri, and dic- agement.
Integration of knowledge
tionaries. The DL functions at the provider Access to knowledge: Among the functions
Integration of knowledge is a stakeholder-oriented task. In fact, in the stakeholders
site that appear to be of high
questionnaire we listed the content management functionalities of the DL. Among all importance forthe
locating information, higher importance
content managementtorelated stakeholdersfunctionalities are: organizing
listed withinresources;the questionnaire, deleting ratings were allocated to search (e.g., key-
resources was rated as of low importance
archiving resources; to stakeholders,
and storing whereasmeta- moderate importance
words search, parametric search), moderate
ratings were allocated to: editing existing resources; creating new classification schemes;
datanew
index facilities; creating about resources
resources; (e.g., content;
retrieving creator,and content,
glossaries, thesauri,importance
and ratings were allocated to index
dictionaries. The DL technical
functions atrequirements,
the provider siteetc.). Stakeholders
that appear to be of high importance facilities
to and to navigation related functions
stakeholders are: organizing
rated locating resources;resources,archiving resources;
creatingand storing metadata about
cross- (e.g., browsing predefined catalogues), and
resources (e.g., creator, content, technical requirements, etc.). Stakeholders rated locating
reference links among similar
resources, creating cross-reference links among similar resources, and storing metadata resources, lower importance ratings were allocated to
about resources as of highest importance. Figure 1 provides an overview of common See
DL also items (e.g., similar to the one at
functions (content management) at the stakeholder site and their importance tohand) the and to functions for filtering search/
stakeholders. The
FigureDL 1.stakeholder
Common functional DL functions requirements
at the provider center around two main
functional areas: content management and membership management.
browsing results (e.g., according to personal
site and their importance to DL stakeholders1 profile[s]).
Administration of content: This is typi-
cally a stakeholders task. Among all the
Common Dl functions at the provider site
mean values
Checking for inconsistencies appears to be
Locating resources of high importance to stakeholders. Stake-
Creating cross reference links among similar resources
holders also expressed their interest/need for
Storing metadata about resources (creator, content, technical requirements, etc.)
Archiving resources access to control policies and for retrieval
Organizing resources
of DL usage statistical data. The reader may
Checking for inconsistencies
Glossaries, Thesaurus, and Dictionaries refer to Figure 1 above.
Updating end-users on new / refined contents
Tool creation and management: Among
Retrieving content/services usage statistics
Creating new resources the functions for the personalization of
Index facilities
Creating new / modifying existing classification schemes
content and services, higher importance
Editing existing resources ratings were allocated to functions for the
Bookmarks facility (i.e., Favorites)
presentation of contents according to profile,
Deleting resources
Multilingual support and to bookmarks facility (i.e., Favorites),
History facility
moderate importance ratings were allocated
290
Digital Library Requirements
to the provision of suggestions for contents to stakeholders are services for subscribing
based on profile, and to services offered and unsubscribing DL users.
for profile definition (e.g., professional in- Services Interfaces for access to inte-
terests, personal interests, etc.), and lower grated knowledge: Higher importance
importance ratings were allocated to the ratings were allocated to short descrip-
provision of suggestions for discussion with tion/previews, author(s)/editor(s), and title,
other library members with similar interest moderate importance ratings were allocated
profiles, and to history facility. An overview to popularity (e.g., number of visits), to
of the ratings given by DL users is presented insertion/modification date, and to related
in Figure 2. items, and lower importance ratings were
Membership management: Among all the allocated to users ratings and to users dis-
membership management-related function- cussions and reviews. An overview of the
alities listed in the stakeholders question- ratings is presented in Figure 3. As can be
naire, multilingual support, monitoring seen, the most important fields are Title
usage and identifying common patterns of and Author.
use, and initiating special interest discus- Services Interfaces for sharing/integra-
sions were rated as of low importance to tion of knowledge: Among the functions
stakeholders. Moderate importance was for communicating and collaborating with
allocated to updating end users on new/re- other DL users, higher importance ratings
fined services and in maintaining a virtual were allocated to shared annotation facilities
help-desk for end users (e.g., FAQs facility). (e.g., peer reviews) and to e-mail services,
DL functions related to membership man- moderate importance ratings were allocated
agement that appear to be of high importance
Figure 3. Common fields for presenting DL re-
sources, and their importance to DL users
Figure 2. Common functions for personalization
of DL content and services, and their importance
Common fields for presenting resources
to DL users
Common Dl functions for personalisation
(metadata)
0
mean values
0
to message boards services, and lower im- subjective satisfaction users (i.e., expert, moder-
portance ratings were allocated to video ate, and novel users). An overview of the ratings
conferencing and chat. Regarding commu- is presented in Figure 4. The ease of use of a DL
nication, e-mail is the most frequent way is the most important feature. On the other hand,
required for communicating, while video the satisfactory performance for the experts is the
conferencing appears not to be strongly least important one. This means that the users
desired. Furthermore, among all facilities give high importance to the simple way of com-
for collaboration, track changes facilities municating, accessing, retrieving, and searching
received the lowest scores. content of their interest. Furthermore, in terms
Other DL functionalities: Higher impor- of usability, some participants highly rated the
tance ratings were allocated to printing/print importance of speed and flexibility to reach the
preview facilities, and to downloading/up- information, and mentioned that the DL should
loading facilities, while moderate impor- remember the usability and accessibility prefer-
General nonfunctional
tance ratings were allocated to personal an- encesrequirements at the user
and requirements of thesite and their importance according to
users.
users
notation, and notification (alerting) services,
In this part, the analysis of the importance of nonfunctional requirements according to
and lower importance ratings were allocated Accessibility Requirements
DL users is discussed.
to social navigation support (e.g., through
users rating of content) and to multilingual
Usability Higher importance ratings were allocated to
requirements
support. Higher importance support
ratings werefor users with to
allocated dexterity
supportand for mobility
error prevention and handl
and ease of use of the DL, while moderate importancewere
impairments, moderate importance ratings ratings were allocated
N onfunctional R equirements allocated to support
memorability and learnability, for users
and lower with speech,
importance hearing,
ratings were allocated to subjec
and expert,
satisfaction users (i.e., learningmoderate,
impairments,andand lower
novel importance
users). An overview of the rating
presented
This subsection gives an analysis of the impor- in Figure ratings were allocated to support for users with feature. On the o
4. The ease of use of a DL is the most important
tance of the following nonfunctionalhand, require-
the satisfactory performance
reading forimpairments.
and visual the experts is the least important one. This me
that the
ments: common usability requirements, common users give high importance to the simple way of communicating, access
retrieving,
accessibility requirements, and other common and searching content of their interest. Furthermore, in terms of usability, so
participants
nonfunctional requirements (e.g., ethics, safety, highly rated the importance of speed and flexibility to reach the informat
and mentioned that the DL should remember the usability and accessibility preferen
privacy, security, and system performance).
and requirements ofFigure 4. Usability-related requirements and their
the users.
importance to DL users
General nonfunctional requirements at the
user site and their importance according to
DL users
Usability r equirements
Usability Requirements 0
mean values
Higher importance ratings were allocated to sup- The digital library should be easy to use
The digital library should provide support for error prevention and handling
port for error prevention and handling, and ease of The digital library should be easy to learn
use of the DL, while moderate importance ratings The digital librarys features should be easy to remember
The digital library should be satisfactory to moderate users
were allocated to memorability and learnability, The digital library should be satisfactory to novel users
and lower importance ratings were allocated to The digital library should be satisfactory to expert users
Usability r equirements
and lower importance ratings were allocated to
ethical requirements.
Stakeholders expressed low interestFigure in the5. Usability-related requirements and their importance to DL stakeholders
memorability of the DL satisfaction to novel
Accessibility
users, moderate interest in error prevention and requirements
(e.g., evolution of functionality and content-related
Stakeholders showed relatively
requirements), high interest
adaptability (e.g.,intospecial services
different levels and support for u
handling and satisfaction to expert users, and
with visual impairments, reading impairments, and mobility impairments,
high interest in the ease of use and of learning of user expertise), and compliance with national/
comparison to special features for users with learning impairments, dexterity, spe
of the DL. Figure 5 provides an overviewimpairments,
of the international
and standards (e.g., ISO); and low im-
hearing impairments.
stakeholders preferences over specific usability portance to cost, interoperability (i.e., platform
attributes for DLs. independence),
Other nonfunctional portability, and ethics.
requirements
The stakeholders rated the other nonfunctional requirements as follows:
importance to High
safety,and
systems
Lowperformance
Importance (e.g., response time), privacy, scalabi
Accessibility Requirements and reliability (e.g., back-up facilities); moderate importance to interoperability
Requirements
platform independence), extendibility (e.g., evolution of functionality and cont
Stakeholders showed relatively high interest
relatedin requirements), adaptability (e.g., to different levels of user expertise),
special services and support for users withcompliance
visual Thenational/international
with foregoing specific functional
standards and
(e.g.,nonfunc-
ISO); and low importanc
cost, interoperability
impairments, reading impairments, and mobility tional (i.e., platform independence),
requirements were analyzedportability, and ethics.
in order to
impairments, in comparison to special features for identify high and low importance digital library
users with learning impairments, dexterity, speech requirements. In the sequel, the identified require-
impairments, and hearing impairments. ments are described, starting with the high and
low importance requirements for stakeholders
Other nonfunctional requirements and then for end users.
293
Digital Library Requirements
storing metadata about resources and checking for Concerning demographics and user characteris-
inconsistencies among the DL resources. Another tics, the performed investigation has established
interesting observation is that all accessibility re- that users from a number of European countries
quirements (i.e., for all kinds of disabilities) obtain exhibit a variety of characteristics concerning age,
a significant position in the list of requirements educational level and professional background,
of high importance to DL stakeholders, whereas and purpose of DL use. Nevertheless, most users
usability requirements fall in the group of moder- have a recurrent DL usage pattern, that is, twice a
ately important features except the need for ease week for a duration of 1 to 5 hours. Additionally,
of use of the DL. In the group of requirements users clearly show a tendency to use free access
of high importance, DL stakeholders have also DLs through the World Wide Web. Functional
placed all kinds of functionalities related to the requirements and nonfunctional requirements
administration and management of registered DL vary according to the users role in DLs usage.
users. On the other hand, the group of requirements In particular, it has emerged that end users and
that appear to be of lower value to DL stakeholders stakeholders of DLs tend to have different views
includes most of the miscellaneous functional and and conceptualizations of DL systems and of
nonfunctional requirements, as well as usability their use. Overall, it appears that DL stakeholders
requirements related to novel users. Furthermore, strive for enriched functionality, whereas DL users
history facilities and multilingual support are of pay more attention to the perceived behavior and
relatively low value to DL stakeholders. reliability of a DL. At the present stage, a strong
need for communication or collaboration in the
E nd-User R equirements DL end-user community does not seem to have
emerged yet. End users view DLs as personal-
DL end users, just like stakeholders, pay a lot of ized environments where privacy is protected.
attention to all types of DL facilities for locating On the other hand, stakeholders appear to view
(subjectively) useful information. End users, in DLs as more collaborative environments. From
contrast to stakeholders, appear to pay particular the acquired data, it also emerges that the tra-
attention to certain miscellaneous nonfunctional ditional paper document metaphor is still felt
requirements such as system performance, securi- as prevailing in DL environments, based on the
ty, privacy, safety, and other ethical requirements. high degrees of importance placed on retrieval,
Printing and up/downloading facilities are also of printing, uploading, and so forth of documents,
significant importance to DL users, followed by and with respect to the low importance placed,
general usability requirements and accessibility for example, on more digitally-oriented func-
for people with motor impairments (i.e., mobility tions such as personal annotation of digital data.
and dexterity impairments). On the other hand, A requirement common to both end users and
personalization is not really an important issue stakeholders concerns help and guidance. On the
among DL end users, and facilities for user-to- providers side, appropriate information about all
user communication and collaboration are almost the functionalities and the facilities of a DL are
not an issue at all. necessary in order to be able to provide the users
with satisfactory results. While it is somewhat
Main Lessons natural that end users and stakeholders focus on
different functions of a DL, it appears that they
The results of this initial work have led to the also view nonfunctional requirements differently
recognition and realization of some significant due to their different roles. In particular, it appears
dimensions of diversity in users issues for DLs. that they have different views on accessibility and
294
Digital Library Requirements
295
Digital Library Requirements
foregoing specific functional and nonfunctional tion segments. Demographics include aspects such
requirements. The chapter has also discussed the as age, gender, nationality, occupation, language,
main lessons that were learned from the study. and so forth.
Digital Library: Borgman (1999) defines
digital libraries as:
REFEREN CES
A set of electronic resources and associated techni-
Bertini, E., Catarci, T., Di Bello, L., & Kimani, cal capabilities for creating, searching and using
S. (2005). Visualization in digital libraries. In information. In this sense they are an extension
M. Hemmje, C. Niederee, & T. Risse (Eds.), In- and enhancement of information storage and
tegrated publication and information systems to retrieval systems that manipulate digital data in
virtual information and knowledge environments. any medium (text, images, sounds; static or dy-
Springer-Verlag Berlin. namic images) and exist in distributed networks.
The content of digital libraries includes data,
Borgman, C. L. (1999). What are digital libraries?
metadata that describe various aspects of the data
Competing visions. Information Processing and
(e.g., representation, creator, owner, reproduc-
Management, 35(3), 227-243.
tion rights), and metadata that consist of links or
Digital Library Federation. (1999). A working relationships to other data or metadata, whether
definition of digital library. Author. internal or external to the digital library.
Lynch, C., & Garcia-Molina, H. (1995). Interoper-
According to the Digital Library Federation
ability, scaling, and the digital libraries research
(Digital Library Federation, 1999):
agenda. Paper presented at the IITA Digital
Libraries Workshop.
Digital libraries are organizations that provide the
Marcum, D. (2003). Requirements for the future resources, including the specialized staff, to select,
digital library. The Journal of Academic Librari- structure, offer intellectual access to, interpret,
anship, 29(5), 276-279. distribute, preserve the integrity of, and ensure
the persistence over time of collections of digital
Pasquinelli, A. (2002). Digital library technology
works so that they are readily and economically
trends (white paper). Sun Microsystems, Inc.
available for use by a defined community or set
Schilit, B. N., Price, M. N., & Golvchinsky, G. of communities.
(1998). Digital library information appliances.
In Proceedings of the Third ACM Conference on Functional Requirements: They describe
Digital Libraries, Pittsburgh. ACM Press. system services or functions.
TERI. (2004). Report on the International Con- Nonfunctional Requirements: They define
ference on Digital Libraries. New Delhi, India: a constraint on the system or on the development
Author. process.
Questionnaire: A questionnaire is a written
list of questions that is distributed to subjects/
KEY TERMS participants to gather information.
Stakeholders: Stakeholders are people who
Demographics: Demographics refer to the
do not use the system directly but they may be
characteristics of human populations and popula-
affected by the system.
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Digital Library Requirements
297
298
Chapter XXX
Handhelds for Digital Libraries
Spyros Veronikis
Ionian University, Greece
Giannis Tsakonas
Ionian University, Greece
Christos Papatheodorou
Ionian University, Greece
A bs tra ct
The present chapter introduces digital library services utilization through handheld devices, such as
personal digital assistants (PDAs) and smartphones. It argues that handheld devices proliferation justifies
the term digital library in terms of anywhere-anytime access, and retrieval and management of informa-
tion. Furthermore, these devices constitute powerful information harvesting tools that help users enhance
their interaction with information spaces, both of physical and digital form. The chapter presents the
services that can be accessed by means of portable devices and analyzes the main sociotechnical issues
that arise and influence user interaction. Factors that affect acceptance of these devices are discussed,
and future trends are presented to outline the research landscape for the forthcoming years.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Handhelds for Digital Libraries
reasons, along with the need for anytime access During the last years many researchers have been
to information and the need to retrieve relevant studying issues that arise by the usage of such
and accurate information from anyplace, lead to devices for information retrieval tasks. In early
the creation of digital libraries (DLs). years of the current decade, several prototypes
In this chapter we present the reasons why were implemented in various settings, such as
handhelds, like personal digital assistants (PDAs), James Madison University (McCabe, 2004),
smartphones, TabletPCs, and the most recent Oulu University, Finland (Aittola, Ryhnen, &
ultra mobile PCs (UMPCs) can be used as tools Ojala, 2003), and Cornell University (Jones et al.,
to access DL content. The approach of this chap- 2000). Students from an informatics class in J.M.
ter is user-centered and focuses on the services University used a PDA to view and edit patient
that can be supported by these handhelds, the records whereas students in the Oulu and Cornell
interaction for use in DLs, and the acceptance universities used the PDAs to help them navigate
of such devices. in the universitys library, access the OPAC,
locate books of their interest, communicate with
other persons on the network (including library
BA CKGRO UN D personnel), take notes, scan or photograph topics
from the books retrieved, and transfer data on a
The term PDA was coined in 1992 by John personal storage area. Participants in the studies
Sculley for a handheld device that offered work expressed enthusiasm for the ability to combine
organizing tools, like a calendar, scheduler, ad- mobile information access with other activities
dress book, memos, clock, and a calculator. The such as writing or organizing materials. Map guid-
potential they introduced in information delivery ance to locate a book was preferred over traditional
was quickly recognized and soon these devices shelf classification. Even though the service was
were utilized, mainly, by health sciences libraries considered easier to use from a desktop terminal,
(Jones, Rieger, Treadwell, & Gay, 2000; Rios, the usage of a portable device in larger libraries
2004; Smith, 2002). Meanwhile, bigger screens was appreciated. However, as Jones et al. note
were made available and were able to depict (2000), their enthusiasm declined significantly
colorful graphics. Computing power, memory, when either technology purchase or student fees
and storage capabilities increased, and data input where suggested (p. 98).
methods, like handwriting and virtual keyboards,
were implemented. Audio playback was made
available and both size and weight reached the SER VICES A CCESSE D WI TH
ideal measures. Wireless networks also evolved, HAN DHEL DS
making anywhere information delivery a real-
ity. Moreover, smartphones appeared, providing Among the advantages of DLs over physical
telephony and other communication services like libraries, two are of great importance: anytime
e-mail, three-way communications (conferenc- and anywhere access to the librarys content. Even
ing), and Internet access. though the existence of DLs goes back at the late
Apart from the physical libraries, DL organiza- 80s, the term anywhere was strongly associ-
tions also found the wireless connectivity features ated with indoor places, like a home or company
quite attractive. Handhelds could be used to access office where a wireline connection to the Internet
multimedia content on a 24/7 basis. They could or some other database system was available.
also keep notes and other information for refer- Only recently, with the rapid growth of wireless
ence, or even be used as communication tools. communications and mobile computing, the term
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Handhelds for Digital Libraries
anywhere really reflects outdoor connections. their users in navigating in the physical space.
Handhelds are used to fill this spatial gap among Since the handheld user is no longer restricted in
access points, by enabling connections to remote a small area, location depended services (LDS)
information providers from any point, giving a are now becoming available, aiming at delivering
new perspective and potential to fields, like edu- the information or service that best fits the users
cation and life-long learning, business, logistics, location. Apart from navigation aids, other valu-
e-commerce, health, and entertainment. able tools like metadata indexes, guides, wizards,
There are three well-known and established and contextual linking systems can be delivered
information retrieval methods, namely searching, right to the users palm, whenever and wherever
browsing, and asking (Rosenfeld & Morville, the user needs them.
2002). Nowadays, handhelds can support their In more complex information seeking tasks,
users in information seeking tasks by delivering searching and browsing methods are often in-
valuable services. Powerful searching tools like tegrated and used in an iterative fashion. When
search engines, online catalogs, bibliographic the information needs are not well defined, the
databases, citation tools, search zones, lexicons, user starts browsing the content and eventually
thesauri, and controlled vocabularies are acces- performs a fine search within a subcategory.
sible via the Web, properly formed for the small However, when this technique does not yield the
screen devices (Mobile Google, mOPACs, i-mode) desired information, asking an expert might be the
and can be delivered to a user, whether the user solution. Thanks to their communicating features,
is in an airport lobby, in a train, or sitting in a handhelds can support live referencing by means
park. of e-mail, Web-forms, instant messaging or chat-
In cases where the users information needs ting, and even phone calls. The lack of nearby
are vague, the browsing method can help the user resources for advice, like books and encyclopedias
to start research. Handhelds can provide access to while being outdoors, makes stronger the need
categorized content, that is, taxonomies and hier- for remote assistance and especially when the
archies, where the user can progressively narrow need arises beyond office hours. Live referencing
down the seeking procedure to find information services are suitable for 24/7 access and therefore
of interest. Navigation aid is also considered a strongly match the DL profile. Many academic
valuable service. Navigation can be site-wide to institutions worldwide expand their referenc-
help users understand where they are and where ing services, like the Library of Congress, the
they can go from there, or it can be local to let Pennsylvania State University, and the National
them know where they are and what resources are State Libraries of Australasia. However, most
available nearby. Also, additional navigation aids of the referencing services currently available
like site-map trees and tables of contents offer to are oriented to users sitting in front of a desktop
the user a condensed overview of the information terminal. One of the few pioneers in supporting
landscape and links to major content areas let the mobile users is the Library of Curtin University
user choose the level of abstraction the user desires, of Technology, where users can ask the librarys
with a single tap on the screen. Map guidance can experts by submitting an SMS query. The lack
also be used when looking for a physical object of a keyboard makes the procedure of text input
(e.g., a book) in the physical library (Aittola et somewhat cumbersome and therefore it becomes
al., 2003) or the nearest open gas station in town. difficult for the mobile user to describe to an expert
Nowadays, many handhelds integrate global po- the kind of information the user needs. On the
sitioning system (GPS) modules and geographic other hand, the capabilities of the new handheld
information systems (GIS) software to support devices enable the user to contact an expert via
300
Handhelds for Digital Libraries
telephony, and allow the expert to send all the form and soon the first e-books appeared. Many
necessary information, for example, short texts, e-book vendors now provide rich collections
summaries, and URLs, to the users terminal. A that can be accessed, displayed and read with
similar example is the situation where a police the appropriate software on the handheld, while
officer asks from the operations center detailed specialized loaning software permits libraries
information for a car by submitting the plates to apply policies on electronic content. Also, the
number via police radio and gets the detailed storage capacity of the handhelds allows the user
data on a mobile data terminal (MDT) placed to carry hundreds or thousands of e-books on a
in the car. single device.
Apart from live referencing, handhelds are also Content management tools for annotation,
very popular in applications of static referenc- storage, organization, transfer, and sharing can
ing, that is, the user can download information also help the mobile user to exploit the retrieved
content into the device while being at home or information in the most efficient way. For example,
office and look up to it whenever a need arises. a student may use a device during a lecture to keep
Address books, dictionaries, and tables are some some notes, to record the lecture, to classify it as
well known examples, but as the screens of course notes, to e-mail the notes to a friend, and
handhelds become bigger and capable of depict- finally to migrate the whole session to the students
ing high resolution graphics, it is expected that desktop computer for post-processing.
diagrams, images, and e-books will be widely Since handhelds are designed to extend our
used. Marshall and Ruotolo (2002) made a study workplace outdoors and not completely substitute
for reading on handhelds and found that reading our desktop computers, we need to have most
on screen is strongly preferred when the user of our information in both places, indoors and
wants to locate and focus on short segments of outdoors. For example, a new e-mail downloaded
a longer text (e.g., abstracts, summaries, defini- on the handheld may also be transferred to the
tions, etc.) and navigate through an extensive set PC, if the user wishes so, and vice versa. The
of familiar materials. For example, an engineer handheld and the PC can be connected by means
can always carry a handbook or manual, a soft- of a cable or a cradle, or even by establishing a
ware developer can carry a reference guide, and a wireless link, for example, Bluetooth, Infrared
medical doctor can always have along the medical (Heisey & Paolillo, n.d.), or WiFi. Upon connec-
records of patients. tion, the synchronization software compares the
Besides publishers, other sources of electronic files and information between the two devices
information can be digitization projects of text- and copies the most current versions of the files
books and manuscripts that go back at the early to both devices. That way, the user always has a
70s with Project Gutenberg1 and the Perseus2 backup copy of the users data, which can be a
project at Tufts University, and continue today lifesaver if the handheld is broken or stolen. When
with large-scale digitization projects, like the ones synchronization is finished, the user can continue
funded by Google3 and libraries in the US and working on the desktop computer (e.g., extending
UK (e.g., the libraries of Harvard, Stanford, the research based on the results or URLs returned
University of Michigan, and Oxford University, from some OPAC queries) where a keyboard and
as well as the New York Public Library [NYPL]), a bigger display are available. User requirements
aiming for the online accessibility of more than 30 studies have shown that the idea of beaming
million full-text volumes. During the early 90s, stations where one can exchange information
with the evolution of electronic publishing, many between the devices is highly appreciated (Carney,
textbooks were originally created in electronic Koufogiannakis, & Ryan, 2004).
301
Handhelds for Digital Libraries
302
Handhelds for Digital Libraries
Web page of a newspaper that has a multicolumn detectors or other peripheral devices connected
front page is reformed so that columns are placed to the handhelds through expansion slots, such as
beneath each other, instead of next to each other, barcode and RFID readers or cameras that scan
and pictures are presented as thumbnails. QR-codes. As an alternative, a touch screen and a
While the latter case makes the text easier pointing device such as a pen allow for easy selec-
to read by changing the font size and properly tion of graphical objects among menu commands,
rearranging the structure of the text, it lacks the icons, buttons, or drop-down lists. For free form
insight offered by the layout context, that is, topics text input, the user can use the small keyboard
arrangement, font size and face, and so forth. As available or a virtual keyboard if provided. Ex-
an alternative, the image-based approach delivers ternal keyboards can also be used, ranging from
to the user a scaled-down version of the pages of laptop size to laser pocket-keyboards. In addition,
the document retrieved (Microsofts Live Lab, some sophisticated devices can recognize the
2006). This approach is very common when the users handwriting and use lexicons that predict
information to be delivered is not generated upon the word written to increase writing speed.
request but it is usually retrieved in the form it
had when published, like a digitized manuscript.
However, the topic retrieved does not necessarily ASSESSING A CCE PTAN CE
have to include static information; it can contain OF HAN DHEL DS FOR DIGI TAL
dynamic information and hyperlinks to other LIBRARIES
topics of information, much like the World Wide
Web documents. Device acceptance strongly depends on several
Lately, text-to-speech software is used to issues, such as usefulness, usability, cost, social in-
automatically convert e-books to spoken books. teractions, compatibility, reliability, and security.
MATCH is a prototype supporting multimodal Meta-analysis studies (Lu, Xiao, Sears, & Jacko,
interaction with a handheld device, used as a city 2005) based on the technology acceptance model
guide (Johnston, Bangalore, Vasireddy, Stentm (TAM) have identified motives and barriers of
Ehlen, Walker, et al., 2002). Vadas, Patel, Lyons, PDA usage. TAM (Davis, 1989) is an approach to
Starner, and Jacko (2006) made a study to assess modeling peoples intentions to use a new technol-
performance of comprehending text while mobile, ogy tool, taking into account two latent variables:
that is, in situations where the user is walking perceived usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of
or sitting. They compared a head-down visual use (PEoU). Their values cannot be directly mea-
display to a speech audio display. They found sured and therefore are inferred from other sets of
that users comprehension scores for the audio- variables, which are visible and measurable. For
walking condition were comparable to the scores instance, a big number of errors recorded when
for the visual-walking condition. Furthermore, the user tries to enter a query would indicate a
they recorded improvements in the users abil- strong usability issue which reflects upon PEoU.
ity to navigate the environment when using the The most common motives include mobility, time
audio display. saving, and accuracy of information, which all
Apart from the content presentation to a affect PU. On the other hand, technical features
handheld user, there is also the reverse problem of (i.e., size, weight), small screen design, energy
giving an input to a handheld device. Predefined consumption, reliability, and input methods are
input, like commands, must be quickly recognized shown to affect PEoU (Dearnley, McKnight, &
and in many cases they can be issued by code Morris, 2004; Shipman & Morton, 2001). In addi-
303
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304
Handhelds for Digital Libraries
resource discovery and information use in a va- tion. Journal of Librarianship and Information
riety of formats and from a number of local and Science, 36(4), 175-282.
remote sources in a seamlessly integrated way.
Heisey, L., & Paolillo, M. (n.d.). Final report:
We expect that mobile computing and distributed
Beam-using possibilities. Infrared beaming of
wireless networks will play a major role towards
citations from the kiosks to patrons portable
the vision of hybrid libraries.
devices. Retrieved September 11, 2007, from
http://www.library.cornell.edu/EMPSL/PDA-
pilot-report.pdf
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Johnston, M., Bangalore, S., Vasireddy, G., Stent,
Aittola, M., Ryhnen, T., & Ojala, T. (2003). Smar- A., Ehlen, P., Walker, M., et al. (2002). Match: An
tLibrary: Location-aware mobile library service. architecture for multimodal dialogue systems.
In Proceedings of the Mobile HCI 2003 (LNCS In Proceedings of the 40th Annual Meeting on
2795, pp. 411-416). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Association for Computational Linguistics (pp.
376-383). Philadelphia, PA: Association for Com-
Buchanan, G., Jones, M., & Marsden, G. (2003).
putational Linguistics.
Exploring small screen digital library access with
the Greenstone Digital Library. In Proceedings of Jones, M., Buchanan, G., & Thimbleby, H. W.
the 6th European Conference on Research and Ad- (2002). Sorting out searching on small screen
vanced Technology for Digital Libraries (LNCS devices. In Proceedings of the Mobile HCI 2002
2458, pp. 583-596). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. (LNCS 2411, pp. 81-94). Berlin: Springer-Ver-
lag.
Buyukkokten, O., Garcia-Molina, H., & Paep-
cke, A. (2001). Seeing the whole in parts: text Jones, M. L. W., Rieger, R. H., Treadwell, P., &
summarization for Web browsing on handheld Gay, G. K. (2000). Live from the stacks: user
devices. In Proceedings of the Tenth International feedback on mobile computers and wireless tools
World-Wide Web Conference (pp. 652-662). New for library patrons. In Proceedings of the Fifth
York: ACM Press ACM Conference on Digital Libraries (pp. 95-
102). New York: ACM Press.
Carney, S., Koufogiannakis, D., & Ryan, P. (2004).
Library services for users of personal digital Kleweno, C. P., Seibel, E. J., Viirre, E. S., Kelly, J.
assistants: A needs assessment and program P., & Furness, T. A., III (2001). The virtual retinal
evaluation. Portal: Libraries and the Academy, display as an alternative low vision computer
4(3), 393-406. interface: Pilot study. Journal of Rehabilitation
Research and Development, 38(4), 431-442.
Crestani, F., Landoni, M., & Melucci, M. (2006).
Appearance and functionality of electronic books. Lu, Y., Xiao, Y., Sears, A., & Jacko, J. A. (2005).
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192-209. adoption in healthcare. International Journal of
Medical Informatics, (74), 409-422.
Davis, F. D. (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived
ease of use, and user acceptance of information Marshall, C. C., & Ruotolo, C. (2002, July 14-
technology. MIS Quarterly, (13), 319-340. 18). Reading-in-the-small: A study of reading on
small form factor devices. In Proceedings of the
Dearnley, J., McKnight, C., & Morris, A. (2004).
2nd ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital
Electronic book usage in public libraries: a study
Libraries. Portland, OR: ACM Press.
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McCabe, J. (2004). Getting started with PDAs: A International Conference Proceeding Series 159,
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Microsoft Live Labs. (2006). Microsoft live labs
Deepfish. Microsoft Corporation. Retrieved KEY TERMS
September 11, 2007, from http://http://labs.live.
com/deepfish/ Human Computer Interaction: The study of
the interaction between computers and their us-
Peterson, M. (2004). Library service delivery via
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hand-held computers-the right information at the
which includes both software and hardware, for
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Journal, 21(1), 52-56.
(i.e., disk drives, CD players, etc.) and large-scale
Rios, G. R. (2004). PDA librarian. Reference mechanical systems, such as aircraft and power
Services Review, 32(1), 16-20. plants.
Rosenfeld, L., & Morville, P. (2002). Information Mobile Computing: A term to describe a
architecture for the World Wide Web: Designing users ability to use technology from a nonfixed
large scale Web sites. CA: O Reilly & Associ- location, using battery powered, portable comput-
ates, Inc. ing, and communication devices such as laptops,
notebooks, palmtops, smartphones, and PDAs.
Roussos, G., Marsh, A. J., & Maglavera, S. (2005).
Computing activity can take place locally, that is,
Enabling pervasive computing with smart phones.
the user can use a device to retrieve some informa-
IEEE Pervasive Computing, 4(2), 20-27.
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Ryan, C., & Gonsalves, A. (2005). The effect of to another information/computing system with
context and application type on mobile usability: wireless LAN or wireless WAN technologies.
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Series 102, pp. 115-124). Darlinghurst: Australian
Newer models support multimedia playback,
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voice recording, e-book readers, e-mail, and Web
Shipman, J. P., & Morton, A. C. (2001). The new access. There are also models that integrate global
black bag: PDAs, health care and library services. positioning system (GPS) and global system for
Reference Services Review, 29(3), 229-237. mobile communications (GSM) modules for
navigation and telephony, respectively.
Smith, R. (2002). Adapting a new technology to
the academic medical library: Personal digital Smartphone: Also known as hybrid, is any
assistants. Journal of the Medical Library As- electronic handheld device that integrates the
sociation, 90(1), 93-94. functionality of a mobile phone, personal digital
assistant (PDA), or other information appliance.
Vadas, K., Patel, N., Lyons, K., Starner, T., & Jacko,
This is often achieved by putting smart capabili-
J. (2006). Reading on-the-go: A comparison of
ties, such as PDA functions, into a mobile phone.
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action with Mobile Devices and Services (ACM
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Handhelds for Digital Libraries
Ubiquitous Computing: The idea of embed- Although it is impossible to quantify the useful-
ding computation into the environment by using ness of a system, attempts have been made to
everyday objects that enable people to interact with measure its attainment in reference to system
information-processing devices more naturally specifications and the extent of coverage of end
and casually than they currently do. The term was users tasks supported by the system, but not on
coined by Mark Weiser, chief scientist of Xerox end user performance testing. Perceived useful-
PARC. Other terms include pervasive computing ness expresses peoples intention to use (or not)
and calm technology. a new technology to the extent that they believe
it will help them perform their job better.
Usability: ISO 9241-11 defines usability as
the extent to which a product can be used by Wireless Networks: The term refers to com-
specified users to achieve specified goals with ef- munication networks, whose interconnections
fectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction in a speci- between nodes are implemented without the use
fied context of use. Usability of hypertext/Web is of wires, such as a computer network. Wireless
commonly measured using established usability communication networks are generally imple-
dimensions covering these categories of usabil- mented with some type of remote information
ity defects, such as screen design, terminology transmission system, consisting of base stations
and system information, system capabilities and and client terminals that use radio waves.
user control, navigation, and completing tasks.
Perceived usability expresses peoples belief to
the extent that a system is not too hard to use, and E n dno tes
the performance benefits are not outweighed by
the effort of using it. 1
http://www.gutenberg.org/wiki/
2
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/
Usefulness: This is debatable. Some make 3
http://www.google.com/press/pressrel/
the distinction between usability and usefulness.
print_library.html
307
308
Chapter XXXI
The CGIAR Virtual Library
Bridging the Gap Between
Agricultural Research and
Worldwide Users
Mila M. Ramos
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines
Cecilia Ferreyra
International Potato Center (CIP), Peru
Peter Shelton
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), USA
A bs tra ct
This chapter introduces the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) Virtual
Library as a tool for linking researchers and agricultural research results. The CGIAR is a strategic
alliance of countries, international and regional organizations, and private foundations supporting 15
international agricultural centers that work in partnership with national agricultural research institutions
and societies. The research results generated are numerous and cover a wide range of subject fields.
While these are properly documented, locating relevant and timely information across the systems 15
centers is a long and tedious process as individual databases have to be searched. The CGIAR virtual
library (CGVLibrary) project of the CGIAR Libraries and Information Services Consortium (CGIAR-
LISC) was created in 2005 to address the difficulty of information retrieval across the various centers.
It is now available via the WWW (http://vlibrary.cgiar.org/) and knowledge generated by the CGIAR
can now be retrieved with a few mouse clicks.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
The CGIAR Virtual Library Bridging the Gap Between Agricultural Research and Worldwide Users
309
The CGIAR Virtual Library Bridging the Gap Between Agricultural Research and Worldwide Users
audiences alike. In the day-to-day context of agri- (plus much more) regardless of document format,
cultural research, this can yield significant savings time, or the geographic location of the end user.
in terms of the time and energy they expend in The concept of a virtual library emerged
conducting lengthy searches for relevant research shortly after the inception of the Internet itself,
information while vastly improving the overall though it took some time before its applications
quality and impact of their research. and benefits were fully appreciated. This is in
The problems and opportunities described part a reflection of complex, dynamic nature of
above are not unique to the world of high-speed the virtual library concept as well as the thinking
Internet connections and state-of-the-art research of those seeking to manage and use informa-
facilities. An agricultural information workshop tion resources in new and exciting ways. Unlike
funded by the U.K. Dept. of International Devel- traditional libraries, which are subject to the
opment (DFID) and the International Institute for physical limitations associated with space and
Communication and Development (IICD) recently material holdings, the virtual library is conceived
concluded that the absence of a common refer- as existing everywhere, having no barriers and
ence point to information resources was a serious inviting the participation of a limitless audience
problem for many users in developing countries of users as envisioned by Chad in his Library 2.0
(Besemer, Addison, & Ferguson, 2003). In sum, paradigm (Chad & Miller, 2005) and discussed
having access to high quality, relevant research in various forums (Casey & Savastinuk, 2006).
information can often spell the difference between In sum, virtual libraries must fulfill the mission
gaining ground and falling behind in the rapidly of traditional libraries plus much more, utilizing
changing context of international development. dynamic information sharing practices and com-
munications infrastructure to keep pace with a
rapidly changing global information environment.
VIR TUAL LIBRARIES : BRI DGING The digital or virtual library is not a single entity
THE AGRI CUL TURAL KNOWLE DGE operating independently, but rather a product of
GA P committed collaboration (ARL, 1995).
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The CGIAR Virtual Library Bridging the Gap Between Agricultural Research and Worldwide Users
arly research is being conducted by more than the implementation of innovative approaches for
8,500 CGIAR scientists in over 100 countries, sharing institutional resources, including knowl-
on agroforestry, biodiversity, food, forage and edge, among much wider audiences of potential
tree crops, pro-environment farming techniques, users. In the case of the CGIAR, this entails re-
fisheries, forestry, livestock, food policies and searchers working with information technology
agricultural research services (CGIAR, 2006). and knowledge management professionals more
The collective research outputs of the CGIAR closely than ever before, and adopting new tools
centers support the advancement of knowledge, and strategies for ensuring that CGIAR research
a prospect that would be significantly hampered outputs reach citizens of the developing world.
in the absence of collaboration across the CGIAR
(CGVLibrary, 2006).
With public investment in agricultural research THE CGIAR VIR TUAL LIBRARY:
declining on a global scale, the CGIAR and other FROM IDEA TO REALI TY
international organizations have been pushed to
produce optimum returns on the resources they Having access to the latest, high quality scientific
continue to receive; effectively, they are faced literature has always been a necessary component
with the challenge of doing more with less. of the CGIARs research. Yet the task of locating
In spite of declining levels of investment, such and retrieving such information from across the
research continues to show positive effects on systems 15 centers has often been a long and
the economies of developing countries (Fuglie tedious process. Until recently, this process en-
et al., 1996), an accomplishment largely aided by tailed conducting as many as 15 separate searches,
Source: http://www.cgiar.org/centers/index.html
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The CGIAR Virtual Library Bridging the Gap Between Agricultural Research and Worldwide Users
often through disjointed interfaces. This was national Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)
the basis of the InfoFinder (2006) project, which worked closely with Ron Davies, an information
featured a tool allowing users to search across management consultant from Belgium, though it
the Web sites of both the CGIAR and the Food took nearly a year for the three to meet in person.
and Agriculture Organization (FAO). The project Throughout the entire process, a team of highly
benefited greatly from the fact that much of the skilled professionals continued working from
information and materials being accessed already diverse locations, mostly in an advisory capacity.
existed in digital format. They included the following teams of IMs, CGIAR
In 2003, some CGIAR IMs and the members researchers, and outside collaborators:
of the CGIARs Information and Communications
Technology- Knowledge Management (ICT-KM) CGIAR Information Managers: Thomas
Program first proposed the idea of creating a vir- Adigun (WARDA), Cecilia Ferreyra (CIP),
tual library. Together with the ICT-KM Programs Nick Maliha (ICARDA), and Mila Ramos
e-publishing project,2 the virtual library would (IRRI)
take the InfoFinder tool to the next level, allowing CGIAR Researchers: Franois Molle
for searches both inside and out of the CGIAR (IWMI), John Miles (CIAT), and Hugh
through the use of FAO-developed international Turral (IWMI)
standards for metadata. Moreover, the integration External Collaborators: Johannes Keizer
of CGXchange software would allow CGIAR staff (FAO) and Koda Traore (CTA)
to log on once, and have seamless access to all of
the materials their centers are licensed to use. As previously mentioned, the basis for the
The decision to create a virtual library marked CGVLibrary was the integration of all of the in-
a significant step forward in collaboration across formation materials (including training manuals)
the CGIAR, but was based largely on prior col- contained in the online library catalogs of each
laborative efforts among information from the CGIAR center. Additionally, it was decided to
15 centers. These included a joint subscription grant users access to the following resources via
to 93 electronic journals as well as the decision the CGVLibrary:
to make each centers library catalogs available
online. Moreover, their collaboration was strongly Multiple CG library catalogs
supported by the fact that all but three of the Restricted information resources, such as
centers were already using common software for the full text articles of a core collection of
managing their library holdings, thereby greatly agricultural and social science journals
enhancing the prospects for creating a single, Several commercial abstracting and index-
integrated system. ing resources
Once the decision to move forward with the Several free information resources such as
project was made, a virtual library service (VLS) Agricola and AGRIS
was formed under the auspices of the ICT-KM Major university or research catalogs such as
Programs content for development initiative. the Dutch agricultural union catalog hosted
Similar to the product they would be developing, at Wageningen University
members of the VLS team quickly demonstrated
their ability to work effectively in a virtual envi-
ronment. During the first year, Luz Marina Alvar O b je ctives
and Nancy Walczak (the Project Coordinator and
Technical Advisor, respectively) from the Inter- The main objective of the CGVLibrary is to
facilitate access to library and research infor-
312
The CGIAR Virtual Library Bridging the Gap Between Agricultural Research and Worldwide Users
mation within and outside the CGIAR through goal of providing research to professionals
integrated searches of reference-related databases in the developing world.
using a common user interface, standard proto- 4. To help realize ICT-KMs vision of a more
cols, and easy linking to electronic full text. unified, effective, and borderless CGIAR.
It is expected to provide a one-stop shop for The collaborative efforts of the VLS team
agricultural information, not by creating a new have forged a new precedent for information
site, but by creating links to relevant services and sharing and effective communication across
reducing the turnaround time between initiating the CGIAR.
a search and generating results. Specifically, the
objectives are:
DESIGN AR CHI TE CTURE
1. To develop and maintain an efficient, state- AN D F UN CTIONALI TY
of-the-art, electronic platform, wherein ag-
ricultural researchers, using a single search From the beginning, the architects of the CGV-
engine, can access information available in Library emphasized the importance of having a
the libraries of the diverse CGIAR centers simple and user-friendly interface. This emphasis
and other relevant free and commercial stemmed not only from the diverse backgrounds
sources of information. The facility uses of the architects themselves, who represented
highly advanced software for linking users more than a dozen nationalities and included
to print and digital information sources and several nonnative English speakers, but also was
full text documents regardless of location intended to optimally serve the target audience of
and time frame. agricultural researchers from around the world.
2. To establish the core of the virtual library by Moreover, functionality considerations for the
providing selected links to a limited number CGVlibrary centered on the goal of allowing re-
of high quality information resources avail- searchers to access the information they are look-
able on the Internet, including academic ing for with as few mouse clicks as possible.
library catalogs, free Internet databases, Selecting the proper software platform on
commercial abstracting/indexing data- which to build the virtual library quickly emerged
bases, university or institutional document as the teams first priority. Members of the VLS
repositories, and commercial or licensed advisory team evaluated many existing models of
data sources. networked digital libraries, and later advised the
3. To raise the profile of the CGIAR as a core team of their findings. Specifically, they were
leading knowledge broker of international looking for established standards and software
agricultural research. Since the time of the suites that had been successfully implemented
CGVLibrarys public launch in June 2006, for a large number of information suppliers and
user activity has grown steadily to the point library systems. Dynamic linking and open URL
that users now conduct nearly 1,000 searches resolution were identified as key features for
per day. The vast majority of these searches enabling users to more quickly and effectively
are geared toward the research outputs of access digital information through such systems.
the CGIAR, and current usage statistics Thus, after prolonged deliberation and consulta-
indicate that many of the users are located tion, members of the VLS team selected SFX
in developing countries. Collectively, this in- software, an award-winning link server from Ex
formation underscores the overall impact of Libris, for the CGVLibrary. This decision was
the CGVLibrary in supporting the CGIARs based largely on the softwares strong track record
313
The CGIAR Virtual Library Bridging the Gap Between Agricultural Research and Worldwide Users
among libraries and major information networks anywhere in the world 24/7. The CGVLibrary sup-
in Europe, the Americas, and the Middle East plements existing agricultural databases, which
(SFX, 2007). Coupled with Ex Libris Metalib provide partial linkage to CGIAR research results
platform, SFX supports federated searching of (e.g., Agricola, CABDirect, AGRIS, etc.).
the various CGIAR library catalogs and data- Content development, meanwhile, was largely
bases, which utilize diverse metadata standards carried out by a team of CGIAR information
and integrated library systems. Thus, there was managers while working in various parts of the
no need to merge catalogs into a centralized world, thus showing that collaboration can tran-
repository, as metasearching can be done across scend physical barriers. Databases and knowledge
disparate databases. banks from the CGIAR centers were compiled
In fact, there was another important advantage and linked to the virtual library. Currently, the
in selecting Ex Libris Metalib and SFX software CGVLibrary provides access to more than 160
to manage the resources contained in the CGV- online databases and nearly 4,000 electronic
Library: the input of 1,500 member institutions, journal titles. These resources were selected by
which collectively help manage and maintain in a team of CGIAR researchers, information spe-
working order approximately 600 leading research cialists, and outside consultants working in close
databases and more than 800,000 items, includ- collaboration with the core VLS team. Experience
ing e-journals, books, and other online research working with federated search tools illustrates
materials (Ex Libris, 2007). Member institutions that there is a limit to the number of resources
suggest new resources for inclusion in the respec- that can be effectively cross-searched at any given
tive central knowledge bases (CKBs) for Ex Libris time. In order to overcome this limitation, specific
two sister products3, and report any problems to categories of the most important and relevant
a highly skilled technical support team that often resources in a given area have been developed
is able to resolve matters in timely fashion. Ex and organized into topic-specific QuickSets (e.g.,
Libris support staff also works independently rice, water, food policy, etc.). Users can further
to ensure that all resources contained in their limit their searches to specific resources within a
CKBs are kept up-to-date and working properly given QuickSet via either the metasearch function
by releasing monthly service updates for each of or an additional feature allowing them to search
its members. This service is especially valuable external databases from within the CGVLibrary
since the amount of time and labor required to user interface.
maintain such volume and diversity of resources As evident in the above screenshot, users can
is unavailable to many member institutions and now search many of these databases through
consortia, including the CGIAR. a single search interface, avoiding the need to
Following more than 2 years of discussions, navigate between different screen displays and
research, and evaluation, a prototype was devel- commands for each data source. Through the use
oped for beta-testing in December 2005. In June of dynamic context-sensitive linking protocols
2006, the site was publicly launched, thus offering (i.e., the OpenURL standard), users are directed
a unique service to the agricultural information to the full text of journal articles wherever they
world. For the first time, users can access high are available electronically, even when they are
quality agricultural research, including the online located in institutional repositories or external
libraries of all 15 CGIAR centers, through a single Web sites. The CGVLibrary also offers CGIAR
portal. The service also helps CGIAR researchers staff several additional features, including a
locate and retrieve full text articles from a core personalized workspace environment called
of electronic journals and database systems from My Virtual Library. Logged-in users are able
314
The CGIAR Virtual Library Bridging the Gap Between Agricultural Research and Worldwide Users
Source: http://vlibrary.cgiar.org
to access all of the resources, including online 800 persons from 19 different countries have par-
databases and electronic journal articles, that their ticipated in events showcasing the CGVLibrary.
particular centers are licensed to use. Moreover, Several participants subsequently have included
users can custom-create their own QuickSets, links to the CGVLibrary on their institutional Web
save selected resources in personalized folders sites, and future plans to promote the CGVLibrary
(with an option of exporting individual records also will include several partner institutions in
in multiple bibliographic programs), and guard Asia and Africa.
search results for future reference.
Information technology and management
experts from across the CGIAR continue to work NEW DEMAN DS AN D
on improving the overall look and feel of the WORK IMPA CT
CGVLibrary while ensuring that new and existing
resources are properly maintained. At present, The CGVLibrary is making its presence felt
the facility offers 18 topic-specific QuickSets across the CGIAR as well as among much wider
(see Figure 2), which were assembled with the audiences seeking access to up-to-date, relevant
collaboration of researchers from all 15 centers agricultural research information of the highest
as well as several CGIAR system-wide programs quality. A month after its launch, in July 2006,
and challenge programs. Partner outreach and the virtual library had been searched 507 times.
promotion of the CGVLibrary are carried out by In the months that followed, however, there were
several members of the team via presentations at almost 1,000 daily searches of the CGVLibrary,
international meetings and conferences as well and these numbers are expected to continue to
as real-time online seminars (Webinars). Fol- grow. It is worth noting that the majority of users
lowing the public launch of the CGVlibrary, such in recent months have been from the developing
efforts primarily have focused on reaching new world, reflecting widespread use by both CGIAR
audiences in Latin America, where more than researchers (13 of the 15 centers headquarters are
315
The CGIAR Virtual Library Bridging the Gap Between Agricultural Research and Worldwide Users
located in developing countries) and their intended this particular obstacle, the VLS team proposes
beneficiaries in the developing world. to explore new tools, for example, Web 2.0, and
The accomplishments of the VLS team, mean- for integrating the CGVLibrary with AGORA,
while, have not gone unnoticed. The CGVLibrary HINARI, OARE, and PERI/INASP, which col-
has been cited in 44 confirmed postings on the lectively represent a significant body of digital
Internet, including online Weblogs (blogs), information available to citizens of developing
listservs, and online newsletters. In December countries at reduced or no cost. Furthermore,
2006, the VLS team received the 2006 Science Phase II of the CGVLibrary will include a number
Award for Outstanding Scientific Support in of additional open access databases, including
recognition of the CGVLibrarys contribution the online publication databases of the CGIAR
to CGIAR research. Perhaps most impressive, (a subset of the CGIAR libraries) as well as the
however, the VLS team continues to receive implementation of extensible markup language
widespread acknowledgement from scores of (XML) institutional repositories for additional
users both within and outside of the CGIAR. CGIAR centers, universities, and research in-
Among the most commonly cited benefits of us- stitutions.
ing the CGVLibrary include access to CGIAR Another significant challenge facing the
gray literature, well-focused search results, an CGVLibrary will be to deepen the integration in
easy-to-use interface, and improved access to the search facility. Currently, all of the resources
agricultural research for all. included in the CGVLibrary support federated,
Yet while many of the information technology cross-database searching. Many of the resources
advances behind the CGVLibrary have made the that have implemented standards-based interfaces
life of researchers measurably easier, the task of also support the ability to retrieve, view, sort, and
managing the growing body of digital information print results as a single set. Such integration, how-
and making it available to partners throughout the ever, is currently unavailable for those databases
world becomes increasingly complicated. Unlim- lacking a standards-compliant search facility.
ited desktop access is now expected by researchers Phase II of the CGVLibrary proposes to work
in many parts of the world, effectively requiring with database systems such as CAB International
the integration of services and digital information and FAO/AGRIS to develop, test, and implement
systems that, until recently, have remained entirely XML interfaces that support standards-compli-
separate. These include everything from ensuring ant searching. The results will have immediate
a reliable connection to the Internet (particularly benefits for the CGVLibrary (i.e., all resources
for users in the developing countries) to work- included in the CGVLibrary will be integrated
ing with licensing agreements and data-delivery to the same extent) as well as spillover benefits
services among multiple information providers. for other digital information providers and virtual
Byrne (2003) cites many of these same issues as libraries as a whole; namely, the development of
potential barriers to the effective provision of standard interfaces and connector technologies
digital knowledge, also including infrastructure, would greatly facilitate the sharing of information
content development, education and skills, and across the Web.
systemic issues, such as intellectual property As these new 2.0 tools and services are
concerns, in the list. implemented, the CGVLibrary will continue to
The CGVLibrary continues to face many of require strong support in the following areas:
these same challenges, particularly in the case of targeting information resources, marketing and
providing full-text article access to non-CGIAR training, technical support for infrastructure
researchers in the developing world. To overcome development, and project coordination and man-
316
The CGIAR Virtual Library Bridging the Gap Between Agricultural Research and Worldwide Users
agement. Fortunately, the project already boasts measure its impact on long term goals such as
a robust community of practice of CGIAR staff increasing agricultural productivity and poverty
and outside consultants that is based on effective alleviation in the developing world.
communication and intense collaboration over the Sustainability is one major area to be addressed
course of more than 2 years. by the IMs and the technical advisers behind
the CGVLibrary. This requires the continuous
updating and monitoring of content as well the
CON CL USION : THE WAY FORWAR D application of new technical capacities, all of
which require sufficient financial and human re-
The CGVLibrary has quickly emerged as a model sources. Moreover, those charged with managing
of excellence among agricultural information the technical aspects of the portal as well as those
portals. Yet the work of the VLS team is far from contributing to its content must have up-to-date
finished, as the CGVLibrary is envisioned as a knowledge of new tools and resources as they
dynamic tool that must be adapted to suit the di- become available. Feedback from end users also
verse needs of users. Ultimately, the CGVLibrary will form the basis of future efforts to improve
must strive to attain many of the characteristics the CGVLibrary.
of a digital library of the future, as mentioned Phase 2 of the CGVLibrary project is now
by Marcum (cited in Martin, 2003). Specifically, in full swing and it is guided by the following
it must contain a comprehensive collection of objectives:
electronic resources vital to agricultural research;
it must be readily accessible to all types of users, To increase the number of information
both experts and novices, and it must be well resources available, that is, to add center
managed by a dedicated team of information catalogues not currently accessible, high
professionals. Experience has demonstrated that value bibliographic databases maintained
accomplishing such goals in the rapidly chang- by programs, open access archives, and
ing age of digital information is infinitely more partners information resources.
complex than in prior information ages, but they To ensure that centers e-publishing ef-
remain as important as ever for ensuring global forts and center publications databases are
impact. integrated and thus accessible through the
Besemer et al. (2003) points to minimal gains CGVlibrary.
in agricultural production and poverty alleviation To integrate and to make accessible the
as evidence of the limited impact of agricultural centers image library databases.
information services in the developing world. Sev- To enable access to information resources
eral of the issues he mentions as hindering access for NARES partners.
to agricultural information by end-users in the To further enhance access to full text mate-
developing countries derive from the decentral- rial.
ized nature of this information on multiple Web To improve access to material by helping
sites and database systems. The corresponding partners to implement standards that permit
solution to the information gap is the creation of deeper levels of searching.
a central one-stop centre, an idea on which the To develop mechanisms for optimizing
CGVLibrary was modeled. Thus far, the project searching by targeting categories of infor-
has achieved much success in terms of enhanc- mation resources.
ing access to agricultural research information
worldwide, though it is perhaps still too early to
317
The CGIAR Virtual Library Bridging the Gap Between Agricultural Research and Worldwide Users
Future improvements to the CGVLibrary CGIAR Content for Development Project. (2004).
will require a fortified online community that is Virtual library service proposal. Washington,
strongly committed to sharing knowledge and D.C.: CGIAR.
skills among its members. Construction of the
CGIAR. (2006a). CGVLibrary (p. 1) [Brochure].
CGVLibrary required researchers, information
Washington, D.C.: CGIAR. Retrieved November
managers, and technology specialists from across
13, 2007, from http://vlibrary.cgiar.org/CGVLi-
the CGIAR to work closely together, sharing
braryflyer.pdf
knowledge and information every step of the
way. Future efforts must mobilize even greater CGIAR. (2006b). Consultative group on interna-
resources, Web 2.0 tools, and more solid coopera- tional agricultural research. Retrieved November
tion from the CGIAR and beyond. The technolo- 13, 2007, from http://www.cgiar.org/who/index.
gies and approaches behind the CGVLibrary have html
transformed how CGIAR works are produced,
CGVLibrary updated proposal for Phase II.
preserved, and made available to a wider global
(2006). Washington, D.C.: CGIAR. Retrieved
audience while solidifying the CGIARs position
November 13, 2007, from http://CGVLibrary.
as a leading knowledge broker for international
pbwiki.com/Activities+++TOR
agricultural research. The lessons learned must be
extended to partner organizations throughout the Chad, K., & Miller, P. (2005). Do libraries matter?
world in order to have an even broader and deeper The rise of Library2.0: A white paper. Retrieved
impact toward ensuring that research information November 13, 2007, from http://www.talis.com/
reaches those who need it most. applications/downloads/white_papers/DoLibrar-
iesMatter.pdf
Ex Libris. (2007) Retrieved November 14, 2007,
REFEREN CES
from http://www.exlibrisgroup.com/newsdetails.
htm?nid=543
Association of Research Libraries (ARL). (1995).
Definition and purposes of a digital library. Re- Fuglie, K., et al. (1996). Agricultural research
trieved November 13, 2007, from http://www.ifla. and development: Public and private investments
org/documents/libraries/net/arl-dlib.txt under alternative markets and institutions (Ag-
ricultural Economics Rep. No. AER735) (p. 88).
Besemer, H, Addison, C., & Ferguson, J. (2003).
Retrieved November 13, 2007, from ttp://www.
Fertile ground: Opportunities fro greater coher-
ers.usda.gov/publications/aer735/
ence in agricultural information systems (Re-
search Rep. No. 19). IICD. Retrieved November Gladney, H. M., et al. (1994, May). Digital li-
13, 2007, from http://www.ftpiicd.org/files/re- brary: Gross structure and requirements (IBM
search/reports/report19.pdf Research Rep. RJ 9840). Paper presented at the
Workshop on On-line Access to Digital Librar-
Byrne, A. (2003). Digital libraries: Barriers or
ies. World Wide IEEE Computer Society Press.
gateways to scholarly information? The Electronic
Retrieved November 13, 2007, from http://www.
Library, 21(5), 414-421
ifla.org/documents/libraries/net/rj9840.pdf
Casey, M. E., & Savastinuk, L. C. (2006, Septem-
Infofinder. (2006). Retrieved February 5, 2007,
ber 1). Library 2.0. Library Journal. Retrieved
from http://infofinder.cgiar.org/
November 13, 2007, from http://www.library-
journal.com/article/CA6365200.html
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Krill, P. (2000, January 7). Overcoming informa- Forage: Feed for livestock (e.g., cattle, sheep,
tion overload. InfoWorld. Retrieved November 13, goats, horses, etc.).
2007, from http://www.infoworld.com/articles/ca/
Forestry: The science, art, and practice of
xml/00/01/10/000110caoverload.html
managing and using trees, forests, and their as-
Martin, R. S. (2003). Reaching across library sociated resources for human benefit
boundaries. In Proceedings of the Conference on
Interoperability: Ability of a system or a
Emerging Visions for Access in the Twenty-First
product to work with other systems or products
Century Library (pp. 3-16). Washington, D.C.:
without special effort on the part of the customer.
Council on Library and Information Resources.
Interoperability is made possible by the imple-
Retrieved November 13, 2007, from http://www.
mentation of standards
clir.org/pubs/reports/pub119/martin.html
Library 2.0: A new model of library service
SFX. (2007) Retrieved November 13, 2007, from
utilizing the latest in IT and is available anytime
http://www.exlibrisgroup.com/sfx.htm
and anywhere, visible on a broad spectrum of
devices, inviting collaboration by users, and
integrated with services outside the walls of the
KEY TERMS physical library such as portals, virtual learning
environments, and e-commerce applications.
Agroforestry: Intentional growing of trees on
OpenURL: A protocol for interoperability
the same site as agricultural crops and/or livestock
between an information resource and a service
in order to increase the total yield of products,
component
generate short-term income, and improve envi-
ronmental benefits (e.g., erosion control). NARES: National Agricultural Research and
Extension Services.
Biodiversity: The variety of life on our planet,
measurable as the variety within species, between Virtual Federated Library: Several geo-
species, and the variety of ecosystems graphically diverse collections of machine-
readable documents made available through a
Federated Database (or Virtual Database):
number of online catalogs or databases, which
A database system wherein constituent databases,
can be searched via a single platform or search
that are geographically decentralized and using
interface.
various computer systems, are interconnected
via a computer network or software that allows Webinar: Online seminar that may contain
metasearching via a single platform. Since the audio and video, utilizing computers and tele-
constituent database systems remain autonomous, phones.
a federated database system is a contrastable al-
Weblogs: Personal sites consisting of regu-
ternative to the task of merging together several
larly updated entries displayed in reverse chrono-
disparate databases.
logical order. They read like a diary or journal,
Fisheries: The science of producing fish but with the most recent entry at the top.
and other aquatic resources for the purpose of
Web 2.0: Term introduced in 2004 to charac-
providing human food, although other aims are
terize the new generation of applications, which
possible (such as sport or recreational fishing), or
may provide an infrastructure for more dynamic
obtaining ornamental fish or fish products such
user participation, social interaction, and collabo-
as fish oil.
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The CGIAR Virtual Library Bridging the Gap Between Agricultural Research and Worldwide Users
320
321
Chapter XXXII
Map-Based User Interfaces for
Music Information Retrieval
Robert Neumayer
Vienna University of Technology, Austria
Andreas Rauber
Vienna University of Technology, Austria
A bs tra ct
In this chapter, we introduce alternative ways to access digital audio collections. We give an overview
of existing applications based on tow-dimensional, map-like representations of music collections. Fur-
ther, we explain two applications for accessing audio files that are based on the Self-Organising Map,
an unsupervised neural network model. These two applicationsPlaySOM and PocketSOMwill be
explained in greater detail, paying special attention to their unique properties and implementations
for several mobile devices. These examples are supposed to gain the readers interest for alternative
interfaces to large audio collections. Besides, we hope to show that alternative interfaces are feasible
for both desktop computers and mobile devices and offer a practical approach to pressing issues in ac-
cessing digital collections.
DIGI TAL LIBRARIES OF A UDIO recently, video files); also, the music industry
COLLE CTIONS starts adapting new distribution channels, and at
the same time, an increasingly large user base is
An increasing number of users adapts new tech- buying their music online. This makes the need
nologies like MP3 players and manages their for advanced methods to browse and search for
audio collection digitally. Not only the wide music a more pressing matter than ever. The
availability of personal audio devices such as tremendous demand for feasible means of navi-
the Apple iPoddrives the increasing private gating through ever-growing numbers of digital
use of digital media files (i.e., audio and, more entities by a rising number of users and providers
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Map-Based User Interfaces for Music Information Retrieval
clearly shows the great potential new and more processing plants(Kohonen, Oja, Simula, Visa,
sophisticated approaches could hold. & Kangas, 1996) to access interfaces for digital
While text-based searches for artist and track libraries of text documents(Rauber & Merkl,
names, as well as browsing through collections 2003).
that are hierarchically structured according to Creating a SOM-based interface for Digital Li-
artist, album and track categories constitute the braries of Music (i.e., the SOM-enhanced JukeBox
de-facto standard for accessing music collections (SOMeJB)) was first proposed inRauber and Frh-
on PCs and mobile devices. New means for visu- wirth (2001) with more advanced visualizations,
alising and exploring large audio collections are as well as improved feature sets being presented
being developed based on automatic analysis of inPampalk, Rauber, and Merkl (2002) and Rauber,
the acoustic content of the audio files. Different Pampalk, and Merkl (2003). Since then, several
visualisations have been proposed, many using other systems have been created based on these
some two-dimensional landscape to map music principles, such as the MusicMiner(Mrchen,
files on. Most of them incorporate some kind of Ultsch, Ncker, & Stamm, 2005), which uses an
clustering (i.e., mapping from a high-dimensional emergent SOM. A very appealing three-dimen-
feature space to a usually two-dimensional output sional user interface is presented inKnees, Schedl,
space). A particularly interesting effect of using Pohle, and Widmer (2006), automatically creating
such unsupervised learning techniques is the a three-dimensional musical landscape via a SOM
potential to overcome problems stemming from for small private music collections. Navigation
manually assigned genre tags, since they may not through the map is done via a video game pad, and
suit every user or may simply be wrong(Pachet & additional information like labelling is provided
Cazaly, 2000). Approaches offer varying interac- using Web data and album covers.
tion possibilities like drawing trajectories on the A mnemonic SOM (i.e., a Self-Organising Map
map, selecting the music underneath, or marking of a certain shape other than a rectangle) is used
regions on a map, which are discussed in detail to cluster the complete works of the composer
in this chapter. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart to create the Map of
A disc and rectangle visualisation used to Mozart(Mayer, Lidy, & Rauber, 2006). The shape
display and manipulate playlists was proposed of the SOM is a silhouette of its composer, leading
in(Torrens, Hertzog, & Arcos, 2004). The disc to interesting clusterings (like, for example, the
visualisation gives a better visual idea about accumulation of string ensembles in the region of
the proportions within the collection, whereas Mozarts right ear). An online demo is available
zooming was more useable with the rectangle at http://www.ifs.tuwien.ac.at/mir/mozart.
visualisation. Another interface based on SOMs, which
Several teams have been working on user takes into account a users focus of perception, is
interfaces based on the Self-Organising Map presented inLbbers (2005), using prototypes as
(SOM). The SOM is an unsupervised neural recommendations for adjacent clusters.
network that provides a topology-preserving The PlaySOM application presented in this
mapping from a high-dimensional feature space work is based on the original SOMeJB system,
onto a two-dimensional map in such a way that implementing a desktop interface suitable also
data points close to each other in input space are for larger collections of several tens of thousands
mapped onto adjacent areas of the output space. of music tracks.
The SOM has been extensively used to provide In addition to systems designed for desktop
visualisations of and interfaces to a wide range applications handling large audio collections, the
of data, including control interfaces to industrial design of interfaces for mobile devices constitutes
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Map-Based User Interfaces for Music Information Retrieval
interesting and important challenges. Novel in- Statistical Spectrum Descriptors are composed
terfaces particuarly developed for small-screen of statistical descriptors computed from several
devices were presented inVignoli, Gulik, and critical frequency bands of a psycho-acoustically
van de Wetering (2004), clustering pieces of audio transformed spectrogram. They describe fluctua-
based on content features as well as metadata at- tions on the critical frequency bands in a more
tributes using a spring model algorithm. The main compact representation than Rhythm Pattern
section of this chapter presents interfaces based features. In a preprocessing step, the audio signal
on the PocketSOM in greater detail (Neumayer, is converted to a mono signal and segmented into
Dittenbach, & Rauber, 2005), an implementation chunks of approximately six seconds. Usually, not
of the PlaySOM application specifically designed every segment is used for audio feature extrac-
for mobile devices. tion. For pieces of music with a typical duration
A more experimental interface, refraining of about four minutes, frequently, the first and last
from the use of a display, using motion detectors 14 segments are skipped, and from the remaining
to respond to the listeners movements is presented segments, every third one is processed.
inHamanaka and Lee (2006). Another innovative For each segment, the spectrogram of the au-
user interface providing various ways of interac- dio is computed using the short time Fast Fourier
tionlike similarity-based searches over stick- Transform (STFT). The window size is set to 23
ing behaviour of tracks visualised as discsis ms (1024 samples) and a Hanning window is ap-
introduced inGoto and Goto (2005). plied using 50 % overlap between the windows.
A good overview of various MIR systems is The Bark scalea perceptual scale which groups
given in http://www.mirsystems.info/. frequencies to critical bands according to percep-
tive pitch regions (Zwicker & Fastl, 1999)is
applied to the spectrogram, aggregating it to 24
FEA TURES FOR MUSI C frequency bands.
INFORMA TION RE TRIE VAL The Bark scale spectrogram is then transformed
into the decibel scale. Additional psycho-acoustic
In order to create a map-based visualisation of transformations are applied: Computation of the
a music digital library grouping similar pieces Phon scale incorporates equal loudness curves,
of music in neighbouring regions of the map, which account for the different perception of
features need to be computed from the music loudness at different frequencies (Zwicker & Fastl,
that capture sound characteristics, and that allow 1999). Subsequently, the values are transformed to
the computation of perceived sound similarity. Sone. The Sone scale relates to the Phon scale in
While a range of different sets of audio features the way that a doubling on the Sone scale sounds
is in use within the MIR community, we rely on to the human ear like a doubling of the loudness.
Statistical Spectrum Descriptors (SSDs) (Lidy This results in a representation that reflects the
& Rauber, 2005). The computation of SSD fea- specific loudness sensation of the human auditory
tures is based on the algorithm for computing system, the Bark scale Sonogram.
Rhythm Pattern features (Rauber, Pampalk, & On top of this representation of perceived
Merkl, 2002), using the computation of a psy- loudness, a number of statistical descriptors is
cho-acoustically transformed spectrogram (i.e., computed per critical band, in order to describe
a Bark scale Sonogram). The SSD audio features fluctuations within the critical bands extensively.
are computed from audio tracks in standard PCM Mean, median, variance, skewness, kurtosis, min-
format with 44.1 kHz sampling frequency (e.g., and max-value are computed for each of the 24
decoded MP3 files). bands, resulting in a 168-dimensional descriptor
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Map-Based User Interfaces for Music Information Retrieval
for each selected segment. The SSD feature vec- yet consistent styles, offering some variability, as
tor for a piece of audio is then calculated as the opposed to limiting playlist generation to music
median of the descriptors of its segments. from a specific artist.
It supports different modes for selecting
songs:
IN TUITIVE /AL TERNA TIVE
USER IN TERFA CES Region selection: Provides a square-shaped
selection tool enabling users to select the
In this section, map-based interfaces will be songs belonging to units inside that rectangle
described in more detail. The PlaySOM is a without preserving any order of the selected
Java-based implementation of the SOMeJB sys- tracks.
tem featuring a wide range of visualisations and Line selection: Allows users to draw tra-
interaction possibilities. SOMs are being trained jectories and select all songs belonging to
to represent music collections based on a chosen units beneath, taking into account transitions
feature space representation. In the resulting map, between different types of music along the
similar music is clustered, forming, for example, trajectory.
clusters of classical music, pop, or hardrock,
each of which is structured into more consistent
subclusters. It implements an Islands of Music Figure 1. Visualisations of and ways of interaction
interface(Pampalk etal., 2002), depicting clusters with digital music collections
of music as an island archipelago.
It allows users to draw a trajectory or rectangle
on the map, subsequently offering to play the se-
lected tracks along the path either in the chosen
sequence or randomly, covering different musical
styles according to the SOMs audio similarity
measurements(Dittenbach, Neumayer, & Rauber,
2005). While it also supports a 3D-visualisation
similar to(Knees etal., 2006), its main interac-
tion principles are based on a variety of 2D map
displays showing weather charts, labels, or class
diagrams for different genres of music, which can [1a][Playlist generation by drawing a trajectory visiting
several Islands of Music]
be zoomed or panned.
Drawing trajectories on a desktop PC or touch
screen enabled device offers a simple, intuitive,
and novel way of music exploration. A user can
choose, for example, to select a cluster in the
upper right corner of the map containing classi-
cal guitar concerts. Alternatively, he or she may
decide to draw a trajectory starting at an island
with guitar concerts, move on to some symphonic
pieces, first adagio, then presto before returning
to the guitar music again. This allows to quickly
create a playlist containing music of different, [1b][PlaySOM running on a Tablet PC.]
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Map-Based User Interfaces for Music Information Retrieval
The resulting playlist is shown on the left- quirements and change in processing power,
hand side of the user interface. Thereby, users including limitations on human computer interac-
can further edit the list before sending it to a tion when moving from a desktop PC to a mobile
music player. device, heavily influence the requirements. When
Once a user has selected songs on the map, the the user input is limited to a small joystick, which
playlist element in the interface displays the list many mobile phones are equipped with, an ap-
of selected titles. It is possible to play the music plication providing access to a music collection
in the list directly or to refine the list by manually faces severe limitations in interaction possibili-
dropping single songs from the selection. The ties. Ease of use becomes an even more striking
playlist may either be played completely, or the design goal. As mentioned, interfaces are even
system iterates through the trajectory, with one more important for users who do not want to do
loop taking a specified amount of time, playing without music when they are not at home. The
random songs that are located on the path. Other boom in personal audio devices has impressively
platforms like PDAs or Multimedia Jukeboxes shown the demand in this area. Many other ap-
could easily use the exported playlists, which plications seem possible when thinking about a
would make PlaySOM a perfect, centralised music streaming environment. The area of mobile music
management application. The music can be either delivery and exploration will continue to grow,
played locally or, if the music collection is stored especially once the involved technologies reach
on a server, in a streaming environment. Figure certain levels of maturity.
1(a) shows the PlaySOMs main window and a Unfortunately, only few applications have
trajectory being drawn on an island-like map of been ported to mobile applications like PDAs and
music. The playlist window on the left shows the mobile phones. The PocketSOM application is
according selection of a smooth transition from the PlaySOMs counterpart for portable devices.
electronic music over songs mostly belonging PocketSOM runs on Java-enabled PDAs and mo-
to the genre world back to electronic. It also bile phones and allows users to navigate through
shows a visualisation control element on the lower their collections on a map-like display(Neumayer
left of the screenshot and settings to change the etal., 2005). However, due to interaction restric-
current visualisation and export/import functions tions of mobile devices, the PocketSOM appli-
in the menu bar of the application. To gain a cation only provides the basic functionality of
more detailed view, the user can use the semantic selecting by drawing trajectories and a simplified
zooming feature providing different amounts of refinement section, omitting means to zoom or
contextual information according to the zoom pan the map.
level to more closely inspect the songs linked to The most difcult problem, however, is how
a certain unit. to adequately display or gain access to a very
Due to its portable Java implementation, the large-scale dataset using these minimal interface
PlaySOM application can easily be used on other capabilities. PocketSOM is a reduced version of
devices like tablet PCs. Figure 1(b) presents the PlaySOM application, which provides a simple
PlaySOM running on a Tablet PC being used as but intuitiveinterface. Its functionality focuses
a touch screen application. on creating playlists using music maps generated
by the PlaySOM application.
Map Interfaces for Mobile Devices We provide three different and independent
implementations, each based on a different plat-
Another important aspect about music interfaces form, offering a common set of main features:
in general is their mobility. Both the design re-
325
Map-Based User Interfaces for Music Information Retrieval
After loading the datale, the music map is Figure 2. Various PocketSOM implementations
displayed. running on a range of mobile devices
Using the touchscreen, the user can now
draw a path on the map which will result
in a playlist. The songs on this playlist are
selected along the path.
Afterwards the user can manually edit the
playlist, by deleting and reordering items.
Finally the playlist is further processed by
one of the output modes. The main interac-
tions with PocketSOM such as drawing a
path on the music map or editing the playlist
are done via the touchscreen. Textual input
which would require the use of keyboard
is either kept to a minimum (e.g., a server
address) or assistance will be provided (e.g., [2a][The I-PocketSOM application running on an iPaq PDA,
showing a genre annotated map of music]
through a le open dialog) and is saved for
as long as the application is running so that
these settings have to be set only once.
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Map-Based User Interfaces for Music Information Retrieval
REFEREN CES
[2c][The m-PocketSOM application running on a Sony Erics- Dittenbach, M., & Neumayer, R., & Rauber, A.
son P910 emulator and showing the map interface] (2005). PlaySOM: An alternative approach to track
selection and playlist generation in large music
collections. In Proceedings of the First Interna-
paths which are afterwards concatenated to a
tional Workshop of the EU Network of Excellence
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DELOS on Audio-Visual Content and Information
Figure 2(c) shows the third implementation
Visualization in Digital Libraries (AVIVDiLi05)
of the PocketSOM. m-PocketSOM is based on
(pp. 226235). Cortona, Italy.
JavaME5, the Java Micro Edition. Therefore,
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ence on Music Information Retrieval (ISMIR06)
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The growing availability of music in digital for- Knees, P., Schedl, M., Pohle, T., & Widmer, G.
mats poses a challenge both in terms of access (2006). An innovative three-dimensional user
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ever-growing user base further motivates research with metainformation from the Web. In Proceed-
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329
330
Chapter XXXIII
Patent and Trade Secret in
Digital Libraries
Hideyasu Sasaki
Ritsumeikan University, Japan
A bs tra ct
In this chapter, we discuss the issues on patent and trade secret issues on digital libraries, especially
patentable parameter-setting components which are implemented as computer-related inventions in
digital libraries. In addition, we discuss the directions for embedding and protecting numerical paramet-
ric information as a trade secret in the patentable parameter-setting components performing retrieval
operations of digital libraries with the future of intellectual property protection in the multimedia digital
libraries. The scope of this chapter is restricted within the current standard of the U.S. laws and cases
in transnational transaction and licensing of intellectual properties regarding the digital library.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Patent and Trade Secret in Digital Libraries
intellectual property protection in the multimedia The problem of which process is to realize
digital libraries. technical advancement (nonobviousness) on its
The scope of this chapter is restricted within combination of the prior arts, and is to be spe-
the current standard of the U.S. laws and cases in cific/enabling on its parameter-setting. These two
transnational transaction and licensing of intel- issues are emerging problems in the advent of
lectual properties regarding the digital library. sophisticated data analysis technique, especially
in the area of visual information retrieval in digital
libraries. Uniform frameworks for protecting pat-
BA CKGRO UN D entable inventions on the novel combination, and
the specific parameter-setting must be formulated
In this section, we discuss two issues on the in- in engineering manner, respectively.
tellectual property protection regarding digital
libraries. The first issue is the patent protection Trade S ecret in Parameter-S ettings
of the retrieval mechanisms of digital library sys-
tems. The second issue is the trade secret on the In the field of parameter-setting components,
numerical parametric values for retrieval opera- the DL community faces an issue that is how to
tions in the parameter-setting components. protect the specific ranges of important numerical
values regarding parameter-settings for perform-
Patentable Parameter-S etting ing proper and powerful retrieval operations in
Components the form of a trade secret. Patent application on
the parameter-setting components demands ap-
The U.S. Patent Act (2005) defines that a data- plicants as developers to make public the detailed
processing process or method is patentable subject know-how on the best range of parametric values
matter in the form of a computer-related invention in practice.
(i.e., a computer program). The computer program Meanwhile, the discovery of those parametric
is patentable as far as the specific machine [] values needs considerable pecuniary invest-
produce[s] a useful, concrete, and tangible result ment in research and development. That kind of
[] for transforming [] physical data [physical knowledge should be kept covered in the form
transformation] (In re Alappat, 1994). of a trade secret, but not be open in public via
The computer-related inventions often com- patent application. It is necessary to prepare a
bine means for data-processing, some of which scheme that determines how and which part of
are prior disclosed inventions. Computer-related parameter-setting components should take the
invention consists of a number of processes form of a trade secret, even in patentable param-
(i.e., methods or means for data processing in the eter-setting components.
form of combination of computer programs). In The problem is how to interpret the working
visual digital libraries, for example, a certain set examples of initial values or weights on param-
of programs focuses on image processing, while eter-setting and the ranges of parametric values
another set of programs operates text mining. in the DL engineering manner.
Meanwhile, in the same example, the processes
in a data-processing mechanism comprise means
or components for parameter-setting which is ad- FRAMEWORKS
justed to process specific kinds of image retrieval
operations (e.g., sorting proper images in certain In this section, we outline the frameworks for
object domains). intellectual property protection regarding digital
331
Patent and Trade Secret in Digital Libraries
library systems: patentable retrieval mechanism, Second, its asserted function on the discussed
and embedded trade secret on numerical paramet- retrieval operations must be superior to the con-
ric values for retrieval. ventional functions which are realized in the prior
disclosed or patented means in the field of the
F ramework for Patent Protection object inventions (e.g., image retrieval in digital
libraries). On the latter issue, several solutions
Our already-proposed framework for patenting the for performance evaluation are proposed and
data-processing mechanisms as computer-related applicable.
inventions determines which type of process Another general strategy is restriction of the
should be patentable in the form of a component scope of problem claims into a certain narrow
of novel combination of prior disclosed processes field to which no prior arts have been applied.
and/or a component of specific parameter-setting This claiming strategy is known as the local
(Sasaki & Kiyoki, 2002a, 2002b, 2005a, 2005b). optimization of application scope.
The framework focuses on the following three A component for parameter-setting realizes
requirements for patentability: thresholding operations in the form of a computer
program with a set of ranges of parametric values.
1. Patentable subject matter (entrance to In typical retrieval operations of digital libraries,
patent protection), parametric values determine, as thresholds for im-
2. Nonobviousness (technical advancement), age retrieval. That parameter-setting component
and is to be a computer-related invention in the form
3. Enablement (specification) (Merges & of computer program, as far as that parameter-set-
Duffy, 2002). The requirement for nonobvi- ting is sufficiently specified to enable a claimed
ousness on the combination of the processes invention or retrieval operation (U.S. Patent and
for data operations is listed as below: Trademark Office, 1996a). The requirement for
enablement on the parameter-setting component
1-a. The processes for performing certain data op- is listed as below:
erations like image retrieval must comprise
the combination of prior disclosed means to 1-a. The descriptions of the processes for per-
perform certain retrieval mechanism which forming a certain retrieval operation must
is not predicated from any combination of specify the formulas for parameter-setting;
the prior arts; in addition, otherwise,
1-b. The processes for performing certain re- 1-b. the disclosed invention of the processes
trieval operations must realize quantitative should have its copending application that
and/or qualitative advancement. describes the formulas in detail; in addi-
2. Otherwise, the discussed processes are ob- tion,
vious, so that they are not patentable as the 2-a. the processes must perform a new retrieval
processes for performing certain retrieval operation by a combination of the prior
operations. disclosed means; otherwise,
2-b. the processes should have improved formu-
First, a combination of prior disclosed means las for parameter-setting which is based on
should not be suggested from any disclosed the prior disclosed means for performing a
means with the reasonable expectation of suc- certain retrieval operation, and also should
cess (In re Dow Chemical Co., 1988). give examples of parametric values on pa-
rameter-setting in descriptions.
332
Patent and Trade Secret in Digital Libraries
For 2-b, the processes must specify the means Its first claim, as described below, constitutes
for parameter-setting by giving a specific ex- the primitives as the means-plus-functions. Those
ample of preparing an application to enable primitives realize a domain-general approach of
those skilled in the arts to implement their best CBIR by the formulas on parameter-setting.
mode of the processes without undue experiment
(Autogiro Co. of America v. United States, 1967; VIR Claim # 1
Unique Concepts, Inc. v. Brown, 1991). The U.S.
Patent and Trademark Office (1996b) suggested A search engine, comprising: a function con-
that the processes comprising the meansin other tainer capable of storing primitive functions;
words, the components for parameter-setting must a primitive supplying primitive functions
disclose at least one of the following examples of , wherein the primitive functions include an
parametric values on parameter-setting: analysis function of extracting features
from an object .
1. Working or prophetic examples of initial First, its retrieval processes consisting of the
values or weights on parameter-setting; formula for parameter-setting are to be deter-
2. Working examples of the ranges of para- mined as patentable subject matter in the form
metric values on parameter-setting. of computer programs. Those data-processing
processes generate physical transformation on a
The working examples are parametric values specific machine (i.e., a computer memory with
that are confirmed to work at an actual laboratory certain classification results).
or as prototype testing results. The prophetic Second, on its nonobviousness, those data-pro-
examples are given without actual work by one cessing processes are inventive steps that consist
skilled in the art. of combinations of the prior arts on thresholding
functions as implemented in the integration of
S imulation E xample classification based on similarity computation,
visual feature extraction, and automatic indexing
The proposed formulation should be clear with techniques. Those combinations are not predicated
its application to an exemplary digital library from any conventional keyword-based retrieval
system. We apply it to Virage Image Retrieval technique. Third, on its enablement, VIR's de-
(VIR), which was developed in the early 1990s as scription of preferred embodiments gives its clear
a typical content-based retrieval of visual objects specification on the formulas for parameter-setting
stored in digital image database systems. VIR is that realizes a domain-general approach of CBIR
an indexing method for an image search engine that was a brand new technology at the time.
with primitives, which compute similarity of
visual features extracted out of typical visual VIR Description
objects (e.g., color, shape, and texture of images).
VIR evaluates similarity of images with ad hoc For primitives having multiple dimensions, ,
weights (i.e., parametric values), which are given an equation for an exemplary Euclidean metric
to the parameter-setting components for correla- is as follows:
tion-computation by user-preference. Its claims Primitive design. A primitive encompasses
consist of function containers as means-plus- a given feature's representation, extraction, and
functions for feature extraction and similarity comparison function. .
computation.
333
Patent and Trade Secret in Digital Libraries
The constraints are as follows: Primitives, problem depends on application cases of digital
in general, map to cognitively relevant image libraries.
properties of the given domain.
The formulation should take advantage of a
threshold parameter (when available), . The Con cl usions an d Futu re
retrieval mechanisms of digital library systems of DL Pro te ction
are patentable in the form of components of novel
combinations of prior disclosed processes and/or In this chapter, we have discussed issues on intel-
components of specific parameter-settings while lectual property protection regarding patentable
they are to satisfy the aforementioned condi- parameter-setting components implemented in
tions. digital libraries. First, we have discussed our al-
ready-proposed framework for patenting the data
E mbedding Trade S ecret of processing or retrieval operation in the form of
Parametric Values a combination of processes and/or a component
of parameter settings. Second, we have pointed
The requirement for patenting parameter-setting out an emerging problem on the trade secret of
components as computer-related inventions de- parameter-settings, and the possible directions
mands inventors to make public their discovered for its solution.
working examples on those parameter values: The current status of intellectual property
initial values or ranges. The practice in patent protection has been limited in the scope of digital
application, nonetheless, does not always force copyright protection, and its technical execution
applicants to disclose to examiners complete and security protection, even in the multimedia
evidences on those initial values or ranges of digital libraries. The adoption of our proposed
parametric values, but those values as would work frameworks for digital rights protection allows
in their best mode at the present art. In the reality the community to expand the frontiers of digital
of application practice, inventors have two choices rights management and protection. The future
for embedding trade secrets on their know-how of IP protection in the multimedia DLs should
of parametric values in the forms of patentable be broader by exploiting the technical analyses
parameter components: and implementations of patent and trade secret
protections.
1. On the initial values, their prophetic exam-
ples should be disclosed in patent application,
instead of working examples; or, Ac knowle dgmen t
2. On the ranges of parametric values, those
ranges should be widened as possible; The study of this chapter is supported financially
3. Otherwise, the ranges of parametric values in part by the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Re-
should be replaced with several initial values search (Kakenhi) of the Japanese Government:
of prophetic examples. #18700250, FY 06-09.
334
Patent and Trade Secret in Digital Libraries
In re Alappat. (1994). 33 F.3d 1526, 31 U.S.P.Q.2d Unique Concepts, Inc. v. Brown. (1991). 939 F.2d
1545 (Fed. Cir. 1994) (en banc) 1558, 19 U.S.P.Q.2d 1500 (Fed. Cir. 1991).
In re Dow Chemical Co. (1988). 837 F.2d 469, 473,
5 U.S.P.Q.2d 1529, 1531 (Fed. Cir. 1988).
K ey Terms
Merges, R.P., & Duffy, J.F. (2002). Patent law
and policy: Cases and materials (3rd edn.). Lex-
Combination of Processes: A patentable
isNexis: Dayton, OH.
computer program or programs as a number of
Sasaki, H., & Kiyoki, Y. (2002a). Patenting ad- processes; in other words, methods or means
vanced search engines of multimedia databases. In for data processing, some of which are prior dis-
Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference closed inventions.
on Law and Technology (pp. 3439).
Digital Library: A system as an infrastruc-
Sasaki, H., & Kiyoki, Y. (2002b, December ture for global information, which consists
1114). Patenting the processes for content-based of digital contents in databases and retrieval
retrieval in digital libraries. In Proceedings of the mechanisms.
5th International Conference on Asian Digital
Multimedia Digital Contents: Data entities
Libraries (ICADL), Lecture Notes in Computer
which are stored in multimedia digital libraries in
Science, 2555, (pp. 471482). Singapore.
a variety of forms of text, images, photos or video
Sasaki, H., & Kiyoki, Y. (2005a). A formulation streams, which often commingle therein.
for patenting content-based retrieval processes in
Multimedia Digital Library: A system which
digital libraries. Journal of Information Process-
consists of multimedia digital contents indexed
ing and Management, 41(1), 5774.
and stored in databases for appropriate retrieval
Sasaki, H., & Kiyoki, Y. (2005b). Multimedia operations and the retrieval mechanisms which
digital library as intellectual property, design and are optimized and applied to object domains of
usability of digital libraries. In Y.L. Theng & S. those databases.
Foo (Eds.), Case Studies in the Asia Pacific (pp.
Parameter-Setting: A patentable computer
238253). Hershey, PA: Idea Group Publishing.
program or programs which realize threshold-
U.S. Patent Act. (2005). 35 U.S.C. Sec. 101, 103, ing operations with a set of ranges of parametric
& 112. values.
U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. (1996a, Febru- Patentable Computer Program: A computer-
ary 28). Examination guidelines for computer- related invention in the form of a data-processing
related inventions. 61 Fed. Reg. 7478. process or method to produce a useful, concrete,
and tangible result for transforming physical
U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. (1996b).
data.
Examination guidelines for computer-related
inventions training materials directed to busi- Trade Secret on Parameter-Setting: A legal
ness, artificial intelligence, and mathematical framework to keep secret the range of paramet-
processing applications. ric values in practice, rather than just patenting
parameter-setting components.
335
336
Chapter XXXIV
User-Adapted Information
Services
Thomas Mandl
University of Hildesheim, Germany
A bs tra ct
This chapter describes personalization strategies adopted in digital libraries. Personalization and in-
dividualization are introduced as means to improve the usability of digital library services. The goal of
personalization for digital libraries is mainly the presentation of individual results to the user. This can
be modelled based on a user interest model which is applied during the search process. Two users with
the same query can receive different results based on their interest profile maintained by the system.
Typical approaches and systems for individualizing the results of information retrieval systems are pre-
sented. The retrieval process is described. Knowledge sources and common knowledge representation
for personalization are elaborated. Most common, the search history and documents accessed in the
past are exploited for modelling the user interest. Finally, the chapter mentions drawbacks and success
factors for personalization and individualization systems.
For a long time, information systems like digital Adaptivity can be achieved by either an active
libraries followed a one size fits all approach. user or an active system. In the first case, the
However, people who use these systems are dif- user himself has means to modify the system in
ferent. Consequently, systems should adapt to the some way that it better fits to her individual de-
individual needs and preferences of the users in sires. The user himself takes the initiative for the
order to best accommodate them. The main focus process. More challenging is the development of
of this chapter will be the adaptation in informa- systems which adapt by themselves to the needs
tion retrieval for digital library services. and preferences of the users. In order to do that,
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
User-Adapted Information Services
the system needs to identify the user, collect Ac q uiring knowle dge
knowledge about him, and draw consequences abo ut users
from this knowledge.
In the early days of user adaptation, user Systems can collect the knowledge explicitly or
modeling in the context of artificial intelligence implicitly. Explicit knowledge gathering means
applications was in the focus. User modeling that the user is asked to provide information about
began with stereotyping users (Rich, 1979) and himself. Implicit knowledge gathering does not
has evolved into more refined knowledge-based require time and effort from the user. The system
strategies (Kobsa, 2001). Currently, there is a collects this knowledge from the behavior (click
trend to rely on machine learning algorithms data, log files) or the context (who, where, when,
which associate similar users or objects in order what, how) (Abowd & Mynatt, 2000).
to serve personal interests. In addition to collect the knowledge, the
system needs to assign it to one specific user. A
login is very reliable but puts a high effort on the
Personaliza tion an d user. Technological means like RFID chips, IP
In dividualiza tion addresses, and unique mobile telephone numbers
can also be used for the identification. If no means
Users are Different are available, the adaptation can be effective only
for one session.
Users can differ in many ways like age or culture.
Most important for knowledge work which is
supported by information system are cognitive Mo difying a sys tem
differences. Users may differ in their knowl-
edge about the interaction with the system and The modification of the system can affect the user
the domain. The differences between beginners interface (functions, appearance, way of interac-
and advanced users are an issue which is often tion), the content (different knowledge objects),
exploited for personalization. At the same time, or the presentation (sequence, level of detail).
users may be different according to their knowl- For a digital library all of these three aspects
edge (e.g., in a e-learning system, they may have can be of interest, however, content adaptation
reached different levels of knowledge). Resistance has been attracted most research in the digital
to change, intelligence, intro-/extroversion, fear library community. Content adaptation will be
of failure, and creativity are further personal thoroughly discussed in the following section.
features. For some interfaces, the spatial orienta- Typical content adaptation is implemented by
tion capabilities may be of importance. Users can recommender systems which suggest new content
have different preferences in interaction styles. items to users in e-commerce applications.
Some may prefer the keyboard, others the mouse, User interface adaptation has been the focus
and again others, spoken language. Obviously, of much research. The adaptation initiated by
adaptation does contradict the human-computer users has been integrated in many systems for
interaction principle of consistency for interfaces. many years. Menus, tool bars, and other aspects
As a consequence, adaptation needs to improve of graphical user interfaces can be changed by
the system up to an extent which exceeds these users. Some aspects like desktop background
potential shortcomings. Certainly, adaptation is pictures or ring tones for mobile phones are
of specific value for beginners who start to use heavily used to express individuality through
a system. However, for this group, it is hard to aesthetic elements.
acquire knowledge.
337
User-Adapted Information Services
Some areas for system driven improving Indexing is a process during which words
every-day information systems have been iden- describing the content of a document are chosen
tified. The menus in Microsoft-Windows have as content representation of this document. Dur-
been implemented as an adaptive interface which ing automatic indexing, algorithms assign key
displays only the most often and most recently words to documents. The indexing process for
used items, while hiding other options until the natural language documents typically consists
user requests the full list. of the following steps:
Word segmentation
Informa tion R e trie val Elimination of stopwords
Stemming
The use of Internet search engines is widespread Compound analysis (for some languages)
and has become part of daily life for many people.
The basic technology behind search engines is Segmentation is defining the boundaries
information retrieval. Information retrieval deals between the individual words. In European
with the storage and representation of knowledge languages, most boundaries can be found by
and the retrieval of information relevant for a considering blanks. However, other characters
special user problem. The information seeker need to be considered additionally. Subsequently,
formulates a query trying to describe his many words which occur frequently are elimi-
information need. The query is compared to nated. These are called stopwords and comprise
document representations which were extracted usually articles, prepositions and pronouns. The
during the indexing phase. The representations of most important operation during linguistic pre-
documents and queries are typically matched by a processing is stemming. It maps conjugated word
similarity coefficient such as Cosine or Dice. The forms to their basic form or their stem (e.g., runs
most similar documents are presented to the user > run, walking > walk). Morphological varia-
(Manning, Raghavan, & Schtze, 2008). tions of words fulfill their function only within
Usually, documents and queries traditionally their grammatical context. In a bag of words
contain natural language or more and more approach, all variations can be reduced to their
multimedia objects like graphics, pictures or basic form. Stemming improves efficiency also.
music pieces. The content of these objects must be Three main methods are used for stemming:
analysed, which is a hard task for artificial systems. rule-based, lexicon based and similarity based
Robust semantic analysis of large text collections approaches. The most important algorithms are
has not yet been successfully developed. As a rule based. The rules describe which steps are
consequence, text documents are represented by necessary in order to obtain the stem of a word
natural language terms mostly without syntactic form. The number of rules necessary is still under
or semantic context. This is often called the bag- debate (Savoy, 2006).
of-words approach. A few keywords or terms Weighting determines the importance of a
can only imperfectly represent an object because term for a document. A term weight measures
context and relations are lost. As information how well the term represents a document. These
retrieval needs to deal with vague knowledge, weights mirror different levels of relevance. First,
exact processing methods are not appropriate. the frequency of each term is counted. Weight-
Vague retrieval models like the probabilistic ing assumes that words occurring more often are
model are more suitable (Belew, 2001). better representatives for a document. Currently,
advanced weighing schemes take the average and
338
User-Adapted Information Services
maximum length of all documents into account. A typical approach exploits so called click
Other formulas like OKAPI consider even the through data and assumes that pages which a
query terms. OKAPI has led to excellent results user has visited are interesting for the user. An
(Robertson et al., 1995). optimized version of such a method based on much
The Boolean Model allows only the similarity previous work is suggested by Ng, Deng, and Lun
values 1 and 0. A document either belongs to the Lee (2007). Their algorithm learns user prefer-
relevant set or not. The ranking or partial match ences and subsequently optimizes the ranking
systems allow different degrees of similarity of the result documents. This method uses only
and order the result documents according to the positive feedback and relies on a vector support
similarity or relevance. An example for a partial machine to learn the preferred ranking for the
match model is the vector space model which individual user.
interprets the retrieval process using a spatial An example for such a system is UCAIR
metaphor. All documents and the query are points which can be installed as a browser plugin.
in a high dimensional space. Closeness is seen UCAIR relies on a standard Web search engine
as similarity. The Retrieval Status Value can be to obtain a search result and a primary ranking.
calculated as a measure of the distance between This ranking is now being modified by re-ranking
the documents which can be determined, for the documents based on implicit feedback and a
example, by the Euclidian distance. Information stored user interest profile (Shen, Tan, & Zhai,
retrieval systems can be implemented in many 2005). In UCAIR, two users can receive a differ-
ways by selecting a model and specific language ent result (e.g., for a query on JAVA). One user
processing tools. They interact in a complex might get pages on the programming language
system and their performance for a specific data based on his profile and another user might see
collection cannot be predicted. As a consequence, results on the island.
the empirical evaluation of the performance is a A similar approach is taken by the system
central concern in information retrieval research SearchGuide which focuses on collaborative
(Manning et al., 2008). search. The individualized results are based on
the membership in groups and the searching and
visiting behavior and preferences of the group
In dividual in teres t in (Coyle & Smyth, 2007).
digi tal libraries Most systems use this method of storing the
user interest in a term vector. However, this method
The most popular representation scheme relies has several drawbacks. The interest profile may
on the representation scheme used in information not be stable and the user may have a variety of
retrieval where a document-term-matrix stores diverging interests for work and leisure which
the importance or weight of each term for each are mixed in one profile.
document. When a term appears in a document, Advanced individualization techniques per-
this weight should be different from zero. User sonalize the underlying system functions. The
interest can also be stored like a document. Then results of empirical studies have shown that
the interest is a vector of terms. These terms can relevance feedback is an effective technique to
be ones that a user has entered or selected in a improve retrieval quality (Spink, 1995). Learning
user interface or which the system has extracted methods for information retrieval need to extend
from documents for which the user has shown the range of relevance feedback effects beyond
interest by viewing or downloading them. the modification of the query in order to achieve
long-term adaptation to the subjective point of
339
User-Adapted Information Services
view of the user. The mere change of the query That way, MIMOR learns which systems were
often results in improved quality; however, the successful in the past, and therefore in the train-
information is lost after the current session. ing data. In MIMOR, the following formula gives
Some systems change the document repre- the retrieval status value (RSV) for a document.
sentation according to the relevance feedback Arguments are the RSV of the fused systems and
information. In a vector space metaphor, the their weights (Mandl & Womser-Hacker, 2004).
relevant documents are moved toward the query Again, another approach to adapt the knowl-
representation. This approach also comprises edge objects presented to a user is reasoning
some problems. As only a fraction of the document based on the similarity between users. The user
is affected by the modifications, the basic data interest can be modeled as the interest of similar
derived during the indexing process is changed users. Such an approach does not require knowl-
to a somewhat heterogeneous state. The original edge about the content of the knowledge objects.
indexing result is not available anymore. Book recommendations are an example for this
Certainly, this technique is inadequate for fu- method. Such systems are currently gaining more
sion approaches where several retrieval methods importance in the filed of social computing.
are combined. In this case, several basic repre-
sentations would need to be changed according
to the influence of the corresponding methods Personalize d Qu ali ty Me tri cs
on the relevant documents. The indexes are usu-
ally heterogeneous, which is often considered an Quality evaluation is an important issue in search
advantage of fusion approaches. A high computa- systems for large collections. Systems for qual-
tional overload would be the consequence. ity metrics assessment have been developed
Individualize the matching function by adopt- for Web search engines and can be adopted by
ing its way to calculate the similarity between digital libraries or social software applications.
document and system. The COSIMIR system uses Web pages are rated according to their quality by
a neural network where the relevance decision is search engines and higher quality pages have a
used as training input in order to get to acquire higher probability of appearing on top ranks in the
the best match given a document and a system result sets. The quality analysis takes the number
representation (Mandl, 2000). of other Web pages into account which contain a
The MIMOR (Multiple Indexing and Method- link to the page under consideration. The search
Object Relations) approach does not rely on engine Google reported that it uses the PageRank
changes to the document or the query representa- algorithm which heuristically evaluates the quality
tion when processing relevance feedback infor- of Web pages by assessing the links pointing to
mation for personalization. Instead, it focuses that page (Arasu, Cho, Garcia-Molina, Paepcke,
on the central aspect of a retrieval function, the & Raghavan, 2001). The algorithm relies on two
calculation of the similarity between document assumptions:
and query. Like other fusion methods, MIMOR
accepts the result of individual retrieval systems Pages with many in-coming links have a
like from a black box. These results are fused by high PageRank value
a linear combination which is stored during many Links coming from pages with high PageR-
sessions. The weights for the systems experience ank values contribute more to the PageRank
a change through learning. They adapt according value
to relevance feedback information provided by
users and create a long-term model for future use.
340
User-Adapted Information Services
341
User-Adapted Information Services
342
User-Adapted Information Services
Rich, E. (1979). User modeling via stereotypes. have been developed to extract such rules from
Cognitive Science: A Multidisciplinary Journal, large data sets.
4, 329354.
Human-Computer Interaction (HCI): Deals
Robertson, S., & Spark Jones, K. (1976). Relevance with the optimization of interfaces between hu-
weighting for search terms. Journal of the Ameri- man users and computing systems. Technology
can Society of Information Science, 129146. needs to be adapted to the properties and the
needs of users. The knowledge sources available
Savoy, J. (2006). Light stemming approaches for
for this endeavor are guidelines, rules, standards,
the French, Portuguese, German and Hungarian
and results from psychological research on the
languages. In Proceedings of the 2006 ACM
human perception and cognitive capabilities.
symposium on Applied computing SAC 06 (pp.
Evaluation is necessary to validate the success
10311035).
of interfaces.
Shen, X., Tan, B., & Zhai, C. (2005). Context-sensi-
Information Retrieval: Information re-
tive information retrieval using implicit feedback.
trieval is concerned with the representation and
In Annual Intl ACM SIGIR Conf on Research
knowledge and subsequent search for relevant
and Development in Information Retrieval (pp.
information within these knowledge sources.
4350). ACM Press.
Information retrieval provides the technology
Spink, A. (1995). Term relevance feedback and behind search engines.
mediated database searching: Implications for
Machine Learning: Machine learning is a
information retrieval practice and systems de-
subfield of Artificial Intelligence which provides
sign. Information Processing and Management,
algorithms for the discovery of relations or rules
31(2), 161171.
in large data sets. Machine learning leads to
functions which can automatically classify or
categorize objects based on their features. Induc-
K ey Terms tive learning from labeled examples is the most
well known application.
Adaptation: Adaptation can be seen as a pro-
Smart Home: Enriching houses with ubiqui-
cess of modification based on input or observation.
tous technology can lead to a smart home which
An information system should adapt itself to the
better supports its inhabitants by automatically
specific needs of individual users.
regulating its functions.
Association Rules: Association rules describe
User Model: The user model is the collec-
relationships and correlations between attributes
tion of knowledge and assumption of the system
or objects in large data sets. Several algorithms
about one user.
343
344
Chapter XXXV
An Empirical Analysis of the
Utilization of University Digital
Library Resources
Hepu Deng
RMIT University, Australia
A bs tra ct
Digital resources are readily available and easily accessible with the rapid development of informa-
tion and communication technologies nowadays. These digital resources, however, have not been fully
utilized as demonstrated in the literature. This chapter presents a study based on an online survey in a
university environment aiming to investigate the extent to which digital resources are utilized, and to
identify the critical factors for the effective use of digital resources. The study reveals that the usage
of digital resources is significant in higher education, and the utilization of digital resources is very
much dependent on the users and purposes. The awareness and the quality of information are critical
for the use of digital resources. The findings of this study shed light on the use of digital resources and
help libraries better understand users perceptions and experiences of using digital resources services
in university libraries.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
An Empirical Analysis of the Utilization of University Digital Library Resources
Fenton, Lonsdale, Stoker, Thomas, & Urquhart, This chapter presents an empirical study for
2001; Nicholas, Huntington, & Jamali, 2007; investigating the extent to which digital resources
Pancheshnikov, 2007). are utilized, and identifying the critical factors
The popularity of digital resources is due to for effectively using digital resources in a uni-
the tremendous benefits that digital resources can versity environment. By conducting an online
bring to individual organizations, as well as to survey in a university environment, this study
the potential users of the digital resources. These aims to understand the perception, expectation,
benefits of accessing and using digital resources experience and behaviors of users in their use
include (a) accessibility in a timely and multi- of digital resources. The survey has revealed a
user manner; (b) availability free of time, stock, number of interesting observations related to (a)
and space constraints; (c) richness and variety the access and use of digital resources, and (b)
of resources available; and (d) easiness of search the critical factors for effectively using digital
through latest search engines (Adams & Bonk, resources. These findings contribute to a better
1995; Armstrong et al., 2001; Moyo, 2004). As a understanding of the use of digital resources in a
consequence, tremendous efforts have been made tertiary education environment and help libraries
for the acquisition, management and effective use better understand the perceptions, experiences
of digital resources, resulting in a rapid increase and behavior of users, with respect to the use of
in volume and variety of collections of digital digital library service.
library resources (Brenner, 2005; Fox & Logan,
2005; Moyo, 2004; Roberts, 1995; Zhang, Shen,
& Ghjenniwa, 2004; Zhang & Haslam, 2005). RESEAR CH METHO DOLOGY
There is, however, a widely held view that
digital resources are not fully utilized in orga- Questionnaires are structured instruments that
nizations nowadays (Fox & Logan, 2005; Jain provide an effective means for gathering data
& Babbar, 2006; Rehman & Ramzy, 2004). The from a potentially large number of respondents
inability to effectively exploit the potential of (Chauvel & Desprs, 2002; Yin, 2003). A well-de-
digital resources is generally attributed to the signed questionnaire can gather both overall and
lack of awareness, the lack of competence in specific opinions, experiences, and attitudes of its
using digital resources, the lack of training, and targeted population on a specific research topic. To
the insufficient time to use the service (Adams & understand the extent to which digital resources
Bonk, 1995; Rehman & Ramzy, 2004; Roberts, are utilized and to identify the critical factors
1995; Shuler, 2007). Existing research focuses for using digital resources, this study employs a
more on examining and exploiting the potential questionnaire method based on a comprehensive
of providing users with an enhanced integrating literature on the domain of digital library and
access to value-added information (Liew & Foo, information services.
1999; Pancheshnikov, 2007; Xie, 2006). There is, The questionnaire is developed to find out the
however, little research into the effective use of answers to following questions:
digital resources from a users perspective (Arm-
strong et al., 2001; Tsakonas & Papatheodorou, Who uses digital resources?
2007). Although it is important for information How often do the users use digital resourc-
professionals to provide better services, it is not es?
sufficient to meet the needs of the users if the per- Where do the users use digital resources?
ception, expectation, experience, and behaviour What range of digital resources do the users
of the users are not understood well. use?
345
An Empirical Analysis of the Utilization of University Digital Library Resources
For what purpose do the users use digital AN EMPIRI CAL ANALYSIS
resources?
Why do the users choose to use digital A total of 317 responses are received from the sur-
resources? vey. After identifying and removing some invalid
To what degree do the users think digital submissions, 305 valid responses are obtained.
resources useful? SPSS v12 is used to analyze the data with respect
What are the critical factors for using digital to the objectives of the investigation in relation to
resources? the research questions as discussed above.
The profile of users directly affects the pat-
These questions are organized in the survey tern of accessing and using digital resources. It
along the lines of user profile, use frequency, use is usually reflected in their positions, years in the
purpose, reasons for using digital resources, and current position, education, gender, and age. An
the critical factors for effectively using digital analysis of the surveys shows that most of the 305
resources (Lesk, 2005; Nicholas, Huntington, respondents are females (55.7%) and in the age
Jamali, & Watkinson, 2006; Rehman & Ramzy, group of 20 to 29 years (36.7%). A majority of
2004; Tsakonas & Papatheodorou, 2007; Xie, the respondents has a university degree (72.4%),
2006). The selection of these dimensions in with the rest having TAFE and high school educa-
designing and developing the questionnaire is tion. These respondents consist of postgraduate
based on the review of relevant literature that students (39%), undergraduate students (38%),
shows that these issues such as the usefulness, academic staff (13.1%), administrative staff
usability, and use purpose are the most critical (8.5%), and TAFE students (1.3%).
issues to be explored for the effective utilization The importance of digital resources to study,
of digital resources. teaching, and research in the university is clearly
A university library is selected for conducting shown in the survey. Among 305 respondents, only
the survey. The targeted library offers diverse 12 respondents have not used digital resources.
information services to a population of 75,000 Figure 1 shows the frequency of use of digital
students and staff. The library collection of digital resources. 180 out of 305 respondents (59%) use
resources has been greatly expanded since 2000 digital resources more than once a week. This
with more than 330 databases and 15,000 digital shows the significant role that digital resources
products. play in todays higher education environment.
The survey is conducted online in a university Such an important role has also been demonstrated
environment. The target participants are aca- in the existing research, including Armstrong et
demic staff, administrative staff, undergraduate al. (2001), Fox and Logan (2005), and Kahl and
students, and postgraduate students in a univer- Williams (2006).
sity. The questionnaire is pilot tested, and the The availability of digital resources without
revised questionnaire is created on a Web page. the physical and time constrains is clearly demon-
The hyperlink is included in an invitation, which strated in the survey. The study reveals that 19%
is sent to students and staff in the university via respondents access and use digital resources in
e-mail in the form of news update and student places including library, outside the library and
bulletin. The invitation is also sent out through outside the campus. Some use them at home,
some e-mailing lists, and included in the library overseas, and in distant learning mode. 14.4%
news and student learning hub news. respondents use them outside the library and
346
An Empirical Analysis of the Utilization of University Digital Library Resources
160
120
80
40 42
40 12 12 19
0
Never Less than Once a month Once a Once a week More than
once a month fortnight once a week
outside the campus. 14.1% respondents use them 49.5% respondents use online newspapers; 30.5%
only outside the campus. 12.5% respondents use respondents use digital books; 30.2% respondents
them only outside the library, and 11.8% respon- use online magazines; 22.3% respondents use on-
dents use them both at the library and outside line archives; 20.7% respondents use online theses;
the campus. Compared with the respondents not 19% respondents use digital exam papers.
using them at the same group of location, 66.9% Users access and use digital resources for dif-
respondents use onshore outside the campus; ferent purposes (Nicholas et al., 2006; Panches-
59.3% respondents use them outside the library hnikov, 2007; Shuler, 2007; Zhang et al., 2004).
on the campus; 49.2 % use them in the library; These pur poses include (a) gathering in-
12.5% respondents use them overseas. formation on a specif ic topic; (b) gaining
An interesting pattern is emerging from the general information; (c) getting answers to
survey on the utilization of different kinds of specif ic questions; (d) completing assign-
digital resources in the library. Table 1 shows the ments; (e) reviewing literature; (f ) writing
pattern of the utilization of various kinds of digital essays; and (g) helping making decisions.
resources. From amongst the different categories The survey shows that 82.3% respondents are to
of digital resources, compared with the respon- gather information on a specific topic and 70.2%
dents not using the same category of resource, respondents are to gain general information.
it is found that 82% respondents use library 69.5% respondents are to get answers to specific
catalogue; 77% respondents use online journals; questions, and 55.4% respondents are to complete
68.2% respondents use Web site information; assignments. It is obvious that an understanding
of this situation would help library administra-
tors and management better organize their digital
Table 1. An overview of utilization of digital resources with respect to their specific circum-
library resources stances and the characteristics of their digital
Library catalogue 82.0%
resources users.
Online journals 77.0% The reasons for using digital resources are
Web site information 68.2% very much in alignment with the potential ben-
Online newspapers 49.5%
Electronic books 30.5% efit that digital resources offer (Armstrong et al.,
Online magazines 30.2% 2001; Fox & Logan, 2005; Jacobs, Jacobs, & Yeo,
Online archives 22.3%
Digital theses 20.7% 2005; Moyo, 2004; Tsakonas & Papatheodorou,
Digital exam papers 19.0% 2007). There are 86.2% respondents who think
347
An Empirical Analysis of the Utilization of University Digital Library Resources
the easiness to access is their reason to use digital 2004; Rehman & Ramzy, 2004; Tsakonas & Pa-
resources, 73.1% respondents who think time patheodorou, 2007). Reasons for using them are
saving is the reason. As expected, 72.5% respon- credited to the accessibility, time saving, avail-
dents think that the wide variety of resources ability and variety of digital resources, availability
attract them to use digital resources, and 54.1% of search tools, and no physical space limitation.
respondents attribute the availability of digital A majority of users believes that digital resources
resources and the effective search tools for the use are useful to help them gain new ideas or insights,
of digital resources. Other widely cited reasons compare different views, undertake research
include the freedom of physical space limitation project, and write theses or papers.
and the quality of information. Further analysis based on the users groups
A lack of training in how to effectively use shows that the different users have different ex-
digital resources is still a major issue that library periences from the use of digital resources (Moyo,
faces today (Adams & Bonk, 1995; Moyo, 2004) 2004; Xie, 2006). Among the academic staff,
even this is well recognized in the library pro- administrative students, postgraduate students
fessionals (Pancheshnikov, 2007; Raza & Nath, by course, postgraduate students by research,
2007; Roberts, 1995). Nearly half of respondents undergraduate students, TAFE students, a major-
(49.5%) including 3.9% nonusers have not un- ity of academic staff (77.5%), and postgraduate
dertaken any training at all. As a result it is not students (72.5%), by research, believe that digital
surprising to find out that only 55.1% respondents resources are extremely useful. This may be be-
believe digital resources are extremely useful, cause the nature of their work and study is highly
31.8% respondents believe quite useful, and 6.6% knowledge-intensive (Chauvel & Desprs, 2002;
respondents think useful. Lesk, 2005; Nicholas et al., 2007; Roberts, 1995).
The critical factors for effectively accessing This observation is further reinforced by the fact
and using digital resources (Hollmann, Ard, & that the relatively low percentage of undergraduate
Stenstrm, 2007; Tsakonas & Papatheodorou, students (36.2%) and TAFE students (25%) think
2007) are investigated in the survey. Ten critical that digital resources are extremely useful.
factors are identified based on an analysis of the The user group classified by the years in current
survey results. Table 2 shows a description of position does not show significant difference in
these ten factors. their experience of using digital resources. This
implies that there is not a strong relationship be-
tween the seniority and using digital resources.
dis cussion Users in different age group show that more
than half of the respondents think that digital
The survey shows that the use of digital resources resources are extremely useful in the users over
in the university library is very common which 30 years old. This observation, in fact, conforms
is consistent with existing research findings (Fox to the aforementioned finding, given that most of
& Logan, 2005; Jain & Babbar, 2006; Moyo, undergraduate students and TAFE students are
348
An Empirical Analysis of the Utilization of University Digital Library Resources
in the age group of younger than 30. Those users and to identify the critical factors for effectively
with postgraduate (73.4%) and PhD qualification using the digital resources available in a library
(72%) think that digital resources are extremely environment. By conducting an online survey in a
useful, with less than half of the rest of users university environment, the chapter aims to under-
thinking so. stand the perception, expectation, experience, and
The female and male users do not show any behavior of users in their use of digital resources.
significant difference in their experiences, per- The chapter shows that the use of digital resources
ceptions, and behaviors in using digital resources is significant in the university investigated. A
(Kahl & Williams, 2006; Xie, 2006). According majority of users believes that digital resources
to the purpose, users who gather information on are useful. It is also found the different users with
a specific topic and get answers to specific ques- different purposes are significant different in the
tions significantly believe that digital resources process of using digital resources. The awareness
are extremely useful comparing with those who and the quality of information are the two most
do not have the same purpose, the percentage important factors for using digital resources.
being almost double. This really shows that the
utilization of digital resources very much depends
on the users and the purposes of using digital R eferen ces
resources.
The awareness of digital resources is an im- Adams, J.A., & Bonk, S.C. (1995). Digital in-
portant factor to the use of digital resources (Jain formation technologies and resources: Use by
& Babbar, 2006; Nicholas et al., 2007). There are university faculty and faculty preferences for
77.7% respondents who agree or strongly agree related library services. College and Research
that promoting the use of digital resources from Libraries, 56, 119131.
the perspective of library should be better imple-
Agnew, S., Gray, L., Blocker, L., Ryan, C.E., &
mented and improved which is consistent with
Smith, K.L. (2006). Experiencing the electronic
what Rehman and Ramzy (2004) have identified.
resources and libraries conference. Serials Review,
Other significant issues for improving the use of
32(3), 195203.
digital resources are the quality of the information
available, training, help, examples and guidelines. Armstrong, C., Fenton, R., Lonsdale, R., Stoker,
It seems that skills and supporting equipments do D., Thomas, R., & Urquhart, C. (2001). A study of
not significantly affect the use of digital resources, the use of digital information systems by higher
given that Web technology, search tools, and sup- education students in the UK. Program, 35(3),
porting equipments are common and easy to use 241262.
nowadays. On the other hand, finding relevant,
Brenner, A.L. (2005). Digital library use: Social
up-to-date, accessible information in a time-sav-
practice in design and evaluation. Library and
ing manner satisfies users the most, and it is still
Information Science Research, 27(1), 131133.
a challenge to both the user, as well as the library
on the effective and efficient utilization of digital Chauvel, D., & Desprs, C. (2002). A review of
resources in libraries. survey research in knowledge management:
19972001. Journal of Knowledge Management,
6(3), 207223.
Con cl usion
Fox, E.A., & Logan, E. (2005). An Asian digital
libraries perspective. Information Processing and
This chapter aims to explore the utilization of
Management, 41(1), 14.
digital resources from the users perspective
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An Empirical Analysis of the Utilization of University Digital Library Resources
Gonalves, M.A., Moreira, B.L., Fox, E.A., & behaviour of the users of digital scholarly jour-
Watson, L.T. (2007). What is a good digital library? nals. Information Processing and Management,
A quality model for digital libraries. Information 42(5), 13451365.
Processing and Management, 43(5), 14161437.
Pancheshnikov, Y. (2007). Integrating print and
Hollmann, J., Ard, A., & Stenstrm, P. (2007). digital resources in library collections. Library
Effectiveness of caching in a distributed digital Collections, Acquisitions, and Technical Services,
library system. Journal of Systems Architecture, 31(2), 111112.
53(7), 403416.
Raza, M.M., & Nath, A. (2007). Use of IT in
Jacobs, J.A., Jacobs, J.R., & Yeo, S. (2005). Gov- university libraries of Punjab, Chandigarh and
ernment information in the digital age: The once Himachal Pradesh: A comparative study. The
and future federal depository library program. International Information and Library Review,
The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 31(3), 39(34), 11227.
198208.
Rehman, S., & Ramzy, V. (2004). Awareness and
Jain, P.K., & Babbar, P. (2006). Digital libraries use of digital information resources. Library
initiatives in India. The International Information Review, 53(3), 150156.
and Library Review, 38(3), 161169.
Roberts, J. (1995). Faculty knowledge about li-
Kahl, C.M., & Williams, S.C. (2006). Accessing brary services at the university of the West Indies.
digital libraries: A study of ARL members digital New Library World, 96, 1422.
projects. The Journal of Academic Librarianship,
Santos, R.L.T., Roberto, P.A., Gonalves, M.A., &
32(4), 364369.
Laender, A.H.F. (2007, August). A Web services-
Koh, J., & Kim, Y.G. (2004). Knowledge sharing in based framework for building componentized
virtual communities: An e-business perspective. digital libraries. Journal of Systems and Software,
Expert Systems with Applications, 26, 155166. Available online 8 August 2007.
Lesk, M. (2005). Scope of digital libraries. Un- Shuler, J.A. (2007). Public policies and academic
derstanding Digital Libraries, 2, 361373. librariesthe shape of the next digital divide.
The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 33(1),
Liew, C.L., & Foo, S. (1999). Derivation of in-
141143.
teraction environment and information object
properties for enhanced integrated access and Tsakonas, G., & Papatheodorou, C. (2007). Ex-
value-adding to digital documents. Aslib Pro- ploring usefulness and usability in the evalua-
ceedings, 256268. tion of open access digital libraries. Information
Processing and Management,
Moyo, L.M. (2004). Digital libraries and the
emergence of new service paradigms. The Digital Xie, H. (2006). Evaluation of digital libraries:
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433452.
(2007). The use, users, and role of abstracts in
the digital scholarly environment. The Journal of Yin, R.K. (2003). Case study research: Design
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Nicholas, D., Huntington, P., Jamali, H.R., & Zhang, S., Shen, W., & Ghjenniwa, H. (2004).
Watkinson, A. (2006). The information seeking A review of Internet-based product information
350
An Empirical Analysis of the Utilization of University Digital Library Resources
351
352
Chapter XXXVI
Visualisation of Large
Image Databases
Gerald Schaefer
Aston University, UK
Simon Ruszala
Teleca, UK
A bs tra ct
Following the ever-growing sizes of image databases, effective methods for visualising such databases
and navigating through them are much sought after. These methods should provide an overview of a
complete database together with the possibility to zoom into certain areas during a specific search. It is
crucial that the user interacts in an intuitive way with such a system in order to effectively arrive at im-
ages of interest. In this chapter, we look at several techniques that have been presented in the literature
and allow for browsing and navigation of large image databases.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Visualisation of Large Image Databases
searches where a query image is provided by the PRIN CIPAL COM PONEN T ANALYSIS
user and the system retrieves the closest matches (PCA )
from the database, this type of search is often not
very useful. Rather, a possibility to effectively and Principal component analysis transforms a num-
efficiently browse the whole database is sought. ber of high dimensional correlated variables into
Often, images are displayed in a one-dimensional a smaller number of uncorrelated variables called
linear fashion, either in rank order after a query principal components and allows to reduce the
or in the order they were read in from the data- dimensionality whilst preserving the essence
base. Clearly, this gives no indication to the user of the data. High dimensional data is normally
of where a certain image can be found unless vast in size and ungraspable by the human mind,
queried. When visualising larger datasets, the making some form of representation necessary.
number of images is simply too large to be real- In order to calculate the principal components,
istically viewable on a single screen. Drawbacks the mean vector of the data (which also defines
like this have, therefore, led to the research and the first principal component) is calculated and
development of how to arrange the images in such subtracted from the samples (hence, resulting in
a way that they are positioned on the screen in a distribution centred around the origin). Using
relation to all other images. While this may cause singular value decomposition (SVD), the remain-
significantly more images to be displayed at once ing components are obtained by producing a
the advantage is that all images are visualised at diagonal matrix with eigenvalues in descending
once and clusters of related images will appear order. Each singular value is proportional to the
which can then be investigated further. With the square root of the variances and the correspond-
images positioned relative to their similarity with ing eigenvectors are the principal components.
other images, the display gives structure, as zoom- Once these have been calculated, all samples (i.e.,
ing into an area will mean that all neighbouring images) in the database can be projected onto the
images will be alike. principal components and the projection weights
Displaying an entire dataset on a single screen be used for assigning coordinates for the display
and allowing the user to localise specific areas to of each image thumbnail (i.e., for the display in a
explore further, creates the option of browsing the two-dimensional space, such as a monitor the first
database whilst also giving an indication of the two principal components would be used).
size of the collection. Navigation can be accom- Using this linear strategy is more limited than
plished through a top-down hierarchical approach their nonlinear counterparts, but has advantages.
by zooming into an area of interest, and thus gives Results shown are reliable, with genuine properties
more visual information on the entire range of of the original data if image similarity is based
the database to the user. Using this approach to on an L2 norm (Euclidean distance). If distances
visualisation is a widely desired feature by both between images are based on another norm (e.g.,
users with personal image albums and businesses L1 normManhattan distance) or indeed any
that manage larger image compilations. other distance function, the results will not be
In this chapter, we review six methods that as reliable which follows from the fact that PCA
have been used to visualise image datasets and maximises the captured variance in a least-squares
introduce their ability to browse through them. Euclidean way. Hence, if accuracy of thumbnail
Besides explaining the underlying techniques, positions is of primary interest, further configu-
advantages, and disadvantages of each method ration re-arrangements should be considered as
will be highlighted and a recommendation for a any nonlinear correlation between variables is
useful visualisation system provided. not captured. On the plus side, the mapping of
353
Visualisation of Large Image Databases
images to display coordinates is straightforward. & Wish, 1978), which expresses the difference
The way to compute these positions is efficient between the similarity values and the projected
as PCA calculates them using a linear approach, Euclidean values between all images. The aim of
so that the overall computational complexity is nonmetric MDS is to assign locations to the input
relatively low. data so that the overall stress is minimal. Typically,
an initial configuration is found through PCA as
described earlier. While the degree of goodness-
MUL TIDIMENSIONAL S CALING of-fit after this is, in general, fairly high, it still can
(MDS ) be optimised. To do so, the locations of the points
are updated in such a way as to reduce the overall
Multidimensional scaling (Kruskal & Wish, stress. If, for instance, the distance between two
1978) expresses the similarities between dif- specific samples has been overestimated it will be
ferent objects in a small number of dimensions, reduced to correct this deviation. It is clear that
allowing for a complex set of interrelationships this modification will have implications for all
to be summarised in a single figure. MDS can be other distances calculated. Therefore, the updat-
used to analyse any kind of distance or similar- ing of the coordinates and the recalculation of
ity/dissimilarity matrix created from a particular the stress is performed in an iterative way where
dataset. during each iteration the positions are slightly
There exist two types of multidimensional changed until the whole configuration is stable
scaling methods: metric and nonmetric MDS. In and the algorithm has converged to a minimum
metric MDS, the distances between the data items where the distances between the projected samples
are given and a configuration of points that would correspond accurately to the original distances.
give rise to the distances is sought. This perfect Several termination conditions can be applied
reproduction of distances is not always possible, such as an acceptable degree of goodness-of-fit,
and in such cases nonmetric MDS can be used. a predefined maximal number of iterations or a
In nonmetric MDS, rank orders of similarity Eu- threshold for the overall changes in the configura-
clidean distances and rank orders in the original tion. Once the calculation is terminated, the points
space are compared to produce a set of metric can then be mapped onto the screen.
coordinates which most closely approximate their Image database navigation starts initially with
nonmetric distances. a global display of the entire database with images
The application of MDS for image database positioned in relation to how similar they are to
display and navigation was first proposed by each others. The user then has the ability to zoom
Rubner, Guibas, and Tomasi (1997), which pre- into certain regions of interest to enlarge and allow
sented a way of not only visualising the retrieved for further querying. The images selected in the
images in terms of decreasing similarities, but area have their similarity distances recalculated
also according to their common similarities. By and projected back into two-dimensional format.
employing nonmetric MDS to implant all images This accommodates for the enlargement so as to
by their similarities in a two or three dimensional occupy the entire screen when displayed. While
Euclidean space, these calculated distances could this allows for a better spreading of the images
be preserved. on the available visualisation space it also has the
For nonmetric calculations, a similarity matrix disadvantage of requiring further calculations due
needs to be obtained from the CBIR features. to the reapplication of MDS on the zoomed-in
Euclidean distances are calculated and compared area. Clearly, this is not a desirable attribute of the
according to Kruskals stress equation (Kruskal system, as ideally it would respond in real time.
354
Visualisation of Large Image Databases
All other querying methods are still achievable of two pivot objects that parse through a care-
as long as the appropriate CBIR techniques have fully selected line in n-d space using the cosine
been implemented. Retrieval of images from either law. Pivot objects are ideally two objects that are
a sketch or an example, results in the appropriate as far apart as possible and are chosen using a
images being displayed around the selected image linear heuristic algorithm. This process chooses
in accordance to their similarity. one object at random and another by finding the
The main disadvantages of this accurate posi- point furthest from it, this found object is then
tioning system is the computational time needed set as the furthest from the arbitrary one and both
to re-calculate the stress value to obtain the best are returned as the pivot objects. This heuristic
available configuration of points. As it is based algorithm is completed until all objects have been
on a quadratic approach its computational com- mapped onto lines.
plexity is of order O(N2), where N is the number When a query by example is performed the
of images in the database, making it unsuitable pivot objects values are required for knowing the
for interactive visualisation of a large number lines of appropriate points so the query can be
of images. mapped into a point in k-d space. For this reason
storage of each pair of pivot objects is required
after each recursive call. Querying methods are
FAS TMA P performed at a faster rate than other systems, due
to its integration with fine-tuned access methods
Another approach which proposes mapping points such as R-trees and R*-trees. The results can be
such that the dissimilarity distances have little dis- extended causing the mapping of two objects
crepancies, is the FastMap algorithm introduced on a line in two-dimensional space, whilst still
in (Faloutsos & Lin, 1995). In general, this can be preserving some of the distance information. For
considered as a computational simplification of the mapping to occur in k-d space, projections of all
MDS procedure based on geometrical reflection. other calculated distances need to be estimated.
Vector projections and distances are updated to These can then be placed onto several lines in n-d
a degree of accuracy to discover the best con- space by construction; recursively repeating this
figuration of points by iteratively discovering the procedure results in the ability to project these
direction of the strongest component vector. points into k-d space.
FastMap aims to display images in a global Since all steps of the algorithm can be per-
manner, similar to that of MDS and PCA, where formed in a linear fashion the overall computa-
the positioning of images depends on the dissimi- tional complexity is only O(N), which compares
larities between all pairs of images. In addition, favourably to the O(N2) that is required by MDS
it attempts to improve on existing methods by while this is achieved without a significant loss
computing the results and then displaying them in of accuracy.
a more realistic time scale. The FastMap algorithm
automatically extracts suitable distance features
from each object, and approximations are made PICSOM
between the interpoint distance and the results
being estimated. This approach can be calculated The picSOM system introduced in (Laaksonen,
in a fast manner, especially in comparison to that Koskela, Laakkso, & Oja, 2000) employs self
of completing a full multipoint matrix. organising maps (SOMs) (Kohonen, 1990) for
Linear mapping is used to produce the results; retrieval and browsing of large image database.
the idea behind this is to calculate the properties In particular, tree structured self organising
355
Visualisation of Large Image Databases
maps (TS-SOMs) are applied as image similar- mensional VR CAVE, using a wand which allows
ity ranking method and are used for creating a the control of image selection and retrieval from
hierarchical representation of the images in a the database. This concept enables the viewer to
particular database. For each statistical feature see a stereoscopic view of the space by display-
vector used to retrieve images, a two-dimensional ing the images on four walls (top, bottom, left,
TS-SOM is created, resulting in numerous TS- and right) encompassing the user. Having large
SOMs grouped in parallel for calculating the best screens surrounding the user on four different
similarity results. If necessary, additional feature sides means that many more images can be dis-
vectors can be introduced and integrated with played at one time and in all three of the x, y, and
ease. The main advantage is that the user can z axes. This approach can also be expanded to
specify different queries for different features accommodate six sides completely immersing the
with the system automatically computing the user as if inside a room and all walls of the room
input data and retrieving the results dependent showing the images. Using a CAVE virtual real-
on the queries selected. ity system like this is very unique but expensive
TS-SOMs are essentially a vector quantisation with hardware equipment not feasibly available
algorithm which uses a hierarchical structure to the general user; instead it would be used by
as its indexing method where each level in the specific companies with a real need for image
structure contains its self-organising map. Using database navigation interaction.
TS-SOMs instead of SOMs reduces the compu- As in other methods, a similarity matrix for
tational complexity dramatically. each of the CBIR techniques adopted is calculated.
The picSOM engine also tries to learn progres- Biased Discriminant Analysis (Zhou & Huang,
sively what the user wants from the interaction 2000) is used to calculate the CBIR feature
of previous searches thus performing relevance weights. These weights are combined and an
feedback. Training the system this way means overall weight assigned to each image.
that it can predict, to a certain extent, what type Browsing can be performed in two ways: the
of images a particular user is after. Over a number user either initiates a manual search through the
of searches some image weights are increased to image database in hope they will come across
an extent that images retrieved on the forthcom- a similar image (this occurs when no querying
ing queries should contain these neighbouring has taken place, and as the images are randomly
images with increased weights from the training positioned, there is no structure to where images
scheme. Applying a weighting system that helps will initially be placed); or alternatively, brows-
the user track down images of significance before ing can be accomplished after a query has taken
they have been viewed is a great feature and not place. The system retrieves all images similar to
available in many other retrieval systems. the query and displays them according to their
similarity using colour axes stating the directions
of the most similar colours. The number of results
3D MARS retrieved can either be predefined, or the entire
re-arranged database can be returned. Browsing
An interesting interactive visualisation approach then becomes a lot easier, due to the colour axes
to displaying image databases is presented in as the three primary colours are used. If the user
(Nakazato & Huang, 2001). The 3D MARS sys- browses in one of these directions then images
tem displays the images in a projection-based relating to that colour can be viewed, the further
immersive virtual reality environment. The user away they venture from the axis means the images
navigates through the database in a large three-di- decrease in that particular colour. An advantage
356
Visualisation of Large Image Databases
of this system is that it allows numerous selec- Browsing is performed by the user selecting
tions of images for querying performed for one a representative image which in turn returns the
particular search. Selecting several images for lower level cluster of images. If the retrieved im-
querying causes the rearrangement of the entire ages are not relevant, navigation back up the tree
database, typically yielding a more accurate rep- is possible. Query-by-example still exists in this
resentation of the database for viewing. A better system with the query histogram being compared
structure needs to be established to achieve the against each clusters combined histogram hence
initial display for browsing as the likelihood of identifying the most suitable group of images,
coming across an image sought after in a database while certain images with similar weights from
of, for example, 500,000 is rather low. that cluster can then be compared individually
to further refine the search. This technique of
querying is considerably quicker than previous
HIERAR CHI CAL CL US TERING methods, due to only a subset of the images be-
ing compared for similarity instead of the entire
Based on a hierarchical clustering scheme the database. Results using databases with more than
approach presented in (Krishnamachari & Abdel- 3,500 images have shown that the retrieval ac-
Mottaleb, 1999) stores groups of similar images curacy based on this approach is high while the
at different levels of a hierarchical tree. Top level computational time is relatively low. Although
images of this tree are fairly dissimilar allowing browsing of the database is possible, the images
the user to choose from a diverse range of images, returned are displayed in a one-dimensional
hence narrowing down the types of images sought manner causing problems when it comes to large
after. Descending down the tree allows refining databases as the number of levels in the hierarchi-
the search as the images displayed become more cal tree becomes so large that searching through
alike. This eliminates the linear browsing method it is cumbersome. Also, it is inevitable that some
so abundant in other existing systems. images will be grouped incorrectly, which results
Images are initially arranged by assigning in the image becoming lost, unless accidentally
similarities between all pairs of images through stumbled upon while searching in other clusters
automatically calculated local histograms consist- for different images.
ing of 16 rectangular regions. Then, by using a
histogram intersection algorithm, computation
of a single weight for all interrelationships is CON CL USION
conducted. Clustering is performed so that at
the beginning each image from the database is The Mars 3D CAVE system represents an in-
allocated its individual cluster. The two most teresting interactive approach to display image
similar clusters are then selected and merged into databases which can make the user feel as if they
one. Re-calculation of the similarities between were immersed in the database. However, unfor-
merged and unmerged clusters is performed and tunately, systems like this are less available and
the procedure is repeated until a complete tree researched, due to the cost of specialist hardware
structure is established where each node along and the impracticality of their size. Searching us-
the tree corresponds to a cluster. For each cluster ing this method, after training, would be easier,
a representative image, selected by choosing the quicker, and more productive as the images are
most diverse images from the subgroups repre- displayed like pictures in an art gallery, but the
senting as many clusters as possible so as not to problems of global browsing are still apparent as
eliminate any further paths down the tree, is used there is no spatial arrangement. Querying results
for navigation around the tree.
357
Visualisation of Large Image Databases
from this system is similar in the layout used by Kohonen, T. (1990) The self-organizing map.
PCA/MDS and FastMap making it very easy to In Proceedings of the IEEE (Vol. 78, pp. 1464
use and understand but the global view of the 1480).
database is not extremely informative. PicSOM
Krishnamachari, S., & Abdel-Mottaleb, M. (1999).
is let down somewhat by the way the results are
Image browsing using hierarchical clustering. In
displayed, although the time required to compute
Proceedings of IEEE Int. Symposium Computers
a query, even in large datasets, is very low and
and Communication (pp. 301307).
the accuracy is increased with each search due
to the integrated relevance feedback mechanism. Kruskal, J.B., & Wish, M. (1978). Multidimen-
Hierarchical clustering allows for browsing in sional scaling. SAGE University Paper Series on
a linear display approach but does not allow Quantitive Applications in the Social Sciences.
an appropriate global visualisation of the total Newbury Park: Sage Publications.
database. It is quick to compute and retrieves
Laaksonen, T., Koskela, J., Laakkso, P., & Oja, E.
images accurately but becomes increasingly
(2000). PicSOMcontent-based image retrieval
complex with larger databases. This results in a
with self organising maps. Pattern Recognition
more time consuming search procedure for the
Letters, 21, 11991207.
user as navigation through numerous clusters has
to be performed. Nakazato, M., & Huang, T.S. (2001). 3D MARS:
PCA, MDS, and FastMap all use the same dis- Immersive virtual reality for content-based image
play technique with the difference between them retrieval. In Proceedings of IEEE Int. Conference
being the time taken to compute and the accuracy Multimedia and Expo (pp. 4447).
at which they do this. PCA is the most inaccurate
Rubner, Y., Guibas, L., & Tomasi, C. (1997). The
of the three, but with a linear approach the time
earth movers distance, multi-dimensional scaling,
taken to complete the algorithm is also the short-
and color-based image retrieval. In Proceedings
est. MDS goes one step further by re-calculating
of ARPA Image Understanding Workshop (pp.
the configuration of points until optimal degree of
661668).
fit to the original data is achieved. This process is
computationally significantly more demanding as Zhou, X., & Huang, T.S. (2000). A generalized
it uses a quadratic iterative algorithm approach, relevance feedback scheme for image retrieval. In
but the level of accuracy is optimal. FastMap Proceedings of Internet Multimedia Management
eliminates some of the complexity by reverting Systems (pp. 348355).
to a linear time algorithm to calculate distances
between images. The accuracy reached by this
algorithm is very good and its time requirements
reasonable. KEY TERMS
358
Visualisation of Large Image Databases
359
Section IV
Case Studies and Applications
361
Chapter XXXVII
Towards Multimedia
Digital Libraries
Cludio de Souza Baptista
University of Campina Grande, Brazil
Ulrich Schiel
University of Campina Grande, Brazil
A bs tra ct
A multimedia digital library copes with the storage and retrieval of resources of different media such as
video, audio, maps, images, and text documents. The main improvement with regard to textual digital
libraries is the possibility of retrieving documents in different media combining metadata and content
analysis. Content-based Indexing and Retrieval is a complex and ongoing research field with specific
problem statements for each media. A prototype of a multimedia digital library is presented.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Towards Multimedia Digital Libraries
data types. In the context of textual resources, Preprocessing: Some treatment must be
this is acceptable and efficient, but is not true for given to multimedia data before using
multimedia data types where interpretation of them; such procedures include compression
their semantics is required for effective indexing techniques, data quality enhancement, and
and searching. Furthermore, there are specific addition of metadata in order to deliver more
domains, such as spatial and temporal applica- semantic information to raw data.
tions, which require tailored searching, browsing,
and indexing mechanisms. This paper describes the main issues on de-
Multimedia digital libraries have some char- signing a multimedia digital library. We discuss
acteristics that make them different from other backgorund issues on digital libraies, and highlight
digital libraries. Some of these main character- the relevance of multimedia metadata.
istics are presented below: Next section focuses on a new query paradigm
based on content-based retrieval for images, video,
Data model: Due to the high complexity of and audio. Finally, future trends and a conclusion
multimedia data, it is imperative to provide are addressed.
a model with high level of abstraction that
can use a hierarchical approach in order to
represent content, relationships, structure, BA CKGRO UN D
behavior, and dynamics of objects. Fur-
themore, each media needs a specific data Digital L ibraries E volution
model.
Large objects: Multimedia digital libraries Digital libraries have evolved from the concepts
need to cope with sometimes very large associated with traditional paper-based libraries.
objects of data. Instead of some kilobytes These libraries include mechanisms that support
to store a record in a conventional system, electronic documents in different formats and
mega- or even gigabytes of storage are re- media involving new issues and challenges.
quired for multimedia objects. The first generation is characterized by defin-
Indexing: Multimedia digital libraries ing the role of a library, and the services provided,
must provide new index techniques such without making use computerized information
as content-based information retrieval that systems. The collections and resources are indexed
enables not only exact match queries, but and searched via manual indexing cards. Users
also similarity queries. In these, fuzzy op- are allocated cards with their personal details,
erators may be needed, and a ranking list plus loan and reservation information. A library
of approximate matches is given as a result. can be viewed as a collection of resources and
Due to the large size of objects and some services. Resources include books, journals,
special features such as continuous playing, magazines, games, maps, videos, and audio mate-
new techniques of indexing and buffering, rial. Services include loan, reservation, searching,
which require real-time constraints, and and facilities to physically access the collections.
synchronization, are necessary. There is specific copyright legislation, in which
Interface: Multimodal interfaces are re- ownership and authorship are clearly defined.
quired with some facilities such as visual Rules for accessing the collection are previously
query, browsing, audio-visual interface, and specified and there is a community of users who
virtual reality. obtain authorization in order to use the library
services and resources. As a rule, a resource does
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Towards Multimedia Digital Libraries
not change its content; for instance, an individual logue servers. With the advent and acceptability
book will never change its contents and authorship, of the Internet as the infrastructure upon which
although new editions of the same book might interconnectivity and interoperability can be built,
appear. Various people, including staff members it was then realized how important and feasible
and users, interact with the library. Users are the it was to provide interlibrary communication.
consumers of the library resources and they utilize A user could, therefore, pose a query that could
its services. It is also important to mention that, traverse and retrieve information from different
as the resources are physical, the notions of loan library catalogues which are distributed across
and reservation services are very important. When different locations. The adoption of standards
users borrow a copy of a specific resource, they which enabled interoperability between librar-
are allowed to retain the resource for a prespeci- ies distributed geographically was required. In
fied period of time which is established according order to fulfill that requirement, the ANSI/ISO
to the library policies. Furthermore, when users Z39.50 (1995) standard was adopted. This standard
need resources that have already been lent to other defines an application protocol which enables ac-
users, the reservation service is used. Lastly, it is cess to heterogeneous and distributed resources
important to note that libraries need a physical using a unique interface. Z39.50 is based on
location to store the collections, and there is also client-server architecture which functions as a
a timetable of the library open hours. seamless gateway to remote database systems. The
The second generation involves the comput- Z39.50 facilities include connection, searching,
erization of the library system, which results retrieving, manipulation of error messages, and
in transforming the manual card system into access to information about content, such as, for
an electronic one. In this case, collections and example, a schema in a database.
resources are indexed and searched via special The main advance in the third generation is
purpose software, and other services, such as loan the fact that library information systems now
and reservation, are also computerized. Firstly, provide not only index and search services, but
each library developed an individual system which also retrieval, as resources move from a hard
could be accessed locally. The Online Public Ac- copy paper-based format to a mainly digital one.
cess Catalogues software, commonly known as Such as traditional libraries, digital libraries are a
OPAC, was widely adopted as the library system. combination of available resources, coupled with
Although it is still used in libraries, OPAC dem- services which provide access to them. Although
onstrates several limitations, such as poor user most of the resources are in digital form, and
interface, and it often provides a centralized solu- can therefore be retrieved from a client machine,
tion implemented on expensive mainframes. Apart there are those which may be available only in
from these features, OPAC provides information hard-copy. In such cases, searching services are
about user borrowing details; searches based on provided, enabling end-users to discover which
different attributes such as title, author, subject, resources are available and where they can be
ISBN, and classmark; a boolean search including located. For digital documents, the indexing
stop-lists (words that should not appear in the service can be completely automatic, which is
search); searches based on the type of resource, not the case for hard-copy ones.
such as book or periodical; and browsing, based Some researchers argue that digital libraries
on attributes mentioned previously. will deal with both digital and traditional re-
Another major problem that was not encom- sources for many years to come. Digital libraries
passed by OPAC was the ability to interconnect involve actors, who interact with the system, and
and interoperate across a network of library cata- components, which execute the different services
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Towards Multimedia Digital Libraries
provided. These actors can be categorized ac- Important Issues on Digital L ibraries
cording to the role they play in the system; they
include data-providers, data-consumers, and The main innovation in the field of digital libraries
librarians (or data managers). Data-providers are is evident in the fact that most of resources are in
responsible for creation and collection of the data electronic format. In this format, there is no need
set in a way that makes it interesting for the class for physical resources linked to loan, access, and
of users. This is accomplished by providing a rich reservation. Resources are ideally held in a dis-
semantic description of the data sets, usually using tributed database which should be accessed over
metadata. Data-consumers are the digital library the Internet. The user, instead of taking a hard
end-users who utilize its services in order to dis- copy of the document in the library, downloads
cover a particular data set that meets their require- a new copy. The quality of the data can become
ments in a particular application domain. Finally, more difficult to assess if the Internet is used
librarians are responsible for the administration not only as a client access to the library but also
of the digital library services and resources. Their as a repository of information. Following some
role includes organizing the classification of the researchers definitions of the term digital library,
collections, inclusion of new documents, defining which advocate that the Internet can be viewed as
the policies and rules of utilization, maintaining a a huge digital library, the problem of data quality
catalogue of users and data-providers, and decid- erupts (Arms, 2001). As a consequence of this,
ing with which other digital library they would there should be concerns about data accuracy,
like to intercommunicate. originator, and integrity, once they are not eas-
The fourth generation introduces the retrieval ily measured (as they are in traditional libraries).
of resources of different media such as video, There are difficulties in determining how to
audio, maps, images, and text documents. Previ- charge for the library services, and especially,
ously, searching and indexing procedures were how to guarantee copyrights on the data which are
restricted to alphanumeric data types. In the downloaded by users. Moreover, security is a great
context of textual resources, this is acceptable and issue with the increasing influx of new viruses
efficient, but is not true for multimedia data types, and hacker attacks. This issue will be addressed
where interpretation of their content is required later in this chapter. Social and psychological
for effective indexing and searching. Furthermore, aspects must be taken into consideration in the
documents with spatial and temporal information move to a digital format, given that everything is
require tailored searching, browsing and indexing now accessible via a computer system, and less
mechanisms. This generation is still evolving; human interaction is therefore required. This can
while it is feasible to think in terms of a general result in difficulties on making effective use of
digital library that may deal with all the complexi- the library, as usability issues must be thoroughly
ties of those different data types, it is likely that addressed. Further, multilanguage interfaces and
specific type-dependent data repositoriessuch facilities, such as thesauri and translators, should
as video, image, geo-referenced, and textual also be provided. One the other hand, a reserva-
digital librarieswill emerge. It is imperative tion service becomes useless, since indefinite soft
that these libraries interoperate so that queries copies are allowed from a document.
across different digital libraries supporting dif- Security is a major problem in digital librar-
ferent data types can be accomplished. ies, particularly with reference to unauthorized
use of library resources. The usual security ap-
proach that has been adopted is to establish an
access control to the library resources. Under
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Towards Multimedia Digital Libraries
this arrangement, data consumers should have a quality and interoperability of these huge data
registration record with their contact information, sets. Sometimes it is very difficult to draw a line
and should be given a login name for authorization between data and metadata representing a clear
and a password for authentication. A security log boundary. For instance, one can ask whether a
recording all access made should exist in order to thumbnail of an image would be considered data
enable effective auditing. Ethical policies should or metadata. The same applies to an abstract of
be explained to all users in order to make sure a document, a video or audio clip. One solution
they use the library appropriately. may be to consider metadata as data themselves,
Copyright is another important issue in digital integrating metadata into the data model. This
libraries, as governments have not yet agreed a approach provides transparency and simplicity
method by which to effectively establish copyright to the way in which metadata are handled (Bohm
laws for digital data (Onsrud & Lopez, 1998). & Rakow, 1994).
The problem of copyright legislation is more Textual metadata for multimedia documents
evident now that data can be downloaded, and have been investigated for many years and, as a
each country may have its own specific legisla- result, some standards like SGML and Dublin Core
tion. Guaranteeing that the user will not alter data have been proposed. Bohm presents a classifica-
and resell them is a high priority. Spatial data is tion of metadata for multimedia resources in which
usually very expensive to capture and generate, SGML is emphasized (Bohm & Rakow, 1994).
so it is highly important that intellectual property Some examples of multimedia metadata are:
rights be imposed and obeyed. Moreover, users
are usually interested in a specific part of the Audio: Number of samples per second,
spatial data set. Copyright is related to the use, number of channels, audio class, the coding
replication and update of data and usually lasts in which it has been recorded, and a speaker
for a certain period of time. Aslesen (1998) has identification;
classified the former as usage rights, and the latter Video: Duration time, number of frames per
two as marketing rights (which include selling second, compression technique, color, tex-
and distribution processes). ture, lighting, video class, and keyframes;
Image: Resolution (dpi), format, compres-
sion technique, colour histogram, image
MUL TIMEDIA META DATA brightness, and object name, location, and
composition;
Metadata have been defined in the computing Text: Indices on word tokens, author name,
literature as data about data, information needed date, publication, keywords, and publish-
to make data useful, or information that describes er.
the content, quality, condition, along with other
characteristics of data (Sheth & Klas, 1998). Dublin Core is a proposal of a metadata ele-
Metadata aid the search, semantic interpretation, ment set used for the discovery and cataloguing
and retrieval of data. The metadata concept is not of resources stored on the Web. The Dublin Core
new, and has been used in several applications, metadata set was initially proposed in a Metadata
in a transparent way, for many years. Workshop in 1995 (Weibel, Godby, Miller, &
However, the wide dissemination of infor- Daniel, 1995). Dublin Core was designed to be
mation on the Internet, and the large data sets extensible (it permits the addition of new metadata
available demand that metadata play a crucial elements); interoperable (it can be used by several
role by allowing more accurate searches, data resource discovery tools); and simple to use (it
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Towards Multimedia Digital Libraries
could be used by novice authors without much based retrieval concept is that the queries are
background in structuring documents for library submitted to a multimedia database, so it not only
cataloguing). The Dublin Core element set has compares strings but also tries to discover the
fifteen elements: title, creator, subject, descrip- degrees of similarity among images, sounds and
tion, publisher, contributor, date, type, format, videos. Therefore, the system must provide a large
identifier, source, language, relation, coverage, collection of image, video and audio processing
and rights. Furthermore, Dublin Core is syntax tools such as analysis, classification, and pattern
independent, which means that it can be encoded recognition of these data types.
in languages such as HTML and XML. Also, all The concept of similarity is fundamental in
elements are repeatable, modifiable and optional. content-based retrieval. In conventional data-
The elements can be refined using qualifiers. base systems, data are stored and retrieved by
keywords or numbers, which enables the system
to manipulate data efficiently. Usually, when a
Q UERYING DIGI TAL LIBRARIES query is submitted to the system, an exact match
USING CON TEN T-BASE D response appears as a result, as, for example, with
RE TRIE VAL the query retrieve all employees whose salaries
are 1,500.00 pounds.
A classic manner of querying a digital library Concerning image databases, the exact match
is by object attributes. For example, a user may is substituted by the similar match. For instance, in
discover the book authors by accessing the author a facial database in a police station, the policeman
attribute of a table Books. Exact match is used could ask the database for pictures similar to a
for retrieving objects which satisfy the query suspects picture. In this case, if there is more than
constraints. Nonetheless, this paradigm is not one picture that approximates that of the suspect,
applicable to multimedia data and a new one has the system creates an ordered list. In this ordered
been developed for querying multimedia database. list, a rank is used to express to what extent each
This new paradigm is known as content-based picture in the database is similar to the suspects
retrieval (Chu & Taira, 1997; Gupta & Jain, picture. Usually, query by content is done within
1997; Hsu, Smolier, & Zhang, 1994). While in the following features:
content-based retrieval, the query is textual, some
isolated efforts has been done to stay the query Color: The user asks for images similar to a
itself in the media to be retrieved. For instance, particular one, concerning the color distribution.
a system for music retrieval by humming has The system uses a color histogram to match the
been developed by Ghias, Loghan, Chamberlin, images that satisfy the users query. The user
& Smith (1995). can provide more details such as the foreground
In content-based retrieval, users may place and background colors, as, for example, with the
a query for something that is similar to the in- query retrieve the images that have green in
formation provided. Basically, the user submits foreground and blue in the background. Some
a query to the database by object content. This special words such as mostly, some, can be
concept is in fact not new; it is derived from do- used to give more semantics to the users query,
main-oriented relational calculus (Garcia-Molina, as, for example, with the query retrieve images
Ullman, & Widom, 2001). One of the best known that are mostly pink or show me the images
implementations of this calculus is the query that have some yellow.
language QBE (Query by Example) proposed by
IBM (Zloof, 1977). The novelty in the content-
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Towards Multimedia Digital Libraries
Texture: Using mathematical representation, (Flickner, Sawhney, Ashley, Huang, Dom, Gork-
images can be classified according to scale of ani, et al., 1995), VIRAGE (Bach, Fuller, Gupta,
texture. An example of query using texture is Hampapur, Horowitz, Humphrey, et al., 1999),
retrieve images that have a texture similar to Excalibur (Informix, 1998), Blobworld (Carson,
this sample. Thomas, Belongie, Hellerstein, & Malik, 1996),
and Visualseek (Smith & Chang, 1996).
Shape: Information about area, circularity, can
be used to retrieve objects by their shapes, as,
for example, with the query retrieve images that A MUL TIMEDIA DIGI TAL LIBRARY
have circle inside square shapes. PRO TO TY PE
Sound: Using algorithms for audio recognition, We have developed a multimedia digital library
the system reads samples provided by the user and prototype, called Freebie (Jamesson, Baptista,
looks for similar samples sequence in an audio Schiel, Silva, Menezes, & Fernandes, 2006), an
database. For example, retrieve all songs that opensource multimedia digital library, which
have a similar tune to this one. copes with image, video, audio, and text. Freebie
was designed in a four-tier architecture, using the
Spatial: Using spatial operators like right-of, Model-View-Controller design pattern. These
left-of, in-front-of, behind, beside, inside, and tiers are described in the following. The Viewer
far-from, the system can run spatial queries such tier is responsible for the user interface. It was
as retrieve images that have a house with the developed using HTML, JSP, JavaScript and
neighbor on the right being a hospital. Struts technologies. It is composed of the fol-
lowing pages: data insertion, data maintainance,
Temporal: Using temporal topological operators, searching, metadata result presentation, document
queries such as retrieve video that shows this details, and error page.
image after that one are possible. The Controller tier is responsible for receiving
the requests from the users, through the viewer,
Video: In this case, the system must provide and transforming them into actions which will
algorithms for indexing and retrieval of video call the Freebie functions in the Model tier. These
segments. The user can ask about a given scene in functions, which compose the Freebie business
a movie, or about some objects that are contained logic, are: object inclusion; metadata exhibition;
in a movie, by using a high level language. For metadata update; object deletion; and object
example, as with the query retrieve clips that searching.
contain a flying bird. The persistence tier is implemented in the
Postgresql object-relational database system. The
Text: Using text pattern recognition algorithms communication between the Java classes and the
and image similarity retrieval, the system is able data stored in the database server is done via the
to match some text with a sample. For instance, JDBC protocol.
in a text database, users would like to know all When a multimedia object is entered into the
books that mention a given quotation. Another system, depending on its type, metadata are ex-
example is a bank system that implements auto- tracted automatically and inserted in the database
matic signature recognition. using the Dublin Core metadata set.
For text documents, we are using the Jakarta
Several content-based retrieval products POI Java API for dealing with files in the Microsoft
have been proposed so far including IBM QBIC
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Towards Multimedia Digital Libraries
OLE2. We are also extracting text from PDF files on the integration of Freebie with VideoLib, so
using the PDFBox Java API. Text indexing is done that the query capabilities of the latter may be
using Tsearch V2Full Text Search, which is an used in the former (Rego, Baptista, Silva, Schiel,
Postgresql package which enables to parse a text, Figueirdo, 2006).
extract the stopwords and index the remaining Users may query the multimedia objects in
text using GiST-Generalized Index Search Trees Freebie by using any of the Dublin Core elements.
and store these terms in the database server. After Moreover, three kinds of spatial coordinates are
that, user may query the indexed document using associated to the documents: concerning the con-
any word of the text besides the traditional query tent, the authors and the place of publication. This
on metadata. information can also be used in the query.
Concerning images, Freebie extracts metadata Queries on documents are posed in a differ-
from JPEG images, through EXIF (Exchange- ent page so that users may input the terms they
able Image File Format), which is a format used would like to search. After submitting the query,
by many digital cameras. Also, when an image a result set metadata page is displayed as shown
in any format is inserted into the digital library, in Figure 1. Users may select one of the returned
a thumbnail of it is automatically generated and objects to retrieve their full metadata description
stored as a metadata for that image, so that in and their full content.
the metadata result set, users may visualize this
thumbnail before downloading the full image.
EXIF may contain data about camera manu- F UTURE TREN DS AN D
facturer and model, date and time, resolution, CON CL USION
exposure, flash, geographic coordinates, title,
comments (description), authos, copyrights, and Multimedia digital libraries are definitively in the
so on. Freebie uses the Metadata Extraction Java research agenda of digital libraries. Therefore,
API to extract EXIF metadata. there are many issues which could be explored
Video and audio are stored in a URL and in order to improve the service provided by such
their Dublin Core metadata should be entered libraries. The first issue, is to address multi-
manually into the digital library. We are working modal user interfaces so that users may not only
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Towards Multimedia Digital Libraries
effectively query the underlying multimedia rage image search engine: An open framework for
documents using an appropriate search tool, but image management. SPIE Storage and Retrieval
also they might have an appropriate environment for Image and Video Databases.
for the ingestion process and the management
Baldonado, Chang, M. Gravano, C.L., & Paepcke,
activities.
A. (1997). The Stanford digital library metadata
The second issue is to explore new indexing
architecture. International Journal of Digital
techniques for audio and video, and to extend the
Libraries, 1, 108121.
content-based query processing to these media.
Furthermore, several multimedia data have spa- Bohm, K., & Rakow, T. (1994). Metadata for
tio-temporal characteristics. These may also be multimedia documents. ACM SIGMOD Record,
adequately indexed and retrieved . 23(4), 2126.
The third issue is the integration of mobile
Carson, C., Thomas, M., Belongie, S., Hellerstein,
computing with digital libraries, so that users
J.M., & Malik, J. (1999). Blobworld: A system
may access multimedia content from mobile
for region-based image indexing and retrieval.
devices from anywhere and anytime. There are
In Third International Conference on Visual
many concerns such as device limitation, context
Information Systems. SpringerVerlag.
awareness, low bandwidth, and so on.
The fourth issue is related to the extension Flickner, M., Sawhney, H., Ashley, J., Huang,
of the well know digital library standards, such Q., Dom, B., Gorkani, M., et al. (1995). Query
as Z39.50 and OAI, to cope with multimedia by image and video content: the QBIC system.
content. IEEE Computer, 28(9), 2332.
Lastly, the use of service oriented architec-
Garcia-Molina, H., Ullman, J.D., & Widom, J.D.
ture enhanced with multimedia capabilities is
(2001). Database systems: The complete book (1st
a new trend on distributed multimedia digital
ed.). Prentice Hall.
libraries.
Ghias, A., Loghan, J., Chamberlin, D., & Smith,
B. (1995). Query by hummingmusical informa-
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371
Chapter XXXVIII
BIVALDI the Digital Library
of the Valencian Bibliographic
Inheritance
Nuria Lloret Romero
Polytechnic University of Valencia, Spain
A bs tra ct
The Biblioteca Valenciana was created by the decree 5/1985 of the 8th of January and is presented
primarily as upper library centre of the Generalitat Valenciana and basic bibliographic deposit
which depends on the Conselleria for Culture, Education, and Sport. For this reason, it is the head of
the library system of the Comunidad Valenciana, Conselleria, and as such, it has established objec-
tives in the eighth article of the Law 10/1986 of 30th of December of Organizacin Bibliotecaria de la
Comunidad Valenciana between which are emphasised to meet, to conserve and divulge the Valen-
cian bibliographic inheritance and all the printed, sound and visual production, about the Comunidad
Valenciana. It is also made up as receiver of one of the examples proceeding from the offices of the
Depsito Legal and it is attributed the obligation of fulfilling the collective catalogue of the Valencian
bibliographic and cultural inheritance. Furthermore, the Valancian library must insert itself into the
denominated National Libraries, and for this reason, in the Comunidad Valenciana, it is in charge of
uniting history, tradition, and in the future of the obtaining of political libraries, because it is defined
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
BIVALDI the Digital Library of the Valencian Bibliographic Inheritance
as central expert of the carefully worked political library in the Valencian library system and, for
this reason, must be in charge of elaborating and divulging the bibliographic information about the
Valencian editorial production and of maintaining the cooperation with the library services of different
scopes. In fulfilment of its responsibilities and with the intention of obtaining the maximum spread of
the bibliographic and cultural inheritance, the Biblioteca Valenciana, in the setting of its Digitization
policy, has dedicated and dedicates many resources in four lines or different solutions. In the first place,
it coedits with different publishers, monographs, or titles of magazines which permit the recuperation and
spreading of the Valencian inheritance. Some examples are Ruedo Ibrico, LEspill, or La Repblica de
les Lletres. In the second place, it digitalizes different resources which can be consulted from the cata-
logue. This solution is especially oriented to the preservation and conservation of the collections, and
enables the users to be able to see from their computers the supplies to which the descriptions belong,
and can decide if they are useful or not for their consultation, instead of indiscriminately asking for
them, thus reducing the moving and manipulation of the original copies. The library is also working on
the digitalization of material, especially all personal files, which do not belong to them, but which are
of great importance. Finally, the Biblioteca Valenciana has begun the Biblioteca Valenciana Digital,
(BIVALDI), which is the object of the present project, and which we are going to describe in detail in
the following sections.
BI VAL DI: B iblioteca Valenciana is not the only objective of BIVALDI; it is also
Digital created for the necessity to offer more informa-
tion, which means it is intended to incorporate,
In the month of May in 2002, the Biblioteca Valen- together with the work, informative elements of
ciana starts a project of digitalization denominated added value about the authors, the works, the
Biblioteca Valenciana Digital (BIVALDI). It refers printers, and so on.
to a digital library in which it is able to consult All investigators and the general public who
relevant and significant Valencian scientific and consult BIVALDI will be able to enjoy the works
literary works, apart from works which are con- thanks to an easily manageable informatics plat-
sidered to be of interest for the development and form which permits simple surfing. One of the
improvement of scientific investigation about the outstanding attractions of this library platform is
historic, bibliographic, and cultural inheritance. that the user can surf, not only in an individual way
This deals with an ambitious project which through the original digitalized text or through
is not created as a repository of any determined its transcription and/or translation when they are
theme or as a reflection of the resources which necessary, but also in a simultaneous way on the
are taken care of in the Biblioteca Valenciana. same screen, with the original work together with
The Biblioteca Valenciana Digital intends to its transcription and translation. Also the user,
recuperate the Valencian bibliographic inheri- as has already been mentioned, counts on wide
tance, which means it intends to be the meeting information about the author and his work. This
place of works that form part of said inheritance deals with bibliographies and specialised studies
irrespective of its location. For this reason, we about the works, the printers, biographies of the
find in BIVALDI works which are not property writers, and so on.
of the Biblioteca Valenciana and which cannot be Logically, to be able to begin this project,
acquired, or because they are unique examples the Biblioteca Valenciana needs the collabora-
or because they are not on the market. But this tion with other institutions for the obtaining and
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BIVALDI the Digital Library of the Valencian Bibliographic Inheritance
later digitalization, or for obtaining the digital in 1495, and of the work of the Valencian Amau
reproduction. de Vilanova, doctor to popes and kings, which is
Between others, the University of Valencia kept in the Catalan Institute.
has provided the digitalization of the incunables Also, BIVALDI has been able to count on
of Les obres o trobes en laors de la Verge Ma- the collaboration of the Biblioteca Nacional de
riawhich is the first literary work printed in Espaa, which has given permission for the digita-
Spain in the year 1474; from Tirant lo Blanch lization of the Obra a llaors de Sent Cristfol and
by Joanot Martorell; from Regiment de la cosa Vita Christi by sor Isabel de Villenaa work by
pblicawork of Francesc Eisimenis; de lOmelia one of the most important writers of the medieval
sobre lo psalm De profundis by Jeroni Fuster; European incomplete copy of which is kept in
from lOmelia sobre lo psalm Miserere mei the Biblioteca Valenciana.
Deus by Narcs Vinoles; from Lo somni by Joan
Joan; from Lo procs de les olives; and from the Collections
incunable of 1493 which contains the Historia de
la Paci by Bemat Fenollar and Pere Martnez, la We can talk about two large phases in the develop-
Contemplaci a Jess Crucificat by Joan Escriv ment and implantation of the BIVALDI Project.
and Bemat Fenollar and lOraci a la Sacratssima In its first phase, BIVALDI was thought of and
Verge Maria by Joan Rois de Corella, the last of began to work as a Library of Manuscripts and
the great Valencian medieval writers. Because of Incunabulum in which would be included three
this, the Valencian City Council has authorised large collections: Incunabulum manuscripts and
the digitalization of two incunables. On one hand, the book of the statutory times and important
the translation of Imitaci de Jesucrisbetter prolific Valencian writers.
known as the Kempisrelated under the name of In the second phase, and with the intention
Menyspreu del mn by Miguel Prez, a Barcelona of widening the access to the works which form
edition which is the oldest translation of printed part of the Valencian bibliographic and cultural
work in the world in the Romance language; on inheritance, not only manuscripts and incunables,
the other hand, the translation of Les Meditationes changes were carried out in the design and struc-
vitae Christi by Ludolf de Saxonia, a version of the ture of the informatic platform of the Biblioteca
Cartox, requested to the Valencian authorities Valenciana Digital.
by King Fernando el Catlico from Castille.
On the other hand, the Hispanic Society has Principal and F unctioning
provided the digital reproduction of the two unique Characteristics
pages of the Biblia valenciana, printed in 1478 and
attributed to Bonifacio Ferrer. Also included in To be able to enter to the works, it is necessary to
BIVALDI is the digitization of the copy of Tirant be registered as a user. The registration process
lo Blanch kept in the American Institute, which entails the user filling in a series of details and
has permitted the changing of the pages in bad information, and will then receive a users name
condition or lost of the first edition of Tirant, and password for electronic mail.
the first novel of the Valencian literature kept,
as we have aforementioned in the University of Finding the Works
Valencia.
LAbadia de Montserrat has given permission Finding the works can be carried out in two dif-
for the digitalization of the copy of Antidotarium ferent manners:
clarificatum, by Nicolau Spndeler and printed
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BIVALDI the Digital Library of the Valencian Bibliographic Inheritance
By means of a browser. In BIVALDI, the user will be able to see available works or
user counts on two options for searching. works that are going to be available in the
On one hand, a general search, introducing near future, surfing in theme libraries, col-
key words about the author, title, printer, and lections, or subcollections which have been
so on; and on the other hand, an advanced previously mentioned.
search in which the search can be marked
or defined. Record Card of the Work
Surfing in the collections and subcollections
(Browsing) which can be accessed from the Once the title or work is chosen, the user is shown
chosen catalogue page. This means that the the record-card of the work. This is about the bib-
374
BIVALDI the Digital Library of the Valencian Bibliographic Inheritance
Figure 3. Images of the catalogue and of the available works in one of the subcollections
liographic information of the original digitalized Bibliography and notes are two other links
work, not of the digital facsimile. The information which also open record cards in pdf form in which
is formed by the title of the work, the name or can be found, in the first place, a bibliographic
names of the author, the details of the physical selection which refers to the author, his works,
description of the work, the information of edi- and his period, and the notes which have been
tion (place, date, and publisher or printer), access considered interesting about the process of the
to a general bibliography, and notes of lesser digitilazation of the original (for example, mis-
importance or related to the digital reproduction takes of pagination in the original, XXX).
of the work. Furthermore, the user will also find in the
As can be seen in the image, the name of the record card a connection to the catalographic card
author is a link which takes us to a pdf with an up of the work in the catalogue of the Biblioteca Va-
to date biography of the author and the name of lenciana, when the work is to be found there and
the printer. When this deals with a printer studied another to the record card of the Catlogo Colectivo
by Serrano Morales in his work Resea histrica del Patrimonio Bibliogrfico Espaol.
de las imprentas que han existido en Valencia At the bottom of the card, by means of icons,
desde la introduccin del arte tipogrfico hasta the user is able to accede to the properly said work
1868, con noticias bio-biogrficas de los princi- (original document, transcription, translation,
pales impresores (Valencia: Imp. F. Domnech, thumbnails or miniatures, and complementary
18981899), another link which opens the text studies)
the author dedicates to him in said work to which
has been passed an OCR and which is offered in
BIVALDI in pdf form.
375
BIVALDI the Digital Library of the Valencian Bibliographic Inheritance
Sur.ng and V isualization of the Works In this way, the user visualises the file in
a progressive manner, thus reducing the
The simple surfing consists in the lineal visu- waiting time.
alization of the images which form part of the
work or of the documents pdf which make up Also, for reasons of intellectual property, a
the transcription or translation of the work. watermark has been inserted on the images, and
From the visualization screen of the document, a function has been created which impedes the
in the upper part, we find an icon which permits storage of the image. The user will only be able
the image to be seen in detail and in which the to print the image, not store it.
percentage of zoom can be chosen and applied But the translations, transcriptions, and the
in the visualization. studies are offered in pdf form, as it is not deal-
It is important to emphasise that the images ing with images of the works, but with the texts.
offered are in form JPEG at a medium resolu- These works have been digitalised in black and
tion. The selection of this form was taking into white for their conversion into text by means of
account two factors: OCR.
The multiple surfing consists in the visualisa-
Size of file: After several tests of optimiza- tion of the images of the work and of the equivalents
tion of the image, a high-quality visualiza- in text form of the transcription and/or translation.
tion of the image was obtained, with a low As in the simple surfing, we have the possibility
level of file size. of seeing the images in detailed mode.
Speed: The high speed of the discharge
of the file is a very important factor in the S ystem Design
design of the system; for this, once the size
of the file was optimised, the progressive For the planning of the system of the project of
codification of the same was undertaken. the Biblioteca Valenciana, the characteristics of
376
BIVALDI the Digital Library of the Valencian Bibliographic Inheritance
some of the existing digital libraries were re- Inside the catalogue of the Biblioteca Va-
viewed at the moment of the design and, taking lenciana, there will also be a link on the
into account that it had to contemplate the most card to be able to accede to the digitalised
positive of the best libraries, adapting it to our document. It has been connected with the
necessities and offering added value services, the catalographic content of the Web of the
most important points on which the development Biblioteca Valenciana (http://bv.gva.es/),
was based were: trying not to repeat information already
existing on the Web.
Taking into account the possible enlarge- Surfing between documents must be as
ments and/or changes that could occur in the active as possible, allowing the connection
future design of the system ought to offer a between the same page of the document
wide and simple structure. in all its versions (studies, transcriptions,
The access to the digital library from Internet translations).
must be clear and well defined, avoiding in- An image of the digitalised documents is
termediate pages which confuse the users. offered to the user, allowing him to enlarge
Access ought to be given from as many or reduce as he/she likes. Also offered is the
points as possible, like this entrance to the opportunity for the user to be able to make
documents is permitted from all possible mini-images or thumbnails of all the pages
fields: title, author, publisher, and so on, of the works to then be able to accede to the
as much in the facsimile edition as in the desired page.
studies, translations, and transcriptions, if
they exist. Development and S tructure of the
Upon entering the documents, a biblio- S ystem
graphic outline or a card with all the facts
will be available, as well as a connection to BIVALDI is an ad hoc tool for the Biblioteca
the catalographic card of the example. Valencina, although it is communicated with the
377
BIVALDI the Digital Library of the Valencian Bibliographic Inheritance
opac ABSYS of the library, which was developed Given the importance of the metadata for the
under the following parameters: description of the works which BIVALDI contains,
the database has some stored procedures and some
Operative System: Windows 2000 Server triggers which generate static pages when the
Web Service: Apache 1.3 content of the cards of the works is changed, so
Datum Service Base: Sql Server 2000 that they can be indexed by the Web searchers.
The function is the following: in the HOME
The previous graph shows the structure and exists a hidden connection (which the searchers
diagram of the flow of the system in which, as can see but is invisible to the user) which opens
can be observed, exist two different parts. On a connection to the collection index, which at the
one hand, the public part which takes the user to same time, is tied with a list of the contained cards.
visualise the record card of the work, and on the Each connection of each card is an htm page with
other hand, the private part or Intranet, in which Meta tags, in which are inserted the fields from
is carried out all the maintenance and insertion of the database, author, work, title, and describers.
facts in the data base which can then be visualised Each card fictional redirects the searcher to
in the public part. the page which we denominate card of the work
(http://bv2.gva.es/pages/ficha.htm?id=65).
Metadata
BII VAL DI in the Present:
A very important question in the development of Conclusions
the system was the recuperation of the informa-
tion from outside the same tool, which means After four years of activity, BIVALDI is a con-
the capacity of the searchers to find the internal solidated project which has been constituted as
information of the database. Logically, as a a Digital reference library. This affirmation is
consequence of the established structure, in the supported among other reasons because BIVALDI
BIVALDI Web, most of the pages are dynamic and counts on more than 10,000 users (mostly Span-
show the information from the database. These ish, but also from many other provenances), and
dynamic pages count on URL of the type: is mentioned and analysed in a large number of
jobs related to digital libraries .
http://bv2.gva.es/pages/listado.htm?PHPSESSID We can affirm that BIVALDI is carrying out the
=ec4673de6dee9f6b116746de2716d2ee two objectives with which it began. On one hand,
the work which BIVALDI is doing in the matter of
For this reason, the only information of the divulging the inheritance of the Valencian culture.
digitalized works in the pages which can be vi- The Biblioteca Valenciana Digital, has taken part
sualised are the title of the work in the title of the as a cultural institution in the digital publication of
page htm, but not in the metatags. For example: works related to the different cultural and histori-
cal events like the Viciana year, declared by the
<html> Cortes Valencianas in commemoration of the fifth
<head> century of the birth of the reporter and historian
<title>Navegación por Document0 Ex- Rafael Mart de Viciana, the first century of the
positio in cantica ...</title> birth of the Valencian writer Llus Guarner, the
</head> commemoration of the seventieth anniversary of
378
BIVALDI the Digital Library of the Valencian Bibliographic Inheritance
Les Normes de Castell o Normes del 32 or the because of a mistake in the datum, they do not
fourth century of Quijote. At the same time, it is receive the mail that gives them their code. In
still a digital library with an element of added the second place, and for questions of visibility
value and information, which makes it different and recuperation of the works, it is impossible to
from the rest of digital libraries. accede directly to a work if you are not identified
But it is also certain that technologies have as a user. The elimination of this process favours
evolved, the users have become much more de- the usage and the appeal of the tool, and it would
manding in the matter, and BIVALDI, despite suppose too many conflicts in the matter of the
being prepared for the evolution, has not managed protection of the rights of intellectual properties
it. At the present, if we surf in the different digital because, as we have already seen, in BIVALDI,
libraries, Spanish or not, we can find solutions or other mechanisms exist for the protection of the
functions which BIVALDI lacksfor example, texts, like the watermarks and the impossibility
forms of works different to the images or texts, of storing the images.
or the participation of the users with opinions, Related to the above question is the visibility
assessments, and so on. by the searchers of the contents of the database
The object of this is not to make an exhaustive and the mechanisms of insertion of metadata in
analysis of potential or new paths for BIVALDI, the record cards of the works. The solution which
but we would like to emphasise certain aspects was chosen is not the most efficient and does not
or questions which we consider relevant. give the required results. Other possibilities exist
In the first place, one of the principle questions such as mod rewrite, which would allow not only
to comment on is the updating of the contents and the insertion of metadata (Dublin core) in the
the increase of the works. The majority of similar dynamic pages, but also the change of the URL
projects have grown much faster in regards to in which could be included the code words of the
the quantity of available works. The fact that BI- work which would logically increase its visibility
VALDI has not grown as much as digital libraries in the searchers.
which were opened at about the same time can The relation with the OPAC of the Biblioteca
be justified, as we have been able to see during Valenciana is also another interesting question. We
the making of the study, by the availability of the believe that the bonds between the two platforms
works and the necessity to collaborate with other ought to be strengthened in such a way that the
institutions to be able to increase the collections, relation between the two portals is increased. It
but also for the work of digitalisation and process is true that BIVALDI does not intend to be the
of treating and preparing the works, such as the reflection of the Library catalogue, but as a project
maintenance of the database. We must remember of the Valencian library mechanisms of uniting
that the Biblioteca Valenciana is a young insti- both further, then the linking of its initial page
tution which must dedicate extra efforts to the and the URL of the card in the registration of the
technical treatment of the resources in custody to work ought to begin. This is not evident until the
be able to comply with its other functions, such complete register is visible.
as diffusion. The last point we would like to emphasise is
Another question which we consider very a question of accessibility. In the present, the ac-
important is the necessity for the registration of cessibility is a key question for any Web service.
the users, for two reasons. In the first place, the It is true that at the moment of introduction, the
process of registration is inconvenient to the us- accessibility was not an aspect to take into ac-
ers and provokes situations such as not register- count in almost any Web project, but it would be
ing. They do not remember their password, and interesting to establish the possibility of adapting
379
BIVALDI the Digital Library of the Valencian Bibliographic Inheritance
little by little all the resources and elements of Lloret Romero, N., & Cabrera Mndez, M. (2001a).
BIVALDI to all members of the public. Anlisis del sistema para el desarrollo de la
Biblioteca Valenciana Digital de Incunables.
II Jornadas de Bibliotecas Digitales, Almagro.
R eferen ces Retrieved August 23, 2008, from http://imhotep.
unizar.es/jbidi/jbidi2001/25_2001.pdf
Ala Miranda, F. (coord.). (2004). Del texto al
Lloret Romero, N., & Cabrera Mndez, M. (2001b).
hipertexto, las bibliotecas Universitarias ante el
Anlisis del sistema para el desarrollo de la
reto de la digitalizacin. Cuenca: Ediciones de la
Biblioteca Valenciana Digital de Incunables.
Universidad de Castilla la Mancha.
II Jornadas de Bibliotecas Digitales, Almagro.
Alvite Dez, M.L., & Rodrguez Bravo, B. (2006). Retrieved August 23, 2008, from http://imhotep.
Colecciones de libros electrnicos en las biblio- unizar.es/jbidi/jbidi2001/25_2001.pdf
tecas universitarias espaolas. In Actas de las
Llueca Fonollosa, C. (2005). Webs sempre acces-
VIII Jornadas de Gestin de la Informacin (pp.
sibles: les biblioteques nacionals i els dipsits
147159). Madrid.
digitals nacionals = Webs siempre accesibles:
Bas Martn, N. (2004). La Biblioteca Valenciana, las bibliotecas nacionales y los depsitos digi-
una biblioteca nacional valenciana. BiD: Textos tales nacionales. BiD: textos universitaris de
universitaris de biblioteconomia i documentaci, biblioteconomia i documentaci, 15. Retrieved
ISSN 15755886, N. 13. August 23, 2008, from http://eprints.rclis.org/
archive/00005456/02/15lluec2.pdf
Chiner Gimeno, J.J. (2003). Vells llibres i noves
tecnologies al volant dels lletraferits valencians: Mndez Rodrguez, E.M. (2002). Metadatos y
la Biblioteca Valenciana Digital (BIVALDI). recuperacin de informacin: estndares, prob-
Llengua i literatura: Revista anual de la So- lemas y aplicabilidad en bibliotecas digitales.
cietat Catalana de Llengua i literatura, ISSN Gijn: Trea.
02136554, N. 14, 563572.
Ocn Prez de Obanos, ., & Gmez Martn,
Ferrer Sapena, A., et al. (2005). Gua metodolgica M. (2004). Hacia una biblioteca digital del
para la implantacin de una biblioteca digital fondo antiguo de la Universidad de Granada.
universitaria. Gijn: Trea. El proyecto Ilberis. Boletn de la Asociacin
Andaluza de Bibliotecarios, n 77, pp. 4960.
Garca Gmez, F.J. (2004). La formacin de usu-
Retrieved August 23, 2008, from http://www.aab.
arios en la biblioteca Anales de Documentacin,
es/pdfs/baab77/77a2.pdf
7. pp. 97122. pblica virtual. Recursos y proced-
imientos en las bibliotecas pblicas espaolas. Peset Mancebo, F. (2003). Bibliotecas digitales
en Internet de libro raro, antiguo e incunables.
Herrera Morillas, J.L. (2001). El fondo antiguo de
Anales de Documentacin, 6, pp. 241260.
las bibliotecas universitarias de Andaluca, Ex-
tremadura y Murcia: colecciones, textos normati- Saorn Prez, T. (2004). Los portales bibliote-
vos y recursos virtuales. Boletn de la Asociacin carios. Madrid: Arco libros.
Andaluza de Bibliotecarios, 64, 5373.
Segu i Francs, R. (2005). La biblioteca Valen-
Herrera Morillas, J.L. (2004). Tratamiento y ciana: un breu balan. In: Jornadas sobre Bib-
difusin digital del libro antiguo: directrices met- liotecas Nacionales (Valncia). Las bibliotecas
odolgicas y guas de recursos. Gijn: Trea. nacionales del siglo XXI. Valencia Biblioteca
Valenciana.
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381
382
Chapter XXXIX
Digital Libraries as a
Foundation of Spatial Data
Infrastructures
Rubn Bjar
University of Zaragoza, Spain
J. Nogueras-Iso
University of Zaragoza, Spain
F. J. Zarazaga-Soria
University of Zaragoza, Spain
A bs tra ct
This chapter introduces Spatial Data Infrastructures (SDI) and establishes their strong conceptual and
technical relationships with geographic digital libraries (geolibraries). The authors describe the origin
of SDIs and highlight their role as geographic resources providers. Then, they give several examples of
the use of techniques and tools taken from the digital libraries world in the development of SDIs. The
purpose of this chapter is establishing a solid foundation for those aspects of SDIs that can make profit
from the knowledge and tools provided by the digital library community. It will also point the key differ-
ences between SDIs and geolibraries in order to provide a broader view of these infrastructures.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Digital Libraries as a Foundation of Spatial Data Infrastructures
383
Digital Libraries as a Foundation of Spatial Data Infrastructures
Academy Press,1999). This report intended to tion the fact that most of this information is now
update the concept of NSDI in the Internet era, in digital form, it is easy to recognize that one
with an emphasis on its foundation on distributed of the first roles for SDIs is very close to being
geolibraries. This report includes several findings a geolibrary.
related to NSDI which point that DLs can include Other important characteristic of digital
any kind of information with an association to a libraries is that their resources are described
geographic place, besides the maps and images by means of metadata. As geographic informa-
of the Earth covered by the NSDI, and that the tion resources have some unique properties (for
NSDI underemphasized the importance of the example, location based in coordinates), there
geoinformation dissemination issues, which are different standards specifically designed
couldand shouldbe sustained by distributed for their metadata. Some of these standards are
geolibraries concepts and techniques. the evolution of library metadata adapted to the
characteristics of geographic resources, like the
Z39.50 application profile for geospatial metadata
GEOL ibraries as a FO UN DATIO n (Nebert, 2000). There are also other geographic
of s dis metadata standards. One of the most important
ones is the Content Standard for Digital Geospatial
As stated in the previous section, over a typical Metadata (CSDGM) developed for the USA by
definition of a DL, geolibraries add georeferenced the Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC)
resources and a search mechanism based in geo- (1998), which is a national standard but it has been
graphic location. But these apparently simple, adopted in many other countries (South Africa,
added elements are distinctive enough to give Canada, and so on). More recently, in May 2003,
geolibraries several research matters of their own: the International Organization for Standardization
based on their experience in the ADL project, (ISO) released the international standard 19115
Jane, Frew, and Hill (2004) identify up to seven (International Organization for Standardization,
mayor issues that arise in geolibraries simply 2003), which includes a complex metadata schema
because of the special kind of content they hold: to describe geographic information and services.
discovery of georeferenced resources, gazetteer These geographic metadata standards appeared
integration, specialized ranking of search results, in a very specific scope, but they have been later
strong data typing and scalability, spatial context mapped to other, more general metadata standards
for user interfaces and the need for sophisticated (e.g., the Dublin Core Metadata Initiative (DCMI)
geospatial resource access mechanisms. proposal) via crosswalks or other technological
Even with their own distinctive issues, ge- solutions (Nogueras-Iso, Zarazaga-Soria, Lacasta,
olibraries are still DLs, and SDIs share so many Bjar, & Muro-Medrano, 2004), in order to sup-
important elements with them both, that basing port interoperability.
SDI development on the field of geolibraries, and Metadata are also of the uppermost importance
thus on the field of DLs, provides a solid conceptual in most SDI initiatives. All these initiatives show a
and technical foundation to build. strong emphasis in the necessity to create metadata
If digital libraries hold collections of digital for all pieces of geographic information, in order
resources then geolibraries must hold collections to leverage them to their maximum potential.
of digital spatial resources. But as explained be- Nogueras-Iso, Zarazaga-Soria, and Muro-Me-
fore, SDIs were born with the objective to promote drano (2004) give a thorough view of geographic
the creation, maintenance and distribution of metadata in SDIs, including collections, metadata
geographic information. Taking into considera- standards interoperability and heterogeneity of
384
Digital Libraries as a Foundation of Spatial Data Infrastructures
geographic metadata content. Applications for the appropriate vocabularies for key metadata terms,
creation of metadata are important to facilitate which is a problem in general digital libraries
the management of any digital library. Special too (Heath, McArthur, & Vetter, 2005). A com-
tools exist for geographic metadata standards like mon approach to harmonize metadata in digital
CatMDEdit (Zarazaga-Soria, Lacasta, Nogueras- libraries is the use of controlled vocabularies, like
Iso, Torres, Muro-Medrano, 2003). CatMDEdit controlled lists or thesauri. These controlled terms
is an open source Java application that can be are typically used by catalogs to improve searches.
downloaded from http://catmdedit.sourceforge. Some existing thesauri that are useful to describe
net/. It supports the creation of metadata records thematic geographic information are the General
that follow the ISO 19915 or the FGDC CSDGM Multilingual Environmental Thesaurus (GEMET)
metadata standards. It also supports the creation (http://www.eionet.eu.int/GEMET), developed
of DCMI records, emphasizing thus the relation- by the European Environment Information and
ship between different metadata standards that Observation Network, or the Agriculture vocabu-
appeared in different scopes. lary (AGROVOC) (http://www.fao.org/agrovoc/),
Digital libraries offer search services for the by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the
resources they hold. These services are typically United Nations. To facilitate the management of
based on the existence of metadata for those thesauri in the geographic context the CatMDEdit
resources. As pointed in the previous section, application, described before, has been integrated
a search mechanism based on geographic loca- with a thesaurus management tool called ThMan-
tion as the primary search key is required in ager (Lacasta, Nogueras-Iso, Lpez-Pellicer,
geolibraries. This is also true for SDIs, which Muro-Medrano, Zarazaga-Soria, 2007).
should include catalog services that allow for this As highlighted by Jane et al. (2004), searching
spatial search. Some of the catalog specifications in geolibraries requires the use of gazetteers. A
for geographic data are evolutions of the search gazetteer is a geographic dictionary of place names
and retrieval protocols created for digital librar- associated to their location on Earth. A natural
ies. For instance, the Z39.50 protocol is included approach to build gazetteers would be the use
as one possible implementation for the Open of thesauri, because in many cases, place names
Geospatial Consortium (OGC) catalog interface have a hierarchical organization (e.g., names of
specification (Nebert, Whiteside, & Vretanos, administrative units) that is naturally represented
2007). This catalog interface was designed with in a thesaurus. The SDIGER project, a pilot to cre-
the geospatial community in mind, but it is a ge- ate an SDI for water management between France
neric system, that supports metadata for generic and Spain, successfully followed this strategy.
resources. It includes, for example, Dublin Core In this project, a thesaurus for Spain and France
Metadata support, and makes it the reference for place names was built. The place names were
the core queryable and returnable properties. taken from the Spanish National Statistics Insti-
It is currently referenced as the standard catalog tute (Instituto Nacional de Estadstica), Spanish
interface for all relevant SDI initiatives. Public Administration, and the French National
Another important issue with SDI catalogs Institute for Statistics and Economic Studies
is that they are designed to facilitate distributed (Institut National de la Statistique et des tudes
searches. Even with the existence of a common conomiques) and organized into a place names
standard for catalog interface and another one for thesaurus (Zarazaga-Soria et al., 2007).
the structure of geographic information metadata, In order to integrate properly ontologies and
there are still several interoperability challenges to thesauri in SDIs, and following their distributed,
solve. One of these challenges is the selection of Web-services-based architecture, recent research
385
Digital Libraries as a Foundation of Spatial Data Infrastructures
proposes specialized Web services to manage Although the original views of SDIs include
lexical ontologies and thesauri. These services directly or indirectlythe necessity to provide
also would provide ontology-based support to at least search, visualization, and data download
other SDI components. The Web Ontology Service services (Nebert, 2004), the current trends in
(Lacasta, Nogueras-Iso, Bjar, Muro-Medrano, & the evolution of distributed interoperable GIS,
Zarazaga-Soria, 2007) is a component designed based in standard geographic Web services, have
to support the management and use of ontologies made some authors (Bernard & Craglia, 2005)
in SDIs. argue that these services, and their architecture,
The final goal of a digital library is to provide chaining, and orchestration, have become the
access to the managed digital resources it con- fundamental component of SDIs. This trend
tains. Likewise, SDIs must provide visualization would eventually give SDIs full distributed GIS
and access to geographic information, usually capabilities, a goal that involves not only the setup
through specialized standard geographic Web of an infrastructure to search for, and access to,
services, like the Web Map Service (WMS), geographic Web services and data, but also new
Web Feature Service (WFS) and Web Coverage design and architectural patterns, semantically
Service (WFS) defined by the Open Geospatial aware interoperation mechanisms, and the ap-
Consortium (http://www.opengeospatial.org), plications that would allow final users to exploit
and the ISO TC/211 committee (http://www. them. This is obviously an enormous challenge
isotc211.org). These services provide access to for GIS research.
geographic resources of different types, with SDIs also share characteristics with other
different levels of granularity and with more or kind of Information Infrastructures. Hanseth and
less processing. The WMS provides the capabil- Monteiro (in press) give the basic characteristics
ity to take geographic information and produce of IIs, which can be recognized also in the more
graphic maps. This capability can be used to specialized SDIs: enabling function, shared by
provide a preview of geographic information a community, of sociotechnical nature, open,
resources when searching for them in an SDI heterogeneous and as an evolution of an installed
catalog. WFS and WCS are Web services designed base. As Georgiadou (2006) points, under this
to give access to geographic information with perspective, the social and technical components
little or no processing. An important issue with of SDIs are not separable and to understand
these services is that they can extract parts from them completely, it is necessary to explore the
geographic information resources, allowing thus sociotechnical processes and practices that can
a fine-grained access to them. lead to a cultivated approach, in opposition to a
construction approach, to SDIs. This point is also
sustained by Nedovic and Budhathoki (2006), who
S DIs beyon d geolibraries believe that SDIs are not built, but cultivated from
a social and technical installed base, and enabled
As mentioned before, some of the foundations of by IIs and information and communication tech-
SDIs can be traced to DLs by means of geolibrar- nologies. These perspectives show a different,
ies; but they also have fundamental components less technical approach to SDIs, and they need to
that do not fall in the DL domain. Indeed SDIs be taken into consideration for a comprehensive
are also supported by advances in the fields of understanding of these infrastructures.
distributed interoperable GIS and Information Finally, SDIs have some other non-technical,
Infrastructures (II). infrastructural, elements that can be considered
characteristic for them. First of all, SDI efforts are
386
Digital Libraries as a Foundation of Spatial Data Infrastructures
mainly sustained by public administrations. There areas to SDIs. There are also two issues that are
are laws and regulations (the INSPIRE directive characteristic for SDIs but not, in general, for
in Europe (European Parliament and the Euro- geolibraries, GIS, or IIs: the necessity to count
pean Council, 2007) or the USA NSDI executive on firm public sector support and a markedly
order (nr. 12906, April 11, 1994)), public funding hierarchical structure.
for SDI (Annoni, Craglia, & Smit, 2002), issues It is also worth to mention a new emerging
related to the access to public information and paradigm named collaborative GIS (Balramand
e-government (Zarazaga-Soria, Nogueras-Iso, & Dragievi, 2006). Collaborative GIS integrates
Bjar, & Muro-Medrano, 2005), and the recom- theories, tools and technologies oriented towards
mendation of political sustainability and a legal the participation of people in group spatial deci-
framework for the success of NSDIs (Annoni et sions. It would be desirable that collaborative GIS
al., 2002). In this subject, they are nearer to the are built on top of the support that SDIs provide,
traditional public infrastructures (i.e., transport in order to leverage these infrastructures. Indeed
networks) than to IIs. SDIs seem a perfect support for collaboration,
The other main characteristic of SDIs is that because of their open and distributed nature.
they are markedly hierarchical (on Chan, Feeney, Geolibraries have already provided conceptual
Rajabifard, & Williamson, 2001), mainly because support for the development of SDIs, but it is not
of two factors: on the one hand, using geographic over yet: further advance in geographic Web
data of the appropriate scale is basic to achieve services interoperability will require structured
fast and precise results in analysis or visualization, descriptions, i.e. metadata, service catalogs and
depending on the area of interest: from large scale geographic ontologies to facilitate the interopera-
data for small areas to small scale data for the whole tion of services that work on spatial data. Also
Earth. On the other hand, public administrations, improved search and ranking mechanisms and
key stakeholders, developers, and maintainers in specialized thesauri will have to be developed
most SDI initiatives, are typically hierarchical for SDI catalogs, in order to deal with geographic
because government duties are shared according to data but also with the foreseeable increasing
their areas of responsibility, local, regional/state, number of geographic Web services. Finally the
national or supranational, which determine the fact that IIs in general, an SDIs in particular, are
scale of the spatial data they need. heterogeneous, shared and open, establish also
new challenges because SDIs will have to be well
organized and managed, as any other geolibrary or
Con cl usion DL, but also integrated in this new, less controlled
and structured environment.
This chapter has given an introduction to the field
of SDIs emphasizing its roots in components taken
from geolibraries, which are DLs specialized in R eferen ces
dealing with georeferenced resources.
It has been also sustained that SDIs have a Annoni, A., Craglia, M., & Smit, P. (2002). Com-
separate identity, mainly because of their foun- parative Analysis of NSDI. In Proceedings of the
dations in at least other two important fields: 8th EC-GI&GIS Workshop. Dublin, Ireland.
distributed interoperable GIS and IIs. Advances
Balramand, S., & Dragievi, S. (Eds.). (2006).
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Collaborative Geographic Information Systems.
the former, and a sociotechnical perspective from
Idea Group Publishing.
the latter are the main contributions of these two
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Digital Libraries as a Foundation of Spatial Data Infrastructures
Bernard, L., & Craglia, M. (2005). SDIfrom Heath, B., McArthur, D., & Vetter, R. (2005).
spatial data infrastructure to service driven in- Metadata lessons from the iLumina digital library.
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International Organization for Standardization.
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(2003). Geographic informationmetadata.
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pers/PP Lars Bernard - Max Craglia.pdf Jane, G., Frew, J., & Hill, L.L. (2004). Issues in
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10(5). Retrieved August 27, 2008, from http://
liamson, I. (2001). The dynamic nature of spatial
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Nedovic, Z., & Budhathoki, N.R. (2006). Tech- Zarazaga-Soria, F.J., Nogueras-Iso, J., Latre,
nological and institutional interdependences M.., Rodrguez, A., Lpez, E., Vivas, P., &
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Zarazaga-Soria, F.J., Lacasta, J., Nogueras-Iso, Georeference: Information that relates data
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389
390
Chapter XL
DL and GIS:
Path to a New Collaboration Paradigm
O. Cantn Casbas
San Jorge University, Spain
J. Nogueras-Iso
University of Zaragoza, Spain
F. J. Zarazaga-Soria
University of Zaragoza, Spain
A bs tra ct
A new collaboration paradigm is in order between Digital Libraries (DL) and Geographic Information
Systems (GIS). These important Information Technology (IT) fields have witnessed great progress in the
last few years, only to be surpassed by even greater expectations. Nonetheless, this extraordinary advance
has come at a cost: the very proliferation of different representation formats, proprietary standards,
protocols and platforms in which information is published or served is hindering the further develop-
ment of these fields. One discouraging and generally ignored aspect of this situation is that both DL
and GIS practitioners have been trying to deal with these problems in an isolated fashion, blind to each
others achievements and approximations. The result is a lack of synergy and duplication of efforts. In
this chapter, the authors share their experience in the GIS field to propose a collaborative approximation
to solve some of the most recurrent problems both in DL and GIS.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
DL and GIS
by the recurring frustration of many users of DL The DL field is a far embracing one. For ex-
and Geographic Information (GI) services. The ample, it is possible to define a digital library that
proliferation of different representation formats, specializes in GI resources. Usually, this kind of
proprietary standards, protocols, and platforms digital library is called a geolibrary (Goodchild,
in which information is published or served pose 1998). In conjunction with Geographic Informa-
a multiplicity of barriers both to end users and tion Systems (GIS), geolibraries constitute the
information professionals. technology base for the development of Spatial
The response to these obstacles should be Data Infrastructures (SDI). The concept of SDI
organization and collaboration. We could be originated in 1994 as the framework for the
much further along the road to success if only a optimization of the creation, maintenance and
more constructive and collaborative interrelation distribution of geographic information. The main
among the different IT fields were achieved. If components of a SDI include data providers, end-
we consider, for example, the case of Spatial Data users, data networks, technologies, databases and
Infrastructures (SDI), we observe that the research metadata, institutional arrangements, policies, and
and development of these systems have been standards (Coleman & Nebert, 1998).
performed mostly by researchers outside the DL SDIs, with their integrated geolibraries, could
community, circumstance that in many occasions have bridged the gaps between the GI and DL
has led to the oversimplification of library issues. communities. Unfortunately this has not been
Besides, many advances in the GI domain could the case. As was noted by Boxall (2002), even
be of great help for the DL practitioners. In this the recently released Cookbook for Global Spatial
contribution, the authorsactive practitioners in Data Infrastructures (GSDI) makes almost no
the SDI fieldshare some of the lessons learned mention of libraries, and those few instances tend
during architectural design and standardization to be quaint (p. 4). Even the activities of ISO TC
activities carried out in the GI domain. 211 and other standards development organiza-
tions (SDO) tend to involve more nonlibrarians
than DL practitioners. This lack of collaboration
B a ckgro un d represents another obstacle on the development of
these two fields. A more collaborative relationship
Digital libraries hold great expectations. Their could bring about mutual benefits: for example, the
projected role is to serve as an access point to transition of SDI to GSDI is a continuous source
a vast set of information sources and services: of valuable know-how which could help DL along
they should offer new opportunities to assemble, the road to a more networked and interoperable
organize, and access large volumes of informa- environment.
tion from multiple repositories. Nonetheless, A new collaborative paradigm is called for
and according to the Digital Library Federation between the DL and the GI domains, a paradigm
(DLF) Service Framework Working Group, the whose goal must be to engage research beyond the
research library community has not yet transi- boundaries of specialized core areas in order to
tioned to a shared understanding of how a library find solutions and strategies that can yield greater
and its services are organized in an increasingly knowledge integration and synthesis (Balramand
networked environment (Dempsey & Lavoie, & Dragievi, 2006). There is no need to duplicate
2005, p. 1). The primary reason adduced is the effort: librarians can contribute to geography and
weak and inconsistent adoption of interoperability geographers to librarianship, for we have common
standards. goals and similar backgrounds.
391
DL and GIS
392
DL and GIS
faces (API) these legacy systems communicated mation retrieval protocols widely accepted in the
with some sort of content management infrastruc- GI and DL fields. The focal point here is that the
ture in order to gain access to geographic data. same architectural pattern recurs in every specific
Although nowadays this scheme of operation is operational environment.
outclassed, local and corporate levels are still In order for those isolated systems to integrate
relying significantly on this type of infrastruc- effectively into an interoperable environment, a
tures in which customized functionality and easy greater emphasis have to be laid on open metadata
of development, but not interoperability, are the standards and protocols as the key enablers to
main concerns. resource discovery, evaluation and exploitation.
A common paradigm of operation is shared Besides, a more effective and systematic enterprise
among all geolibraries, but each application do- solution for metadata management is required.
main and organization has its own particularities, There is an urgent need for a metadata infrastruc-
ranging from different information models to ture capable of supporting complex requirements
specific network services. Figure 1 shows three of specialized users and subsystems but also be-
modifications to the basic architecture which ing able to accommodate less sophisticated users
adapt to different contexts. without needless complication. Generally called
On the left, the basic system serves requests a Managed Metadata Environment (MME), this
from SRW clients making use of the metadata new infrastructure is defined as the architectural
managed by a proprietary Geospatial Catalog components, people, processes and policies that
Server (Tolosana, Portols-Rodrquez, Nogueras- are required to properly and systematically gather,
Iso, Muro-Medrano, & Zarazaga-Soria, 2005). On retain and disseminate metadata to different users
the right the source of metadata is a CSW-compli- and systems in a practical and effective manner.
ant server instead of a proprietary catalog server. The principal conceptual elements of a MME,
Finally, in the middle of the illustration a source according to Marco and Jennings (2004), are
is being harvested using OAI. CSW Catalogue depicted in Figure 2.
Search for the Web (OGC 04-006r1, 2007), SRW The metadata integration layer takes the
Search Retrieve Webservice (Sanderson, 2004) various sources of metadata, integrates them, and
and OAIOpen Archives Initiative (Lagoze & loads the harmonized metadata into the metadata
Van de Sompel, 2004)are well-known infor- repository. This repository is responsible for the
393
DL and GIS
cataloging and persistent storage of the metadata give an idea of the importance and relevance of
and pointers to the metadata in a distributed GI Technology worldwide. However, the situation
metadata environment. The metadata manage- of accessibility and utility of geodata is still not
ment layer provides systematic management satisfactory. To achieve the goals of coordination
of the metadata repository and the other MME across the different GI actors related to acquisi-
components. Finally, the metadata delivery layer tion, use, sharing, and interoperability of data,
delivers the metadata from the repository to the the continuing challenge of the development of
end users and any applications or tools that require content and interoperability standards must be
metadata. This delivery process adapts to user addressed.
needs by using crosswalks to translate between
metadata standards and by using the adequate Simplified Timeline of GI standards
communication protocols.
In the section Lessons Learned, we present In the GI domain, information has usually been
our specific implementation of a MME to exem- collected and described in different proprietary
plify the importance of a flexible architecture to ways and systems have been designed for only
facilitate the management of diverse metadata one specific mission. This has resulted in waste-
standards and protocols. ful redundancies and a reduced ability to perform
critical shared operations. As a consequence,
and since 1990, voluntary, consensus-based,
GI Stan dar diza tion effor ts interoperability standards are increasingly being
developed by industry consortia. Figure 3 shows
In the recent years, the performance of two key a simplified timeline of some of the most relevant
publicly traded GIS companies, namely Intergraph GI standards initiatives.
and Leica GeoSystems, has outperformed NAS- In 1987, even before metadata became a ubiqui-
DAQ indexes many times over (Rana & Sharma, tous buzzword, a standardized format for exchang-
2006). The existing 5 billion USD global geospa- ing information about scientific data sets was
tial technology industry was predicted to rise to conceived. This was the Directory Interchange
30 billion USD by 2005 compared to the predicted Format (DIF), a product of an Earth Science and
2 billion USD for 2004. These spectacular results Applications Data Systems Workshop (ESADS)
394
DL and GIS
395
DL and GIS
In the DL community, the interoperability achieved with USD $3 if the projects were based
problem has also sparked vigorous discussions on open standards.
(Feng, Manfred, & Hoppe, 2005). Besides, tech-
nical interoperability is not enough, for it is also Lesson 3: Standardization is much easier
necessary an infrastructure for semantic agree- said than done.
ment, and implementing interoperability must be
considered at different levels of operation (e.g., OGC and ISO standards already form the basis
schema, record, and repository levels). By adopt- of most existing SDIs. However, compliant and in-
ing well supported and flexible standards these teroperable implementations of these broad-rang-
interoperability problems could be alleviated but ing standards are still scarce (Figure 4). A solution
not completely eliminated. for this problem is the definition of profiles, which
Regarding data content standards, whereas a are used to select between alternatives left open
typical DL metadata standard like Dublin Core by a standard, to make certain options mandatory,
has only 15 elements, the typical GI metadata to add new features and to combine the interface
standard ISO19115 has more than 350 elements. specification with a specific information model
This gap in complexity is likely to shorten in the (Senkle, Voges, & Remke, 2004). In this manner,
coming years as librarians are already making those organizations which reject the adoption of
increasing use of more complex formats such as global standards because they are perceived as
Metadata Object Description Schema (MODS) not meeting their business needs could realize
and Metadata Encoding and Transmission Stan- the benefits of standardization while at the same
dard (METS). Concerning publishers, there is a time satisfying their specific goals.
tendency towards supplying more metadata about
the publications they put out, for instance cover Lesson 4: Standards require the support
art, quotes from reviews, descriptive texts, author of political and public administrations at
biographies and other useful material. These new different levels.
demands on metadata do not cope well with the
representational capacities provided by MARC, At least three stakeholder groups have an ac-
so DLs will have to migrate to more convenient tive role in geospatial standards setting: political
and complex standards, both in terms of semantic and public administrations, industry, and SDO/
richness and cross interoperability. Standards-Setting Organizations (SSO). Suc-
396
DL and GIS
cessful standardization depends on these three waiting for emerging standards to settle down
parties coming together to make common cause is a futile exercise; it will probably not happen
to advance goals beneficial to all parties. in our lifetimes (p. 16). The system architecture
The role of political and public administrations devised by the authors for their geospatial catalog-
with regard to geospatial standards is indispens- geolibrary is based on the principles of flexibility
able. They need to partner with SDOs and SSOs and extensibility (Figure 5).
to develop local profiles of minimal standards, The core of this layered architecture is the
which are more likely to be adopted and accepted Business Model layer (BML), which is respon-
by users and vendors. Two relevant examples are sible of implementing a general resource access
the Executive Order (nr. 12906, April 11, 1994) paradigm with a universal metadata model. The
signed by Bill Clinton for the establishment of layers below the BML are in charge of access-
the National Spatial Data Infrastructure in ing the different sources using the appropriate
the United States, and the European Directive standards and protocols. Some of this standards
INSPIRE to create the INfrastructure for SPatial are open/ interoperable (e.g., ISO 19115, SRW)
InfoRmation in Europe. but others are proprietary. The use of translation
crosswalks among the resource representations
Lesson 5: Adopt standards but devise a enable the BML to operate in its universal rep-
flexible and extensible architecture. resentation.
The layers above the BML are responsible
It is recommended to adopt interoperability for receiving the service requests from external
standards early in the project life cycle, even if clients, both in proprietary or standard protocols,
they are not universally agreed upon. As was and translating them to the universal representa-
pointed by Hillman and Westbrooks (2004), tion used by the BML. When the requests have
been satisfied, the responses are returned upwards
for adequate translation according to the request-
Figure 5. Simplified architectural approximation ing clients.
Using this architecture, the core processing
layers remain stable no matter the subsequent
protocols and data standards needed. Only new
source connectors, crosswalks and servers are
required. This simplifies and speeds up the support
of new sources and clients and thus the develop-
ment and adaptability of the SDI.
Con cl usion
397
DL and GIS
problems, so the pressures to find new approaches Hillman, D.I., & Westbrooks, E.L. (2004).
and to take advantage of new technologies are Metadata in practice. American Library As-
high. New content and interoperability standards, sociation.
along with new practices and technological ap-
Lagoze, C., & Van de Sompel, H. (Eds.) (2004). The
proximations, must be devised to cope with all
open archives initiative protocol for metadata har-
this new universe of information and services.
vesting (PROTOCOL VERSION 2.0). Retrieved
However, this situation is not new for the GI
August 27, 2008, from http://www.openarchives.
community: geolibraries have been part of SDI
org/OAI/2.0/openarchivesprotocol.htm
for several years and have undergone important
standardization and development efforts. And in Marco, D., & Jennings, M. (2004). Universal meta
this respect the experiences and lessons learned data models. Wiley Publishing, Inc.
by the GI community could be very valuable.
NASA. (2005). Geospatial interoperability return
Thus the authors believe that a new collabora-
on investment study. Booz Allen Hamilton.
tion paradigm is required between the DL and
GI communities to leverage our efforts in the NRC (National Research Council). (1993). Toward
pursuit of H.G. Wells dream. a coordinated spatial data infrastructure for the
nation. Washington, D.C.: National Academy
Press.
R eferen ces
NRC. (1997). The future of spatial data and
society: Summary of a workshop. Washington,
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D.C.: National Academy Press.
tive geographic information systems. Idea Group
Publishing. OGC 04-006r1. (2005). OpenGIS catalogue
services specification. Open Geospatial Con-
Boxall, J. (2002). Geolibraries, the global spatial
sortium Inc.
data infrastructure and digital earth: A time
for map libraries to reflect upon the moonshot. Rana, S., & Sharma, J. (2006). Frontiers of geo-
INSPEL, 121. graphic information technology. Springer.
Coleman, D.J., & Nebert, D.D. (1998). Building a Sanderson, R. (2004). SRW: Search/Retrieve Web-
North American spatial data infrastructure. Car- service, (version 1.1). Retrieved August 27, 2008,
tography and Geographic Information Systems, from http://srw.cheshire3.org/SRW-1.1.pdf
25(3), 151160.
Senkle, K., Voges, U., & Remke, A. (2004).
Dempsey, L., & Lavoie, B. (2005). DLF service An ISO 19115/19119 profile for OGC catalogue
framework for digital libraries. Progress Re- services CSW 2.0. 10th EC GI & GIS Workshop,
port. ESDI State of the Art. Warsaw, Poland.
Feng, L., Manfred, A.J., & Hoppe, J. (2005). Theng, Y.L., & Foo, S. (Eds.) (2005). De-
Beyond information searching and browsing: sign and usabilit y of digital libraries. Idea
Acquiring knowledge from digital libraries. Infor- Group Inc.
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Tolosana-Calasanz, R., Portols-Rodrquez,
Goodchild, M.F. (1998). The geolibrary. In S. D., Nogueras-Iso, J., Muro-Medrano, P.R., &
Carver (Ed.), Innovations in GIS 5 (pp. 5968). Zarazaga-Soria, F.J. (2005). CatServer: A server
London: Taylor and Francis. of GATOS. In Proceedings of the 8th AGILE
398
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399
400
Chapter XLI
Digital Libraries Beyond
Cultural Heritage Information
Piedad Garrido Picazo
University of Zaragoza, Spain
A bs tra ct
This chapter introduces digital libraries as a means of cultural heritage access and diffusion. It argues
that digital libraries, combined with superimposed information techniques, offers a potentially more
substantive approach to understanding the historical documentation analysis problem. Furthermore,
the authors hope that understanding the documental and technological assumptions constructs through
the use of programming and automatic interpreter will not only inform researches of a better scheme
for labelling cultural heritage information but also assist in the need of involved other areas such as
multiagent systems, pattern matching, information management and information visualization based on
content association, to solve the vast majority of problems set out in the work context, and the result is a
versatile digital library prototype which covers the cultural heritage information that the users need.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Digital Libraries Beyond Cultural Heritage Information
The experiences and the projects undertaken Nevertheless, the use of Dublin Core pres-
to date have been gradually revealing that the ents problems which have been pointed out by
approaches based on the mere digitalization of some researchers. Foulonneau, Cole, Habing,
the information and documentation on cultural and Shreeves (2005) posed the problem, which
heritage are not sufficient to face the informa- assumes the lack of consistency of the Dublin
tion needs of the different types of users. The Core metadata in OAI repositories. The compara-
immense amount of multimedia information tive study on repositories with cultural heritage
about cultural heritage does not come with the metadata undertaken by Hutt and Riley (2005)
complementary referential information that the pointed out it and Halbert, Haczmarek, and
users need (Crane, 2002). Hagedorn (2003) had already warned about the
The chapter is organized as follows: a back- problems detected in the use of Dublin Core in
ground about the more relevant cultural heritage these contexts.
digital library contributions using labelling In the field on which our work centers, the use
languages. The second section describes the of Dublin Core has had to be gradually completed
problem of managing historical documentation by integrating tools which offer the semantic rela-
in digital format, the methodology followed to tions that the metadata scheme does not offer (De
develop an automatic interpreter, which analyzes Gendt, Isaac, Van Der Meijt, & Schlobach, 2006).
and manages historical texts, the role of a built-in So, we can present two starting points from the
multiagent system to improve the information works reviewed:
retrieval process combined with pattern matching
techniques and the information management and 1. Dublin Core is excessively simple for its use
visualization. Finally, the last section presents in cultural heritage digital libraries without
some concluding remarks. other complementary schemes.
2. A more complete model must be proposed
which incorporates a descriptive metadata
ba ckgro un d scheme of both an element and collection
type, and the description tool scheme (the-
By and large, cultural heritage digital libraries are saurus, ontology).
characterized by the diversity of their collection
contents (Crane, 2002). The bibliography avail-
able on these digital library types shows that in his tori cal informa tion
situations of heterogeneity, the metadata schemes anal ysis
used to describe the different contents become
extremely important since they are used to deal The Web information service, under consider-
with problems related to information retrieval ation, is the Digital Aragon Encyclopedia (http://
and interoperability. Baldonado, Chang, Gravano, www.enciclopedia-aragonesa.com).
and Paepcke (1997) proposed a metadata-based Since the cultural heritage information preser-
interoperability model which used the Dublin Core vation is a very wide and diverse field; the current
(Tolosana-Calasanz, Nogueras-Iso, Bjar, Muro- chapter shows how to manage a portion of this
Medrano, & Zarazaga-Soria, 2006) and MARC information: historical texts.
schemes (Chandler, Foley, & Hafez, 2000). Currently, there are two aspects to deal with
Given its simplicity, the use of the nonquali- the task of historical text analysis in digital librar-
fied Dublin Core Metadata Scheme in cultural ies. It is obvious that by means of human effort it
heritage digital libraries predominates. is possible the whole analysis of all the existing
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Digital Libraries Beyond Cultural Heritage Information
information in this kind of documents, but a com- through subject matter categories or/and alphabeti-
plete coordinated reader group is needed, and the cal indexes as currently (Brocks, Thiel, Stein, &
analysis time will be proportional both the reading Dirsch-Weigand, 2001). For this reason, a set of
speed analysis and the number of readers. The voices has been selected to work with, los Reyes
second aspect consists of, in some way, performing de Aragn (the king and queen of Aragon):
an automatic analysis via a computer which can Once the set of voices was analyzed, it was
be able to extract the relevant information and observed that this label did not offer any improve-
to structure in a way legible by the human being ment to the management, storage and retrieval
and the external automatic system. of this cultural heritage information portion,
The most interesting feature to face with the only it contributes to a documental structure to
historical documentation automatic analysis is organize. Therefore, we decided to build an ad-
based on the fact that their texts accomplish these hoc ontology since certain initiatives have been
two properties: taken regarding this matter, which is directed to
the exchange and integration of heterogeneous
1. A group of events is exposed (they have been scientific documentation related only to museum
taken place in a concrete place and moment) collections (ISO 21127, 2006).
associated with a group of entities. Unlike the COLLATE Project (http://www.col-
2. Besides, a huge amount of entity intrinsic late.de/), the use of an ontology in this project is not
information is carried out in the form of due to the lack of semantic relations between the
associations among other entities. Semantic collection elements since this aspect is completely
association falls in the role of them. covered with the topic maps paradigm, described
in the (ISO 13250, 2003). Its use is to provide a
From these properties, it is inferred that the clear idea of how to organize this information
extracted information after the analysis process and how to detect patterns of relations which not
must have a network structure, where each node only allow the automatic interpreter not to make
is an entity related to other nodes and the human mistakes when the set of voices on this subject
being effective semantic information is stored in matter increases (Giunchiglia, Yatskevich, &
the arch labels, which would contain the associa- Shvaiko 2007), but also allows it to be reused in
tion role among nodes and the date and place in other encyclopaedic information sectors such as
case if it is a dated event. heraldry, lineage, and so on.
Among other aspects over digital libraries ser- Then, we propose a hybrid XTM/DITA
vices, the digital information product developed scheme1 to storage information. On the one hand,
attempts to improve the voice search engine so XTM defines how to store and interpret all the
that it is not only limited to information access associations among entities (external structure)
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Digital Libraries Beyond Cultural Heritage Information
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Digital Libraries Beyond Cultural Heritage Information
an entity was detected, the presence of a role Spanish stop words. After we make little analysis
was investigated in the rest of the phrase, if the word by word to correct certain mistakes Freeling
process was successful; an association among system makes (for instance, to catalogue com-
topics was generated. To detect events, a basic mon nouns like proper nouns, to appoint verbs
exploration based on finding the presence of a as common nouns and to resolve known certain
bracket (the general pattern used to recognize acronyms such as Z or id.). The double type system
the date of an event). has been included and a word could be catalogued
This exploring algorithm has been catalogued in several manners simultaneously (that is: era
as first level because the detection is directly based as verb [was] or common noun [epoch] in Span-
on text words, and a generation of associations and ish language), in order to prevent mistakes in the
events is carried out from the keywords previously following analysis phases.
found, they give us clues about the presence of The second analysis phase consists of, sentence
relevant information. The analogy between this by sentence, contrasting its syntax with a series
exploration method and daily life is when we of predefined patterns. These predefined patterns
wish to find some information in a large amount define linguistic forms of expression which give
of text, and a sequential reading is carried out us relevant information, of which extraction is the
finding concrete keywords which give us clues algorithm desired aim. In depth, the algorithm
to the text information position. uses a rule engine to compare the preprogrammed
The results of this type of analysis were posi- patterns against the syntax of each sentence of the
tive, since it was a functional approximation to the entity descriptive text. This verification is carried
historical text automatic analysis. For instance, for out in each sentence position, with the objective
two hundred voices, hundred of associations were of doing a thorough verification and sentence
generated and tens of events, with an accuracy preambles or conclusions do not dull the analysis
of roughly a seventy per cent, (if the algorithm is abilities, just as to simplify the patterns in many
compared with human interpretation). ways. It would be a hard work to elaborate all the
Nevertheless, it could be done better. The possible syntax patterns for the majority of Spanish
analysis was fundamentally dependent on the sentences, taking into account sentence beginning
dictionary, and it failed in proportional relation and ending expression formulas, although it will
to the description expression complexity. It was be commented later. So, the necessary predefined
necessary to go the analysis ahead to an upper patterns will be those morphological combinations
level, dictionary independent. This new approach which describe the more common expression
could reduce complex expressions to simpler ones formulas that enunciate the relevant information,
and later, they could be analyzed by a simple in a way of association among entities or related
interpreter. events to the interpreted entity. This means that
So, a second level algorithm has been devel- analysis problem is moving from an own level to
oped. This algorithm gathers an entity descriptive a morphological level.
text, and a morphological analysis, throughout a Next it is described an operation algorithm
Freeling package adaptation, is performed. Now example down to this analysis phase. We have
on, the algorithm wont analyze the word textual the following sentence of a fictitious entity: A
forms but it will analyse the sentence morphologi- comienzos de su reinado, se cas con Magdalena
cal structure to strip redundant information and de Folcaquier (At the beginning of his reign, he
generating events and associations. married to Magdalena Folcaquier). In the first
The first step, once we have the morphological phase, those nonrelevant information words will
structure organized, is to build a filter to delete be leaked. The second step will do a morpho-
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Digital Libraries Beyond Cultural Heritage Information
logical analysis, describing the sentence with An interesting summary pattern is, for ex-
the following structure: A (At; SP, preposition) ample: NP NC SP NP, of which activation
comienzos (beginning; NC, common noun) de (of; produces the elimination of the three last words.
SP, preposition) su (his; DP, possessive determiner) The example sentence will trigger this rule from
reinado (reign; NC, common noun) se cas2 (he the Pedro II word. The resulting sentence looks
married; VM, main casar verb conjugation) con as follows: Hijo de Pedro II y Juana, condesa
(to; SP, preposition) Magdalena de Folcaquier de Urdiel (Son of Peter II and Joan, countess
(Magdalena Folcaqier; NP, proper noun). This of Urdiel). Following the check, this rule would
morphological structure will be matched with trigger again from the Juana word, and the sum-
the series of algorithm predefined patterns, with marized final sentence would be: Hijo (NC) de
the aim of finding relevant information. If one (SP) Pedro II (NP) y (CC) Juana (NP) (Son of Peter
of the predefined patterns is VM SP NP then II and Joan). If predefined patterns based on this
from the word cas that sentence matches this kind of expressions were programmed, it would
pattern. To observe carefully that this pattern be able to extract relevant information, which in
covers a wide range of sentences which describe this case is the fact that this entity is hijo (son)
an action over other entity. of the entities Pedro II (Peter II) and Juana
So, if an enough number of patterns are (Joan). Nevertheless, the risk of the summary
developed, it is possible to monopolize a great patterns is that they are equally able to remove
amount of the linguistic formulas of the voice relevant information in concrete cases.
description field. For the event detection, there are three types
However, redundant information presents of patterns: the beginning-ending detection pat-
some problems, that is, the text provides too much terns, bracket analysis and the event common
information and sometimes, the redundant or patterns. The first ones are based on a common
inaccurate information is incorrectly extracted. feature in historic documentation. For a historical
To avoid it, the algorithm has summary patterns. entity, the beginning and ending dates and places
These summary patterns define syntax rules to are always between brackets in the first line. To
redundant sentences and then, they are removed extract such important information, a series of
(just in part, the redundant information treatment patterns, able to find combinations of expressions
is described ahead) in a way that subsequent pat- of these types, are developed. The second, bracket
terns do not take out erroneous information. analysis, includes a very common bibliographic
To come into the pattern rule operation, an formula, the introduction of dates between brack-
example of a fictitious sentence again: Hijo (NC) ets in the sentences, showing the moment of the
de (SP) Pedro II (NP), rey (NC) de (SP) Aragn described event. The bracket analysis patterns
(NP) y (CC) Juana (NP), condesa (NC) de (SP) are capable of finding this expressive figure and
Urdiel (NP) (Son of Peter II, king of Aragn and turning into a series of words that the third type
Juana, countess of Urdiel). As we can observe, patterns detect.
to the treated entity, the fact that Pedro I (Peter For example, the batalla de Roma (315-340)
II) was rey de Aragn (King of Aragn) and (battle of Rome) sentence would be detected and
Juana was condesa de Urdiel (countess of it would be converted in the following analysed
Urdiel) is irrelevant and so this redundant infor- sentence batalla de Roma entre 315 y 340 (battle
mation is removed. If a summary pattern (which of Rome between 315 and 340). The last kind is
finds this sort of redundant information and it is the event detection patterns, which are the most
able to eliminate them) was programmed, the task common, and they include expressions which
for the later analysis patterns will be easier. describe events such as the previous sentence, and
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Digital Libraries Beyond Cultural Heritage Information
once detected extract the relevant information. It gives us as a valid reference which has the
Finally, when this entire pattern group has been great number of fitting words and always with a
checked, the whole sentences which are between number >= 2. Indeed, it substitutes the associa-
brackets are removed in order to make easier the tion text by the right topic name which has been
later analysis. referenced. Once the dependencies are generated,
When a rule is triggered because of the fact the unidirectionality or bidirectionality is
that a sentence has found some pattern, its associ- calculated inside the association lists by means
ated rule is activated, and it executes an associ- of a crossing-search.
ated procedure. The procedure could modify the Finally, the relevance roles of associations and
sentence (if we are before synthesis, summary or events are computated. To solve this computation
bracket patterns) or it could generate associations there are two approaches. The first one consists of
or events. In the last case, the triggered rule points prefixed relevancies associated to prefixed roles,
out to the procedure the word positions that it letting the rest of roles with null relevance. By
denotes: the rule of the association and the data this way, the algorithm would assign relevancies
and place if they are in the presence of an event in function of a predefined table. Nevertheless,
and entity at which refers. this method is not flexible. The second approach,
With those data, the procedure extracts the which is used in the final algorithm, consists of
sentence words and it generates associations the count of roles. It is assigned more relevance
and/or events. to the more frequent roles and less relevance to
Once the second phase of the analysis has the uncommon ones. This method is more flex-
ended, we will have obtained a list of associa- ible, independent of the predefined tables and
tions and events. Subsequently, the third phase the information domain. Once the relevance has
at stake consists of the verification lists, of which been assigned, a filter is executed to eliminate the
objective is removing those associations with null irrelevant dates (that is, uncommon roles).
or invalid dates. Also in this phase a reference As an additional comment, information is not
solving is done. removed during the summary process seen before
The purpose of this search is to solve the follow- instead a second analysis is realized to extract
ing problem: referenced entities appeared in the topic redundant information but it could be valid
lists can exist as a topic in the analyzed historical for document context. An example based on the
document. Even it is possible that the entity refers previous ones: Hijo (NC) de (SP) Pedro II (NP),
to a document topic, but it has been named with rey (NC) de (SP) Aragn (NP) y (CC) Juana (NP),
an alternative form. In this case, the algorithm condesa (NC) de (SP) Urdiel (NP) (Son of Peter
must replace the part of the association which II, king of Aragn and Joan, countess of Urdiel),
cites the entity by its real name (an example: the we saw that rey (NC) de (SP) Aragn (NP)
Alfonso X El Sabio [Alfonso X the Wise]) topic (king of Aragn) and condesa (NC) de (SP)
would find called inside the text like Alfonso X Urdiel (NP) (countess of Urdiel) were removed.
(Alfonso X) or Alfonso El Sabio (Alfonso X the To the analyzed topic context, this information is
Wise), being in both cases a valid reference but it strange, but from a global point of view, it isnt.
shall be replaced by the right name. So, it would be interesting to store it temporarily
The algorithm behaviour to check the refer- since it is relevant information inside the docu-
ences is to extract those reference words which ment in general. To achieve it, the algorithm calls
start by capital letter. Later, topic by topic carry a rescue method, generating associations in the
out the same operation with its title and compares possible situations.
them.
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Digital Libraries Beyond Cultural Heritage Information
These associations are orphans, as they dont Figure 3. Interpreter algorithm inputs and out-
know beforehand the topic at which they refer. puts
The algorithm then finds (in a similar way to
the reference analysis) what topic each associa-
tion is referred, and if it is found, the algorithm
links this association with the referred topic. To
the previous example, it would search the topic
named Pedro II (Peter II) and it would assign
it the association rey (role) de Aragn (referred
entity) (king of Aragn) and it would find topic
Juana (Joan) and it would assign the association
condesa (role) de Urdiel (referred entity) (count-
ess of Urdiel). In case it did not find the referred
topic, the algorithm could create a new topic with
these associations, but it was ruled out for being
outside of the strictly necessary. Results show so it is useful for the programmer which
that the second level algorithm produces around loves the object-oriented database features
three thousand associations and one thousand and the programmer or user who needs a
events from two hundred voices. It implies the relational database. All the original informa-
increase of the order of magnitude in the results. tion is stored in a database that later could
Additionally, the accuracy of the generated dates be queried through agents, Web system,
is approximately of a ninety per cent. Around applications, and so on.
20% more than with the first level. 3. The third and last method consists of the
topic indexation by means of an adapted
Information Management Lucene analyzer. This indexation will let
us to find whatever desired topic.
Once we have the event and association lists, their
storage is done via three different ways. S earch A gents S ystem
1. To generate an XML document with a Finally, it has been developed a multiagent system
XTM/DITA hybrid format with all the avail- via JADE platform. There is a specific agent in
able topic information including the related charge of receiving the external agent requests and
events and associations with each topic. The answering with the topic results from a search.
relations will be navigable as long as the re- This agent validates a connection against the
ferred entities has been found and they were object-oriented database created and used Lucene
other topics from the own document. Also, to identify, from a search string, what topic must
it has the possibility to examine references be extracted from the database. The agent accepts
to entities in other documents and merge to several possibilities to make advanced searches, a
them, although the current algorithm only lot of search agents could operate simultaneously,
works with the original document. but there are not agents which modify data.
2. The JDO storage using the JPOX technol- Additionally, to check the flexibility system,
ogy. Obtaining an object-oriented database another search agent has been developed, capable
with the peculiarity that below there is a of the following process: from a character string
relational database management system, the agent is able to look up Google and send the
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Digital Libraries Beyond Cultural Heritage Information
results from this service to the original agent. In Figure 4. 2D representation example
other words, the search agent prototype developed
let us to build versions to make searches in any
environment.
Furthermore, to the GUI (Graphical User Inter-
face), two different types of agents from a unified
interface agent prototype, have been developed.
Each version solves a different interface problem.
The former is a console user interface agent and
the latter a graphical user interface agent. Both
have the same detection and communication
system with any search agent.
Finally, an agent allows showing a 3D topic
tree from a query made by using the multiagent
system built. Figure 5. 3D representation example
Information Visualization
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Digital Libraries Beyond Cultural Heritage Information
the requirements established in the semantic Web set of figures. However, currently, the algorithm
and which adapt to the peculiarities of cultural has several complex stands-up to solve: writing,
heritage-related information and documents, orthographical, grammatical mistakes and the
and the use of superimposed information for the morphological variety. All of them cause the
description and subsequent information handling algorithm effectiveness will be reduced always.
within the scope of digital libraries (Crane & On the other hand, an effective XTM-based
Wulfman, 2003) are factors of a completely new labelling of information has been achieved and
work proposal which also offers the potential combined with other metadata languages that are
required to solve the vast majority of problems appropriate both element and collection levels at
set out in the research context, such as searches digital libraries: DITA, FOAF, SKOS, MODS,
that are limited to subject matter categories or RDF (Park & Hunting, 2002). An improvement
alphabetical indexes, and flexibility. of the information retrieval process will be au-
On the one hand, the historical document tomatically accomplished and this will assist the
analysis problem has been solved at the begin- digital information preservation process (Premis
ning by means of a limited first level system, and & Rlg/Oclc, 2005) as XTM is based on XML.
later by a second level system, utterly flexible but Furthermore, the developed prototype also incor-
dependent on a pattern system. porates an information retrieval system based on
The analysis problem has been displaced from personal agents and soft-computing (Crestani &
a computing approach to a linguistic approach, Passi, 2000) that not only enables the information
consisting of setting those ways of expression requested by the user in GEA, but also outside
used to cultural heritage information description. GEA online (Herrera & Passi 2006). This helps
The elaborated patterns in the current algorithm to contribute OAI functionality or a harvest-
only carry out correctly with Spanish language, ing approach (Halbert et al., 2003), which is
which unfortunately, is very flexible and varied. currently in great demand and necessary, and
There are other languages more structured which which has been incorporated into other projects
facilitate the expression pattern development, but such as zOAC.
as a conclusion we can say that the language is Finally, we have fulfilled an important objec-
not a feature which hinders the automatic docu- tive creating 2D and 3D information visualization
ment analysis. and trying to make the best of digital informa-
There are other technologies which do textual tion despite constant changes in technological
analysis but there is little technology capable of devices.
synthesizing, extracting relevant information,
cataloguing and generating it in a topic network
from an opaque historical text. Previously all the R eferen ces
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411
412
Chapter XLII
Reference Services in
Digital Environment
Wan Ab. Kadir Wan Dollah
MARA University of Technology, Malaysia
Diljit Singh
University of Malaya, Malaysia
A bs tra ct
Information and communication technologies have been used to assist in various functions of library and
information units. Digital reference services that is becoming widely available especially in academic
libraries and public libraries around the world provide assistance to remote users especially through
e-mail format. This chapter clarifies the concept, format and background of digital reference services.
It also focuses on issues, trends and challenges in digital reference services, besides discussing on
technological developments in digital reference services.The benefits and limitations of the services
are also highlighted in this chapter.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Reference Services in Digital Environment
Lankes (1998) defines digital reference as With OPACs, the users can specify their queries
Internet-based question and answer services that as asset of keywords linked by logical operators
connect users with individuals who possess spe- AND, OR and NOT. Another major change in
cialized subject or skill expertise. Janes, Carter, the process of storage, retrieval and dissemina-
and Memmott (1999) define digital reference as tion of information was brought by the invention
a mechanism by which people can submit their of CD-ROMs. By the late 1990s, many libraries
questions and have them answered by a library moved from CD-ROM to providing databases
staff member through some electronic means (e- through the Internet. The Internet introduced new
mail, Web forms, chat, and so on) not in person possibilities and interactive technologies such as
or over the phone. e-mail, chat, and instant messaging to the refer-
In general, a digital reference service has four ence desk (Penka, 2003).
elements as follows: According to Kasowitz (2001), many libraries
and organizations have responded to an increased
1. The user of the service, need for formal methods of remote communica-
2. The interface (e-mail, Web form, chat, vid- tion between information seekers and information
eoconference, and so on), professionals by providing reference service via
3. The information professional, and the Internet, or digital reference service, to their
4. Electronic resources (including electronic users. Wasik (2003) traced the origins of digital
or CD-based resources, Web resources, reference services to the library field, where
local digitized material, and so on), as well libraries sought to augment traditional services
as print resources (Berube, 2003, p. 1) by providing reference assistance in an electronic
environment. Lankes (2000) gives five reasons for
moving to electronic reference services:
BA CKGRO UN D OF REFEREN CE
SER VICES 1. Increasing access to resources beyond the
library
Reference services have been constantly develop- 2. Lack of geographic constrains for users
ing from the traditional, to automated, to hybrid, 3. The need to differentiate services to different
and now to digital. populations of users in the face of shrinking
Technological innovation has played a key role budgets
in reference librarianship in the second half of the 4. Increases in complexity of information
twentieth century. Telephone service began to ap- resources and the need for specialized
pear alongside traditional face-to-face and postal knowledge
reference services early in the twentieth century 5. New options for answering reference ques-
(Bopp, 1995). In the 1960s, libraries began to tions (Lankes, p. 187)
explore new technologies such as microfilm and
microfiche, tapes and sound recordings. The 1970s Academic libraries were the first to provide
and 1980s brought about significant changes with digital reference services in the early 1980s
the emergence of full-text databases and electronic (Gross, McClure, & Lankes, 2001). One of the first
card catalogs in many academic, public, and spe- services to go online was the Electronic Access
cial libraries (Grohs, Reed, & Allan, 2003). to Reference Services (EARS) launched by the
Eventually the electronic catalogue data- University of Maryland Health Services Library
bases became the online public access catalogues in Baltimore in 1984 (Wasik, 2003; quoted from
(OPACs) providing local as well as remote access. Weise and Bergendale, 1986). EARS allowed
413
Reference Services in Digital Environment
patrons to make reference queries or request to Collaboration has been initiated by various
various library services via e-mail, using ter- libraries with the implementation of national,
minals either on or outside campus (Braxton & regional and international reference services.
Brunsdale, 2004). For instance, the Library of Congress began its
The number of academic and public libraries Collaborative Digital Reference Service projects
offering e-mail reference service continues to to test the provision of professional library-qual-
grow making e-mail the most common vehicle for ity reference service to users anytime anywhere
providing digital reference services. Kawakami (24 hours per day, 7 days per week), through an
(2003) noted that with the advent of the World international digital network of libraries.
Wide Web, libraries created online forms that
asked the user to input specific information such
as format type or time period and thus give the FORMA TS OF DIGI TAL REFEREN CE
librarian guidance as to what the user needed.
Libraries also posted FAQs on their Web pages Before the existence of Internet in the early
in the hopes that the user would find his question 1990s, librarians relied on the correspondence,
answered therein. FAQs however, do not have the telephone, and the fax machine to help users
an interactive component and may not address a who were unable to come in to the library for ref-
users particular question. erence service. With the advent of Internet-based
Throughout the 1990s e-mail reference be- tools, librarians now have a greatly expanded set
came increasingly important. By the early 1990s, of options (Francoeur, 2002).
Ask-A-Librarian e-mail reference services were The terms asynchronous and synchronous
common. By the mid 1990s, at least 75 % of 122 have been used by researchers to describe the
ARL (Association Research Libraries) member service delivery of digital reference (Berube,
libraries and 45 % of academic libraries offered 2003; Francoeur, 2002; Han & Goulding, 2003;
digital reference service via electronic mail or a McClennen, 2002; Wells & Hanson, 2003).
Web form (Goetsch, Sowers, & Todd, 1999; Janes The two broad categories of digital reference
et al., 1999). Digital reference services become service models are as follows:
important and effective resources for meeting
information needs of thousands of users, and the 1. Asynchronous transactions, which involves
number of the user requests to these services has time delay between the question and an-
continued to increase. By the end of the 1990s, swer.
99 % of 70 academic libraries offered e-mail a. E-mail reference
reference and 29 % offered real time reference b. Web Forms
service (Tenopir, 2001). c. Ask-A-Librarian Service
The new millennium brought the advent of 2. Synchronous transaction which takes place
live reference in academic libraries with the use in real-time with an immediate response
of chat or commercial call centre software to to the query.
communicate with users in real time. Kawakimi a. Text-based chat/online chat reference
(2003) wrote that technologies that have been b. Video-conferencing or Web-cam ser-
adapted from the commercial sector allow the vices
librarian to conduct a synchronous or real time c. Digital Reference Robots
dialogue with a user to clarify an information 3. Collaborative digital reference services
need and use application sharing to deliver in- (CDRS).
formation online.
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Reference Services in Digital Environment
ISS UES , TREN DS AN D In the same vein, McClure et al. (2002) claim
CHALLENGES IN DIGI TAL that many libraries are now providing digital refer-
REFEREN CE ence services, either as an integrated component
of their regular reference service, as a separate
There are many digital reference services avail- service, or as part of a collaborative consortium.
able at present. LiveRef at http://www.public. Many other libraries are thinking about or are
iastate.edu/~CYBERSTACKS/LiveRef.htm keeps about to implement such services. Additionally,
a registry of real-time digital reference services. an increasing number of AskA services have
Francoeur (2001) reports that as of April 2001, 272 been developed in the commercial, educational
libraries had a chat reference services in place. and non-profit sectors that are not directly affili-
Libraries in United States have spearheaded DRS ated with any specific library (e.g., AskJeeves,
and those in other countries are following suit Internet Public Library, Ask Dr. Math, Ask Joan
(Chowdhury & Margariti, 2004, p. 50). of Art, AskERIC).
In the Summer 2000 issue of Reference and Many libraries are experimenting with live
User Services Quarterly, David Lankes discussed reference service. However, it has been noted
on the overwhelming demand of AskA services that most libraries in the USA are still in the first
and other digital reference services. This demand phase even after several years experimentation
has led to the emergence of several concerns, (Tunender, 2002). Janes (2002) argued that librar-
including: ies have been providing digital reference services
for a few years and they should move on from
1. How to manage the overwhelming use of experimenting to defining new services.
digital reference services;
2. How digital reference changes library prac-
tice, such as the reference interview; and TE CHNOLOGI CAL DE VELO PMEN T
3. Software and customer service operations IN DRS
that provide real-time service. (p. 352)
Technological development is creating new ways
It is important to recognize that as the Internet for librarians to provide reference services to
issues constrain the need to re-evaluate reference remote users. Computer-based reference has
service and it is important for reference librarians significantly improved library service to con-
to continue to evolve along with it. temporary users, from the introduction of online
Gross et al. (2001) noted that despite e-mail and cataloguing databases to local and wide area
remains the main vehicle for digital reference networks to electronic reference sources. The
services in libraries, libraries are currently widespread of the Internet in the 1990s has shown
experimenting with various applications that a new era for libraries in terms of networking op-
provide synchronous interaction between the user portunities. More specifically, virtual reference
and the librarian. Several libraries, including the or Web-based reference has had a major impact
University of Michigan, University of California, on the referral function. Library Trends (vol. 50,
Irvine, and a joint project with the University of no. 2, 2001) examines the extent to which and
California, Berkerley and North Carolina State how technological advances have changed basic
University, report undertaking synchronous digi- reference practice.
tal reference using video conferencing, but these Technologies that can support synchronous
experiments have not been largely successful. digital reference can be divided into three cat-
egories:
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Reference Services in Digital Environment
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Reference Services in Digital Environment
With chat technologies and video conferencing, locations have a computer, Internet connection,
users can access information and receive real time digital camera and microphone. Videoconferenc-
guidance from librarian. ing provides benefit where both librarians and
Online chat reference is a real time conversa- users are able to speak as well as seeing each other
tion or interviews between the reference librar- during the remote reference interviews. However,
ians and the remote users or researchers using a videoconferencing will not be an option for the av-
computer and the Internet. Instant messaging erage person with a reference question. Although
software products such as AOL allow librarian to videoconferencing software can be downloaded
communicate synchronously in the shared envi- at no cost, remote users also must have a digital
ronment. Through text-based chat, the user can camera and microphone as well as someone who
type words on a keyboard and these words directly knows how to use them (Smith, 2001).
appear on the librarians computer monitor. With By implementing collaborative digital refer-
voice chat, user can communicate by speaking ence services, the institutions can get many ben-
or by typing and either their voice or their typed efits, such as sharing of expertise and resources,
words are transmitted to the librarians computer. expanding hours of service and providing access
Examples of how a library could use online chat to a larger collection of knowledge resulting from
are to have a link stated Chat with a Librarian or digital reference services (e.g., question-answer
Click for life help on the library home pages with archives).
text around the link informing users the hours
online chat reference service is available.
The main benefit of using online chat reference CON CL USION
is that it happens in real time whereby as soon
as a user types a query, the question appears on Reference and information services have always
the librarians monitor. The librarian can respond been the main element of library services. They
promptly simply by typing. The librarian can ask provide personalized assistance to library users
for clarification and receive a quick response for in accessing suitable information resources to
the vague question. Once the request is clear, the meet their needs. Over time, various technologi-
librarian can immediately answer the question or cal developments have affected the provision of
indicate that research is needed. reference services especially after the introduction
However, online chat services can be avail- of online library services. Librarians should take
able only when a reference librarian is on duty, full advantage of e-mail, Web, and other means
so remote researchers would not be able to send of digital reference services in this digital library
reference requests anytime throughout the day environment.
as they could with e-mail or Web form reference
services. There should be a mechanism alerting
librarians that someone has initiated a chat session, REFEREN CES
such as beep, librarians would have to monitor
their computer screens constantly, which would Abels, E.G. (1996). The e-mail reference interview.
be inconvenient. RQ, 35(Spring), 348.
Videoconferencing or Web-cam for reference
Berube, L. (2003). Digital reference overview: An
services is where video and audio are delivered in
issue paper from the networked services policy
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Desktop videoconferencing requires that both
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Bopp, R.E., & Smith, L.C. (Eds.). (2001). Refer- Gross, M., McClure, C.R., & Lankes, R.D. (2001).
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Braxton, S.M., & Brunsdale, M. (2004). E-mail
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The Reference Librarian, 85, 1931. reference services in the digital library. Informa-
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Chowdhury, G.G. (2002). Digital libraries and
Janes, J. (2002). What is reference for? Retrieved
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Chowdhury, G.G., & Chowdhury, S. (2003). htm
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Lam, K. (2003). Exploring virtual reference: What
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(Eds.). (2000). Digital reference service in the The Reference Librarian, 93, 99108.
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(2003, April) Digital reference triage: Factors
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KEY TERMS
reference services. Information Processing and
Management, 40, 347363.
Ask-A-Librarian Service: Usually provides a
Smith, B. (2001). Enhancing reference services free, quick reference service and the basic answers
through technology. In J.D. Edwards (Ed.), to brief, factual questions.
Emerging Solutions in Reference Services: Im-
Collaborative Digital Reference Service:
plications for Libraries in the New Millennium.
Where two or more libraries team up to offer
New York: The Haworth Information Press. Su,
reference services using any of the digital refer-
S.S. (2002). Web-based reference services: The
ence services format.
user intermediary interaction perspective. In G.E.
Gorman (Ed.), The Digital Factor in Library and Digital Reference Robots: Use of artificial
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Facet Publishing. stance, the Ask Jeeves service that is available
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Tenopir, C. (2001). Virtual reference services in a
real world. Library Journal, 126(11), 3840.
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Reference Services in Digital Environment
Digital Reference Services: A concept that Reference Services: Refer to the provision
shows reference services delivered electronically, of information to people entering a library and
often in real-time, where the users employ comput- requesting assistance from the library staff or in
ers or other Internet technology to communicate short personal assistance provided to library users
with reference staff, without being physically seeking for information.
present in the library.
Video Conferencing: This form of digital
E-Mail Reference: A main format of digital reference is where librarians and users are able to
reference services where user sends the library see each other in the monitor through a camera.
an e-mail with a reference query and the library
Web Forms: The forms which pops up when
may reply by e-mail, telephone, correspondence,
user clicks on a button on the librarys Web sites.
and so on.
The question can be typed in with other specific
Online Chat Reference: or instant messaging information and then sent to the library by click-
is where librarians and users can talk to each ing on a send button.
other in real-time in the Internet using special
text-based software.
420
421
Chapter XLIII
USGS Digital Libraries for
Coastal and Marine Science
Frances L. Lightsom
U.S. Geological Survey, USGS Woods Hole Science Center, USA
Alan O. Allwardt
ETI Professionals, USGS Pacific Science Center, USA
A bs tra ct
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has developed three related digital libraries providing access to
topical and georeferenced information for coastal and marine science: the Marine Realms Information
Bank (MRIB) and its two offshoots, the Monterey Bay Science Digital Library and Coastal Change
Hazards Digital Library. These three members of the MRIB family run on the same software and share
a common database, but they employ different user interfaces targeting different audiences. This chapter
reviews (1) distributed geolibraries, the conceptual foundation for MRIB, (2) the modular software of
MRIB, permitting the rapid development of customized user interfaces, and (3) the Electronic Index Card
(EIC) Creation Utility, encouraging users to contribute new metadata records to the MRIB database.
The accompanying discussion addresses several challenges facing digital library developers: providing
for scalability in the system; ensuring interoperability with other systems; and meeting the demands of
characterizing information while facilitating its search and retrieval.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
USGS Digital Libraries for Coastal and Marine Science
formation about oceans, coasts, and coastal California (Figure 2). The MBS user inter-
watersheds. MRIB encourages its users to face, released in 2004, serves as a model for
discover these information resources by any regionally focused digital library based
browsing a faceted classification with twelve on the MRIB software architecture.
main categories, including author, agency, 3. The newest addition to the CMGP digital
discipline, feature type, named location, library system is the Coastal Change Haz-
and hot topics (Figure 1). MRIB was also ards (CCH) Digital Library (http://mrib.usgs.
one of the first digital libraries to utilize in- gov/cch/), released in 2006. The specialized
teractive maps for searching and retrieving CCH user interface (Figure 3) focuses on
georeferenced information. natural hazards and human impacts in the
2. The geographic search capabilities of MRIB coastal zone and replaces the MRIB hot
were ideally suited for creating the Monterey topics with a more specific topical clas-
Bay Science (MBS) Digital Library (http:// sification. Crosswalks between the MRIB
mrib.usgs.gov/mbs/), a regional pilot project and CCH topical classifications ensure that
providing access to scientific information online resources originally cataloged for one
about the Monterey Bay National Marine interface can be searched and retrieved us-
Sanctuary and coastal watersheds of central ing the other interface. The Coastal Change
Figure 1. The Marine Realms Information Bank (MRIB), featuring three search options: by category,
location, and keyword. The Submit a Document link at the bottom of the page connects the user to
the Electronic Index Card (EIC) Creation Utility
422
USGS Digital Libraries for Coastal and Marine Science
Figure 2. The Monterey Bay Science (MBS) Digital Library, a regionally focused member of the Marine
Realms Information Bank (MRIB) family. The customized MBS user interface provides access to about
one-fourth of the MRIB database
Figure 3. The Coastal Change Hazards (CCH) Digital Library, a topically focused member of the Marine
Realms Information Bank (MRIB) family. The customized CCH user interface provides access to about
one-third of the MRIB database
423
USGS Digital Libraries for Coastal and Marine Science
Hazards Digital Library serves as a model information resources (see Jane, Frew, & Hill,
for any topically focused digital library based 2004). Another successful Web-based system for
on the MRIB software architecture. organizing and accessing georeferenced infor-
mation is the 4DGeoBrowser, developed at the
These three closely related digital libraries, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (Lerner
which run on the same software and share a & Maffei, 2001). The flexible 4DGeoBrowser
common database, constitute the MRIB family of software has been used to create more than a
digital libraries. In the discussion that follows, the dozen separate Web applications serving the
term MRIB will be used in a generic sense for oceanographic community, including the initial
all three members of the family, whereas Marine version of the Marine Realms Information Bank
Realms Information Bank will refer specifically (see http://4dgeo.whoi.edu/ for links to these
to the parent interface. individual applications). Related research on the
design of coastal Web atlases is summarized in
ODea, Cummins, Wright, Dwyer, and Ameztoy
BA CKGRO UN D (2007), with links to several examples.
424
USGS Digital Libraries for Coastal and Marine Science
Most of the online resources cataloged in The modular software architecture of MRIB
MRIB are georeferenced and thus searchable (Figure 4) has permitted rapid development of
by map coordinates or place name. The MRIB two customized user interfaces (in addition to the
gazetteer currently lists more than 1,700 place original interface): the regionally focused Mon-
names along with their rectangular bounding terey Bay Science (MBS) Digital Library and the
boxes (see http://mrib.usgs.gov/meta/location.txt). topically focused Coastal Change Hazards (CCH)
Subcategories in the gazetteer include oceans, Digital Library. Crosswalks between the general-
continents, geopolitical units, administrative units ized topical classification employed by the Marine
(exclusive economic zones, marine sanctuaries, Realms Information Bank (MRIB hot topics) and
and hydrologic regions), and marine cadastres. the specialized topical classification employed by
The three basic search operationstopical, the Coastal Change Hazards Digital Library (CCH
geographic, and keywordcan be applied repeat- topics) ensure full interoperability between these
edly, in any combination, until the search param- interfaces. In the MRIB topical hierarchy there are
eters are appropriately focused. At each stage of four top-level terms: Environment; Hazards and
this process MRIB displays the search results in Disasters; Resources; and Science and Scientists.
browsable tables or interactive maps (at the users In contrast, the CCH topical hierarchy has three,
discretion) and provides links to the original online very different top-level terms: Agents of Coastal
resources. The map view allows users to display Change; Effects of Coastal Change; and Human
search results in a variety of spatial contexts by Responses to Coastal Change. Nevertheless, many
selecting the desired background map layers: specific topics can be found at the lower levels
latitude and longitude grid lines, political units, of both hierarchies: Hurricanes and Typhoons;
exclusive economic zones, marine cadastres, and Tsunamis; Climate Change; Saltwater Intrusion;
coastal hydrologic regions. Experience has sug- and so on. Constructing the crosswalks, therefore,
gested that a lightweight GIS functionality of was simply a matter of mapping semantically
this type is ideal for georeferenced digital libraries equivalent pigeonholes from one topical hier-
with a varied clientele (see Jane et al., 2004). archy to the other. In operation, this process is
Figure 4. MRIB software architecture, illustrating the modular design that permits the rapid development
of customized user interfaces like the Monterey Bay Science Digital Library and the Coastal Change
Hazards Digital Library (see figures 2 and 3)
425
USGS Digital Libraries for Coastal and Marine Science
transparent to the user and allows a single MRIB ous controlled-vocabulary and free-text metadata
database to be searched from two different topical fields. Users can open personal MRIB accounts,
perspectives. with password-protected files and directories
All digital libraries that provide access to in- for arranging the provisional EICs they have
formation on other servers will be plagued, sooner submitted. These accounts allow user-contribu-
or later, by dead links: much of the information tors to preview, rearrange, edit, or delete their
found online is, by nature, ephemeral (Nelson & own cards prior to final approval by the MRIB
Allen, 2002). To combat this problem MRIB has Team (as well as update cards after approval).
incorporated software to detect standard 404 error The MRIB Team reviews all user contributions
messages (Not Found), but this measure solves for suitability and accuracy before incorporating
only part of the problem. Many Webmasters em- them into the public database. As this database
ploy soft 404 messages, whereby invalid Web grows, user participation will become even more
addresses redirect to a valid Web page offering important for updating old metadata records and
a customized error message (Were sorry, but weeding out dead links that the MRIB software
the page you requested cannot be found ). is unable to detect.
Alternatively, invalid addresses for lower-level
Web pages might simply redirect to the home Software Specifications
page; Webmasters often resort to this tactic when
they overhaul the URL syntax for their Web sites, MRIB has been created with open-source software
in order to help long-time users adjust to the and open standards in the public domain. The code
sudden change. While soft 404 messages may base of MRIB is written in Perl, version 5.8.8
have merits (tips for re-navigating are usually (http://www.perl.com/). Generic Mapping Tools
offered), they do complicate the task of writing (GMT), version 4.1.1 (http://gmt.soest.hawaii.
programs to detect dead links automatically. For edu/), with modifications by the MRIB program-
this reason, the MRIB cataloger still relies upon mer, Guthrie Linck, is used to generate the base
labor-intensive inspection (and blind luck) to maps and data plots. Elevation data from several
find and remove many dead links. Occasionally sources are used in conjunction with GMT: the
a dead link can even be resurrected (in a sense) ETOPO1 one-minute global relief database (http://
by finding a cached version of the Web page in www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/global/global.html); the
the Internet Archive (http://www.archive.org/). SRTM 1- and 3-arc-second land data (http://srtm.
The MRIB cataloger has employed this strategy usgs.gov/); and the NGDC 3-arc-second coastal
to re-establish access to a few online documents relief model for the conterminous United States,
with enduring value. Hawaii, and Puerto Rico (http://www.ngdc.noaa.
Although the MRIB Team compiled the ini- gov/mgg/coastal/coastal.html). Map images are
tial catalog and will continue adding entries, the available in JPEG (the default), GIF, and PNG
creators of scientific information can be uniquely formats. The MRIB public Webserver is a dual
qualified to catalog their own online resources 2.4 GHz processor running the Apache HyperText
(especially in complex or newly emerging fields Transfer Protocol (HTTP) server, version 2.2.3
of research). Consequently, MRIB encourages its (http://www.apache.org/), along with the Apache
users to submit new metadata records with the perl module (mod_perl, version 2.0.2). The oper-
Electronic Index Card (EIC) Creation Utility, a ating system is Ubuntu Linux 8.04 (http://www.
series of online forms and menus for the numer- ubuntu.com/).
426
USGS Digital Libraries for Coastal and Marine Science
F UTURE DIRE CTIONS noted by Bates (1998): most users can recognize
the information they need more readily than they
Bates (1998, 2002) discusses digital library de- can recall it. As the MRIB database has grown,
sign in the context of fundamental research by however, the original goal of creating precise,
information scientists over a period of several domain-specific resource descriptions has had an
decades. One important design consideration is unintended consequence: the controlled vocabu-
the scalability of the system, an issue that can laries for most of the twelve facets have become
manifest itself in subtle ways. For instance, will so long and complex that browsing them raises
a controlled vocabulary initially designed for a serious usability issues for both the indexer and
small digital library function as intended in a much the user. Thus, the decision has been made to
larger system? Will a particular search strategy simplify these controlled vocabularies (with some
remain effective when the digital library grows? obvious exceptions, such as the author list).
Along these lines, Bates argues that domain size, These changes in the MRIB metadata scheme
both current and projected, should be taken into will also (1) improve interoperability with the
consideration when designing search services for a more generalized topical categories of the USGS
digital library: browsing is feasible only in a small Thesaurus (http://www.usgs.gov/science/) and (2)
domain; directed searching becomes necessary facilitate harvesting through a federated service
as the domain increases in size; and linking is such as the Open Archives Initiative (see Lagoze
especially effective in a very large domain (e.g., & Van de Sompel, 2001). Achieving these goals
the Internet). will require striking the proper balance between
MRIB allows its users to employ browsing, the finely granular metadata required for domain-
directed searching, and linking at different stages specific resource description and the coarsely
of the search process. The MRIB database is large granular metadata appropriate for cross-domain
enough to require directed searching (topical, search and retrieval (Lagoze, 2001).
geographic, or keyword) of its metadata records To improve geographic searching, the rect-
in order to retrieve a manageable subset that can angular latitude-longitude bounding boxes in
be easily browsed. One form of linking is obvi- the MRIB gazetteer will be soon replaced with
ous, of coursewhen the user visits an external polygonal footprints in order to eliminate many
information resource for which MRIB provides a of the false drops inherent in the current system.
metadata record. Viewed as a search mechanism, Most of North America, for example, falls within
however, linking is indirect (and serendipitous) the bounding box for the Pacific Ocean. Conse-
in a distributed digital library like MRIB: the quently, a gazetteer search for the Pacific Ocean
external resources themselves may provide links yields more than 50% false drops because of the
to additional online information that has not been numerous hits for the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of
indexed in the library. North America. This example may be extreme
Browsing serves another function in MRIB, because of the peculiar shape of the Pacific basin,
and here the need for additional fine-tuning has but it serves to illustrate a general problem for
become apparent. The faceted classification any georeferencing system relying upon bound-
includes twelve categories, each with a detailed ing boxes that are necessary but not sufficient to
controlled vocabulary designed for precise, do- define irregular geographic areas.
main-specific resource description. By browsing With appropriate modifications, MRIB soft-
these vocabulary lists the user selects as many ware could accommodate geospatial information
topical subcategories as are needed to narrow from a wide range of natural and social sciences.
the search. The underlying principle is simple, as The MRIB content metadata standard and soft-
427
USGS Digital Libraries for Coastal and Marine Science
428
USGS Digital Libraries for Coastal and Marine Science
Report 03-240). Retrieved August 29, 2008, from and informatics, Trans-Atlantic Workshop 1:
http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2003/of03-240/ Potentials and limitations of coastal Web atlases.
Cork, Ireland: University College Cork. Retrieved
Jane, G., Frew, J., & Hill, L.L. (2004, May).
August 29, 2008, from http://workshop1.science.
Issues in georeferenced digital libraries. D-Lib
oregonstate.edu/final_rpt
Magazine, 10(5). Retrieved August 29, 2008, from
http://www.dlib.org/dlib/may04/janee/05janee. Panel on Distributed Geolibraries, National Re-
html search Council. (1999). Distributed geolibraries:
Spatial information resources, summary of a
Lagoze, C. (2001, January). Keeping Dublin Core
workshop. Washington, DC: National Academy
simple: Cross-domain discovery or resource
Press.
description? D-Lib Magazine, 7(1). Retrieved
August 29, 2008, from http://www.dlib.org/dlib/ U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy. (2004).
january01/lagoze/01lagoze.html An ocean blueprint for the 21st century: Final
report. Washington, DC: U.S. Commission on
Lagoze, C., Krafft, D.B., Payette, S., & Jesuroga,
Ocean Policy.
S. (2005, November). What is a digital library
anymore, anyway? D-Lib Magazine, 11(1). Re-
trieved August 29, 2008, from http://www.dlib.
org/dlib/november05/lagoze/11lagoze.html KEY TERMS
Lagoze, C., & Van de Sompel, H. (2001). The
Controlled Vocabulary: A list of preferred
Open Archives Initiative: Building a low-barrier
terms for indexing information resources, ide-
interoperability framework. In Proceedings of the
ally with precise definitions and guidelines for
1st ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital
application.
Libraries (JCDL 2001) (pp. 5462). New York:
ACM Press. Crosswalk: A semantic mapping between the
elements of two metadata standards, facilitating
Lerner, S., & Maffei, A. (2001). 4DGeoBrowser: A
interoperability.
Web-based data browser and server for accessing
and analyzing multi-disciplinary data (Technical Distributed Geolibrary: In the online envi-
Report WHOI-2001-13). Woods Hole, MA: Woods ronment, a distributed geolibrary allows patrons
Hole Oceanographic Institution. to search centralized metadata records for infor-
mation about specific places and then retrieve the
Marincioni, F., Lightsom, F.L., Riall, R.L., Linck,
original online resources from servers distributed
G.A., Aldrich, T.C., & Caruso, M.J. (2004).
across the Internet.
Integrating digital information for coastal and
marine sciences. Journal of Digital Information Faceted Classification: An indexing system
Management, 2(3), 132141. that employs several mutually exclusive metadata
fields to characterize information resources.
Nelson, M.L., & Allen, B.D. (2002, January).
Object persistence and availability in digital li- False Drop: An instance of retrieving informa-
braries. D-Lib Magazine, 8(1). Retrieved August tion that is not relevant to a given search.
29, 2008, from http://www.dlib.org/dlib/janu-
Gazetteer: In the traditional sense, a gazetteer
ary02/nelson/01nelson.html
is a dictionary of place names. Digital gazetteers,
ODea, L., Cummins, V., Wright, D., Dwyer, N., in contrast, link place names to specific bounding
& Ameztoy, I. (2007). Report on coastal mapping boxes or polygonal footprints for the purposes of
map display or information retrieval.
429
USGS Digital Libraries for Coastal and Marine Science
430
431
Chapter XLIV
Digital Preservation
Stephan Strodl
Vienna University of Technology, Austria
Christoph Becker
Vienna University of Technology, Austria
Andreas Rauber
Vienna University of Technology, Austria
A bs tra ct
The rapid ongoing changes in software and hardware put digital information at risk. The challenge is
to keep electronic data accessible, viewable, and usable for the future when the original software to
interpret them has become unavailable. Digital preservation has thus turned into on of the most pressing
challenges not only within the digital library community, but also in other areas such as archives and
data centres. This chapter introduces the concepts and challenges in the field of digital preservation
including the OAIS reference model. We give an overview about the projects and initiatives worldwide
dealing with this challenge. We furthermore present preservation planning as a key concept at the heart
of preservation endeavours in detail.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Digital Preservation
Digital preservation deals with the long-term risks for a migration project (Lawrence, Kehoe,
storage and access to digital objects. The Digital Rieger, & Walters, 2000).
Preservation Coalition defines it as the series of Emulation as the second important strategy is a
managed activities necessary to ensure contin- means of overcoming technological obsolescence
ued access to digital materials and adds that it of hardware and software by developing tech-
refers to all of the actions required to maintain niques for imitating obsolete systems on future
access to digital materials beyond the limits of generations of computers (Jones & Beagrie, 2002).
media failure or technological change (Jones & Jeff Rothenberg (Rothenberg, 1999) envisions a
Beagrie, 2002). The focus lies on born digital framework of an ideal preservation surrounding.
objects, not digitisation, which is a challenging The Universal Virtual Computer (UVC) concept
field in itself (Digicult, 2004). (Van der Hoeven, Van der Diessen, & Van En
Rosenthal (Rosenthal, Robertson, Lipkis, Meer, 2005) uses elements of both migration
Reich, & Morabito, 2005) describes requirements and emulation, allowing digital objects to be
for digital preservation systems. A range of tools reconstructed in their original appearance. The
exists today to support the variety of preservation UVC is independent of any existing hardware or
strategies such as migration or emulation. Yet, software, it simulates a basic architecture includ-
different preservation requirements across insti- ing memory, register and rules. An emerging
tutions and settings make the decision on which approach of emulation is modular emulation.
solution to implement very difficult. Jeffrey van der Hoeven presented the modular
In this chapter, we give an overview about the emulator called Dioscuri in (Van der Hoeven
current state of the art, the major challenges as & Wijngaarden, 2005). It imitates the hardware
well as proposed solutions in digital preservation. environment by emulating the components of
We will further highlight current research activi- the hardware architecture. Each hardware com-
ties in this field, with a specific focus on planning ponents is run as individual emulators and the
and evaluating preservation strategies. components are assembled in order to create a
full emulation process.
Several other preservation strategies have been
The Curren t State of proposed. The Computer Museum is based on
R esear ch preserving the technical environment that runs
the system, including the hardware, the operat-
The companion document to the UNESCO char- ing system, original application software, media
ter for the preservation of the digital heritage drives, etc. Another approach is Normalisation,
(UNESCO, 2003a) provides a good overview of a technique for the collection of different file
preservation strategies. Research on technical formats, which are converted to a single chosen
preservation issues is focused on two dominant file format (CLIR & LoC, 2002).
strategiesmigration and emulation. Migration Several common file formats are being adapted
requires the repeated copy or conversion of digital to achieve more stable long-term archiving. The
objects from one technology to a more stable or most relevant is probably PDF/A, which defines a
current, be it hardware or software. Each migra- subset of PDF optimized for long-term preserva-
tion incurs certain risks and preserves only a tion (ISO, 2004). Other examples are the Open
certain fraction of the characteristics of a digital Document Format for Office Applications (ISO,
object. The Council of Library and Information 2006) and MPEG-7 (ISO, 2002).
Resources (CLIR) published different kinds of Metadata became a heavily debated issue in
the field of digital preservation. Initiatives in the
432
Digital Preservation
field of metadata are Dublin Core1, METS2 and The National Digital Information Infra-
Premis3. structure and Preservation Program (NDIIPP)
For stable long-term management of digital collects, archives and preserves the burgeoning
collections persistent identifiers are required. An amounts of digital content for current and future
overview about persistent identifier activities are generations.4
provided in (Hilse & Kothe, 2006). The Arts and Humanities Data Service
A number of tools and services have been (AHDS) and the University of London Computer
developed that perform content characterization Centre started the DAAT Project (Digital Asset
specifically for digital preservation. The National Assessment Tool) (ULCC, 2006) to develop a
Library of New Zealand Metadata Extraction tool to identify the preservation needs of various
Tool (National Library of New Zealand, 2007) digital holdings.
extracts preservation metadata for various input PREMIS (Preservation Metadata Implementa-
file formats. Harvard University Librarys tool tion Strategies) is a joint effort of the Research
JHove (Harvard University Library, 2007) enables Libraries Group (RLG) and the library consortium
the identification and characterisation of digital OCLC (Online Computer Library Center). Aim
objects. An emerging approach for characterisa- of the project is the development and recom-
tion is the family of eXtensible Characterisation mendation of best practices for implementing
Languages (XCL) (Becker, Rauber, Heydegger, preservation metadata.5
Schnasse, & Thaller, 2008). It supports the au- PRONOM is a file format repository which
tomatic validation of document conversions and provides technical information about electronic
the evaluation of migration quality by hierarchi- records. Currently the fourth version of PRONOM
cally decomposing a document and representing is available. This initiative also develops automatic
documents from different sources in an abstract file format identification tool named DROID
XML language. (Digital Record Object Identification).6
The Reference Model for an Open Archival PANIC (Preservation Webservices Architec-
Information System (OAIS) ((CCSDS), 2002) was ture for Newmedia and Interactive Collections)
published 2002 by the Consultative Committee for addresses the challenges of integrating and lev-
Space Data Systems (CCSDS) and adopted as ISO eraging services and tools into a Preservation
standard ISO 14721:2003 (ISO, 2003). It has proven Services Architecture. Also the comparison of
to be a very useful high-level reference model, different preservation strategies for multimedia
describing participants, roles and responsibilities data and the development of recommendations
as well as the exchange of information. Because and guidelines for multimedia content are part
of its growing acceptance in the community, the of PANIC (Hunter & Choudhury, 2006).7
OAIS model is the most common framework CAMiLEON is developing and evaluating a
for digital preservation systems. The model is range of technical strategies for the long term
described in detail in the next section. preservation of digital materials. One of the
Many projects and initiatives worldwide deal projects is the comparison between Emulation
with the challenge of digital preservation and and Migration. The project is a joint undertaking
providing services and information. Because of between the Universities of Michigan (USA) and
the enormous increase in interest, the number of Leeds (UK) and is funded by JISC and NSF.8
projects is growing rapidly. The following section PADI (Preserving Access to Digital Infor-
can thus only present an incomplete overview, mation) is an initiative started by The National
which is not meant to be an assessment. Library of Australia that aims to provide mecha-
nisms to ensure that information in digital form
433
Digital Preservation
is managed with appropriate consideration for part of the EU-funded DELOS Network of Excel-
preservation and future access.9 lence on Digital Libraries16, was the establishment
The LOCKSS10 program (Lots of Copies Keep of testbeds and validation metrics. The DELOS
Stuff Safe) has developed a peer-to-peer system Digital Preservation Testbed (Strodl, Rauber,
using the world wide Web for preserving archival Rauch, Hofman, Debole, & Amato, 2006) allows
information. The first version was launched in the selection of the most suitable preservation
1999. LOCKSS is an open source software that strategy for individual requirements by combining
deploys a large number of independent, low-cost, a structured workflow for requirements specifica-
persistent and accessible Web caches. It allows tion and evaluation by means of a standardised
the peers to cooperatively detect and repair dam- testbed laboratory infrastructure.17
aged content. For obsolete file formats LOCKSS PLANETS (Permanent Long-term Access
supports a format migration(Rosenthal, Lipkis, through Networked Services) develops systems
Robertson, & Morabito, 2005). and tools which support the accessibility and use
The Portico project11 was launched in 2002 by of digital cultural and scientific resources. More
JSTOR12 to archive electronic publications. Portico specifically, the project is developing methods and
receives the source files from the publishers and tools based on a distributed service infrastruc-
systematically normalises the source to an archival ture on which services for preservation action,
format based upon the NLM Archive and Inter- preservation characterization and preservation
change DTD (National Center for Biotechnology planning can be coordinated and combined with
Information, 2007). each other. The PLANETS Testbed will use this
The Digital Curation Centre (DCC) supports framework to provide a stable foundation for
UK institutions in storing, managing and preserv- testing different preservation actions in a well-
ing data. The aim of the project is to establish defined setting.18 The decision support software
community relationships and develop services Plato uses this stable foundation to evaluate the
for digital preservation.13 suitability for a given purpose of preservation ac-
The Digital Preservation Coalition (DPC) aims tions according to institution-specific criteria in a
to secure the preservation of digital resources in controlled and automated way and thus build the
the UK. DPC hosts the Digital Preservation Award basis for specifying well-defined and accountable
to bestow leading and advanced digital preserva- preservation plans.
tion projects. DPC, in cooperation with PADI, Digital Preservation Europe (DPE) is a
publish a quarterly current awareness digest.14 coordinated Action of the EU 6th framework
The Electronic Resource Preservation and program bringing together leading institutions
Access Network (ERPANET) established a Eu- and researchers to provide a coherent platform
ropean Consortium bringing together memory for research and collaboration. Aspects covered
organisations (museums, libraries and archives), by DPE include audit and certification, and the
ICT and software industry, research institu- establishment of a research roadmap. DPE is
tions, and government organizations to provide conducting a yearly Digital Preservation Chal-
a knowledge-base of developments in the area of lenge with the aim to raise the profile of digital
preservation of cultural heritage and scientific preservation among researchers and foster aware-
digital objects.15 ness of the issues the community is facing. DPE
Several projects in this domain have been also initiated the Digital Preservation Europe
initiated under the 6th framework program of the Exchange Program (DPEX), which supports the
European Union. One of the main objectives of exchange of researchers in the field of digital
the DELOS Digital Preservation Cluster, which is preservation.19
434
Digital Preservation
CASPAR (Cultural, Artistic and Scientific Information Package (SIP). The Ingest module
knowledge for Preservation, Access and Retrieval) provides the services and functions to accept
is targeted at implementing, extending, and vali- SIPs from Producers. It further performs quality
dating the OAIS reference model.20 assurance and generates an Archival Information
Package (AIP) complying to the archives stan-
dards. Ingest also extracts descriptive information
The OAIS R eferen ce Mo del from the AIPs and coordinates updates to Archival
Storage and Data Management.
The Reference Model for an Open Archival Archival Storage stores, maintains and re-
Information System (OAIS) was published in trieves AIPs, while Data Management populates,
2002 by the Consultative Committee for Space maintains and accesses descriptive information
Data Systems (CCSDS). ISO 14721:2003 defines about archived objects as well as administrative
an OAIS as: data. Every action inside the archive that affects
the object is added to the metadata of the AIP.
an archive, consisting of an organization of people The Access component is responsible for
and systems, that has accepted supporting consumers in finding, requesting and
the responsibility to preserve information and receiving information stored in the system. Access
make it available for a Designated functions include access control, coordinating
Community.((CCSDS), 2002) requests, generating responses as Dissemination
Information Packages (DIPs) and delivering the
The OAIS model: responses to Consumers.
The Preservation Planning entity monitors the
provides a framework for describing and compar- environment and provides recommendations to
ing different long term preservation ensure the long-term accessibility of the stored
strategies and techniques.((CCSDS), 2002) information. This includes monitoring and evalu-
ation of the archive and periodical recommenda-
Figure 1 shows the main functional compo- tions on archival updates for migration. A central
nents of the model. When a producer submits a component is the development of preservation
digital object into the system, it has to be packaged strategies and standards as well as packaging
together with required metadata as a Submission designs and plans.
435
Digital Preservation
436
Digital Preservation
The objective tree is usually created in a work- important, and the alternatives are ranked.
shop setting with experts from different domains The stability of the final ranking is anal-
contributing to the requirements gathering process. ysed with respect to minor changes in the
The tree documents the individual preservation weighting and performance of the individual
requirements of an institution for a given partially objectives using Sensitivity Analysis. The
homogeneous collection of objects. Examples results are finally evaluated by taking non-
include scientific papers and dissertations in PDF measurable influences on the decision into
format, historic audio recordings, or video hold- account. After this analysis, a clear and well
ings from ethnographic studies. Typical trees may argued accountable recommendation for one
contain between 50 to several hundred objectives, of the alternatives can be made.
usually organised in 46 hierarchy levels. In order to simplify the process, to guide us-
Measurable effects are assigned to the ob- ers and to automate the process of conducting
jectives that have been defined in the previous experiments, a software tool called Plato is
step. Wherever possible, these effects should be being developed. This tool implements the
objectively measurable (e.g., e per year, frames above described workflow, while validat-
per second). In some cases, (semi-) subjective ing user input and improving automation
scales will need to be employed (e.g., degrees through the integration of automated ser-
of openness and stability, support of a stan- vices such as object format identification
dard, degree of file format adoption, and so on). and risk assessment. Thus it supports the
documentation and improves the automation
2. Evaluate alternatives identifies and evaluates of the preservation planning workflow.
potential alternatives. The alternatives char-
acteristics and technical details are specified;
then the resources for the experiments are Con cl usion an d Futu re
selected, the required tools set up, and a set Tren ds
of experiments is performed. Based on the
requirements defined in the beginning, the While the last decade showed significant ad-
results of the experiments are evaluated to vances in research and practice, there a still many
determine the degree to which the require- challenges left to overcome. Among them is the
ments defined in the objective tree were application of existing approaches to large-scale
met. repositories, cross-institutional and interdisciplin-
3. Consider results aggregates the results of ary collaboration, and the concretisation of the
the experiments to make them comparable. OAIS model. An overview of a research agenda
The measurements taken in the experiments in the digital preservation landscape is given in
might all have different scales. In order to the DPE Research Roadmap (DigitalPreservatio-
make these comparable, they are trans- nEurope, 2006).
formed to a uniform scale using transforma-
tion tables. The resulting scale might, for
example, range from 0 to 5. A value of 0 R eferen ces
would in this case denote an unacceptable
result and thus serve as a drop-out criterion Becker, C., Rauber, A., Heydegger, V., Schnasse,
for the whole preservation alternative. J., & Thaller, M. (2008). A generic xml language
4. Then the importance factors are set, as not for characterising objects to support digital
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Digital Preservation
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change (Jones & Beagrie, 2002).
Strodl, S., Becker, C., Neumayer, R., & Rauber,
Emulation: A means of overcoming techno-
A. (2007). How to choose a digital preservation
logical obsolescence of hardware and software
strategy: Evaluating a preservation planning
by developing techniques for imitating obsolete
procedure. In Proceedings of the 7th ACM IEEE
systems on future generations of computers (Jones
Joint Conference on Digital Libraries (JCDL07)
& Beagrie, 2002).
(pp. 2938). New York: ACM.
Migration: A means of overcoming tech-
Strodl, S., Rauber, A., Rauch, C., Hofman,
nological obsolescence by transferring digital
H., Debole, F., & Amato, G. (2006, November
resources from one hardware/software generation
2730). The DELOS test bed for choosing a digi-
to the next (Jones & Beagrie, 2002).
tal preservation strategy. In Proceedings of the
9th International Conference on Asian Digital OAIS: Model Reference Model for an Open
Libraries (ICADL 2006) (pp. 323332). Berlin, Archival Information System ((CCSDS), 2002).
Heidelberg: Springer.
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Digital Preservation
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441
Chapter XLV
Visual Pattern Based
Compressed Domain Image
Retrieval
Gerald Schaefer
Aston University, UK
A bs tra ct
While image retrieval and image compression have been pursued separately in the past, compressed
domain techniques, which allow processing or retrieval of images without prior decompression, are
becoming increasingly important. In this chapter we show that such midstream content access is pos-
sible and present a compressed domain retrieval method based on a visual pattern based compression
algorithm. Experiments conducted on a medium sized image database demonstrate the effectiveness and
efficiency of the presented approach.
IN TRO DUCTION Often these features are stored alongside the im-
ages which seems counterintuitive to the original
With the rise of the Internet and the availability need for compression. The desire for techniques
of affordable digital imaging devices, the need that operate directly in the compressed domain
for content-based image retrieval (CBIR) is ever providing, so-called midstream content access, is
increasing. While many methods have been sug- therefore evident (Picard, 1994). Colour Visual
gested in the literature only few take into account Pattern Image Coding (CVPIC) is one of the first
the fact thatdue to limited resources such as so-called 4th criterion image compression algo-
disk space and bandwidthvirtually all images rithms (Schaefer & Qiu, 2000; Schaefer, Qiu, &
are stored in compressed form. In order to process Luo, 1999). A 4th criterion algorithm allowsin
them for CBIR they first need to be uncompressed addition to the classic three image coding criteria
and the features calculated in the pixel domain. of image quality, efficiency, and bitratethe im-
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Visual Pattern Based Compressed Domain Image Retrieval
age data to be queried and processed directly in that within a 4 4 image block only one discon-
its compressed form; in other words the image tinuity is visually perceptible.
data is directly meaningful without the require- CVPIC first performs a conversion to the
ment of a decoding step. The data that is readily CIEL*a*b* colour space (CIE, 1986) as a more
available in CVPIC compressed images is the appropriate image representation. As many other
colour information of each of the 4 4 blocks colour spaces, CIEL*a*b* comprises one lumi-
the image has been divided into, and information nance and two chrominance channels. CIEL*a*b*
on the spatial characteristics of each block, in however, was designed to be a uniform representa-
particular on whether a given block is identified tion, meaning that equal differences in the colour
as a uniform block (a block with no or little varia- space correspond to equal perceptual differences.
tion) or a pattern block (a block where an edge or A quantitative measurement of these colour dif-
gradient has been detected). ferences was defined using the Euclidean distance
In this chapter we show how to make direct use in the L*a*b* space and is given in E units.
of this information and present an image retrieval A set of 14 patterns of 4 4 pixels has been
algorithm that allows for efficient and effective defined in (Chen & Bovic, 1990). All these patterns
retrieval directly in the compressed domain of contain one edge at various orientations (vertical,
CVPIC. We utilise the fact that colour and edge horizontal, plus and minus 45) as can be seen
information is readily available in CVPIC and in Figure 1 where + and represent different
extract these features with suitable methods. In- intensities. In addition a uniform pattern where
tegrating the two scores achieves image retrieval all intensities are equal is being used.
based on both (spatial) colour and shape aspects. The image is divided into 4 4 pixel blocks.
Experimental results obtained from querying the Determining which visual pattern represents each
UCID dataset (Schaefer & Stich, 2004) show that block most accurately then follows. For each of
this approach not only allows retrieval directly the visual patterns the average L*a*b* values for
in the compressed domain but also outperforms the regions marked by + and respectively (i.e.,
techniques such as colour histograms, colour the mean values for the regions on each side of
coherence vectors and color correlograms. the pattern) are calculated.
The colour difference of each actual pixel and
the corresponding mean value is then obtained
COLO UR VIS UAL PATTERN IMAGE and averaged over the block. The visual pattern
CO DING (CVPIC) that leads to the lowest difference value (given
in CIEL*a*b* E units) is chosen.
The Colour Visual Pattern Image Coding (CVPIC) In order to allow for the encoding of uniform
image compression algorithm introduced in blocks the average colour difference to the mean
(Schaefer et al., 1999) is an extension of the work colour of the block is also determined. A block is
in (Chen & Bovic, 1990). The underlying idea is coded as uniform if either its variance in colour is
442
Visual Pattern Based Compressed Domain Image Retrieval
very low, or if the resulting image quality will not CVPIC IMAGE RE TRIE VAL
suffer severely when coded as a uniform rather
than as an edge block. To meet this requirement We note from above that for each image block
two thresholds are defined. The first threshold in CVPIC both colour and edge information is
describes the upper bound for variations within readily available in the compressed form: each
a block (i.e., the average colour difference to block is coded either as a uniform block or as a
the mean colour of the block). Every block with pattern block. While for a uniform block only
a variance below this value will be encoded as its colour needs to be stored, each pattern block
uniform. The second threshold is related to the contains two colours and belongs to one of 14 edge
difference between the average colour variation classes. We make direct use of this information
within a block and the average colour difference for the purpose of image retrieval (Schaefer &
that would result if the block were coded as a Lieutaud, 2004).
pattern block (i.e., the lowest variance possible It is well known that colour is an important
for an edge block). If this difference is very low cue for image retrieval. In fact, simple descrip-
(or if the variance for a uniform pattern is below tors such as histograms of the colour contents of
those of all edge patterns) coding the block as images (Swain & Ballard, 1991) have been shown
uniform will not introduce distortions much to work well and have hence been used in many
more perceptible than if the block is coded as a CBIR systems. Further improvements can be
pattern block gained by incorporating spatial information as
For each block, one bit is stored which states techniques such as colour coherence vectors (Pass
whether the block is uniform or a pattern block. & Zabih, 1996) and border/interior pixel histo-
In addition, for edge blocks an index identifying grams (Stehling, Nascimento, & Falcao, 2002)
the visual pattern needs to be stored. Following have shown. Here the colour information is not
this procedure results in a representation of each summarised in one histogram but is represented in
block as 5 bits (1 + 4 as we use 14 patterns) for an two separate histograms: one histogram of coher-
edge block and 1 bit for a uniform block describ- ent pixels (i.e., pixels in uniform areas) and one
ing the spatial component, and the full colour histogram of scattered pixels for the colour coher-
information for one or two colours (for uniform ence vector approach respectively one histogram
and pattern blocks respectively). The colour com- of border pixels (i.e., those part of an edge) and
ponents are quantised to 64 universally predefined one histogram of interior pixels in the border/in-
colours adopted from (Qiu, 2003). Each colour terior pixel histogram technique. Our approach is
can hence be encoded using 6 bits. Therefore, in fairly similar to these techniques but requires no
total a uniform block takes 7 (=1+6) bits, whereas explicit computation that provides the classifica-
a pattern block is stored in 17 (=5+2*6) bits. We tion into the two categories. Rather we utilise the
found that this yielded an average compression (precalculated) division into uniform and pattern
ratio of about 1:30. We note, that the information blocks. Pixels that are part of a uniform area (i.e.,
could be further encoded to achieve lower bitrates. coherent or interior pixels) will more likely
Both the pattern and the colour information be contained within a uniform block. On the other
could be entropy coded (Schaefer et al., 1999). hand pixels that form part of an edge (i.e., bor-
In here however, we refrain from this step as we der pixels) will fall into pattern blocks. We can
are primarily interested in a synthesis of coding therefore immediately distinguish between these
and retrieval. two types of pixels without any further calculation
(as would need to be done for colour coherence
vector or border/interior pixel calculation). We
443
Visual Pattern Based Compressed Domain Image Retrieval
hence create two colour histograms: a uniform exactly one (precalculated) edge and there are 14
histogram Hu by considering only uniform blocks different patterns, we simply build 1 14 histo-
and a nonuniform histogram Hn calculated solely gram of the edge indices. Again, no normalisa-
from edge blocks. While exact histograms could tion is applied. The edge histogram hence adds
be calculated by simply adding the appropriate up to half the nonuniform colour histogram. We
number of pixels to the relevant colour bins while decided not to include a bin for uniform blocks,
scanning through the image we suggest a simpler, since these give little indication of shape (rather
computationally less intensive, method. Instead they describe the absence of it). Edge histograms
of weighing the histogram increments by the rela- H1S and H2S are compared by
tive pixel proportions we simply increment the N
affected colour bins (two for an edge block, one d shape ( I1 , I 2 ) = H1s (k ) H 2s (k ) (2)
for a uniform block) by 1 (we note that this puts k =1
more emphasis on the nonuniform histogram than Having calculated dcolour and dshape for two im-
on the uniform one). We also wish to point out that ages these two scores can now be combined in
the resulting histograms are not normalised as is order to allow for image retrieval based on both
often the case with histogram based descriptors. colour and shape features which results in
The reason for this is that by not normalising we
preserve the original ratio between uniform and N
d ( I1 , I 2 ) = H1u (k ) H 2u (k )
pattern blocksan image feature that should k =1
444
Visual Pattern Based Compressed Domain Image Retrieval
We compressed the database using the CVPIC & Zabih, 1997). Results for all methods can be
coding technique and performed compressed found in Table 1.
domain image retrieval as detailed above, based From there, we can see that our compressed-
on the queries defined in the UCID set. As per- domain approach is not only capable of achieving
formance measure we used the modified average good retrieval performance, but that it actually
match percentile (AMP) from (Schaefer & Stich, clearly outperforms all other methods. While
2004) which is defined as the border/interior pixel approach achieves an
AMP of 91.27 and all other methods perform
S worse, CVPIC colour/shape histograms provide
100 Q N Ri
MPQ =
SQ i =1 N i
(4) an average match percentile of 94.24, that is
almost 3.0 higher than the next best methods.
This is indeed a significant difference as a drop
with Ri<Ri+1 and in match percentile of 3 will mean that 3% more
of the whole image database need to be returned
in order to find the images that are relevant; as
1
AMP =
NQ
MP Q (5) typical image database nowadays can contain tens
of thousands to hundreds of thousands images this
would literally mean additionally thousands of
where Ri is the rank the ith match to query image images. The superiority of the CVPIC approach is
Q was returned, SQ is the number of correspond- especially remarkable so as it is based on images
ing matches for Q, NQ is the number of defined compressed to a medium compression ratio, i.e.
query images and N the total number of images images with a significantly lower image quality
in the database. A perfect retrieval system would that uncompressed images whereas for all other
achieve an AMP of 100 whereas an AMP of 50 methods the original uncompressed versions of
would mean the system performs as well as one the images were used. Furthermore, methods such
that returns images in random order. as colour histograms, colour coherence vectors
In order to relate the results obtained we also and colour correlograms are known to work fairly
implemented colour histogram based image re- well for image retrieval and are hence among those
trieval (8 8 8 RGB histograms) according to techniques that are widely used in this field. This
(Swain & Ballard, 1991), colour coherence vec- is further illustrated in Figure 2 which shows a
tors (Pass & Zabih, 1996), border/interior pixel sample query images of the UCID database to-
histograms (Stehling et al., 2002) and colour gether with the five top ranked images returned by
auto correlograms (Huang, Kumar, Mitra, Zhu, all methods. Only the CVPIC technique manages
to retrieve four correct model images in the top
five (with the next correct model coming up in
Table 1. Retrieval results based on the UCID sixth place) while colour correlograms retrieve
database three and all other methods only two.
AMP
Colour histograms 90.47
CON CL USION
Colour coherence vectors 91.03
Border/interior pixel histograms 91.27
In this chapter, we presented an image retrieval
Colour correlograms 89.96 technique that operates directly in the compressed
CVPIC retrieval (==0.25) 94.24 domain of CVPIC compressed images. By exploit-
445
Visual Pattern Based Compressed Domain Image Retrieval
Figure 2. Sample
retrieval from the UCID database
Query image
Colour
histograms
Colour
coherence
vectors
Border/interior
pixel histograms
Colour
correlograms
CVPIC retrieval
ing the fact that CVPIC encodes both colour and CIE. (1986). Colorimetry. CIE Publications 15.2.
edge information these features can be directly Commission International de LEclairage, 2nd
used for image retrieval. Two types of histograms edition.
are built: two colour histograms (one of uniform
Huang, J., Kumar, S.R., Mitra, M., Zhu, W.-J.,
areas and one of edge areas) and one shape histo-
& Zabih, R. (1997). Image indexing using color
gram. Histograms are compared using histogram
correlograms. In IEEE Int. Conference Computer
intersection and the resulting scores weighted to
Vision and Pattern Recognition (pp. 762768).
provide an overall similarity between two images.
Experimental results on a medium-sized colour Jain, A.K., & Vailaya, A. (1996). Image retrieval
image database show that the suggested method using color and shape. Pattern Recognition, 29(8),
performs well, outperforming techniques such 12331244.
as colour histograms, colour coherence vectors,
Pass, G., & Zabih, R. (1996). Histogram refine-
and colour correlograms.
ment for content-based image retrieval. In 3rd
IEEE Workshop on Applications of Computer
Vision (pp. 96102).
REFEREN CES
Picard, R.W. (1994). Content access for image/
Chen, D., & Bovik, A. (1990). Visual pattern video coding: The fourth criterion. Technical
image coding. IEEE Trans. Communications, Report 195. MIT Media Lab.
38, 21372146.
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Visual Pattern Based Compressed Domain Image Retrieval
447
448
Chapter XLVI
Music Information Retrieval
Thomas Lidy
Vienna University of Technology, Austria
Andreas Rauber
Vienna University of Technology, Austria
A bs tra ct
This chapter provides an overview of the relatively young but increasingly important domain of Music
Information Retrieval, an Information Retrieval subdomain, which investigates efficient and intelligent
methods to analyze, recognize, retrieve and organize music. After describing the background and the
problems that are addressed by research in this domain the chapter gives a brief introduction to methods
for the extraction of semantic descriptors from music, which are fundamental to a great number of tasks
in Music Information Retrieval. In the subsequent sections, music retrieval, music classification and
music library visualization systems are described. All of these systems are developed for the purpose of
enhancing organization, access and retrieval in potentially large digital music libraries.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Music Information Retrieval
Queries may be formulated by providing audio events (Feiten & Gnzel, 1994) and discrimination
examples: example songs, excerpts of recorded of speech and music (Scheirer & Slaney, 1997)
audio or even hummed melodies. MIR systems were presented. The first works on music style
then retrieve music by computed similarity. recognition were using MIDI or other symbolic
The application of machine learning algo- music as input (Dannenberg, Thom, & Watson,
rithms enables classification of music by artist, 1997). Then, research on audio-based approaches
by genre or other categories, using the extracted for music classification became increasingly
music descriptors. These methods allow a MIR important (Foote, 1997). Since around 2000, the
system to detect music from a particular artist, to problem of clustering and visualizing large music
recognize the genre of a piece of music or even libraries and supporting better access to them has
its mood, or to organize an entire music library been addressed.
into a pre-defined genre taxonomy. By contrast, The International Conference on Music Infor-
the use of unsupervised learning techniques mation Retrieval (ISMIR) is the most important
overcomes genre boundaries and considers audio forum for researchers and people interested in
similarity independently from genre labels. These Music IR. In the annual MIREX (Music Informa-
approaches facilitate the organization of a digital tion Retrieval Evaluation eXchange) benchmark-
music library by an automatic clustering of the ing event, state-of-the-art approaches for music
pieces of music. Clusters containing similar music description, classification and other tasks are
are exhibited by a variety of visualizations. One evaluated and compared.
particular approach that has been chosen is the use Downie (2003) provides a review of nearly
of Self-Organizing Maps (SOMs) to create maps all aspects of Music Information Retrieval, in-
of music libraries. A range of different visualiza- cluding contributions from the pre-digital era.
tion methods developed for SOMs enhance the The review covers different classes of music
view of the cluster structures in the music library. descriptors, describes a range of MIR systems
Applications have been developed that facilitate and discusses also the challenges in MIR. Orio
interaction with the digital music library, retrieval (2006) explains and reviews different aspects of
of music and discovery of yet unknown music. music and music processing, discusses the role of
Together with ad-hoc creation of style- and situa- the users, and gives an introduction to scientific
tion-based playlists, these systems allow for novel MIR evaluation campaigns. He also describes
methods of access to digital music libraries. several systems for MIR.
The term Music Information Retrieval has been An essential part of most Music Information
first mentioned by Kassler (1966). For a long Retrieval tasks is the automatic description of
period, however, there was little research on this music. As computers are not capable to grasp
topic. First beat detection systems were published semantics in music directly, algorithms have been
in the late 1970s and 1980s. The domain of con- devised that extract (numerical) features from
tent-based music retrieval experienced a major music which capture aspects such as loudness,
boost in the late 1990s when mature techniques tempo, beat, rhythm, timbre, pitch, harmonics,
for the automated description of the content of melody, and so on. These features are also called
music became available. In the 1990s, also first music descriptors.
systems for classification and clustering of sound
449
Music Information Retrieval
In music feature extraction, there are two ing spectrum over time, a Short-Time Fourier
main directions, according to the representa- Transform (STFT) has to be performed, i.e. many
tion of music: Extraction from symbolic music Fourier Transforms for multiple short-time win-
(e.g., MIDI format), where music is stored as dows of the length of a few audio samples. From
notations, which has the advantage that statistics the spectral representation of the signal, features
about notes, onsets and pitch (and consequently such as the Spectral Centroid, Rolloff and Flux,
the melody) can be extracted directly (Ghias, etc. can be calculated. Spectral Flux measures
Logan, Chamberlin, & Smith, 1995; Neve the amount of change in the spectrum between
& Orio, 2004). However, the actual sound of the two frames (computed as the squared differences
music is not available, which makes computer in frequency distribution). Spectral Centroid is
audition difficult, particularly when information a measure of brightness of the sound. It is the
about the instruments is missing. Contrarily, music center of gravity (i.e., the frequency where
stored as digital audio wave forms (e.g., in WAV the energy of all frequencies below that point is
or MP3 format) contains the sound as a mixed equal to the energy of all frequencies above it).
signal, but the extraction of individual voices or Spectral Rolloff indicates the skewness of the
instruments and their structure is difficult. Most spectral shape.
of the audio-based approaches perform a signal Most of the more sophisticated feature extrac-
analysis in the frequency domain in order to derive tors also perform a spectrum analysis as their first
music descriptors. step. Frequently, also psycho-acoustic transfor-
In the time domain (i.e., from the wave form mations are included in feature calculation, in
itself), simple features such as Zero Crossing Rate, order to simulate the human auditory system. For
RMS energy and others, can be computed. The Mel Frequency Cepstral Coefficients (MFCCs),
Zero Crossing Rate (ZCR) is the number of times a feature set which originated from the speech
the signal crosses the 0-line (i.e., changes from recognition domain, the Mel scale is applied
a positive to a negative amplitude value) within on the frequency range, which was defined em-
one second. It can determine the noisiness of a pirically through human listening tests. It models
signal and thus be used e.g. to distinguish between perceived pitch distances and is approximately
speech and music, or as a simple a measure of a logarithmic scale, which corresponds more
the dominant frequency of a signal. Root Mean closely to the human auditory system than the
Square (RMS) energy is determined by comput- linearly spaced frequency bands of a spectrum.
ing the mean of the square of all sample values For MFCC calculation usually the Discrete Cosine
in a time frame and taking the square root. It Transform (DCT) is used instead of the Fourier
provides a good indication of loudness in a time Transform.
frame and may also serve for higher-level tasks Many Music IR software frameworks such as
such as audio event detection, segmentation or MARSYAS (Tzanetakis, 2002), M2K (Downie,
tempo/beat estimation. Ehmann, & Hu, 2005) or CLAM (Amatriain,
The spectrum of a signal is commonly obtained Arum, & Garcia, 2006) incorporate these
by a Fourier analysis, which transforms the signal common descriptors and a number of further
into the frequency domain. For functions sampled developed feature sets. MARSYAS, for instance,
at discrete time intervals, such as digital audio also includes Beat Histograms, Pitch Histograms
wave forms, a Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) and Wavelet Transform features. The Wavelet
is used, usually in form of the computationally Transform is another alternative to the Fourier
faster Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm. Transform, which overcomes the issue of the
In order to obtain a Spectrogram, the chang- trade-off between time and frequency resolu-
450
Music Information Retrieval
tion. For high frequency ranges, it provides low Fastl, 1999), the values are transformed into the
frequency resolution but high time resolution, unit Phon and subsequently into the unit Sone,
whereas in low frequency ranges, it provides reflecting the specific loudness sensation of the
high frequency and lower time resolution. This human auditory system. The Sone scale relates
is a closer representation of what the human ear to the Phon scale in the way that a doubling on
perceives from sound. MARSYAS is, moreover, the Sone scale sounds to the human ear like a
able to compute descriptors directly from MPEG doubling of the loudness. From this Sonogram
(MP3) compressed audio, without decoding the representation a Statistical Spectrum Descriptor
audio to a wave form. The MPEG-7 standard (ISO, (SSD) is derived by computing seven statistical
2002) also contains a number of audio descriptors, measures on each of the 24 critical bands. Ap-
however without giving details about a concrete plying a Fourier Transform on the Sonogram the
implementation. magnitudes of modulation for different modula-
Further feature sets for Music IR are Rhythm tion frequencies are derived. A Rhythm Pattern
Patterns (Rauber, Pampalk, & Merkl, 2002), (c.f., Figure 2) exhibits this modulation strength
Statistical Spectrum Descriptors and Rhythm per modulation frequency (in a range of 0 to
Histograms (Lidy & Rauber, 2005). They have in 10 Hz) for all critical bands. High values for a
common that they compute a Bark-scale Sonogram particular modulation frequency in a number of
(c.f., Figure 1). The Bark scale is a perceptual adjacent (often lower) bands indicate rhythm in a
scale, similar to the Mel scale, which groups piece of music. A Rhythm Histogram aggregates
frequencies in the auditory range into 24 critical this information for all bands and indicates fluc-
bands (Zwicker & Fastl, 1999). After aggregat- tuations (or rhythm) in a more general and more
ing frequencies according to the Bark scale the compact way.
spectrogram is transformed into the Decibel scale, In the annual Music Information Retrieval
followed by application of another psycho-acoustic Evaluation eXchange (MIREX, 2008) state-of-
model: By considering equal loudness curves, the-art methods for music description are evalu-
which equalize the different human perception ated and compared.
of loudness at different frequencies (Zwicker &
and so on) might be a better choice. Advanced Neighbor and Support Vector Machines. A survey
approaches analyze distribution and evolution of on automatic music genre classification is available
features computed at several temporal positions in Scaringella, Zoia, & Mlynek (2006).
in the music and apply Gaussian Mixture Models Classification approaches are also used for
or Hidden Markov Models. evaluating and benchmarking music descriptors
For search and retrieval, queries may be for- (Lidy & Rauber, 2005). Disposing of a music
mulated by providing audio or notation-based collection which is entirely labeled the result of
examples: example songs, excerpts of recorded classification can be measured in terms of accu-
audio, hummed melodies, melody excerpts entered racy, precision and recall, among other measures.
on a piano roll on the screen, and so on. The MIR Thus, the performance of a particular algorithm
systems then retrieve music by computed similar- for music feature extraction can be evaluated
ity. A survey on MIR systems has been done by and compared to other approaches. Frequently, a
Typke, Wiering, & Veltkamp (2005), an overview cross-validation approach is used for evaluation:
of current MIR systems and a description of them To reduce the effect of the choice of a particular
is provided on http://www.mirsystems.info. training and test set (and thus avoid a potential
bias due to a well-chosen set and/or overfitting),
the music collection is split randomly into n (e.g.
MUSI C CLASSIFI CATION 10) equally sized subsets. In n runs, each subset is
selected once as the test set, while the remaining
With the use of music descriptors and the ap- subsets are used for training. Measures are then
plication of machine learning algorithms, it is calculated as the average of the results of each
possible to classify music into a pre-determined of the n tests.
list of categories, e.g. musical genres. It is neces- In order to facilitate benchmarking in the
sary that a number of pieces of music is annotated Music Information Retrieval domain, the annual
with meta-data labels, i.e. if yet no genre assign- MIREX campaign has been established, in which
ment exists, a part of the music collection has the state-of-the-art music description and retrieval
to be labeled manually. From the labeled data, approaches are evaluated within a series of differ-
a classifier can then learn and induce models ent tasks, reflecting current problems in Music IR
for unclassified data. With the use of the model (MIREX, 2008). This benchmarking campaign
and a descriptor extracted from the music, the enables the comparison of the most effective music
classifier is thendepending on the desired ap- feature extractors and MIR systems.
plicationable to detect music from a particular
artist, to recognize the genre of a piece of music,
to recognize moods in music or to categorize an CL US TERING AN D
entire music library into a pre-defined class hier- VIS UALIZA TION in Musi c
archy (e.g., a genre taxonomy). This is extremely Informa tion R e trie val
helpful for the categorization and/or labeling of
large digital music libraries. Facing the growing number and size of music col-
Potentially, every supervised classification lections or archives, new methods for visualization
algorithm from the machine learning domain can of these music collections are developed. These
be applied. The adequacy of a particular algorithm approaches enable both a concise overview and
depends in most cases on the features used for efficient access to music collections.
music description. Classifiers which are frequently In 2000, a set of 3D tools for working with
used for music genre classification are k-Nearest sound collections has been presented, includ-
452
Music Information Retrieval
ing Timbregram, TimbreSpace and GenreGram Another work on exploring music collections
(Tzanetakis & Cook, 2000). Audio similarity is by Pampalk, Dixon, & Widmer (2004) uses
visualized by Cano, Kaltenbrunner, Gouyon, & Aligned-SOMs, which allow changing interac-
Battle (2002) using the FastMap algorithm, ena- tively the focus of organization among different
bling also to browse music archives. Disc- and aspects, like e.g. timbre or rhythm. Knees, Pam-
tree-map-based visualizations using meta-data palk, & Widmer (2004) apply SOMs to organize
information have been presented by Torrens, music at the artist level using artist information
Hertzog, & Arcos (2004). An artist map interface mined from the Web. Mrchen, Ultsch, Ncker,
particularly suited for hand-held devices has been and Stamm (2005) employ Emergent SOMs for
developed by Van Gulik, Vignoli, & vande Weter- visualization of music collections, which are
ing (2004). It clusters pieces of audio based on particularly suitable for the creation of large
content features as well as meta-data attributes maps. Mayer, Merkl, and Rauber (2005) present
using a spring model algorithm. Musicream (Goto the Mnemonic SOM which allows a map to take
& Goto, 2005) is an interface, in which pieces of any arbitrary shape, for better memorization
music are represented by discs that stream down of locations on a SOM. The approach has been
on the screen enabling unexpected encounters demonstrated also in conjunction with the Map of
with music pieces. Disc colors reflect similarity Mozart, clustering all works composed by Mozart
in musical pieces, indicating the mood of a piece. (Mayer, Lidy, & Rauber, 2006). SOMs are also
With a sticking function similar pieces are at- utilized to enable live clustering of radio stations
tracted like using a magnet and the meta-playlist and thus the recognition of radio stations program
function enables visual playlist arrangement with content of (Lidy & Rauber, 2006).
a high degree of freedom. A review of visualization approaches in Mu-
Self-Organizing Maps have become very sic Information Retrieval is provided in Cooper,
popular for the visualization of music collections. Foote, Pampalk, and Tzanetakis (2006).
A Self-Organizing Map (SOM) is an unsupervised
neural network providing a topology-preserving
mapping from the high-dimensional feature space Con cl usion
onto a two-dimensional output space (Kohonen,
2001). First, SOMs have been applied to organ- Music Information Retrieval addresses research
ize sounds based on pitch, duration and loud- issues for categorizing, organizing, searching in
ness (Cosi, De Poli, & Lauzzana 1994; Feiten & and accessing digital music libraries. The core
Gnzel, 1994) or using MFCC features (Spevak of most MIR systems consists of an approach
& Polfreman, 2001). Automatic organization of for extracting features (descriptors) from digital
music collections on SOMs has been demon- music. With these features, a range of tasks such
strated by Rauber and Frhwirth (2001). Related as semi-automatic classification of music into
to this work, Rauber, Pampalk, & Merkl (2003) categories, recognition and identification of pieces
presented an Islands of Music visualization us- of music and/or their genre and/or artist, retrieval
ing Self-Organizing Maps and Rhythm Pattern of music and clustering of digital music libraries
features. An interactive implementation of Islands are enabled. The MPEG-7 standard also contains
of Music on both personal computers as well as a definition of audio descriptors. However, the
portable devices has been shown by Neumayer, methods for efficient audio description are con-
Dittenbach, & Rauber (2005) in form of the stantly improved, and compared and evaluated in
PlaySOM software. the annual MIREX campaign. Additionally, an
increasing number of applications for intuitive
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visualization and interaction with music collec- Feiten, B., & Gnzel, S. (1994). Automatic index-
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Cano, P., Kaltenbrunner, M., Gouyon, F., &
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A survey of music information retrieval systems. aspect of music which is useful for Music IR tasks.
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don, UK. as synonym for the terms feature or feature set.
Tzanetakis, G. (2002). Manipulation, analysis Feature Extraction: Method or algorithm
and retrieval systems for audio signals. Doctoral which analyses music and computes (extracts)
thesis, Computer Science Department, Princeton features from it.
University.
Feature Vector: A feature set, when used as
Tzanetakis, G., & Cook, P. (2000). 3D graphic input for classification or clustering methods, is
tools for isolated sound collections. In Proceed- refered to as feature vector. An individual scalar
ings of the Conference on Digital Audio Effects value in this feature vector is also refered to as
(DAFx). Verona, Italy. an attribute or feature.
Van Gulik, R., Vignoli, F., & vande Wetering, Music Information Retrieval Evaluation
H. (2004). Mapping music in the palm of your Exchange (MIREX): Annual benchmarking
hand, explore and discover your collection. In event for comparison of state-of-the-art Music
Proceedings of the International Conference on IR approaches.
Music Information Retrieval (ISMIR). Barcelona,
Music Information Retrieval (MIR): Re-
Spain.
search domain that covers automatic extraction
Zwicker, E., & Fastl, H. (1999). Psychoacoustics of music descriptors for similarity-based search,
facts and models. Springer Series of Information retrieval, classification and organization of music
Sciences (Vol. 22). Springer, Berlin. in (potentially large) music collections.
Self-Organizing Map (SOM): An unsuper-
vised neural network providing a topology-pre-
K ey Terms serving mapping from a high-dimensional input
space onto a two-dimensional output space. Used
Descriptor: Numerical measure intended to as algorithm for clustering and organizing music
describe semantic aspects of music, such as timbre collections, enabling intuitive views of and/or
or rhythm. Sometimes, a set of multiple measures interaction with music collections.
is refered to as descriptor.
Symbolic Music: Music stored in a nota-
Digital Audio: Representation of a music tion-based format (e.g., MIDI), which contains
recording in digitally sampled wave form in the excplicit information about note onsets and pitch
form of a mixed signal. Information of individual on individual tracks (for different instruments),
sources of the signal is not explicitly available but in contrast to Digital Audio no sound.
and can be derived partly by extensive analysis
of the signal.
456
457
Chapter XLVII
The Strategic Plan of
Digital Libraries
Juha Kettunen
Turku University of Applied Sciences, Finland
A bs tra ct
This abstract describes the networked cooperation of the academic libraries and the consortium of the
digital libraries of the Finnish universities of applied sciences and their strategic plan for the Web ser-
vice. It argues that it is reasonable to plan the strategies for the network, because no single library has
complete control over all the aspects that are necessary to develop the cooperation between the libraries.
The strategy is the basis for a cooperation enabling electronic services for the libraries. The findings of
this study are useful to the administrators of educational institutions aiming to plan a networked strategy
and improve the cost-efficient cooperation of otherwise independent organisations.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
The Strategic Plan of Digital Libraries
to promote their electronic services. The strat- sciences, which reflects the English names of the
egy is the basis for a cost-efficient cooperation professionally-oriented higher education institu-
enabling electronic services for the libraries. The tions in the European Higher Education Area.
strategy of digital libraries is also an example of The European area has defined in the Bologna
the fruitful cooperation of the Finnish universities Process by the European Ministers responsible
of applied sciences. for higher education (Berlin Communiqu, 2003;
This article is organised as follows: The Kettunen & Kantola, 2006b, 2007).
background section introduces first the main The consortium of libraries is a typical net-
characteristics of the consortium of the libraries work to exchange information and cooperate. It
of the Finnish universities of applied sciences and is also a network to gain commitment to a joint
their shared strategic outlines. The main attention strategy of the libraries. The presence of network
of the article is focused on the strategy for the suggests that much of the success of libraries lies
Web service of digital libraries. Thereafter some outside a given library residing in the coopera-
future trends are presented. Finally, the results tive network.
of the article are summarized in the concluding The networks, work groups and informal
section. communities of practice have an essential role in
the exchange of information and knowledge (Ket-
tunen, 2004a; Kettunen & Kantola, 2006a).
BA CKGRO UN D Academic libraries seek efficient ways to pro-
duce high quality output given the limited finan-
The Consortium of L ibraries cial resources (Brooks, Revill, & Shelton, 1997).
Cost-efficiency is a natural choice for strategy in
The consortium of the libraries of the Finnish the public sector, where primary management em-
universities of applied sciences (Amkit Consor- phasise desired outputs and cost reduction. Typi-
tium) was founded in 2001. The purpose of the cally, taxpayers provide the financial resources for
consortium is to coordinate cooperation between libraries, which have limited annual budgets for
the respective libraries of the institutions. In Fin- activities and investments. Cost-efficiency can be
land there are 29 universities of applied sciences, achieved by increasing cooperation between the
which are professionally-oriented higher educa- libraries and taking advantage of the economy of
tion institutions. The libraries cooperate actively scale across the physical and intellectual assets
with the libraries of the 20 traditional universities, of the libraries.
the libraries of vocational institutions and other
libraries. The result of the Google search engine S trategic Plan of the Consortium
indicates that there are many other consortia of
digital libraries, but they take different forms. The network strategy of libraries defines the out-
The number of personnel is nearly 500 in the lines for the activities required by the network.
libraries of the universities of applied sciences. The network strategy provides the insight and
They are located in 80 towns and at 200 locations. direction to guide the libraries and their coopera-
This reflects the remotely located branches of the tion. Each library is then able to define its own
institutions. The development of the libraries was strategic themes and implement them. Each library
rapid during the 1990s when the Finnish Polytech- has a responsibility to develop its own action plan
nics were established in higher education. At the describing how development work and processes
beginning of 2006 the polytechnics adopted the will deliver the output to implement the network
new English translation university of applied strategy. The additional funding provided by the
458
The Strategic Plan of Digital Libraries
Ministry of Education has maintained sufficient Endeavor Information Systems, is widely used
coherence and ensured that the main objectives in many countries (Breeding, 2006; Guy, 2000;
have been achieved. The network strategy is a Pace, 2004).
sub-strategy of an overall network strategy, which
has been planned for the Finnish universities of
applied sciences (Kettunen, 2004b, 2007). MAIN FO CUS OF THE AR TICLE
The strategic themes of the network strategy
of the libraries are as follows: S trategic Plan of the W eb S ervice of
Digital L ibraries
Systematic and nationwide cooperation of
the libraries The joint strategic plan of the digital libraries of
Cooperation within the library network and the universities of applied sciences was prepared
with the learning process to promote the Web service of the libraries. The
strategic plan was completed in 2006 and it updates
The vision of the libraries is as follows: the earlier strategy for virtual libraries planned
in 2003. Both of these strategies were planned
Library is the dynamic interface of learning to support the more general strategic plan of the
and research. consortium of libraries prepared for the planning
Library is an efficient and high-quality period 20042007.
service-point, a partner and developer in The cornerstones of the strategic plan include
the library network, and a notable regional, four perspectives:
national and international trend-setter for its
subject areas. Content
Facilities
The mission of the libraries is as follows: Knowledge
Cooperation
The library produces information skills to
enhance learning and critical thinking and The desired strategic objective of the libraries
to support applied research and professional is to achieve a high-quality Web service which
competence. supports the core processes of the institutions.
The main tools include transforming collec- The core processes include the learning process
tions, expert services and content production and professionally-oriented research. Modern
into networks. facilities, wide-ranging knowledge and wide-
spread cooperation are the means to put together
The consortium of libraries has numerous the Web service.
cooperative projects including library system
acquisition and implementation (Endeavors Cornerstones of the S trategic Plan
Voyager), a library portal implementation project,
electronic acquisitions (consortium licences), The contents of the Web service of libraries include
quality management, public relations and com- high-quality collections, which can be utilised
munications and information skills studies and using the Web. A study by Nitecki and Hernon
virtual learning environments. The Voyager (2000) examines the service quality of libraries.
Library Automation System is used by the Finn- The libraries supplement their collections from
ish university libraries. Voyager, developed by the Finnish Electronic Library (FinELib) or other
459
The Strategic Plan of Digital Libraries
acquisition consortia. In addition, the purpose is a valuable actor in providing high-quality col-
to provide the publications of the universities of lections using the Web and developing electronic
applied sciences using the Web. tools of the libraries.
The facilities, software and other tools are The consortium of libraries annually negoti-
necessary to support the efficient Web service. The ates about the licences for e-resources, which are
libraries provide portals to acquire information purchased jointly from FinELib or other sources
and software of digital libraries. The tools of the for the libraries. The joint principles of the librar-
libraries must have links to the institutions other ies are described in the portal of the consortium.
information systems such as the virtual learning The consortium starts the planning and creation
environments and student and study registers. The of the publication archives. The libraries also
lightweight directory access protocol (LDAP) provide customers with the contents of other
is a great advantage for the flexible and safe producers including, for example, electronic learn-
use, especially in distant use of the information ing objectives produced by other universities of
systems. The Web service also uses interactive applied sciences. The consortium negotiates with
tools, especially the real-time network informa- the publisher and content producers about the
tion service. development of e-material appropriate for the
The knowledge of the personnel plays an universities of applied sciences.
important role. The employees are aware of The facilities are purchased with the help of
the electronic collections and they have a good the information technology consortium of the
knowledge of the use, administration and qual- universities of applied sciences. The libraries
ity evaluation of the collections. In addition, the provide the Web service through the portals in-
libraries provide guidance and counselling to their cluding the portal of universities, regional portals
customers, also in the Web. The libraries develop and portal of the Finnish Virtual University of
their own pedagogical knowledge and content Applied Sciences. The libraries keep up to date
production and follow the new opportunities in on the development of new facilities and are ready
their field of expertise. Customers information to implement them.
seeking and management skills promote the aims The training of the Web service and informa-
of information literacy (ALA, 2006). tion literacy is planned and implemented by the
Cooperation is essential for libraries to put pedagogical group of the consortium. The e-mate-
together and maintain the Web services. Coop- rial group of the consortium arranges seminars
eration enables the effective use of the scarce and workshops concerning the e-collections.
resources of libraries. The libraries of universities The topics include content, licences, copyrights,
of applied sciences also cooperate with partners and e-collections in library education. Training
from outside the libraries, including the teachers is also arranged on metadata for the information
and experts of the information services. specialist and the teachers of the Web service. The
libraries provide training for information literacy
A ction Plan in their own institutions for the students, teachers
and other members of the personnel. The direc-
Table 1 describes the action plan of the consortium tors of the libraries encourage their personnel to
of libraries including the responsibilities and ac- participate especially in pedagogical training and
tions taken. The consortium of digital libraries the training in content production.
includes the pedagogical, e-material and facility The cooperation of libraries is necessary. The
groups. The libraries clearly have the largest consortium of libraries and the libraries participate
responsibilities. The Web service of libraries is in the national and international networks. The
460
The Strategic Plan of Digital Libraries
consortium participates and, if necessary, estab- Every library must be active both in its institu-
lishes multidisciplinary and cooperative projects tion and in the national and international coop-
to develop Web services. The consortium makes eration to achieve the strategic objectives. The
sure that the results of the cooperative projects transparency of the activities of the consortium
are utilised after the project is over. The facility must be increased by efficient communication.
group of the consortium promotes Voyager co- Successful cooperation requires sufficient human
operation, for example, by solving problems to resources to achieve the objectives defined in the
establish a joint catalogue. The technology group strategic plan.
of the consortium monitors the development of
the metadata banks. The libraries seek ways of
multidisciplinary cooperation in their institutions. F UTURE TREN DS
The virtual information specialists develop the
cooperation between the library and e-learning The libraries of the universities of applied sciences
in their institutions. hone and adapt their strategies to the changing
The pedagogical group Planning and provision of training for information literacy
The e-material group Arrangement of workshops and seminars concerning the e-collections
The facility group Solves problems and establishes a joint catalogue
The technology group Supports and supervises the development of metadata banks
Libraries The supplement to collections from FinELib or other acquisition consortia with the help of the
consortium
Provide the publications of the universities of applied sciences using the Web
Provide portals for the students and personnel to acquire information and software of digital
libraries
Participate and establish multidisciplinary and cooperative projects to develop Web services
Make sure that the results of cooperative projects are implemented and utilised after the project
is over
Training in information literacy for students, teachers and personnel in their own institutions
The library personnel participates in content production and pedagogical training
The virtual information specialists seek ways how the library can support the e-learning of the
degree programmes
The provision of the Web service through various portals including the portal of universities,
regional portals and the portal of the Finnish Virtual University of Applied Sciences
Provide the customers with the contents of electronic learning objectives produced by the other
universities of applied sciences
Web service of libraries Provision of high-quality collections which can be utilised using the Web
The electronic tools of the library are connected with the institutions other information
systems such as the student and study registers and virtual learning environment
Provision of interactive tools such as the real-time network information service
461
The Strategic Plan of Digital Libraries
environment. The environment includes education processes to achieve the strategic objectives.
policy, changes in the local environment, and the The strategic planning of networks is very
institution itself in which the libraries operate. The similar with the autonomous strategic plan-
environmental changes force the libraries to plan ning. The strategic planning and management
new strategies, which will be tested in real time of networks is typically less developed than the
with students, members of the personnel and other planning of proper organisations, which prepare
customers. The purpose of strategic management detailed budgets and human resource plans. They
is to build a bridge from the perceived situation also define indicators and set target values for the
of the libraries to their desired future situation planning period. The autonomous organisations
described in the vision of the strategic plan. must also emphasise the organisational culture and
Increase in open access is an obvious future define values to give meaning to the workplace
trend. Open access provides free online access to and form the basis for the characteristic spirit of
digital content. It is most suitable and best-known an organisation.
for peer-reviewed scholarly and journal articles,
which are published without expectation of pay-
ment. In open access, publishing journals make REFEREN CES
their articles openly accessible immediately on
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make copies of their own published articles openly marketing library services. Library Management,
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American Library Association (ALA). (2006).
Standards and guidelines. Retrieved August 30,
CON CL USION
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Breeding, M. (2006). Reshuffling the deck.
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Library Journal. Retrieved August 30, 2008,
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Huotari, M.-L., & Iivonen, M. (2005). Knowledge KEY TERMS
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Management, 26(6/7), 324335. (FinELib): Acquires Finnish and international
resources to support teaching, learning, and
Johnson, G., & Scholes, K. (2002). Exploring
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member organisations and cooperates with univer-
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Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
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(LDAP): In computer networking, LDAP is a
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Open Access: The free online availability of
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an organisation in a concise way. They describe
463
The Strategic Plan of Digital Libraries
what management believes must be done to suc- that are focused on helping with certain tasks
ceed and achieve the desired outcomes. commonly done in libraries. For example, Web
Voyage lets people search the library catalog using
Voyager Library System: An integrated li-
a normal web browser. The system is produced
brary system used by many academic and other
by Endeavor Information Systems.
libraries. It provides users with keyword search-
ing, parallel searching across other libraries, Web Service: A software system designed
databases and access to electronic journals and to support interoperable machine-to-machine
URL links straight from the catalogue screen. interaction over a network.
Voyager is broken down into different modules
464
465
Chapter XLVIII
Software Process Asset Libraries
Using Knowledge Repositories
Leonardo Bermn-Angarita
Carlos III University of Madrid, Spain
Antonio Amescua-Seco
Carlos III University of Madrid, Spain
Javier Garca-Guzmn
Carlos III University of Madrid, Spain
A bs tra ct
This paper establishes the incorporation of knowledge management techniques as a means to improve
actual software process asset libraries. It presents how knowledge management contributes to the cre-
ation of a new generation of process libraries as repositories of knowledge as well as the mechanisms
to allow the acquisition, storage, collaborating, sharing and distribution of knowledge related to the
software development processes. It exposes aspects about organization and structure of this kind of
digital libraries oriented to software process engineering, defining a lifecycle of the software process
assets and a set of services and functions for its effective use in small and medium software develop-
ment enterprises.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Software Process Asset Libraries Using Knowledge Repositories
and sharing knowledge about how build software. BA CKGRO UN D an d defini tions
The process-oriented approach is dedicated to
study and understand the sequence of steps and This section presents concepts related to the ap-
activities necessary for developing the software plication of knowledge repositories in software
product, establishing a technical and organiza- process asset libraries for helping to implement
tional framework for applying methods, tools and SPI strategies using KM.
people to software development.
The personnel involved in software develop- S oftware Process Improvement
ment accumulate knowledge. The main disadvan-
tage is that this knowledge is not gathered, hence The objective of SPI is to implement and insti-
the knowledge is lost, past errors are repeated tutionalize improvement practices to develop
again, and the knowledge transference is not easy. software in the organization (i.e., to create new
The software process knowledge can be stored knowledge at an organizational level, creating
in a Software Processes Asset Library (PAL) so processes that help the organization to acquire
that in future projects the results could be reached experience of existing sources that will be applied
easily and helping to achieve the Software Process to new projects).
Improvement (SPI). But there is little information For an effective deployment of SPI it is neces-
about what kinds of processes must be captured sary to facilitate the means for the organization
in the PAL, what processes to ignore, and the continually gathering pieces of information
need to consider different process representa- valuable to attaining improvement and to pack-
tions, materials for different roles and purposes. age and infuse the synthesized experience into
Moreover, a PAL that achieves to standardize future projects. In such a way that it can assemble
and reuse a software process must describe the sub-processes in constructive fashion (Aaen et
process, store it in a suitable format, identify the al., 2002).
desired process in a database and retrieve it and The successful SPI models like CMMI in large
adapt it to organizational needs. There are many companies offer incentives for their adoption in
works about the process description and few new environments but they must be adapted ap-
researches about the rest of functions (storage, propriately for its effective fulfillment.
search, recovery, and adaptation). SMEs have a great interest in how to intro-
The goal of this work is to define a set of duce and sustain a SPI initiative, minimizing
functionalities of a new generation of PAL, using the limitations of its size and maximizing the
Knowledge Management (KM) techniques and benefits inherent in its culture. For the use of SPI
reusing mechanisms like key elements in order to models, these companies need to tailor the models
obtain an institutionalized process to gather and to address the problems related to the size and
use the know-how in Small and Medium Software key aspects like documentation, management,
Enterprises (SME). reviews, resources, and training.
The remainder of this work is structured as
follows. Section 2 illustrates the background and Process A sset L ibrary
definitions. Section 3 presents a review of the
literature. Section 4 shows the structure of the The SPI actions are oriented to create processes
PAL proposed, a set of functionalities for creat- that help the organization to acquire experience
ing a new generation of PAL, and it highlights of existing sources that will be able to be applied
the contributions to the Software Engineering to software engineering projects. Therefore, it is
field. Section 5 describes conclusions remarks, necessary to store the knowledge, to package it
and finally, future trends are presented.
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Software Process Asset Libraries Using Knowledge Repositories
and provide the mechanisms to reuse it into oth- intermittently performed. In these processes in
ers projects. particular, having access to relevant guidance to
The processes assets must be stored in an refresh even competent practitioners can prove
organized, well-indexed library with search a potent accelerator of confidence, and as a follow
capacities and easily accessible by anyone who on, speed of execution (Garcia, 2004).
needs process guidance information or other
process support materials (Garcia, 2004). PAL K nowledge Management
facilitates standardization and process improve- and K nowledge R epositories
ment in organizations and is a key enabler for
achieving higher capability maturity. The term knowledge can be defined as a justi-
Some purposes of a PAL include provide a cen- fied belief that increases an entitys capacity for
tral knowledge base for acquiring, defining, and effective action (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995).
disseminating guidance about processes related This knowledge is the main asset that has the
to the organizations tasks, provide mechanisms organizations and can be managed to guarantee
for sharing knowledge about the organizations their generation, appropriation and transference
process assets and how they are used, and assemble between different users.
and reuse sub processes to obtain modified and Rus, Lindvall, & Sinha (2002) define three
adapted processes to specific projects. refinement levels of knowledge:
PAL offers the typical services of a digital
library as collection (management of collections Data: Sets of discrete and objective data.
of digital resources, locals or distributed, with- Information: Data with added value for a
out restriction of format), value-added services determined context.
(products created according to needs and require- Knowledge: Information with added value
ment of the users), personalization (interaction (information about relationships between
spaces defined by the users) and lifecycle of the elements and their implications in the deci-
information (with different stages and tracking sions making process).
of each resource).
For a small organization, a PAL is a key Knowledge is generally classified as tacit or
element that reduces training time to introduce explicit (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995). The tacit
improvements in the software process, and helps knowledge is highly personal, not verbalized,
lead to a process-focused culture that provides a intuitive and not articulated, and derived from
backbone of discipline for the organization. In experience and beliefs. The explicit knowledge is
addition, an effective PAL is a key element in formal and systematic, can be expressed without
supporting time reduction needed for planning ambiguities by writing, drawings, databases, and
new projects, a typical area where small projects so on.
are challenged (Garcia, 2004). KM can be defined like the discipline that
For a large organization, a PAL provides studies creation, preservation, application and
one of the infrastructure elements required to reuse of knowledge that is available in an or-
support movement from one set of behaviors to ganization; its objective is to create knowledge
another, by making public the new rules that shared between all users. The basic KM activi-
the organization intends to live by. A well-de- ties include: knowledge identification, capture,
signed and deployed PAL also reduces planning, integration, retrieve, dissemination, use, and
implementation, and training time in the large maintenance. At the core of a KM system, there
organization, especially for processes that are only is a knowledge repository, supporting reuse and
sharing organizational knowledge.
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Software Process Asset Libraries Using Knowledge Repositories
The repository of knowledge stores two types theory to develop a set of key process areas for a
of knowledge (Handzic, 2005): (a) structured supplement to the CMM in small or medium sized
concrete information and knowledge in databases, enterprises that develop software. Mathiassen
documents and artifacts. (b) The representation of and Pourkomeylian (2001) argued that SPI efforts
unstructured abstract information and knowledge depend on the implicit and individual knowledge
of human actors. The repositories can have the of practitioners in an organization. To change
following functions: codification (structuring software development practices, the organiza-
knowledge content) and customization (providing tion should improve the practitioners existing
guidance to organizing, linking and navigating knowledge (both theoretical and practical) of its
knowledge). software practices. Knowledge about the new pro-
cesses should thus be made available on different
K nowledge Management in S oftware organizational levels. Kautz and Nielsen (2001)
Process Improvement studied how knowledge, learning and IT support
occur in small software organizations. They used
Managing knowledge in software engineering a framework that distinguishes different models
is a human and knowledge intensive activity. of knowledge and learning, different types of
Knowledge has to be collected, organized, stored knowledge and different knowledge and learning
and retrieved to establish a stable process that is processes. Kautz and Thaysen (2001) introduced
independent of individual software engineers. the knowledge management process model as a
Two types of knowledge can be identified means of properly integrating knowledge man-
in software development (Rus et al., 2002): agement with business processes. A coordinating
knowledge embedded in the products and meta- process includes an ongoing improvement cycle
knowledge (knowledge about the products and (analyze, define, plan, and effect) and the opera-
processes). tional processes of creating, collecting, storing,
An important problem is that just a fraction updating, and sharing knowledge.
of all knowledge related to software process is There are several proposals of experience-
captured and made explicit (Rus et al., 2002). based repositories as tools that promote SPI
Therefore, it is need building repositories for shar- in organizations. Scott et al. (2002) developed
ing and retaining of knowledge about software EPG/ER, a process-centered experience reposi-
processes. A knowledge-based PAL will be an tory in a small organization. This repository uses
approach and tool for turning tacit knowledge software process to structure experience and
into explicit knowledge, and can benefit it from make it available for reuse. It includes examples
the ideas of KM. of documents, checklists or unstructured experi-
ences such anecdotes and lessons learnt. Basili
et al. (1994) developed the Experience Factory
rela te d works intending to institutionalize the collective learn-
ing of an organization by developing, updating,
Related work comes mainly from knowledge and delivering to the project organization expe-
management and software process improvement rience packages. The project organization offers
areas. the experience factory their products, the plans
One major challenge for SPI efforts is to create used in their development, and the data gathered
strategies for managing knowledge about software during development and operation. Borges and
development. Baskerville and Pries-Heje (1999) Falbo (2002) proposed Pro-Know-How as tool
used knowledge management as underlying that allows sharing knowledge by an experience
468
Software Process Asset Libraries Using Knowledge Repositories
repository should be built containing the organi- where necessary prior application, ways of ensur-
zational standard process as well as the artifacts ing that IT captures modifications to knowledge
and informal knowledge obtained throughout along with the original knowledge, development
the projects. of trust in knowledge captured via technology,
Software process models represent knowl- and factors related to the quality and usefulness
edge about software development. They describe of IT systems applied to KM initiatives.
activities to be carried out in software develop-
ment as well as the products to be created and
the resources and tools used. MILOS (Maurer PAL using knowle dge
& Holz, 2002) is a process-centered knowledge managemen t
management and coordination support approach.
This approach distinguishes between three kinds A full service digital library must accomplish
of knowledge: generic (reusable knowledge), all essential services of traditional libraries and
knowledge on specific projects and project data, also exploit the well-known advantages of digital
creating a feedback loop for continuous learning. storage, searching, and communication (Gladney,
Dingsyr and Conradi (2003) developed WoX, a Belkin, Ahmed, Fox, Ashany, & Zemankova,
knowledge repository that allow solving a specific 1994). Building digital libraries involves the
technical problem, getting an overview of problem integration of complex systems, including collec-
areas, avoiding redundancy in having to explain tions of documents with varied structure, media,
the same solution to several people, improving and content.
individual work situation by adjusting technical PAL being a collection of digital assets with
tools and finding who has a specific competence information related to software process covers
in the company. some aspects and interesting points for design
However, none of these works offers support and development of digital libraries. As start
for managing of the lifecycle of the process asset point of our research in repositories of knowl-
providing reuse capabilities to different projects edge applied to software process we defined an
and to built effective organizational knowledge organization and structure of the PAL elements,
repositories making stored process knowledge we studied the nature of the items stored, and we
more accessible and visible. defined the interactions with the users and a set of
KM is a relatively recent discipline and their minimum services offered based on knowledge
techniques and deployment tools have not yet management.
defined and require validation. Some issues for
solving are (King et al., 2002): how to identify the O rganization and S tructure
organizational knowledge that should be captured
in KM systems; how to design and develop a PAL is a requirement for software process
KM system, including its tools and applications; definition. The PAL conformed for formal and
and what methodologies and processes must be informal knowledge will require of an integrated
adapted or created for KM. approach for its construction including informa-
Alavi and Leidner (2001) propose five research tion contained in its own database, documents
questions concerning the application of IT in KM and distributed capabilities.
initiatives: consequences of increasing the breadth The PAL content can be modeled by a layers-
and depth of knowledge via IT for organizational based approach. Figure 1 shows the repository
performance, ways of ensuring that knowledge architecture proposed. The layers are:
captured via technology is effectively modified
469
Software Process Asset Libraries Using Knowledge Repositories
470
Software Process Asset Libraries Using Knowledge Repositories
471
Software Process Asset Libraries Using Knowledge Repositories
distribution, comments and annotation of a basic workflow that implements the lifecycle
assets. of the assets.
Training and learning: Support for experts At the domain of software engineering, the
and novices users. PAL projected will help to minimize development
efforts by the assets reuse (packing elements
Benefits of the Proposed PAL with tailoring guides according to the context).
The PAL will offer support for CMMI includ-
In the PAL, each resource is a software process ing formal and informal knowledge about the
asset that contains non-structured and structured software process.
elements in different formats. The PAL proposed The new PAL functions integrate KM and SPI
is Knowledge-based, with relevant information capabilities allowing that assets are organized,
that helps in interpretation of the context of small structured and classified using ontologies, thesau-
and medium enterprises. For an effective applica- rus and XML standards (Open Document Format
tion in SME, the PAL involves the organizational for documents and Open Archives Initiative for
structure, includes examples of assets adapted to the digital library).
this kind of enterprises and supports assets with The PAL proposed can be used in SMEs.
resumed and detailed content. The software developers needs process guidance
The PAL proposed has search mechanisms information like examples, data, templates, or
(with relevant criteria, multiple attributes, user- other process support materials. The PAL will
initiated filters and meta-searches) to obtain results be an organized, well-indexed, searchable re-
that help do the activities affectively. pository of process assets and by the knowledge
One essential feature is the personalization management techniques will be easily accessible
(i.e., the collaborative construction of knowledge by the users.
in the PAL). The PAL is not a static repository; it For example, to elaborate a project plan, the
is above all a dynamic library built by the active developers need query the standard process,
participation and collaboration of the all users in lifecycle strategies and templates available in
472
Software Process Asset Libraries Using Knowledge Repositories
the library (Figure 2). The people will apply the Futu re Tren ds
process and measures of all projects are collected
in the PAL. In this way, the organization will pro- This work is in an initial phase that requires
vide data about the application of techniques and empirical validation to demonstrate the influence
methods in conjunction with projects data. When of new techniques in software process to build
the project is finished, a post-mortem analysis is software products with quality.
realized and proposals for improving the process There is no commonly accepted methodology
are made (Cuevas, 2002). for developing knowledge repositories. Moreover,
the concept of PAL is independent of technology.
Therefore, a methodology for building KM-based
Con cl usion PAL must be developed.
Other future works are to build the ontologies
One of the main challenges with respect to the and thesaurus that allow modeling and implement-
construction of knowledge repositories of an ing the functions of the knowledge repository.
organization is to find technologies that store Using ontologies, the users can share and filter
process knowledge in a more effective way. the knowledge about the software assets by a
KM techniques will allow the PAL to become a common terminology.
knowledge repository. The application of KM to Finally, a technological and organizational
SPI is not only a technological issue; it must study infrastructure will be obtained and validated
individual and organizational aspects, standards considering the functionalities defined and the
application for an effective accomplishment of the real use of this kind of digital libraries in small
PAL that supports the organizational software and medium software enterprises.
process definition.
The planning, design and construction of PAL
can use concepts of digital libraries and knowledge Ac knowle dgmen t
repositories in SPI that allow to create, to transfer
and mainly to use and to reuse the information This work has been partially funded by the Span-
concerning the software process. ish Ministry of Science and Technology through
The development of a PAL involves research the TIC2004-7083 project.
about how storage information in different for-
mats and multiple purposes and that can reused
in other contexts. It is a priority to know how R eferen ces
package and transfer processes knowledge as
corporate assets. Aaen, I. et al. (2001). A conceptual MAP of soft-
Future efforts are to develop technological ware process improvement. Scandinavian Journal
support to implement a PAL and to resolve the of Information Systems, Special Issue on Trends in
key questions presented and to enhance knowl- the Research on Software Process Improvement
edge management at the organizational level in in Scandinavia, 13, 123146.
SMEs.
Alavi, M., & Leidner, D. (2001). Knowledge man-
agement and knowledge management systems:
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Software Process Asset Libraries Using Knowledge Repositories
Conceptual foundations and research issues. MIS sationsFrom Principles to Practice. Addison-
Quaterly, 25(1), 107136. Wesley.
Basili, V. et al. (1994). Experience factory. En- Kautz, K., & Thaysen, K. (2001). Knowledge,
cyclopedia of Software Engineering, 1, 476496. learning and IT support in a small software com-
John Wiley & Sons. pany. In Proceedings of the European Conference
on Information Systems. Bled, Slovenia.
Baskerville, R., & Pries-Heje, J. (1999). Managing
knowledge capability and maturity. Information King, W. et al. (2002). The most important issues
systems: Current issues and future change. Nor- in knowledge management. Communications of
well, MA: IFIP/Kluwer Academic Publisher. the ACM, 45(9), 9397.
Borges, L., & Falbo, R. (2002). Managing soft- Maier, R. (2002). State-of-practice of knowledge
ware process knowledge. In Proceedings of the management systems: Results of an empirical
International Conference on Computer Science, study. Upgrade, 3(1), 1523.
Software Engineering, Information Technology,
Mathiassen, L., & Pourkomeylian, P. (2001).
e-Business, and Applications (CSITeA2002) (pp.
Knowledge management in a software process
227232).
improvement unit. International Conference on
Cuevas, G. (2002). Gestin del Proceso Software Managing Knowledge: Conversations and Cri-
(pp. 132136). Centro de Estudios Ramn Areces tiques. University of Leicester, England.
S.A.
Maurer F., & Holz, H. (2002). Integrating process
Dingsyr, T., & Conradi, R. (2003). Usage of support and knowledge management for virtual
Intranet tools for knowledge management in a software development teams. Annals of Software
medium-sized software consulting company. Engineering, 4(14), 145168.
Book chapter in Managing Software Engineering
Nonaka, I., & Takeuchi, H. (1995). The knowledge
Knowledge (pp. 4967). Springer Verlag.
creating company: How Japanese companies
Fuggetta, A. (2000). Software process: A road- create the dynamics of innovation. New York:
map. In Proceedings of The Future of Software Oxford University Press.
Engineering. Limerick, Ireland.
Rus, I., Lindvall, M., & Sinha, S. (2002). Knowl-
Garcia, S. (2004). Improving process improvement edge management in software engineering. IEEE
with process asset libraries. Software Engineer- Software, 19(3), 2638.
ing Institute.
Scott, L. et al. (2002). A process-centred experi-
Gladney, H., Belkin, N., Ahmed, Z., Fox, E., ence repository for a small software organisation.
Ashany, R., & Zemankova, M. (1994). Digital In Proceedings of the 2002 Asia-Pacific Software
library: Gross structure and requirements. In Engineering Conference (pp. 603609).
Proceedings of the First Annual Conference on
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key terms
Handzic, M. (2005). Knowledge management:
Through the technology glass. World Scientific Codification: to systematize and store in-
Publishing Company. formation that represents the knowledge of the
company, and makes this available for the people
Kautz, K., & Nielsen, P. (2001). Knowing and
in the company.
implementing SPI. Improving Software Organi-
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Software Process Asset Libraries Using Knowledge Repositories
475
476
Chapter XLIX
The Role and Integration of
Digital Libraries in E-Learning
Han Lee Yen
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
A bs tra ct
In recent years, the development of information technologies and network distributions has brought about
the creation of useful learning resources, one of which is the e-learning environment. With its promise
of ease and ready accessibility, e-learning, a term generally used to refer to computer-aided learning,
is fast becoming ubiquitous in educational institutes. In terms of enhancing the online learning experi-
ence, digital libraries have tremendous potential in offering resources that can support e-learning. In
this chapter, the concepts of e-learning and digital library are examined. In addition, the role of
digital libraries and their integration into the e-learning environment are also discussed.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
The Role and Integration of Digital Libraries in E-Learning
altogether (Joint, 2006; Kibirige & DePalo, 2001), library, a library that contains both hard copy and
in favour of more readily accessible online infor- electronic formats. Often, these refer to the same
mation services. To address this problem, as well thing (Kibirige & DePalo, 2001).
as to harness the potentialities of the burgeoning The Digital Library Federation (1998) defines
information technology, many libraries have gone digital libraries as:
electronic or partially electronic so as to position
themselves to meet the new challenges (Wang & organizations that provide the resources, including
Hwang, 2004). the specialized staff, to select, structure, offer in-
tellectual access to, interpret, distribute, preserve
the integrity of, and ensure the persistence over
BA CKGRO UN D: E -LEARNING AN D time of collections of digital works so that they
DIGI TAL LIBRARY DEFINE D are readily and economically available for use
by a defined community or set of communities.
The term e-learning, a term used widely in dif- (paragraph 1)
ferent educational contexts, can mean different
things to different people. In fact, it has many This middle-man view of the digital library
manifestations, such as online learning, virtual is echoed by Fuchs, Muscogiuri, Niedere, and
education, computer-assisted learning, distance Hemmje (2004) who see it as supporting the
learning, etc. These different terminologies make information seeking needs of the users by mediat-
developing a general definition for e-learning ing between the available content that has been
difficult. One underlying common point is the preselected and structured, and the users.
idea of the distance between the instructor and
the learner, and the use of technology to access
or deliver learning materials (Catherall, 2005; THE ROLE OF DIGI TAL LIBRARIES
Sharifabadi, 2006). IN E -LEARNING
However, our quest to develop a general defini-
tion for e-learning should not be confined to just The digital library brings together its vast collec-
looking at it in terms of delivering resources and tion of printed resources, through library cata-
materials via an electronic means. Due consid- logues, electronic resources, such as electronic
eration to the learners and the learning process book collections and licensed journal databases,
are also important. As such, Sharifabadi (2006) selected internet resources and electronic course
presents a definition that encompasses these reserves and tutorials, and makes it available to
aspects, defining e-learning as the use of the the user at the click of the mouse (Sharifabadi,
internet to access materials to interact with the 2006). With a personal computer and an Internet
content, instructor, and other learners; and to connection, the user can gain access to these
obtain the support during the learning process in resources anytime anywhere.
order to acquire knowledge, to construct personal However, as Sharifabadi (2006) points out, it
meaning and to grow from the learning experi- is not enough to see the digital library as simply
ence (p. 390). a digitized collection of resources, but also as
Just as the term e-learning has many mani- an environment bringing together collections,
festations, the term digital library has different services and people to support the full cycle of
variants, including electronic library, referring to creation, dissemination, use and preservation of
a library with electronic records; virtual library, data, information and knowledge (p. 392).
a library not bound by a physical location; hybrid
477
The Role and Integration of Digital Libraries in E-Learning
This suggests that instead being passive of something posted on the Web. This is not a
consumers of information, the content residing problem with the digital library where these is-
in the digital library, the user community is also sues would already have been addressed by the
actively involved in creating new knowledge librarians. What this means is that libraries are
that is preserved in the digital library which is still essential and integral to the scholarly research
disseminated and used by other members of the and activity of the faculty and students.
community. This is especially true in terms of Moreover, there is, at present, a shift in think-
the course materials and scholarly research that ing of the librarian as the custodian of the vast
faculty members produce. resources in the library to that of an educator. This
Thus, the digital library plays the role of a is especially true when faced with the growing
facilitator in classifying and providing knowl- popularity of the Internet. This is because librar-
edge and resources to the community of users ians must now educate the users in information
and encouraging the interaction and exchange of literacy, and train them in effective information
knowledge and information among users. This retrieval, be it from the library collection itself,
sharing of knowledge and information within the or from the Internet (Wang & Hwang, 2004).
community encourages collaborations which in
turn support teaching and learning objectives.
The key here is the active role played by the IN TEGRA TING A DIGI TAL
library and librarians as part of the community LIBRARY IN TO AN E -LEARNING
(Sharifabadi, 2006). EN VIRONMEN T
478
The Role and Integration of Digital Libraries in E-Learning
of access to electronic resources which might be most academic libraries, The University of
held at third parties. They are also responsible for Western Australia Library provides such
making the tools that allow the effective access services under its Course Materials Online
and use of these resources available to their us- service, which is a consolidation of reading
ers (Johnston, 2001). Thus the content, whether lists for the different courses offered by the
print or digital, is the essence of the library, and university.
the development of the collection should take The advanced model: On top of the re-
into account the suitability of the content to its sources in its collection, the digital library
target users. preserves in its collection the course materi-
In addition, the technical infrastructure must als that have been created by the instructors
be in place for integration to be successful. This in e-learning. (Wang & Hwang, 2004). This
would include making access to the digital library is perhaps the most attractive model because
materials and resources available outside the it integrates both the collection of the digital
physical confines of the library. However, because library and the course materials generated
technology can be unstable and are restricted by by the instructors and allows users ready
limitations, the focus should not be just on tech- access to both. The Wageningen University
nology, but also on people (Wang, 2003). and Research Centre Digital Library adopts
One area of consideration involving technology this model by making the textbooks and
and people is the user interface, which is the first lecture notes used in the universitys courses
point of contact and interaction between the digital available to its users. Another university
library and the user. Since the many services that library with such services is The Stanford
a digital library can offer its users are provided University Libraries.
through the user interface, it is important that The quasi-all-inclusive model: Where the
consideration is given to the way it is designed. information needs of the whole community
Kibirige and DePalo (2001) suggest having two of instructors and learners are met. This can
kinds of design interfaces available, one for the be achieved by reproducing everything that
novice and the other for the advanced user. is used in relation to the e-learning curricula,
Four possible options for the provision of such as textbooks, newspapers, multime-
service by the digital library in e-learning are dia resources, and so on, everything that
suggested: may be relevant to the existing curricula.
(Wang & Hwang, 2004). The University of
The laissez-faire model: As its name sug- Pennsylvania Libraries is one such library
gests, the learners in this model are given that has adopted such a model, making the
the freedom of choice to choose the type of course content of its courses available to its
resources and services that are able to meet users.
their needs. The drawback is the lack of qual-
ity control and limited coverage (Johnston,
2001). CON CL USION
The intermediary model: Where the
digital library identifies and classifies the Libraries play an important role in education and
resources in its collection, whether owned learning, where the survival of one is question-
by the library or by a third party but acces- able with the demise of the other. With education
sible via the library, and provides access moving away from the tradition classroom and
to these resources (Johnston, 2001). Like going online, the growth of network technologies
479
The Role and Integration of Digital Libraries in E-Learning
and learners becoming more net-savvy, the role Kibirige, H., & DePalo, L. (2001). The educa-
of the libraries in supporting teaching, learning tion function in a digital library environment: A
and research has in fact been strengthen, not di- challenge for college and research libraries. The
minished. This is because with digital libraries, Electronic Library, 19(5), 283295.
librarians can now provide users with ready ac-
Sharifabadi, S.R. (2006). How digital libraries
cess to their collection 24/7, anytime, anywhere,
can support e-learning. The Electronic Library,
which is one of the reasons for the popularity of
24(3), 389401.
the Internet. This has also meant that librarians
have had to shift from being mere custodians of Wang, M.-Y. (2003) The strategic role of digital
library collections to educators, teaching users libraries: Issues in e-learning environments.
such skills like information retrieval and literacy. Library Review, 52(3), 111115.
Finally, issues of content, technology and user
Wang, M.-Y., & Hwang, M.-J. (2004). The e-learn-
interface are some considerations when integrat-
ing library: only a warehouse of learning resourc-
ing the digital library in e-learning.
es? The Electronic Library, 22(5), 408415.
R eferen ces
KEY TERMS
Catherall, P. (2005). Delivering e-learning or
information services in higher education. Oxford, Content: A term used generally to refer to the
UK: Chandos Publishing (Oxford) Limited. elements on a Web page, such as text and graphics.
In education, content refers to the curriculum.
Digital Library Federation. (1998). A working
definition of digital library [1998]. Retrieved Digital: A method of encoding, storing, pro-
August 30, 2008, from http://www.diglib.org/ cessing, and transmitting information in binary
about/dldefinition.htm language.
Frumkin, J. (2004). Defining digital libraries. Information: Data, facts, concepts or instruc-
OCLC Systems & Services International Digital tions which can be communicated and added to
Library Perspectives, 20(4), 155156. the knowledge of the person receiving it.
Fuchs, M., Muscogiuri, C., Niedere, C., & Hem- Infrastructure: In Information Technology, it
mje, M. (2004). Digital libraries in knowledge refers to the underlying foundation or framework
management: An e-learning case study. Interna- of a computer system, including but not limited
tional Journal on Digital Libraries, 4, 3135. to the hardware, software, and network.
Islam, K.M.S. (1968). The role of libraries in Internet: A collection of interconnected
education. The Eastern Librarian, 3(1). networks of computers which operates world-
wide using a set of compatible communications
Johnston, P. (2001). After the big bang: Forces of
protocols.
change and e-learning. Ariadne, 27.
Knowledge: Information, relationships, facts,
Joint, N. (2006). Common principles in manag-
assumptions, heuristics, and models that have
ing digital libraries and managing VLEs. Library
been derived through the formal and informal
Review, 55(4), 232236.
analysis or interpretation of data.
480
The Role and Integration of Digital Libraries in E-Learning
481
482
Chapter L
Development of Digital
Libraries in Pakistan
Kanwal Ameen
University of the Punjab, Lahore. Pakistan
Muhammad Rafiq
Government College University Lahore, Pakistan
A bs tra ct
This chapter aims to discuss the development of digital libraries in Pakistan. It gives an account of
the digital transformation taking place in the country and reviews a few digital library initiatives. It
discusses a number of issues associated with the development of digital libraries with specific refer-
ence to Pakistan. The major issues appear are as follows: misconception about digital libraries; lack
of technological applications; lack of human resources with needed skills; copyright and publishing;
cultural divide; digital divide, and insufficient financial support. The authors believe that understand-
ing the underlying issues will not only accelerate the development of DL in Pakistan, but also in other
developing countries with more or less common environment.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Development of Digital Libraries in Pakistan
483
Development of Digital Libraries in Pakistan
Pakistani and Asian Development Bank publica- regarding collections and staff. However, the
tions, and to work as an ISBN issuing agency. It top professional positions in these libraries
also exchanges government documents with USA, are either vacant or filled on a temporary
SAARC, and works with other national libraries basis. University libraries also face a number
around the world (National Library of Pakistan, of problems such as procurement of latest
2008) . Currently, NLP maintains a bibliographic information sources, equipment, viable
database of English and Urdu collections. There financial resources, unequal access to infor-
are no plans for developing a digital library so mation technology, electronic media (Ameen
far. The library Website, however, has been & Haider, 2007; Haider, 2004). Nonethless
maintained which offer Web OPAC (http://www. the establishment of HEC-National Digital
nlp.gov.pk/). Library (HEC-NDL), a Higher Education
Commission (HEC) project, in 2004 is a
A cademic L ibraries milestone in the development of digital
libraries in the country. It is providing ac-
The academic sector constitutes the major group cess to thousands of digital resources while
of libraries in the country. These may be divided bringing new challenges and opportunities
into three groups: for library professionals.
i. School libraries: None of the published Following the definition of DL adopted for this
directories included information about study, we may classify such initiatives in follow-
school libraries. It is assumed that almost ing two types of digital library models practiced
80% schools are without any library facil- in university libraries of the country:
ity, specifically government schools. Haider
(2002) mentioned, School library is yet to i. Libraries digitize their own resources and
be recognized as a component of the school make them available online through their
curriculum and a vast majority of schools Web pages.
do not possess any sort of book collection. ii. Libraries offer access to subscribed/free
Under the given circumstances, one can digital information resources of other e-pub-
hardly think of the development of digital lishers by providing links through libraries
libraries in schools, specifically in public Web pages.
sector.
ii. College libraries: There are 700 college Most of the university libraries follow 2nd
libraries in the country (Zaheer, 2002), model and major accessible resources are from
and this makes them the largest group of HECNational Digital Library (e.g., Government
academic libraries. These libraries face College University, 2008; Lahore University of
enormous problems such as poor services, Management Sciences, 2008). Besides facilitat-
out-dated collections, financial constraints, ing access to HEC digital libraries, university
and inadequate and demotivated profes- libraries have also developed their own Websites
sional staff. with links to free Web resources and use VL/DL
iii. University libraries: According to the High- phrase for them. However university libraries are
er Education Commission (2008a), there also preparing to follow the first model. A number
are 122 Universities and Degree Awarding of digitization initiatives have been taking place
Institutions in the country. University librar- in university libraries. Arif, Rehman, and Rafiq
ies comparatively are in a better position (2006) report,
484
Development of Digital Libraries in Pakistan
Multimedia and Microfilming Section of the searching facility and easy, equal access to the
central Library of the University of the Punjab is required information with an online full-text
currently involved in digitization activities and display of the document. For the United Nations
offers scanning services of rare reading material System and Agencies in Pakistan, this facility
as well as providing scanned images on CD-ROMs provides a centralized opportunity to showcase,
to researchers. The service is available on demand share and preserve their digital documents as well
basis. Digitization is the major activity of the as disseminate them in much faster, easier, more
section but, online access is not still available to varied ways, to a wider range of audience. United
these indigenous digitized resources. Nations Digital Library is using Greenstone
The coauthor also is personally involved in Digital Library Software to manage its resources
International Islamic University (IIU) Librarys (http://www.un.org.pk/library/).
Electronic Theses & Dissertation (ETD) Project.
The ultimate objective of the ETD project is to HE C-N ational Digital L ibrary
digitize and provide online access to theses and (HE C-N DL )
dissertations submitted by IIU students. (http://www.digitallibrary.edu.pk)
485
Development of Digital Libraries in Pakistan
The HEC has also explored the provision of free are estimated to be approximately 3200 PhD in
online books. In order to assess the performance number (Higher Education Commission, 2008).
of educational institutions participating in the PRR offers various methods of searching and
programme, usage statistics in term of the number browsing by institution, department, subject area,
of articles downloaded have been collected for author and full-text of documents. Arrangements
the year 2005. There has been a significant and in this manner ultimately allow users of the re-
definitive increase in the total number of full- pository to view the aggregated research output
text articles downloaded over the previous year. of whole institutions, departments within institu-
Overall usage has been exemplary, whereby a tions, or of individual scientists themselves. This
total of 666,986 full-texts downloads from public repository is running on GNU EPrints 2.3.13.1
sector universities have been recorded, with about open source software to manage and make ac-
350,000 downloads from the participating private cessible its digital information resources on the
universities and local research institutions. The Web.
usage statistics compiled for the year 2005 signify PRR is an excellent research aid for researchers
that the cost per article for our Digital Library as well as libraries. This project opened up new
calculates to less than USD$2.30 per article, which academic avenues by providing electronic access
is borne by the HEC (Said, 2006, p. 20). to indigenous academic research. PRR is one of a
few sources that can provide access to indigenous
Pakistan R esearch R epository research of Pakistan. Academic Libraries may
(http://www.eprints.hec.gov.pk/, 2006) consider PRR a benchmark to initiate institutional
repositories in their parent organizations.
The Higher Education Commission (HEC) of
Pakistan initiated a project Pakistan Research A llama Iqbal Urdu Cyber L ibrary
Repository (PRR) in 2006. The project can be (http://www.iqbalcyberlibrary.net/)
designated a showcase of intellectual output of
Pakistani higher education institutions. The initial Allama Iqbal Urdu Cyber Library, a project of
drive for development of content in the repository Iqbal Academy, Pakistan, is the first digital library
has been an initiative to digitize and make freely of books in the Urdu language. The Academy is a
available online every PhD and M.Phil thesis pub- statutory body of the Government of Pakistan and
lished in Pakistani universities. The basic objec- a center of excellence for Iqbal Studies. The aims
tive of the project is to promote the international and objectives of the Academy are to promote and
visibility of research originating out of institutes disseminate the study and understanding of the
of higher education in Pakistan. works and teachings of Allama Iqbal (the late Na-
The repository has already made 1600 Ph.D. tional poet). The library has books on Iqbal studies,
theses available in full text, whilst 300 theses Urdu classics, literature, poetry and prose (Allama
have been digitized and are in the process of Iqbal Urdu Cyber Library Network, http://www.
being uploaded. An additional 500 Ph.D. theses iqbalcyberlibrary.net/). It has the goal of publish-
are in the process of digitization. HEC has intro- ing 500 electronic books by 2008. A quarterly
duced a systematic mechanism for the collection CD-ROM of electronic books is also published
and digitization of the remaining theses. Once by the Academy.The library contents are available
completed, the repository will include all Ph.D. on http://www.iqbalcyberlibrary.net/.
theses published by institutions in Pakistan which
486
Development of Digital Libraries in Pakistan
487
Development of Digital Libraries in Pakistan
The provision of access to databases is, people (neither librarians nor administration) do
however, not enough. As mentioned above, a not understand the prerequisites of creating a real
major challenge has been spreading awareness DL, hence the project, if any, more likely would
of the resources acquired because they have been suffer due to lack of needed staff and money.
introduced into an environment that is histori-
cally very limited in its understanding of digital
libraries. Librarians are traditional in their ap- F UTURE OF DL IN PAKIS TAN
proach towards library management, given their
experience of operating out of hybrid libraries, The scarcity of needed human, financial and
and find the electronic world slightly overwhelm- material resources is the major hindrance in the
ing (p. 13). development of digital libraries in Pakistan. The
meager opportunities for continuing education and
Digital Divide professional development are available to learn
the sophisticated skills needed to develop DL.
Despite the ICT friendly policies of the present However, a few developments that have taken place
government and generous funding for viable in recent years are worth mentioning. Department
projects contributing towards the growth of digi- of Library and Information Science, University of
tal transformation, there still exists wide digital the Punjab has incorporated an optional course
divide within Pakistanbetween the big and the on Digital Libraries in PhD course work that
small cities, between the rich and the poor and was opted by the coauthor in 2007. A few work-
between the ICT literate and IT stressed users. shops on the use of Greenstone Digital Library
Therefore, the existing digital free resources are Software have also been conducted in last couple
not fully used by various segments of the com- of years by Pakistan Library Automation Group
munity. For example, still a number of faculty (a private group of professionals). The informa-
members of Library and Information Science tion professionals widely participated in these
(LIS) schools either do not have their own per- workshops. Department of Library & Information
sonal e-mail accounts or they do not use them Science, University of the Punjab, Lahore has
regularly. HEC is working on promoting digital also arranged a workshop on Greenstone Digital
culture through training workshops for faculty Library Software for M.Phil/PhD students in 2007.
members and librarians. However, the participant opined that these kinds
of workshops were just of introductory nature
F inancial S upport and they need extensive learning to be able to
develop DL (M. Rafiq, Personal Communication,
Developing a digital library project needs substan- January 2008).
tial financial resourcing and few libraries are able The attitude of Government of Pakistan to
to make a convincing and realistic plan to obtain digital culture is encouraging as a significant
such money besides getting funds for traditional number of e-government initiatives have been
collection development. Librarians and higher taken place with supportive IT policies (Shafique
administration have misconceptions regarding & Mahmood, 2008). Government is providing
the costs involved in the DL projects. B. Jaswal infrastructure and financial support for digital
(Personal Communication, January 2007), the initiatives in public sector organizations. Neverth-
pioneer of both introducing library automation less, specific funding for developing digital librar-
and developing DL in Pakistan using Greenstone, ies is hardly granted. HEC also offers grants for
stated in an interview with the principal author that the development of university libraries. In recent
488
Development of Digital Libraries in Pakistan
years these grants were mainly used for physical REFEREN CES
facilities and infrastructural development instead
of digital library developments. Ameen, K. (2005). Philosophy and framework
It appears that digital era is on rise in Pakistan of collection management and its application in
in all kinds of institutions including libraries. university libraries of Pakistan: An appraisal.
Therefore, libraries need to plan to serve the Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of
users information needs through digital content the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan.
delivery. Despite the issues discussed above, the
Ameen, K., & Haider, S.J. (2007). Evolving para-
scope of taking initiatives to develop digital li-
digm and challenges of collection management
braries is encouraging in Pakistan. Libraries can
in university libraries of Pakistan. Collection
meet the users ever growing information needs
Building, 26(2), 5458.
by developing DL and providing remote access to
communities with access to ICT. Digital librar- Arif, M., Shafiq-ur-Rehman, & Rafiq, M. (2006).
ies can also enhance the status of LIS profession Microfilming and multimedia section of Punjab
and library services. However the sustainability university library: A case study (unpublished
of the DLs needs to be ensured with appropri- report). Deptartment of Library and Information
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professional commitment.
Arms, W. (2000). Digital libraries. Cambridge,
MA: MIT Press.
CON CL USION Chen, H., & Zhou, Y (2005). Survey and his-
tory of digital library development in the Asia
The development of digital libraries in Pakistan Pacific. In Y.-L. Theng, & S. Foo (Eds.), Design
is in the beginning and the use of available online and Usability of Digital Libraries: Case Studies
databases is still low. The digital culture needs to in the Asia Pacific. Hershey: Information Science
be developed in order to make the utmost use of Publishing.
the emerging digital developments. The number
of libraries working on building a digital library Chowdhury, G.G., & Chowdhury, S. (2003).
is very limited, and is dominated by university Introduction to digital libraries. London: Facet
libraries mainly. Publishing.
It appears that a vast majority of libraries in Government College University. (2008). GC uni-
Pakistan will be dealing with paper-based col- versity library. Retrieved August 30, 2008, from
lections in the foreseeable future. Mostly large http://gcu.edu.pk/library/S_FullJour.htm
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a hybrid culture gradually, and there are remote Haider, S. J. (1998). Public libraries and develop-
chances of turning into only digital libraries. The ment planning in Pakistan: A review of past efforts
building of digital libraries and digital culture are and future needs. Asian Libraries, 7(2), 4757.
big challenges ahead for library and information Haider, S.J. (2001). Public library facilities in Paki-
professionals: how will the implementation and stan. Public Libraries Quarterly, 19(4), 2742.
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their future be and how much will they cost? Haider, S.J. (2002). School libraries in Pakistan.
Would it be cost effective spending hundreds of Information Development, 18(1), 2733.
million rupees on building DLs? These are ques- Haider, S.J. (2004). Coping with change: Issues
tions whose answers are still hazy. facing university libraries in Pakistan. The Journal
of Academic Librarianship, 30(3), 229236.
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Higher Education Commission. (2008a). Our Said, A (2006). Accessing electronic information:
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University.aspx
Shafique, F., & Mahmood, K. (2008). Indicators
Higher Education Commission. (2008b). Pakistan of the emerging information society in Pakistan.
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UNO. (2008). United Nations digital library.
Hussain, A. (2006). Perceptions of LIS profession- Retrieved August 30, 2008, from http://library.
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Zaheer, M.A. (2002). National library of Pakistan:
IMLS. (2002). Status of technology and digiti- Annual report to CDNL 2001-2002. Edinburgh.
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Washington, D.C.: Institute of Museum and
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K ey Terms
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(2008). Virtual library. Retrieved August 30, 2008, Digital Divide: A term coined by former
from http://library.lums.edu.pk/vl/vl.htm Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Telecom-
munication and Communication Larry Irving, Jr.,
Mahmood, K. (1998). Pakistani librarianship dur-
to focus public awareness on the gap in access to
ing the 1990s: A literature review. In Information
information resources and services between those
Technology in Libraries: A Pakistani Perspective.
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Mahmood, K. (2003). A comparison between and low-income families and communities that
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substantial grants from industry leaders such as
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Bill Gates of Microsoft. The E-rate established
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2008, from http://www.nlp.gov.pk/html/Aboutus.
has helped schools, public libraries, and rural
htm
health care institutions bridge the gap. Digital
Ramzan, M. (2004). Levels of information tech- Divide Network is a Web site devoted to the is-
nology (IT) applications in Muslim world libraries. sue. Synonymous with information gap. (Reitz,
The Electronic Library, 22(3), 274280. 2004, p. 216).
Rehman, S., & Ahmad, P. (2007). Challenges and Digital Library (DL): A managed collection
opportunities for libraries in Pakistan. Pakistan of information, with associated services, where
Library and Information Science Journal, 38(3), the information is stored in the digital formats and
611. accessible over a network (Arms, 2000, p. 2).
Reitz, J.M. (2004). Dictionary for library and Digitization: Defined as the process of
information science. Westport, CT: Libraries converting, creating, and maintaining books, art
Unlimited. works, historical documents, photos, journals,
490
Development of Digital Libraries in Pakistan
491
Section V
Digital Library Education and
Future Trends
493
Chapter LI
Core Topics in Digital
Library Education*
Seungwon Yang
Digital Library Research Laboratory, Virginia Tech, USA
Barbara M. Wildemuth
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, USA
Jeffrey P. Pomerantz
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, USA
Sanghee Oh
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, USA
Edward A. Fox
Digital Library Research Laboratory, Virginia Tech, USA
A bs tra ct
This chapter introduces the effort of developing a digital library (DL) curriculum by an interdisciplinary
team from Virginia Tech and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. It presents the foundations
of the curriculum building, the DL curriculum framework, the DL educational module template, a list
of draft modules that are currently developed and evaluated by multiple experts in the area, and more
details about the resources used in the draft modules and DL-related workshop topics mapped to the
DL curriculum framework. The use of information systems such as DLs is increasing in education and
businesses. To better-support their users, DLs must include both a well-organized underlying architec-
ture and a set of services designed to address their potential users information needs. For this vision of
the future to come to fruition, information professionals need to be educated to establish and manage
digital libraries. The proposed curriculum framework provides a firm foundation for these important
educational activities.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Core Topics in Digital Library Education
494
Core Topics in Digital Library Education
2. Structures: Organizational schemes, al., 2006c). The corpus of papers included those
including data structures, databases, and presented at the ACM International Conference
knowledge representations. Examples in- on Digital Libraries (19962000) and the ACM/
clude: collection, catalog, hypertext, docu- IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital Libraries
ment metadata. These can be formalized as a (20012005), as well as the papers published in
graph, with labels and a labeling function. D-Lib Magazine (July 1995February 2006). The
3. Spaces: 2D and 3D interfaces, GIS data, full corpus included 1,064 papers. The purpose of
representations of documents and queries. this analysis was to identify those topics related
Examples include: spaces used in indexing, to DLs that were the most prominent in these
browsing, and searching services, as well as publication venues, and thus would be important
interfaces. These can be formalized as a set to include in DL courses.
(vector, topological, measurable, measure, In both subsets of the corpus, the topic most
probability spaces). frequently written about was Services (searching,
4. Scenarios: System states and events, or links, browsing, and so on), followed closely by
situations of use by human users or machine Architecture and Interoperability. All topics in
processes, yielding services or transforma- the draft framework were included among the
tions of data. Examples include: searching, topics of the publications, and the topics of all
browsing, recommending. These can be of the publications fit into the draft framework,
formalized as a sequence of related transi- providing support for its validity.
tion events on a state set.
5. Societies: Both software service manag- A nalysis of R eadings A ssigned in DL
ers and fairly generic actors who could Courses
be (collaborating) human (users). Examples
include: service managers (software), actors While the analysis of conference papers and D-
(learners, teachers, and so on). These can be Lib Magazine articles provides a broad overview
formalized as a pair (i.e., a set of communi- of current research in DLs and can validate the
ties and a set of relationships). draft curriculum framework from the perspective
of DL research, it did not provide a check for the
Analyzing our initial curriculum framework correspondence between the framework and cur-
through the lens provided by the 5S framework rent educational practices. A second analysis was
resulted in a streamlined framework of nine therefore undertaken (Pomerantz et al., 2006a).
basic components: collection development; Syllabi from 40 DL courses offered in schools of
digital objects/composites/packages; metadata, library and information science were collected
cataloging, and author submission; architecture and analyzed, and the readings assigned and the
and interoperability; data visualization; services; topics of these readings were identified. A total
intellectual property rights management, privacy, of 1,738 readings were included in this analysis.
and protection; social issues and the future of While many of the assigned readings were on
DLS; and archiving and preservation. topics already included in the curriculum frame-
work (and allowed us to decompose some core
A nalysis of DL Publications topics into subtopics), other assigned readings
suggested that the framework should be expanded.
Based on the draft framework, a content analysis In particular, the topics of project management
was conducted of papers published in the past and an overview component were added to the
decade on the broad topic of DLs (Pomerantz et framework, based on this analysis. project man-
495
Core Topics in Digital Library Education
agement was the area in which the most readings shops, to further ensure the frameworks validity.
were assigned; other frequently-occurring topics DL practitioners and researchers often gather in
included architecture, collection development, and workshops to share knowledge and to collaborate
information/knowledge organization. with the others. Therefore, by investigating the
topics appearing in workshops worldwide, we
S urvey of Digital L ibrarians might be able to spot the currently popular top-
about their Job R esponsibilities ics. A list of conference series' that are relevant
to digital libraries was obtained from the DELOS
During 2005, Choi and Rasmussen (2006a, 2006b) Web site2. Then, each conference Web site was
conducted a survey of current practitioners in visited and its workshop titles were retrieved if
charge of digitization projects or digital library available. The result is shown below3. The con-
projects (2006a, p. 187). They received 48 re- ference titles are represented in italics and the
sponses from librarians in 39 different libraries. workshops of the corresponding conferences are
Of interest for curriculum development are their in the bulleted list:
results concerning the skills and knowledge
needed by digital librarians. These included European Conference on Research and Advanced
technology-related skills and knowledge (e.g., DL Technology for Digital Libraries (ECDL)
architecture and software, technical and quality
standards, and Web markup languages), library- CLEF 2007: Cross Language Evaluation
related skills and knowledge (e.g., digital archiving Forum
and preservation, the needs of users, and catalog- Workshop on Foundations of Digital Librar-
ing and metadata), and other skills and knowledge ies
(e.g., communication and interpersonal skills, and LADL 2007 Cross-Media and Personalized
project management and leadership skills). Learning Applications on top of Digital
The specific skills and knowledge identified Libraries
were mapped onto the draft curriculum frame- Towards an European Repository Ecology:
work. A few of those identified by Choi and Conceptualizing Interactions between Net-
Rasmussen were not included in the draft frame- works of Repositories and Services
work. Specifically, two technology-related skills Networked Knowledge Organization Sys-
(database development and database management tems and Services
systems, and Web design skills) and three other Libraries in the Digital Age: What If ...?
skills (communication and interpersonal skills,
grant/proposal writing skills, and teaching and Joint Conference on Digital Libraries(JCDL)
group presentation skills) were not included in
the curriculum framework proposed here because Developing a Digital Libraries Education
they are more general skills needed by informa- Program
tion professionals practicing in most contexts, 1st Workshop on Digital Library Founda-
and not specific to DL. tions
7th International Workshop on Web Archiving
Core Topics in DL W orkshops and Digital Preservation (IWAW07)
Contextualized Attention Metadata: Per-
Since the development of the curriculum frame- sonalized Access To Digital Resources
work, we have completed an analysis of DL work- (CAMA2007)
496
Core Topics in Digital Library Education
497
Core Topics in Digital Library Education
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Core Topics
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It consists of ten core DL topics, which are further Topic 3: Collection Development. The Collection
decomposed into subtopics. Each core topic and Development component covers issues concerning
its subtopics are described in detail here. how to build and maintain the collection of online
resources in a particular DL. Like other librar-
Topic 1: Overview. This component of the cur- ies, DLs need policies related to their resource
riculum is intended to provide a brief overview selection and de-selection criteria, focusing on
of DLs and their operations through various issues like the following: What is the scope of a
foundational topics such as definitions, conceptual particular DL collection? What resources should
frameworks, models, theories, and history. Its the DL collect, taking into consideration its scope,
purpose is to support student learning of the more mission, goals, and other criteria? What particular
specific topics introduced in later components of types of resources should a DL collect: should
the curriculum. it collect only online or born digital resources,
or should it also collect analog resources and
Topic 2: Digital Objects. The Digital Objects then digitize them? How should budgeting and
(Kahn & Wilensky, 1995) component starts from personnel management proceed if the DL is a
the discussion of the question, What is a docu- division of a large-scale institution? Should DLs
ment? It then progresses to a discussion of how have their own budgets or facilities to proceed
the definition is expanded in DL settings. The with digitization? The subtopics included in this
various digital object file typessuch as texts, im- component are the process of developing resource
ages, pictures, maps, or audio or video filesare collections, resource selection policies, digitiza-
to be addressed. The original characteristics of tion, markup for e-publishing, and harvesting of
these resources, their uses and applications in materials from extant Web sites.
DLs, and the related standards, technologies, and
issues associated with making them readily us- Topic 4: Information/Knowledge Organization.
able and accessible in DLs are topics that will be Valuable collections cannot be efficiently utilized
included in the Text resources, Multimedia, and unless they are organized systematically. This
File formats/Transformations subcomponents of component of the curriculum covers important
the curriculum. concepts in representing and organizing digital
498
Core Topics in Digital Library Education
objects into collections through several subcom- maintaining, and updating metadata. The Ontolo-
ponents. The Information architecture component gies, classification, and categorization component
will cover topics such as hypertext, which makes will cover various approaches to developing on-
a dynamic organization of information possible tology/classification/categorization schema. The
through its hyperlinks, or its extended term, hy- Subject description, vocabulary control, thesauri,
permedia, which provides linked information of and terminologies component will discuss vari-
plain text, audio, video, and images. The Metadata ous approaches to controlling terminology. The
(Daniel & Lagoze, 1997; DCMI, 2006), catalog- Object description and organization for a specific
ing, metadata markup, and metadata harvesting domain component will cover topics such as
component will cover intellectual, structural, ad- Metadata Object Description Schema (MODS),
ministrative, and technical approaches to creating, which is a schema for bibliographic elements, and
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Core Topics in Digital Library Education
might be used in library applications. Together, tomated and human-intermediated services will
these subcomponents can introduce students to be covered in this component, including topics
the range of issues associated with organizing related to integration or separation of these two
materials in a DL. approaches. In addition, services will be illustrated
by the interactions between systems (computers)
Topic 5: Architecture. This component of the and humans (users or DL staff), depending on
curriculum is critical, since it encompasses so how users obtain assistance within the context of
many important conceptual and technical topics a particular DL. For example, when users search
associated with the successful management of or browse resources in DLs, the human-computer
DLs. The common terminology of DLs and related interaction is an iterative cycle as users continu-
online databases will be reviewed and naming ously ask systems to gather results, and the sys-
strategies for making DL functions and services tems keep searching and displaying results based
easily recognizable to users will be discussed, on the updated queries. Human-intermediated
as well as the long-term and short-term access reference services in DLs, which enable users to
and security of DL architectures. The specific ask questions of librarians or other experts, are
subcomponents to be included are: Architecture examples of computer-mediated human-to-human
overviews; Application software; Identifiers, interaction. Automated filtering and routing func-
handles, DOI, PURL (Kahn & Wilensky, 1995); tions are good examples of computer-to-computer
Protocols; Interoperability; and Security. interaction, because pre-set algorithms run the
systems without any human intervention. The
Topic 6: User Behavior/Interactions. This com- variety of subtopics included in this component
ponent encompasses various issues regarding are: Search engines, information retrieval (IR),
the interactions between DLs and their users. indexing methods; Reference services; Recom-
Understanding the detail of user interactions mender systems; Routing, community filtering;
and behavioral patterns is one of the important Web publishing (e.g., Wiki, RSS, Moodle, and
design considerations in developing successful so on).
DLs. Subcomponents are: Information needs,
relevance; Online information seeking behav- Topic 8: Preservation. This module covers the
iors and search strategy; Sharing, networking, long-term plans of a DL for digital resource pres-
interchange (e.g., social); and Interaction design, ervation (Gladney, 2004), migration, emulation,
info summarization and visualization; Usability and so on, including the creation of preservation
assessment. and administrative metadata. The fundamental
strategies for preserving digital resources and
Topic 7: Services. DLs provide various services examples of preservation models for DLs will
for people, including at least the following four be covered. One of the subtopicsFile formats,
types: (1) searching, browsing, discovery, and transformation, migrationalso appears in
exploration; (2) alerting, recommending, and Topic 2: Digital Objects because understanding
routing; (3) other types of user need or informa- the different types and formats of digital objects
tion satisfaction services; and (4) infrastructure is an essential part of developing preservation
services (creation, adding value). These services strategies.
are developed and updated based on the continu-
ous investigation and analysis of user needs and Topic 9: Management and evaluation. As was
information seeking behaviors, which are covered identified via the analysis of existing courses
in Topic 6: User Behavior/Interactions. Both au- on DLs, project management skills are critical
500
Core Topics in Digital Library Education
to the success of a DL. This component will Because the field of digital librarianship will
cover basic project management skills involved continue to evolve as creative ideas and new
in project planning (e.g., defining work require- technologies emerge, it is expected that the cur-
ments, defining the quantity and quality of the riculum framework also will continue to evolve.
work to be completed, and defining the resources However, we believe that it provides a strong basis
needed) and monitoring a project to its successful for current curriculum developmentin specific
completion (e.g., tracking progress, comparing DL courses, certificate programs focusing on DLs,
the actual outcome to the predicted outcome, and degree programs in digital librarianship.
analyzing the projects impacts, and making any
adjustments needed along the way). In addition
to these fundamental project management skills, MO DULE DE VELO PMEN T
this component will address several related issues
through subcomponents on Project management; It is expected that, over time, an educational
DL case studies; DL evaluation (Gonalves, module will be developed for each subtopic in
Moreira, Fox, & Watson, 2007), user studies; the curriculum framework. The modules being
Bibliometrics, Webometrics; Legal issues (e.g., developed can be implemented within the context
copyright); Cost/economic issues; and Social of a DL course or series of courses, or in other
issues. related courses having a DL component. The
process for developing these modules is described
Topic 10: DL Education and Research. The cur- in this section.
riculum framework provides closure in a compo- After receiving feedback from the projects
nent addressing DL education and future research advisory board and going through a few revisions,
topics. This component will explicitly examine the project team developed the module template
the possible futures of digital libraries. as shown in Figure 3. Its structure resembles that
501
Core Topics in Digital Library Education
of a course syllabus with additional sections (e.g., 6-a: Information needs, relevance
5S characteristics of the module, concept map). 6-b: Online information seeking behaviors
The scope description and the learning objec- and search strategy
tives will define what is to be included in each 7-b: Reference services
module, as well as what will not be covered. In 9-c: DL evaluation, user studies
addition, a modules relationships to other modules
within the framework will be specified. The other Those modules were selected for early develop-
sections such as Learning objectives, Level of ment based on the literature analysis of DL topics
effort required, Body of knowledge, Resources, and the teaching experiences of the project team
Exercises/Learning activities might be decided members. After formative evaluation through
depending on the module scope description. Most expert review, they will be field-tested in actual
modules can be taught and studied using 1.5 to university classrooms.
2.5 in-class hours with additional out-of-class
hours, which span from 17 hours depending on
the amount of exercises assigned and the level CON CL USION
of difficulty of the learning activities. The 5S
characteristics description makes sure that the As digital libraries become commonplace (i.e.,
module is on a solid foundation, connecting the as people come to assume that they will access a
module directly to the 5S theoretical framework. digital library when they need information), DLs
The Body of knowledge section is where the must become reliable and trustworthy resources.
actual content of the lesson will be provided, They must include both a well-organized underly-
in the form of lecture notes. These notes can be ing architecture and a set of services designed to
easily modified for a particular implementation address their potential users information needs.
of the module. Creating concept maps is one For this vision of the future to come to fruition,
of several possible effective learning methods. information professionals need to be educated
Concept maps will be created by the students for to establish and manage digital libraries. The
each module (and for some resources assigned proposed curriculum framework provides a
for the module). There should be a clear logical firm foundation for these important educational
connection among Learning objectives, Body activities.
of knowledge, Exercises/learning activities, and
Evaluation of learning objective achievements.
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Digital Library (DL): A complex information
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Shen, R. (2006). Applying the 5S framework to
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integrating digital libraries. Doctoral disserta-
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taken out of a digital library.
from http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-
04212006-135018/ Interdisciplinary Curriculum Develop-
ment: The development of a curriculum or
Witten, I.H., & Bainbridge, D. (2003). How to
curriculum framework jointly undertaken by col-
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laborators from two or more academic disciplines.
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For example, in this case, this effort is undertaken
Zhu, Q. (2002). 5SGraph: A modeling tool for by collaborators from computer science and from
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Metadata: A set of information about a digital
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object, serving needs such as content description
and administration.
Module: A unit of educational content and
KEY TERMS
content description that can be worked with, rela-
tive free from dependency on other similar units
5S Framework: A formal model and theory
of contenttypically a part of a course.
developed to describe digital libraries in par-
ticular, but more generally able to aid descrip-
tion of information systems; the basic elements,
describable using well understood mathematical E n dno tes
constructs, are: societies, scenarios, spaces,
structures, and streams.
1
Support for this work was received from the
US National Science Foundation, Grants IIS-
504
Core Topics in Digital Library Education
505
506
Chapter LII
Digital Libraries as
Centres of Knowledge:
Historical Perspectives from European
Ancient Libraries
Natalie Pang
Monash University, Australia
A bs tra ct
Using historical perspectives from ancient libraries in Europe, this chapter is focused on the core role
of libraries as centres of knowledge. Though not intended to be a comprehensive historical account,
these perspectives are seen as a starting point in the discussion in looking at digital libraries as similar
centres or repositories of knowledge. The ways technological and social contexts have been adapted in
ancient libraries are discussed, which helped to shed light on the next part of the discussion on digital
libraries. Digital libraries are not only considered in terms of their technological aspirations, but also
in their social constructions. It is hoped that the discussion will contribute to a collective understand-
ing of immediate and future directions of libraries, their challenges and promises, and how they have
evolved as places for local communities.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Digital Libraries as Centres of Knowledge
libraries within traditional libraries has provided mega library of the ancient world: the Library
a complex infusion of physical and digital spaces, of Alexandria. From there the discussion leads
which can become a powerful ally to small but on, from the decline of knowledge and libraries
growing libraries faced with space issues. during the dark ages till the renaissance period,
Given the increasing complexity of digital a time of great revelations in knowledge when
libraries, researchers have attempted to define many geniuses and inventors also emerged. The
their meaning and scope. Borgman (2003, p. renaissance period also reflected the rise of a new
652) defined digital libraries as sets of electronic order for librarieswith the growth of university
resources and associated technical capabilities libraries and a society that were largely pursuing
for creating, searching, and using information. literacy and knowledge.
Within this definition lies the closely knitted After drawing insights from the European ac-
relationship between digital contents and the counts of technological use and transformations
technological functions and services concerning in libraries, the article will then focus on a more
the creation, search, and usage of these digital re- recent piece of library history: digital libraries.
sources. Waters (1998, p. 1) comprehended a broad Are they replacements of libraries as new centres
definition, which stated that digital libraries of knowledge or are they essential complements
to libraries?
are organisations that provide the resources, in-
cluding the specialised staff, to select, structure,
offer intellectual access to, interpret, distribute, A ver y shor t his tor y
preserve the integrity of, and ensure the persistence
over time of collections of digital works so that they There has always been an innate knowing that
are readily and economically available for use by knowledge is absolutely critical to status and
a defined community or set of communities. survival. In the ancient world, the ability to
know things about the seasons, farming, river
In a sense, going by this definition, any library tides, time, calendars, would often create the
that has allocated any resource (including staffing) difference between the rich and the poor (Finley,
to making digital works available for use by one 1965). While this is nothing new, it is imperative
or more target communities would already have to highlight that libraries, in the role of knowledge
a digital library. cultivation and construction, have always involved
Though an instrument that has widened the technologies.
possibilities of design and deliveries of services; One of the greatest accomplishment in library
the presence of digital libraries can also be a history (Hessel, 1955), the Library of Alexandria,
rather perplexing one. Are they substitutes or was founded around 300 B.C. A mega library and
perfect complements of traditional libraries? a centre of knowledge that was public, it was the
What is the future of libraries, given the changing first of its kind (Casson, 2001). The Greeks knew
circumstances and conditions of the larger the importance of having a repository of records,
societies? For the purpose of this article it is archives, literature and scholarly works that was
necessary to return to the historical beginnings of quality and trustworthyto a heightened
of libraries; though this is not intended to be an intellectual life. Scholars attribute this growth
exhaustive historical account. to the emphasis on the centres of learning (other
Due to space limitations the discussion is fo- smaller private and public libraries) and the Li-
cused on libraries in the European ancient world. brary of Alexandria found therecreating a
The discussion begins with an account of the first city of literacy based on knowledge production
507
Digital Libraries as Centres of Knowledge
(Boren, 1977; Krasner-Khait, 2001; Sitwell, 1984). Because of the religious communities that
Unfortunately, this great library was mysteriously emerged which were also institutionalised, small
destroyed later, with many citing fires during Ro- libraries were formedforming the groundwork
man occupation of Alexandria in 48BC-50BC by for what became known as a time of great learn-
Julius Caesar as the cause (Arnott, 1970; Casson, ing: the renaissance and a new age for libraries.
2001; Lipsius, 1907). The monastic communities that were formed in
Other royal libraries were rising to existence Egypt created theological libraries that formed an
by the beginning of second century B.C. emphasis for learning in the eastern half of the
(Casson, 2001) in Rhodes, Athens, through to the Roman Empire (Johnson, 1970; Krasner-Kahit,
development of libraries in the Roman Empire. 2001; Parsons, 1952).
Such growth reflected significant influences in This was manifested in 529 AD through a
literacy and learning. decree of Benedict to govern the lifestyles of
Like many other successful civilisations of monks. This rule mandated that
their times, Rome had libraries functioning as
centres of knowledge and learning, and formed a Between Easter and the calends of October let
large part of the Roman society. The accumulation them apply themselves to reading from the fourth
of knowledge and acquisition was one significant hour until the sixth hour [...] and in these days
aspect of the Roman lifestyle. The engineering of Lent, let them receive a book apiece from the
feats of the Romans were attributed to the knowl- library and read it straight through. These books
edge and records of scrolls and manuscripts found are to be given out at the beginning of Lent.
in these centres of knowledge (Arnott, 1970; (Krasner-Khait, 2001)
Boren, 1977). In the beginning, the libraries
were only accessible to scholars, scientists, and It also became common for monasteries to
teachersbut by the third century libraries were lend to other monasteriesa familiar form of
added to the baths, where the public masses would the interlibrary loan as we know today.
go to socialise and read (Krasner-Khait, 2001; As Europe emerged out of darkness, people
Sitwell, 1984). Such transfers of knowledge were began looking to the Greek and Roman literature
crucial to libraries growth, and at the same time for inspiration (Johnson, 1970; Krasner-Kahit,
reflected the penetration of libraries in the social 2001). Not only was this period marked with
spaces of public communities of people. the appearance of great scientists, inventors, and
Several events in ancient history looked to other; it was also marked with institutional rev-
propel the libraries towards extinction, such as elations, such as the establishment of the Vatican
the dark ages with the decline of literacy and Library in Italy in the 1400s, the forming of the
libraries being open only to a privileged few. Laurentian Library by the famous Florentine fam-
Stark (2005), in his book, shed a different light ily. Universities were growing, and accompany
to the Dark Ages and the common perception this growth was the development of university
of Christianity as an enemy of progress. In the libraries (Johnson, 1970). Bookmaking was revo-
monasteries and churches, knowledge was be- lutionalised by Gutenberg, replacing printed books
ing stored which brought about the beginning of with handwritten ones. A historical milestone, this
some great technological innovations, and the technological revolution brought about dramatic
reestablishment of literacy. There was continuity changes to making the written word accessible
in the effort to store critical informationturn- to the masses (Krasner-Khait, 2001).
ing them into pastoral houses of knowledge. The This period marked a golden age of literacy,
monasteries and churches were instrumental in where the absorption of knowledge in arts, lit-
making this happen (Stark, 2005).
508
Digital Libraries as Centres of Knowledge
erature, science, architecture, and technology From this short history the library as a place
was equally matched by their dissemination, is also manifested: they begin usually as access
another key growth factor for libraries. Also points to resources, but as people came together the
marking this period was the rise of commerce library also opened itself for other opportunities
and exploration, and the knowledge amassed by such as social interactions that were necessary to
the people and institutions of this period trans- accompany communities pursuits of knowledge.
lated into the rich and diverse collections found Regardless of the societies and cultures they were
in various libraries. in, the libraries were important as institutions
It is important at this point to clarify what may providing sources of literacy, knowledge, and
be misunderstood as technological determinisms innovations. Technological developments were
from these historical accounts. While it may keys to creating and disseminating themand
be that technological revolutions had propelled also form a core character of libraries.
libraries towards certain heights (such as the
printing of books), it may also be suggested that
these revolutions had come about as an outcome Digi tal libraries: Pra ctice
of the core nature of libraries. As Pang, Schauder, or A s pira tion?
Quartly, and Dale-Hallett (2006) had argued with
structuration theory, the duality of technology It may seem recent; but the ideology and aspira-
makes clear the distinctions between technology tion driving digital libraries is not. H.G. Wells,
as a form of structure and agent yet recognises a famous early science fiction writer, wrote in
them as iteratively dependent on each other. The 1937:
application of this theory recognises that the
structural properties of social systems impose The whole human memory can be, and probably
themselves as influencing mediums and at the in a short time will be, made accessible to every
same time, outcomes of the social practices they individualthis new all-human cerebrum need not
recursively organise (Giddens, 1986, p. 25). This be concentrated in any one single place. It can
is also known as the duality of structure (Giddens, be reproduced exactly and fully, in Peru, China,
1986). Ferguson and Bunge (2007, p. 53) pointed Iceland, Central Africa, or wherever else seems
out that personalised service and equity of ac- to afford an insurance against danger and inter-
cess is within the nature of libraries and librar- ruption. It can have at once, the concentration of
iansso much so that they make technologies a craniate animal and the diffused vitality of an
easier and more available to their users. amoeba. (Wells, 1937, p. 87)
Using this assumption, it could be perceived in
hindsight that: technological revolutions had also Wells saw the potential distributed intelligence
been driven by demand and the evolutionary use of can offer, given the availability of access around
literary materials in libraries, the role of libraries the clock, sophisticated searching, organisation of
as centres of knowledge had led to the adoption information, and the availability of interoperable
of processes to facilitate certain functions such file formats and languages. This potential which he
as the interlibrary loans and the integration of the foresaw is fulfilled with the advent of the Internet
library into social lifestyles (such as the addition and World Wide Web, and more importantly, the
of libraries to the baths in the Roman empire). In digital libraries of today.
such technological breakthroughs and transforma- Ferguson and Bunge (1997) recognised that
tions of processes, the design, development, and the presence of digital libraries implies a social
use of technology plays a critical role. construction of librarians, library services, user
509
Digital Libraries as Centres of Knowledge
communities, and the way they interact with one factor attributed to the growth of libraries is the
another and with the library. Freeman (2007) ex- dissemination and use amongst the communi-
presses this explicitly, in his discussion of librar- ties they serve. It may be clear then, that digital
ies as places where technologies are integrated libraries with its distributed intelligence and the
within physical spaces, and recognised such potential to reach a wider audience may prove to
redesigned spaces to imply social constructions be a powerful asset to libraries than ever before;
of communities. even though some of them may not have been
It must be realised that digital libraries have developed by librarians themselves.
been created by people who work within conven- As seen from history, the library had been
tional libraries, but also by people who do not important as spaces for interactions: whether as
consider themselves as practitioners of libraries points of access to information resources, pres-
(Arms, 2000). As we learn from history, librar- ervation of collections, for social interactions,
ies have always adopted technology within their as institutions of collaborations or presenting
wallsso the appearance of digital libraries is far opportunities for training and development. In his
from strange. Yet digital libraries are not simply research with academic libraries, Freeman (2007,
technologiesthey have the capacity to provide p. 372) found that students want their libraries to
access to collections of resources, anywhere feel bigger than they are, and interestingly, prefer
and anytime, and make a single copy available the traditional spaces of their libraries although the
to multiple people. They are rich repositories of presence of new technologies is acknowledged as
knowledge that have no physical boundaries and essential. This is clear in highlighting the social
in addition, possess the ability to link to other role that libraries have in inspiring learning and
digital libraries; expanding their capacity as digital facilitating knowledge exchange within their
centres of knowledge. It is undeniable that there communities. Although with the World Wide
are distinct advantages that digital libraries have Web, the library finds itself having to reposition
that traditional libraries do not have. So a paradigm itself as a place, and more importantly, for the
shift has now appeared: digital libraries can exist communities it serves. Digital libraries bring
as part of a larger library, or on their own. The the library to the user without the user leaving
question is this: if digital libraries are better left the comforts of his own home, office, or internet
to exist on their own, does it imply the decline caf; and yet can still be a powerful ally for the
of physical libraries? At this point, it is hard not traditional library with integrated searching abili-
to wonder if the library is being replaced by this ties and digital materials to complement existing
digital centre of knowledge. physical collections.
After all, the justification for libraries has However, a number of issues remain, posing
changed with time, from the use of libraries challenges to both the library and the digital
as an instrument to preserve democracy to library. Unlike the libraries of the past the col-
the contemporary idea of gaining competitive lections contained in digital libraries are distrib-
advantages with efficient information transfer utedinstead of one place the points of access can
(Lesk, 2005). The emphasis on history has been be numerous. With access rather than ownership
deliberate in order to derive relevant lessons from being a key success factor of libraries, there are
them. Other than natural disasters, the decline considerable challenges in the licensing and us-
of libraries in history has been characterised by age frameworks of digital libraries. There are
libraries closing themselves to the communities, significant issues with the economic models for
reserving technological developments to only a libraries and publishers. Publishers and content
privileged few. By the same token, a key success providers have traditionally relied on selling
510
Digital Libraries as Centres of Knowledge
copies of an itemwhile in the digital library structures and implementations of digital libraries.
the definition of a copy and the number of people Yet a solution presents itself, with the possibility
who can have access to one copy has changed. of digital libraries being used as archives and
This is an important issue especially for hybrid preserve potentially-obsolete materials (Arms,
libraries with shrinking library budgets, and who 2000; Lerner, 1999).
provides both printed and digital resources. While
the cost of physical space may not be as relevant
for digital libraries, there are significant costs CON CL USION
associated with the research and development of
digital libraries. Other social issues remain, such History has proven that since the beginning of
as the lack of financial support for independent libraries, they have been part of what civilisa-
digital library developments, lack of available tion stood for. They are centres and repositories
infrastructure, poor information literacy rates of knowledge that were started because people
amongst users, lack of trained staff (Chowdhury realised the importance of sharing and accumula-
& Chowdhury, 2003). tion of knowledgewhich can only become more
Perspectives on the library as a place are chang- valuable the more they are being used. More
ing with the digital library, especially with the importantly, libraries stand as institutions that are
presence of community interaction in history. Yet also representative of a type of cooperation: in the
this needs not be displaced, only changed. With sharing of resources and spaces they foster literate
the digital library there are new opportunities communities and institutions that are empowered
for community engagement, such as cooperative and inspired to collaborate. Regardless of their
cataloguing (Lerner, 1999), interactive reference instruments, the core reason of their being and
services, or even collaborative creation of meta- existence has not changedonly evolved with
data with users using participative technologies the digital library. Perspectives from the short
such as tagging. historical account reveal that digital libraries can
Although digital libraries can function as cen- act as a powerful facility for libraries to augment
tres of knowledge providing access to resources their roles as houses of knowledge.
globally around the clock, the discussion has so far
argued for a social and cultural role for libraries.
Jeanneney (2007) agreed, further clarifying that REFEREN CES
libraries have been misunderstood and simply
reduced to places where books and other resources Arms, W. (2000). Digital libraries. Cambridge:
are provided. As shown from the historical ac- The MIT Press.
count of libraries from Europe in the first part
Arnott, P.D. (1970). Romans and their world:
of the chapter, while they function as centres of
An introduction to the Roman world. London:
knowledge, they are also the understated organ-
Macmillan.
isers of potentially chaotic knowledge resources
and exchanges, and the patient information thera- Boren, H.C. (1977). Roman society: A social,
pists who guide users to the resources they want. economic, and cultural history. Lexington:
So there remains an essential need for physical Mass.
libraries; as much as digital libraries are needed
Borgman, C. (2003). The invisible library: Paradox
within libraries.
of the global information infrastructure. Library
Within the library, technological issues are
Trends, 51(Spring), 652675.
also more prevalent than before, with the diverse
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Digital Libraries as Centres of Knowledge
Casson, L. (2001). Libraries in the ancient world. and adaptive capacity in cultural institutions: The
London: Yale University Press. case of the women on farms gathering collection.
In C. Khoo, D. Singh, & A. Chaudhry (Eds.),
Chowdhury, G.G., & Chowdhury, S. (2003).
Proceedings of the Asia-Pacific Conference on
Introduction to digital libraries. London: Facet
Library & Information Education & Practice
Publishing.
(A-LIEP 2006) (pp. 526535). Singapore.
Ferguson, C.D., & Bunge, C.A. (2007). Value
Parsons, E.A. (1952). The Alexandrian library:
propositions. In D. Kresh (Ed.), The whole digital
Glory of the Hellenic world. New York: Elsevier
library handbook (pp. 5156). Chicago: American
Press.
Library Association.
Sitwell, N.H. (1984). The world the Romans knew.
Finley, M.I. (1965). Technical innovation and
London: Hamilton.
economic progress in the ancient world. Economic
History Review, 2(8), 37. Stark, R. (2005). The victory of reason. New York:
Random House.
Freeman, G. (2007). Reinventing the library.
In D. Kresh (Ed.), The Whole Digital Library Waters, D.J. (1998). What are digital libraries?
Handbook (pp. 370373). Chicago: American Council on library and information resources
Library Association. issues July/August(1), 56.
Giddens, A. (1986). The constitution of society: Wells, H.G. (1937). World brain: The idea of a
Outline of the theory of structuration. Berkeley: permanent world encyclopaedia. Retrieved Au-
University of California Press. gust 30, 2008, from http://art-bin.com/art/obrain.
html
Hessel, A. (1955). A history of libraries (R. Peiss,
Trans.). New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press.
Jeanneney, J.-N. (2007). Google and the myth of
K ey Terms
universal knowledge. Chicago: The University
of Chicago Press.
Digital Libraries: Conceived narrowly as
Johnson, E.D. (1970). History of libraries in the sets or repositories of electronic resources and
western world. Metuchen: Scarecrow Press Inc. associated technical capabilities for creating,
searching and using information (Borgman, 2003);
Krasner-Khait, B. (2001). Survivor: The history
or broadly as organisations providing resources
of the library. History Magazine (October/No-
to ensure the availability and sustainability of
vember).
digital works (Waters 1998).
Lerner, F. (1999). Libraries through the ages. New
Duality of Structure: Structure as the medium
York: The Continuum Publishing Company.
and outcome of the conduct it recursively orga-
Lesk, M. (2005). Understanding digital libraries. nizes; the structural properties of social systems
San Francisco: Elsevier Inc. do not exist outside of action but are chronically
implicated in its production and reproduction.
Lipsius, J. (1907). Brief outline of the history of
libraries. Antwerp: The Platin Press. Hybrid Libraries: Typically refers to librar-
ies with both digital and printed information
Pang, N., Schauder, D., Quartly, M., & Dale-Hal-
resources which are made available via an inte-
lett, L. (2006). User-centred design, e-research,
grated information service.
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Digital Libraries as Centres of Knowledge
513
514
Chapter LIII
The European Approach
Towards Digital Library
Education:
Dead End or Recipe for Success?
Wolfgang Ratzek
Stuttgart Media University, Germany
A bs tra ct
Triggered by a rapid diffusion of ICT within the last two decades, libraries have undergone a (r)evolutionary
change in both mission and services. Step by step, libraries diversified their mission from a media hold-
ing institution towards a multimedia content provider in a physical and digital environment. To run a
library in this way, highly qualified staff with LIS background is brought into focus. The article deals with
the situation in European LIS institutions and its programs, particularly with regard to digital library.
The crucial question will be: what kind of paradigm, if at all, exists with regard to the digital library
phenomenon? Furthermore, some trends in libraries services and conceptions are presented.
A NEW Q UAN TUM LEA P? nication technology (ICT) and the vital change of
patron behavior. Both tendencies are captured in
During the last two decades, we can make out two terms like hybrid library, virtual library, digital
vital reasons why libraries changed from a mere library, or simply: the Information and Knowledge
media holding institution towards a multimedia Society. As a library cannot offer its services with-
access and content provider in a physical and a out more or less visible and qualified staff, we will
digital environment: The rapid development of now have a look at the LIS educational and train-
effective and efficient information and commu- ing programs in Europe, especially in Germany,
Great Britain and the Nordic Countries.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
The European Approach Towards Digital Library Education
The b ur den of being tren dy the DL as a challenge for own research and
development? Depending on the perspective,
An excellently managed and organized library one can concentrate on analyzing the phenom-
is an innovative library, or better: a learning enon and offering relevant tools (in the sense of
library. Learning from our patrons by listening knowledge acquisition), on the other hand, one
is a very helpful method. Another one: Learning can educate and train specialists to take part in
how to use ICT to improve access to both analog research projects (in the sense of a institution of
and digital information resources, which can be applied science). To become engrossed in DL,
found in my library or in the depth of the Internet we should not turn a blind eye to other library
(keyword: deep or semantic Web). These skills concepts and trends.
have something to do with research, qualified and
motivated staff, and the readiness for experiments.
But how far shall we go? In what trend shall we Futu re Tren ds
invest our scarce resources? How can we make out
a Mayfly in advance? Against the background, Trying to be a fortune-teller in a complex or
we will now describe the status of digital libraries chaotic world is a very unpleasant venture. In the
in European LIS programs. A good orientation wake of the last two decades there are at least four
is given by Saracevic and Dalbello (2001). They scenarios for the nature of a library. Scenario one
simply ask: describes the library as a physical meeting place
with library near services and various non-library
Why teach digital libraries? ( Actual services for leisure activities (e.g., Kindergarten,
library practice) fitness center, Internet workspaces). The Idea Store
What to teach about digital libraries? ( concept in the United Kingdom is a successful
Selection problem) example for this strategy. Another scenario can be
How to teach digital libraries? ( Cur- found nearly everywhere in public and scientific
ricula, course offering) libraries all over the world (in Idea Stores too):
The hybrid library, a synthesis of a physical library
Having scanned LIS programs on B.A. and with its holding and digital based services like a
M.A. level, especially in Germany, in the Nordic (Web-)OPAC or access to the Internet in general
Countries and the United Kingdom, we, in general and to the deep Web (e.g., with costs content in
recognized that all centers of education and train- particular). A third scenario focuses on the DL
ing offer courses in electronic data processing per se.
(EDP), digital document handling, information Actually, we have no generally accepted defi-
retrieval, library software, and sometimes also nition of DL (Saracevic & Dalbello, 2001). In a
JAVA, XML, PHP and so on. At first sight most broader sense, DL may be subdivided into the
of the LIS institutions of higher education in virtual or Internet-based library like the German
Europe seem to be prepared to meet the digital Virtual Special Libraries (ViFA: Virtuelle Fach-
challenge. bibliotheken) or The European Library hosted
The key question in this context is: What kind at the National Library of the Netherlands and
of philosophy, or better: paradigm do these the fully automated library like the Jurong City
centers cultivate? Do they handle the subject Library in Singapore or the Swedish Bokomaten:
digital library (DL) as a phenomenon, which is a complete library of the size of an ATM for
to be found in the world of libraries, that means: train stations, gas stations or department stores.
outside of the LIS institutions, or do they regard Last but not least, the Cybrarythe library in
515
The European Approach Towards Digital Library Education
cyberspacewhich is up to now science fiction, pable, we have to look at how LIS newcomers in
as one may marvel at films like Disclosure or Europe are prepared for the digital future (in the
Time Machine (by Simon Wells [2002], the great- sense of Davis & Moran, 2005).
grandson of H.G. Wells). The idea is, of course, In all European countries like Germany,
a consequent technological evolution. In this Norway or the United Kingdom data handling,
context a librarian turns into a Cybrarian (i.e., retrieval tools, database systems are part of the
an avatar who offers virtual [digital] services programs, but DL libraries seem to be mostly just
for real patrons). An example is the avatar-based a subject matter in both B.A. and M.A. programs.
search engine Ms. Dewey (http://www.msdewey. The findings of Saracevic and Dalbello (2001)
com/). Another variant: patrons surf themselves back up the thesis that DL in most countries is a
through the depth of cyberspace, like Michael phenomenon of the practice community, in other
Douglas in Disclosure did, and take over the job words: a library immanent development and not
of a librarian. No matter what perspective we a part of LIS curricula.
favor, LIS professionals must ensure that no-one Only Humboldt University Berlin/Germany
will get lost in hyperspace. And here education (for winter term 2006/07) and Universita De-
and training of LIS students come into play. Davis gli Studi Di Parma (Parma University/Italy)
and Moran (2005) identify the following weak appointed a professor with main focus on DL.
point in LIS education: At Department of Information Science at Lough-
borough University (United Kingdom) courses
Students have traditionally taken courses such as in Advanced Internet and DL are offered. Be-
collection development where they learned how to ing prepared for the future includes more than a
acquire and evaluate books, journals, and other profound IT knowledge, or better: Information
vehicles of scholarly communication. This type of and media competencies. This is just one side of
preparation is still essential, but in an era when the medal, the other side shows that an adequate
the process of scholarly communication is being LIS program design has to take into account the
transformed, it is not sufficient. problems arising from management of DL such as
Digital Right Management, copyright, marketing,
In addition Sommerville, Huston, and Miriamdot- financing, controlling and so on.
ter (2006) emphasize: These and other relevant subjects are part of
the newly established (first enrollment for winter
Moving from an inward focus on acquiring books term 2007/08) International Master in Digital
and other printed materials to an outward orienta- Library Learning (DILL). DILL stands for a joint
tion that emphasizes seamless user access to sys- two-year Masters program (120 ECTS credits) set
tems, services, and sources requires questioning up by the Oslo University College (Norway), Tal-
fundamental beliefs and values, communication linn University (Estonia), and Parma University
patterns, structures and core working assump- (Italy). Semesters will be spent in all three partner
tions, as we better align our organization with countries. Only 30 Students, 10 from Europe
the priorities of the emerging eUniversity. (EU members or members of the European Free
Trade Association/EFTA) and 20 from so-called
third countries, will pass the selection process.
F it F or the Futu re? Students will acquire a joint Masters degree (120
ECTS), recognised by the Consortium partners.
As the IT-evolution in general and the DL phenom- The tuition fees vary from 1,750 to 2,500 Euros
enon in particular isat the momentunstop- per year, depending on nationality.
516
The European Approach Towards Digital Library Education
517
The European Approach Towards Digital Library Education
In doing so, a DL as a simple database is ac- Sommerville, M.M., Huston, M.E., Miriamdot-
ceptable in the first run, the WWW-based (digi- ter, A. (2005). Building on what we know: Staff
tal) library is a must and belongs to Web 1.0, the development in the digital age. The Electronic
future is the next generation Internet, represented Library, 23(3), 480491.
by the Semantic Web (keyword: Ontology) and
the Web 2.0.
If librarians want to survive as librarians,
K ey Terms
we have to keep in close touch with our patrons
(customers) and their needs. Taylor made services
Cyberspace: A neologism composed of Cy-
for individuals who are seeking orientation in
bernetics and Space. Often used as a synonym
more and more chaotic structures will be the
for the Internet. A term coined in science fiction
right strategy against the Google hype. We need,
literature (especially by William Gibson). Since
therefore, librarians with various competencies
the 1980s a subject of computer scientists dealing
like empathy, special and general knowledge as
with Virtual Realities (VR)an ICT based system
well as an obvious interest in helping people to
for seamless man-machine interaction represented
cover their needs for information. In that case, li-
(e.g., by a flight simulator or computer generated
brarians become accepted intermediaries between
building where investors may walk around).
the virtual and physical world of information,
like librarians in Singapore, in the USA or in the Cybrarian: A virtual librarian in Cyberspace.
Nordic Countries. As the library of the future will An Avatar represents a human being in a virtual
be a global library, LIS educations and training environment. In this context, a Cybrarian substi-
should also take place within a global learning tutes a physical librarian in a Cyberlib (a library
infrastructure. And here LIS institutions come in Cyberspace).
into play.
Deep Web: Also called the hidden or invis-
ible Web. Search engines like Google scan the
surface only (keywords: visible or surface Web)
R eferen ces
(i.e., harvesting indexed pages). The Deep Web,
in general, consists of special (online) databases,
Clyde, L.A. (2004). Weblogs for libraries. Oxford,
where the surfer needs a password or registration,
Hampshire.
or dynamic pages, where the result is generated
Davis, C.L., & Moran, B.B. (2005). Scholarly after a query (e.g., stock market prices or flight
communication: Preparing tomorrows profes- schedules).
sionals: LIS schools and scholarly communication.
Semantic Web: A project of the WWW con-
Association of College and Research Libraries,
sortium lead by Tim Berners Lee. The traditional
C&RL News, 66(1). Retrieved August 30, 2008,
WWW is characterized by documents coded in
from http://www.ala.org/ala/acrl/acrlpubs/crl-
HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) (i.e., car-
news/backissues2005/january05/preparingpro-
rying pure metadata for Web search engines).
fessionals.htm
The Semantic Web is designed for exchange of
Saracevic, T., & Dalbello, M. (2001). A survey of documents carrying machine-readable semantic
digital library education. In Proceedings of the information generated through XML (eXentsible
American Society for Information Science and Markup Language) or RDF (Resource Descrip-
Technology (Vol. 38, pp. 209223). tion Framework). This does not mean that the
computer comprehends the content, it just means
518
The European Approach Towards Digital Library Education
that the computer is able to process well-defined WEB 2.0: The traditional WWW is mostly
problems by pattern matching. characterized by prefabricated content, the WEB
2.0, the join in Internet is characterized by user
Social Software: User-friendly, easy to use
generated Web content (see Social software).
software tools for user generated Web content (also
called collaborative software) (e.g., Internet Relay Web Service: A standardized network for
Chat [IRC], Instant Messaging [Skype], Web logs machine-to-machine data exchange. The com-
[Technorati], Wikis [Wikipedia], Social network- munication procedure between a service re-
ing [OpenBC, now XING or MySpace]). quester and a service provider is based on three
standards: Universal Description, Discovery and
Virtual Library: The entire content of a
Integration (UDDI), Web Services Description
(digital) library made accessible via the Internet.
Language (WSDL), and Simple Object Access
The content may come from different providers
Protocol (SOAP).
(e.g., the German Virtual Libraries).
519
520
Chapter LIV
New Roles of Digital Libraries
Faisal Ahmad
University of Colorado at Boulder, USA
Tamara Sumner
University of Colorado at Boulder, USA
Holly Devaul
Digital Learning Sciences, USA
A bs tra ct
The limited scope of digital libraries can be attributed to the brick and mortar vision of the library
metaphor. In order to extend scope of digital libraries, in this chapter we examine the current supports
and future possibilities afforded by digital libraries to support conventional consumers (i.e., informa-
tion-users and information-curators), as well as emerging new types of consumers such as distributed
computer applications. A functional analysis of conventional libraries is coupled with metaphor design
methodology to explore new promising applications and usage scenarios for digital libraries.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
New Roles of Digital Libraries
521
New Roles of Digital Libraries
addressing some of the information overload is- to do at different grade levels. Therefore in order
sues by rigorously cataloging topic-specific high to make DL resources more relevant to educa-
quality online resources and exposing them via tional practice, DL resources must be aligned to
sophisticated search and browse interfaces. This state and national science educational standards.
approach has been hampered by current practices To automate this alignment process Diekema et
that rely on manual cataloging processes, per- al. use hierarchal text classification techniques
ceived as necessary for quality assurance, that are with a moderate level of success. Although not
not scaleable to the growing needs of information perfect, automatic alignments between resources
repositories and their users. and standards can be a great support to human
Recent research has focused on automating cataloging processes when a large number of
the process of metadata generation (Han Giles, potentially relevant standards can be provided
Manavoglu, Zha, Zhang, & Fox, 2003; Liddy, as candidates for assignment (Devaul, Diekema,
Allen, & Finneran, 2003). Han et al. have used & Ostwald, 2007). In other work researchers
support vector machines (SVM) a supervised have used text summarization techniques to
machine learning method, to extract 15 metadata dynamically generate concise descriptions of
fields from headers of computer science research Web resources to supplement DL search results
papers. Four of the 15 extracted fields directly (McKeown, Elhadad, & Hatzivassiloglou, 2003).
correspond to Dublin Core metadata fields (i.e., In the same vein, work on automated assessment of
title, creator, description, and subject), hence mak- DL resource quality has been undertaken (Custard
ing them useful for a wide variety of cataloging & Sumner, 2005) in which quality indicators are
practices. They used word level and sentence level identified and used to train a SVM classifier to
features to train SVM classifiers to extract these make binary judgments about resource quality.
metadata fields with an overall accuracy of 93%. Evaluation of this classifier shows that it was able
In addition to this generic automated metadata to correctly identify the quality of 75 out of 80
creation effort a number of concentrated efforts resources, producing an accuracy of 94%.
are targeted towards automating the generation of Although automated metadata extraction al-
specific metadata fields with high precision. For gorithms are in their infancy, promising results
example, Newman, Hagedorn, Chemudugunta, of early efforts indicate that as the computational
and Smyth (2007) have used statistical topic mod- techniques mature, an increasing number of
eling techniques coupled with specialized natural traditional functions performed by information-
language processing techniques to extract subjects curators will be automated. This transition will
from loosely structured documents. Their evalua- change the responsibilities of information-cura-
tion shows that in 83% of cases the automatically tors from manually cataloging and organizing
generated topic labels were meaningful and these collections to managing, tuning and supervising
labels always enhanced the subject metadata field. computational applications.
In another effort researchers have attempted to DL cataloging processes generate rich meta-
automatically assign science education content data that underlies sophisticated filtering strate-
standards to DL resources (Diekema, Yilma- gies. But an information filter is meaningful only
zel, Bailey, Harwell, & Liddy, 2007; Yilmazel, with respect to a particular user information need.
Balasubramanian, Harwell, Bailey, Diekema, & Thus relevance and quality of information can
Liddy, 2007). have different meanings depending on the user
In the United States, science education stan- perspective; for example, accuracy of information
dards are statements of learning goals that specify might be most critical to one user while currency
what a student should know, understand or be able of information most important to another. The
522
New Roles of Digital Libraries
problem of multiplicity of the quality and relevance audio-visual materials (Figure 1). The filtering
criteria becomes more severe as the diversity of options available in the DLESE interface were
the online user population increases. State of the designed to support the needs of a particular set
art DLs have made some progress in this direc- of users (i.e., teachers, educators, and students).
tion by enriching their interfaces with flexible The National Science Digital Library (NSDL5)
searching and filtering mechanisms. For example, also provides filtering mechanisms similar to
the Digital Library for the Earth System Educa- DLESE suitable for education-focused audiences.
tion (DLESE4) provides a keyword-based search MathDL6 provides another interesting example. It
interface coupled with options for restricting the uses a standard keyword search interface, but the
search to resource types such as lesson plans or search results are laid out in a two-column table
Figure 1. Search and filtering options (digital library for earth system education)
523
New Roles of Digital Libraries
format to support quick assessment of resource DLs and generate novel visualizations of the
relevance. Each cell of the table contains the title, content.
a link, a brief description of the resource, the The Strand Map Service (SMS) (Ahmad,
number of pages in the resources, and a picture Gu, & Sumner, 2006a, 2006b; Sumner et al.,
depicting the resource. This concise representa- 2005) provides a conceptual browsing interface
tion helps users to quickly skim and assess the while ignoring collection and library boundaries.
value of resource for the task at hand. A search The SMS conceptual browsing interface can be
result set for the keyword function is shown in used in two ways: (1) users can find information
Figure 2. We anticipate this trend to continue relevant to particular concept by using it as an
and DLs will provide specialized information index to DLs, and (2) users can browse the DL
filtering interfaces for a diverse set of tasks and content by directly interacting with a concept map.
user populations. Figure 3 shows a conceptual browsing interface
for DLESE. In this interface users can directly
interact with the concepts, explore interdependen-
Digi tal L ibrar IES as cies of concepts, and retrieve materials useful for
Informa tion N e tworks teaching and learning about a particular concept.
An example of a conceptual browsing interface
The primary information structuring mechanism which transcends DL boundaries and uses con-
used by state of the art DLs are topical document cepts as common index to different DLs is shown
collections. Users can either browse or search in Figure 4. Here, the small icons at the bottom
for information within collections or across of each concept provide additional information
collections. Once a relevant document is found and supporting educational resources available in
users can inspect the document collection to find digital libraries as well as in a commercial Web
related documents. This mechanism offers a low site. A user can click on the exclamation icon ( )
level of connectivity between documents and to see detailed description of the concept drawn
thus has limited navigational and exploratory from the Strand Map Service, the beaker icon ( ) to
affordances. Moreover, the hierarchical nature of see general science resources drawn from NSDL,
collections is not readily amenable to modeling the Earth icon ( ) to see Earth science resources
complex connectivity patterns implicit in the in- drawn from DLESE, the camera icon ( ) to
formation e.g. document co-citation patterns, and see visual & interactive resources drawn from
document co-use patterns extracted for user logs. NSDL, the book icon ( ) to see books relevant
Recent research have addressed these issues by to teaching the concept drawn from Amazon, and
offering richer information modeling paradigms the do-not-enter icon ( ) to see search results
and visualization interfaces. The NSDL digital from the World Wide Web drawn from Yahoo.
repository project (Lagoze, Krafft, Payette, & The resource listings for each are displayed as
Jesuroga, 2005) provides a set of rich metadata pop-ups that can be bookmarked for future ac-
modeling constructs that allows modeling com- cess. Additionally, if the user is not satisfied with
plex relationships between diverse information the quality or suitability of the resources returned
types. These metadata primitives enable direct clicking on the search-in-context icon ( ) opens
representation of complex connectivity patterns a search popup window for further querying. Typ-
among documents in addition to hierarchal col- ing a new keyword and clicking the search button
lection structure. Among other uses, this rich updates the resources that appear in each of the
hyper-representation of information can be used icons for this concept accordingly. The search
to search relevant information within and across popup window also facilitates the search process
524
New Roles of Digital Libraries
Figure 4. Conceptual browsing interface for Nederland High School library web-site
525
New Roles of Digital Libraries
by providing support for spelling corrections and develop new models that bridge the gap between
keyword suggestions. digital and non-digital content to enable richer
The rich information modeling and visualiza- forms of content types and interactions.
tion capabilities in the NSDL digital repository
and in conceptual browsing interfaces is indicative
of the trend towards rich hypermedia informa- Digi tal L ibraries as
tion modeling and navigational structures in DL Con te xtual E n cy clo pe dias
development.
The global information economy is highly de-
pendent on the availability of right information
Digi tal L ibraries as G l ue in the right format at the right time and at the
be tween Digi tal an d right location. In the previous sections, we have
N on- digi tal Con ten t touched upon the issue of the right information in
the right format. The issues of location and time
Users often need different or multiple repre- are a challenge for conventional libraries however
sentations of content to understand a particular the DL paradigm brings the information to the
concept. Emergence of specialized and hybrid users when and where it is needed. Web-acces-
DLs that focus on particular content types are sible DLs that can be accessed anywhere, anytime
addressing this need, in that some DLs focus only using a desktop computer increase user access
on providing single content type7 while others significantly. The next logical step is to further
accumulate and make available a multiplicity of expand the meaning of anywhere and anytime,
content types5. A commonality between these two such that DLs become ubiquitous. Two promising
types of DLs is the digital nature of the content. directions to accomplish this are: (1) making DL
Although digital content is sufficient for most interfaces available through multiplicity of devices
purposes, it is insufficient for some important (e.g., mobile phones and handheld PDAs), and (2)
content types that are available in conventional
libraries. For example, special collections that
contain sculptures or artifacts other than docu- Figure 5. An artifact displayed at the online site
ments are of great value to researchers (Levy & of Science Museum of Minnesota
Marshal, 1995). One example of such an attempt
is the Science Museum of Minnesota8, (Figure 5)
which offers a textual description of an artifact
along with an image. In order to highlight salient
features of this artifact the translation of inscrip-
tions engraved in the artifact are dynamically
superimposed on the image when the mouse rolls
over a particular section.
Other than few ad hoc attempts at integrating
physical artifacts with digital medium, there has
not been a comprehensive attempt to take DLs
beyond the boundaries of digital medium. As a
consequence not a single model exists that aims
to integrate non-digital content into DLs. In the
future, DLs will have to take a proactive stance to
526
New Roles of Digital Libraries
making the DL interfaces context aware, e.g. if tasks people are engaged in (Cousins, Paepcke,
a user needs information about the Eiffel Tower Wingord, Bier, & Pier, 1997; Meyyappan, Al-
while standing at the base of it, he might need Hawamdeh, & Foo, 2002; Vakkari, 2001). For
information about the average wait time in the example, the work by Vakkari (2001) investigated
ticket line, but if a user needs information about the information needs associated with each stage
the Eiffel Tower while talking to a friend in Japan in writing a masters research proposal. He found
he might need historical information. A number that during the three task stages different types
of digital library and related research initiatives of information were used by the students. In the
are attempting to address the demands for context pre-focus phase general background information
and location-aware information by exploiting the was most relevant, in the focus formation phase
increasing power of mobile computational devices. faceted background information was most rel-
For example some of the recent research work on evant, and in the post-focus phase more specific
DLs have looked at hand held device interfaces to information was sought after. Similarly, work
DLs (Naaman, Song, Paepcke, & Garcia-Molina, by Meyyappan et al. (2002) investigated the task
2004; Sharples, Corlett, & Westmancott, 2002). of writing a masters dissertation by conducting
Other lines of research are investigating the so- interviews and focus groups with faculty and
cial and context aware dimensions of computer students. By analyzing these data they were able
and information use (Reid, Hull, Melamed, & to do comprehensive task decomposition and
Speakman, 2003; Sharples, Taylor, & Vavoula, articulate subtasks and the information needs for
2007; Tamminen, Oulasvirta, & Toiskallio, 2004; each of the subtasks within the dissertation writ-
Theng, Tan, Lim, Zhang, Goh, Chatterjea, et al., ing process. Using this hierarchal subtask model
2007). We anticipate this trend to continue to the they created an interface to contextualize and
extent that handheld mobile devices will become align information to the needs of specific tasks.
major consumers of DL information. This convic- These studies and systems represent a growing
tion is also supported by the increasing number interest in contextualizing DL information in a
of mobile devices sold in the U.S. (sale of Web- more task-oriented manner. We therefore envision
enabled mobile phones grew by 75% in 2005). that task-specific support by DLs in the realm of
personal DLs will be the next development in the
evolving DL world.
Digi tal L ibrar IES as A
Personal W ork O rganizer
R oles of Digi tal L ibraries
People like to collect information as they perform to Supp or t Dis trib ute d
knowledge tasks over a period of time. An example Com putational App li cations
of this phenomenon is bookmarks saved by users in
their Web-browsers. Hundreds of bookmarks are Distributed computational applications are
collected, updated, and revisited. Recent develop- the most exciting types of consumers brought
ments in DLs have focused on personal digital col- into the library world because of the advent of
lections. A variety of generic tools and information network technology. Presently most DLs are fo-
organization abstractions are provided by personal cused on creating portals for human interaction;
DLs, which mostly fall short of supporting task hence little attention has been paid to making
specific performances. On the other hand little the same information available for consumption
research has been carried out in supporting task by distributed computational applications. This
specific performances given the wide variety of trend is likely to change as applications start to
527
New Roles of Digital Libraries
mediate and contextualize information for use in Through maturation, the DL community will
every day activities. Here we briefly mention two come to consensus on supporting a standardized
promising roles of DLs for supporting a variety core set of services that will become the corner-
of online applications. stone of cyber-infrastructure.
528
New Roles of Digital Libraries
In this research, a multidocument summarization certain roles by judging its core value or consumer
technique was used to extract educationally rel- demand. Core value of a DL role can be estimated
evant domain science concepts from a set of DL by enumerating how many other roles depend on
resources. These concepts were then connected to the proper functioning of this role. It is our view
form a knowledge map using lexical chains and that DLs as information sieves are a critical role
machine learning techniques. This automatically because almost all other roles rely on the proper
generated domain knowledge map was then used functioning of this role. From a human consumer
successfully to diagnose misconceptions in stu- perspective DLs as a contextual encyclopedia and
dent knowledge maps. In addition to diagnosing DLs as personal work organizers are key roles
student misconceptions this application dynami- that should be supported by virtue of their use
cally selected DL resources to provide instruction in a wide variety of situations.
for each of the misconceptions. Considering this In order to fully realize the DL functional
and related work, we anticipate an ever increasing roles outlined in this chapter, as well as others,
use of DL resources by intelligent applications. we believe that the real challenge lies in the de-
velopment of research programs that can explore
the intricate details of enacting these roles. Hu-
Dis cussion man centered research is needed to understand
the information and interaction needs of human
Metaphor analysis of DL roles indicates that DLs consumers for different activities, tasks and con-
can play a much larger role in the knowledge texts. A parallel research agenda is also needed to
economy than at present. The key to unlocking leverage existing artificial intelligence techniques
this potential is to understand the theoretical to make effective use of DL resources in distrib-
and pragmatic limitations of current DLs and uted computational applications. In all cases this
systematically extend them in new directions. research must prove its value in the knowledge
The metaphorical analysis technique and the economy by rigorous multifaceted evaluation in
consumer focus adopted in this chapter grounds real world situations.
the future research agenda of DLs in the context
of their use. Our methodology has highlighted two
types of equally important DL consumers that Con cl usion
have very specific needs. We see the interaction
between these consumers to be complementary In this chapter, we have presented an overview of
and mutually reinforcing, where the input and the state of the art of digital libraries. Our analysis
output of one consumer type can be used and shows that contemporary digital libraries hold
reused by the other consumer types. For in- great potential for further research and develop-
stance, DL resource access logs can be used to ment if we recognize and extend the limitations
train algorithms that can predict successful user posed by the conventional library metaphor.
interaction patterns and hence provide guidance Additionally, we propose a systematic way to
to new users when performing a similar task. In extend the digital library research agenda through
addition to the synergistic interaction between the consumer focused functional role analysis.
human consumers and computational consumers
of DLs, different roles of DLs are not necessarily
mutually exclusive but interact in complex ways. R eferen ces
Even with this complex interaction between DL
functional roles we can assess the importance of Ahmad, F., Chica, S.D.L., Butcher, K., Sumner,
T., & Martin, J.H. (2007). Towards automatic
529
New Roles of Digital Libraries
conceptual personalization tools. In Proceedings Han, H., Giles, C.L., Manavoglu, E., Zha, H.,
of the ACM/IEEE-CS joint conference on Digital Zhang, Z., & Fox, E.A. (2003). Automatic docu-
libraries (JCDL). Vancouver, Canada. ment metadata extraction using support vector
machines. In Proceedings of the ACM/IEEE-CS
Ahmad, F., Gu, Q., & Sumner, T. (2006a). Con-
joint conference on Digital libraries (JCDL).
cept space interchange protocol: A protocol
Houston, TX.
for concept map based resource discovery in
educational digital libraries. In Proceedings of Lagoze, C., Krafft, D.B., Payette, S., & Jesuroga,
the European Conference on Digital Libraries S. (2005). What is a digital library anymore,
(ECDL). Alicante, Spain. anyway? D-Lib Magazine, 11.
Ahmad, F., Gu, Q., & Sumner, T. (2006b). A tech- Levy, D.M., & Marshal, C.C. (1995). Going digital:
nological infrastructure for developing curriculum A look at assumptions underlying digital libraries.
based on learning progressions. In Proceedings Communications of the ACM, 38, 7784.
of World Conference on Educational Multimedia,
Liddy, E.D., Allen, E.E., & Finneran, C.M. (2003).
Hypermedia & Telecommunications (Ed-Media).
MetaTest: Evaluation of metadata from genera-
Orlando, FL.
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Chica, S.D.L., Ahmad, F., Sumner, T., Martin, joint conference on Digital libraries (JCDL).
J.H., & Butcher, K. (in press). Computational Houston, TX.
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Lynch, C. (2005). Where do we go from here?
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Education. Madsen, K.H. (1994). A guide to metaphorical de-
sign. Communications of the ACM, 37, 5762.
Cousins, S.B., Paepcke, A., Wingord, T., Bier,
E.A., & Pier, K. (1997). The digital library inte- McKeown, K.R., Elhadad, N., & Hatzivassiloglou,
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Custard, M., & Sumner, T. (2005). Using machine
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Devaul, H., Diekema, A., & Ostwald, J. (2007).
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Molina, H. (2004). Automatic organization for
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digital photographs with geographic coordinates.
S.C., & Liddy, E.D. (2007). Standards alignment
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the ACM/IEEE-CS joint conference on Digital Wade-Stein, D., & Kintsch, E. (2004). Summary
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531
New Roles of Digital Libraries
532
533
Chapter LV
A Review of Progress in Digital
Library Education
Yongqing Ma
Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
Warwick Clegg
Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
Ann OBrien
Loughborough University, UK
A bs tra ct
In this entry, we review the history, development and current status of digital library (DL) courses and
programmes now being offered, mainly by universities/institutions with accredited programmes or
courses by CILIP (the Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals) and ALA (Ameri-
can Library Association), and review the latest thinking and potential curriculum developments on the
topic of how best to educate and train digital librarians. Trends in digital library education (DLE) are
presented including:
BA CKGRO UN D: BRIEF HIS TORY DLE history is even shorter. The DL is a new
OF Digi tal L ibrar y Educ ation form of managing the knowledge record and
(DLE ) cultural heritage on both small and large scales.
Thousands of digital collections continue to be
The history of digital libraries (DLs) themselves created around the world. Large amounts of
can be characterized as short and volatile, and research effort and money have been devoted to
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
A Review of Progress in Digital Library Education
DL research throughout the world over the past 2001 Information Management (IM) Areas (de-
decade, but very little on research regarding how fining curricula by ACM & IEEE-CS for CS). In
Librarians may best be educated and equipped to contrast, the DL curriculum offered by LIS has
work in the digital domain. varied more widely from time-to-time and place-
DL education can be defined as the pro- to-place. There has been little agreement as to
grammes or courses specific to the training and the contents and scope of these programmes or
educating of students who will be able to build courses offered by LIS (Rose, 2001; Saracevic &
and manage DLs after graduation. It is evident Dalbello, 2001), and a lack of cooperation between
that there is already a shortage of supply, a lack of institutions, or between LIS and CS disciplines
information professionals with the right combina- until late 2005.
tion of skills, and a particularly serious shortage There was little or no funding for education
in specialist areas such as digital librarians and in DL (Spink & Cool, 1999) in the last century.
digital recording managers (Fisher, 2002; Wilder, However, there are some encouraging changes
2002). DLE started sometime in the middle of the in the past few years. For example, the Institute
1990s as a consequence of the fast development of Museum and Library Services (IMLS) in the
of DLs. Spink and Cool (1999) thought that DLE USA has funded several projects in digital library
programmes were choices for rationale, and that education as part of their Librarians for the 21st
DLE reacts with a time lag to both research and Century Programme in late 2004.
practical developments in DL. Our latest stud- There has been significant progress in the
ies (Ma, OBrien, & Clegg, 2006, 2007) on DLE development of DL curricula from the LIS per-
show there is a progression from a stage where spective. For example, Indiana University and
educators are exploring basic questions such as the University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign
why and what to teach about digital libraries? (IU & UIUC, 2004) were awarded a grant from
to more focused academic questions like how IMLS on a collaborative DLE project. This grant
and what is best practice in DLE? is aimed at building up an effective digital library
It is well known that the term digital library curriculum through library school and academic
(DL) means different things to different people library partnership. Progress in this three-year
(Arms 2005; Borgman, 1999). Many academics project was presented, in at least three work-
in DLE have been, and are still, struggling to shops held with the Joint Conference on Digital
construct a suitable or standard curriculum for Libraries (JCDL) in June 2005, 2006 and 2007
their students (Borgman, 2001; IU & UIUC, 2004; (Brancolini & Mostafa, 2006; Dolan, 2005; IU
Jacso, 2000). DLE is faced with many questions & UIUC, 2007). At the same time, other library
and it is clear that there is a pressing need to schools with grants from IMLS from the Laura
develop suitable education programmes to train Bush 21st Century Librarians Programme, such as
and equip new librarians and information profes- Pittsburgh and Drexel, are also exploring aspects
sionals who will be capable and comfortable in of the development of DL curricula.
working in a digital environment. The combina- The National Science Foundation (NSF) in
tion of social trends and technology is here the the USA awarded a three-year grant of over half
push for educational developments. a million dollars in 2006 to Virginia Tech (VT)
Most DL courses have been taught either in and the University of North Carolina (UNC) to
Library and Information Science (LIS) or Com- develop a digital library curriculum. The project
puter Science (CS) programmes. It is noted that (VT, 2006) is titled Collaborative Research:
DL programmes or courses offered by CS are Curriculum Development: Digital Libraries,
now based on the Computing Curriculum (CC) and is led by academics from CS at VT and LIS
534
A Review of Progress in Digital Library Education
at UNC. It is perhaps the first formal cooperation credited by CILIP in the UK. All URLs were
in this field between CS and LIS and between valid at the end of October 2006. The detailed
institutions, and is a most welcome and neces- data collected in our study can be found in Ma
sary development. (2006), and the majority of the data has also been
checked and updated at the end of October 2006.
Tables 1 and 2 summarise the position at that date,
THE CURREN T S TATUS IN DLE incorporating data from Spink and Cool (1999),
Saracevic and Dalbello ( 2001), Liu (2004), Ma
It is clear that the topic of DL education is a new (2006) and Ma, OBrien, and Clegg, (2006).
and fast moving one and could involve several Our recent study (Ma, OBrien, & Clegg,
subject domains. The evidence and data collected 2006) and updated data indicate that the number
here is mainly based on a literature review and of institutions offering DL programmes or courses
online information posted by educational institu- is still growing. It is notable that there have been
tions in the DL sector. From the LIS perspective, some changes in the institutions offering courses
the Web sites searched here were mainly those in DL. In some cases, the content of an earlier
maintained by institutions with ALA accredited DL course has been fully integrated to a current
programmes in the USA and Canada and those standard Masters programme, in recognition that
universities with library study programmes ac- DL material is moving into mainstream library
education.
Table 1. Summary of the number of institutions offering DLE from 1999 to 2006
Year of the Survey 1999 2001 2004 2006# 2006*
LIS-CILIP*** 1 1 2 4 4
LIS-ALA**** 10 15(+32)** 21 32 34
CS & Some LIS 4(CS) 2(CS) & 2(LIS) 8(CS) & 7(CS) & 6(CS)
(not CILIP or ALA) & 4LIS 9(LIS) 8(LIS) 8(LIS)
In Total 19 20 (+32)** 40 51 52
535
A Review of Progress in Digital Library Education
536
A Review of Progress in Digital Library Education
digital library evaluation, collaboration and global Collection Development; Digital Objects; Infor-
perspectives on digital libraries, and the future of mation/Knowledge Organization; Architecture
digital libraries in society. However, little formal [agents, mediators]; Space; Services [searching,
effort has been expended on understanding the linking, browsing, annotating, and so on]; Ar-
knowledge requirements in DL curriculum design chiving, Preservation, Integrity; DLE & Research)
or structure until very recently, say from 2005 and 34 related topics, which are central to the
(Dolan, 2005). curriculum in LIS programs. They studied the
Some academics from CS such as Fox and most frequently-assigned books, journals, journal
colleagues (Fox & Urs, 2002; Goncalves et al., articles, and authors in DL courses and found that
2004) have developed a formal model that they varied from the place-to-place. In one of their
referred to as 5S (structures, scenarios, spaces, latest studies, (Pomerantz et al., 2007) reading
societies and streams) for teaching DL based on assignments across CS courses on DL and DLs
CC 2001IM, a joint effect of ACM and IEEE- related topics have been analyzed, and even less
CS defining curricula for CS programs which consistency found compared with those of LIS
includes DLs as one of 14 knowledge modules programs. It was also not surprising to find that
under Information Management. LIS and CS programs view some DL-related top-
With a new grant from NSF this curriculum ics differently; in particular, the approaches to
model is now being developed further together Architecture and Service differ. They suggested
with academics from a LIS background (Pomer- that an interdisciplinary curriculum development
antz, et al., 2006a; VT, 2006). In this very first should make clear these trends and help academ-
codiscipline and coinstitutional study in DLE, ics decide how best to structure and shape DL
UNC-VT (Pomerantz et al., 2006b) identified and courses and curricula.
suggested a set of 10 core DL topics (Overview;
537
A Review of Progress in Digital Library Education
In one of our latest studies (Ma, OBrien, between ten institutions outside North America
& Clegg, 2007), we used this suggested stan- which offer DL education in their library schools.
dard (UNC-VT) set of categories as a starting This study indicated that the DL module-based
point and normalised our data to investigate the credit weighting for the sample set of library
commonality/diversity of programme structure schools considered here varied from 13% to 63%
Table 4. DL topics percentage coverage (Core topics and related topics adapted from reference [Pomer-
antz et al., 2006a])
No Core Topics Related Topics LM ST VUW QUT LB
1 Overview 10 10 10 10
2 Collection a-Digitization 10 10 10 10 10
Development b-Doc. & E-Publishing-mark-up
3 Digital Objects a-Text resources 10 10 6.7 6.7 6.7
b-Multimedia
c-File documents transformation
4 Information/ a-Metadata, harvesting cataloguing 10 10 10 7.5 10
Knowledge b-Ontology, classification, categorization;
Organisation c-Vocabulary control
d-Bibliographic, bibliometrics, Webmetrics
5 Architecture a-Interoperability 10 10 5 4 2
b-Sustainability
c-Interface design, usability assessment
d-Search engines & IR
e-Identifiers, handles, DOI, PURL
f-Info summarisation, visualization
g-Recommender system
h-Applications
i -Web-publishing
j-Security
6 Spaces a-Storage 5 5
b-Repositories, archives
7 Services a-Info. needs, relevance, evaluation 10 10 8 8 6
b-Search strategy, info seeking behaviour, user
modelling
c-Reference services
d-Routing, community, filtering
e-Sharing, networking, Interfacing
8 Archiving, 10 10 10 10
preservation,
integrity
9 Project a-DL development for specific domain 10 10 8.5 7 5.8
Management b-DL project examples
c-DL evaluation
d-Legal issues
e-Cost; economic issues
f-Social Issues
g-Future DLs
10 DLE & Research 10 10 10 10
Total coverage % of core & related topics (if 10% per core 80 85 83 73 50
(%) model)
LM London Metropolitan University (UK); LBLoughborough University (UK) ST Strathclyde University (UK);
QUT Queensland University of Technology (Australia); VUW Victoria University of Wellington (New Zealand)
538
A Review of Progress in Digital Library Education
539
A Review of Progress in Digital Library Education
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CON CL USION Fisher, W. (2002). The Electronic Resources Li-
brarian Position: a Public Services Phenomenon.
The latest evidence on DLE indicates that it is Library Collections, Acquisitions, & Technical
increasingly seen to be highly beneficial for edu- Services, 27(1), 3-17.
cators worldwide to work more closely with DL
Fox, E.A. & Urs, S.R. (2002). Digital Libraries.
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Annual Review of Information Science and Tech-
nities to share curriculum development to arrive
nology Volume. 36, 503-589.
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IU & UIUC, (2004) Indiana University and
programmes.
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,
Proposal for Project on Building an Effective
Digital Library Curriculum through Library
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Spink, A. and Cool, C. (1999). Education for
Structure Comparisons. Proceeding of the 7th
Digital Libraries. D-Lib Magazine 5(5).
ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital Li-
braries (JCDL07) (pp.490). ACM Press. Retrieved VT, (2006). Virginia Tech, UNC Create DL Cur-
July, 10, 2007 from http://delivery.acm.org/10.114 riculum. Retrieved November, 21, 2007. from
5/1260000/1255289/p490-ma.pdf?key1=1255289 http://www.cs.vt.edu/whatsnews/virginia_tech,_
&key2=8046720021&coll=portal&dl=ACM&CF unc_create_digital_library_curriculum.html
ID=36056742&CFTOKEN=34866767
Wildemuth, B. (2006). CS and ILS as Disciplinary
Pomerantz, J., Wildemuth, B. Yang, S. & Fox, Homes for DLE. Presentation at DLE workshop on
E. (2006a). Curriculum Development for Digital JCDL06. Retrieved October 5, 2006, from http://
Libraries. Proceeding of the 6th ACM/IEEE-CS lair.indiana.edu/research/dlib/jcdl06/unc.pdf
Joint Conference on Digital Libraries (JCDL06)
Wilder, S.J. (2002) New Hires in Research Librar-
(pp.175-184). ACM Press. Retrieved July, 10, 2006
ies, Demographic Trends and Hiring Priories.
from http://delivery.acm.org/10.1145/1150000/114
ARI, 221.
1787/p175-pomerantz.pdf?key1=1141787&key2=
5994620021&coll=portal&dl=ACM&CFID=798
309&CFTOKEN=77332738 KEY TERMS
Pomerantz, J., Wildemuth, B. Yang, S. & Fox,
Computer Science (CS): The study of the
E. (2006b). The Core: Digital Library Education
theoretical foundations of information and com-
in Library and Information Science Programs.
putation, and their implementation and application
D-Lib Magazine. 12(11). Retrieved December, 5,
in computer systems.
2006 from http://www.dlib.org/dlib/november06/
pomerantz/11pomerantz.html Digital Library (DL): A library in which col-
lections are stored in digital formats (as opposed
Pomerantz, J., Oh, S., Wildemuth, B. Yang, S..
to print, microform, or other media) and accessible
& Fox, E. (2007). Digital Library Education in
by computers. The digital content may be stored
Computer Science Programs Proceeding of the
locally, or accessed remotely via computer net-
6th ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital
works. A digital library is a type of information
Libraries (JCDL07) (pp.177-178). ACM Press.
storage and retrieval system.
541
A Review of Progress in Digital Library Education
Digital Library Education (DLE): The study Library and Information Science (LIS):
of issues relating to appropriate professional The study of issues related to the library and
preparation staff in digital libraries. information field.
542
543
Chapter LVI
The Future of Learning with
Digital Libraries
Chang Chew-Hung
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
John G. Hedberg
Macquarie University, Australia
A bs tra ct
While the prospect of using digital libraries for learning becomes more appealing with growing reposi-
tories of resources, it is not clear what factors other than the use of technology, determine the learning
outcome for an individual. The focus of research on using digital libraries for learning has been on the
richness of information that digital libraries afford and on the ability of digital libraries to organize
information for information query and research. Any meaningful learning activity using digital libraries
must therefore utilize their features for exploration and information gathering around a well designed
task or inquiry, to result in effective higher order learning outcomes. The design of the inquiry task is
provided by a teacher or even devised by the student, but it is not necessarily inherent within the digital
library. However, digital libraries have the capabilities to be more supportive of student learning by
providing tools that support processes such as investigation, analysis, transduction of information and
scaffolding of inquiry process. Often, students use the digital library for information gathering but turn
to other software applications for organizing information and constructing the arguments and learning
artifacts for the learning task. While it requires the teachersand maybe studentsresourcefulness
to choose the right type of tool for the activity, the future of learning with digital libraries rests on inte-
grating supportive tools into a seamless learning environment.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
The Future of Learning with Digital Libraries
544
The Future of Learning with Digital Libraries
effective use of digital libraries focuses on the (both teachers and learners) with the opportu-
learning process rather than on the capabilities nity to take control of their choice of resources
of the digital libraries. However, information (Stewart, 2003), ways of representing their ideas,
seeking behavior is only one aspect of how digital using existing resources, creating new resources,
libraries can be used for learning. Marchionini and reviewing and commenting on the quality of the
Maurer (1995) have suggested that a meaningful resources and even developing their own learning
use of the digital library for learning requires ac- strategies as they seek to answer authentic tasks
tive interaction on the part of the user (learner) posed about a real-world problem.
and their skill with task conceptualization and The G-portal development project was initiated
technological understanding on what they are as an attempt to extend the existing capabilities of
using. We argue that these facets will be highly digital repositories and to explore the importance
influential on the learning outcome. In previous of a move into multimodal representations of ideas
work (Jayawardana, Hewagamage, & Hirakawa, and concepts (Goh, Theng, Lim, Zhang, Chang, &
2001; Kuhlthau, 1997; Marchionini & Maurer, Chatterjea, 2006; Lim, Zhang, Li, Wang, Chang,
1995), the integrative support tools that enable Chatterjea, et al., 2006; Chang, Hedberg, Theng,
students to make meaning out of the information Lim, Teh, & Goh, 2005). The experimental digital
gathered are absent from digital libraries. repository hosts digital assets that are used by
students to solve authentic problems based on
real world data and resources. G-Portal serves
A n e xam ple of a pro to ty pe an active role in collaborative learning activities
in which students conduct a virtual field study of
Contemporary learning management systems an environmental problem, within a geospatial
(LMS) allow the teacher to organize resources contextin particular, beach erosion and sea
in a predetermined order which then prescribes level rise. G-Portal not only functions as a digital
a structured learning strategy. A digital library library of information resources, it also provides
has the possibility of being more open-ended and manipulation and analytical tools that can oper-
user driven becoming, in effect, a potentially dis- ate on the information provided. Thus the digital
ruptive pedagogy (Hedberg, 2006). Christensens library not only serves as a repository but it also
(1997) idea of disruptive innovations suggests provides the tools with which students can retrieve
that the use of digital libraries as an alternative information, collaborate on a group project and
strategy to the LMS might ensure that learning work with multimodal data representations.
outcomes might be achieved more effectively. The
digital library requires more from the user but it
can also be designed to support the retrieval and Ca pabili ties of the G -Por tal
manipulation of information. In Christensens
conception, a disruptive technology or disruptive The G-portal extends the range of capabilities
innovation is a new technological innovation, that support learners in their construction of
product, or service that ultimately takes over the geographical knowledge. For example, a personal
existing dominant technology or product, often workspace is provided to each user (or group of
the innovation might initially be a poorer quality users) to build his/her (or their) own collections of
but eventually it offers a new functionality and resources and annotations in form of personalized
improved quality superseding an older technol- projects. The unique attribute of a personalized
ogy. Digital libraries such as in our instance, the project is the accessibility, which can be private or
G-portal (Chang & Hedberg, 2006), provide users public. A private project is visible and accessible
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The Future of Learning with Digital Libraries
to the creator only and a public project is acces- the learner in constructing meaning of the
sible to all the users, but the major outcome is a information.
reworking of resources and ideas into a form that 3. Layer management of complex data sets
the user wishes to describe a geographical phe- related to the same spatial landscape. Within
nomenon. The personalized project management a project, data layers can be defined to main-
module enables the users to create, manipulate, tain resources in different logical groupings.
export and delete their own projects. As part of Properties including name, description and
this project tools several capabilities are provided, type (resource layer or annotation layer) are
some of these are also provided in the growing specified for each layer. Within a personal
public resource collections in tools such as Google project, appropriate layers can be defined
Earth (see http://earth.google.com/). The growing to group resources logically. However, the
future options that exist in digital libraries that layers and the assignment of resources to
extend the user support function include: layers can only updated by the original data
owners. Indeed, the data layers emulate what
1. Personal Resource structuring and Project a Geographic Information System does; it
management. Users specify the basic attri- represents real world objects in layers. The
butes of the project collections and can decide information on each layer can then be used
whether the project is public or private, this for comparison and analysis. For example,
attribute is common on popular blogs and en- patterns may be described when objects
sures that the creator of the display/resources across various layers are toggled on or
can chose what is shared. The concept of off (See Figure 1 for an example).
personal project space allows individuals to 4. Schema and resource management. Every
work in their personalized environment with resource in the digital library is created
a mix of private and public data and at the using a resource schema that serves as a
same time share part of the data with their template. In a personal projects, schemas
team members. (This attribute is typical of can be user-defined to meet the needs of a
Google video, YouTube and other shared learning activity for a single user (or team
video resources). In G-portal this allows of users). In a collaborative learning setting,
users to explore the information, process it is also quite likely to have multiple users
the information, solve the problem posed exchanging resources among their personal
and ultimately construct a geographical projects. Essentially the schema and resource
understanding of it. Transduction of text management allows users to reuse objects
into images or other modes of representation that have been created by others. While
may also be possible within these personal recognising the degree of reliability may
projects. differ for objects created by other users with
2. Built-in tools. Some built-in tools such as different expertise, the reusability option
zoom and measurement tools allow the may support student learning. The link back
students to query the data spatially. Es- to the original data points or sources reduces
sentially this allows users to select data by the current problems of attribution of source.
non-linear methods and encourage inquiry Thus the schema and resource management
based on some analogy of the real world of the digital library can reduce the tedious
spatial contextthe map. A certain degree assessment task for students who copy and
of manipulation and consequent analysis reproduce without adding their own thought
of the data using these tools may support and value. It also ensures that the teacher as
546
The Future of Learning with Digital Libraries
Figure 1. G-portal Interface with an example of an object represented in space and multiple sources of
data can be attached to a simple illustration
B u ilt-in
to o ls
R e s o u rce
S ch em a
marker can determine the correct attribution prototype also presents opportunities for spatial
of the resource data. and non-spatial query of information. Finally the
5. Personalized Project Export. By providing personalized project management module and the
each user with a personalized workspace in review and commenting module allow learners to
the digital library, the management of the re- manipulate and assess the quality of the informa-
sources (information) becomes much easier tion resources for solving their particular learning
for each learning activity. This allows users activity. In summary, the capabilities of the system
to create the object of their learning activity thus allow for, information storage, organization,
and to share for assessment a documented retrieval, query, manipulation, evaluation and
artefact. further creation of new information. While these
6. Review and commenting. The users are able functions can be achieved by combining differ-
to input comments and rank the usefulness ent application software and traditional digital
of the resources. The system then generates libraries, the strength of the G-portal example is
an average rating, together with comments that the tools are integrated.
about each resource. While the idea of review
and commenting is fairly ubiquitous in many
content management systems, the G-portal Using the G -Por tal digi tal
project uses this function to allow users to librar y for learning
assess the relative usefulness of resources
at a glance. While the G-Portal has been used in several ap-
plications in education, the authors have chosen to
The example of the G-portal prototype il- show an early implementation of the G-Portal as an
lustrates one way in which digital libraries can example of how it supports learning. The reason
be made more integrative and support student for this choice is that the opportunities presented
learning through including capabilities such as at that early stage provide excellent examples of
resource and schema management and layering our argument for a disruptive pedagogy.
to help students organize the information. The
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The Future of Learning with Digital Libraries
Figure 2. Task given to the students to use G-portal to solve a real life geographic problem
As part of your familiarization with using the G-portal, please complete the following task:
You have been asked to examine Profiles 6IV, 6V, & 6VI by a resort development to assess the
state of this stretch of beach at ECP. In particular, why do you think the beach profiles looks
different at different times of the year? Investigate this question using the G-portal and other
online resources. Present your report (using MS Word or MS Power Point or any other supporting
software) to explain your findings. You should include visuals where necessary to illustrate your
point. Visuals can be gathered form the G-Portal and from the internet. Remember that your
target audience is the developer of the resort.
An inquiry task was designed for a group 1. How did students find information?
of university undergraduate students who were 2. How did students form arguments in their
studying a course on Coastal and Ocean Systems, discussion/artefacts?
which required the use of the G-Portal digital 3. Were the students aware of the modality of
library. The students were given a task of using the information sources and artefacts?
available geographic data to solve an authentic 4. How did the students construct artefacts?
problem for a resort development consultancy.
The detailed task is given in Figure 2 below. The observation included how the student
The activity emphasises the students knowl- spent time performing each of the sub tasks de-
edge construction process but require, in addi- scribed in the list above. This allowed a detailed
tion, a fuller description of the learning activity. description of how each group used the G-portal
Note that the undergraduate students were from in the task, while also providing the basis for
the second year Coastal and Ocean Systems analysing the relationship between each segment
module at the National Institute of Education. of the activity.
This module traditionally requires the students to In terms of finding information, the students
investigate a stretch of the local coast and solve used only the built-in tools and the resource and
some geographical problems resulting from the schema management tool of the G-portal. While
investigation. An introduction to the G-portal one group showed that they did use the Web to
was given at the beginning of the module. The find additional information, it was primarily to
students then accessed the information via the find an image they could use to decorate their
G-portal throughout the semester. introductory slide. This presents the development
The investigation by the students took place team some challenges. For example, the non-use
along a stretch of the east coast parkway coast. of other G-portal capabilities such as personal
The main foci of the task was to identify and sug- project management and layer management may
gest possible coastline changes and the resulting indicate that these capabilities are not easily ac-
impacts on the environment and land use of the cessible to the user. These are areas that the user
study area. As the students were performing this interface could be improved on. The issue might
task, the way they use the G-portal on the com- also have arisen from the lack of visibility in the
puter, together with a headshot of their faces was design elements, however, digital libraries must
recorded into a single video clip. The footage was consider issues of user-interface design as it scaf-
then analysed to answer these questions: folds learning.
548
The Future of Learning with Digital Libraries
The choice of software application the students G-Portal has been used for various education
used to construct their artefacts influenced the way applications (Lim, Sun, Liu, Hedberg, Chang, Teh,
they approach the task. For example, one group et al., 2004; Chang & Hedberg, 2006; Chatterjea,
chose to use Microsoft Word which lead to more Chang, Theng, Lim, Goh, & Zhang, 2006). New
discussion on the procedure followed by analysis features have been added for each iteration. The
and finally a theoretical and causal explanation limitations found in this early study reinforce the
for their solution. Another group chose Microsoft proposition that for digital libraries to be used
PowerPoint and this led to theoretical and causal meaningfully in learning, they must provide both
explanations after each beach profile was anal- teachers and learners an opportunity to take con-
ysed. Perhaps digital libraries in the future need trol of their choice of resources and the ways of
to provide some handy tools at the users disposal representing their ideas. This goes beyond simple
which enable them to manipulate the contents for information storage and retrieval. It should be
their learning task. Certainly, a counter-argument a tool that supports students in all facets of the
could be that the antecedent learning styles of the inquiry process and creating meaningful artifacts
two groups of students predetermines how they which illustrate their process and products.
will carry out the task, regardless of software
tools, but this needs further exploration.
While one group used three modes of represen- Dis cussion an d Con cl usion
tation, namely text, numbers and images, another
group only created one piece of text artefact with The future of information repositories is being
three diagrams to which no references were made. explored in large scale digitization projects at
Again this can be attributed to the application Google, the Million Book Project, MSN, and
chosen and its affordances for information rep- Yahoo! (Albanese, 2005). Improvements in
resention. This becomes clearer upon examining book handling, presentation technologies, and
the way the students created their artifacts. One development of alternative depositories and
group mostly wrote their final artefact while the business models, should result in digital librar-
other group copied and pasted images, calculated ies rapidly growing in popularity. In addition,
rates of erosion and added textual explanations. projects such as the Digital Library Integrated
While the G-Portal facilitates the transduction Task Environment (DLITE) uses a work centre
of various modes of information representation, metaphor (Cousins, Paepcke, Winograd, Bier, &
the process is not implicit and requires the use of Pier, 2004) to organize information to be stored,
third-party applications. processed and retrieved, allowing greater ease of
The analyses of the artefacts suggested that the use. While digital libraries such as Digital Work
G-portal was useful to some extent in providing Environment (DWE) extend the functions of
resources to support students finding information. DLs to provide functionality based on work tasks
There is evidence that at least one group was (Meyyappan, Al-Hawamdeh, & Foo, 2002). The
able employ multimodality in the construction of DLs are structured for a predetermined workflow,
their learning artefacts and that the way students albeit derived from a detailed survey on the needs
approached the task was determined to some de- of that work task. However, these information
gree by their chosen software application. Thus repositories will remain simply repositories unless
using digital libraries for education requires the we develop pedagogies and distributed cognitive
development of an environment that supports the tools that ensure users are able to access and
creation of new information, new conclusions and manipulate the information they contain. While
the compilations of supportive evidence. the G-portal example is just one way in which
549
The Future of Learning with Digital Libraries
digital libraries can evolve to support learning, Chang, C.H., & Hedberg, J.G. (2006). The role
given that many recent instances are providing of digital libraries in teaching and learning ge-
multimodal representations of ideas and concepts, ography. In K.C. Goh, & S. Yongvanit (Eds.),
more users will become engaged and excited by Change and Development in Southeast Asia
the options. It should be expected that they will in an Era of Globalisation. Singapore: Pearson
grow in their ability to explain their ideas, not as Prentice Hall.
semantic facts but as dynamic illustrations that
Chang, C.H., Hedberg, J., Theng, Y.L., Lim, E.P.,
can be created to demonstrate their understand-
Teh, T.S., & Goh, D. (2005, June 711). Evaluat-
ing. The movement beyond the very limited LMS
ing g-portal for geography learning and teaching.
into a world of digital libraries can also support
Accepted to JCDL2005, Digital Libraries Cyber-
students learning processes in ways that are
infrastructure for Research and Education (pp.
largely unavailable to them at the present.
21 22). Denver, CO.
By taking the idea of a disruptive pedagogy
further, we propose that the way digital libraries Chatterjea, K., Chang, C.H., Theng, Y.L., Lim,
are developed for learning might be radically E.P, Goh, D.H.L., & Zhang, J. (2006, June). Sup-
changed. A digital library by itself is unlikely to porting holistic understanding of geographical
be a very useful learning tool unless the learning problems: Field work and g-portal. Presented at
is situated within an appropriate context, as the International Geographic Union, Commission for
coastal erosion learning task has illustrated. Usu- Geographic Education Conference. Brisbane.
ally, the design of the learning task is as important,
Christensen, C.M. (1997). The innovators
if not more important, than what the digital library
dilemma. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business
can potentially offer as simple resources. On this
School Press.
premise it seems that the responsibility of creat-
ing a useful learning task with the digital library Clark, R.E. (1983). Reconsidering research on
should not rest solely on digital library develop- learning from media. Review of Educational
ers. A good learning task can only be designed Research, 53(4), 445459.
when the tool provides support and affordances
Cousins, S.B., Paepcke, A., Winograd, T., Bier,
to ensure meaningful learning tasks are designed
E.A., & Pier, K. (2004). The effectiveness of au-
in the first place. In other words, digital library
tomatically structured queries in digital libraries.
developers have to engage in dialogue with teach-
In Proceedings of the 4th ACM/IEEE-CS Joint
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Conference on Digital Libraries (pp. 98107).
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Tuscon, AZ.
digital libraries draw on the teachersand maybe
studentsresourcefulness to use the right type Goh, D.L.H., Theng, Y.L., Lim, E.P., Zhang, J.,
of tool for the activity, their future in learning Chang, C.H., & Chatterjea, K. (2006). G-Portal:
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(Ed.), Encyclopaedia of Portal Technology and
Applications. Hershey, PA: Idea Group Publish-
R eferen ces ing.
Hedberg, J.G. (2006). E-learning futures? Specula-
Albanese, A. (2005). Google to digitize 15 million
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Jayawardana, C., Hewagamage, K.P., & Lim, E.P., Zhang, J., Li, Y., Wang, Z., Chang,
Hirakawa,M. (2001). Personalization tools for C.H., Chatterjea, K., et al. (2006) G-Portala
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ieee-tcdl.org/Bulletin/v3n1/lim/lim.html
An information search process approach. Library
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C.S.G., & Higgins, S.E. (2002). G-Portal: A map-
based digital library for distributed geospatial Meyyappan, N., Al-Hawamdeh, S., & Foo, S.
and georeferenced resources. In International (2002). Task based design of a digital work en-
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Lim, E.P., Sun, A.X., Liu, Z.H., Hedberg, J., Chang,
C.H., Teh, T.S., et al. (2004). Supporting field study Stewart, R. (2003). Using digital libraries to
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551
552
Chapter LVII
Computational Sense
for Digital Librarians
Michael B. Twidale
University of Illinois, USA
David M. Nichols
University of Waikato, New Zealand
A bs tra ct
This chapter discusses the role of technology in digital library education. It explores how elements of
computer science and library science can be blended to produce an appropriate computational sense
for future digital librarians. Elements of this approach include: metacognitive skills in learning about
new computational resources, fluency in tailoring applications and a view of computing applications
as codesigned artifacts that can evolve in response to the changing needs of users. The development of
spreadsheets is used as an example of technological development that was well-designed to support both
ease of use and incremental skill acquisition. The discussion in this chapter aims to inform the develop-
ment of digital library software toolsparticularly those used in educational contexts.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Computational Sense for Digital Librarians
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Computational Sense for Digital Librarians
about computer systems, file formats and Web The larger question is whether this is the right
servers. Over time, commodity software can direction for systems that are to be used in digital
hide away certain levels of complexity as a basic librarian education. The resulting system could
infrastructure is developed. But innovative com- be very similar to an IDE (Integrated Develop-
puter applications will always require a degree ment Environment) of the sort regularly used by
of explicit support and tinkering. For example, computer science students and programmers.
the Greenstone software development team has, This raises the question: should future librar-
over several years, developed a variety of tools to ians be forced to become programmers in order to
abstract away from technical details to simplify the graduate? We believe that digital librarians should
tasks of creating and maintaining digital collec- not have to become programmers but that they
tions. Despite this work, the experiences of using do need to acquire a fluency with information
digital library software can still be disconcerting technology beyond a traditional MLS degree. We
for some students (Nichols et al., 2006). This state coin the term computational sense to describe this
of affairs is more a reflection on the state-of-the-art level of fluency. It covers a range of issues that
in content management systems than a criticism remain in flux and are clearly open for debate;
of any particular software applications. we outline a few of them below for illustration.
From the perspective of software develop- Computational sense differs from the notion of
ers the power of digital library software derives computational thinking (Wing, 2006) in that it
from the flexibility of computer programming is concerned with embedded socio-technical sys-
languages. Indeed, the Greenstone digital library tems rather than the fundamental concepts of the
suite embeds programming language constructs nature of computation. In rather simplistic terms,
into its customization features; providing con- computational sense is about thinking about what
siderable flexibility for collection design but at we might reasonably try to build an application to
the expense of learnability (Nichols, Bainbridge, do for us, while computational thinking is about
Marsden, Patel, Cunningham, Thompson, et how the application might do it.
al., 2005). A practical example is the nature of
conditional statements (if, then, else) in Comfort and F luency with
Greenstone macros, which: Computational S ystems
Have a unique syntax (rather than reusing Of course a digital librarian should be comfort-
an existing language such as JavaScript or able in using the latest technologies available.
PHP) However, although necessary we do not believe
Have a different syntax to conditional this is sufficient for librarians to be able to take
statements in Greenstone formatting state- active roles in exploiting the potential of a rapidly
ments changing set of technologies.
Have no error checking at design time (such That is, our claim extends substantially beyond
as the red underlining of spell checkers or the desirability of learning basic Information
Visual Studio) Technology skills. As we outline below, digital
Have no integrated documentation (such as librarians need to be able not merely to use a rap-
found in modern programming development idly changing set of computer applications, but to
environments) play an active role in selecting them, combining
them, integrating them into workflows and use
At one level it is simple to say that these can scenarios, appropriating, tailoring, customis-
be corrected through more software development. ing and innovating with them. It can also mean
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Computational Sense for Digital Librarians
designing new applications or being involved in billion dollar corporations, but peoples expecta-
their radical redesign. tions continually rise once the implicit belief that
it has to be that way because that is the way that
Meta-Cognitive S kills in L earning computers are is irrevocably destroyed.
about new Computational R esources With multiple alternate options online, librar-
ies are no longer necessarily regarded by potential
Simply providing training in a particular technol- patrons as the monopoly supplier of access to
ogy is insufficient because technologies change information. Instead they may just use Google
so rapidly. New versions of applications contain (often poorly) and grab the first plausible-looking
new functionalities, new interfaces and hence source. Libraries now have many competitors and
new possibilities for how they might be used. need to compete to remain relevant, to serve their
New applications become available to comple- patrons with the superior products and services
ment or replace existing applications. Online they usually possess, but that are in danger of
resources and computational services can en- being ignored.
hance or disrupt what users expect or want to be Consequently, practising librarians need to
able to do with existing resources. For example, be able to learn about the latest versions of ap-
consider patrons changing reactions to library plications and new ways of combining existing
catalogues in the light of their experiences with applications quicklymaybe without formal
Amazon and Google. Once a patron has encoun- training. This can be done, but probably requires
tered a very flexible application that allows rather the teaching of the metacognitive skills that can
messy searching, and that can cope elegantly with facilitate more efficient and effective learning
misspellings and typing errors, this experience both by individuals and communities within and
radically changes their tolerance for older systems across organisations. That is, how can we teach
that require an interaction that closely resembles our students so that in their professional careers
the traditional careful composition of a precise they will be able to rapidly familiarise themselves
database query. The existence proof of a simpler, with new technologies and develop innovative and
faster way of searching based on rapid iterations appropriate uses for those technologies in their
of initially rather vague searches suddenly makes libraries, given that those technologies currently
unacceptable activities required of the user that do not even exist?
are clearly more for the benefit of the applica-
tion and its programmer than the user. A classic F luency in Incremental Tailoring
example is the requirement that title queries omit and Combining of A pplications for
leading articlesnow this constraint provokes E volving N eeds
consternation and irritation amongst patrons
that they should have to interact in this manner. Even if they do not directly program new digital
In the past, patrons might have put up with such library applications, librarians are likely to be
requirements as part of the arcana of access to involved directly or indirectly in the installation
a mystical fount of knowledge. Nowadays, they and use of those applications, which invariably
are more likely to complain, But you dont have involves tailoring work. Modern applications typi-
to do that on Amazon, why should I have to do cally come with a host of options, and the defaults
it here? are often less than ideal. Making a resource useful
Of course for a library it can seem unfair that and usable in a particular context typically in-
their systems, functionalities and interfaces are volves a range of tailoring activities ranging from
being compared with those developed by multi- selecting between options, choosing modules to
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Computational Sense for Digital Librarians
install, including or linking the application to the of lead users (Von Hippel, 2005) as well as open
resources it will use or provide, integrating the source software development. Modern systems are
software with other applications or provisions and frequently in a process of near-continual redesign
skinning the interface to create an integrated, as new versions and modules are released, which
consistent and coherent look-and-feel for end users at least raises the possibility of greater involve-
as part of a focus on usability. All these require ment by people with appropriate skills.
varying levels of technical expertise. They also
require the ability to interact productively with A S ense of the F easibility of
others, both stakeholders with far less technical Potential Design O ptions
skill, and also technical experts, but lacking local
knowledge of use-in-context. Although somewhat To be fully involved in ongoing codesign, it is
daunting-sounding, this information intermediary very helpful to have a good sense of what is fea-
role is one firmly within the bounds of the ethos of sible in current systems development and what
traditional librarianship (Erlich & Cash, 1994). is not. A qualitative sense of the relative costs
of different design options is also helpful as the
A S ense of A pplications as O ngoing design space is collectively explored. Typically,
Co-Designed A rtefacts rather than computer science students are expected to acquire
Technological G ivens these rich qualitative skills by repeated practice:
they are rarely explicitly taught. We speculate
Computational sense should include an under- that it might be possible to teach these skills of
standing and an expectation that digital librarians design judgement without requiring consider-
be involved not just in the selection, analysis, and able practical programming experience. If so,
facilitation of learning and use of computational it would allow digital librarians to engage in far
artefacts, but that they should also be involved in more productive interactions both with vendors
the design of those artefacts. At the very least it and systems development teams, as advocates
should empower digital librarians to take a more for stakeholders and use-in-context as different
direct role in larger-scale design processes. Ap- functionalities and possibilities are uncovered. If
plications should not be taken as technological you dont have a sense of what it is reasonable to
givens, to be coped with by librarians in their ask for, you are inclined to select just from the
information intermediary role of helping end-us- options on offer. All design involves trade-offs
ers. Rather these applications need to be regarded and compromises, but when these are done in
as provisional, changing and amenable to change ignorance of whole categories of costs, benefits,
by librarians. In many existing cases this still and opportunities, truly innovative design pos-
might not actually be feasible, but we believe sibilities are overlooked.
that it is worth considering what it would take to
give more librarians the skills necessary to not S preadsheets as a G uiding Metaphor
merely critique inadequate systems but to get
involved in actually improving them. Design does To illustrate our vision, we use an example
not necessarily require programming. As noted from an earlier round of technological innova-
above, tailoring is one aspect of design, but there tion coinciding with the advent of the personal
are others. As well as in-house design, there are computer in the 1980s. Prior to that time, people
various approaches to wider involvement in larger who wanted to do mathematical calculations on
codesign processes, including participatory design computers (including scientists and financial
(Kyng & Mathiassen, 1997) and the involvement experts) would have had to write a program in
556
Computational Sense for Digital Librarians
a programming language (such as FORTRAN). educators. One practical step would be for digital
This was, for many, daunting or prohibitively library courses to require their students to submit
expensive in terms of money, opportunity cost or experience reports back to the software develop-
effort-risk-reward calculations. With the advent ers; thus encouraging the students to focus on the
of the early spreadsheet programs, many people relationship between their technical skills and the
started using them because they were far easier software environment. Additionally this allows
to both learn and use. Although intended for ac- students to see themselves as codesigners of digital
counting calculations, the ease of learning and library software, a role closer to that which they
use encouraged innovation and appropriation by will encounter in their professional lives.
many others with needs to manipulate numbers. The topics listed earlier are orthogonal to
Nevertheless, spreadsheets were not completely those in discussions of digital library curricula
trivial to use. One needed basic numeracy to be (Pomerantz et al., 2006b) as computational sense
able to use them productively and not generate relates to the practical coordination of the curricula
nonsensewhat we might call a numerical sense. topics in building a functioning system. It is this
One just did not need to know how to program. combination of theory and practice that makes
Ability to program certainly helped in avoiding digital libraries a challenging discipline.
certain classic errors, and was essential for more
complex calculations that either the spreadsheet E ffects of F alling Costs of H ardware
software of the day could not manage or where and S ensors
the programming of macros was needed. But
programming ceased to be a prerequisite and the The need for computational sense is caused not
skills of sophisticated spreadsheet use, planning, just by the growing development and use of
design and debugging could be taught to people digital libraries, important though that may be.
who had not first learned to program. Falling costs of interconnectivity of computers
have already had profound effects, justifying the
resources devoted to digital libraries when their
Futu re Tren ds content can easily and cheaply shared worldwide.
This will continue, creating not just more of cur-
We believe that it is possible to extract some of rent use of resources but also new kinds of use, as
the skills traditionally acquired (explicitly but computer connectivity becomes nearly ubiquitous
more often implicitly) from long experience of and new kinds of mobile connectivity such as
programming, and teach these to librarians under via cellphones becomes feasible. It is likely that
the label of computational sense. In so doing we the information needs of patrons while on a city
can widen the number of people able to produc- street interacting with their cellphone will be very
tively engage with information technologies, just different from when they are sat at a computer
as spreadsheets widened the use of computers by at work or at home or when in a physical library
numerate people far beyond the range of those space. These needs will likely coevolve with
willing to invest time in learning FORTRAN. the available functionalities, interface and suit-
This approach challenges the developers of ably organised and indexed information. Design
digital library software to produce tools as useful of appropriate information services will need
and useable as the spreadsheet. We expect software librarians with understanding of information,
to improve in its representations of library science indexing, information needs and the potential of
concepts but rapid progress will only be made by computational technologies.
partnerships between software developers and
557
Computational Sense for Digital Librarians
Falling hardware costs, especially for storage their role or indeed their lack of experience and
are having another significant impact on what can need for advice on librarianship.
feasibly be done with information. As affordable
personal information storage devices move in ca- S ocial S oftware
pacity from gigabytes to terabytes and collective
resources from terabytes to petabytes, it becomes The current flurry of interest in Web 2.0 appli-
feasible and economic to store what in the past cations serves to remind us of how incremental
we would have regarded as ephemeral and only changes to software can have qualitatively dramat-
potentially valuable data. This can include the ic impacts on how applications are perceived and
ever-growing amount of text of varying degrees used. Blogs, wikis, podcasts, tagging, mashups,
of formality, from conventional books and articles and other social software have many precursors
to memos, working documents, drafts and e- in earlier applications, but when made sufficiently
mails. It can also include more memory intensive easy to adopt, use, appropriate, combine and in-
resources such as images, video and sensor data. novate with, they can lead to dramatic rates of
For example, it is possible to imagine videotaping creativity. With Web 2.0 applications, much of
and storing every single meeting. This may well this comes from combining data and applica-
be socially or organizationally undesirable, but tions, challenging our views of, say, carefully
it is no longer economically infeasible. optimized monolithic digital libraries. The chal-
There is likely to be an increasing demand for lenge comes to design information structures that
help not just with accessing information created by can cope with frequent change and unexpected
others, but with storing and organizing informa- use. Optimization of anticipated use may be less
tion created locally. The challenges of archiving important that robustness and flexibility under
an organizations e-mail and Web pages are just an unexpected use.
early indicator of this issue. The growth of ubiqui- This means that in teaching computational
tous computing, low cost sensors and increasing sense we need to provide not just a comfort and
networking means that the quantity of data that fluency with computer applications, and a sense of
can be collected and might be shared is exploding. how to go about refining them or designing new
Currently there is a lot of interest in digitization ones. Additionally, we need to provide a sense of
and scholarly repositories. When coupled with the nature of information in use and how metadata
new kinds of media and huge amounts of sensor can help as well as a sense of programmability.
data, this creation and use of information begins The history of computing applications de-
to have a substantial impact in e-science, e-social veloped for use in library contexts is one of
science and humanities computing. significant innovations from small numbers of
Librarians are ideally positioned to advise very talented, enthusiastic self-taught individuals
on the storage, accessing and indexing of this branching out from a home in computer science or
information, creating many new opportunities, librarianship to embrace the other discipline. Can
but ones that are in constant flux as new data we actually teach people to take on this kind of
sources become available and older data needs multidisciplinary role? We doubt there are many
to be converted or merged into new formats. A who are willing to become both expert computer
database (or a federation of many databases) of scientists and expert librarians, but we do think
sensor data may not normally be considered as a that it is possible to have large numbers who are at
digital library, but it has many critical similari- least confident in conversing about design across
ties, and those creating and maintaining them are disciplinary boundaries.
effectively librarians even if they do not realize
558
Computational Sense for Digital Librarians
559
Computational Sense for Digital Librarians
formation, we do not believe that this is a solved topics that should help clarify the design of both
problem that just requires implementation. Con- courses and software involved in the education
siderable research is needed to help us understand of digital librarians.
these issues and how to address them pedagogi-
cally, organizationally and technically.
As with any other issues in the use of librar- R eferen ces
ies, and in computer systems in general, much
can be learned from a user-centred approach. Coleman, A. (2005). Interdisciplinarity, interactiv-
Ethnographic studies of existing practice would ity, and interoperability for educating the digerati.
be highly informative. These could highlight both Education for Information, 23(4), 233243.
best practice (people acquiring and applying what
Erlich, K., & Cash, D. (1994). Turning informa-
we would call computational sense, the adoption
tion into knowledge: Information finding as a
and application of new technologies or new uses
collaborative activity. In Proceedings of Digital
of technologies in library contexts) as well as cur-
Libraries 94 (DL94) (pp. 119125). College
rent pathologies (such as computer applications
Station, TX.
that visibly frustrate peoples attempts to learn,
share, appropriate or innovate, or organizational Kajberg, L., & Lrring, L. (Eds.). (2005). European
mechanisms that hinder formal and informal ap- curriculum reflections on library and information
plications of computational sense). science education. The Royal School of Library
An analysis of existing practice can then inform and Information Science, Copenhagen, Denmark.
design interventions to try and address challenges Retrieved August 30, 2008, from http://www.asis.
of how best to teach, or perhaps nurture the acqui- org/Bulletin/Dec-06/EuropeanLIS.pdf
sition of computational sense through exploration
Kyng, M., & Mathiassen, L. (Eds.). (1997). Com-
and innovation with new technologies. All these
puters and design in context. Cambridge, MA:
issues are mirrored for the developers of digital
MIT Press.
library software, who have the design challenge
to make their systems understandable, tailorable, Ma, Y., Clegg, W., & OBrien, A. (2006). Digital
and extensible. library education: The current status. In Proceed-
ings of the 6th ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference
on Digital Libraries (JCDL06) (pp. 165174).
CON CL USION New York: ACM Press.
Marion, L. (2001). Digital librarian, cybrarian, or
Computational sense extends beyond the notion
librarian with specialized skills: Who will staff
of programming to encompass an ability to un-
digital libraries? In H. Thompson (Ed.), Crossing
derstand the broader notions of the capabilities of
the Divide: Proceedings of the Tenth National
software and the sociotechnical issues of usabil-
Conference of the Association of College and
ity, system deployment and maintenance. In this
Research Libraries (pp. 143149). Chicago, IL:
chapter, we have proposed some characteristics of
American Library Association.
computational sense and how they might influence
the design of the curriculum for digital librarians. Mostafa, J., Brancolini, K., Smith, L.C., & Mischo,
Current software used in courses on digital librar- W. (2005). Developing a digital library education
ies has to balance (in an ad hoc manner) elements of program. In Proceedings of the 5th ACM/IEEE-CS
computer science with traditional library science. Joint Conference on Digital Libraries (JCDL05)
We have provided several computational sense (p. 427). New York: ACM Press.
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Computational Sense for Digital Librarians
Nichols, D.M., Bainbridge, D., Downie, J.S., & Von Hippel, E. (2005). Democratizing innovation.
Twidale, M.B. (2006). Learning by building digital Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
libraries. In Proceedings of the 6th ACM/IEEE-CS
Yang, S., Fox, E.A., Wildemuth, B., Pomerantz,
Joint Conference on Digital Libraries (JCDL06)
J., & Oh, S. (2006). Interdisciplinary curriculum
(pp. 185186). New York: ACM Press.
development for digital library education. In Pro-
Nichols, D.M., Bainbridge, D., Marsden, G., Patel, ceedings of the 9th International Conference on
D., Cunningham, S.J., Thompson, J., et al. (2005). Asian Digital Libraries (ICADL 2006) (pp. 6170).
Evolving tool support for digital librarians. In LNCS 4312. New York: Springer.
Y.-L. Theng, & S. Foo (Eds.), Design and Us-
Wing, J.M. (2006). Computational thinking. Com-
ability of Digital Libraries: Case Studies in the
munications of the ACM, 49(3), 3335.
Asia Pacific (pp. 171189). Information Science
Publishing, London. Witten, I.H., & Bainbridge, D. (2003). How to
build a digital library. San Francisco, CA: Mor-
Nichols, D.M., Bainbridge, D., & Twidale, M.B.
gan Kaufmann.
(2007). Constructing digital library interfaces.
In Proceedings of the 7th ACM/IEEE Joint Con-
ference on Digital Libraries (JCDL 07) (pp.
331332). New York: ACM Press. K ey Terms
Pomerantz, J., Oh, S., Wildemuth, B.M., Yang,
Computational Sense: A familiarity with the
S., & Fox, E.A. (2007). Digital library education
capabilities of computer applications and the abil-
in computer science programs. In Proceedings of
ity to easily grasp the difficulty in implementing
the 7th ACM/IEEE Joint Conference on Digital
a computer-based solution. Typically acquired by
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Digital Librarianship: The knowledge and
Pomerantz, J., Oh, S., Yang, S., Fox, E.A., &
skills needed to design and implement digital
Wildemuth, B. (2006a). The core: Digital library
information services.
education in library and information science
programs. D-Lib Magazine, 12(11). Retrieved Incremental Tailoring: The process of mak-
August 30, 2008, from http://www.dlib.org/dlib/ ing small changes to a computer application to
november06/pomerantz/11pomerantz.html achieve a final effect; typically, this involves
changes to the interface for the end user.
Pomerantz, J., Wildemuth, B.M., Yang, S., & Fox,
E.A. (2006b). Curriculum development for digital Programmers: People with skills in writing
libraries. In Proceedings of the 6th ACM/IEEE-CS and maintaining computer programs. Typically
Joint Conference on Digital Libraries (JCDL06) programmers will have been through several
(pp. 175184). New York: ACM Press. computer science courses.
Tansley, R., Smith, M., & Walker, J.H. (2005). Programming Language: A high-level set of
The DSpace open source digital asset manage- instructions to control the behaviour of a computer.
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Research and Advanced Technology for Digital difficult to learn and most people cannot write a
Libraries (ECDL 2005) (pp. 242253). LNCS computer program.
3652. Springer.
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Chapter LVIII
Digital Libraries Overview
and Globalization
Soh Whee Kheng Grace
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
A bs tra ct
Library digitization on a global basis is essential in the twenty-first century. The digital library develop-
ment initiatives in most countries depend substantially on their national libraries. This chapter focuses
on an overview of how national libraries of 14 countries in the Asia-Pacific region are involved in
digital library initiatives. Most libraries participate in the collaborative efforts to build digital librar-
ies with support from their government. Some focus on digitization and preservation activities, while
others concentrate on digitization standards. Requirements for digital library implementation from a
global perspective are essential. With the understanding of the current situation in Asia Pacific, we can
understand the readiness of national libraries aiming for globalization in this part of the world, and
action can be taken to achieve the aim. The globalization of digital libraries is what the world should
be heading towards as we enter the next century.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Digital Libraries Overview and Globalization
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Digital Libraries Overview and Globalization
564
Digital Libraries Overview and Globalization
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Digital Libraries Overview and Globalization
collection by working with the Department of create a knowledge-rich society. This system
National Museums. This project is funded by the could facilitate the networking and sharing of
Japanese government (Baba, 2005). Its current digital resources among all libraries (Shaifol &
work is to digitize the national librarys collec- Nasir, 2005). The NLM has also developed the
tion, and it has started a project on the develop- International Islamic Digital Library (http://www.
ment of a digital library (Gangabadadarachchi & iidl.net) (Baba, 2005). With the collaboration of
Amarasiri, 2006). the Department of Museums and Antiquity, and
the National Archives, the NLM has a portal on
S outheast A sia Malaysias monarchy, which is the institution of
the King of Malaysia (http://www.yangdiper-
The national libraries of developed countries in tuanagong.com). The National IT Council under
Southeast Asia are collaborating with their part- the Demonstrator Application Grants Scheme
ners to provide easy access to information. As (DAGS) funded this project (Baba, 2005).
for developing countries in Southeast Asia, the Furthermore, the NLM and 22 academic li-
development of digital libraries and the sustain- braries have joint digitization efforts. During the
ability of digitization efforts would require both process of digitization, most libraries face prob-
the support from their government as well as lems. They need manpower and training to carry
international collaboration. out the digitization work, as well as guidelines
and standards for digitization and the handling
Bandung Institute of Technology of copyright issues (Shaifol & Nasir, 2005). As
Central Library, Indonesia a member of the steering committee, the NLM
(www.itb.ac.id) was involved in formulating the guidelines for
the preservation of electronic records, which is
Urs (2005) stated that Indonesia has its first coordinated by the National Archives of Malaysia.
Indonesian Digital Library Network (IDLN: The next digital initiative for the NLM would be
http://as.lib.itb.ac.id) when it collaborated with to discuss collaboration efforts with the National
the government and diverse sectors, together with Archives, National Museum and the National Art
grant support from the International Development Gallery (Baba, 2005).
Research Center (IDRC) of Canada, and the In-
donesian Foundation for Telecommunication and National Library of the Philippines
Information Network (YLTI). This digital library (http://www.nlp.gov.ph)
initiative began after the development of a Web
site for the Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB) Philippine eLib (http://www.elib.gov.ph) is the
Central Library (Sulistyo-Basuki, 2004). first public digital library in Philippines. This
collaborative project involving the National
National Library of Malaysia Library of the Philippines (NLP), University of
(http://www.pnm.my) the Philippines and government departments
provides 25 million pages of digitized Filipino
With support from the government, Malaysia rare books, serials, government publications,
has started a national program on digital library maps, photos, bibliographic records and online
development with a well-defined national frame- databases of full-text journals (Phillippine eLi-
work (Urs, 2005). The National Digital Library brary Project, http://www.ndl.go.jp/en/publica-
System (http://www.mylib.com.my) is developed tion/cdnlao/054/544.html).
by the National Library of Malaysia (NLM) to
566
Digital Libraries Overview and Globalization
The NLP and its partnersthe National Mu- this project include the National Archives and
seum, Cultural Centre of the Philippines, Records Museum as well as private archives, museums,
Management and Archives Office, National His- and art galleries (Baba, 2005). Tedd and Large
torical Institute and Commission of the Filipino (2005) gave an example of a digital library in
languageare involved in the Association of Thailand, belonging to the Child Institute Founda-
Southeast Asian Nations Committee on Culture tion (http://www.childthai.org). The NLT offers a
and Information (ASEAN-COCI) project, which bibliographic database of books and periodicals.
handles the preservation of cultural heritage and It plans to provide the digitized form of rare
the dissemination of cultural materials among books and manuscripts for users to view online
ASEAN countries (Baba, 2005). in the future. At present, the NLTs resources are
difficult to access. The local government should
National Library Board (NLB), play an important role in digital initiatives (Sa-
Singapore (http://www.nlb.gov.sg) laladyanant, 2006).
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Digital Libraries Overview and Globalization
for users through digital media and to provide pictures, and Google to make Libraries Australia
preservation of the originals (National Library records accessible through its services. The NLA
of Vietnam, 2007). has started a project to use open search protocol
for an integrated search of the collections of
O ceania Australian libraries and other cultural institu-
tions. To make the NLA collections visible in
In the Oceania region, national libraries of Aus- the global context, its relationship with Google
tralia and New Zealand have developed a number and OCLC plays a major role. The current work
of digital libraries and there are ongoing projects includes digitizing a greater range of sources and
to enhance their online services. Both countries providing access to full-text content, starting with
are looking into metadata activities and areas that searchable Australian old newspapers. The NLA
will enhance their services. has identified some enhancements in services for
the near future, for instance, improving the ac-
National Library of Australia cessibility of online full-text resources and search
(http://www.nla.gov.au) functionality, especially for extending integrated
searching (Gatenby, 2007).
The National Library of Australia (NLA), through
its digital library programs and initiation, coordi- National Library of New Zealand
nation and promotion, has developed an important (http://www.natlib.govt.nz)
digital library capability in the form of digital
collection sites and services (Gatenby, 2007; Urs, The National Library of New Zealand (NLNZ)
2005). The NLA, the National Film and Sound is the leading agency for handling collabora-
Archive and other cultural institutions have pro- tive projects. EPIC (http://www.epic.org.nz) is
duced three portals. Picture Australia (http://www. a self-funded consortium of 179 libraries and
pictureaustralia.org) is the NLAs image service, all schools in New Zealand for the purchase of
which provides more than a million Australia- e-content (Rigby, ODonovan, & Searle, 2006).
related images from cultural institutions and The Matapihi (http://www.matapihi.org.nz) is
agencies, including libraries, museums, galleries a Web-based metadata gateway service to the
and archives (Baba, 2005; Gatenby, 2007). Music online digital collections. It provides a window
Australia (http://www.musicaustralia.org) offers to people, places and events of New Zealand. It
online access to Australian music resources, in- enables cross-searching and selection of 75,000
cluding digitized music, music scores, musicians, records of pictures, sounds and objects. This
composers, and a wide range of other music-related project is made available through the collabora-
materials (Baba, 2005). The Australia Dancing tion of eight organizations: the NLNZ, archives,
portal (http://www.australiadancing.org) grants libraries, museums and galleries in New Zea-
users access to current and historical informa- land (Baba, 2005; Rigby, et al., 2006). Through
tion about dance in Australia. The NLA plans the collaboration with other libraries, archives
to release People Australia in 2008a database and museums, the NLNZ and its partners have
containing biographical records of people and increased confidence and skills, and they have
organizations (Gatenby, 2007). better collections, which could attract more users
The NLA and National Archives are cooper- (Rigby et al., 2006).
ating in metadata activities (Baba, 2005). It also The NLNZ is currently working with the DCMI
collaborates with new partners, for instance, Date Working Group to provide for the interoper-
Flickr to harvest metadata for Australia-related able representation of commonly recorded dates
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Digital Libraries Overview and Globalization
(Rigby et al., 2006). It has also been working on national libraries of China and Japan are working
the preservation metadata. The problems that the to create an English interface.
NLNZ is facing include the lack of international The technology for digital libraries covers
consensus on the preservation metadata, which a wide aspect. Tedd and Large (2005) classify
restricts the full implementation of a preserva- it into three areas. In term of standards and in-
tion metadata strategy at the library, and the lack teroperability, metadata, presentation standards,
of a common standard, which gives rise to the digital object locators and protocols should be
difficulty of moving resources from conceptual considered. Another area on digital information
development to practical implementation. Fur- sources includes full-text materials, metadata
thermore, the project on preservation metadata sources, multimedia materials, Web sites and
also requires funding (Knight, 2005). quality issues, suppliers of some digital informa-
tion sources and the creation of digitized sources.
The subject disciplines, curation and preservation
RE COMMEN DATIONS are to be considered too. For organizing access
to digital information sources, the software and
From a global perspective, one must look into architecture, interface design, searching and
the language and technology for digital libraries. browsing functions should be taken into account.
The requirements of users and services should Young, Horwood, and Sullivan (2006) included
also be considered (Tedd & Large, 2005). It is technical infrastructure, middleware, and access
essential for countries to seek collaboration both to resources between institutions as requirements
domestically and internationally in digital library for consideration.
initiatives. This section briefly discusses these It is important to consider security, access
areas of consideration. rights, liability, privacy issues, and intellectual
Language is closely connected to the different property rights when there is sharing of data
aspects of heritage, including culture, literature, and transmission across national boundaries. For
history, philosophy and education (Woldering, successful distribution of information on either
2006). A global digital library that manages cross- the national or international level, the rights and
cultural communication requires the support of responsibilities of those who provide and use
a multilingual catalogue and search interfaces the data should be clearly spelt out (Young et al.,
(Gao, 2006). The global network of digital librar- 2006). Due to copyright laws, only books that are
ies must be a network that appreciates and values noncopyrighted or those books that are permitted
the multiple perspectives of distinct cultures, by authors are digitized. Professor Raj Reddy
and to achieve the vision of worldwide access proposed a Consortium for Compensating for
to information, knowledge must be created and Creating Contents scheme for authors (Balakrish-
stored in formats and architectures accessible to nan, 2006). User and community needs are areas
everyone (Mason, 2005). English could be used in of consideration too (Young et al., 2006). Librar-
the globalization effort, as it is the language most ians have to meet the challenges of the changing
commonly used. Therefore, multilingual services environment, in term of its cultural, technical and
that can interface English with other languages are professional relativities (Omekwu & Eteng, 2006).
essential (Xia, 2006). Most national libraries in Gorman (2006) encourages librarians to play a
Asia-Pacific region see the need to have English major role in educating people, preparing library
interfaces for their digital libraries; for instance, users for productive global information use.
the national libraries of Korea, Taiwan, Malaysia Collaborating with partners both domesti-
and New Zealand have English interfaces. The cally and internationally in digital libraries-
569
Digital Libraries Overview and Globalization
related projects would yield bigger and better Globalization has drawn the world closer to-
collections. It is more cost-effective with the gether. Rich nations enjoy the benefit of digital
shared infrastructure, facilities, hardware and technologies but poor nations will be lagging
software, and attracts more funding opportuni- behind in this knowledge age. Researchers at
ties. Collaborative projects also promote the use Harvard University and MIT have created a Web
of cross-domain standards, benchmarking and site to help close the digital divide (Digital Divide.
professional development and are good for raising org, 2007; Tedd & Large, 2005). But there are
profiles and marketing. However, collaboration many factors and issues to look into for closing
requires common terminology to be used between the digital gap. Governments and organizations
partners, prevention of tensions between organiza- play an important role in promoting globalization
tional cultures, and the reconciliation of different by promulgating beneficial policies and provid-
standards. It demands flexibility between parties, ing financial sponsorship (Xia, 2006) for the
innovation and commitment to reach a common construction of digital libraries. Therefore, the
goal. It is crucial to manage collaborative projects aim for globalization of digital libraries depends
with effective communication and people skills a great deal on collaborative work. With the sup-
as well as an understanding of technology and port of governments, international agencies and
management practices (Rigby et al., 2006). business entities, developing countries will have
funding and staffing to undertake digital library
initiatives (Byrne, 2005).
CON CL USION There are great challenges for countries in the
Asia-Pacific region to work towards globalization.
National libraries of developed countries in the Currently, most national libraries are working
Asia-Pacific region are progressing well in their towards providing their peoples needs and have
digital library initiatives, and their governments yet to set goals and objectives to reach out to the
are supportive in funding the projects and in col- world with their information. However, current
laboration with other partners, both domestically efforts put into digitization by most Asia-Pacific
and internationally. Some national libraries of countries would reap their rewards in time to
developing countries have realized the importance come. It is not impossible for these libraries to
of reaching out to their people with digital infor- aim for globalization.
mation, and are moving ahead in digital library
initiatives with international collaborative efforts
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key Terms Optical Character Recognition (OCR):
The digital translation of images of handwritten,
Consortium: A cooperative arrangement typewritten or printed text that is captured by a
among groups or institutions for a common scanner into machine-editable text.
purpose.
Protocol: A set of rules or standards that
Curation: The process of examining, testing, controls the connection, communication, and
and selecting digital information to be included data transfer between two electronic devices or
in a database collection. two computing endpoints.
Digital Divide/Gap: The imbalance in
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Schubert Foo is Professor and Associate Dean, College of Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, Nan-
yang Technological University, Singapore. He received his BSc (Hons), MBA and PhD from the University
of Strathclyde, UK. He is a Chartered Engineer, Chartered IT Professional, Fellow of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, and Fellow of the British Computer Society. He is a Board Member of the National
Library Board, and an Advisor of the National Archives of Singapore Board. He has published in excess of 170
publications in the areas of multimedia technology, Internet technology, multilingual information retrieval,
digital libraries and knowledge management. He coauthored a book Knowledge Management: Tools and
Techniques with Ravi Sharma and Alton Chua, and coedited a book Social Information Retrieval Systems:
Emerging Technologies and Applications for Searching the Web Effectively with Dion Goh in 2007.
Dion Hoe-Lian Goh has a PhD in computer science and is an Associate Professor at the Division of
Information Studies, Wee Kim Wee School of Communication and Information. He is also Director of the
schools Master of Science in Information Systems program. His research areas are in the areas of information
retrieval, digital libraries, text mining, the use of information technology in education, and the evaluation
of information systems and services.
Jin-Cheon Na is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Information Studies in the Wee Kim Wee
School of Communication and Information at Nanyang Technological University. His research interests are
digital library, text mining, information retrieval, hypermedia system, and human-computer interaction.
Yin-Leng Theng's (PI) research in digital libraries and user interface design has won her two research
grants from the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC, UK) during her four years of
teaching at Middlesex University (London). She has participated in varying capacities as principal investi-
gator, coinvestigator, and collaborator in numerous research projects in the United Kingdom and Singapore
since 1998. These projects involve usable and useful interfaces for hypertext systems, the Web and mobile
environments; e-learning building tools and learning objects; usability evaluation techniques; and geospa-
tial digital libraries. She is particularly interested and involved in research into technology acceptance and
users attitudes.
***
Faisal Ahmad is a full-time PhD student at the University of Colorado at Boulder, Department of Com-
puter Science. He obtained his Masters degree from the same university. His Masters thesis investigated
the core architectural components enabling concept space-based resource discovery for educational digital
libraries. Faisals current research is concerned with personalization of digital library interactions using
concept maps.
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
About the Contributors
Esther Olajope Akomolafe-Fatuyi received BSc Education (1976); MA Library Science (1979), Uni-
versity of Wisconsin, Madison; diploma in Computer Studies, Beijing, China, 1994; and PhD in Library
and Information Management, Emporia State University (2006). She taught university students in Nigeria
and America. She was Head of the Department of Library and Information Services at the National Re-
search Institute for Chemical Technology (NARICT) Zaria, Nigeria (19811998). Her research interests are
Corporate Information Resource Management, and the Affect of Culture on the Diffusion of Innovative
Libraries. She is married with three children. She is currently a consultant on information management at
an accounting firm.
Mohammed Nasser Al-Suqri is assistant professor at the Department of Library and Information Sci-
ence, College of Arts and Social Science, Sultan Qaboos University. He received his PhD in Library and
Information Management from Emporia State University, School of Library and Information Management;
a Masters degree in Library and Information Science from Pratt Institute, School of Information and Li-
brary Science; and a Bachelors degree in Library and Information Science from Sultan Qaboos University,
Department of Library and Information Science. Mohammed Nasser Al-Suqri conducts research in the
area of information needs and information-seeking behavior of academic scholars in developing countries;
information needs and seeking behavior of students, Digital Divide, and digital libraries.
Alan O. Allwardt (aallwardt@usgs.gov) has a varied academic background, with advanced degrees in
geology, library and information science, and history of science. He is currently employed by ETI Profession-
als as an information specialist contracted to the Coastal and Marine Geology Program (CMGP) of the U.S.
Geological Survey (USGS). As cataloger for the Marine Realms Information Bank (MRIB), Alan contributes
to the CMGP Knowledge Management Project. He lives and works in Santa Cruz, California, USA.
Luz Marina Alvar is Head of IFPRIs Library and Knowledge Management Unit. Her work focuses
on ways to connect information and knowledge with research for development. She is very innovative in
her approach of implementing new technological services for IFPRI staff, as well as policymakers and key
stakeholders to be able to preserve, organize and disseminate research information. Luz Marina joined IF-
PRI in 2000 after working for10 years at the Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) in Cali,
Colombia.
Kanwal Ameen is Assistant Professor at the Department of LIS, University of the Punjab (Uop), Lahore,
Pakistan. She has 23 years professional and teaching experience at the UoP. On her credit are more than
20 research papers in national and international journals besides book chapters. Her research interests are
user-focused services, impact of IT on library services, collection management, marketing of LIS services,
Information seeking behaviors, application of qualitative research in LIS and professional development.
She is the chief-editor of Pakistan Journal of LIS, published by the UoP. She has widely traveled to attend
and contribute in international conferences. Dr. Kanwal got international scholarships including Fulbright
(20002001). She is personal member of ALA, IFLA, CILIP, Secretary, IFLA Discussion Group on LIS
Education in Developing Countries and Chair, Continuing Education Committee, PLA (Pb). She can be
reached at kanwal@dlis.pu.edu.pk and kanwal.ameen@gmail.com.
Antonio de Amescua has been a full professor of the Computer Science Department at the Carlos III
Technical University of Madrid since 1991. He holds a BS in Computer Science and a PhD in Computer
Science from the Polytechnic University of Madrid. Also, he has done software engineering work in public
and private companies as a software engineering consultant. He has been researching new software engi-
neering methods and participated in other projects sponsored by the European Union. He was the research
project leader for the development of the Information System Development Methodology for the Spanish
Administration.
626
About the Contributors
Margherita Antona holds a PhD from the Department of Electronic Engineering of the University of
Kent, UK, in the area of Human-Computer Interaction. She is a member of the Human-Computer Interaction
Laboratory and Centre for Universal Access and Assistive Technologies (CUA&AT) of FORTH-ICS since
1993. Currently, she is the Coordinator of CUA&AT. Her current research interests include universal access,
design for all, computer-supported user interface design, adaptive and Intelligent Interfaces, and assistive
technologies. She has participated in several European and national research and development projects. She
is member of the Editorial Board of the international journal Universal Access in the Information Soci-
ety, published by Springer, as well as of the Program Committee and Paper Review Committee in various
international conferences and workshops.
Lilia Fernandez Aquino graduated from the University of la Havana in Information and Communica-
tion Systems. Director of Masmedios Ltd. Assistant Professor in the Polytechnic University of Valencia,
and Member of the Research group CALSI.
David Bainbridge is a Senior Lecturer in Computer Science at the University of Waikato, New Zealand.
He holds a PhD in computer science from the University of Canterbury, New Zealand, where he studied as
a Commonwealth Scholar. Since moving to Waikato, he has developed his interest in digital media, with
an emphasis on digital libraries. He coauthored with Witten of the book How to Build a Digital Library,
and has published in the areas of image processing, music information retrieval, digital libraries, data
compression, and text mining. David has also worked as a research engineer for Thorn EMI in the area of
photorealistic imaging, and graduated from the University of Edinburgh in 1991 as the class medalist in
Computer Science.
Cludio de Souza Baptista is an associate professor in the Computer Science Department and Director
of the Information Systems Laboratory at the University of Campina Grande, Brazil. He received a PhD
degree in Computer Science from the University of Kent at Canterbury, United Kingdom in 2000. His re-
search interests include database, digital libraries, geographical information systems, multimedia systems,
and decision support systems.
Payam M. Barnaghi is an Assistant Professor at the School of Computer Science and Information Technol-
ogy, University of Nottingham, Malaysia Campus. His research areas include knowledge-driven presentation
generation, information search and retrieval, multimedia on the Semantic Web, and Ontologies
Pierpaolo Basile is a PhD student in Informatics at the University of Bari (Italy) since November 2005.
His research is devoted to the application of machine learning techniques for natural language processing.
The topic of his studies concerns semantic text analysis obtained by integrating lexical resources, ontologies
and statistical methods in the learning process in order to extract concepts from unstructured text.
Christoph Becker is currently a PhD researcher at the Department of Software Technology and Interactive
Systems at the Vienna University of Technology. He received his BSc and MSc in Computer Science and an
MSc in Business Informatics from the Vienna University of Technology. Since 1998, he has been working as
an independent IT consultant and software architect in a wide range of IT projects in different domains. He
is involved in European research projects in the field of Digital Preservation (PLANETS, DELOS, DPE).
Leonardo Bermon is a PhD Computer Science student in the Software Engineering Lab group at Carlos
III University. He has worked in universities in Colombia during ten years. He is a professor at National
University of Colombia. He has both a bachelor of computer science degree and the grade of Magister in
Computer Science from Industrial University of Santander, Colombia. His research interests include Software
Process Engineering and Knowledge Management.
627
About the Contributors
Rubn Bjar holds an MS degree in Computer Science from the University of Zaragoza (Spain) since
1999. He is currently a tenured Assistant Professor at the Department of Computer Science and Systems
Engineering at the same university. He is working with the Advanced Information Systems Lab (IAAA) and
the Aragn Institute for Engineering Research (I3A), where he has been involved in several R&D projects
related with the software engineering aspects of Geographic Information Systems and Spatial Data Infra-
structures, and has coauthored several publications in that area.
Regina Braga is professor of Computer Science Department at Federal University of Juiz de Fora,
Brazil. She is a member of Brazilian Computer Society. Dr. Braga received her PhD degree (2000) from
Federal University of Rio de Janeiro. Her main researche areas are: Web information integration, software
components, and semantic Web services.
Fernanda Campos is a professor at the Computer Science Department, Federal University of Juiz de
Fora, Brazil. She is a member of the Brazilian Computer Society. Dr. Campos received her PhD degree (1999)
from Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, in Software Engineering. Her main research areas are: ontology,
software components, semantic Web services, and software quality.
Alicia Selles Carot graduated from the Salamanca University in Information and Library Systems. She
is head of the Contents Department in Masmedios Ltd., Master in Legal Issues in the Information Society,
and Member of AEDOC (Digital Rights Management Association).
scar Cantn Casbas holds an MS degree in Computer Science from the University of Zaragoza (Spain).
In 1998, he joined the Advanced Information Systems Laboratory where he worked as an R&D Engineer
in the GIS field for more than seven years. He also worked as an assistant professor at the University of
Zaragoza for three years before joining the University of San Jorge, where he has been working since 2006
in the Computer Engineering School. He is coauthor of more than 20 publications and has participated in
diverse R&D projects. His research interests range from spatial data infrastructures to enterprise resource
planning systems.
Donatella Castelli is a Senior Researcher working at the Information Science and TechnologiesItalian
National Research Council (ISTICNR) since 1988. She graduated in Computer Science at the Department
of Computer Science of the University of Pisa, and there, she was employed as researcher for two years before
joining ISTI-CNR Networked Multimedia Information Systems. Since 1996, she has scientifically coordinated
several European and National funded projects on digital libraries, acquiring considerable experience in
this domain. She is currently leading the activity of the DELOS Network of Excellence on Digital Libraries
628
About the Contributors
dedicated to the definition of a Reference Model for digital libraries. Her current research interests include
digital library architectures and infrastructures, information object modeling, and interoperability.
Tiziana Catarci received her PhD in Computer Science from the University of Rome, where she is cur-
rently a Full Professor. She has published over 100 papers and 10 books in a variety of subjects, comprising
User Interfaces for Databases, 2D and 3D Data Visualization, Adaptive Interfaces, Visual Metaphors, Us-
ability Testing, Data Quality, Cooperative Database Systems, Database Integration, Web Access. Professor
Catarci is regularly in the programming committees of the main database and human-computer interaction
conferences and is associate editor of ACM SIGMOD Digital Symposium Collection (DiSC), VLDB Journal,
World Wide Web Journal, and Journal of data Semantics.
Chao-Chen Chen received the BS degree in library science from Catholic Fu-Jen University, Taipei,
Taiwan, in 1980, and the MS and PhD degree in library and information science from National Taiwan Uni-
versity, Taipei, Taiwan, in 1984 and 1994, respectively. Her current research interests include digital libraries
and digital archives, library automation, information organization and metadata, electronic publishing, and
electronic learning.
Alton Y.K. Chua is Assistant Professor at Nanyang Technological University. He teaches in the M.Sc
(KM) program. His research interests lie primarily in knowledge management and communities of prac-
tice. Alton has authored numerous papers in publications, such as the Journal of the American Society of
Information Science and Technology, International Journal of Information Management, and the Journal
of Intellectual Capital.
Warwick Clegg earned Honours Degree in Physics at Liverpool University, then moved to the Electri-
cal Engineering Department at the University of Manchester. Warwicks MSc and PhD work at Manchester
developed a life-long interest in advanced methods for data storage technologies.He is the author of over 200
journal and conference papers and has supervised 23 PhD students. Following a period at the University of
Plymouth, in 2003 he moved to take up his present post as Pro Vice-Chancellor for Information Technology,
and later, also the inaugural Dean of a new Faculty of Engineering at Victoria University of Wellington in
New Zealand.
Hepu Deng is an Associate Professor at the School of Business Information Technology, RMIT University,
Australia. He holds a Bachelor degree in Mathematics, a Postgraduate Diploma in Management Engineering,
and a Masters degree and a PhD in Business Systems. His research interests include multicriteria analysis,
neural networks, approximate reasoning, fuzzy logic, preference modeling, knowledge management and
their applications in business. He has published more than ninety refereed articles in various international
journals and conferences, including IEEE Transaction on Systems, Man and Cybertices, European Jour-
nal of Operational research, Computers and Operational Research, International Journal of Approximate
Reasoning, International Journal of Computer and Information Sciences, and International Journal of the
Operational Research Society.
Holly Devaul holds a BA in Human Ecology and an MS in Wildlife Biology. Holly coordinates and
conducts workshops on tool use for digital library collection builders, user focus groups to inform service
and interface design, and teacher workshops on integrating technology and digital libraries into teaching
and learning. A special focus of her work involves investigating how to embed educational standards within
digital libraries. She is a collaborator in the Center for Natural Language Processings work developing
tools to support standards assignment and alignment and is cochair of the NSDL Educational Standards
Working Group.
629
About the Contributors
Vladan Devedi is a professor in and the Head of the Department of Software Engineering at FON
School of Business Administration, University of Belgrade. His research interests focus on practical engi-
neering aspects of developing intelligent software systems, while his long-term goal is to merge ideas from
intelligent systems and software engineering. He has authored/coauthored more than 270 research papers,
published in international and national journals or presented at international and national conferences, as
well as six books on intelligent systems and software engineering.
Wan Ab. Kadir Wan Dollah received an MLib (Wales), Postgraduate Diploma in Library Science (UiTM),
and BAHons (Malaya). He is a Lecturer at the Faculty of Information Management, MARA University of
Technology, Malaysia. Prior to teaching he worked for more than 10 years in academic library. His areas of
interest are reference and information sources and services, world of knowledge and information sources and
services in social science. He also teaches in the areas of digital libraries and multimedia applications.
Cecilia Ferreyra is Head of the Library Unit of the International Potato Center (CIP). Her work focuses on
planning, setting goals and objectives for the future of CIPs Library services, while focusing on determining
the needed services, the most effective way to deliver them, and the resources needed to support them.
Fernando Ferri received the degrees in Electronics Engineering and the PhD in Medical Informatics. He
is actually senior researcher at the National Research Council of Italy. From 1993 to 2000, he was professor
of Sistemi di Elaborazione at the University of Macerata. He is the author of more than 100 papers in inter-
national journals, books, and conferences. His main methodological areas of interest are: Human-Computer
Interaction Visual Languages, Visual Interfaces, Sketch-based Interfaces, Multimodal Interfaces, Data and
knowledge bases, Geographic Information Systems, and Virtual Communities. He has been responsible for
several national and international research projects.
Edward A. Fox holds a PhD and MS in Computer Science from Cornell University, and a BS from
M.I.T. Since 1983, he has been at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), where
he serves as Professor of Computer Science. He directs the Digital Library Research Laboratory, the Net-
worked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations, the Digital Library Curriculum Development project,
and a number of other R&D projects. In addition to his courses at Virginia Tech, Dr. Fox has taught over 70
tutorials in more than 25 countries. His research interests include digital libraries, (multimedia) information
storage and retrieval, and educational technologies.
Carmen Galvez is a PhD in Documentation from the University of Granada in 2003. She is an associate
professor at Department of Information Science, University of Granada. She is a member of the Associated
Unit to Spanish National Research Council (CSIC) and the Scimago Research Group. She has published differ-
ent articles in international journals on subjects relating to term unification through Finite-State Transducers
(FST) and submitted numerous papers to international congresses. Her research interests include Natural
Language Processing (NLP) and Information Extraction (IE). At present, she has interest in Biomedical
Natural Language Processing (BioNLP), Biomedical Text-Mining, and Bio-Bibliometrics.
Javier Garca-Guzmn received an engineering degree and PhD in Computer Science from the Carlos
III University of Madrid. He has seven years of experience as a software engineer and consultant in public
and private companies. He has participated in numerous research projects financed with public (European
and national) and private funds. His current research interest is formal measurement of processes improve-
ment, ISO 15504 assessments, software capacity rapid audits, evaluations for pre-diagnosis according to
ISO 15504 and CMMI, and management of knowledge related to software engineering.
630
About the Contributors
David A. Garza-Salazar received the BSc in Computer Sciences from Tecnologico de Monterrey (ITESM)
in 1985. Dr. Garza-Salazar received the PhD degree in Computer Science from Colorado State University
in 1995. Currently, he is chairman of the College in Engineering at Tecnologico de Monterrey. His research
areas include high performance computing, parallel computing, and digital libraries. He is member of the
ACM, the IEEE-Computer Society, Sigma-Xi, American Association for Engineering Education, and the
Microsoft Research Committee for Latin America.
Lorena G. Gomez received the BSc in Computer Science and the MSC in Computer Science; both de-
grees from Tecnologico de Monterrey (ITESM), in 1986 and 1990 respectively. Dr. Gomez received the PhD
degree in Computer Science from Arizona State University, in 2002. Currently, she is an Assistant Professor
at ITESM. Dr. Gomez research interests include databases systems, OO databases, computer education, and
digital libraries. She has been member of the National System of Researchers (SNI-candidate) in Mexico,
and she is member of the Upsilon Pi Epsilon Honor Society in Computer Science and the Phi Kappa Phi
Honor Society.
Soh Whee Kheng Grace is currently a MSc (Information Studies) student at the Division of Informa-
tion Studies, School of Communication and Information, Nanyang Technological University (Singapore).
She completed her Bachelor of Computing at Monash University (Australia). Her research interests include
digital libraries, information technology in education, and E-learning.
Patrizia Grifoni received the degrees in Electronics Engineering. She is actually a researcher at the
National Research Council of Italy. From 1994 to 2000, she was professor of Elaborazione digitale delle
immagini at the University of Macerata. She is the author of more than 80 papers in international journals,
books, and conferences. Her scientific interests have evolved from Query Languages for statistical and
Geographic Databases to the focal topics related to Human-Computer Interaction, Multimodal Interaction,
Visual Languages, Visual Interfaces, Sketch-based Interfaces, Accessing Web Information and Virtual
Communities. She was responsible of several research projects.
Svenja Hagenhoff has been an assistant professor at the Institute of Information Systems, University of
Goettingen, since 2002. She finished her doctoral thesis in information systems in 2001. In 2008, she fin-
ished her state doctorate (Habilitation) and passed the postdoctoral lecture qualification in management and
information systems. She was visiting researcher at the University of California Los Angeles, and interim
professor at the University of Hildesheim, Germany. She was also a guest lecturer at the University of Lu-
ebeck, Germany. She holds a Masters in Management from the University of Goettingen, Germany. Svenja
631
About the Contributors
Hagenhoff has research experience in the field of internet economics and information markets, e-learning,
knowledge management and innovation management, and service oriented architectures.
John H. L. Hansen received the BSEE degree from the College of Engineering, Rutgers University, New
Brunswick, NJ, in 1982, and the MS and PhD degrees in electrical engineering from the Georgia Institute of
Technology, Atlanta, in 1983 and 1988, respectively. He joined the Erik Jonsson School of Engineering and
Computer Science, University of Texas at Dallas (UTD), Richardson, in the fall of 2005, where he is Profes-
sor and a Department Chairman of Electrical Engineering and holds the Distinguished University Chair in
Telecommunications Engineering. He is a director of the Center for Robust Speech Systems (CRSS) at UTD.
Previously, he served as Department Chairman and Professor in the Department of Speech, Language, and
Hearing Sciences, and Professor in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, at the University
of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, (19982005). His research interests span the areas of digital speech process-
ing, analysis and modeling of speech and speaker traits, speech enhancement, feature estimation in noise,
robust speech recognition with emphasis on spoken document retrieval, and in-vehicle interactive systems.
He is an IEEE Fellow, served as an IEEE Signal Processing Distinguished Lecturer for 2005/2006.
Judy Jeng received a PhD from Rutgers University, School of Communication, Information, and Li-
brary Studies. She has served as the evaluation consultant for three digital librariesthe Moving Image
Collections (http://mic.imtc.gatech.edu/), the New Jersey Digital Highway (http://www.njdigitalhighway.
org/index.php), and the NJVid. Judy has published and presented widely in Libri, Information Technology
and Libraries, Library Assessment Conference, ALA, ASIS&T, and JCDL. Judy received the LITA Student
Writing Award for her paper published in ITAL, and honorable mention for her paper published in Libri:
International Journal of Libraries and Information Services. Judy is currently the Head of Collection Ser-
vices at the New Jersey City University Library.
Juha Kettunen is the Rector of the Turku University of Applied Sciences, Finland. He was previously
the Director of the Vantaa Institute for Continuing Education, University of Helsinki and Director of the
Advanced Management Education Centre, University of Jyvskyl. He holds a PhD from the University of
Bristol, UK, and a DSc from the University of Jyvskyl, Finland.
Wooil Kim received the BS, MS, and PhD degrees in Electronics Engineering from Korea University,
Seoul, Korea, in 1996, 1998, and 2003, respectively. He is currently Research Assistant Professor in the
Erik Jonsson School of Engineering and Computer Science, University of Texas at Dallas (UTD), Rich-
ardson, U.S.A. since Sept., 2007. He is also a member of the Center for Robust Speech Systems (CRSS) at
UTD. Previously, he was a Research Associate in UTD (August 2005August 2007) and a Post-Doctoral
Researcher in the Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, U.S.A.
(August 2004August 2005) and Korea University (September 2003August 2004) respectively. His research
interests are robust speech recognition in adverse environment, acoustic modeling for large vocabulary
continuous speech recognition, and spoken document retrieval.
Stephen Kimani is currently an academic and research member of Jomo Kenyatta University of Ag-
riculture and Technology (Kenya) and is affiliated with the University of Rome La Sapienza (Italy). He
has been a postdoctoral researcher with the University of Rome La Sapienza (20042006). Dr. Stephen
632
About the Contributors
Kimani holds PhD in Computer Engineering (University of Rome La Sapienza, Italy, 2004) and MSc in
Advanced Computing (University of Bristol, UK, 1998). His main research interest is in Human-Computer
Interaction (HCI). In particular, as HCI relates to areas/aspects such as: User Interfaces, Usability, Acces-
sibility, Visualization, Visual Information Access, Visual Data Mining, Digital Libraries, and Ubiquitous
Computing.
Ana Kovaevi is a PhD candidate at the University of Belgrade. She is currently working on her thesis:
Web Mining Visualization of Learning Objects, supervised by Professor Vladan Devedi. She has graduated
from the School of Electrical Engineering, the University of Belgrade, Serbia, in 1993. She completed her
Masters at School of Electrical Engineering, University of Belgrade in 2003, on the subject of Multimedia
DBMS, supervised by Professor Miroslav Bojovi. Her research interests are: databases, Web mining, text
mining, digital libraries, visualization, and multimedia. She is a member of GOOD-OLD-AI, the society
for object-oriented design and artificial intelligence.
Jayan C Kurian is an Mphil candidate at the Faculty of Computer Science and Engineering. His research
interest includes Semantic Web, Hypermedia Presentation Generation, and User Adaptation.
Miguel ngel Latre holds an MS degree in Computer Science from the University of Zaragoza (Spain)
since 1999. He is currently a tenured Assistant Professor at the Department of Computer Science and Systems
Engineering at the same university. He is working with the Advanced Information Systems Lab (IAAA) and
the Aragn Institute for Engineering Research (I3A), where he has been involved in several R&D projects
related with the application of Geographic Information Systems and Spatial Data Infrastructures to the
Hydrologic domain, and has coauthored several publications in that area.
Juan C. Lavariega received the BSc in Computer Science and the MSC in Computer Science, both
degrees from Tecnologico de Monterrey (ITESM), in 1987 and 1990, respectively. Dr. Lavariega received
the PhD degree in Computer Science from Arizona State University, in 1999. Currently, he is an Associate
Professor at ITESM. His research interests include specification methods in software engineering, databases
systems, digital libraries, and mobile computing. He is member of the National System of Researchers (SNI-
level 1) in Mexico, and he is a member of the ACM, the IEEE Computer Society, and the Upsilon Pi Epsilon
Honor Society in Computer Science.
Chei Sian Lee has a PhD in Management Information Systems and is an Assistant Professor at Nanyang
Technological University at the Division of Information Studies, Wee Kim Wee School of Communication
and Information. Her research areas are in computer-mediated communication, distributed work environ-
ments, and organizational impacts of information systems.
Thomas Lidy is Research Assistant at the Department of Software Technology and Interactive Systems
of the Vienna University of Technology (TU Vienna). He received his MSc in Computer Science from the
Vienna University of Technology in 2007. His research focus is on music information retrieval, in particular
feature extraction methods for digital audio, music classification, and clustering and visualization of digital
music libraries. He participates actively in the annual MIREX benchmarking campaign and was coorganizer
of the ISMIR 2007 conference. He is the author of numerous papers in refereed international conferences
and workshops and served as coreviewer for several major international conferences.
633
About the Contributors
and 3) management of information science and information technology systems for support of scientific
research. Fran graduated from Oberlin College and has a PhD in physical oceanography from the Joint
Program in Oceanography at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institution (WHOI).
Pasquale Lops is Assistant Professor at the Department of Informatics, University of Bari. He completed
his PhD in 2005 at the University of Bari, under the supervision of Professor Giovanni Semeraro. His primary
interests lie in the areas of machine learning, recommender systems, digital libraries, user modelling, and
universal access. He has published over 50 papers, and he is involved in several research projects.
Irene Lourdi is an archivist-librarian working in Libraries Computer Centre of University of Athens. She
is a PhD student in the Department of Archival and Library Sciences at Ionian University in Corfu. She is a
member of Laboratory on Digital Libraries and Electronic Publishing at Ionian University and her research
interests include digital libraries, metadata schemas administration and integration policies.
Nyein Chan Lwin Lwin is a recent graduate of the MSc (Information Systems) programme from Nan-
yang Technological University. She is currently an analyst programmer in an Application Consultant in
National Computer Systems.
Yongqing Ma obtained her BEng study at Zhejiang University (P.R.China) in 1982, and subsequently
worked as a Certified Engineer and professional editor in China. At the beginning of 1995, she was awarded
a PhD studentship from Plymouth University (UK), and, so developed her knowledge and skills in advanced
information storage technologies. She worked at Cardiff, and then Oxford Universities, enjoying advanced
research there following her PhD degree in 1999. She decided to develop a career in Information and Li-
brary Management (ILM) and completed her MA study with Loughborough University in 2006. Yongqing
is working on developing a future career in the ILM sector.
Thomas Mandl is Assistant Professor for Information Science at the University of Hildesheim, Germany
where he is teaching in the programme International Information Management. He studied information and
computer science at the University of Regensburg, Germany and at the University of Illinois at Champaign/
Urbana. He worked as a research assistant at the Social Science Information Centre in Bonn, Germany.
His research interests include information retrieval, human-computer interaction, applications of machine
learning, and international information systems.
Margarita Cabrera Mendez graduated from the Polytechnic University of Valencia in Audiovisual
and Fine Arts. Multimedia systems Master, from the Polytechnic University of Valencia. Professor in the
Polytechnic University of Valencia in Audiovisual contents distribution, and Member of the Research group
CALSI.
Pedro Rafael Muro-Medrano holds MS and PhD degrees in industrial engineering from the University
of Zaragoza (Zaragoza, Spain). He has worked in the private industry for two years and has hold differ-
ent visiting research positions at the Carnegie Mellon Universitys Robotics Institute (Pittsburgh, PA), the
University of Maryland (College Park, MD) and the U.S. National Institutes of Health (Bethesda, MD).
Currently, he is the head of the Advanced Information Systems Laboratory (IAAA) at the Computer Sci-
ence and Systems Engineering Department and the Engineering Research Institute of Aragn (I3A) from
the University of Zaragoza.
634
About the Contributors
Robert Neumayer received his Business Informatics from the University of Vienna in 2005. After that
he spent a year at Trinity College Dublin as. Since July 2006, he has been employed as research assistant at
the Institute for Interactive Systems and Software Technology of the Vienna University of Technology. He
also received a degree in Computer Science (intelligent systems) from the Vienna University of Technology
in October 2007. His main research interests include: Information Retrieval and Data Mining, as well as
Digital Preservation.
David Nichols is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Computer Science at the University of Waikato,
Hamilton, New Zealand. He has a BSc (Hons) and a PhD in Computing, both from Lancaster University
(UK). His interests include digital libraries (as part of the Greenstone project), human-computer interaction,
and open source software.
Mara Nikolaidou is an Associate Professor in the Department of Informatics and Telematics at Harokopio
University of Athens. She holds a PhD and Bachelor degree on Computer Science from the Department of
Informatics and Telecommunication at the University of Athens. She is a member of IEEE and ISCA. Her re-
search interests include software and information system engineering, e-government, and digital libraries.
Javier Nogueras-Iso holds MS and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Zaragoza
(Spain). After working for the Economic and Social Committee of the European Communities (Brussels) in
1998, he started his research at the Computer Science and Systems Engineering Department of the University
of Zaragoza, where he is currently a tenured Assistant Professor. Additionally, he is a member of the Aragn
Institute for Engineering Research and has completed a postdoctoral stay at the Institute of Environment
and Sustainability of the Joint Research Centre (Ispra, Italy). His research interests are focused on Spatial
Data Infrastructures, and Geographic Information Retrieval.
Ann OBrien worked for ten years as an academic librarian before moving to the Department of Informa-
tion Science, Loughborough University where she is a lecturer in information organization. Her teaching and
research interests lie in various aspects of digital information organization, such as metadata, cataloguing,
classification, and all kinds of subject indexing. As Director of the Postgraduate Programme in Information
and Library Management, she takes a great interest in current and future developments in LIS education.
Sanghee Oh is a PhD student in the School of Information and Library Science at University of North
Carolina at Chapel Hill. She earned her MLIS degree in library and information science from University of
California at Los Angeles. She is currently involved in the Digital Library Curriculum Development project
(http://curric.dlib.vt.edu), a joint project between Virginia Tech and University of North Carolina at Chapel
Hill, funded by NSF. Her areas of research include information seeking behaviors, user-centered system
design and development, human computer interaction, and digital libraries.
Bjrn Ortelbach works at Henkel as an IT controller. He finished his doctoral thesis in 2007 at the
Institute of Information Systems, University of Goettingen. He holds a Masters in Business Information
Systems from the University of Goettingen. Bjrn Ortelbach has experience in the fields of information
markets, publishing industry, and controlling.
Taha Osman obtained his PhD in the Fault-Tolerance of Distributed Computing Systems in 1998. He
is currently a Senior Lecturer at Nottingham Trent University, where he leads the Semantic Web services
research network. His research interests are in the areas of intelligent agents, the semantic Web, and infor-
mation retrieval systems.
635
About the Contributors
Shiyan Ou is a postdoctoral research fellow in Research Institute in Information and Language Processing,
University of Wolverhampton, UK. She obtained her PhD degree from Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore. Her research interests include automatic text summarization, information extraction, text min-
ing, opinion mining, and question answering. She has published three journal papers and nine conference
papers in the area of automatic text summarization.
Pasquale Pagano is a Senior Research Associate of the Networked Multimedia Information Systems
Laboratory of the Institute of Information Science and TechnologiesItalian National Research Council
(ISTICNR). He received his MSc in Information Systems Technologies from the Department of Computer
Science of the University of Pisa (1998), and his PhD degree in Information Engineering from the Department
of Information Engineering: Electronics, Information Theory, Telecommunications of the same university
(2006). He has a strong background in digital library distributed architectures. He has participated in the
design of the most relevant DL systems developed by ISTICNR. Currently, Pasquale is the technical
support manager of the DILIGENT: A testbed DIgital Library Infrastructure on Grid ENabled Technol-
ogy project. He is also leading the development and deployment of the OpenDLib (http://www.opendlib.
com) digital library service system in different application areas (libraries, archives, commercial publishing
organizations). His current research interests include digital libraries services and architectures.
Natalie Pang is a PhD student in Monash Universitys Faculty of Information Technology. Her PhD
research investigates the concept of the knowledge commons using an interdisciplinary investigation of
the literature and case studies of cultural institutions from Australia and Singapore. Prior to embarking
on her PhD, she has been working in Monash University in Malaysia as a researcher in areas of telecom-
munications, digital libraries, and social computing. She has worked in various cross-disciplinary areas of
information technology and has taught in Singapore, Malaysia, and Australia. Natalie is a key member of
several research projects in Australia, Singapore, and China. Other than a part-time staff member of the
Centre for Community Networking Research group and full-time PhD student of the Faculty, she is also
a contributing member of several international research networks such as the Peer to Peer Foundation and
the Institute for the Future. She has also served as Research Associate for Museum Victoria and a visiting
scholar to the Singapore Internet Research Centre at Nanyang Technological University.
Emanuele Panizzi received the Dr. Eng. Laurea degree in Electronic Engineering in 1992. From 1994,
he was a researcher in the APE parallel computer project at INFN, Italy. In 1997, he became Assistant
Professor in Computer Engineering at University of LAquila, Italy. Since 2001, he was Assistant Professor
in Computer Science at University of Rome La Sapienza until December 2004 when he qualified as As-
sociate Professor in Computer Science. His current interests are in the Human-Computer Interaction area
and include usability, computer-supported collaborative work, user interfaces for digital libraries, for Web
applications and mobile devices.
Stefano Paolozzi received his degree in Informatics Engineering at the University of ROMA TRE. He
is a PhD student in Computer Science at the ROMA TRE University under supervision of Professor Paolo
Atzeni. His research activity with Multi Media and Modal Laboratory (M3L) of the IRPPS-CNR of Italy is
sponsored by a fellowship (assegno di ricerca). He is mainly interested in Model Management, Multimodal
Interaction, Multimedia Database, Temporal Database, Ontology Alignment, Ontology Versioning, NLP,
Context-Aware Systems.
Christos Papatheodorou holds a BSc and a PhD in Computer Science from the Department of Infor-
matics, Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor at the
Department of Archive and Library Sciences, Ionian University, Corfu, Greece, where he teaches Informa-
636
About the Contributors
tion Systems, Information Retrieval, and Metadata. His research interests include Digital Libraries Evalu-
ation, Metadata Interoperability, User Modeling, Personalization, and Web Mining. He has been involved
as researcher or coordinator in several national and international R&D projects, such as DELOS Network
of excellence, funded by the European Union. He has participated to the programme committee of various
international conferences and workshops (such as the European Conference on Digital Libraries, 2005).
Piedad Garrido Picazo is a Computer Science and System Engineering Department assistant professor
at Teruel College of Engineering (University of Zaragoza). Her research areas are focused on digital libraries,
database management systems, information retrieval semantic engines, and topic maps. She develops several
research projects about free software documental information management tools and she has coordinated
the Free Software to Digital Information Services book edited by Prentice Hall.
Jeffrey P. Pomerantz is an Assistant Professor in the School of Information and Library Science at the
University of North CarolinaChapel Hill. He earned his PhD from the School of Information Studies at
Syracuse University, and his MS(LIS) from Simmons College. Much of Pomerantzs work has been on digital
reference services, and the integration of physical library-style services into digital libraries. Pomerantzs
recent work has involved evaluations of collaborative online library services. Additional information about
Pomerantz is available at: http://ils.unc.edu/~jpom.
George Pyrounakis is a software developer in the Libraries Computer Center at the University of Athens.
He also works as a researcher in the Department of Informatics and Telecommunications at the University
of Athens. He holds a MSc and Bachelor degree on Computer Science from the same department. Currently,
he is studying for his PhD on digital library architectures. His research interests include digital libraries
and distributed systems.
Muhammad Rafiq is a PhD Scholar at the Deptartment of Library and Information Science, University
of the Punjab, Lahore (Pakistan). He is also serving in International Islamic University, Islamabad (Paki-
stan) as Manager Information Resource Center. He is an active library trainer and has 10 years experience
of managing prominent academic libraries of Pakistan. He is also IFLA/ OCLC Early Career Development
Fellow 2004 and Associate to Mortenson Center for International Library Programs. His research interest
areas are: Digital Libraries, Human-Computer Interaction, and Information Technology in Libraries. He
can be reached at rafiqlibrarian@yahoo.com and rafiqlibrarian@gmail.com.
Mila Medina Ramos is a Filipina Librarian, who holds a Bachelors and Masters degree in Library
Science obtained from the University of the Philippines. She underwent on-the-job training at the U.S.
National Agricultural Library in Maryland and the Deakin University, Australia. She also took up distance
education courses from the University of Cincinnati. Mrs. Ramos is currently the Chief Librarian of the
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), based in Los Baos, Laguna, Philippines. The IRRI Library
has the worlds most comprehensive collection of technical rice literature, and serves the information needs
of worldwide clients.
Wolfgang Ratzek a graduate of the Free University of Berlin (FU Berlin) in 1986, received an MA in
Information Science and Scandinavistics in 1986, and a PhD in Information Science in 1991 from FU Berlin.
He is a Professor at the faculty of Information and Communication, Stuttgart Media University. His research
interests include Marketing, LIS policy, Information and Knowledge Society. His professional experience
includes leading positions in the field of consulting and marketing. He is also a member of the editorial
board of Communication Booknotes Quarterly (USA), B.I.T. online and InformationWissenschaft und
Praxis (Germany).
637
About the Contributors
Andreas Rauber is Associate Professor at the Department of Software Technology and Interactive
Systems of the Vienna University of Technology (TU Vienna). He received his MSc and PhD in Computer
Science from the Vienna University of Technology in 1997 and 2000, respectively. He is actively involved
in several research projects in the field of digital libraries, focusing on text and music information retrieval,
the organization and exploration of large information spaces, as well as Web archiving and digital preserva-
tion. He has published numerous papers in refereed journals and international conferences, and served as
PC member and reviewer for several major journals, conferences, and workshops. He also coorganized the
ECDL 2005 and ISMIR 2007 conferences.
Khasfariyati Razikin is a project officer at the Division of Information Studies, Wee Kim Wee School
of Communication and Information, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. Her research interests
lies in information retrieval, natural language processing, and machine learning.
Nuria Lloret Romero is the Head of the Deptartment DCADHA (Polytechnic Univer-
sity of Valencia). Graduated from the University of Valencia, Master of Development of on-
line I.T. systems supports CD ROM (MASDOC) distributed by the University of Barcelona.
Ph. Methodology for the development of self-training multimedia tools for Digital libraries.
Head of Research Group CALSI. She is professor in the UPV in Computer Science Faculty teaching on Plan-
ning of IST and Quality of Information services. Project Expert Evaluator of the European Community for
the IST Program..FESABID, President 1999. She was President of the Hispano-American Caucus of IFLA,
and from August of 1998 to 2005, Member Executive Committee of EBLIDA from 19992002.
Simon Ruszala obtained his BSc and MSc degrees from Nottingham Trent University. He is currently
working for Teleca.
Maria-Isabel Sanchez-Segura has been a faculty member in the Computer Science Department at Carlos
III University of Madrid since 1998. She is an associate professor at this department. Her research interests
include: Software Engineering, interactive systems, and usability in interactive systems. She holds a BS in
Computer Science (1997), an MS in Software Engineering (1999), and a PhD in Computer Science (2001)
from the Universidad Politecnica of Madrid.
Neide Santos earned a Masters of Education degree from the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro in
1989 and a DSc degree in Engineering of Production at the same university in 1994. She is an associate
professor in the Department of Computer Science at the State University of Rio de Janeiro. Her main areas
of interest are Computers in Education, CSCL, Educational Hypermedia, Artificial Intelligence and Educa-
tion, and Web-based Education.
Sarah-Jane Saravani is Library Manager at the Waikato Institute of Technology, Hamilton, New Zea-
land. She has worked in libraries since the early 1990s, beginning her career in the National Library of New
Zealand. She has an MA in History from Otago University, Dunedin, plus the Diploma in Librarianship from
Victoria University, Wellington (1991). She is a member of the IT-019-01 Australia/New Zealand Standards
subcommittee on Information Technology for Learning, Education, and Training, metadata subgroup. She
has a particular interest in the contribution of metadata to the preservation and sharing of digital resources,
and has a strong focus on the flexible delivery of educational resources.
Hideyasu Sasaki graduated from the University of Tokyo in 1994, received an LLM from the University
of Chicago Law School in 1999, an MS and a PhD in Cybernetic Knowledge Engineering (Media and Gov-
ernance) with honors from Keio University in 2001 and 2003, respectively. He is an associate professor at
638
About the Contributors
Department of Information Science and Engineering, Ritsumeikan University. He was an assistant professor
at Keio University from 2003 to 2005. His research interests include content-based metadata indexing and
image retrieval, digital libraries, multimedia databases, and intellectual property law and management. He has
been admitted to practice as an Attorney-and-Counselor at Law in the New York State Bar, since 2000.
Jess Tramullas Saz is a Document Management Systems full professor Department at University of
Zaragoza. His research areas are centered on digital libraries and document repositories, of which he has
run several of them. He cooperates in free software tools development and evaluation to the digital libraries
development and management information. He is a member of the 50 AENORs Technical Committee (In-
formation and Documentation), Internet Information Retrieval author book and Free Software to Digital
Information Services coordinator book.
Gerald Schaefer gained his PhD in computer vision from the University of East Anglia. He worked at the
Colour and Imaging Institute, University of Derby as a Research Associate (19971999), as Senior Research
Fellow at the School of Information Systems, University of East Anglia (20002001), and as Senior Lecturer
in Computing at the School of Computing and Informatics at Nottingham Trent University (20012006). In
September 2006, he joined the School of Engineering and Applied Science at Aston University. His research
interests include colour image analysis, physics-based vision, image retrieval, and image coding. He is the
author of more than 120 scientific publications in these areas.
Ulrich Schiel has graduated in Mathematics with Masters in Computer Science at PUC-Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil and Dr.rer.nat. in Computer Science at University of Stuttgart, Germany. Full professor of Federal Uni-
versity of Campina Grande, Brazil since 1978. Research interests are Temporal Databases, Digital Libraries,
Ontologies and Semantic Web Services, Information Systems on the Web, and Decision Support Systems.
Lutz Seidenfaden is Assistant to a Member of the Board of Festo Corporation. He finished his doctoral
thesis in 2007 at the Institute of Information Systems, University of Goettingen. He holds a Masters in
Business Information Systems from the University of Goettingen. Lutz Seidenfaden has experience in the
fields of P2P services and architectures, information markets, and publishing industry.
Giovanni Semeraro is Associate Professor at the Department of Informatics, University of Bari. His
research activity mainly concerns machine learning, semantic Web, and personalization. He was head of the
research units of the University of Bari for the EC 6th Framework Programme Integrated Project VIKEF
(200407) and DELOS, a Network of Excellence on Digital Libraries (200407). He has published over
150 papers.
Peter Shelton joined IFPRI in 2006, assuming his present role as Information and Knowledge Man-
agement Specialist in May of this year. His work focuses on researching and implementing Web-based
technologies and training staff in their applications for supporting research. Prior to joining IFPRI, Peter
worked with the Cornell International Institute for Food, Agriculture, and Development (CIIFAD) in the
management of online databases.
Ali Shiri is an Assistant Professor at the School of Library and Information Studies in the University of
Alberta, teaching courses on digital libraries and knowledge organization. Alis research interests lie in the
areas of digital libraries, visual user interfaces, information search behavior, application of knowledge orga-
nization systems in digital libraries, and social tagging. Ali is the Electronic Discussions Communications
officer for the American Society for Information Science and Technology Special Interest Group on Digital
Libraries (ASIS&T SIG-DL), and is currently serving as the Journal of Digital Information Theme editor.
639
About the Contributors
Shun-Hong Sie received the MS degree in library science from Catholic Fu-Jen University, Taipei, Tai-
wan, in 2006. His current research interests include digital libraries and digital archives, library automation,
and internet service architecture.
Manuele Simi is a Software Engineer and Developer. He received his BSc in Computer Science from the
University of Pisa in 2001. He has been employed for several IT companies as Software Engineer and Devel-
oper and coordinator of small teams. In 2002, he joined the Information Science and TechnologiesItalian
National Research Council (ISTI CNR). His professional experience covers the design and implementation
of reusable components, libraries, Web services, GUIs, and Web applications for different target platforms.
He has worked extensively with Perl, C/C++ and Java, and he is experienced in UML modelling. He has
been involved in small projects as well as in very large projects with a significant experience in design-
ing and implementing Service Oriented Architectures. At ISTI-CNR, he has worked for the Scholnet and
DILIGENT projects, and he was one of the main implementers of the OpenDLib (http://www.opendlib.com)
digital library service system. He has published a number of articles in some Italian magazines dedicated
to the software development field.
Diljit Singh PhD, MSc (Florida State), BSc, DipEd (Malaya) is an Associate Professor and currently the
Deputy Dean at the Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology, University of Malaya.
Martha Sordia-Salinas received the BSc in Computer Science and the MSC in Computer Science, both
degrees from Tecnologico de Monterrey in 1984 and 1989, respectively. Currently, Miss Sordia-Salinas is
an Assistant Professor at ITESM, and her research interests are digital libraries, and mobile computing ap-
plied in digital libraries.
Sofia Stamou is an Adjunct Lecturer at the Computer Engineering and Informatics Department of Pa-
tras University, Greece. Her area of expertise is natural language processing, semantics, Web information
management and retrieval with emphasis on linguistic analysis of textual data. Her research interests include
text processing, Web mining, data classification, lexical ontologies, and semantic networks. She received
both her PhD (2006) and MSc (2002) degrees in Computer Science from the Computer Engineering and
Informatics Department of Patras University and a Diploma in Linguistics from the University of Ioannina,
Greece in 1999. She has coordinated several EU-funded projects in the area of semantic text processing, and
she has served as a reviewer to many international journals and conferences.
Stephan Strodl is currently research assistant at the Department of Software Technology and Interac-
tive Systems at the Vienna University of Technology. His research interest is digital preservation, and he is
involved several European research projects in the field of Digital Preservation.
Tamara Sumner is Executive Director of DLS. She is responsible for leadership of the institute, strategy
development, and the conduct of our research program. Sumner is also an Associate Professor at the Univer-
sity of Colorado, with a joint appointment between the Institute of Cognitive Science and the Department of
Computer Science. She has significant experience in the theory, design, and evaluation of interactive learning
environments, human-centered systems, digital libraries, and intelligent information systems. Since 2000,
she has published over 50 articles on these topics.
Dhavalkumar Thakker obtained his Masters degree in Data Communication Systems from Brunel
University and his PhD from the School of Science and Technology at Nottingham Trent University. His
research interests are distributed computing technologies, Web services composition, the semantic Web,
and ontologies.
640
About the Contributors
Tun Thura Thet is a PhD student in the Division of Information Studies in the Wee Kim Wee School of
Communication and Information at Nanyang Technological University. He is working on sentiment-based
classification and searching for digital libraries for his PhD dissertation work.
Giannis Tsakonas is a PhD candidate student in Department of Archives and Library Sciences, Ionian
University, Corfu, Greece. He also is librarian in the Library and Information Service, University of Patras,
Greece. His research interests include user-centred digital library evaluation, information behavior, and
visual communication.
Michael Twidale is an Associate Professor in the Graduate School of Library and Information Science
at University of Illinois. He has a BA (Hons) from Cambridge University and a PhD in Computing from
Lancaster University (UK). His interests include computer-supported cooperative working and learning;
collaborative technologies in digital libraries and museums; user interface design and evaluation; user er-
ror analysis; visualization of information; and the development of interfaces to support the articulation of
plans, goals, and beliefs.
Spyros Veronikis holds a Diploma and an MSE in Electronic and Computer Engineering from Dem-
ocritus University of Thrace, Greece. Currently, he is a PhD candidate at the Department of Archives and
Library Sciences, Ionian University, Corfu, Greece. His research interests include wireless communications,
mobile computing, and integration of diverse information sources.
Manuel Coll Villalta studied Technical Engineer Management Computing at Teruel Collage of Engi-
neering (University of Zaragoza). Now, he is finishing the Computer Science Engineering at the Faculty of
Engineering in the same university. He is very interested in free software development tools. He is in charge
of the DEREditor project, available at http://sourceforge.net/projects/dereditor. He collaborates with the rest
of the authors, in some research projects, like a research grant holder in digital information services analysis,
development, and management tools.
Fu Lee Wang is a Lecturer in the Department of Computer Science at the City University of Hong Kong.
He received BEng in Computer Engineering and MPhil in Computer Science from the University of Hong
Kong, and PhD in Information System from the Chinese University of Hong Kong. His research interests
include automatic summarization, information retrieval, and information systems. He is a member of ACM
and IEEE. He has published about 50 articles in journals and proceedings of international conferencesfor
instance, Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology (JASIST), Decision
Support Systems (DSS), Information Processing Letters, IW3C, SIGIR, and more.
Wei Wang is a PhD candidate at the Faculty of Computer Science and Engineering. His research in-
terest includes Semantic Web, Information Search and Retrieval, Machine Learning, and Social Network
Analysis.
Barbara M. Wildemuth is a professor in the School of Information and Library Science at the Uni-
versity of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Her research interests are focused on the ways in which people
retrieve and use information retrieved from computer-mediated information systems. In particular, much
of her work has investigated peoples interactions with digital video (as part of the Open Video project,
http://www.open-video.org/) and with health information (including studies of medical students use of
databases, health information provision by public libraries, a computer-based adaptive multimedia system
for patients to provide information to their doctors, and the design of personal health records). She teaches
courses in systems analysis, user interface design, human information interactions, information ethics, and
research methods.
641
About the Contributors
Ian H. Witten is Professor of Computer Science at the University of Waikato in New Zealand where he
codirects (in conjunction with Bainbridge) the New Zealand Digital Library research project. His research
interests include information retrieval, machine learning, text compression, and programming by demon-
stration. He has published widely in these areas, including several books, the most recent being Managing
Gigabytes (1999), How to Build a Digital Library (2003), Data Mining (2005), and Web Dragons (2007),
all from Morgan Kaufmann. He received an MA in mathematics from Cambridge University, England; an
MSc in computer science from the University of Calgary, Canada; and a PhD in electrical engineering from
Essex University, England.
Paul Horng-Jyh Wu is a Senior Fellow in the Division of Information Studies in the Wee Kim Wee
School of Communication and Information at Nanyang Technological University. His research interests are
electronic records, document and business process management, digital archiving and heritage informatics,
and Web annotation and intelligence.
Christopher C. Yang is an associate professor in the Department of Systems Engineering and Engi-
neering Management and the director of the Digital Library Laboratory at the Chinese University of Hong
Kong. He received his BS, MS, and PhD in Electrical and Computer Engineering from the University of
Arizona. He has also been an assistant professor in the Department of Computer Science and Information
Systems at the University of Hong Kong and a research scientist in the Department of Management Informa-
tion Systems at the University of Arizona. His recent research interests include cross-lingual information
retrieval and knowledge management, Web search and mining, security informatics, text summarization,
multimedia retrieval, information visualization, digital library, and electronic commerce. He has published
over 150 referred journal and conference papers.
Seungwon Yang is a PhD student in the department of Computer Science at Virginia Tech. He received
his BS degree in CS from the same university. He is a member of the Digital Library Research Laboratory
at Virginia Tech. His current research project is the Digital Library Curriculum Development project (http://
curric.dlib.vt.edu), which is a collaborative interdisciplinary project with the University of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill. His research interests are DL theory, educational technology, computer-supported collaborative
learning and human-computer interaction. In his free time, he practices Zen and Ba Gua Zhang.
Jian-hua Yeh received the BS, MS, and PhD degree in computer science and information engineering
from National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan, in 1992, 1995, and 2000, respectively. After finishing
postdoctoral research in the same institute in 2004, he joined the Department of Computer and Informa-
tion Science at Aletheia University as an assistant professor. His research interests include clustering and
classification, data mining and knowledge discovery, semantic Web and ontology processing, knowledge
management, and information retrieval.
Han Lee Yen began her teaching career as a Speech and Drama Teacher, working with youths and children
in various schools in Singapore. She has been teaching English Language and Literature and Communica-
tion for more than ten years, two of which were spent in the countryside of Niigata, Japan. She is currently
pursuing her MSc in Information Studies at Nanyang Technological University.
F. Javier Zarazaga-Soria holds an MS degree in Computer Science from the University of Valencia
and a PhD degree from the University of Zaragoza. He did his Masters thesis at Road Safety Engineering
Laboratory (University of London). In September 1994, he started collaborating with the Advanced Infor-
mation Systems Laboratory and as assistant professor at the University of Zaragoza. He obtained a tenured
642
About the Contributors
position as Associated Professor there in 2003. He is coauthor of more than 50 publications, and has partici-
pated in many R&D projects. His research interests include metadata management, information retrieval,
and ontologies in the context of spatial data infrastructures.
643
644
Index
A C
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Index
cue feature 120 DSpace 2, 6, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58,
curation 434, 573 59, 62, 69, 74, 75, 87, 503, 553, 561,
curriculum 494, 504, 534, 561, 610, 611 587, 591, 618
customization 53, 57, 60, 475 duality of structure 512
cyber-infrastructure 531 Dublin Core 20, 21, 25, 53, 59, 62, 75, 93,
cyberspace 518 95, 98, 100, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126,
cybrarian 516, 518 127, 128, 130, 201, 202, 203, 365,
366, 367, 368, 384, 385, 396, 401,
D 410, 411, 429, 497, 503, 522, 564,
data mining 242, 606, 614, 618 573, 582, 583, 584, 585, 587, 591,
deep Web 518 593, 594, 595, 599, 619, 623
demographics 296 dublin core metadata initiative (DCMI) 203,
descriptor 451, 456 384, 503, 564, 573, 587
digital archives 88, 100, 565 duplicate record detection 242
digital audio 329, 456, 620 E
digital cultural collection 204
digital divide 488, 490, 570, 571, 573, 586 e-learning 24, 33, 209, 210, 214, 550, 583,
digital document 49 593, 614
digital librarian 504 e-mail reference 420
digital librarianship 561 electronic publishing 225, 283, 579
digital libraries 170, 174, 187, 204, 214, 232, emulation 432, 433, 439
259, 275, 276, 277, 283, 285, 296, EPrints 2, 3, 6, 16, 20, 23, 25, 51, 52, 53,
305, 318, 327, 335, 350, 362, 364, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 486, 587,
439, 259, 242, 463, 480, 495, 506, 605
512, 520, 521, 526, 527, 530, 531, extraction 120, 172, 368, 370, 433, 450, 456
534, 539, 543, 550, 551, 560, 561, extraction feature 120
562, 574, 575, 576, 577, 579, 580, extrinsic evaluation 120, 172
582, 583, 584, 585, 586, 587, 589,
F
590, 591, 592, 596, 597, 600, 601,
602, 603, 604, 605, 606, 608, 610, F-measure 166, 247, 250, 251, 254, 255,
611, 612, 614, 615, 616, 617, 618, 256, 257, 258
619, 623 faceted classification 429
digital library education (DLE) 533, 542 false drop 429
digital library service system 1, 6 feature 84, 120, 121, 213, 386, 456, 584
digital library system 6, 566 feature extraction 456
digital object 439, 504 feature vector 456
digital preservation 431, 432, 434, 438, 439, federated database 319
496, 597 Fedora 2, 6, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58,
digital reference robots 414, 419 59, 62, 74, 76, 87, 588, 600, 610
digital reference services 420 finite-state automata (FSA) 112
digital resources 351 Finnish National Electronic Library (FinELib)
digitization 173, 174, 187, 372, 381, 485, 463
490, 491, 494, 502, 538, 572, 615, 617 fisheries 319
disruptive pedagogy. See disruptive innovations forage 319
distributed geolibrary 429 forestry 319
document indexing 370 Freeling 404, 411
document model 7 functional requirements 289, 296
domain ontology 207, 214 functions of the scholarly communication 226
645
Index
G information-curators 531
information-users 531
G-portal 545, 546, 547, 548, 549
information and communication technologies
gazetteer 389, 429
(ICT) 491
geographic information system (GIS) 383, 399
information ethics 15
geolibrary 389, 399, 429
information literacy 463
georeference 389
information retrieval 111, 112, 120, 168, 169,
GIS 300, 383, 386, 387, 389, 390, 391, 392,
170, 171, 196, 276, 277, 327, 328,
394, 398, 399, 424, 425, 495, 576,
329, 338, 343, 370, 448, 449, 451,
591, 615
343, 449, 455, 448, 131, 321, 329,
granularity 430
321, 453, 452, 448, 455, 329, 449,
Greenstone 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57,
451, 452, 453, 454, 455, 456, 575,
58, 59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67,
581, 591, 592, 593, 598, 599, 601,
68, 69, 64, 70, 60, 61, 70, 63, 66,
602, 603, 604, 605, 606, 607, 609,
69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77,
612, 616, 617, 618, 619, 620, 621,
79, 80, 84, 85, 86, 87, 305, 485,
622
488, 553, 554, 577, 580, 591, 605, 622
information search and retrieval 141
greenstone 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57,
information visualisation 329
58, 59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67,
information visualization 147, 277, 327, 408,
68, 69, 64, 70, 60, 61, 70, 63, 66,
586, 613
69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77,
infrastructure 7, 383, 388, 389, 392, 397, 399,
79, 80, 84, 85, 86, 87, 305, 485,
433, 480, 531, 573, 607, 623
488, 553, 554, 577, 580, 591, 605,
institutional repository 7
622
interdisciplinary curriculum development 504
greenstone librarian interface (GLI) 72
International Organization for Standardization
grid computing 7
(ISO) 246, 250, 384
grid infrastructure 7
interoperability x, xx, 44, 53, 60, 69, 60,
H 122, 57, 125, 122, 129, 122, 129, 127,
129, 130, 201, 204, 296, 319, 395,
handle system 40 399, 430, 495, 500, 538, 573, 583, 603
heading feature 120 interoperability features 57, 60
HEC-National Digital Library (HEC-NDL) intrinsic evaluation 120, 172
484, 485
hierarchical summarization 120 J
Higher Education Commission (HEC)
JADE 407, 411
484, 485, 486
hue 144, 147, 148 K
human computer interaction 306
Keystone 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59,
hybrid libraries 512
60, 57, 186, 598, 622
hypermedia 140, 259, 342, 530, 531, 574,
knowledge base 233
585, 604, 613
knowledge construction 548
I knowledge management 71, 119, 139, 140,
170, 213, 312, 349, 447, 466, 467,
image compression 447
468, 475, 578, 582, 586, 587, 602,
image database navigation 148, 358
606, 614, 617
image similarity metric 148, 447
knowledge organization system (KOS) 430
incremental tailoring 555, 561
korean machine readable cataloguing (KOR-
incunabulum 373, 381
MARC) 564, 573
646
Index
647
Index
648
Index
649