Advanced Electromagnetic Theory

Advanced Electromagnetic Theory

Lecture 2: Wave Equation and its Solutions

Dimitri Peroulis
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Birck Nanotechnology Center, Tel: 765 494 3491, dperouli@purdue.edu
1
Constructing Solutions
in Source-Free Media

2
 Reminder of Wave Equation
Wave equation for Electric field (from Maxwell’s eqns):
~ =∇×M
∇2 E ~ i + jωμJ~i + 1 ∇qve + jωμσ E
~ − ω 2 μ²E
~
ε

exp(jωt)
Magnetic Electric Electric
Assumed time
current source current source charge
dependence
Source-free wave equation for Electric field:
2~ ~ 2 ~
∇ E = jωμσ E − ω μ²E
Propagation constant: Attenuation constant
~ − ω 2 μεE
γ 2 = jωμσ E ~ = jωμ(σ + jωε) = α + jβ
Phase constant
3
 A. Lossless media
Source-free and lossless wave equation for Electric field:
2~ ~ =0
2
∇ E + ω μ²E Helmholtz equation

β 2 = k2
General solution method: Separation of Variables

Usually: Rectangular Cylindrical Spherical

Focus of this class

4
 1. Rectangular Coordinates
~
E(x, y, z) = ~ax Ex (x, y, z) + ~ay Ey (x, y, z) + ~az Ez (x, y, z)

2~ 2~
∇ E + β E=0 and by using vector identity

~ = ∇2 (~ax Ex + ~ay Ey + ~az Ez ) =

∇2 E

= ~ax ∇2 Ex + ~ay ∇2 Ey + ~az ∇2 Ez

only true for rectangular coordinates

We get:

5
 1. Rectangular Coordinates
2 2
∇ Ex (x, y, z) + β Ex (x, y, z) = 0
∇2 Ey (x, y, z) + β 2 Ey (x, y, z) = 0
∇2 Ez (x, y, z) + β 2 Ez (x, y, z) = 0
Three scalar Helmholtz equations
Explicitly:
∂Ex ∂Ex ∂Ex
+ + + β 2 Ex = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
Assuming: Ex (x, y, z) = f (x)g(y)h(z)
Key step: Separation of Variables
6
 1. Rectangular Coordinates
1 d2 f 1 d2 g 1 d2 h 2
2
+ 2
+ 2
+β =0
f dx g dy h dz
Only a function of x Therefore:
2
1d f 2
2
= −β x
f dx 1 d2 g 2
2
= −βy 2
Only a function g dy 1 d h 2
of x
Only a function 2
= −β z
h dz
of y
2 Only a function
and: βx + βy2 + βz2 =β 2
of z
7
 1. Rectangular Coordinates
Solution (for x, similarly for others):

f (x) = C1 cos(βx x) + C2 sin(βx x)

BC BC
Standing waves
or

f (x) = C1 exp(−jβx x) + C2 exp(jβx x)

BC BC exp(jωt)
Wave propagating along positive x axis Assumed time
dependence
Wave propagating along negative x axis Opposite for
exp(−jωt)
8
 B. Lossy Media
Source-free and lossy wave equation for Electric field:

~ − γ2E
∇2 E ~ =0 with

Propagation constant: Attenuation constant

~ − ω 2 μεE
γ 2 = jωμσ E ~ = jωμ(σ + jωε) = α + jβ
Phase constant
Choose the sign of the
p
γ= jωμ(σ + jωε) square root that yields zero
wave amplitude at infinity

Separation of Variables: γx2 + γy2 + γz2 = γ 2

9
 B. Lossy Media
Solution (for x, similarly for others):

f (x) = C1 cosh(γx x) + C2 sinh(γx x)

BC BC
Standing waves
or

f (x) = C1 exp(−γx x) + C2 exp(γx x)

BC BC exp(jωt)
Wave propagating along positive x axis Assumed time
dependence
Wave propagating along negative x axis Opposite for
exp(−jωt)
10
Cylindrical Coordinates: Lossless media
Helmholtz equation:
2~ 2~
∇ E + β E=0

In cylindrical coordinates becomes: coupled

µ ¶
2 Eρ 2 ∂Eφ
∇ Eρ + − 2 − 2 + β 2 Eρ = 0
ρ ρ ∂φ
µ ¶
2 Eφ 2 ∂Eρ
∇ Eφ + − 2 + 2 + β 2 Eφ = 0
ρ ρ ∂φ
∇2 Ez + β 2 Ez = 0 Start from here
11
 2. Cylindrical Coordinates
∂ 2 Ez 1 ∂Ez 1 ∂ 2 Ez ∂ 2 Ez 2
2
+ + 2 2
+ 2
+ β Ez = 0
∂ρ ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂φ ∂z

Assuming: Ez (ρ, φ, z) = f (ρ)g(φ)h(z)

Key step: Separation of Variables

1 d2 f 1 1 df 1 1 d2 g 1 d2 h 2
2
+ + 2 2
+ 2
+β =0
f dρ f ρ dρ g ρ dφ h dz
Only a function of z
12
 2. Cylindrical Coordinates
Thus:
2 2
1d h 2 d h 2
= −β z or = −β z h
h dz 2 dz 2
Putting this back into previous equation:

ρ2 d2 f ρ df 1 d2 g ¡ 2 2
¢ 2
+ + + β − β z ρ = 0
f dρ2 f dρ g dφ2
Only a function of ϕ βρ2
1 d2 g 2
2
= −m
g dφ
13
 2. Cylindrical Coordinates
Thus the last equation becomes:

2d f2
df £¡ 2 2 ¢ 2
¤
ρ + ρ + β ρ ρ − m f = 0
dρ2 dρ
Bessel differential equation
With the additional equations being:

d2 h 2
= −β z h βz2 + βρ2 = β 2
dz 2
Constraint equation
d2 g 2
= −m g
dφ2
14
 2. Cylindrical Coordinates
For h:
h(z) = C1 cos(βz z) + C2 sin(βz z)

Standing waves
or

h(z) = C1 exp(−jβz z) + C2 exp(jβz z)

Wave propagating along positive z axis

Wave propagating along negative z axis

15
 2. Cylindrical Coordinates
For g:
g(φ) = C1 cos(mφ) + C2 sin(mφ)

periodic waves
or

g(φ) = C1 exp(−jmφ) + C2 exp(jmφ)

Wave propagating along positive ϕ axis

Wave propagating along negative ϕ axis

16
 2. Cylindrical Coordinates
For f:
f (ρ) = C1 Jm (βρ ρ) + C2 Ym (βρ ρ)

standing waves (Bessel functions 1st and 2nd kind)

or
(2) (1)
f (ρ) = C1 Hm (βρ ρ) + C2 Hm (βρ ρ)

Wave propagating along positive ρ axis

Wave propagating along negative ρ axis

17
 2. Cylindrical Coordinates
Reminder:
(1)
Hm (βρ ρ) = Jm (βρ ρ) + jYm (βρ ρ)
(2)
Hm (βρ ρ) = Jm (βρ ρ) − jYm (βρ ρ)

For lossy media the solutions are modified accordingly:

(1) (1)
Hm (γρ) = Hm (αρ
+ jβρ)
Jm (γρ) = Jm (αρ + jβρ)
etc. etc.

18
 Constructing Solutions
When Sources are Known

19
 Constructing Solutions
1. Elementary approach: Vector Potentials
~
a. A and F ~ Hertz Potentials

~e = − j A
b. Π ~ and Π
~ h = − j F~
ωμε ωμε
2. Green’s functions
Direct integration
sources Green’s functions
Fields

Integration Potentials Differentiation

20
 Vector Potentials
Reminder: 0
~ =∇×M
∇2 E ~ − ω 2 μ²E
~ + jωμJ~ + 1 ∇qve + jωμσ E ~
ε

which for lossless media becomes:

~ + β2E
∇2 E ~ =∇×M
~ + jωμJ~ + 1 ∇qve
ε

and similarly for the magnetic field:

~ + β2H
∇2 H ~ = −∇ × J~ + jωεM
~ + 1 ∇qvm
μ

21
 Vector Potentials
We will solve these by superposition:

1. First, assume that no magnetic sources exist

and find the solution. We will call these fields:

~A
E and ~A
H

2. Second, assume that no electric sources exist

and find the solution. We will call these fields:

~F
E ~F
and H

22
Vector Potentials: No magnetic sources
1. No magnetic sources exist:

~A = 0
∇·B thus ~A = ∇ × A
B ~

Reminder: Both the curl and divergence need to be

defined for a unique definition of the magnetic vector
potential. This will be done shortly.

So for a simple (linear, isotropic and homogeneous)

medium we get:

~ 1~ 1 ~
HA = BA = ∇ × A
μ μ
23
Vector Potentials: No magnetic sources
So going into Faraday’s law:

~ A = −jωμH
∇×E ~A

~ 1 ~
HA = ∇ × A
We get: μ
h i
~ A + jω A
∇× E ~ =0

Can be written as: E ~ = −∇φe

~ A + jω A

~ A = −∇φe − jω A
E ~
24
Vector Potentials: No magnetic sources
In order to find the two potentials we need the other
equation (Ampere-Maxwell)
~ A = J~ + jωεE
∇×H ~A

Plug in the magnetic field

· ¸
1 ~ = J~ + jωεE
~A
∇× ∇×A
μ
Which for simple media becomes:

~ = μJ~ + jωμεE
∇×∇×A ~A
~ = ∇(∇ · A)
∇×∇×A ~ − ∇2 A
~
25
Vector Potentials: No magnetic sources
This reduces to: 0
h i
~ + β2A
∇2 A ~ = −μJ~ + ∇ ∇ · A
~ + jωμεφe

We can define the divergence freely (Lorentz gauge)

Thus the equation that needs to be solved is:

~ + β2A
∇2 A ~ = −μJ~

Furthermore:

~ ~ ~ 1 ~
EA = −∇φe − jω A = −jω A − j ∇(∇ · A)
ωμε
26
 Vector Potentials: No magnetic sources
In order to solve this consider
an infinitesimal point source
in V around the origin

J~ = Jz~az

Due to symmetry:

~ = Az (r)~az
A and ∂/∂θ = 0, ∂/∂φ = 0

For any point except for the origin (source):

∇2 Az (r) + β 2 Az (r) = 0
27
Vector Potentials: No magnetic sources
which by taking into account the symmetry arguments
reduces to

d2 Az (r) 2 dAz (r) 2

2
+ + β Az (r) = 0
dr r dr
This equation has two independent solutions:

Az1 (r) = C1 exp(−jβr)/r Outward wave ;

Az2 (r) = C2 exp(jβr)/r Inward wave :

We will learn how to find them only

when we do Green’s functions
28
Vector Potentials: No magnetic sources
When β = 0 (statics) the equation and solutions become:
C1 /r
∇2 Az = −μJz , Az (r) = C1 /r Instead of
C1 exp(−jβr)/r
Reminder: Z
1 q
2
∇ φ = −q/ε φ= dv 0
ε V 4πr
Z
2
Jz 0
∇ Az = −μJz A z = μ dv
V 4πr
Z
exp(−jβr) 0
Thus by analogy: Az = μ Jz dv
V 4πr
29
Vector Potentials: No magnetic sources
If we do the same along the x and y directions:
Z
exp(−jβr) 0
Ax = μ Jx dv
V 4πr
Z
exp(−jβr) 0
Ay = μ Jy dv
V 4πr

Thus for an arbitrary point source at the origin:

Z
~=μ ~ exp(−jβr) 0
A J dv
V 4πr

30
Vector Potentials: No magnetic sources
Intuitively if the source
is not at the origin:
Z 0
~=μ ~ 0 exp(−jβ|r − r |) 0
A J(r ) 0
dv
V 4π|r − r |

Later identify as
free-space Green’s
function in 3D
The truth is that although this solution is correct, it is
full of hand-weaving arguments. When we learn Green’s
functions we will find out how to properly solve it.

31
Vector Potentials: No magnetic sources
To recap, for cases with no magnetic sources

Z 0
~ ~ 0 exp(−jβ|r − r |) 0
A = μ J(r ) 0
dv
V 4π|r − r |
~A 1 ~
H = ∇×A
μ
~A ~ 1 ~ ~ 1 ~A
E = −jω A − j ∇(∇ · A) or EA = ∇×H
ωμε jωε

32
 Vector Potentials: No electric sources
2. No magnetic sources exist:

~F = 0
∇·D thus ~ F = −∇ × F~
D

Reminder: Both the curl and divergence need to be

defined for a unique definition of the magnetic vector
potential. This will be done shortly.

So for a simple (linear, isotropic and homogeneous)

medium we get:

~ 1 ~
EF = − ∇ × F
ε
33
 Vector Potentials: No electric sources
So going into Ampere-Maxwell’s law:

~ F = jωεE
∇×H ~F
1 ~
~F = − ∇ × F
E
ε
We get:
h i
∇× H~ F + jω F~ = 0

~ F + jω F~ = −∇φm
Can be written as: H

~ F = −∇φm − jω F~
H
34
 Vector Potentials: No electric sources
In order to find the two potentials we need the other
equation (Faraday)
~ F = −M
∇×E ~ − jωμH
~F

Plug in the electric field

· ¸
1
∇ × − ∇ × F~ = −M
~ − jωμH
~F
ε
Which for simple media becomes:

∇ × ∇ × F~ = εM
~ + jωμεH
~F

∇ × ∇ × F~ = ∇(∇ · F~ ) − ∇2 F~
35
 Vector Potentials: No electric sources
This reduces to: 0
h i
∇2 F~ + β 2 F~ = −εM
~ + ∇ ∇ · F~ + jωμεφm

We can define the divergence freely (Lorentz gauge)

Thus the equation that needs to be solved is:

∇2 F~ + β 2 F~ = −εM
~

Furthermore:

~ ~ ~ 1
HF = −∇φm − jω F = −jω F − j ∇(∇ · F~ )
ωμε
36
 Vector Potentials: No electric sources
As we did for the magnetic vector potential:
Z 0
exp(−jβ|r − r |) 0
F~ = ε ~ 0
M (r ) 0
dv
V 4π|r − r |
~F 1 ~
E = − ∇×F
ε
~F ~ 1 ~ ~ 1 ~F
H = −jω F − j ∇(∇ · F ) or HF = − ∇×E
ωμε jωμ

And therefore the total fields are:

~
E = E ~F
~A + E
~
H = H ~F
~A + H
37
With Green’s Functions – not rigorously
In general a Green’s function characterizes the response
of a system due to a point source

Point source Green’s function

Actual source Superposition of point sources

The Green’s function can be scalar, vector or dyadic

38
With Green’s Functions – not rigorously
A dyad is a juxtaposition of two vectors

If ~
A = Ax~ax + Ay~ay + Az~az and
~
B = Bx~ax + By~ay + Bz~az

Then
⎡ ⎤
Ax B x A x By A x Bz
~B
D=A ~ = ⎣ Ay Bx A y By Ay Bz ⎦
Az Bx Az B y Az B z

which can be thought as a matrix as well

39
With Green’s Functions – not rigorously
For example look at the following vector identity:

~ × (A
B ~ × C)
~ =A
~B~ ·C
~ −B
~ ·A
~C~

number number

Or:

~ × (A
B ~ × C)
~ =A
~B~ ·C
~ −B
~ ·A
~C~

dyad dyad

40
With Green’s Functions – not rigorously
Similarly:
~ =∇∇·E
∇×∇×E ~
~ − ∇2 E

divergence

gradient of divergence
Or:

~ =∇∇·E
∇×∇×E ~
~ − ∇2 E

dyadic operator
41
With Green’s Functions – not rigorously
Looking at our Maxwell’s equation again
(no magnetic sources):

~
∇×E = −jωμH~
~
∇×H = ~ + J~
jωεE

Which yields the following wave equation

~ − β2E
∇×∇×E ~ = −jωμJ~

42
With Green’s Functions – not rigorously
The solution can be thought as
Source point
R
~ r) = −jωμ
E(~ ~ r 0 ) dv 0
G(~r, ~r 0 ) · J(~
V

Observation point Dyadic Green’s function

Plug this in to the wave equation:

· Z ¸
∇ × ∇ × −jωμ ~ 0 0 0
G(~r, ~r ) · J(~r ) dv −
V
· Z ¸
β 2 −jωμ ~ r 0 ) dv 0 = −jωμJ~
G(~r, ~r 0 ) · J(~
V
43
With Green’s Functions – not rigorously
The current on the right-hand side can be written as

Z
~ r) =
J(~ ~ r 0 ) δ(~r − ~r 0 ) dv 0
I · J(~
V ⎡ ⎤
1 0 0
Unit dyad: I = ⎣ 0 1 0 ⎦
0 0 1

Plugging this in to the previous equation we get:

44
With Green’s Functions – not rigorously
· Z ¸
∇ × ∇ × −jωμ ~
0 0
G(~r, ~r ) · J(~r ) dv − 0
V
· Z ¸
β 2 −jωμ G(~r, ~r 0 ) · J~(~r 0 ) dv 0
V
·Z ¸
= −jωμ ~ 0
I · J(~r ) δ(~r − ~r ) dv0 0
V

If we interchange differentiation with integration,

which is valid only outside of the source region,
region we get:

45
With Green’s Functions – not rigorously

∇ × ∇ × G(~r, ~r 0 ) − β 2 G(~r, ~r 0 ) = I δ(~r − ~r 0 )

Reminder: observation point is away from the source

We write the dyadic Green’s function in terms of a scalar

one:
· ¸
0 1 0
G(~r, ~r ) = I + 2 ∇∇ g(~r, ~r )
β
and plug it in the above equation:

46
With Green’s Functions – not rigorously
· ¸
1
∇ × ∇ × I + 2 ∇∇ g(~r, ~r 0 )
β
· ¸
2 1 0 0
−β I + 2 ∇∇ g(~r, ~r ) = I δ(~r − ~r )
β
Taking into account that:
h i
2
∇ × ∇ × Ig = ∇∇g − I ∇ g
∇ × ∇ × ∇∇ = 0

Curl of a gradient is zero

47
With Green’s Functions – not rigorously
We obtain:

¡ 2 2
¢ 0 0
∇ + β g(~r, ~r ) = −δ(~r − ~r )
Scalar 3D Green’s function equation

To solve this we follow an approach very similar to

what we have already seen for the magnetic potential:

First set: ~r 0 = 0
and observe that g(~r) is spherically symmetric
48
With Green’s Functions – not rigorously
In the spherical coordinate system we get:

1 d2 2
2
[rg(~r)] + β g(~r) = −δ(~r)
r dr

and for every point except for the origin we get:

d2 2
[rg(~
r )] + rβ g(~
r ) = 0
dr 2

49
With Green’s Functions – not rigorously
There are two exponential solutions to this equation
but we only accept the one representing the outgoing
wave:
exp(−jβr)
g(r) = C
r
The constant is found by integrating the differential
equation on an infinitesimally small sphere around the
origin:
Z Z Z
2 2
∇ g(~r) dv + β g(~r) dv = − δ(~r) dv
V V V

with V →0
50
With Green’s Functions – not rigorously
The first integral becomes with Divergence Theorem:
Z Z
2
∇ g(~r) dv = ~
∇g(~r) · dS
V S
· ¸
2 dg(r)
= 4πa
dr r=a
= −4πC as a → 0
radius of the sphere

51
With Green’s Functions – not rigorously
The second integral becomes:
Z Z a
g(~r) dv = 4πr 2 g(r) dr = 0 as a→0
V 0

The third integral becomes:

Z
δ(~r) dv = 1
V

52
With Green’s Functions – not rigorously
Putting all together we find:

1 exp(−jβr)
C= and g(r) =
4π 4πr

Since r is the distance between the source and the

observation points, if the source is not at the origin
we get:
0
0 exp(−jβ|r − r |) Reminder: observation
g(r, r ) = point is away from
4π|r − r 0 | the source region

53
With Green’s Functions – not rigorously
So now we can find the electric field:
to emphasize that
integration is over
Z primed coordinates
~ r)
E(~ = −jωμ ~ r 0 ) dv 0
G(~r, ~r 0 ) · J(~
·V ¸Z
1 ~ r 0 ) dv 0
= −jωμ I + 2 ∇∇ g(~r, ~r 0 )J(~
β V
· ¸ Z (−jβ|r−r 0 |)
1 e ~ r 0 ) dv 0
= −jωμ I + 2 ∇∇ 0|
J(~
β V 4π|r − r

Del operators operate on unprimed coordinates

54
 Example: Cerenkov Radiation
Electromagnetic radiation emitted when a charged particle
(such as an electron) passes through an insulator at a speed
greater than the speed of light in that medium.

Nobel prize1958

Advanced Test Reactor in

Reed Research Reactor in
Idaho National Laboratory (250 MW)
Reed College, Portland, OR
• Cobalt-60 (medical)
(250 kW)
• Plutonium-238 (space probes)
From wikipedia 55
 Example: Cerenkov Radiation
Main Characteristics: Photonic shock wave!

9 Velocity of electrons
must be very large
9 Angles of radiation
depend on the electron
velocity
9 Electric field
polarization of emitted
light is parallel to the
plane determined by the While the electrons reach
direction of the beam relativistic speeds (~0.75 c),
and direction of the we can explain it with what we
radiation know so far!
56
 Example: Cerenkov Radiation
While the velocity decreases as a result of radiation,
we will assume it constant.

Assume particle with charge q moving with

velocity v along the z direction in an isotropic
medium. This is equivalent to a current density:

~ r, t) = ~az qv δ(x)δ(y)δ(z − vt)

J(~

Because of cylindrical symmetry it is convenient to

transform this to cylindrical coordinates

57
 Example: Cerenkov Radiation
Due to ϕ symmetry, we would like to write it as:

~ r, t) = ~az C qv δ(ρ)δ(z − vt)

J(~

The constant is determined by the requirement to have

the same total current as with the previous expression:

~ r, t) = ~az qv δ(x)δ(y)δ(z − vt)

J(~

58
 Example: Cerenkov Radiation
Thus:
Z +∞ Z +∞
1= δ(x)δ(y)dxdy =
−∞ −∞
Z 2π Z ∞ Z ∞
= δ(x)δ(y)ρdρdφ = δ(x)δ(y)2πρdρ
0 0 0
and since:
Z ∞
1= δ(ρ)dρ
0

59
 Example: Cerenkov Radiation
we get:

δ(ρ)
δ(x)δ(y) =
2πρ

So the current in cylindrical coordinates becomes:

~ 1
J(~r, t) = ~az qv δ(ρ)δ(z − vt)
2πρ

60
 Example: Cerenkov Radiation
This source is not time harmonic. So we need to use
the Fourier transform:
Z ∞
~ 1 q (−jωz/v)
J(~r, ω) = J~(~r, t)e−jωt dt = ~az 2
e δ(ρ)
2π −∞ 4π ρ

Thus the electric field wave equation becomes:

∇ × ∇ × E(~ ~ r)
~ r) − β 2 E(~ = −jωμJ~(~r)
−jωμq (−jωz/v)
= ~az 2
e δ(ρ)
4π ρ

61
 Example: Cerenkov Radiation
The most convenient way to solve this is to write the
electric field as a function of a vector Green’s function:
· ¸
~ r) 1
E(~ = I + 2 ∇∇ · ~g (ρ, z)
β
1
= ~g (ρ, z) + 2 ∇ [∇ · ~g (ρ, z)]
β

Plugging this into the electric field vector equation

we get:

62
 Example: Cerenkov Radiation
£ 2 2
¤ jωμq (−jωz/v)
∇ +β ~g (ρ, z) = ~az 2 e δ(ρ)
4π ρ

Because of the azimuthal symmetry of the problem, we

can write the Green’s function as:

−jωμq (−jωz/v)
~g (ρ, z) = ~az g(ρ) e
2π
Then the previous equation becomes:

63
 Example: Cerenkov Radiation
· µ ¶ 2
¸
1 d d ω 2 δ(ρ)
ρ − 2 + β g(ρ) = −
ρ dρ dρ v 2πρ

Away from the origin this equation becomes:

· µ ¶ ¸
1 d d 2
ρ + βρ g(ρ) = 0
ρ dρ dρ
r
ω 2
where: βρ = β 2 − 2
v
64
 Example: Cerenkov Radiation
This is Bessel equation of zeroth order. The outgoing
wave solution is:
(2)
g(ρ) = CH0 (βρ ρ)
The constant is determined by the asymptotic expansion
of the Hankel function and an integration over a very
small area (hw).

In the far zone one can use Hankel’s large argument

expansion to get the radiated field (hw):

65
 Example: Cerenkov Radiation
s
~ q 2βρ h ω i
ρ) '
E(~ ~aρ − ~az βρ e−j(βρ ρ+ωz/v)
8πωε −jπρ v

Propagating plane wave provided that βρ is real

All that Cerenkov observed is now explained:

µ ¶1/2
2 2
1 c
• βρ is real if β >ω /v 2 or v> =
με n

• rest in hw
66