(4) venture from scratch FABRICATION AIR COMPRESSED

VECHILE
ABSTRACT
The latest trend in the automotive industry is to develop light weight vehicles. Every
automotive industry is looking to reduce the weight of the vehicle as it helps in the better
handling of the vehicle and increases the efficiency of thevehicle.

Today, the heavy vehicles are known for producing a large amount of harmful gases like
CO2, SO etc. which act as the major source for global warming. So research is going on
to find a light weight vehicle which does not pollute the environment.

One of the alternatives is the use of compressed air to generate power to run an
automobile. Due to the unique and environmental friendly properties of air, it is
considered as one of the future fuels which will run the vehicles.

We have designed a single seated automobile which is lower in cost compared to the
battery and economic vehicles. The Engine used is 4-stroke petrol engine which
Isdesigned to 2-stroke oil cooled engine. The length of this car will be more and height
will be less.

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Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................9
INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................10
1.1HISTORY.................................................................................................................10
CHAPTER 2 AIR COMPRESSED VEHICLE...........................................................12
2.1AIR COMPRESSED VEHICLE..............................................................................13
2.2Applications..............................................................................................................13
CHAPTER 3......................................................................................................................15
3.1Description OF AIR COMPRESSED VEHICLE.....................................................16
3.1.1 ENGINE.............................................................................................................16
3.1.2 AIR COMPRESSED ENGINE.........................................................................17
3.1.3 ELECTRICMOTOR.........................................................................................17
3.1.4 Steering.............................................................................................................18
3.1.5 Crank shaft........................................................................................................19
3.1.9 Connecting rod..................................................................................................22
3.2.1 Valves................................................................................................................22
3.2.2 BRAKE.............................................................................................................23
3.2.3 AIR TANK........................................................................................................23
3.2.4 Wheels..............................................................................................................24
CHAPTER 4......................................................................................................................25
AIR COMPRESSOR.........................................................................................................25
4.1AIR COMPRESSOR................................................................................................25
Reciprocating compressors:.......................................................................................27
THE USE OF RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR.................................................27
4.2 THE COMPONENTS..............................................................................................27
4.2.1 ENGINE...............................................................................................................27
4.2.2PIPE SYSTEM..................................................................................................28
4.2.3PRESSURE GAUGE SYSTEM........................................................................28
4.2.4 Advantages of Air Compressed Vehicle............................................................29
CHAPTER 5 FABRICATION OF CHASSIS............................................................30
5.1 CHASSIS.................................................................................................................31

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 5.2 Components of chassis............................................................................................31
5.3 Function of chassis..................................................................................................32
5.4 Different types of loading chassis............................................................................32
5.5 Frames......................................................................................................................32
CHAPTER 6......................................................................................................................34
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM.............................................................................................34
6.1TRANSMISSION SYSTEM....................................................................................35
6.3 Clutch.......................................................................................................................37
6.3.1 DiSfferent types of friction clutches.................................................................37
6.3.3Dry Clutch.........................................................................................................38
6.3.4Clutch Plate........................................................................................................38
CHAPTER 7 SUSPENSION SYSTEM..............40
7.1SUSPENSION SYSTEM.........................................................................................41
2) Rear suspension swing arm with hydraulic shock absorber...............................41
7.2 Front Suspension Telescopic hydraulic shock absorbers.........................................41
7.3 Rear suspension swing arm with hydraulic shock absorber....................................42
CHAPTER 8......................................................................................................................44
WELDING AND JOINTS.................................................................................................44
8.1welding.....................................................................................................................45
8.2ARC WELDING.......................................................................................................46
8.3Bolted joints..............................................................................................................47
CHAPTER 9......................................................................................................................49
MATERIAL.......................................................................................................................49
9.1 Mild and low-carbon steel:..................................................................................50
9.1.1 Properties of Mild Steel........................................................................................50
10.1 FUTURE SCOPE..................................................................................................53
Bibliography :....................................................................................................................55

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

A compressed-air vehicle is powered by an air engine, using compressed air, which is

stored in a tank. Instead of mixing fuel with air and burning it in the engine to drive

4
pistons with hot expanding gases, compressed-air vehicles use the expansion of
compressed air to drive their pistons.

1.1HISTORY
The first air powered vehicles were actually trains. The Mekarski air engine, the Robert
Hardie air engine and the Hoadley-Knight pneumatic system were used in the 1800's to
power locomotives.
The Mekarski air engine was used for street transit. It was a single-stage engine (air
expanded in one piston then exhausted) and represented an advance in air engine
technology that made air cars feasible: the air was reheated after leaving the tank and
before entering the engine. The reheater was a hot water tank through which the
compressed air bubbled in direct contact with the water, picking up hot water vapor
which improved the enginerange-between-fill-ups.
The first compressed air vehicle was established in France by a Polish engineer Louis
Mekarski in 1870. It was patented in 1872 and 1873 and was tested in Paris in 1876. The
working principle of Mekarskis engine was the use of energy stored in compressed air to

increase gas enthalpy of hot water when it is passed through hot water.

Another application of thecompressed air to drive vehicles comes from Uruguay in 1984,
where Armando Regusci has been involved in constructing these machines. He
constructed a four-wheeler with pneumatic engine which travelled100 km on a single
tank in 1992. The Air Car was developed by Luxembourg-based MDI Group founder and
former Formula One engineer Guy Negre is which works on compressed air engine . He
developed compressed air- 4- cylinders engine run on air and gasoline in 1998 which he
claims to be zero pollution cars. It uses compressed air to push its pistons when running
at speeds under 35 mph and at higher speeds of 96 mph, the compressed air was heated
by a fuel (bio fuel, gasoline, or diesel),due to which the air expanded before entering the
engine. A fuel efficiency of about 100 mpg was observed.

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Light weight vehicles are the next advancement in the development of automobiles.
Reducing the weight of the vehicle has many advantages as it increases the overall
efficiency of the vehicle, helps in improving maneuverability, requires less energy to stop
and run the vehicle. The latest researches are going on around the world in order to come
up with innovative ideas. But global warming is also one of the problems which is
affecting the man.
The temperature of the earth is increasing drastically and this in turn iscausing climatic
changes. The fossil fuels are widely used as a source of energy in various different fields
like power plants, internal & external combustion.etc. But its stock is very limited and
due to this tremendous use, fossil fuels are diminishing at faster rate. So, in this world of
energy crisis, it is necessary to develop alternative technologies to use renewable energy
sources, so that fossil fuels can be conserved. One of the major source of the pollution is
the smoke coming out from the automobiles. So an alternative way of producing the
running the vehicle must be made so that we can prevent further damage to the earth. The
alternative sources of energy available are solar, electric, atmospheric air etc. Air acts like
ablanket for the earth. It is the mixture of gasses, which makes it neutral and non-
polluting. It has the property to get compressed to a very high pressureand retain it for a
long period of time. It is cheap and can be found abundantly in the atmosphere. So it can
be used as an alternative fuel for the automobiles. Much research is going on in this field
and scientists are trying to improve the effectiveness of this technology. It is
experimentally found that the efficiency of the vehicle ranges from 72-95%. So this can
be considered as one of the preferable choices to run the vehicle.

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 CHAPTER 2
AIR COMPRESSED VEHICLE

2.1AIRCOMPRESSED VEHICLE
At first glance the idea of running an engine on air seems to be too good to be true.
Actually, if we can make use of air as an aid for running an engine it is a fantastic idea.
As we all know, air is all around us, it never runs out, it is non-polluting and it is free.
An Air Driven Engine makes use of Compressed Air Technology for its operation.
Compressed Air Technology is now widely preferred for research by different industries

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for developing different drives for different purposes. The Compressed Air Technology is
quite simple. If we compress normal air into a cylinder the air would hold some energy
within it. This energy can be utilized for useful purposes. When this compressed air
expands, the energy is released to do work.
So this energy in compressed air can also be utilized to displace a piston. This is the
basic working principle of the Air Driven Engine. It uses the expansion of compressed air
to drive the pistons of the engine. So an Air Driven Engine is basically a pneumatic
actuator that creates useful work by expanding compressed air. This work provided by the
air is utilized to supply power to the crankshaft of the engine.
In the case of an Air Driven Engine, there is no combustion taking place within the
engine. So it is non-polluting and less dangerous. It requires lighter metal only since it
does not have to withstand elevated temperatures.
As there is no combustion taking place, there is no need for mixing fuel and air. Here
compressed air is the fuel and it is directly fed into the piston cylinder arrangement. It
simply expands inside the cylinder and does useful work on the piston. This work done
on the piston provides sufficient power to the crankshaft.

2.2Applications
The compressed air engine can be used in many vehicles. Some of its applications to be
used as engine for vehicles are:
1. Mopeds:
JemStansfield, an English inventor has been able to convert a regular scooter to a
compressed air moped. This has been done by equipping the scooter with a compressed
air engine and air tank.
2. Buses:
MDI makes MultiCATs vehicle that can be used as buses or trucks. RATP has also
already expressed an interest in the compressed-air pollution-free bus.
3. Locomotives:
Compressed air locomotives have been historically used as mining locomotives and in
various areas.

4. Trams:
Various compressed-air-powered trams were trialed, starting in 1876 and has been
successfully implemented in some cases.
5. Watercraft and aircraft:
Currently, no water or air vehicles exist that make use of the air engine. Historically
compressed air engines propelled certain torpedoes.

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9
 CHAPTER 3

DESCRIPTION OFAIR COMPRESSED VEHICLE

3.1Description OF AIR COMPRESSED VEHICLE

An air compressed vehicle is an automobile that is designed for low cost purchase. This
vehicle is designed to reduce the pollution and petrol usage. This vehicle is lightweight,
small and inexpensive to buy.

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3.1.1 ENGINE
An engine, or motor, is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into
mechanical energy.
Typical compressed air engines use one or more expander pistons or rotary expanders. It
is necessary to heat the air or the engine during expansion.
Based on the layout, there are two types of Engines
1) Internal Combustion Engine
2) External Combustion Engines
Based on the source of energy, internal combustion engines are classified as:
1) Petrol Engines
2) Diesel Engines
Petrol Engine is again categorized into:
1) 2 stroke engine
2) 4 stroke engine

3.1.2 AIR COMPRESSED ENGINE

A pneumatic motor or compressed air engine is a type of motor which does mechanical
work by expanding compressed air. Pneumatic motors generally convert the compressed
air energy to mechanical work through either linear or rotary motion. Linear motion can
come from either a diaphragm or piston actuator, while rotary motion is supplied by
either a vane type air motor or piston air motor.

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The compressor used in this vehicle is ashok Leyland lorry compressor.

3.1.3 ELECTRICMOTOR
An electric motor is an electricalmachine that converts electricalenergyintomechanical
energy. The reverse of this would be the conversion of mechanicalenergy into
electricalenergy and is done by angenerator. In normal motoring mode, most electric
motors operate through the interaction between an electric motor's magneticfield and
winding currents to generate force within the motor. In certain applications, such as in the
transportation industry with traction motors, electric motors can operate in both motoring
and generating or braking modes to also produce electrical energy from mechanical
energy.
Found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine tools,
household appliances, power tools, and disk drives, electric motors can be powered by
directcurrent(DC) sources, such as from batteries, motor vehicles or rectifiers, or by
alternating current (AC)sources, such as from the power grid, inverters or generators.
Small motors may be found in electric watches. General-purpose motors with highly
standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for
industrial use. The largest of electric motors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline
compression and pumped-storage applications with ratings reaching 100 megawatts.
Electric motors may be classified by electric power source type, internal construction,
application, type of motion output, and so on.

Electric motors are used to produce linear or rotary force (torque), and should be
distinguished from devices such as magnetic solenoids and loudspeakers that convert
electricity into motion but do not generate usable mechanical powers, which are
respectively referred to as actuators and transducers.
The motor used in this vehicle is2hp motor

Name 2 HP General Purpose Electric Motor

Amperage (amps) 17.2/8.9-8.7
Horsepower (hp) 2

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Maximum speed (rpm) 1800 RPM
Weight 41.12 lb.

3.1.4 Steering

Steering is the collection of components, linkages, etc. which allow a vessel (ship, boat)
or vehicle (car, motorcycle, bicycle) to follow the desired course. An exception is the case
of rail transport by which rail tracks combined together with railroad switchesprovide the
steering function.
Steering mechanism used in this vehicle is Akermann steering mechanism.
The intention of Ackermann geometry is to avoid the need for tyres to slip sideways
when following the path around a curve. The geometrical solution to this is for all wheels
to have their axles arranged as radii of a circle with a common centre point. As the rear
wheels are fixed, this Centre point must be on a line extended from the rear axle.
Intersecting the axes of the front wheels on this line as well requires that the inside front
wheel is turned, when steering, through a greater angle than the outside wheel.

3.1.5 Crank shaft

The crankshaft, sometimes casually abbreviated to crank, is the part of an enginewhich

translates reciprocating motion into rotary motion or vice versa. Crank shaft consists of
the shaft parts which revolve in the main bearing, the crank pins to which the big ends of
the connecting rod are connected, the crank webs or cheeks which connect the crank pins
and the shaft parts.

13
Crank shafts can be divided into two types:
1) Crank shaft with a side crank or overhung crank.
2) Crank shaft with a centre crank.
A crank shaft can be made with two side cranks on each end or with two or more centre
cranks. A crank shaft with only one side crank is called a single throw crank shaft and the
one with two side cranks or two centre cranks as a multi throw crank shaft.

3.1.6 Camshaft

A camshaft is a shaft to which a cam is fastened or of which a cam forms an integral

part.The relationship between the rotation of the camshaft and the rotation of
the crankshaft is of critical importance. Since the valves control the flow of the air/fuel
mixture intake and exhaust gases, they must be opened and closed at the appropriate time
during the stroke of the piston. For this reason, the camshaft is connected to
the crankshaft either directly, via a gear mechanism, or indirectly via a belt or chain
called a timing belt or timing chain.The camshaft not only opens and closes your valves
to let air in and out, but determines when and for how long the valves remain open.

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3.1.7Piston
A piston is a component of reciprocating engines among other similar mechanisms. It is
the moving component that is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston
rings. In an engine, its purpose is to transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder to
the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod.
The piston of an air compressed air is acted upon by the pressure of the expanding
compressed air in the space at the top of the cylinder. This force then acts downwards
through the connecting rod and onto the crankshaft. The connecting rod is attached to the
piston by a swiveling gudgeon pin. This pin is mounted within the piston: unlike the
steam engine, there is no piston rod or crosshead.

3.1.8 Cylinder
A cylinder is the central working part of a reciprocating engine the space in which
a piston travels. A cylinder's displacement, or swept volume, can be calculated by
multiplying its cross-sectional area (the square of half the bore by pi ) and again by the
distance the piston travels within the cylinder (the stroke). The engine displacement can
be calculated by multiplying the swept volume of one cylinder by the number of
cylinders.

15
3.1.9 Connecting rod
Connecting rod is a part of the engine which is used to transmit the push and pull from
the piston pin to the crank pin. In many cases, its secondary function is to convey the
lubricating oil from the bottom end to the top end i.e. from the crank pin to the piston pin
and then for the splash of jet cooling of piston crown. The usual form of connecting rod
used in engines has an eye at the small end for the piston pin bearing, a long shank, and a
big end opening which is usually split to take the crankpin bearing shells.
The usual shape of connecting rod is:
(1) Rectangular
(2) Circular
(3) Tubular
(4) I section
(5) H section

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3.2.1Valves
In four stroke the "Poppet Valve" performed the opening of the cylinder to inlet or
exhaust manifold at the correct moment. Generally the face of valve is ground at 45
degree but in same cases it is ground at 30 degree also. It is not important to have a same
angle of face in inlet and exhaust valve of same engines. To make it in right order, the
valve may be reground after some use. There is some margin provided to avoid sharp
edges. The groove, retain the valve spring which aids in keeping the valve pressed against
the seat when closed and thus seal the combustion space tightly. In close position, the
valve face, fits the accurately matched ground seat in the cylinder block. Generally
replaceable ring inserts are used for exhaust valve seat.
The inlet valves are made from plain nickel, nickel chrome or chrome molybdenum.
Where as exhaust valves are made from nickel chrome, silicon chrome steel, high speed
steel, stainless steel, high nickel chrome, tungsten steel and cobalt chrome steel.
A poppet valve (also called mushroom valve is a valve typically used to control the
timing and quantity of gas flow into an engine. It consists of a hole, usually round or
oval, and a tapered plug, usually a disk shape on the end of a shaft also called a valve
stem. The shaft guides the plug portion by sliding through a valve.

3.2.2BRAKE
A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion, slowing or stopping a moving
object or preventing its motion.Most commonly brakes use friction between two surfaces
pressed together to convert the kinetic energy of the moving object into heat, though
other methods of energy conversion may be employed.The brakes used in this vehicle are
DRUM BRAKES

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3.2.3AIR TANK
An air receiver tank is an integral and important part of any compressed air system. Air
tank may refer to dividing cylinder used by scuba divers to hold air and other breathing
gases at high pressure underwater.Pneumatic pressure vessel for storing compressed air to
operate pneumatic equipment such as braking systems, paint dispensers and paintball
guns.Much like a water reservoir provides water during times of drought and stores water
during the wet times, an air receiver tank compensates for peak demand and helps
balance the supply of the compressor with the demand of the system.
The air tank used in this vehicle is ASHOK LEYLAND tipper air tank

3.2.4Wheels

18
A wheel is a circular component that is intended to rotate on an axial bearing. The wheel
is one of the main components of the wheel and axle which is one of the six simple
machines. Wheels, in conjunction with axles, allow heavy objects to be moved easily
facilitating movement or transportation while supporting a load, or performing labor in
machines..

CHAPTER 4

AIR COMPRESSOR

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4.1AIR COMPRESSOR

Air compressor is a device that converts electrical power or gas into kinetic energy by
pressurizing and compressing air, which is then released in quick bursts. There are
numerous methods of air compression, divided into either positive-displacement or non-
positive displacement types.
Positive-displacement air compressors work by forcing air into a chamber whose volume
is reduced to effect the compression. Piston-type air compressors use this principle by
pumping air into an air chamber through the use of the constant motion of pistons. They
use unidirectional valves to guide air into a chamber, where the air is compressed. Rotary
screw compressors also use positive-displacement compression by matching two helical
screws that, when turned, guide air into a chamber, the volume of which is reduced as the
screws turn. Vane compressors use a slotted rotor with varied blade placement to guide
air into a chamber and compress the volume.
Non-positive-displacement air compressors include centrifugal compressors. These
devices use centrifugal force generated by a spinning impeller to accelerate and then
decelerate captured air, which pressurizes it.The air compressors seen by the public are
used in 5 main applications:
1.To supply a high-pressure clean air to fill gas cylinders
2.To supply a moderate-pressure clean air to supply air to a submerged surface supplied
diver
3.To supply a large amount of moderate-pressure air to power pneumatic tools
4.For filling tires
5.To produce large volumes of moderate-pressure air for macroscopic industrial processes
(such as oxidation for petroleum coking or cement plant bag house purge systems).Most
air compressors are either reciprocating piston type or rotary vane or rotary screw.
Centrifugal compressors are common in very large applications. There are two main
types of air compressor's pumps: Oil lubed and oils. The oil system has more technical
development, but they are more expensive, louder and last less than the oiled lube pumps.
But the air delivered has better quality. The best choice depends of the application that
the user needs.

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COMPRESSOR WE ARE USING:

Positive- displacement reciprocating compressor.

Reciprocating compressors:
Reciprocating compressors use pistons driven by a crankshaft. They can be either
stationary or portable, can be single or multi-staged, and can be driven by electric
motors or internal combustion engines. Small reciprocating compressors from 5 to 30
horsepower (hp) are commonly seen in automotive applications and are typically for
intermittent duty. Larger reciprocating compressors well over 1,000 hp (750 kW) are
commonly found in large industrial and petroleum applications. Discharge pressures can
range from low pressure to very high pressure (>18000 psi or 180 MPa). In certain
applications, such as air compression, multi-stage double-acting compressors are said to
be the most efficient compressors available, and are typically larger, and more costly
than comparable rotary units. Another type of reciprocating compressor is the swash
plate compressor, which uses pistons moved by a swash plate mounted on a shaft.
Household, home workshop, and smaller job site compressors are typically reciprocating
compressors 1 hp or less with an attached receiver tank.

THE USE OF RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR

Rotary screw compressors are used extensively in applications above 30 hp and for air
up to 150 psig.

1) Normally used for heavy-duty, continuous service.

2) High overall efficiency.
3) Operates efficiently at partial loads.
4) Saves horsepower in no load conditions.

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4.2 THE COMPONENTS

The major components of our Air Driven Engine consist of:

1) ENGINE
2) PIPE SYSTEM
3) PRESSURE GAUGE SYSTEM

4.2.1 ENGINE

The basic engine that we have used in the project is a normal four stroke petrol engine.
The details of the engine are as follows:
Engine type: Air cooled
Displacement: 97.3cc
No. of cylinders: 1
We only needed a simple piston-cylinder arrangement with an outlet and an exhaust. But
as we know a normal two stroke engine contained several ports and it also had the spark
plug which we didnt require. So, several modifications had to be done on the engine to
suit our purpose.
The modifications comprised of:
1) Closing the transfer port
2) Removing the spark plug from the cylinder head
3) Providing an inlet at the place of the spark plug
4) Providing a suitable connector at the cylinder head

4.2.2PIPE SYSTEM
The pipe system is used to connect the components involved in the passage of the
compressed air. It is used to connect the cylinder to the solenoid valve and the solenoid
valve to the cylinder head.
Here polyurethane pipes are made of hard and flexible material so that they are able to
pass the compressed air more efficiently and are highly flexible. These pipes are able to
withstand high pressure and so are used to transport compressed air. They are perfectly
suited to be inserted to the one touch male connector.

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4.2.3PRESSURE GAUGE SYSTEM

The pressure gauges are used to measure or display the pressure at the position at which
the pressure gauge is installed. There are different ranges of the pressure gauges. 0 to 10
bar pressure gauges are used in this project. A t shaped female connector is used to install
the pressure gauge in the system and it also holds the pressure gauge at position. The
pressure gauge is connected to the inlet of the solenoid valve. This helps to measure the
pressure inlet to the solenoid valve.

23
4.2.4 Advantages of Air Compressed Vehicle
The advantages are well publicized since the developers need to make their machines
attractive to investors. Compressed-air vehicles are comparable in many ways to electric
vehicles, but use compressed air to store the energy instead of batteries. Their potential
advantages over other vehicles include:
1. Major advantage of using compressed engine is that a pure compressed air vehicle
produces no pollution at the tailpipe.
2. Use of renewable fuel.
3. Compressed-air technology reduces the cost of vehicle production by about 20%,
because there is no need to build a cooling system, fuel tank, Ignition Systems
or silencers.
4. Air, on its own, is non-flammable.
5. The engine can be massively reduced in size.
6. The engine runs on cold or warm air, so can be made of lower strength light weight
material such as aluminum, plastic, low friction Teflon or a combination.
7.Low manufacture and maintenance costs as well as easy maintenance.
8.The air tank may be refilled more often and in less time than batteries can be recharged,
with re-filling rates comparable to liquid fuels.
9. Lighter vehicles cause less damage to roads, resulting in lower maintenance cost.
10. The price of filling air powered vehicles is significantly cheaper than petrol, diesel or
biofuel.

24
 CHAPTER 5

FABRICATION OF CHASSIS

5.1 CHASSIS

25
A chassis consists of an internal framework that supports a man-made object in its
construction and use. It is analogous to an animal skeleton. An example of a chassis is
the underpart of a motor vehicle, consisting of the frame (on which the body is mounted).
If the running gear such as wheels and transmission, and sometimes even the driver's
seat, are included then the assembly is described as a rolling chassis
A chassis (pronounced TCHA-see or CHA-see ) is the physical frame or structure of an
automobile, an airplane, a desktop computer, or other multi-component device. Case is
very similar in meaning, but tends to connote the protective aspect of the frame rather
than its structure. People
tend to choose one term or the other. The rest of this definition uses chassis but applies as
well to the term case . Both terms (and casing) are derived from the Vulgate Latin for
box.
Definition of chassis:
A vehicle without body is known as chassis. It is the backbone of vehicle on which total
load of vehicle is applied. The components of vehicle like power plant, transmission
system, Axils, wheels, electrical system are mounted on chassis. It is the main mounting
for all the components including the body so it is called carrying unit of vehicle.
5.2 Components of chassis
1)Frame
2) Engine
3) Clutch
4) Propeller or shaft
5) Differential
6) U-joint
7) Steering
8) Wheel

5.3 Function of chassis

To carry load of passenger or goods carried in the body. To support the load of the body,
engine, gear box, steering system, Propeller or shaft etc. For whisand the forces causes
due to sudden broking or acceleration and whistand the load cause due to bad road
condition. To whistand the centrifugal force by cornering.

5.4 Different types of loading chassis

Various loads:-Short duration load while crossing broken patch
Momentary loads:-While taking a curve.

26
Impact load:-Due to the collision of vehicles.
Inertia load:-While applying the brakes.
Static loads: - Loads due to chassis part
Over loads: - Loads applied beyond the design condition

5.5 Frames

The separate frame and body type of vehicle construction (image 1 and 2) is the most
common technique used when producing most full-size and cargo vehicles. In this type of
construction, the frame and the vehicle body are made separately, and each is a complete
unit by itself. The frame is designed to support the weight of the body and absorb all of
the loads imposed by the terrain, suspension system, engine, drive train, and steering
system,and the body merely contains and, in some cases, protects the cargo. The body
generally is bolted to the frame at a few points to allow for flexure of the frame and to
distribute the loads to the intended load-carrying members. The components of this type
of frame are as follows:

The SIDE MEMBERS or rails are the heaviest part of the frame. The side members are
shaped to accommodate the body and support the weight. They are narrow toward the
front of the vehicle to permit a shorter turning radius for the wheels and then widen under
the main part of the body
where the body is secured to the frame. Trucks and trailers commonly have frames with
straight side members to accommodate several designs of bodies and to give the vehicle
added strength to withstand heavier loads.

The CROSS MEMBERS are fixed to the side members to prevent weaving and twisting
of the frame. The number, size and arrangement of the cross members depend on the type
of vehicle for which the frame was designed. Usually, a front cross member supports the
radiator and the front of the engine. The rear cross members furnish support for the fuel
tanks and rear trunk on passenger cars and the tow bar connections for trucks. Additional
cross members are added to the frame to support the rear of the engine or power train
components.

The GUSSET PLATES are angular pieces of metal used for additional reinforcement on
heavy-duty truck frames. With this type of frame construction, the body structure only
needs to be strong and rigid enough to contain the weight of the cargo and resist any
dynamic loads associated with cargo handling and cargo movement during vehicle
operation and to absorb shocks and vibrations transferred from the frame. In some cases,
particularly under severe operating conditions, the body structure may be subjected to
some torsional loads that are not absorbed completely by the frame.

27
This basically applies to heavy trucks and not passenger vehicles. In a typical passenger
vehicle, the frame supplies approximately 37 percent of the torsional rigidity and
approximately 34 percent of the bending rigidity; the balance is supplied by the body
structure.

28
 CHAPTER 6

TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

6.1TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
Transmission is the mechanism which is used to transfer the power developed by engine
to the wheels of an automobile. The transmission system of an automobile includes
clutch, gear box, propeller shaft axle and wheels, etc. between clutch and propeller shaft.

6.2Gear box
A gearbox is a mechanical method of transferring energy from one device to another and
is used to increase torque while reducing speed. Torque is the power generated through
the bending or twisting of a solid material. This term is often used interchangeably
with transmission.

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Located at the junction point of a power shaft, the gearbox is often used to create a right
angle change in direction, as is seen in a rotary mower or a helicopter. Each unit is made
with a specific purpose in mind, and the gear ratio used is designed to provide the level
of force required. This ratio is fixed and cannot be changed once the box is constructed.
The only possible modification after the fact is an adjustment that allows the shaft speed
to increase, along with a corresponding reduction in torque.
In a situation where multiple speeds are needed, a transmission with multiple gears can
be used to increase torque while slowing down the output speed. This design is
commonly found in automobile transmissions. The same principle can be used to create
an overdrive gear that increases output speed while decreasing torque.

A wind turbine is an example of a very large gearbox. The turbine moves at a slow rate of
rotation with a great deal of torque. The transmission translates this power into the faster
but lower torque rotational speed of the electricity generator. Due to the sheer size and the
amount of power they can generate, wind turbines have multiple gears and stages. This
feature is required to ensure that the electricity generator can provide a consistent output
even as the turbine rate of rotation fluctuates.
In an automobile, there are three types of transmission: automatic, manual, or
continuously variable. A manual transmission vehicle provides the best example of a
simple gearbox. In both the automatic and continuously variable transmissions, the
gearboxes are closed systems, requiring very little human interaction.Manual
transmission is available in two different systems: sliding mesh and constant mesh. The
sliding mesh system uses straight cut spur gears. The gears spin freely and require driver
manipulation to synchronize the transition from one speed to another. The driver is
responsible for coordinating the engine revolutions to the road speed required. If the
transition between gears is not timed correctly, they clash, creating a loud grinding noise
as the gear teeth collide.
The constant mesh system has diagonally-cut helical or double helical gear sets that are
permanently meshed together. Friction cones or synchronized rings have been added to
the gears to create a smoother transition when changing gears. This type of transmission
is usually found in racing cars and agricultural equipment.

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6.3 Clutch
A clutch is a mechanical device that engages and disengages the power transmission,
especially from driving shaft to driven shaft.Clutches are used whenever the transmission
of power or motion must be controlled either in amount or over time (e.g., electric
screwdrivers limit how much torque is transmitted through use of a clutch; clutches
control whether automobiles transmit engine power to the wheels).
In the simplest application, clutches connect and disconnect two rotating shafts (drive
shafts or line shafts). In these devices, one shaft is typically attached to an engine or other
power unit (the driving member) while the other shaft (the driven member) provides
output power for work. While typically the motions involved are rotary, linear clutches
are also possible.
6.3.1 Different types of friction clutches
1.Multiple plate clutch
2.Wet& Dry plate clutches
3.Centrifugal clutch
4.Cone clutch
5.Torque limiter
6.Non-slip clutches

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The cluth which we are using in this vehicle is MULTIPLATE WET CLUTCH

6.3.2Wet Clutch
Wet clutch are universal and found on any bike. Almost 99% of motorcycle manufactured
uses this kind of clutch. In the wet clutch set up the entire clutch is inside the case of the
bike. Here it is bathed in oil which acts like a kind of dampener. It stops the clutch from
knocking on itself.
Clutch garbage and hammer mixes in engine oil
6.3.3Dry Clutch
The dry clutch is almost identical to the wet clutch the only difference s there are seals on
the shafts that keep oil out. In the dry clutch set up the entire clutch is outside the case of
the bike.There is no oil circulated in to the clutch, which result into clutch knocking on
itself. Ducatis are almost the only bike with this type of clutch.
6.3.4Clutch Plate
There are two types of plates in clutch plate. One is Drive (friction) plate another is
Driven (Steel) plate

Drive (friction) plate: The friction plate is ring shaped and coated with fiber. It is a
wear and tear part of clutch assembly. The friction plate surfaces interface between the
clutch basket tangs (gaps) and pressure plate. It has teethes on the outside surfaces. These
teethes fix on the cutouts between clutch hub tangs (gaps). It is coated with the same
material as you see in brake pad (shoe).
Driven (steel) plate: It is ring shaped and made of steel and sometime of aluminum.
The surfaces of steel or aluminum plate interfaces between pressure plate and clutch hub.
It has teethes on inside surfaces. This teethes are fix on the cutouts of clutch hub. Mostly

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steel plates are used in clutch assembly due to their durability. The aluminum plates are
used in Moto GP due to their lighter weight. These plates are worn out very fast compare
to steel plate.

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 CHAPTER 7

SUSPENSIONSYSTEM

7.1SUSPENSION SYSTEM
Suspension is the system of tires, tire air, springs, shock absorbers and linkages that
connects a vehicle to its wheels and allows relative motion between the two. Suspension
systems serve a dual purpose contributing to the vehicle's road holding/handling and
braking for good active safety and driving pleasure, and keeping vehicle occupants
comfortable and a ride quality reasonably well isolated from road noise, bumps, and
vibrations,etc. These goals are generally at odds, so the tuning of suspensions involves
finding the right compromise. It is important for the suspension to keep the road wheel in

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contact with the road surface as much as possible, because all the road or ground forces
acting on the vehicle do so through the contact patches of the tires.
The suspension system used in this vehicle are:
1) Front Suspension Telescopic hydraulic shock absorbers
2) Rear suspension swing arm with hydraulic shock absorber

7.2 Front Suspension Telescopic hydraulic shock absorbers

The most widely-used hydraulic shock absorber is the direct-acting telescopic type. It can
be fitted as a self-contained unit, or combined with a suspension strut. The strut type uses
the same principle of operation but it is considerably larger.
The hydraulic shock absorber provides its dampening action by transferring oil, under
pressure, through valves which restrict the oil flow.
The twin-tube type is the most common. The outer tube is normally attached to the
suspension member at its base, and the inner tube provides a working cylinder for a
piston which is attached to a piston rod. The piston rod is connected to the frame at its
outer end, and a bearing at the top of the outer tube keeps the rod in alignment as it
moves in and out of the shock absorber, with suspension action.
A seal above the bearing prevents oil leakage, and keeps out dirt and moisture. A shroud
protects the rod from damage. During bumps, or compression, the rod and its piston
move into the shock absorber. In rebound, or extension, the rod and piston move out of
the shock absorber. For dampening to be effective, resistance is needed in both directions.
This is provided by the oil, and by disc valves attached to the piston and the base of the
inner tube. Oil fills the inner tube and surrounds its outer surface to a level which allows
a free space or reservoir to exist above it, between the inner and outer tubes.

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7.3 Rear suspension swing arm with hydraulic shock absorber
A swing arm, or "swinging arm" (UK), originally known as a swing fork or pivoted fork,
is the main component of the rear suspension of most modern motorcycles and ATVs. It
is used to hold the rear axle firmly, while pivoting vertically, to allow the suspension to
absorb bumps in the road.
Originally motorcycles had no rear suspension, as their frames were little more than
stronger versions of the classic diamond frame of a bicycle. Many types of suspension
were tried, including Indians leaf spring suspended swing arm, and Matchless's
cantilevered coiled-spring swing arm. Immediately prior to and after WWII, the plunger
suspension, in which the axle moved up and down two vertical posts, became
commonplace. In the latter, the movement in each direction was against coiled springs.

Swing arms have come in several forms:

Swinging fork - the original version consisting of a pair of parallel pipes holding the rear
axle at one end and pivoting at the other. A pair of shock absorbers are mounted just
before the rear axle and attached to the frame, below the seat rail.
Cantilever - An extension of the swinging fork where a triangulated frame
transfersswing arm movement to compress shock absorbers generally mounted in front of
the swing arm. The HRD-Vincent Motorcycle is a famous early form of this type of
swing arm, though Matchless used it earlier, and Yamaha subsequently. The Harley-
Davidson Softailis another form of this swing arm, though working in reverse, with the
shock absorbers being extended rather than compressed.
Parallelogram Suspension was first introduced commercially in 1985 on the Magni "Le
Mans". Magni called the systemParallelogrammo. Various parallelogram systems have
been developed by other manufacturers.

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37
 CHAPTER 8

WELDING AND JOINTS

8.1welding
Welding is a fabrication or sculpturalprocess that joins materials, usually metals or
thermoplastics, by causing coalescence. This is often done by melting the work pieces
and adding a filler material to form a pool of molten material (the weld pool) that cools to
become a strong joint, with pressure sometimes used in conjunction with heat, or by
itself, to produce the weld. This is in contrast with soldering and brazing, which involve

38
melting a lower-melting-point material between the work pieces to form a bond between
them, without melting the work pieces. It is often used in construction engineering.
Some of the best known welding methods include:
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) - also known as "stick welding", uses an electrode
that has flux, the protectant for the puddle, around it. The electrode holder holds the
electrode as it slowly melts away. Slag protects the weld puddle from atmospheric
contamination.
Gas tungsten arc welding(GTAW) - also known as TIG (tungsten, inert gas), uses a
non-consumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld. The weld area is protected from
atmospheric contamination by an inert shielding gas such as Argon or Helium.
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) - commonly termed MIG (metal, inert gas), uses a
wire feeding gun that feeds wire at an adjustable speed and flows an argon-based
shielding gas or a mix of argon and carbon dioxide (CO 2) over the weld puddle to protect
it from atmospheric contamination.
Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) - almost identical to MIG welding except it uses a
special tubular wire filled with flux; it can be used with or without shielding gas,
depending on the filler.
Submerged arc welding (SAW) - uses an automatically fed consumable electrode and a
blanket of granular fusible flux. The molten weld and the arc zone are protected from
atmospheric contamination by being "submerged" under the flux blanket.
Electroslag welding (ESW) - a highly productive, single pass welding process for
thicker materials between 1 inch (25 mm) and 12 inches (300 mm) in a vertical or close
to vertical position.
Many different energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas flame, an electric
arc, a laser, an electron beam, friction, and ultrasound. While often an industrial process,
welding may be performed in many different environments, including in open air, under
water, and in outer space. Welding is a hazardous undertaking and precautions are
required to avoid burns, electric shock, vision damage, inhalation of poisonous gases and
fumes, and exposure to intense ultraviolet radiation.
The welding process used in this vehicle is Arc Welding

8.2ARC WELDING

These processes use a welding power supply to create and maintain an electric arc
between an electrode and the base material to melt metals at the welding point. They can
use either direct(DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable
electrodes. The welding region is sometimes protected by some type of inert or semi-inert
gas, known as a shielding gas, and filler material is sometimes used as well.

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Arc Welding
1) Carbon Arc welding
2) Plasma Arc welding
3) Shield Metal Arc Welding
4) T.I.G. (Tungsten Inert Gas Welding)
5) M.I.G. (Metal Inert Gas Welding)

8.2.1Carbon Arc Welding:

Carbon Arc Welding (CAW) is a welding process, in which heat is generated by
an electric arc struck between a carbon electrode and the work piece. The arc heats and
melts the work pieces edges, forming a metal.
Carbon arc welding is the oldest welding process. If required, filler rod may be used in
Carbon Arc Welding. End of the rod is held in the arc zone. The molten rod material is
supplied to the weld pool.Shields (neutral gas, flux) may be used for weld pool protection
depending on type of welded metal.

8.2.2Advantages of Carbon Arc Welding:

1) Low cost of equipment and welding operation;

2) High level of operator skill is not required;
3) The process is easily automated;
4) Low distortion of work piece.

8.2.3Disadvantages of Carbon Arc Welding:

1) Unstable quality of the weld (porosity);
2) Carbon of electrode contaminates weld material with carbides.

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8.3Bolted joints

Bolted joints are one of the most common elements in construction and machine design.
They consist of fasteners that capture and join other parts, and are secured with the
mating of screw threads. There are two main types of bolted joint designs: tension joints
and shear joints.
In the tension joint, the bolt and clamped components of the joint are designed to transfer
the external tension load through the joint by way of the clamped components through the
design of a proper balance of joint and bolt stiffness. The joint should be designed such
that the clamp load is never overcome by the external tension forces acting to separate the
joint (and therefore the joined parts see no relative motion).
The second type of bolted joint transfers the applied load in shear on the bolt shank and
relies on the shear strength of the bolt. Tension loads on such a joint are only incidental. A
preload is still applied but is not as critical as in the case where loads are transmitted
through the joint in tension. Other such shear joints do not employ a preload on the bolt
as they allow rotation of the joint about the bolt, but use other methods of maintaining
bolt/joint integrity. This may include clevis linkages, joints that can move, and joints that
rely on a locking mechanism (like lock washers, thread adhesives, and lock nuts).
Proper joint design and bolt preload provides useful properties:
For cyclic tension loads, the fastener is not subjected to the full amplitude of the load; as
a result, the fastener's fatigue life is increased orif the material exhibits an endurance
limit its life extends indefinitely.
As long as the external tension loads on a joint do not exceed the clamp load, the fastener
is not subjected to motion that would loosen it, obviating the need for locking
mechanisms. (Questionable under Vibration Inputs.)
For the shear joint, a proper clamping force on the joint components prevents relative
motion of those components and the fretting wear of those that could result in the
development of fatigue cracks.
In both the tension and shear joint design cases, some level of tension preload in the bolt
and resulting compression preload in the clamped components is essential to the joint
integrity. The preload target can be achieved by applying a measured torque to the bolt,
measuring bolt extension, heating to expand the bolt then turning the nut down, torqueing
the bolt to the yield point, testing ultrasonically or by a certain number of degrees of
relative rotation of the threaded components. Each method has a range of uncertainties
associated with it, some of which are very substantial.

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42
CHAPTER 9

MATERIAL

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9.1 Mild and low-carbon steel:
Material used in thi vehicle is Mild and low carbon steel.
Mild steel also known as plain-carbon steel, is now the most common form of steel
because its price is relatively low while it provides material properties that are acceptable
for many applications. Low-carbon steel contains approximately 0.050.15%
carbon making it malleable and ductile. Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength,
but it is cheap and easy to form. As the carbon percentage content rises, steel has the
ability to Become harder and stronger through heat treating. However, it Becomes
less ductile. Regardless of the heat treatment, a higher Carbon content reduces weld
ability. In carbon steels, the higher carbon.Content lowers the melting point.
A moderate amount of carbon makes this steel different from other types.Carbon atoms
get a fixed in the interstitial sites of the iron lattice,making it stronger &
harder.However,the hardness comes at the price of decrease in ductility.
Compared to other types of steel this type is ideal for welding purposes,as it conducts
electric current effectively without tarnishing the metal surface in any way.
Mild steel has ferromagnetic properties, which make it ideal for manufacture of electrical
devices and motors. It yields itself easily to magnetization.
Unlike other grades of carbon steel , which tend to be brittle , mild steel is
Hard ,yet malleable, making it the ideal choice for construction of pipelines, construction
materials and many other daily use products like cookware .
Mild steel can be machined and shaped easily due to its inherent flexibility. It can be
hardened with carburizing, making it the ideal material for producing a range of
consumer products.
The high amount of carbon also makes it vulnerable to rust. Naturally, peopleprefer
stainless over mild steel, when they want a rust free technology. It is Also used in
construction as structural steel, besides finding applications inThe car manufacturing
industry.
Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and easy to form; surface
hardness can be increased through carburizing. It is often used when large quantities of
steel are needed, for example as structural steel.

9.1.1 Properties of Mild Steel

1) Mild Steel is one of the most common of all metals and one of the least expensive
steels used. It is to be found in almost every product created from metal.

2) It is weldable, very durable (although it rusts), it is relatively hard and is easily

annealed.

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3) Having less than 2 % carbon it will magnetize well and being relatively
inexpensive, can be used in most projects requiring a lot of steel. However when
it comes to load bearing, its structural strengthis not usually sufficient to be used
in structural beams and girders.

4) Most everyday items made of steel have some milder steel content. Anything
from cookware, motorcycle frames through to motor car chassis, use this metal in
their construction.

5) Because of its poor resistance to corrosion it must be protected by painting or

otherwise sealed to prevent it from rusting. At worst a coat of oil or grease will
help seal it from exposure, and help prevent rusting.

6) Being a softer metal it is easily welded. Its inherent properties allow electrical
current to flow easily through it without upsetting its structural integrity. This is in
contrast to other high carbon steels like stainless steel which require specialized
welding techniques.

7) This mild variant of harder steel is thus far less brittle and can therefore give and
flex in its application where a harder more brittle material would simply crack and
break.

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 CHAPTER 10

FUTURE SCOPE

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10.1 FUTURE SCOPE

1) Fabrication of a new engine made of light metal will give better results.
2) Usage of compressed air tanks for storage and supply will give it more scope in
automobiles.
3) Much like electrical vehicles, air powered vehicles would ultimately be powered
through the electrical grid. This makes it easier to focus on reducing pollution
from one source, as opposed to the millions of vehicles on the road.Transportation
of the fuel would not be required due to drawing power off the electrical grid.
This presents significant cost benefits. Pollution created during fuel transportation
would be eliminated.

4) Compressed-air vehicles operate to a thermodynamic processas air cools down

when expanding and heats up when being compressed. As it is not possible in
practice to use a theoretically ideal process, losses occur and improvements may
involve reducing these, e.g., by using large heat exchangers in order to use heat
from the ambient air and at the same time provide air cooling in the passenger
compartment. At the other end, the heat produced during compression can be
stored in water systems, physical or chemical systems and reused later.

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Conclusion

The model designed by us is a small scale working model of the compressed air engine.
When scaled to higher level it can be used for driving automobiles independently or
combined (hybrid) with other engines like I.C. engines.
The technology of compressed air vehicles is not new. In fact, it has been around for
years. Compressed air technology allows for engines that are both non-polluting and
economical. Unlike electric or hydrogen powered vehicles, compressed air vehicles are
not expensive and do not have a limited driving range. Compressed air vehicles are
affordable and have a performance rate that stands up to current standards.

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Bibliography :

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING BY KIRPAL SINGH

INTERNET WEBSITE , WWW.THEAIRCAR .COM.
INTERNET WEBSITE , WWW .PESWIKI . COM

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