31

Lesson 2

2. Applications of the derivative

2.1.
.1. Linear approximation
In science and engineering, we can sometimes
some approximate complicated functions with simpler
ones that give accuracy we want without being difficult to work with. In this section, we study
how this approximation is done in the most useful and simple way.

Linearization and standard linear approximation

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.1: (a) The equation of the tangent line is y = f (a) + f (a)( x a) .

(b) If h is small, the change in f ( x) will be nearly the same as the change in L( x) .

Consider the tangent to a curve y = f ( x) at the point x = a as shown in Fig. 2.1(a). We see
that, for a brief interval stretching to either side, the y-values
values along the tangent line give good
approximations to the y-values
values on the curve. Therefore, to obtain a good approximation for the
formula of the curve y = f ( x) , we may replace the formula for f ( x ) over this interval by the
formula for its tangent line.
If y = f ( x) is differentiable at x = a , the equation of the tangent line that passes through the

point ( a, f (a) ) with slope f ( a ) is given by

f (a) =
( y f (a) ) y = f (a) + f (a)( x a)
( x a)
 32

Thus, the tangent line is the graph of the function L ( x ) which is defined as

L( x) = f (a) + f (a)( x a) . .. (2.1)

For, as long as the line remains close to the graph f ( x) , L ( x ) will give a good approximation to
f ( x) .
The function L( x) = f (a) + f (a)( x a) is called the linearization of f ( x) at a . The
approximation f ( x ) L ( x ) is the standard linear approximation of f ( x) at a .

EXAMPLE 1 Find the linearization of f ( x ) = 1 + x at x = 0 . Use it to estimate 1.2 ,

1.05 and 1.005 .

Solution We evaluate Eq. (3.1) for f ( x) at x = 0 .

f ( x) = 1+ x f (0) = 1
1 1
f ( x ) = (1 + x ) 1 2 f (0) =
2 2
1 x
L( x) = f (0) + f (0)( x 0) = 1 + ( x 0) = 1 +
2 2
x
The linearization of 1 + x at x = 0 is L( x) = 1 + //
2
When x = 0.2, 0.05, and 0.005 it gives
0.2
1.2 = 1 + = 1.10 (accurate to 2 decimals)
2
0.05
1.05 = 1 + = 1.025 (accurate to 3 decimals)
2
0.005
1.005 = 1 + = 1.00250 (accurate to 5 decimals)
2

EXAMPLE 2 Find the linearization of f ( x ) = 1 + x at x = 3 . Use it to estimate 4.2 and

compare it with the value obtained by using a calculator.
Solution We evaluate Eq. (3.1) for f ( x) at x = 3 .

f ( x) = 1+ x f (3) = 2
 33

1 1
f ( x ) = (1 + x ) 1 2 f (3) =
2 4
1 x 3 5 x
L( x ) = 2 + ( x 3) = 2 + = +
4 4 4 4 4
5 x
The linearization of 1 + x at x = 3 is L( x) = + //
4 4
5 3.2
4.2 = 1 + 3.2 = + = 2.05 (accurate to 2 decimals)
4 4

The value given by a calculator is 4.2 = 2.04939 to five places, which differs
from 2.05 by less than a thousandth.

Estimating Change
Suppose we know the value of a differentiable function f ( x) at a particular point x0 and want

to predict how much this value will change if we move nearby to point x0 + h (see Fig. 2.1 (b)).

If h is small, f ( x) and its linearization L ( x ) at x0 will change by nearly the same amount.

Since the values of L ( x ) are always easy to calculate, calculating the change in L ( x ) gives a
practical way to estimate the change in f ( x) .

The corresponding change in L ( x ) is

L = L( x0 + h) L( x0 ) = [ f ( x0 ) + f ( x0 )( x0 + h) ] [ f ( x0 ) + f ( x0 ) x0 ] = f ( x0 )h

The formula for f will usually be as hard to work with as the formula for f ( x) . The formula

for L , however, is always easy to work with, because it has the form L = f ( x0 )h .

In a more meaningful notation, we write the change L = f ( x0 )h as

d f = f ( x0 )dx , .. (2.2)

where f ( x0 ) = ( d f dx ) x = x . In this, d f (called the differential of f ) denotes the change in

0

the linearization of f ( x) that results from change dx (called the differential of x ) in x .

By dividing both sides of the equation d f = f ( x ) d x by dx , we obtain the familiar equation
df dy
= f ( x) or = f ( x )
dx dx
 34

The above equation tells us that the derivative d y dx can be considered as a quotient of
differentials.

EXAMPLE 3 The radius of a circle is to be increased from an initial value of r0 = 10 units by

an amount dr = 0.1 units. Estimate the corresponding increase in the circles area

A = r 2 by calculating d A and also the percentage change in the area. Compare

d A with the true change A .

Solution To calculate d A , apply Eq. (3.2) to the function A = r 2 .

d A = A(r0 )dr = 2 r0 dr

By using the values r0 = 10 and dr = 0.1 d A = 2 (10)(0.1) = 2 //

A(r0 ) = r0 2 = 100 //

dA 2
Estimated percentage change in the area 100 = 100 = 2% //
A( r0 ) 100

The direct calculation of A gives

A = (10.1)2 (10)2 = 2.01 = 2 + 0.01 = d A + 0.01

The error in the estimate of d A is A d A = 0.01 .
0.01
The error as a percentage of the circles original area 100% = 0.01% //
100

Absolute, Relative and Percentage change

When we move from x0 to a nearby point, we can describe the corresponding change in the
value of a function f ( x) in three ways.

True Estimate

Absolute change f df
 35

f df
Relative change
f ( x0 ) f ( x0 )
f df
Percentage change 100% 100%
f ( x0 ) f ( x0 )

EXAMPLE 4 An edge of a cube is measured as 6 cm with a possible error of 0.05 cm.

Estimate the percentage error that would occur in the volume calculation if it is
done using the given edge measurement.
Solution If the edge of the cube x = 6 cm , the volume of the cube,

V = V ( x) = x3 = 216 cm3

Since it is given that dx 0.05 cm , the estimated variation in V caused by the

dV
increment dx is dV = dx = (3x 2 ) x = 6 dx = 108 dx (Eq. (3.2))
dx x =6

dV = 108 d x = 108(0.05) = 5.4 cm3

Percentage error in the volume calculation,

dV 5.4
100% = 100% = 2.5% //
calculated V 216

EXAMPLE 5 Suppose the earth were a perfect sphere and its radius were determined to be
6371 0.2 km . What effect would the tolerance of 0.2 km in the
determination of radius have on the estimate of the earths surface area?

Solution The surface area of a sphere of radius r is S = 4 r 2 .

The uncertainty in the calculation of S that arises from measuring r km with a
tolerance of dr km is about

dS
dS = dr = ( 8 r )r = 6371 dr = 8 (6371)(0.2) = 32, 000 km 2
dr r = 6371

In absolute terms this may seem like a large error (~ 1/3 of the area of Sri Lanka).
However, as shown below, it is a relatively small error when compared to the
calculated surface area of the earth.
 36

dS 32, 000
100% = 100% = 0.004%
calculated S 4 (6371) 2

EXAMPLE 6 About how accurately should we measure the radius r of a sphere to calculate the

surface area S = 4 r 2 within 1% percent of its true value?

Solution We want any inaccuracy in our measurement to be small enough to make the
corresponding increment d S in the surface area satisfy the inequality

1 4 r 2
dS S =
100 100
Replacing d S in this inequality with

dS
dS = dr = 8 r dr
dr

4 r 2 1 4 r 2 1 r
8 r dr = dr = =
100 8 r 100 2 100

dr
100% = 0.5%
r
We should measure the radius with an error dr that is no more than 0.5% of the
true value.//

A frequently used linear approximation

For x near zero: (1 + x )k = 1 + kx for any number k.

2.2 Graphs
In this section we see how the first and second derivative of a function can be used to determine
the shape of its graph between plotted points. The first derivative tells us where the graph rises
and falls (at maxima and minima) and the second derivative tells us where the graph is concave
up (at minima) and concave down (at maxima). Also, the shape of the graph of a function can be
found if we know where the functions derivative is positive (graph is rising), negative (graph is
falling) or zero (horizontal tangent).
 37

When a function has a derivative at every point of an interval, we know that the function is
raph over the interval is connected (eg: y = sin x,
continuous throughout the interval and that its ggraph

y = cos x ). The graphs of y = tan x and y = 1 x 2 break only at the points where the functions
are undefined. On every interval that avoids these points, the function is differentiable and,
therefore, they are continuous and have connected graphs.

2.2.1 Increasing and decreasing functions

A function y = f ( x) is said to increase within an interval I , if y increases as x increases, i.e.

whenever x2 > x1 in I , we find f ( x2 ) > f ( x1 ) . As x increases from left to right in I , the

graph of an increasing function rises and this increase is associated with a positive derivative.
Similarly, a function y = f ( x) is said to decrease within an interval I , if y decreases as x
increases, i.e. whenever x2 > x1 in I , we find f ( x2 ) < f ( x1 ) . As x increases from left to right
in I , the graph of a decreasing function falls and this decrease is associated with a negative
derivative. Every time the derivative f ( x ) changes sign on the interval I , it must take on the
value zero and therefore, the graph of f ( x) must have a zero tangent.

Fig. 2.2: The function y = f ( x) increases on (a, c) where f > 0 , decreases on (c, d ) where f < 0 ,
and increases again on (d , b) . The transitions are marked by horizontal tangents.

If f ( x ) changes from positive to negative values as x passes from left to right through a point
x = c , then the value of f ( x ) at x = c is a local maximum value of f ( x ) (see Fig. 2.2). That is
f (c ) is the largest value the function takes on in the neighborhood of x = c . Similarly, if f ( x )
 38

changes from negative to positive values as x passes from left to right through a point x = d ,
then the value of f ( x) at x = d is a local minimum value of f ( x) (see
see Fig. 2.2). That is f (d )
is the smallest value the function takes on in the neighborhood of x = d .

EXAMPLE 7 Graph the function y = x3 3 x 2 + 4 .

Solution To find the intercept (points where the graph crosses or lies tangent to the axes):
axis, substitute x = 0
on the y -axis, y = 0.

axis, substitute y = 0
on the x -axis, 0 = x3 3 x 2 + 4 .

0 = ( x 2)2 ( x + 1) x = 1 and x = 2 (twice)

The derivative y = 3 x 2 6 x = 3 x( x 2) is zero at x = 0 and x = 2 .

The curve has horizontal tangents at these values of x .

We see that, y is positive to the left of x = 0 and again to the right of x = 2 .
Therefore, the function increases on the intervals ( , 0) and (2, ) .
We see that, between x = 0 and x = 2 , y is negative and therefore the function
decreases on the interval (0, 2) .
At x = 0 , the function has a local maximum value of y = 4 while at x = 2 , the
function has a local minimum value of y = 0.
Using the above information, a curve as shown in Fig 2.3 can be plotted.

Fig. 2.3:: The graph of y = x3 3 x 2 + 4 rises on (, 0) to a local maximum of 4 at

x = 0 , falls to a local minimum of 0 at x = 2 , and then rises again on
(2, )
 39

Before we end this section, it should be noted that, a derivative need not change sign every time

it is zero. For example, the derivative of the function y = x3 is zero at the origin but positive on
both sides of it. Also, a function may take on a local maximum or minimum value at a point
where its derivative fails to exist and therefore, the search for maximum and minimum values
must go beyond solving the equation f ( x ) = 0 . For example, the function y = x takes on its

minimum value at x = 0 where f ( x ) does not exist.

2.2.2 Concavity and points of inflection

As it is described below, the graphs we draw can be made more accurate by taking the sign of the
second derivative into account. Without giving the details of the procedure, here we first present
the definitions that allow us use the first derivative of a differentiable function to decide whether
the graph of the function is concave up or down. Then, we present the definitions that decide
whether the graph of the function is concave up or down, using the second derivative.

Concave down and concave up

The graph of a differentiable function y = f ( x) is concave down on an interval where y
decreases (as x increases) and concave up on an interval where y increases (as x increases).

Example:
The curve y = x3 is concave down in the interval ( , 0) where y = 3 x 2 decreases as x
increases and concave up in the interval (0, ) where y = 3 x 2 increases as x increases.

The graph of y = f ( x) is concave down on any interval where y < 0 (i.e. y decreases as x
increases) and concave up on any interval where y > 0 (i.e. y increases as x increases).

The curve y = x 2 is concave up on the entire x-axis because, y = 2 > 0 .

The curve y = sin x is concave down 0 < x < because, y = sin x < 0 on this interval.
 40

Points of inflection
A point on the curve where the concavity changes is called a point of inflection. Thus, a point of
inflection on a twice-differentiable curve is a point where y is positive on one side and negative
on the other side and, at such a point, y is zero.

Here it should be noted that, it is possible to have y = 0 at a point that is not a point of

inflection. For example, the curve y = x 4 has no point of inflection at x = 0 even though

y = 12 x 2 is zero there. Also, a point of inflection may occur where y fails to exist. For

example, the curve y = x1 3 has a point of inflection at x = 0 even though y does not exist
there.
1 3
EXAMPLE 8 Sketch the curve y = ( x 6 x 2 + 9 x + 6) .
6
1 2
Solution We find, y = ( x 4 x + 3) y = x 2
2
We can find the y-intercept of the curve by substituting x = 0 in the function of the
1
curve and it is found to be y = 1 . By setting, y = ( x 1)( x 3) = 0 , we find
2
the maxima and minima to occur at x = 1 and x = 3 . To identify them, we can use
the value of y = x 2 at these two points. So, a maximum occurs at x = 1
whereas a minimum occurs at x = 3 . We see that y is positive when x < 1,
negative when 1 < x < 3 and positive again when x > 3 . We can find points of
inflection by setting y = x 2 = 0 and it should be at x = 2 . We also find that
y < 0 when x < 2 and y > 0 when x > 2 and therefore, x = 2 is a point of
inflection. By looking at the sign of y and y over certain intervals of x values,
we can find where the curve is concave down or up. Before graphing the given
function it would be convenient to construct a table containing the columns of x, y,
y and y values and the drawn conclusions. Using the gathered information
about rise, fall and concavity, plotting important points and sketching tangents, the
graph can be obtained.
 41

2.2.3 The theory of maxima and minima

Fig. 2.4:
2 How maxima and minima are classified.

.4 shows graph of a function y = f ( x ) that has a minimum at x = c . However, if we move

Fig 2.4
away from c to either side, we find that f takes on even smaller value at x = d . Thus, f (c ) is
not the absolute minimum of f on the interval [a, b]] but only a relative or local minimum.

A function f is said to have a relative or local minimum at x = c if f (c ) f ( x ) for all values

of x in some open interval about c. For a local or relative maximum at x = c , f (c ) f ( x ) for
all x in some interval about c. There is no value of the function in this interval greater than f (c ) .
On the other hand, absolute maximum or absolute minimum of a function would occur if
either of the inequalities f ( x ) f (c ) or f (c ) f ( x ) held for all x values in the domain of f.

The first derivative theorem for local extreme values

Next we are going to see how to use derivative to locate points where
where functions take on
maximum or minimum values. For this we can use the following theorem called first derivative
theorem (No proof is given here).
here)

Suppose that a function f has local maximum or minimum at an interior point c of an interval on
which f is defined. If f is defined at c, then f (c ) = 0 .
The points where f = 0 or fails to exist are commonly called the critical points of f . Thus,
the only points worth considering
onsidering in the search for a functions extreme values are critical points
and end points.
 42

In the following examples we will try to find absolute maximum or minimum values of a
continuous function on a closed interval.

EXAMPLE 9 Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of y = x 2 3 on the interval
2 x 3 .
Solution We find the values of the function at the critical points and end points.
2 1 3 2
The first derivative y = x = 3 has no zeros but undefined at x = 0 .
3 3 x
Let us evaluate the function at this critical point and at the domains two end
points.
Critical point value: y (0) = 0

End point values: y ( 2) = 41 3 and y (3) = 91 3

The maximum value is 91 3 , taken on at x = 3 . The minimum is 0, taken on at

x = 0.
The facts show that, when a maximum or minimum occurs at the end of a curve
that exists over a limited interval, the derivative need not vanish at such a point
(see Fig 2.5(a)).

1
EXAMPLE 10 Find the maximum and minimum values, if any, of the function y = x + .
x
Solution The function has no absolute maximum or minimum value because, y as
x and y as x .
It may still have local maxima or minima at domain end points (in this case there
arent any) and at points where y = 0 or fails to exist.
1
y = 1 = 0 at x = 1 and undefined at x = 0 .
x2
We disregard x = 0 because it does not lie in the functions domain.
The critical point values are: y ( 1) = 2 and y (1) = 2
As it is not safer to conclude that 2 is a local minimum and 2 is a local
maximum, we use a different approach. That is to check the second derivative
 43

y = 2 x3 and it is negative when x < 0 . Therefore, the curve is concave down

at x = 1 , and y (1) = 2 is a local maximum value. Again, y = 2 x3 is

positive when x = 1 . So, the curve is concave up at x = 1 , and y (1) = 2 is a local
minimum value. Here the local minimum value is greater than the local maximum
value and this can be seen from the graph of y.

Second derivative test for local maxima and minima

The second derivative test given below is most frequently used to investigate points where the
first derivative is zero.
If f (c ) = 0 and f (c ) < 0 , then f has a local maximum at x = c and if, If f (c) = 0 and
f (c) > 0 , then f has a local minimum at x = c (No proof is given here).
However, when y and y are both zero, at such a point, there may be a maximum, a minimum
or neither.

EXAMPLE 11 Find all maxima and minima of the function y = x 3 3 x + 2 , < x < .

Solution The domain has no end points and the function is differentiable at every point.
Therefore, extreme values can occur only at points given by

y = 3 x 2 3 = 0 x=1 and x = 1 .
The second derivative y = 6 x positive at x = 1 and is negative at x = 1 .
Hence y (1) = 0 is a local minimum and y ( 1) = 4 is a local maximum value.
Using the information gathered, it should not be too hard to obtain the graph of y
(see Fig 2.5(b)).

When y is hard to find or hard to work with the once found, it is easier to check the sign of y
to identify the maxima and minima and obtain the graph of y.
 44

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.5: (a) A function can have a minimum value at a point where its derivative does not exist.
One way to happen this as shown here is that the curve to have a vertical tangent at
x=0.

(b) The graph of y = x 3 3 x + 2 on the interval [0, 2] .

2.3 Parabolas
A parabola is defined as the set of points in a plane that are equidistant from a given fixed point
and fixed line in the plane. The fixed point is called the focus of the parabola and the fixed line is
called the directrix. In this section, we derive equations for parabolas whose axes are parallel to
one of the coordinate axes and show how to find the parabolas foci and directrices directly from
these equations.
 45

2.3.1 Parabolas that open upward

(a) (b)

Fig. 2.6: Parabolas: (a) x 2 = 4 p y (open upward) and (b) x 2 = 4 p y (open downward)

Wee may choose a coordinate system that results in a simple equation for the parabola by taking
the positive y-axis through F perpendicular to L and taking the origin halfway between F and L
(see Fig 2.6(a)).. If the distance between F and L is 2 p , then F is the point (0, p ) and L is the
line y = p . Then, a point P ( x, y ) lies on the parabola if and only if distances PF and PQ are
such that: PF = PQ .

As the distances PF = x 2 + ( p y ) 2 and PQ = ( p + y ) , by equating these expressions,

squaring and simplifying, we get the following

wing equation which is satisfied by any point on the
parabola.

x2 = 4 p y (Open upward) (2.1

.1a)

Since p is positive in Eq. (2.1

.1a), y cannot be negative (if x is to be real) and the curve lies on or
above the x-axis. The curve is symmetric about the y-axis since the x appears only in second
power.
The axis of symmetry of the parabola is called the axis of the parabola and the point on this axis
halfway between the focus and the directrix lies on the parabola since it is equidistant from the
focus and the directrix. It is called the vertex of the parabola. For the parabola in Fig. 2.6 (a), the
origin is the vertex and the tangent to the parabola at its vertex is parallel to the directrix.
directr From
 46

equation x 2 = 4 p y we find that the slope of the tangent at any point is d y d x = x 2 p which is
zero at the origin.

EXAMPLE 12 Find the focus of the parabola x 2 = 12 y .

Solution By comparing the given equation with x 2 = 4 p y , we see that 4 p = 12 p = 3 .

The focus lies on the y-axis p = 3 units from the vertex. Focus: F(0, 3).

The directrix y = p is the line y = 3 . Directrix: y = 3 //

2.3.2 Parabolas that open downward

If the parabola opens downward as in Fig. 2.6(b), with its focus at (0, p ) and its directrix the
line y = p , then Eq. (2.1a)) becomes

x 2 = 4 p y (opens downward) (2.1b)

(a)) (b)

Fig 2.7: Parabolas: (a) y 2 = 4 px (opens to the right) and (b) y 2 = 4 px (opens to the left)

If we interchange x and y in Eq. (2.1a) and (2.1b) the resulting equations

y 2 = 4 p x (opens to the right) (2.1c)

and
 47

y 2 = 4 p x (opens to the left) (2.1d)

also represent parabolas as in Fig. 2.7(a) and (b). These parabolas are symmetric about the x-axis
because y appears only to an even power. The vertex is still at the origin. The directrix is
perpendicular to the axis of symmetry, p units from the vertex. The focus lies on the axis of
symmetry, also p unitss from the vertex and inside the curve.

2.3.3 Translating the axes

If the vertex of the parabola is at a point V ( h, k ) different
ifferent from the origin, Eqs. (2.1a),
( (2.1b),
(2.1c) and (2.1d)) no longer apply. However, we can find the appropriate equation by introducing
a new coordinate system, with its origin O at V and its axes parallel to the original axes. Every
nal system and ( x, y ) in
point P in the plane has two sets of coordinates, say ( x, y ) in the original
the new system.

Fig. 2.8: A parabola with vertex at V (h, k ) and opening upward.

These two sets of coordinates are related by the equations

x = x + h x = x h
.. (2.2))
y = y + k y = y k
These equations for translation of axes may be used to obtain the new coordinate axes by
translating the old ones as follows.
 48

Consider the parabola with vertex V ( h, k ) and opening upwards as in Fig. 2.8. In terms of x y

coordinates, Eq. 2.1 provides an equation of the parabola in the form x2 = 4 p y . By using Eqs.
(2.2), we may express this in x y coordinates by the equation

( x h ) 2 = 4 p ( y k ) . . (2.3a)
The axis of the parabola is obtained by setting the quadratic term in Eq. (2.3a) equal to zero and
this is found to be the line x = h . The focus lies on the axis of symmetry, p units above the
vertex at x = h , y = k + p . The directrix lies p units below the vertex and perpendicular to the
axis of symmetry thus having the equation y = k p . The other forms of parabolas are included
with Eq. (2.3a) in the following list.

(x h)2 = 4 p( y k) (Opens upward) ........... (2.3a)

(x h)2 = 4 p( y k) (Opens downward) ...... (2.3b)
( y k)2 = 4 p(x h) (Opens to the right) ...... (2.3c)
( y k)2 = 4 p(x h) (Opens to the left) ........ (2.3d)

In these equations, p is the distance from the focus to the vertex and the vertex to the directrix.
Parabolas (2.3a) and (2.3b) are symmetric about the line x = h and, parabolas (2.3c) and (2.3d)
are symmetric about the line y = k .

EXAMPLE 13 Find the focus of the parabola with vertex V ( 1, 2) and focus F (3, 2) .What is the
directrix?
Solution By inspection of the coordinates of points V and F, we find that the parabola
opens to the right. So, we may use Eq. 3.3c with h = 1 and k = 2 :

( y 2) 2 = 4 p ( x ( 1))
The value of p is the distance between V and F:

p = ( 1 3) 2 + (2 2) 2 = 4

Therefore the equation of the parabola ( y 2) 2 = 16( x (1)) .

 49

The directrix is the vertical line p units to the left of the vertex V ( 1, 2) . Since
p = 4 , the directrix is the line x = 5 .//

EXAMPLE 14 Find the an equation for the parabola with vertex V (1, 2) and directrix y = 3 .
What are the coordinates of the focus?
Solution By inspection of the coordinates of point V and equation of the line directirx, we
find that the parabola opens downwards. So, we may use Eq. 2.3b with h = 1 and
k = 2:

( x 1) 2 = 4 p ( y 2)
The value of p, which is the distance between the vertex V (1, 2) and the directrix
y = 3 , is p = 3 2 = 1 .

Therefore, the equation of the parabola is ( x 1) 2 = 4( y 2) .//

The focus lies p = 1 unit below the vertex V (1, 2) , at the point F (1, 1) .//

2.3.4 Reducing equations for parabolas to standard forms

The main feature of an equation that represents a parabola in the xy -plane with its axis parallel
to one of the coordinate axes is that it is quadratic in that coordinate and linear in the other.
Whenever we have such an equation, we may reduce it to one of the four standard forms in Eq.
(2.3) by taking the following steps.
1. Complete the square of the coordinate that appears quadratically.
2. Put the remaining terms in the form 4 p ( x h) or 4 p ( y k ) , with p positive.
The parabolas vertex, distance from the vertex to the focus, axis of symmetry and direction of
opening can be found in the usual way from the standard form.

EXAMPLE 15 Find the vertex, axis, focus and directrix of the parabola

y 2 2 y 12 x 23 = 0 .

Solution y 2 2 y 12 x 23 = 0 y 2 2 y + 1 = 12 x + 23 + 1

( y 1) 2 = 12( x + 2)
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The above equation has the form ( y k ) 2 = 4 p( x h) .. (3.3c) with

h = 2 , k = 1 and p = 3 . Hence vertex is V ( 2, 1) . The parabolas axis is the
line y = k or y = 1 . The parabola opens to the right because, for y to be real, x
must satisfy the inequality x 2 . The focus lies p = 3 units to the right of the
vertex V ( 2, 1) at the point F (1, 1) . The directrix is the line parallel to the y-axis
p units to the left of the vertex, i.e. the line x = 5 .

2.3.5 The reflective property of parabolas

The main application of parabolas involves their use as reflectors of light and radio waves. Rays
originating at a parabolas focus are reflected out of the parabola parallel to the axis, and rays
coming into the parabola parallel to the axis are reflected to the focus. It can be shown that, at the
point of reflection, rays are reflected so that both the incident and reflected rays make equal
angles relative to the tangent to the parabola (or relative to the perpendicular to the parabola)
thereby satisfying the Snells law of reflection. This property is used in the parabolic mirrors of
telescopes, in headlamps of motor vehicles, in spot lights of all kinds, in parabolic radar and
microwave antennas and in television dish receivers.

Problems - Set 1 (linear approximation)

In Problems 1 4, find the linear approximation L ( x ) of the given function at the point a. Then
use L to estimate the given function value. Then, compare this estimated value

1. f ( x ) = x 2 + 2 x, a = 1, f (1.01) 2. f ( x ) = x 1 , a = 2, f (2.1)

3. f ( x ) = x , a = 4, f (4.1) 4. f ( x ) = x ( x + 1) , a = 1, f (1.3)

Use the formula to construct linear approximation (1 + x ) k = 1 + k x for the functions in Problem
5 10 for values of x near zero.

5. (1 + x ) 2 6. 1 (1 + x )5 7. 2 1 + x 8. 1 (1 + x )5

9. (1.0002)100 10. 1 0.999

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In Problems 11 14, each function y = f ( x ) changes value when x changes from a to a + x .

In each case, find: (a) the change y = f ( a + x ) f ( a ) , the value of the estimate f ( a ) x and
(c) the error y f ( a ) x .

11. f ( x ) = x 2 + 2 x, a = 0, x = 0.1 12. f ( x ) = 2 x 2 + 4 x 3, a = 1, x = 0.1

13. f ( x ) = x 4 , a = 1, x = 0.1 14. f ( x ) = x 1 , a = 0.5, x = 0.1

In Problems 15 20, write a formula that estimates the given change in volume or surface area.

15. The change in: (a) the surface area and, (b) the volume, of a sphere when the radius
changes by an amount d r .

16 The change in the surface area of a cube when the edge lengths all change by an amount
d x.

17 The change in volume of a right circular cylinder when the radius changes by an amount
d r and the height does not change.

18. The diameter of a tree was 20 cm. During the following year, the circumference grew
4 cm. About how much did the trees diameter grow? the trees cross section area?

19. The diameter of a sphere is measured as 100 1 cm and the volume is calculated from
this measurement. Estimate the percentage error in the volume calculation.

20. The period of a clock pendulum. The period T of a clock pendulum (time for one full

swing and back) is given by the formula T 2 = 4 2 L g , where T is measured in

seconds, g = 9.8 m s 2 , and L is the length of the pendulum, is measured in meters.

Find approximately:
(a) the length of a clock pendulum whose period is T = 1 s .
(b) the change dT of T if the pendulum in (a) is lengthened , and
(c) the amount the clock gains or loses in a day as a result of the periods changing by
the amount dT found in (b).
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Problems - Set 2 (Graphs)

In Problems 1 3, find d y d x and the intervals of x-values on which y = f ( x ) is increasing or
decreasing. Sketch each curve, showing the points of transition between the rising and falling
portions. Find any local maximum and local minimum values that the function has when y = 0 .

1. y = x2 x + 1 2. y = 1 ( x + 1) 2 3. y = cos x, 3 2 < x < 3 2

4. Graph y = cos x , x . What are the maximum and minimum values of the

function and where are they taken on?

5. Let y = x 2 sin x, 0 x . (a) Find where y < 0 , y = 0 and y > 0 on [0, ] . (b)
Plot the end points of the curve and any points where y = 0 . Then sketch the curve.

In Problems 6 8, find the intervals of x-values on which the curve is (a) rising, (b) falling, (c)
concave up, and (d) concave down. Sketch the curve, showing points of inflection and any points
where the function assumes a local maximum and minimum value.

6. y = x 2 4 x + 3 7. y = 1 ( x + 1) 2 8. y = cos x, 0 x 2
9. Sketch a smooth curve y = f ( x ) with the properties that f (1) = 0 , f ( x ) < 0 for x < 1 , and
f ( x ) > 0 for x > 1 .

Sketch the curves in Problems 11 and 12, including inflection points and local maxima and
minima.

11. y = 2 x 2 4 x + 3 12. y = sin x + cos x

13. Sketch a continuous curve y = f ( x ) having the following characteristics.
f ( 2) = 8 , f (0) = 4 , f (2) = 0 ,

f ( x ) > 0 for x > 2 , f (2) = f ( 2) = 0 , f ( x ) < 0 for x < 2

f ( x ) < 0 for x < 0 , f ( x ) > 0 for x > 0

Find the critical points for each of the functions in Problems 14 and 15. For each critical point,
determine whether the function has a local maximum, a local minimum or neither there. If
possible find the absolute maximum and minimum value of the function on the indicated
domain.
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14. y = x x 2 on [0, 1] 15. y = 2 sin x + cos 2 x on [0, 2]

16. A rectangle is to be included in a semicircle of radius 2. What is the largest area the rectangle
can have and what are its dimensions?
17. A square sheet of metal a cm on a side is to be used to make an open-top box by cutting a
small square of metal from each corner and bending up the sides. How large a square should
be cut from each corner to make the box have as large a volume as possible?
18. You are about to make a one-litre oil can, shaped like a right circular cylinder. What
dimensions will use the least material?
19. A wire of length L is available for making a circle and a square. How should the wire be
divided between the two shapes to maximize the sum of the enclosed areas?
20. Fermats principle and Snells law. The speed of light depends on the medium through
which it travels and is generally slower in denser media. In a vacuum, light has its highest

speed, c = 3 108 m s 1 . Fermats principle in optics states that light travels from one point
to another along a path for which the time of travel is a minimum. By considering the path
that a ray of light will follow in going from a point A in a medium where the speed of light is
c1 to a point B in a second medium where its speed is c2 , show that Snells law or the law

of refraction is satisfied.

Problems - Set 3 (Parabola)

In Problems 1 5, use the coordinates of the vertex V and focus F of a parabola to find the
equation of the parabola and its directrix.

1. V (0, 0), F (0, 2) 2. V ( 2, 3), F ( 2, 4) 3. V (1, 3), F (1, 0)

4. V (0, 3), F ( 1, 3) 5. V ( 3, 1), F (0, 1)

In Problems 6 10, use the coordinates of the vertex V and directrix of a parabola to find the
equation of the parabola and the coordinates of its focus.
6. V (2, 0), the y -axis 7. V (1, 2), the x -axis 8. V ( 3, 1), the line x = 1
9. V ( 2, 2), the line y = 3 10. V (0, 1), the line y = 2

In Problems 11 15, find the vertex, axis, focus and directrix of the given parabola.
 54

11. x 2 = 100 y 12. y 2 = 36 x 13. x 2 + 8 y 4 = 0

14. y2 + 6 y + 2x + 5 = 0 15. x 2 2 x + 8 y 7 = 0

16. Show that the tangents to the curve y 2 = 4 px from any point on the line x = p are
perpendicular.

17. Archimedes formula for the area enclosed by a parabolic arch.

(a) Find an equation for the parabolic arch that opens downward, left arm passing through the
origin resulting in a base b on the x-axis and the vertex sitting at a height h from the x-
axis. [You will be able to do this problem once Lesson 4 on integration is completed.]
(b) Show that the area enclosed by the arch and the x-axis is (2 3)b h .

18. Archimedes formula for the volume of a parabolic solid.

The region enclosed by the parabola y = (4 h b 2 ) x 2 and the line y = h is revolved about
the y-axis to generate a solid. Show that the volume of the solid is 3 2 the volume of the
cone that has the same size base and the height of the parabolic solid. [You will be able to do
this problem once Lesson 4 on integration is completed.]

19. Constructing tangents to parabolas.

Show that the tangent to the parabola y 2 = 4 p x at P1 ( x1 , y1 ) meets the axis of symmetry

x1 units to the left of the vertex. This provides a simple way to construct the tangent to the
parabola at a point other than the vertex, at which the y-axis already serves as the tangent.

20. The reflective property of parabolas.

Assume that when a ray of light is reflected by a mirror, the angle of incidence is equal to the
angle of reflection. If a mirror is formed by rotating a parabola about its axis and silvering the
resulting surface, show that a ray of light coming from the focus of the parabola is reflected
parallel to the axis.