Structure of Genes

A typical gene consists of regulatory component and a structural component

The regulatory componentalso called as regulatory unit,regulatory sequences,regulatory region
or control region, consists of promotor, operator, enhancer and attenuators and
These sequences may occur at one end of a structural gene, as promoter and operator do (the 5
prime end)
Between promotor operator sequences and their structural genes as attenuator do or at some
distance from the gene decoding start site as in the case with enhancer.some regulatory
sequences have been found in the introns of same genes.
The term upstream and downstream are often used to describe the position of
sequences.Upstream means in 5 prime direction with regard to reference sequence, downstream
means in the 3 prime direction with regard to the reference sequence.
So we can refer to the promotor and operator as upstream of the structural gene start site and to
particular enhancer as being upstream or downstream of the structural gene start site.

1: Promoter
promoters are gene sequences recognized by DNA directed RNApolymarases as their
attachments sites.promotors are situated to the 5 prime end of the structural genes.The DNA
sequence range from 20 - 200 base pairs,common to many bacterial promotors is that they have
two identical or nearly identical sequences. the first TATAAT sequence also called pribnowbox
discovered by David pribnow in 1975.Sometimes it is also called-10 region,to indicate that the
sequence begins ten nucleotides upstream from the gene start site.
The second sequence TTGACA is called-35 region named in reference to its position vis- a-vis
the structural gene start site.
The pribnowbox is the attachment site for sigma unit of RNA polymarase and-35 region is
another attachment site for the enzyme. In eukaryotes a sequence analogous to pribnowbox
called Hogness box is a TATAAA, after its dicoverer David Hogness.

2: Operator
Operators are nucleotides sequences that lie between promoter and the structural gene. They are
the regions of DNA to which repressor routines bind and thereby prevent
transcriptions.Repressors proteins have a very affinity for operator sequences. Repression
transcriptions is accomplished by the repression proteins, attaching to operator sequences
downstream of the promotors sequence.
The enzyme must pass the operators sequence to reach the structural genes start site.The
repressor protien bound to operator physically precedes this passage and as aresult transcription
by polymerasecan not occur.

3: Attenuator
The attenuator sequence are found in bacterial gene clusters that code for enzymes involved in
amino acids by biosynthesis. Attenuators are located within so called leader sequences,a unit of
about 162 nucleotide pairs situated between promotors operator region and the first structural
gene start site of the cluster.
Attenuation as a tenfold effect on transcription. As the level of amino acids in the cell rises and
falls, attenuators adjust the level of transcription to accommodate the changing levels of amino
acids. High concentration of amino acids result in low level of transcription and low
concentration of amino acids results in high level of transcription.

4: Enhnacer
Enhancers were first described in the animal DNA virus SV40. These control elements are
Located near the virus replication origin. Enhancers now have been found in eukaryotic cells and
in RNA viruses as well.The functions of enhancers sequence appear to be increase the number
of RNApolymerase molecules transcribing the structural genes.
Enhancers seem not to have particular position and that they have been found some distance
upstream and downstream of the start site of the gene they control.
Enhancers are activated by binding of specific proteins sequences. This binding causes the
looping out of introns and thus brings the enhancers close to promotor.All the cellular enhancers
discovered so for have been found to be required for the selective gene expression in specific
tissues.

GENE TYPES
There are many types of genes. Some of them are given as follows.

1: Eukaryotic Genes
Eukaryotic Genes are monocistranictanscription unit and that the mRNA carries information for
only single Polypeptide .The genes that code for histone proteins and the genes needed for
thesynthesis of alpha and beta interferons lack noncoding sequences.Most introns have common
features.Most begins with the sequences GT and end with AG.
A sequence may be very large relative to coding sequences in some genes.90 percent of the
sequence between 5 Prime and 3 Prime end of mRNA is introns.
Eukaryotic genes may be clustered but are independently controlled. Prokaryotic genes single
control genes often acts on the whole cluster. Clustered gene in mammalian is the Globin Gene
which are Proteins components of hemoglobin.

2: Prokaryotic Genes
Prokaryotic genes are not interrupted by noncoding sequences. The structural genes of
prokaryotic are often activated in clusters referred to as Polycistronic transcription units or
operons. such genes are coordinately regulated and the transcription unit contains information
for the construction of more than one Polypeptide.

3: Regulatory Genes
Regulatory genes are required to make synthesis of proteins for regulatory functions of the cell
or whose function is to control the expression of structural genes with regard to their make up.
These genes are like structural genes.

4: Structural genes
Structural genes encode proteins for the structuralcomponents of the cell or which are needed for
metabolic activities of the cell i.e. enzymes,structuralproteins and receptors.
5: Overlaping Genes
The nucleotide sequence of some genes is completely contained within the sequences of other
genes i.e. the gene B is included in the sequence of gene A and gene K is positioned with in the
gene A and C.This strategy allows a larger unit of information to be contained within a particular
length of DNA. Overlapping genes have been discovered in eukaryotes also.
The gene for human factor VIII is found on x Chromosomes within the factor VIII gene is nested
another gene and within the Thyroid hormone receptor gene there is another gene related to
thyroid hormone receptor gene.

6: Non Overlapping Genes

Non overlapping genes possess isolated entity and are not contain within another gene. most of
prokaryotic and eukaryotic genes have non overlapping type of setup.
7: Transposons
Mc Clintock found that certain mutations were very unstable, appearing and disappearing from
one generation to the next or even life time of an individual. She concluded that certain genetic
elements were moving from one place in chromosome to an entirely different site.She called this
genetic rearrangement transposition and the mobile genetic elements transposable elements.
Molecular biologist found no evidence of jumping genes or mobile genes .They said that genes
are stable elements.However 1960 it was discovered that DNA sequence in bacteria moved on
rare occasion from one place in a genome to another.these elements were called transposans.
They encode a protein transposase that catalyze the excision of a transposans from a donor DNA
site and its subsequent insertion at a target DNA site.Transposition occur by cut and paste
mechanism.

8: Pseudo genes
When the DNA Sequence of globin clusters were analyzed, researchers found genes whose
sequences are homologous to those of functional globin genes but which have accumulated sever
mutations that render them nonfunctional.
Genes of this type which are evolutionary relics are known as pseudo genes. Pseudo genes are
found in both human alpha and beta globin gene clusters.

9: Split genes
Genes with intervening sequences or introns are called split genes.those Part of the split genes
contribute to the mature RNA product are called exons,whereas the intervening sequences are
called introns.split genes are widely spread among eukaryotes although the introns of simpler
eukaryotes tend to be fewer in number and smaller in size then those of more complex
animals.Introns are found in all types of genes including those that encodetRNArRNA and
mRNA.
The nucleotide sequences that specify amino acids are called exons(from the word expressed) or
coding sequences, while the introns are noncoding sequences.
Introns vary insize,number,location and nucleotide sequence from one gene to another. Often the
total length of a gene exceed the total length of exons of that gene by anywhere from 2 to 10
times.