613

Structural analysis of a commercial vehicle disc brake

caliper
M Tirovic1*, N Sergent1, J Campbell1, P Roberts2, and R Vignjevic1
1
Cranfield University, Cranfield, Bedfordshire, UK
2
Meritor Heavy Vehicle Braking System (UK) Ltd, Cwmbran, South Wales, UK

The manuscript was received on 20 December 2010 and was accepted after revision for publication on 24 August 2011.

DOI: 10.1177/0954407011423447

Abstract: Disc brake calipers are subjected to significant mechanical loading, with design
requirements being particularly stringent with respect to the stresses, the deflections, the
installation envelope, the noise, vibration, and harshness, and the thermal aspects. Modern
finite element (FE) techniques can successfully model caliper assemblies; however, the limita-
tions in predicting the caliper behaviour are primarily related to accurate definition of the
boundary conditions, because of complex interactions between the individual components.
Traditionally, strain gauges and displacement transducers have been used for measuring the
caliper strains and deflections. This approach is expensive and time consuming, requiring
installation of numerous transducers and complex data processing, and has limited accuracy.
The application of digital image correlation (DIC) to a commercial vehicle disc brake caliper
provided valuable strain results. In comparison with strain gauges, DIC proved to be excep-
tionally easy to use and enables straightforward comparison of measured strains with FE pre-
dicted values. Initial work dealt with the static actuating forces, and excellent correlation
between the predicted and the measured strain values was achieved throughout the operating
range of clamp forces. The present authors are confident that the addition of the dynamic fric-
tional forces will give even more interesting results, providing insight into the interaction of
different components within the brake assembly.

Keywords: commercial vehicle, disc brake, caliper, finite element modelling, digital image
correlation

1 BACKGROUND
Over the years, all types of brake caliper have been
substantially developed and finite element (FE) mod-
elling has, in recent times, considerably helped to
create new higher-performance designs. However,
most published work deals with the design aspects of
sliding calipers for passenger cars, such as the papers
by Rath and Micke [1], and Samie and Sheridan [2].
In addition to design considerations, other aspects of
the caliper operation have also been researched and
reported: thermal aspects by Day et al. [3]; pres-
sure distribution by Tirovic and Day [4], Bakar
*Corresponding author: Cranfield University, Cranfield,
Bedfordshire MK43 0AL, UK.
email: m.tirovic@cranfield.ac.uk
and Ouyang [5], and Kim et al. [6]; brake squeal by
Bajer et al. [7]; pad wear by Hohmann and
Schiffner [8]. There is little information about the
influences of the boundary conditions and com-
ponent interaction on the caliper loading and
design optimization. There is even less published
work on commercial vehicle disc brakes, which
mostly deals with disc thermal aspects, the excep-
tion being the papers by Micke et al. [9], and more
recently by Thomas and Jackson [10], who
explained in detail the complexities of commercial
vehicle caliper design.
Some interesting results regarding the analysis,
boundary conditions, and design optimization of a
fixed (opposed hydraulic piston) type of caliper for
high-performance cars were presented by Sergent
and Tirovic [11]. The results indicated that, by

Proc. IMechE Vol. 226 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering

Downloaded from pid.sagepub.com at UNIVERSITE DE SHERBROOKE on April 11, 2015
614 M Tirovic, N Sergent, J Campbell, P Roberts, and R Vignjevic
carefully considering the loading cases and boundary
conditions and by applying optimization procedures,
the caliper mass can be considerably reduced. The
present authors are following this approach and
investigating all parameters and procedures related
to caliper structural optimization. The initial results
obtained by the present authors [12] in studying the
caliper structural performance were published in
2008, with further work reported here.
Modelling and analysis of commercial vehicle
calipers remain considerable challenges for numer-
ous reasons. The definition of the boundary condi-
tions is related to interaction of the components,
and in particular to interface friction (on all contact
surfaces), thermal aspects (expansion, and change
in the material properties), and friction material
wear. These aspects, in addition to numerical prob-
lems (model instability), are the limiting factors in
obtaining accurate and reliable modelling results. It
should be noted here that experimental results, even
when the measurements are conducted under
nominally identical conditions, may vary owing to
the changes in the parameters listed above.
The values of the interface parameters are diffi-
cult to obtain in isolation, and measurements of
deflections and stresses on the entire caliper assem-
blies are necessary in order to validate modelling
work. Obviously, such experimental work can only
be conducted on existing calipers, and utmost care
is necessary in applying the findings to any new
designs, regardless of their apparent similarity to
existing solutions. Digital image correlation (DIC)
provides a practical method to measure deflections
and strains in the caliper assemblies for validation
of the analysis results.
DIC is a non-contact optical technique that uses
one or more cameras to take a series of images dur-
ing an experiment. These images can then be post-
processed to give full-field deformation information,
allowing the strain field to be calculated. This
method requires a stochastic pattern to be applied
on to the surface of the test object. The experimen-
tal deformation and strain fields for the region of
interest can then be directly used and/or compared
with other experimental or modelling results.
Publications on the use of DIC in structural analysis
are becoming more numerous but the present
authors are not aware of any publication related to
friction brake analysis. Nevertheless, the work con-
ducted by Wang et al. [13], addressing FE model
updating from full-field strain data, is considered
particularly useful since it combines DIC experi-
mental and FE modelling techniques. Pottier et al.
[14] applied the FE updating inverse method to sev-
eral sample geometries using DIC. The boundary
Proc. IMechE Vol. 226 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
Downloaded from pid.sagepub.com at UNIVERSITE DE SHERBROOKE on April 11, 2015
conditions obtained from the measured displace-
ments at the sample border were applied to FE
models. Although the paper deals with the fracture
occurring in deep-drawing forming, the basic
approach in using the boundary conditions from
experimental investigations can be suitably applied
in brake caliper modelling, in dynamic conditions,
when frictional forces are applied in the contact
areas. Fagerholt et al. [15] conducted an experimen-
tal and numerical investigation of the fracture beha-
viour of a cast aluminium alloy. Newly developed
software features allowed DIC to be used for detect-
ing and following crack propagation. Numerical cal-
culations included a user-defined material model
implemented in an explicit FE code. This is an inter-
esting approach which has potential application in
studying brake component fatigue in endurance
tests.
Brake calipers are notoriously difficult to model
under braking conditions because of complex inter-
action between the caliper components. As a result,
the FE modelling results are highly dependent on
the boundary conditions, which can vary consider-
ably. DIC is expected to help to assess the caliper
strain fields in these dynamic conditions. It should
be noted that the maximum strain (stress) levels are
often reached in non-accessible areas. Since DIC
can (only) measure strains within the field of view
(of two cameras), combination with strain gauge
measurements and FE analyses is necessary, at this
stage, to obtain full information about strain levels.
The effective combination of the three methods is
seen as the next important development tool in
designing stiffer and lighter calipers.
As a first step in analysing the brake caliper struc-
tural behaviour, only actuating forces are applied,
without any torque or thermal loading. In this man-
ner, all components will have a nominal geometry
and the caliper behaviour should be consistent; the
measurements are expected to give reliable and
repeatable results. No doubt, friction material prop-
erties represent the most likely source of uncertainty.
To limit potential variations in the results obtained, a
new caliper and brand new pads with known friction
material compressibility were used.
2 CALIPER DESIGN AND LOADING
The computer-aided design (CAD) model of the
brake assembly (without the pneumatic actuator) is
shown in Fig. 1.
The principle of caliper and brake operation is
schematically presented in Fig. 2. The disc 1 can
rotate but cannot move axially; the fixed (carrier)
 Structural analysis of a commercial vehicle disc brake caliper
Fig. 1 Commercial vehicle disc brake assembly (CAD
model)
part 2 of the caliper is bolted on to the axle or an
upright or a knuckle; this part 2 houses the pads
and takes on (reacts with) the frictional forces devel-
oped at the paddisc interface. The carrier 2 also
guides the sliding (actuating) part 3 of the caliper.
The actuating force is provided by the pneumatic
actuator 4, which is attached to the body of the slid-
ing part 3 of the caliper. It should be noted here that
infinitely rigid mounting of the fixed part 2 of the
caliper is considered adequate for modelling the
actuating forces at this stage (as tested on the rig)
but, owing to the high torques developed when fric-
tional forces are generated on friction surfaces, the
carrier 2 is usually modelled with part of the axle,
torque plate, or knuckle, as the axle deflection can
have a significant effect.
When the air pressure is supplied to the actuator
4, the rod in the actuator transfers the force to the
actuating mechanism in the sliding part 3 of the
caliper, which amplifies this force (using a lever or
similar mechanism) and the actuating forces Fa0 are
applied to the inboard pad 5 via two pistons. Since
the actuator 4 is bolted to the body of the sliding
caliper part 3, reaction actuating forces Fa00 are gen-
erated on the opposite end, acting on the outboard
pad 6. The actuating forces Fa0 and Fa00 are trans-
mitted through the back plates and friction material
of the pads (inboard 5 and outboard 6), to the (fric-
tion) interface surfaces between the pads and the
Downloaded from pid.sagepub.com at UNIVERSITE DE SHERBROOKE on April 11, 2015
615
Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of the brake and caliper
assembly
disc. If the disc is to rotate in the direction shown,
the frictional forces Fm0 and Fm00 are being generated
at the contact interfaces. These forces are trans-
mitted through the pad friction material and back
plates and react with the fixed part 2 of the caliper,
i.e. the forces R and R. The forces Fm0 and Fm00 , and
their reactions R and R provide braking forces
which result in vehicle deceleration (or ensure park-
ing forces on the gradients).
Although the principle of caliper operation is rel-
atively simple (Figs 1 and 2) and the functions (and
loading) of the two caliper parts, i.e. the fixed part
2 and the sliding part 3, are individually clear, the
interaction of the components is more compli-
cated. Because of the high applied actuating forces
Fa0 and Fa00 , up to 240 kN for the largest calipers at
the maximum braking duty, the generated fric-
tional forces Fm0 and Fm00 at the discpad interfaces
are also high. All these forces deform the compo-
nents and, as a result, considerable frictional forces
will also be developed at all contact surfaces where
there is relative movement and/or load transfer.
For instance, the frictional force Fm will be gener-
ated between the actuating pistons and the back
plate of the inboard pad 5, as well as the frictional
force Fm between the sliding part of the caliper
and the back plate of the outboard pad 6.
Furthermore, deflection of the pad back plates will
cause frictional forces in the contacts with the fixed
part 2 of the caliper; forces R* and R** will be gen-
erated. There will be further forces (not shown in
Fig. 2) in the actuating pistons guiding the
Proc. IMechE Vol. 226 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
616 M Tirovic, N Sergent, J Campbell, P Roberts, and R Vignjevic
mechanisms and in the sliding mechanisms (pins)
guiding the sliding part 3 within the fixed part 2 of
the caliper. It is important to note that all these
secondary frictional forces will change throughout
the brake application, even if the actuating forces
remain constant. Heat generated at the discpad
interface will cause the components to expand,
which will alter the relative positions and also
influence the local coefficients of friction. The
change in the secondary frictional forces is influ-
enced by many other parameters such as the local
temperatures, the interface pressures, the friction
lining wear, and the conditions of the surfaces
(lubricated, painted, or corroded). As a result, these
forces can vary substantially in magnitude and
direction.
Such complex relationships require careful
experimental investigation in order to obtain the
data necessary to define the boundary conditions
and component interactions required for adequate
FE modelling and ultimately model validationcor-
relation. As the first step in this direction, a study of
the static loading conditions has been performed;
the pressure is applied in the system but the disc is
not rotating.
3 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
As mentioned earlier, DIC was employed for mea-
surement of the experimental strain field. This is a
non-contact test procedure, which allows three-
dimensional (3D) measurements of the strain and
deformation. The DIC method also has the ability to
cancel any rigid body motion. The DIC system used
in this work was a Dantec Dynamics Q-400. The
basic principles are illustrated in Fig. 3. The two
cameras (Fig. 3(a)) are directed towards the area of
interest of the component tested.
Fig. 3 DIC principle
Proc. IMechE Vol. 226 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
Downloaded from pid.sagepub.com at UNIVERSITE DE SHERBROOKE on April 11, 2015
Each camera takes the image of the component
from a different view angle and both images are
captured, logged, and processed by the computer
and supporting software. When the component is
loaded, it will deform, which will result in changes
in both images (as captured by the two cameras),
and this is the fundamental principle of DIC opera-
tion. It is possible to measure small strains but the
surfaces must be prepared and the set-up must be
calibrated. The area of interest on the component
surface is first painted white and then sprayed with
a mist of black paint, as shown in Fig. 3(b). A fine
random pattern is necessary for the measurement
to give accurate results. Furthermore, the system
requires calibration by placing a special calibration
plate (with a precisely produced chequered pattern,
as shown in Fig. 3(c)) in the proximity of the mea-
sured area in various positions towards the cameras.
Figure 4 shows the brake assembly installed on a
brake spin rig, with the DIC equipment set-up for
taking the measurements. More information about
the brake assembly and rig installation has been
given by Culierat [16]. The figure also shows numer-
ous thermocouples for investigating the thermal
effects. The actuating air pressure is measured using
a pressure transducer, and the rod of the pneumatic
actuator is strain gauged for measuring the actuat-
ing force. A specially adapted displacement transdu-
cer was suitably attached to the actuator rod to
measure the stroke (displacement) during brake
application. For conducting the measurements and
data collection, a National Instruments (NI) DAQ-
9172 data measurements, control, and logging sys-
tem, suitable NI modules, and a computer running
LabVIEW software were used. All transducers were
calibrated and, in order to assess the actuating force
losses within the caliper, a special set of pads with
built-in force transducers was also used during the
set-up process. The entire procedure is well
 Structural analysis of a commercial vehicle disc brake caliper
Fig. 4 Experimental set-up
established and the caliper was precisely adjusted
prior to mounting on the spin rig, with the set-up
shown in Fig. 4.
The DIC system consists of two digital cameras
(1392 3 1040 pixels resolution), a monochrome
lighting source, and a computer with special DIC
image-analysing software. Figure 5(a) indicates the
area of interest, with Figs 5(b) and (c) showing the
digital outputs from the two cameras. As expected,
the two images are different but show the same part
of the component.
Fig. 5 (a) Area of interest; (b), (c) images captured by the two cameras
Downloaded from pid.sagepub.com at UNIVERSITE DE SHERBROOKE on April 11, 2015
617
In Fig. 6(a), the area of interest is clearly marked.
DIC enables this area to be extracted and repre-
sented as a 3D surface, as shown in Fig. 6(b). For
illustration purposes, the strain distribution at the
area of interest is shown in Fig. 6(c).
The experiment was conducted as follows. First,
images of the caliper (area of interest) were taken
when no air pressure (actuating force) was applied.
This corresponds to the zero-strain state. Then, air
pressure was applied in 1 bar increments, up to 6 bar,
and subsequently decreased also in 1 bar increments
to 0 bar. Images were taken for each step.
Figure 7(a) shows the principal strain contour
and also a selected point (within the area of interest)
on the caliper for which the full history plot (shown
in Fig. 7(b)) is presented for all 12 steps. Each step
represents a 1 bar increase and a subsequent
decrease in pressure in the pneumatic actuator. It
was possible to adjust the air pressure using a
closed-loop system; however, it was found that this
was not necessary since the pressure values were
stable throughout each step (lasting approximately
1 min). The pressure was therefore changed using a
manual control valve (adjustable visually to within
+ 0.05 bar). The actual pressure values were mea-
sured using a pressure transducer and, in order to
measure the resulting actuating force accurately, the
pneumatic actuator rod was suitably strain gauged.
Proc. IMechE Vol. 226 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
618 M Tirovic, N Sergent, J Campbell, P Roberts, and R Vignjevic

Fig. 6 (a) Selection of the area of interest; (b) 3D representation; (c) strain distribution

Using DIC, it was possible to measure the strain further to the statistical errors. Systematic errors are
over a relatively large area, and also to monitor the introduced by the subpixel effects due to the discre-
strain change during time (loading and offloading), tization of the real speckle pattern by the charge-
i.e. to create a history plot. DIC enables rigid body coupled device pixels and potentially by non-linear
motions to be identified and isolated. distortion of the facets.
Uncertainty analysis of the entire experimental 3D reconstruction errors are related to the uncer-
process is a complex task, considering the variables tainties in the calibration parameters, which lead to
measured and the equipment used. For measure- errors when reconstructing the 3D coordinates from
ments of the caliper forcedisplacement relation- correlated facets of the two cameras. Calibration
ships, which also include the actuating air pressure, errors appear in a systematic manner as a function
a wealth of experience has been gained over the of the facet positions in the camera frames, causing
years. This enables accurate prediction of uncertain- local distortions of the reconstructed 3D space.
ties and detailed insight into the caliper amplifica- Detailed uncertainty analysis is very complex
tion ratio, caliper and pad deflections, friction but typically, for full-field displacement and strain
losses, and hysteresis within the actuating mechan-
ism. For the measurements presented here (Figs 4
to 7), of particular interest are the uncertainties
related to DIC measurements. From the information
provided by the system supplier Dantec Dynamics
[17], the accuracy of DIC analysis is strongly linked
to the resolution and quality of images. More specif-
ically, the Dantec Technical Note for the system
used (Q-400) states that corresponding data uncer-
tainties, originating from different sources, can be
grouped into two categories: correlation errors and
3D reconstruction errors.
Correlation errors can be divided into statistical
and systematic errors. Statistical errors primarily
result from the limited number of pixels and corre-
sponding grey values in each facet. These errors
decrease with increasing square root of the number
of facet pixels. Different illumination conditions for
the two cameras, the image contrast and size of the
speckle pattern on the specimen surface, and the Fig. 7 (a) Strain contour plot and (b) history (step)
statistical noise of the grey values all contribute variation for the selected point

Proc. IMechE Vol. 226 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering

Downloaded from pid.sagepub.com at UNIVERSITE DE SHERBROOKE on April 11, 2015
 Structural analysis of a commercial vehicle disc brake caliper 619

measurements on a specimens surface, the displa-

cement errors are of the order of less than 0.02 pix-
els, and the strain errors are limited to 0.05 m Strain,
when using a lens with 50 mm focal length. If the
displacements are small (less than 50 pixels), the
errors scale linearly. The relative displacement
errors are of the order of 0.010.05 per cent, and the
strain errors typically are 15 m Strain/pixel, related
to the existent displacements.
Based on the above consideration, the accuracy
of DIC analysis is strongly linked to the resolution
and quality of the images. The DIC measurements
were conducted in a relatively small caliper area,
within the middle ranges of the field of view of the
camera (lens), the distance, and the angle of view,
with good light conditions, a suitable camera focal
length and resolution (1392 3 1040 pixels), and suc-
cessful repetitive calibration. The estimated errors
are considered to be within 6 5 per cent of the strain
measured.

4 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

A FE model of the brake assembly was created on
the basis of the CAD model shown in Fig. 1. More
details about the FE meshing and modelling have
been given by Robinet [18]. The caliper geometry is
not quite symmetrical primarily owing to the long
and short guide sleeve and to the manual adjuster;
however, for the considered static load case and
concentrating on the area of interest away from var-
iations between the geometries of the two caliper
ends, it is considered sufficient to model only one
half of the caliper. Obviously, the experimental
result will be used to validate the assumptions
made. As mentioned earlier, introduction of the fric-
tional forces will require modelling of the entire
caliper and even parts of the axle or torque plate
or knuckle in order to take into consideration
the actual boundary conditions during braking.
Figures 8(a) and (b) show the entire FE model and
the details of the contact definition respectively.
The FE assembly (Fig. 8) consists of the brake disc,
the fixed and sliding parts of the caliper, and the
pads (see also Figs 1 and 2).
The mesh was created and FE analyses conducted
using the ABAQUS software package. Several FE
models were created, varying the mesh type, com-
plexity, and contact definition between the caliper
components. The model shown has been estab-
lished as a reliable and effective tool in predicting
the caliper behaviour in static loading conditions.
Linear hexahedral elements have been used for all
contacting parts for better accuracy. However, for
Fig. 8 FE model: (a) brake assembly and area of inter-
est; (b) actuating and contact details
more complex geometries, linear tetrahedral ele-
ments were necessary. The disc (made from grey
cast iron) was meshed using 14 188 hexahedral
elements. The fixed part of the caliper (made in
spheroidal graphite (SG) cast iron) consists of
14 596 tetrahedral elements and 15 hexahedral ele-
ments. The sliding part of the caliper, also made of
SG iron, was modelled using 346 hexahedral ele-
ments and 117 824 tetrahedral elements. Finally,
each pad was meshed with 7130 hexahedral ele-
ments, with steel for the back plates and composite
organic friction material.
The contact between the pad faces and the disc as
well as the contact between the back plate of the out-
board pad and the caliper were defined as surface-
to-surface contact, with a frictionless tangential
behaviour and hard normal behaviour, meaning no
penetration of nodes between surfaces. Figure 8(b)
highlights the contact areas.
Since the assembly was considered symmetrical,
appropriate boundary conditions (zero displace-
ment through the plane of symmetry) were specified
for all nodes in the symmetry plane (Fig. 8). To
ensure model stability and robustness of the simula-
tions, several approaches were tried for introducing
the actuation forces. The most appropriate solution
was found to be the application of the actuating
forces on actuating pistons (Fa0 in Figs 2 and 8(b)),

Proc. IMechE Vol. 226 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering

Downloaded from pid.sagepub.com at UNIVERSITE DE SHERBROOKE on April 11, 2015
620 M Tirovic, N Sergent, J Campbell, P Roberts, and R Vignjevic
similar to that in the real caliper. However, rather
than allowing the sliding part of the caliper (com-
ponent 3 in Fig. 2) to move, this caliper part was
fixed (by specifying zero displacement) at the
actuator attachment area, as indicated in Fig. 8(b)
(see also Fig. 2). The disc and pads were allowed to
move (slide) axially (as indicated in Fig. 8(b) by the
white arrows), which ensured that the actuating
forces Fa0 are transmitted through the inboard pad
and the disc itself to the outboard pad. This, in
turn, ensured that the reaction forces Fa00 (see Figs 2
and 8(b)) actuating the outboard pad are identical
with the forces Fa0 (which actuate directly the
inboard pad). Caliper loading and interaction of all
components are identical with those for the real
brake assembly but this small modification in the
way that the boundary conditions were introduced
helped greatly to ensure model stability and to
simplify the analysis procedure. Obviously, this
approach is only possible for the considered static
loading condition, when no frictional forces are
generated.
The magnitude of the actuating forces Fa0 was cal-
culated from the experimental loading conditions
explained earlier. The FE model is presented in
Fig. 9(a), with the area of interest highlighted.
Figure 9(b) shows one of the FE result outputs,
namely the calculated contour plot of the maximum
principal strain in the area of interest, correspond-
ing to an actuating pressure of 6 bar. The results
from the FE analyses and tests can be compared to
assess the accuracy of the FE model and DIC suit-
ability for analysing brake calipers.
Fig. 9 (a) Area of interest; (b) maximum principal strain distribution
Proc. IMechE Vol. 226 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
Downloaded from pid.sagepub.com at UNIVERSITE DE SHERBROOKE on April 11, 2015
5 COMPARISON OF RESULTS
The strain results obtained from the FE analyses are
compared with the DIC experimental results for two
cases. First, a node was selected in the high-stress
area of the sliding part of the caliper, in a position
identical with the point selected for DIC data pro-
cessing, as indicated in Fig. 7. The DIC strain mea-
surement results (also shown in Fig. 7) are compared
with FE predictions for a range of actuating forces,
corresponding to pneumatic pressures from 1 bar to
6 bar, in 1 bar increments. Figure 10 shows the maxi-
mum principal strain at the selected point for the
pressure range used (06 bar). The FE results show a
linear change in the strain with the actuating pres-
sure, with the DIC values following closely. It can be
seen (Fig. 10) that the DIC measurements are similar
to the FE predictions except for the values at an
actuating air pressure of 2 bar, which showed some
differences, and the values at an actuating pressure
of 5 bar, which demonstrated more pronounced dif-
ferences and deviation from the linear trend. It
should be noted here that the experimental (DIC)
values can be affected by numerous influences (the
friction in the guiding pins, the temperature, etc.)
despite the fact that the measurements being con-
ducted ensure a high accuracy of the actuating force
in a controlled laboratory environment within a short
period of time. The average difference between the
strains found by the FE results and the DIC results is
only 0.045 mm/m (6.5 per cent difference) with a
maximum difference of 0.1 mm/m at a pneumatic
actuating pressure of 5 bar.
 Structural analysis of a commercial vehicle disc brake caliper
Fig. 10 FE and DIC strain results at the selected point
Fig. 11 Comparison of the DIC and FE strain results
along the line: (a) DIC image and FE mesh,
showing the area of interest and the selected
line; (b) DIC strain contour and the selected
line; (c) DIC and FE strain results along the
selected line for an air pressure of 6 bar
Downloaded from pid.sagepub.com at UNIVERSITE DE SHERBROOKE on April 11, 2015
621
A similar comparison was carried out for a sus-
tained pressure of 6 bar across a geometrical line on
the caliper. Figure 11(a) shows the area of interest
and the line selected for comparing the DIC results
with the FE results. Figure 11(b) shows the DIC
strain contour plot and the selected line. The strains
were extracted on each node along that line.
Figure 11(c) shows the measured (DIC) and the cal-
culated (FE) maximal principal strains along the
selected line (as shown in Fig. 11(a), with zero dis-
tance corresponding to the left end, i.e. the proxim-
ity of the caliper edge). The results are very similar,
with FE results showing some scatter because the
actual, nodal strain results were used without any
averaging. The maximum difference is only
0.07 mm/m, which is encouraging in building the
necessary confidence in both the theoretical method
and the experimental method. The maximum strain
along the selected line was about 1.4 mm/m (both
calculated and measured). The maximum principal
predicted strain, as shown in Fig. 9(b), is 1.857 mm/
m (i.e. 1.857 3 103). Considering that Youngs mod-
ulus for the SG iron is 170 GPa, the maximum stress
is just over 300 MPa. This is well within acceptable
limits but, for the final strain (and stress) assess-
ment of the caliper, it is necessary to analyse also
the influence of the frictional forces and the distri-
bution of the service loads.
6 CONCLUSIONS
The use of FE modelling and DIC for assessing the
strain levels of a commercial vehicle caliper proved
successful. The results are almost identical, with
only minor differences across the large, most
stressed area of the caliper. DIC proved to be easy
to use and the comparison of the strain values with
the FE results is straightforward, requiring little
time. Initial investment in DIC equipment is high
but the ease and speed of use at almost no addi-
tional costs, combined with the ability to investigate
large caliper areas, make the technology cost effec-
tive. The only limitation in using DIC is related to
the ability to obtain a clear view of the area of inter-
est by the two cameras.
The study presented here concentrates on the
actuating forces, and further work in strain assess-
ment is required, in order to include the frictional
forces. This will give better insight into caliper load-
ing conditions but ultimately, to simulate true ser-
vice duties, pad wear aspects would also need to be
considered.
The results obtained so far are building confi-
dence in FE analyses and present a good base for
Proc. IMechE Vol. 226 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
622 M Tirovic, N Sergent, J Campbell, P Roberts, and R Vignjevic
further modelling work and design optimization.
The use of DIC is seen as a necessary and effective
way to define interactions between brake assembly
components. These studies are vital in providing
improved boundary conditions for defining and
loading brake components in numerical modelling
analysis for existing calipers and, more importantly,
for the synthesis of novel optimized caliper solu-
tions. DICs further crucial role is in validating these
designs.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to former MSc students
Benjamin Robinet and Jeremy Culierat for their
modelling and experimental work on this brake
assembly.
FUNDING
This work was supported by Meritor Heavy Vehicle
Braking System (UK) Ltd, Cranfield University, and
the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research
Council, UK [grant no. GR/T18424/01].
Authors 2011
REFERENCES
1 Rath, H. and Micke, S. The Girling Colette disc
brake. SAE paper 770183, 1977.
2 Samie, F. and Sheridan, D. C. Contact analysis for
a passenger car disc brake. SAE paper 90005, 1990.
3 Day, A. J., Tirovic, M., and Newcomb, T. P. Ther-
mal effects and pressure distributions in brakes.
Proc. IMechE, Part D: J. Automobile Engineering,
1991, 205(3), 199205.
4 Tirovic, M. and Day, A. J. Disc brake interface pres-
sure distributions. Proc. IMechE, Part D: J. Automo-
bile Engineering, 1991, 205(2), 137146.
5 Bakar, R. A. and Ouyang, H. Interface pressure dis-
tributions through structural modifications. SAE
paper 2003-01-3332, 2003.
6 Kim, S. S., Cho, S. B., and Yeo, T. J. On the effects
of piston and finger offset on the pressure distribu-
tion at disk brake pad interface. SAE paper 2005-
01-0794, 2005.
7 Bajer, A., Belsky, V., and Kung, S. The influence of
friction-induced damping and non-linear effects
on brake squeal analysis. SAE paper 2004-01-2794,
2004.
8 Hohmann, C. H. and Schiffner, K. Pad wear simu-
lation model. SAE paper 1999-01-3392, 1999.
9 Micke, S., Thompson, R. E., and Roehling, B. H.
The introduction of air disc brakes for trucks and
buses in Europe. SAE paper 902203, 1990.
Proc. IMechE Vol. 226 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
Downloaded from pid.sagepub.com at UNIVERSITE DE SHERBROOKE on April 11, 2015
10 Thomas, P. and Jackson, J. Modular approach to
disc brake adjusters and disc brake design. In Pro-
ceedings of the IQPC Innovative Braking 2007 Con-
gress, Frankfurt, Germany, 2007.
11 Sergent, N. and Tirovic, M. Brake caliper design
optimisation. In Proceedings of the Braking 2009
Conference, York, UK, 910 June 2009, pp. 131138.
12 Tirovic, M., Sergent, N., Campbell, J., Roberts, P.,
and Vignjevic, R. Validation of disc brake caliper
structural performance using digital image correla-
tion. In Proceedings of the Brems-tech 2008 Con-
gress, Munich, Germany, 2008, paper no. 7.
13 Wang, W., Mottershead, J. E., Sebastian, C. M.,
and Patterson, E. A. Shape features and finite ele-
ment model updating from full-field strain data.
Int. J. Solids Structs, 2011, 48, 16441657.
14 Pottier, T., Toussaint, F., and Vacher, P. Contribu-
tion of heterogeneous strain field measurements
and boundary conditions modelling in inverse
identification of material parameters. Eur. J. Mech.
A/Solids, 2011, 30, 373382.
15 Fagerholt, E., Drum, C., Brvik, T., Laukli, H. I.,
and Hopperstad, O. S. Experimental and numeri-
cal investigation of fracture in a cast aluminium
alloy. Int. J. Solids Structs, 2010, 47, 33523365.
16 Culierat, J. Experimental investigation of commer-
cial vehicle disc brake in respect of parking braking.
MSc Thesis, Cranfield University, Cranfield, Bed-
fordshire, UK, 2008.
17 Dantec Dynamics, Laser Optical Measurements
Systems and Sensors, Digital Image Correlation
System (Q-400), 2011, available from http://www.
dantecdynamics.com/Default.aspx?ID=855.
18 Robinet, B. Thermo-mechanical modelling of com-
mercial vehicle disc brake in respect to parking
braking. MSc Thesis, Cranfield University, Cran-
field, Bedfordshire, UK, 2008.
APPENDIX
Notation
F force (N)
R reaction force (N)
Subscripts
a actuating
m friction
Superscripts
inboard, primary
outboard, primary
* inboard, secondary
** outboard, secondary